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Music as a Tool inCommunications ResearchBenjaman Schögler

Editor's note: This article was first published in 1998 in ©Nordic Journal ofMusic Therapy, vol.7(1), pp 40-49. The article is republished herewith the kind permission from the author.

|Summary| |Introduction| |The Micro-Analysis of Mother-Infant Interaction: Acomparison with Jazz Improvisation| |A Basis in Rhythm| |The InfantileMusician?| |A Pilot Study -- Improvised Jazz and Micro-analysis| |Conclusion| |References|

SummaryThe study of music as an act of communication, examining howmusicians interact musically and creatively, provides us with aunique means of observing how we co-ordinate our behaviour, andthinking, with those around us. In particular, the assessment ofskills that improvising jazz musicians employ to communicatemusical ideas, and consequently to co-ordinate those ideas in acoherent musical structure, offers a rare insight into the fine grainof human interaction1. Such techniques have been employed bymusic therapists for many years as a successful medium fortherapeutic interaction. The success of music therapy has led to anincreasing interest in examining communication in musical terms.The intuitive co-ordination of psychological factors at this level isnormally buried beneath layers of linguistic and social conditioningand conventions, but detailed objective observation of music andmusical performances can bring them out for study. Analysis ofmusical interaction using methods previously applied to mother-infant communication opens a new perspective in communicationsresearch. The technique involves methods that have led to thediscovery that infants can precisely co-ordinate their responses tothe intuitive expressive patterns produced by their mothers. In thisarticle the infants behaviour in communication offers one exampleof the generative power of communicative musicality; theimprovising jazz musician is the other.

IntroductionIn recent years, research into the compositional elements ofcommunication has led to an increased interest into the abilities ofthe infant. If we can understand the principal fundamentals used bythe naive human as it struggles to gain access to the human socialworld, then we have a basis for a general theory of communicationin culture. This area has been fuelled by the work of musictherapists who utilise their knowledge of musical form andexpression to communicate with patients on a non-verbal level. Theapplication of micro-analytical techniques to visually and aurallyrecorded interactions, be they improvisational therapy sessions ormother-infant interactions, has produced a wealth of information onthe subject. For example the spectrographic analysis illustrated inFigure 1 (Malloch et al, 1997) shows distinctive phrasing by bothmother and infant that allows precise intersubjective co-ordination.These bars show a remarkable regularity, and the whole interactionshows that the mother and infant enter into co-ordinatedcommunication. This complex structural interplay is made possibleby the same kind of intrinsic factors of the mind that enablemusicians to play inventively together. A shared pulse provides thefundamental basis for both kinds of co-operative expressiveperformance -- mother-infant play, therapy, and jazz improvisation.

It is the specific analysis of highly skilled musical interaction that isthe focus of this paper. As the study of mother-infant interactionhighlights musical principles at work, such principles must beexplored, initially within a theoretical musical framework andsubsequently applied to communicative contexts. Improvisedmusical performance allows real time musical co-ordination andexpression to be examined within the context of a communicativeinteractive narrative. The focus of such work will be outlined in thefollowing sections.

Figure 1: Spectrographic Analysis of Mother-Infant Interaction. A spectrographic analysis of Laura, a 6 week old infant, and her mother vocalisingtogether. This is a 10 second excerpt from an analysed interaction lasting 30seconds. Intensity is shown by a grey scale, the calibration of which is shown in the

top right of the diagram. The bracketed letters correspond to utterances by the mother: (a) "come on"; (b)"again"; (c) "come on then"; (d) "that's clever"; (e) "oh yes"; (f) "is that right". Theboxed section shows the infant's vocalisation. Identifying the bar-lines by the letterclosest to them, bar-lines a, c, d and e occur at the onset of an utterance; bar-line boccurs at the lowest part of a pitch bend, and bar-line f occurs at an emphasisedword ("is that right"). The dashed-line bar-line occurs between events -- the time-interval from bar-line d to this dashed bar-line represents the most common bar-length in this 30 second interaction. Here, the mother allows space for the infant toreply.

