University of Hawaii at Hilo: MKT 31512/13/14

MOVIE THEATER ATTENDANCE

THE ROLES OF ESCAPISM, BELONGINGNESS AND OPINION LEADERSHIP

Mikyla Wood

AbstractThe purpose of this study is to investigate the driving factors that

lead Americans to attend the movie theater. Three hypotheses relating

to movie theater attendance have been defined and researched to

explain this consumer behavior. These hypotheses deal with escapism,

belongingness and opinion leadership. This research isolates the

target market for movie theaters and serves as a valuable resource for

future marketing implications.

Table of ContentsI. Introduction to Research Topic.............................2II. Literature Review and Hypothesis...........................3III. Methods and Results.......................................8IV. Managerial and Marketing Implications.....................11Appendix......................................................12References....................................................13

I. Introduction to Research TopicHumankind is always on the search for entertainment. Ancient Rome took

pride in their spectacles at the coliseum with over 50,000 attendees.

Storytelling is a backbone for most cultures throughout history and

eventually theater brought to life all the exciting tales. Ancient

Greek performances in 6th century BC initiated the public’s attention

and appreciation of dramatic arts. Entertainment technologies began

with Thomas Edison’s invention of the first phonograph, and later the

first motion picture camera in 1982 (Manley, 2011). Thus began a

revolutionary change in American culture.

Movies touched on every aspect of life and until 1934, were

unregulated and therefore closely intimate with American culture (Film

Regulation, 2010). The first theater exclusively dedicated to motion

pictures sprung up in 1896, and since then, Americans have flocked to

experience adventure, love, drama, suspense, and comedy on the big

screen (Stevens, 2009). Americans loved the idea of escaping from

their daily lives and entering into a new world full of adventure.

Ticket sales today average at over 1.2 billion annually (Domestic

Movie, 2014).

There are a variety of motives behind going to the cinema. Many films

highlight moods, emotions, and cultural trends. Movies are one of the

most powerful ways of creating mass communication and are very

influential to people’s ideology and beliefs, whether they realize it

or not. As hard or difficult times come upon the American public,

people turn to theatres to escape from reality. “More Americans

reported getting pleasure from TV than from sex, food, hobbies,

religion, marriage, money, or sports,” (Kubey, xii). On a deeper

level, films create a mental and physical escape for many people from

their average lives. Even in today’s time with the emergence of

convenient online video streaming, there is something about sitting in

a darkened theater sharing an experience with a group of fellow

citizens. Everyone is freed from distractions such as texting, and the

crowd collectively laughs, gasps, and cries as they are immersed in an

intricately realized vision of life.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the driving factors that

lead Americans to attend the movie theater. Three hypotheses relating

to movie theater attendance have been defined and researched to

explain this consumer behavior. These hypotheses deal with escapism,

belongingness, and opinion leadership. This research is important for

individuals in the entertainment industry in order to understand what

brings people into the theater.

II. Literature Review and HypothesisEscapism is defined as “the avoidance of reality by absorption of the

mind in entertainment or in an imaginative situation,” (Merriam-

Webster’s 1993). Individuals who display this trait have the “desire to seek liberation

from the natural environment” (Tuan, 1998, p. xiii). People can escape by becoming

“completely absorbed and transported as they enter into a state of full psychological

immersion,” (Green, 2005). This escape of reality can be attained through a variety of

ways but this study will focus on movie theater attendance as a way to achieve

distraction and relief.

“Surely everyone has had the urge to be elsewhere in moments of stress and

uncertainty,” (Tuan, 1998, p. xii). Escapism is a common psychological trend and it is

important that the term is fully understood before applying it to the desire to go to

the movie theater. “Culture is driven by imagination and is a product of imagination,”

(Tuan, 1998, xi). The majority of films shown in theaters are highly imaginative but

this is simply an extension of culture. “A major task of culture is to promote order

and stability. Rules and regulations have no other purpose,” (Tuan, 1998, xi).

Therefore it follows that escapism is not harmful but instead a way that people can

maintain harmony in their lives.

“Escapism is considered one prominent explanation of television

exposure,” (Kubey, 1990). Movie theaters provide an ideal destination

for people to distract themselves from life’s uncertainties and

threats by fully immersing themselves in a story in such a way that

simply watching a show at home cannot provide. Those who have

difficulty dealing with stress and pressure find that the theater

serves as an entertaining way to attain relief. “Amusement is sought

after as an escape from the mechanized work process, and to recruit

strength in order to be able to cope with it again” (Redmond, 2007, p.

35). For example, “the housewife finds in the darkness of the movie

theater a place where she can sit for a few hours with nobody

watching” (Redmond, 2007, 37).

