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A Glimpse of the Neolithic-ChalcolithicCultures of Eastern and Northeast India

Kulbhushan Mishra and Manjil Hazarika

Introduction

Research into the Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultural phase of India has yielded a diverse pattern of

farming based village settlements covering most parts of the country. Unlike many parts of the world where

Neolithic preceded the Chalcolithic, both these cultures flourished simultaneously in India during 4th to 2nd

millennium BCE (Misra 2001: 506, Singh 2002, Paddayya 2011: 2), although in some places starting at a

slightly earlier time bracket. Chalcolithic is considered as a developed stage than the Neolithic, while both

the cultures are based on identical settlement and subsistence pattern with minor differences. The prime

difference of the Chalcolithic from the Neolithic is the appearance of copper, hence the epithet ‘Chalcolithic’.

Right from Worman (1949) several scholars have tried to understand the regional dynamics acting on

the development of early farming communities in different geographical zone and classified the archaeological

record into several divisions. Krishnaswami (1962) categorised the eastern Indian data into two groups: (i)

Assam complex and (ii) Bengal, Bihar and Orissa complex. While addressing the status of research on the

early agro-pastoral cultures of India, Paddayya (2011) recently highlighted thirteen principal cultures in the

Indian sub-continent among which the area covering the Middle Ganga plain, North-Central Vindhyas, Lower

Ganga basin, Coastal Orissa and Northeast India are demarcated as distinct and separate cultural entities.

Considering the importance of these areas in the formation of protohistoric period and geographical continuity,

a detailed discussion on the cultural traits, chronology and salient features will be pertinent.

The 21st century may be considered as a landmark in Indian cultural history as it witnessed a crucial

development in terms of chronological framework of the Neolithic phase in eastern part of the country

pushing back to 7th – 6th millennium BCE from the radiometric dates obtained at the sites of Lahuradeva

(Tewari et al. 2001-02), Jhusi and Hetapatti in Middle Ganga plain and Tokwa (Pal 2007-08) in northern

Vindhyas further confirming the date proposed for the site of Koldihwa some three decades back (Sharma

et al. 1980).

Chronologically falling after the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic period, the Neolithic is marked by the

beginning of farming and domestication of animal for which this phase of human history has been termed as

‘Neolithic Revolution’ (Childe 1936, 1942). The key traits of this period, ground stone tools and pottery have

been often considered as proxy indicators for agricultural developments and farming based settled villages.

Since the discovery of Neolithic stone celt from Lingsugur area of Raichur district of Karnataka in 1842,

similar artefacts were reported from different areas of India particularly from east Tons river in Uttar Pradesh

in 1860 and from Brahmaputra valley in Assam in 1867 (Lubbock 1867). During that time more emphasis

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was given to collection and classification of ground and polished stone tools which provided a substantial

amount of data set for formulating the regional identity of Neolithic complex in different parts of the country

(Worman 1949, Dani 1960, Krishnaswami 1962, Thapar 1974, 1978). Neolithic is restricted to Kashmir

valley in the north, northern Vindhyas in north-central region, Middle Ganga plain in the east, besides

Northeast India and Southern India. These regions provide different characteristic features in terms of

subsistence and settlement however also indicating common traits such as farming, animal husbandry,

hunting and gathering besides exploitation of aquatic resources etc. The subsequent Chalcolithic phase,

although in some regions occurring simultaneously, has a much wider distribution in the country spreading

over the entire Ganga valley, Eastern Rajasthan, Western Madhya Pradesh, parts of Gujarat, western

Maharashtra and Northern Vindhyas. The term ‘Chalcolithic’ is a combination of two words – Chalcos

meaning copper and lithos meaning stone, further suggesting a cultural stage in which the artefacts were

made of copper and stone both. It was in 1950 that a Chalcolithic site, named Jorwe, in Ahmadnagar district

of Maharashtra was identified by S.A. Sali (Sankalia and Deo 1955). Below is presented a summary of the

salient features of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures of different regions Eastern and Northeast India

(Fig. 23.1).