The Micro-Analysis of Mother-InfantInteraction: A comparison with JazzImprovisationDescription of the ability to recognise temporally organisedpatterns of behaviour in another person, and subsequently tosynchronise one's own behaviour with their rhythmic measures,epitomises improvised musical interaction. Such improvisation isthe intersubjective co-ordination of musical acts with those ofanother individual around a common pulse, which may be overlaidor subdivided, but must be sustained to provide the context and theessential character of the piece (J. Coker, 1986). Rhythm is theheart of the improvising group, the fabric that binds them, the foodupon which they feed.

The infant studies referred to show that we are born with a naturalorientation towards rhythmically co-ordinated interpersonalinteraction, through which we communicate with those around usand gain access to the social world.

"Infant and partner improvise an integrated andpatterned engagement or performance" (Papaeliou &Trevarthen, 1994, p. 23).

This 'non-verbal' mode of communication is the infant's primarymeans of interaction. The communicative nature of suchengagements emanates from a complex interplay of sequences ofexpressive movements around a shared intrinsic pulse.

We conceive ourselves scientifically as living in a universe wheretime moves linearly from one moment to the next in its doggedpursuit of infinity. But this physical sense of time is inseparablepsychologically from the motives that generate consciousness. Ifyou wish to move with purpose then you must structure and co-ordinate your actions in a time you create. Furthermore, bystructuring our behaviour around a common pulse we are able toshare the fabrication of time, and body related space, with other

individuals in a mutually beneficial, constructive manner.

A rhythm is a recognisable sequence in time. By sharing and co-ordinating rhythms we show that we appreciate the life impulses ofother individuals. The simple act of co-ordinating or structuringbehaviour with reference to the activity of a separate systemmanifests an appreciation of that other system and it's behaviour. Inthis sense the infant is able to affect, as well as appreciate, thebehaviour of the mother, as he or she forms, with her, dynamicinteractive narratives coloured by infectious emotions (Stern,1993).

The production of dynamic interactive narratives needs theparticipating individuals to have an understanding past, movingthrough the present, to the future -- a sense of narrative in time.This is an acceptable view of the accomplished improvisingmusician. Remarkably, even a 2 month old infant possesses thenecessary sensory and cognitive abilities.

A Basis in RhythmIn studying rhythmic patterning in infants' expressions Fridman(1980) has shown there are a few common rhythms displayed byinfants. The important factor is the predominance of theserhythmical patterns in attention seeking behaviour. The infants userhythm to gain the attention of caregiving companions, and soaccess meaning in the social world.

Kempton (1980) has made micro-analysis of both film and audiofootage of infants with their principal caregivers. The resultsshowed the general use of rhythmical patterning in communicativeinteractions between infants and caregivers. Rhythmical patterns ofbehaviour convey a sense of pulse that the caregiver or infant canuse to structure behaviour and co-ordinate it with the partner(Kempton, 1980).

As outlined in the previous section, a shared pulse is the basis forany improvised musical interaction. It provides a central corearound which both duettists construct a complex interplay ofmusical gestures, co-ordinating them according to the musicians’developing ideas. Mother-infant interactions display a similardegree of co-ordination.

Co-ordinated Interpersonal Timing; Predicting theMessage

Infants are born with a vast range of stimulus seeking behaviour,and they use this to seek out interaction and to regulate it. Again,micro-analysis of film and sound footage has been used to measure

co-ordinated interpersonal timing. Several significant observationsare made in a study made by Beebe (1982), which supports thehypothesis of meaningful interaction between mother and infant.Rhythmical patterns of movement are directed by the mother toengage the child in a dynamic interaction of vocal patterns, visibleexpressions and physical stimulation of the infants body. In thisinteraction the mother's rhythm covaries with her level ofemotional engagement. The baby responds through rhythmmatching. Studies investigating a lack of contingent response haveshown that irregularity in the interaction leads to disinterest in thechild and a decrease in positive expression (Beebe, 1982; Murray& Trevarthen, 1985). Absence of appropriate contingent responsesand feedback from the mother causes the infant to becomedistressed, proving the infants sensitivity to such factors in it'sinteraction with others (Tronick & Weinberg, 1997; Papousek,1997).