Throughout history films have been to define culture, experience

dreams, or express political or social resentment. “Hollywood films

became a dependable source of escapist fantasy throughout the Great

Depression and into World War II,” (Benshoff & Griffin, 2009, p. 46).

When the world is too much to handle, a good film can give people

perspective. “Individuals may engage in activities which confront them

with unhappy realities or anticipated unhappy events in order to cope

better with these situations,” (Hirschman, 1982, p. 63). Escapism is a

driving factor behind movie attendance (Katz, Haas, & Gurevitch,

1973), and often “audience members appreciate unrealistic films,”

(Tesser, Millar, & Wu, 1988). In fact, a study published in the

Journal of Psychology suggested that “viewers show disfavor toward

motion pictures that remind them of everyday experiences,” (Pollio,

2003, p. 137). This trend helps support the basis that moviegoers are

intending to escape far from reality when they decide to attend the

theater.

Therefore the following hypothesis is proposed:

H1. As the need for escapism increases, the desire to go to the

movie theater increases.

Belongingness is the need to be an accepted member of society (DeWall,

2008). Individuals generally desire to be a part of a group or social setting in

order to feel connected with those around them. According to an article from

the Journal of Counseling Psychology, humans have three major

requirements for self-expression; the need for idealization,

grandiosity, and belongingness (Lee & Robbins, 1995, p. 232).

Idealization and grandiosity can be achieved individually for the most

part, but belongingness is much more social and therefore difficult

for some to attain.

“Belongingness is composed of three aspects – companionship,

affiliation, and connectedness” (Lee & Robbins, 1995, p. 232). These

three aspects must be fully understood before relating the need for

belongingness to movie theater attendance. Companionship relates to an

individual’s ability to maintain relationships with others. An article

in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology stated that “companionship has

been found to predict social satisfaction and well-being,” as well as

lessening feelings of loneliness while at the same time increasing

“positive leisure experiences,” (Rook, 1987). This is why many people

enjoying doing even non-active or low participation activities (such

as watching a movie), with others, rather than alone. Social

interaction and friendships can also relieve stress (Lee & Robbins,

1995, p. 234). Individuals who lead a highly stressful life can attend

the theater with friends and let their worries go for a couple hours—

building quality companionship relationships that create a sense of

belongingness.

Affiliation is the need to find relationships with those who share

similar interests. (Lee & Robbins, 1995, p. 233). This psychological

trait can be seen demonstrated when large groups go to all the

showings of the Lord of the Rings trilogy together, for example. This

group activity helps a person who is struggling to find belongingness

achieve affiliation with individuals who share similar qualities and

opinions.

Connectedness is the ability of an individual to identify with those

in a larger social context (Lee & Robbins, 1995, p. 233). A person is

experiencing connectedness when they attend the movie theater to see

and relate to movies that focus on the issues of foreign countries.

The highly popular movie, V for Vendetta is an example, because even

though most moviegoers in America had no connection to Germany, they

were still empathetic and were able to relate it back to issues in

their own country. Connectedness is simply based on the feeling of

being “human among humans,” (Lee & Robbins, 1995, p. 233). Movies can

do a great job of allowing people to feel connected, and that is

another part of the lure to attend the theater.

Attending the movie theater is generally a social activity as most

people tend to “seek to confirm a subjective sense of belongingness,

or ‘being a part of’ in order to avoid feelings of loneliness and

alienation,” (Lee & Robbins, 1995, p. 232). Enjoying the company of

friends while attending the movie theater gives the theater more

attraction than staying at home to watch television because people can

participate in their social needs for belongingness.

Therefore the following hypothesis is proposed:

H2. As the need for belongingness increases, the desire to go to

the movie theater increases.

An opinion leader is someone who is looked up to by their peers and

frequently sought out for advice. This type of person acts as a

channel of information for others and is “highly influential,” (Sohn,

2005, p. 1). “Consumers turn to friends and influential others for

advice on uncertain situations during their decision making process

making these others’ influence an important determinant of an

individual’s behavior, as well as of opinion formation,”(Chan, 1990,

p. 53). Opinion leaders can be anyone who is respected by other

members of the community, and isn’t afraid to state their opinion. In

fact, these types of people are usually excited to state their views

and beliefs because they know that people will listen.

“Word-of-mouth communications are generally more robust and credible

to consumers than advertising messages,” (Chan, 1990, p. 53). It is

evident that understanding and predicting opinion leadership is a

vital marketing tool. Fortunately, “psychological characteristics can

be significant predictors for the tendencies of an opinion leader,”

(Sohn, 2005, p. v). These characteristics include public

individuation, involvement with the product, innovativeness, and

social activities, among other things (Chan, 1990, 54-55). While many

of these characteristics can vary from person to person, the constant

is the tendency to individuate oneself from others.