Fig. 23.1: Map of Eastern and Northeast India

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Middle Ganga Plain

The Middle Ganga plain covers a long physical area of 144,409 sq km and bounded by the Ganga-

Yamuna confluence in the west, Rajmahal hills (Bihar-Bengal border) in the east, the Himalayas in the north

and Vindhyas in the south. It includes the modern day eastern Uttar Pradesh and plains of Bihar. The

Ganga and its tributaries, the major drainage systems, provide a vast fertile alluvium tract and serve as a

strong base for early human occupations in Middle Ganga plain (Singh 1971: 183-193). Archaeological

investigations during the last three decades in this region have significantly enriched our knowledge and

understanding about Neolithic-Chalcolithic culture, material remains and chronological sequence of the

region (Fig. 23.2). The recorded archaeological relics of the region up to the mid 20th century looked prosaic

(Misra and Misra 2010: 124). Till then, the antiquity of the settlements of this region was placed to 1st

millennium BCE. Thereafter the pioneering work at Sohagaura in 1961-62 (Chaturvedi 1985), followed by

excavations for seven seasons at Chirand, commencing from 1962-63 (IAR 1962-63: 6-8, Verma 1970-71),

established the Neolithic-Chalcolithic antiquity of the region to 3rd millennium BCE. The Neolithic-Chalcolithic

sequence is further attested by several excavations from 1970-71 onwards (Tewari 2010) which were

conducted by universities and government archaeological departments. As indicated earlier the recent

dates obtained at site of Lahuradeva (Tewari et al. 2005-06, Tewari et al. 2006) and Jhusi (Misra et al. 2009)

have provided a time bracket of 7th – 6th millennium BCE for the beginning of the Neolithic culture in the

region.

Fig. 23.2: Image showing locations of Neolithic-Chalcolithic sites in Middle Ganga plain

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The Neolithic stage of this region is marked by the Cord-impressed (Fig. 23.3) and Rusticated wares

with evidence of domestication of several plants and animals. The Chalcolithic is characterised by multiple

crop raising, advanced form of farming and increasing number of settlements with the presence of Black

and Red ware, Black Slipped ware, and Red Slipped ware along with continuation of earlier ceramics. As in

other parts of the country, the Chalcolithic phase is mainly separated from its preceding (Neolithic) culture

by the occurrence of copper. The succeeding phase is represented by the first occurrence of iron with no

substantial change in material testimony, which is termed as early Iron Age or marginal Chalcolithic. The

presence of the Black and Red ware, a pottery type found from Neolithic period onwards was recorded first

in this region at Sonepur excavation, Gaya district, Bihar in 1956-57 from pre-NBPW horizon (IAR 1956-57:

19-20).

Fig. 23.3: Corded ware from Neolithic level, Hetapatti and Jhusi (Pal 2007-2008)

Fig. 23.4: Steatite disc beads from Neolithic level, Lahuradeva (Tewari et al. 2005-2006)

On the basis of chronology, the Neolithic stage is sub-divided into two phases; the early phase is

best attested at sites like Lahuradeva IA & IB (Tewari et al. 2001-02), Jhusi I (Misra et al. 2002-03, Misra et

al. 2009), Hetapatti (Pal 2007-08) and the later phase, at sites of Sohgaura I (Chaturvedi 1985), Imlidih

Khurd I (Singh 1992-93), Waina IA (Singh and Singh 1995-96), Chirand I (IAR 1962-63:6-8, 1968-69: 5-6,

1969-70: 3-4, 1970-71: 6-7, 1971-72: 6-7), Chechar Kutubpur IA (IAR 1977-78: 17-18), Taradih IA (IAR 1984-

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85: 9-10) and Senuwar IA (Singh 1988-89). The early phase is marked by handmade pottery but subsequently

wheel made pottery appears. The ceramic assemblage includes ordinary Red ware, Burnished ware (red,

black and grey), Rusticated ware, Black and Red ware and Corded ware. The clay used for manufacturing

the pots is not well lavigated. It contains grits, husk and chaff as degraissant. Pots are generally ill-fired and

have blackish grey core. Pottery shapes include bowl with varying profile, vases, vessels, basins, miniature

jars, and handis (Mishra 2010). The Neolithic level of Lahuradeva has yielded a good amount of steatite

disc beads (Fig. 23.4).