In a similar manner Jazz improvisation is dependant uponsympathetic rhythmic co-ordination between musicians. Theyimprovise together spontaneously, without any preconceivedframework, and they are dependant on each other to stimulate theirideas and construct the music as they play it (Collier, 1975). Jazzmusicians rely on the music they create together, using rhythm andmelodic/harmonic progression to inspire one another. Any notemay be played, as long as it is played at the right time (rhythm),and in the right way, to suit the pattern of personal expression.Each must anticipate the notes he or she wishes to play using cuesgiven in the music that are being played together (Dean, 1989). Jazz musicians communicate with each other musically, both topromote their individual ideas in the music, and to pick up on cuesprovided by their companions.

Coaction is as fundamental a quality in music as it is in infantcommunication, which has been subjected to elaborate analysis inthe past 2 decades. In a direct study of "co-ordinated interpersonaltiming" in adult infant vocal interactions (Feldstein et. al, 1993), theabilities of infants that allow them to predict the temporal pattern ofthe interaction were studied, on the assumption that timing andrhythm are basic organising principles in the continuation of anycommunication. Here, again, we see a complex skill of temporalprediction, akin to that required of musicians performing together,employed in early patterned communication by infants. FromBeebe's research it is seen that mother and infant track andinfluence each others' rhythms, anticipating certain points of mutualsynchrony, in both activity (vocalisation) and non-activity (silence).Proprioceptive cues, providing information about an individualsown body states, also contribute to auto-regulation, providingadditional feedback. When bodies are touching as they often are inmother-infant interaction, the feelings of limb and bodydisplacement are part of the communication -- dance with the song.In a jazz duet the motor impulses are transmitted in the sounds ofthe instruments or song.

Co-ordinated interpersonal timing is robust in the mother-infant

relationship. A cross site replication study by Feldstein et. al (ibid.)found that significant co-ordinated interpersonal timing occurred atboth sites for 90% of comparisons. Also co-ordinated interpersonaltiming was predictive regarding developmental outcomes ofindividual infants for up to 1 year.

Playing in Synchrony and Alternation; MakingNarratives of Engagement

Young infants are able to synchronise their behaviour with that ofthose around them, utilising the shared pulse as a framework. Thishas been studied in both the kinaesthetic and auditory realms byKempton (1980) in an analysis of 'microkinesic' activity. Thesynchronising of listener behaviour to that of a speaker documentedin adult conversation is well-developed in proto-conversationsbetween infant and adult. The interactional synchrony displayed istoo rapid to be reflex based behaviour, and it confirms thecommunicative function of such interactions. Infants are able topredict patterns in rhythmically structured behaviour, and tosynchronise the expression of their own behaviours with therhythms of an adult.

The infant, is indeed, actively seeking out rhythms that it can use tointeract with adults and generate organised sequences of jointaction. In further analysis of such interactions, "simultaneousimprovisation" around a rhythmical structure, that is synchronisedbehaviour in which both mother and infant are 'playing' in unisonand not taking turns, is observed to make up a much greaterproportion of mother/infant interaction as compared to polite adultconversation. According to Beebe (1982) it can be up to 40 timesgreater. This significant striving for unison is seen to constitute60% of interactions with an infant at a high level of arousal. Theseresults suggest that a direct comparison would be possible betweenthe methods used by the adult/infant pair to communicate and themethods used by a pair of jazz musicians in an example of true freeplaying improvisation.

Personal Expression

While studies such as the above have described importantcommonalties in the temporal interaction of infants with theircaregivers, 'protoconversations' also represent highly stylisedinstances of communication, in which both the mother and theinfant act as individuals, bringing their own personal characteristicsout in the interaction. The detailed patterns of rhythmical behaviourin mother-infant interaction are a function of the individualsinvolved. Individual factors are robust, with personalisation ofcertain rhythmical patterns evident in the range of rhythms used byindividual infants in later speech patterns. Fridman (1980) reportsthat this is most marked in the personalised pronunciation of words.Acceptance of the principal that infants and mothers showindividuality of expression already in 'protoconversations' indicatesthat the relationship that they are creating together is a personal one

from the start.