“Public individuation is a state in which people feel differentiated,

to some degree, from other people,” (Chan, 1990, p. 54). This is a

vital trait for an opinion leader to have because they must realize

that other people have different ideas and beliefs than they hold to

be true, but yet they are unafraid to state their thoughts regardless.

Certain personality traits such as high self-esteem and confidence are

shown to be related to individuation (Chan, 1990, p. 54). Recognizing

these traits in individuals will help identify whether or not a person

is an opinion leader.

An important fact to take into account is that an opinion leader is

often only a leader for one particular subject. For example, someone

who may be very knowledgeable about digital cameras, and could advise

anyone on what to buy, may ask his or her friend which spa to visit

over the weekend because they don’t know anything about that

particular subject. “Some individuate themselves by becoming opinion

leaders through greater knowledge and interest in a particular product

or issue,” (Chan, 1990, p. 54). In the context of movie theater

attendance, opinion leaders are often those you see lining up outside

movie theaters hours before the movie is set to release, so they can

get the first opinion of the film. This information will quickly be

delivered to their friends who will often take it as “more credible

and persuasive than either mass advertising or a maker’s personal

sales force,” (Sohn, 2005, p. 1).

In order to keep their status as an opinion leader, these types of

people have not only been found to be knowledgeable, but they are

“enduringly involved with the relevant product class…” and this

involvement is “…relatively stable,” (Chan, 1990, p. 55). This

suggests that for those who are opinion leaders for movies, they would

regularly attend the theater in order to always have the inside scoop

on the newest releases.

Therefore the final hypothesis is proposed:

H3. As the wish to be an opinion leader for films increases, the

desire to go to the movie theater increases.

III. Methods and ResultsIn order to prove that escapism, belongingness, and opinion leadership

relate to movie theater attendance, a survey was conducted. The survey

was created on Google docs and was completely administered online in

order to gain data from all over the United States. All survey

questions were derived from previous academic research.

There were 64 responses to the survey. All respondents currently live

in the U.S. and ages ranged from age 18 to 65, although 47% were

between ages 21 and 29. Most of the participants were Caucasian, but

8% were Latino, 7% were from Asian backgrounds, and 2% identified

themselves as Hawaiian. 67% of respondents were female, leaving 33%

male. The survey consisted of statements and participants would choose

their level of agreement with each statement by choosing a number on a

1 to 5 rating scale. 1 was “Strongly Disagree,” 2 was “Disagree,” 3

was “Neutral,” 4 was “Agree,” and 5 was “Strongly Agree.” The

questions used for the survey are located in the appendix.

Means:

The responses to the survey were organized and then analyzed

individually. The responses were carefully measured in order to

determine if the answers were legitimate. All responses were deemed to

be authentic and therefore none were thrown out. The mean for each

independent variable was then calculated and the results are shown in

Table 1 on page 8. The mean for each variable include: escapism

(3.30), belongingness (3.54), and opinion leadership (3.07). The mean

for the dependent variable, movie theater attendance, was also

calculated and came out to be 2.61. Each average is near the mid-point

of the five point scale.

Table 1: Means of Variables

Escapi

sm

Belonging

ness

Opinion

Leadership

Movie Theater

AttendanceMean 3.30 3.54 3.07 2.61

Correlations

Correlations are used to determine if the hypothesized independent and

dependent relationships are in the proper direction or not as well as

the strength of these relationships. Table 2 on page 8 shows the

correlations of the variables as determined by the survey results. A

correlation coefficient between .3 and 0 would indicate a weak linear

relationship. A coefficient between .3 and .5 would indicate a

moderately positive relationship, while one between .5 and .9 would

indicate a strong linear relationship. A correlation of 1 would

indicate a perfect relationship. Escapism and Belongingness did not

have relationships in the hypothesized direction; one could not state

with 95% certainty that the correlation between these variables and

the dependent variable was related. Opinion leadership, however, had a

very strong relationship in the hypothesized direction (r ≥ .6).

Table 2: Correlation Matrix

Belongingness Escapism Opinion Leadership Movie Theater

Belongingness 1.

Escapism 0.33303 1.

Opinion Leadership 0.20552 0.20329 1.

Movie Theater 0.04175 0.16472 0.68156 1.