In this phase, structural evidence such as burnt clay lumps, pits, silo, and hearths are recorded

which suggest wattle and daub houses. A good quantity of faunal remains has been found from all excavated

sites in this region. Domesticated animals include sheep, goat, cattle, buffalo and pigs. Besides these, the

bones of other animals like, elephants, rhinoceros, and deer have also been found. Bone tools are recorded

at Jhusi, Senuwar, and Chirand. Chirand has yielded a huge amount of bone tools (Fig. 23.5) and weapons

consisting of scrapers, chisels, hammers, needles, points, borers awls, and arrow heads. Other bone

objects comprise ornaments like pendants, earings, bangles, discs, and combs. A considerable number of

aquatic remains (fish and turtles) are found at Lahuradeva and other contemporary sites. Appreciable

number of stone objects has been recovered from excavated sites in this region which include microlithic

industry, scrapers, arrowheads, bladelets, flakes, serrated points, and lunates, borers, made of semi precious

stones like chert, chalcedony, agate, jasper and quartz. Besides these the other stone objects include

mullers, balls, and hammer stones, fragments of querns for heavy duty purpose, fashioned on sandstone or

quartzite.

In the subsequent Chalcolithic period, some new sites appear with continuation of above mentioned

sites. The prominent excavated sites are Sohgaura II, III, Narhan I (Singh 1994), Imlidih Khurd II, Khairadih

I (Singh 1987-88) and Waina IB, Lahuradeva II, Jhusi II, Agiabir I (Singh and Singh 1999-2000), Malhar I

(Tewari et al. 1999-2000), Raja Nal-Ka-Tila I (Tewari and Srivastava 1996-97) Chirand II, Maner II (IAR

1984-85: 11-12) Champa I (IAR 1974-75: 8-9) Chacher Kutubpur IB, Senuwar IB, II, Sonepur IA (IAR 1956-

57: 19-20), Taradih IB, II. The ceramic assemblage of this stage exhibits greater varieties in terms of wares

and pottery shapes. The main assemblage comprises Black and Red ware, Black Slipped ware, Red ware

(both slipped and unslipped), Course Red ware (these are plain and as well as painted) and occasionally

Grey ware. Corded and Rusticated wares have also been reported which seems to be a survival and

continuation of the preceding Neolithic stage. These wares are reported in the corresponding levels from

most of the excavated sites in Middle Ganga plain. The pottery is wheel made though handmade specimens

also continue.

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Fig. 23.6: Bone tools from Chirand (Verma 1970-71)

Fig. 23.6: Structural remains from Chalcolithic level, Lahuradeva and Agiabir

(Singh and Singh 1999-2000, Tewari et al. 2005-2006)

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In this period, no substantial change in the dwelling structure has been observed. The occurrence of

burnt clay with red marks and patches of floors and post-holes are recorded from all the sites. A good

amount of bins or silos, kothilas and baked/unbaked oval or cylindrical mud bases suggest the existence of

grain storage (Fig. 23.6). Faunal remains show homogeneity with the preceding phase. Bone tools, an

important feature were made on cut bones and antler consisting of a variety of arrow heads- socketed,

barbed and tanged, and other types like chisels, adzes, dagger, awls, scrapers and points. Some of the

polished and decorated bone arrowheads found at Lahuradewa show fine workmanship. Stone tools include

microliths consisting of cores, flakes and finished tools-parallel sided blades, blunted back blades, serrated

blades, points, lunates, arrowheads, scrapers, triangles and trapezes. Terracotta objects have also been

found from some of the sites which include wheel, beads, bangles, cakes, and birds. In this phase, people

used a variety of ornaments like beads, pendants, bangles, rings and ear-studs (Fig. 23.7). Beads made of

semi-precious stones, and occasionally on bone, conch-shell, faience, steatite and copper. The occurrence

of copper objects, though limited in number, comprises knives, spearheads and arrowheads.

As far as the chronology is concerned, the available C14 dates from several excavated sites suggest

that the early phase of Neolithic is dated to 6th to 7th millennium BCE, while the latter phase belongs to 3rd

millennium BCE. The Chalcolithic phase started at around the first half of 3rd millennium BCE and continues

up to the 1st millennium BCE. The first half of 2nd millennium BCE is marked by the appearance of iron

objects in limited quantity and termed as marginal Chalcolithic or early Iron Age.