All musicians are concerned, in both composition and performance,with the exploration of their personalities and the emotions theyfeel as individuals in their musical encounters with theircompanions.

Summary

It appears that the wide range of skills used by infants tocommunicate with their parents are remarkably similar to the skillsused by the jazz improviser to communicate musical ideas and toproduce a co-ordinated communicative performance. The studies ofmother infant interaction demonstrate that the musical qualities ofsuch interactions are robust features, and in the case of co-ordinated timing they can prove to be predictive of the child'sabilities in co-ordinating their behaviour with that of others in laterdevelopment. Music psychology has suggested that the furtherstudy of musicians and the skills they employ would provide agreater insight into all forms of human communication (Deliège &Sloboda, 1997).

The fundamental features of mother infant communication do notdisappear as we develop, but remain as the basis of all ourcommunicative systems. Jazz improvisation is a celebration ofthese skills. It is an art of expressing oneself in communicationwith others.

The Infantile Musician?As in the acquisition of any skilled means of communication, thejazz musician is, I propose, an individual who is rediscovering theinfantile (and maternal) means of communication and expressionand refining it through practice and study. Thus a musician isacting like an infant and not vice versa; consequently theimprovisation he produces represents material that we can study indetail by the same methods as have been used to discover the'protoconversational' improvisation of infants. In fact the infant is,in some ways a more difficult subject and spontaneous musicalcommunication by adult musicians offers a promising 'richalternative', one in which the communication is refined with regardto it's temporal and melodic co-ordination in the pursuit of musicalsatisfaction. The products of musical improvisation may represent avaluable test bed for our models of basic human communication,and a new channel of feedback in our work on the developmentalfoundations of communication.

An improvised duet, in which 2 musicians improvise together in a'free playing' exercise, constitutes a highly personal, stylised,dynamic interaction, and we propose to view what they are doingas analogous to a mother/infant interaction. A salient property of

such interactions is the ability of the infant to synchronise. Withoutsuch an ability jazz improvisation, likewise, would be impossible.Synchronising gestures of expression represents the 'rocks' uponwhich communicative systems are founded. It is my belief thatthrough the study of improvised music, using the technologyavailable to us today, we will be able to produce a newunderstanding of communication freed of the elitism of linguisticanalysis.

A Pilot Study -- Improvised Jazz andMicro-analysisThe following sections outline an investigation into thecommunicative aspects of improvised music (Schögler, 1997).

In a standard piece of improvisation, numerous themes andstructures will be set up. The music will have direction anddynamic change with motion towards a succession of shared goals.There must be communication between the players to discern'where' they are going and 'how' they are going to get there. This isusually accomplished in stages, in each of which suggestions areoffered as to where to go next; one way is agreed and followedthrough. In the one-on-one situation, with which we are concerned,the whole process of dynamic change is more rapid than it can bein larger groups. In one-on-one improvisation each musicalsuggestion can be agreed upon or dismissed instantly.

Moments of 'musical change' provide the starting point for mypresent investigation. They are points within the interaction wherea high level of communication is required, and they show a definiteresult of that interaction in the 'change' that is made. Usually thechanges correspond to an affective variation in the piece, i.e. the'feel' of the music. For example, a very tense agitated section leadsto a more relaxed one with a legato feel. The following sectionsdescribe a pilot study of jazz improvisation utilising the 'micro-analytic' techniques previously employed in developmentalresearch.

The Hypothesis Of Synchrony At Points Of 'Change'Within An Interactive Dynamic

In order for a change in the music to be made successfully, the 2musicians must, it is supposed, synchronise their behaviour in orderthat they make the same change at the same time. I believe this isachieved through the articulation of accenting structure by onemusician, and purposeful synchrony with that structure in theplaying of the other.