Regression

A regression analysis was performed to evaluate the statistical

validity of the three independent variables. The p-value of the F

statistic needs to be less than .05 in order for the hypotheses to be

proven correct. As shown in Table 3 on page 9, the overall p-value of

the F statistic did turn out to be less than .001, but more analysis

needed to be done to determine what was the driving factor in that

result. The r-squared was .48, which indicated that approximately 48%

of the change in the dependent variable could be explained by at least

one of the independent variables.

A closer look at the data revealed the beta coefficients for each

independent variable were: escapism at .13, belongingness at -.17, and

opinion leadership at 1.24. The p-value for each variable showed

escapism at .52, belongingness at .22, and opinion leadership at .001.

This information therefore disproved hypotheses 1 and 2, but pointed

strongly in favor of hypothesis 3. In fact, hypothesis 2 actually

showed a negative beta coefficient.

The reason that the overall p-value was so low was all due to the

results from opinion leadership. The predicted relationships between

this independent variable and movie theater attendance was quite

significant. One unit change in opinion leadership would result in a

1.24 unit change in movie theater attendance. These results suggest

that individuals who show strong opinion leaderships skills are more

likely to attend the theater.

Table 3. Regression

Independent

Variable

Beta Coefficient P – Value Hypotheses

Escapism .13 .52 H1 is not

supported

Belongingness -.17 .22 H2 is not

supported

Opinion

Leadership

1.24 .001 H3 is supported

IV. Managerial and Marketing ImplicationsThis study has isolated the target market for movie theaters. The

first two proposed hypotheses were unfortunately proven incorrect,

however, the final hypothesis had a strong correlation. Those who show

signs of opinion leadership, specifically as it relates to

entertainment and movies, are more likely to attend the theater.

Therefore it would be beneficial for movie theater businesses to

target these types of people.

One idea is to reach people who participate in online blog review

sites. A well-placed ad for an upcoming movie would do well here.

Opinion leaders would see the ad and be interested in seeing the movie

before anyone else so that they could have the first review posted on

the internet and thus get more likes and followers. Ads on websites

like Rotten Tomatoes or IMDB would also be a great location for movie

theaters to advertise because opinion leaders also frequent these

types of sites.

Another way to reach opinion leaders is offering people incentives to

review movies. For example, when someone buys a ticket to a movie,

they receive a unique code which they can use to log into the movie

theater’s website or application and post their review. With each

review that is posted, people could earn points which can then be

redeemed at the theater for free popcorn or drinks. That way people

would have inspiration to go to the movies over and over and continue

the cycle of receiving free items while also posting reviews. Not only

would this program attract opinion leaders, but it would also create

new opinion leaders from people who would normally not take the time

to review a movie.

An additional incentive that the theater could use is to offer free

Wi-Fi around the location. The terms of the Wi-Fi would include a

slight monitoring of people’s web activity. Such terms might seem

invasive to most people, however many places use such a program. An

example is a store like Target offering Wi-Fi so that they can track

people’s movements throughout the store and see what aisles they

frequent and where they stop. Also many websites have ads that are

linked to people’s google searches in order to get them to purchase

things they are already interested in. The movie theater could find

what keywords that people are searching and offer previews and ads for

movies that people are likely to already be interested in. They could

also use this information to offer snacks that people would be

interested in purchasing, that may or may not already be offered at

their location.

A final idea would be to use Facebook for people to review movies.

This could be linked to the afore-mentioned theater website or app.

Reviews could have the option of being posted to a person’s personal

timeline for their friends to like and share. This could bring opinion

leaders a sense of accomplishment while they share their ideas with

viewers and help the movie theater get more attention and people

interested in attending.

Most people today are very technologically advanced. Since movie

theater attendance has dwindled in recent years, it is important for

movie theater businesses to go viral and get connected with their

target market. Reaching teens and young adults who are computer savvy

is easy with internet ads but it must be done in such a way that will

motivate people to actually attend the movie theater instead of just

streaming videos illegally online. This study has revealed that the

target market is opinion leaders and managers of movie theaters should

note this information when creating ads to draw people in. This will

create more profits for the theater and create a regeneration of

people attending the theater.

AppendixMeasurement Scales

Escapism (adapted from Lee, Robbins 1995; 1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree)

1. I feel disconnected from the world around me.2. I like to get away from the pressures of work and/or school3. I feel the need to disrupt the daily routine.4. I would rather do something that requires little thought than

something that is sure to challenge my thinking abilities.

Belongingness (Lee, Robbins 1995)

1. I feel more comfortable when someone is with me.2. I’m more at ease doing things together with other people.3. I join groups more for the friendship than the activity itself.4. I think it’s important to spend time with family.