Fig. 23.7: Antiquities from Chalcolithic level, Agiabir and Lahuradeva

(Singh and Singh 1999-2000, Tewari et al. 2002-03)

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Northern Vindhyas

While discussing the Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultures of Eastern India, the evidence from the northern

Vindhyan region must be taken in cognizance as it is geographically contiguous with Middle Ganga plain

and more importantly cultural similarities are also observed in both the regions. It may be proper to say that

both the regions witnessed an identical cultural pattern in terms of chronology, settlement and subsistence

pattern. Apart from the well-known sites of Koldihwa (Sharma et al. 1980) and Mahagara (Sharma and

Mandal 1980) from the region, the area has provided a handful of sites and a few of them have been

excavated. These sites are located in different river valleys, especially on the Belan, Adwa and Son. The

Neolithic culture of the region is characterised by the occurrence of ground stone tools, microliths, limited

number of bone tools and handmade pottery, particularly Cord-impressed ware (Fig. 23.8). Most of our

understanding comes from the data generated from excavations at Koldihwa, Mahagara, Pachoh in the

Belan valley in Allahabad district, Indari and Tokwa in Adwa valley of Mirzapur district, all in Uttar Pradesh

and Kunjhun on Son in Sidhi district of Madhya Pradesh (Pal 1986, Misra et al. 2000-2001). Considering the

Mesolithic sequence recorded in the area, an evolution from the underlying Mesolithic culture to the Neolithic

has been suggested. There is a cultural continuity between the late Mesolithic and Neolithic in terms of

construction of hutments, food processing equipments, handmade pottery and microliths (Misra 2007: 11).

As indicated earlier several sites like Koldihwa, Mahagara, Kunjhun and Tokwa have provided C14 an TL

dates suggesting an early beginning of Neolithic culture from 7th millennium BCE comparable with the data

from Middle Ganga plain.

The next phase, the Chalcolithic has been recorded at several sites during excavations and intensive

explorations. A gradual transformation from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic has been suggested, as there

is no strict hiatus between the two in terms of chronology. The introduction of copper, a key indicator of the

Chalcolithic phase provided a base for further agricultural development. Some of the prominent sites are

Kakoria, Magha, Koldihwa, Khajuri, Banimilia-Bahera, Takiaper, Malhar, Raja Nal ka Tila in the Vindhyas.

Fig. 23.8: Neolithic pottery and microliths from Koldihwa (Sharma et al. 1980)

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The Chalcolithic sites are mostly located on the river banks at foothills near water bodies or on the abandoned

river channels which provided congenial surrounding for agricultural propose. The presence of burnt clay

lumps with reed or bamboo impressions indicates settlement structures of wattle and daub nature. On the

basis of the material remains such as potsherds, microlithis, quern-muller, fragments of stone, burnt clay

lumps (interpreted as chulha) recorded at the hut floor at the sites of Magha, different subsistence activities

of the Chalcolithic people may be reconstructed. The pottery includes Black and Red wares, Black Slipped

ware, Gray and Black wares and Red wares. The tradition of cord-impressed and rusticated pottery continue

in many sites which are also recorded at most sites of Middle Ganga plain. Human and animal figurines are

also noticed at several sites, and a few of them have been interpreted as ‘mother goddess’. The tools of

utilitarian purpose were manufactured out of copper, ivory, horn besides stone and bone in large quantity.

The short stone blades include serrated, truncated and retouched blades/bladelets, points, arrowheads,

scrapers, lunates, triangles, trapezes, and tranchets. and these were made of chalcedony, chert, agate,

carnelian and quartz. The other stone artefacts include disc, sling balls, saddle-quern, muller, hammer

stone, anvil with battering marks, sharpeners made of quartzite and sandstone. The Chalcolithic settlers in

the area made beads of agate, carnelian, quartz, crystal, terracotta, bone, conch-shell, copper and gold and

pendants, bangles, rings, and ear-studs. The available floral and faunal material recovered at these sites

suggests a mixed subsistence strategy covering agriculture, domestication, hunting and fishing. Keeping in

view the evidence of megalithic burials at a few sites, the ideological approach of these people pertaining to

mortuary rituals are also suggested. Considering the pottery tradition, stone blade industry, bone tools and

stratigraphy, the Chalcolithic stage of this region has been subdivided into three broad phases. The phase

I is devoid of painted pottery and bone tools, however, short blade are common; the phase II is characterised

by painted pottery with better finish, firing and surface treatment, bone industry with limited use of short

blade and the phase III witnessed the introduction of iron besides continuation of cultural traits of phase II

(Pal 1986, Misra 2000, Misra 2005-06).

Orissa

Orissa lies along the east coast of India and geo-morphologically characterised by NE-SW trending

central axial highland flanked by intermedial uplands on both sides and on the east by a low-lying coastal

plain. Explorations conducted by different institutions have proved immense potential of the region for the

study of Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures. Excavations at a few sites like Golabai Sasan, Kuchai, Hikudi,

Deoposh, Gopalpur, Sankerjung, and Kuanr have provided evidence of different aspects of the life ways of

the people of Neolithic-Chalcolithic period.