In musical semiotics, rhythm is seen as the stimulus for extragenicmeaning in music (W. Coker, 1972). Melody is the primeconstituent in which rhythm unfolds, providing a presence withwhich we can choose to interact, or not, as the case may be.Rhythm's strongest element of expression can be seen in themerging of tones into a 'motif ' in which significance is gainedthrough articulation (Keller, 1965 ). Their use, in improvisation,before a specific change in the music, to announce the change,forms the basis of our hypothesis in this study. Indeed, musicianscan be seen to be playing the same motif prior to a change,matching their ideas in order to ensure they are both travelling inthe same direction. Through mimicking each others behaviour themusicians display a shared goal and express the same musical idea.This allows them to synchronise their behaviour.

Synchrony, Shared Goals and Communication

Rhythmic shape can be seen to be composed of three phases. Thereis initially motion toward a goal, generating tension; theachievement of that goal, resulting in the release of tension built upin the previous phase; followed by a period of inactivity. Thissuccession expressed in the accenting structure is used to producecertain motifs or rifs which go to make up a piece. When a certainpattern is played by one, it specifies the 'pattern' of interactionrequired, and invites the other to join. The study of accentingstructures played by two improvising musicians around aqualitative change in the music should reveal, according to myview, that these structures are more synchronous immediately priorto that change.

Two Measures of Synchrony from Sound Intensity

First the improvisation must be recorded. Then the informationmust be processed to allow direct comparison of one musiciansaccent structure with the other.

Using spectrographic procedures it is possible to convert therecordings into plots of intensity. The psycho-acoustical measure ofintensity in sound production is loudness, measured in sones.Through the comparison of a graph of loudness for eachinstrument, derived from a spectrographic analysis, it will bepossible to asses the synchrony of accenting structures bycomparing the peaks on the two graphs. A measure of the real timeoccurrence (RTO) of the notes being played is derived from theplot of loudness against time. The difference in the RTO of noteswill give one measure of synchrony, i.e. the smaller the differencein RTO of two corresponding notes, the more synchronous theplaying of the two musicians.

The second measure of synchrony concerns the variance ofloudness patterns. If the playing of two musicians is more

synchronous there should be less variance in the difference in theRTO of accented notes. Using these two procedures it will bepossible to asses the synchrony of accenting structures produced bytwo improvising musicians.

Data Collection

The method employed in the pilot study involved the digitalrecording of improvised duets in which the musicians were visuallyseparated and only able to communicate using sound. Eachmusician relied upon a one way audio link with their partner,eliminating linguistic communication as all that could be heard wasthe instrument of the other musician. All subjects were ignorant ofthe exact nature of the study, but were informed of it's purpose aftertheir session had been recorded.

Each recording was reviewed by the musicians to select sectionswhich they agreed contained a salient "musical change". Afterdownloading these sections onto computer, the synchrony ofaccenting structures employed by the two musicians was thenexamined using a comparison of the RTO of notes within an accentstructure under investigation. Figure 2 shows a spectrograph ofsuch a point of change in a duet improvised between guitar andbass.

Figure 2: Spectrographic Analysis: An example of a point of 'change' within an improvisedduet. The syncopated pattern played by instrument 2 (electric bass) has a definite 4/4 feelwith the emphasis on 16th notes. This is smoothed over by the lilting triplet basedrifs played by the instrument 1 (guitar). The change occurs at 7.11 seconds wherethe instrument 1 follows instrument 2's more syncopated line which they carrythrough to the next section played with a pronounced staccato feel.

The Analysis

Ten such sections were taken from improvised duets which hadbeen recorded using three different pairs of musicians (electric bassand electric bass, saxophone and violin, electric guitar and electricbass). The accent structure at the point of change was comparedwith a control section of equal time length from the previousphrase. The accent structure immediately prior to the point of

musical change was found to be significantly more synchronousthan in the control section (t-test p<0.05, F-ratio p<0.05).