Opinion Leader (adapted from Sohn 2005)

1. In general, I am the first in my circle of friends to know the titles/brands of the latest (movie).

2. My friends often come to me for advice.3. I am able to handle criticism well.4. I consider myself a leader.

Movie Theater attendance

1. In general, I am the first in my circle of friends to know the titles of the latest movie.

2. My opinion on movies seems not to count with other people.3. When they choose movies, other people do not turn to me for

advice.4. Other people rarely come to me for advice about choosing a movie.5. I often go to the movie theater.6. People that I know pick a movie based on what I have been told.7. I often persuade others to watch movies that I like.

8. Going to the movie theater is one of my favorite things to do.9. I enjoy going to the movie theater.10. I go to the movies as often as time permits.11. I often influence people’s opinions about movies.

References

Benshoff, H., & Griffin, S. (2009). In America on film: Representing

race, class, gender, and sexuality at the movies, (2nd ed.).

Malden, MA, USA: Wiley-Blackwell.

Chan, K., Misra, S. (1990). Characteristics of the Opinion Leader: A

New Dimension. Journal of Advertising. Vol. 19, No. 3, 53-60.

Crompton JL. 1979. Motivations for Pleasure Vacation. Annals of

Tourism Research 6(4): 408-424.

DeWall, N., Beaumeister, R., Vohs, K. (2008, Dec.) Satiated with

belongingness? Effects of acceptance, rejection, and task framing

on self-regulatory performance. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, Vol 95.

Domestic Movie Theatrical Market Summary 1995 to 2014. (2014). Nash

Information Services LLC.

Retrieved from http://www.the-numbers.com/market/.

Film Regulation. (2010). Retrieved September 19, 2014, from

http://entertainmentlaw.uslegal.com/film-industry/film-

regulation/.

Finler, Joel W. The Hollywood Story. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc.,

1988.

Goldsmith, R. E., & De Witt, T. S. (2003). The predictive validity of

an opinion leadership scale. Journal of Marketing Theory and

Practice, 11(1), 28-35.

Green, M. C. (2005). Transportation into narrative worlds:

Implications for the self. New York: Psychology Press, 53-75).

Grewal, R., Mehta, R., & Kardes, F. R. (2000). The role of the social-

identity function of attitudes in consumer innovativeness and

opinion leadership. Journal of Economic Psychology 21(3), 233-252.

Henning, B., Vorderer, P. (2006) Psychological escapism: predicting

the amount of television viewing by need for cognition. Journal of

Communication, Volume 51, Issue 1, 100-120.

Hirschman, Elizabeth C. (1982). Predictors of Self-Projection, Fantasy

Fulfillment, and Escapism. Journal of Social Psychology, 63–75.

Iso-Ahola SE. 1990. Motivation for Leisure. In E.L. Jackson and T.L.

Burton (Eds.), Understanding

Leisure and Recreation: Mapping the Past, Charting the Future (pp.247-

279). State College, PA:17

Venture Publishing.

Katz, E., Haas, H., & Gurevitch, M. (1973). On the use of the mass

media for important things. American Sociological Review. 38, 164–181.

Kubey, R., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Television and the Quality

of Life: How viewing shapes everyday experience. Hillsdale, N.J.:

L. Erlbaum Associates.

Lee, R., Robbins, S. (1995). Measuring Belongingness, The Social

Connectedness and the Social Assurance Scales. Journal of Counseling

Psychology, Vol. 42, No. 2, 232-241.

Mak, A.,Wong, K., Chang, R.. (2008) Health or Self-indulgence?

Motivations and Characteristics. International Journal of Tourism Research.

Vol. 11, Issue 2. 185-199.

Pollio, H. R., Anderson, J., Levasseur, P., & Thweatt, M. (2003).

Cultural meanings of nature: An analysis of contemporary motion

pictures. Journal of Psychology, 117 -137.

Redmond, S. (2007). Stardom and Celebrity: A Reader. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE

Publications.

Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th Ed.). New York:

Free Press.

Rook, K. S. (1987). Social support versus companionship: Effects on

life stress, loneliness, and evaluation by others. Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology, 1132-1147.

Stevens, L. (2009). The History of Movie Theatres. Retrieved September

19, 2014, from http://www.cinemawarrior.com/.

Sohn, Y. (2005). Opinion Leaders and Seekers in Online Brand

Communities. Florida State University Department of Communication. V-46.

Till, B., Stanley, S., Priluck, R. (2008). Classical conditioning and

celebrity endorsers: An examination of belongingness and

resistance to extinction. Psychology and Marketing, 25(2): 179-96.

Tuan, Y. (1998). Escapism. The Johns Hopkins University Press.