Since the time of P. Acharya (1923-24), who reported the first Neolithic artefact from Baidyapur and

other places of Orissa in 1923-24, several scholars have brought to light a considerable number of sites

yielding surface Neolithic material. The sites are mainly located in coastal Orissa and different river valleys

such as Budhabalanga, Kharkai, Deo, Brahmani, Mankada, Mandakini, and Mahanadi in the districts of

Mayurbhanj, Sambalpur, Keonjhar, Sundergarh, Angul, Khurda, Nayagarh, Dhekanal, Phulbani and Jajpur.

The small scale excavations conducted at Kuchai in Mayurbhanj district and Golabai Sasan in Khurda

district have provided a material base for understanding the Neolithic relics in this region (Basa and Mohanty

2000, Sahoo and Basa 2013). The occurrence of pointed-butt celts and cord-impressed pottery from Kuchai

and the bone tool industry, circular and rectangular wattle-and-daub structures, hand and wheel made

pottery and stone celts from Golabai Sasan indicate the life ways of Neolithic people. The Neolithic culture

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of Orissa is characterised by ground and polished stone tools including axe, adze, stone hammer, wedge

grinder, shoulder celts, chisel, ring stone and fabricator in which axes are the dominant types (Dash 2000).

For making these stone artefacts several rocks such as basalt, dolerite, diorite, sandstone, slate, quartzite

and chert have been used. Considering the distribution, typology, technology and raw material, Dash

(2000) extensively analysed the Neoliths of Orissa and divided them into seven groups i.e. oblong, oval,

trigonal, cylindrical, quadrangular, triangular and indeterminate as per typological developments.

The occurrence of rice at Baidyapur suggests the subsistence base of Neolithic population. Considering

the data from several excavated and explored sites, Dash (2000) has also categorised the pottery into four

developmental stages: (i) thick to medium variety of pottery and coarse variety of micaceous red ware

demonstrated at Baidyapur and Kuchai respectively, (ii) Corded ware, Grey and Brown ware, (iii) Black ware

having resemblance with outside Indian pottery such as Thailand, (iv) bigger round vessel with small round

face and dull brown color. While discussing the early agriculture in Orissa, Harvey et al. (2006: 31-2)

suggested two Neolithic traditions in Orissa by keeping in view of archaeo-botanical remains. The first is

the ‘Eastern Wetland Tradition’ represented by Golabai Sasan, Gopalpur and other sites from where the

material remains and environmental context suggest the possibility of fishing as a major part of subsistence

economy, in addition to animal husbandry and cultivation. The crops recovered from these sites include

rice, horse gram, pigeon pea, mung and urad. The second tradition is represented at the sites of central and

north Orissa such as Bijapur near Pallahera and Banabasa respectively, having a transient nature of

occupation indicating some special activities such as manufacturing of celts or the loci of settlements of

shifting cultivators or both.

With regard to the Chalcolithic period in Orissa, sites like Sankerjang, Golbai Sasan, Gopalpur,

Kameswaripali, Kuanr are of considerable importance. The site of Golbai Sasan (Sinha 2000) has yielded

Fig. 23.9: Stone tools and bone arrowheads from Period IIA, Golbai Sasan (Sinha 2000)

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two periods, of which the period I is Neolithic while period II is Chalcolithic, which is again subdivided into

period IIA (Osteo-Chalcolithic) and period IIB (Ferro-Chalcolithic). The period IIA is marked by a well developed

ceramic industry, tools made of bone, stone (Fig. 23.9) and copper, domestication of plants and animals

and hunting-fishing economy. The pottery types include Red burnished slip ware, Chocolate burnished slip

ware, Black slipped or black burnished slip ware, Black and Red ware, Chocolate and red ware, Blackish

grey and Grey ware, Buff ware, Buffish Red ware and dull Red ware. A variety of copper objects like ring

and bangle and a furnace and a number of crucibles suggests onsite production of copper items. The site

of Kuanr has provided evidence of stone tools, potsherds, pottery, terracotta, and metal objects besides

other items.

As far as the chronology of Neolithic period is concerned the site of Hikudi has provided two radiometric

dates read 2241 + 109 BCE and 1745 + 215 BCE suggesting a time bracket of late 3rd millennium to early

2nd millennium BCE. A few radiocarbon dates suggest the beginning of Chalcolithic period in Orissa during

2nd millennium BCE. The Chalcolithic period at the site of Kameswaripali, IA is dated to 1555 + 60 BCE and

IB is dated to 1065 + 66 BCE (Behera et al. 2007: 45).