Thus it can be seen that, within the criteria set out in this pilotstudy, when two musicians are improvising together their playingbecomes significantly more synchronous just prior to points ofqualitative "musical" change. However, there are problems ofcorrespondence which need to be addressed. How is it possible toensure that the notes compared are those accented by the musician.Steps were taken to minimise this problem through the use of ahuman judge in establishing the musical saliency of respectiveaccenting structures. This involved the use of the audio recordingsin conjunction with the spectrographs. Another approach to theproblem of correspondence faced in this study was the use of acriterion of saliency with regards to note production. This concernsthe gradient of the respective loudness plot, the steeper the gradientof the plot in note production the more intense the accent attributedto that note. Such procedures go some way to addressing thecorrespondence problem, but in order to eliminate it completely, itwould be necessary to compare all the notes played by eachinstrument in a given piece of improvisation from start to finish.This would ensure that in comparing the accent structure of twomusicians we have a definite starting point from which to run thatcomparison.

Such a study is currently underway at Edinburgh as we attempt tointegrate the work of academics with the work of musicians in aninterdisciplinary effort to unravel the nature of communicativeinteraction. But already the results of this pilot study tell ussomething about the communication occurring between twoimprovising musicians.

Negotiating 'Change' in Improvised Music toMaintain a 'Narrative'.

In the exchange of musical ideas in improvised music (Keller,1965), musicians can, by the way they accent the notes they play,express the direction they wish to pursue within the rhythmicalframework they have set up. The 'accent structure' (or 'rhythmicalcontour') can be viewed as an expression of a desired musical goal.If a musician shares a similar goal to the partner, and wishes topursue the same direction, he or she may indicate this bymimicking the other's accent structure (Keller, 1965).

Just as moments of synchrony can be used to initiate momentarychange in the music, so can synchronisations be used to maintainstructure in the musical piece. Instances of synchronisation toaffirm a theme are more common than those that mediate changes,but less marked as the exchange of information involved inreiterating a musical theme with another player is less complex thanone to establish change. To investigate and understand rhythmicallybased communication, all points of change within improvisedmusic are identified as the effects of communication. With eachchange, there is a 'before' and 'after', and these may be compared to

establish the narrative content of the communication.

To understand these phenomena, a comprehensive analysis of suchchanges will be needed and a database of information set up. Anumber of questions arise: - Are the accent structures used arecognised 'signature' of the particular improvised piece, could theybe unique expressions of the 'personalities' of the musiciansinvolved, or are there identifiable fundamental invariants or 'laws'governing the appearance of moments of shared synchrony thatcorrespond to specific changes in the music? As in mother-infantinteractions, the communicative patterns become stylised in a waythat is unique to each pair, in combination with features that aresimilar in all interactions recorded. The improvising musician mustinteract with partners who possess a similar interactive vocabularyin order for the improvisation to be successful, and it is reasonableto suppose that there are fundamental qualities inherent in this styleof communication that are common to all musicians. Current workis investigating these questions in relation to the musicalconstructions of improvising jazz musicians

ConclusionWe have shown that significant change in synchrony of rhythmicalpatterning is observed immediately prior to points of change withinan improvised jazz duet. The model outlined above to explain howmusical goals can be shared this way is one interpretation of thisdata. Can it be extended to explain motives for narrative incommunicative systems in general?

First, it illustrates the application of micro-analytic technique in thedissection of musical interaction, and shows how such analysis canbe used to identify the critical rhythmical components ofimprovised duets. The recording of a duet is a transcript of a realtime, rhythmically-based communication. A digital recordingallows the improvised music to be integrated with computerpackages to facilitate an in depth analysis of the physics of themusician's communication.

Second, musicians are experts in this method of communication,and much can be learnt from their understanding of the art. Wedepend on their input of performance, and benefit from their expertadvice in the analysis of music. It is a good time for musicians (likemyself) and academics to come together and pool knowledge andresources. The work we are developing at Edinburgh, to make adetailed investigation into the rhythmical composition of entirepieces of improvisation, represents a first step into such acollaboration. It will explore how such interactions are initiated,manipulated and closed.

We know a great deal about the compositional elements ofcommunicative interactions in infancy, but the functions that such

elements perform in communication are still mysterious. Furtherwork in which the skills of the musician are compared to those ofmother-infant interaction should provide us with the answers.

Notes1) The term 'jazz improvisation' (often called 'freeplaying') refers to aninteraction in which there is no planned structure or pattern. Themusic created is a direct result of the communication between themusicians involved in the improvisation.

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