Fig. 23.10: Stone artefacts from West Bengal (Chattopadhyaya et al. 2005)

West Bengal

In West Bengal, Neolithic stone artefacts particularly celts have been recorded from different areas,

but defining the Neolithic is still a problem (Chattopadhyaya et al. 2005: 72-73, Ghosh 1989: 41). Most of

the evidence of celts and ring stones are recovered as surface material without much details regarding

chronology. Neolithic artefacts (Fig. 23.10) have been recorded in the foothill regions of Susunia along the

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banks of Gandheswari and its tributaries and the banks of Subarnareka in district Midnapur on the border of

Mayurbhanj in Orissa. The Neolithic celts and ring-stones were reported from the western upland in association

with microlithic assemblage on the surface, especially in the valleys of Tarafeni and Bhairabbanki. Datta

(1992) discussed in details the Neolithic artefacts of West Bengal found in different context. Excavations at

several sites have yielded Neolithic celts in Chalcolithic context; i.e. Bharatpur, Haraipur, Pandu Rajar

Dhibi, Tamluk in association with ceramic industry. In the excavations at Pandu Rajar Dhibi in the lowest

level (Period I), a few Neolithic ground stone tools, bone tools and microliths along with a handmade Grey

ware with rice husk impressions, wheel-made painted red pottery and limited quantity of Black-and-Red

ware were encountered. The Neolithic artefacts along with an ill-fired pottery were also reported in the lower

most level at Tamluk in the coastal region of West Bengal. However, the sporadic evidence is not considered

as traits of a separate Neolithic cultural phase in this part of Eastern India. Regarding the antecedent stage

of the Chalcolithic period in West Bengal, Datta (2004-05: 59) believes that there is no clear cut sub-stratum

of Neolithic culture below the Chalcolithic level as none of the excavated sites have yielded any prominent

evidence and the stray occurrence of Neolithic tools in the context of Chalcolithic does not suggest a

Neolithic economy.

The Chalcolithic sites are widespread in West Bengal with a major concentration in the Ajay-Damodar

river valleys covering the districts of Burdwan and Birbhum. Some of the important excavated sites in the

state are Mahisdol, Bharatpur, Haraipur, Dihar, Mangalkot, Pandu Rajar Dhibi, Tamluk, Baneshwardanga,

and Pakhanna. Analysis of the material remains suggests a mixed economic mode of farming, hunting,

Fig. 23.11: Stone artefacts from Sikkim (Sharma 1996)

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gathering and cattle rearing during the Chalcolithic period in the region. The pottery is represented by a wide

variety of types and shapes including dish on stand, tulip shaped bowl, beaker, bowl with stand, channel

spouted bowl, and flower vases. Black and red ware is the most diagnostic type of pottery in West Bengal

besides Black slipped ware, Red ware and Grey ware. Due to wide and profuse distribution of Black and

Red ware during this period in western plains of Bengal, the Chalcolithic phase is also known as Black and

Red ware culture. The Chalcolithic pottery has elaborate painting either in black or white. The site of Pandu

Rajar Dhibi has yielded rich bone tool industry from period II. Copper artefacts include ring, spiral bangle,

bangle, bead, and fish hook. From the late phase of Chalcolithic, iron objects also emerged. Structural

remains in the form of mud-rammed floor, reed impressed clay chunks, and hearth, pit-silos, and postholes

are recorded at several sites indicating wattle-and-daub structure. Radiometric dates suggest a time bracket

of 1450 to 700 BCE for the Chalcolithic stage in the region (Datta 2004-05, Chattopadhyaya et al. 2005,

Chattopadhyay et al. 2007).

North Bengal and Sikkim

While discussing the eastern Indian Neolithic-Chalcolithic culture, the region forming Kalimpong and

Darjeeling of North Bengal and Sikkim may be considered as a distinct entity due to discoveries of certain

stone artefacts such as harvesters. Since the time of exploration carried out by E.H.G. Walsh (1904), a

good number of Neolithic stone artefacts have been reported from the region; however, there are no systematic

excavations to provide detail information of the settlement and subsistence pattern during this period. Most

of our understanding is based on the surface collections made by different scholars. Besides the evidence

of sporadic stone artefacts, often referred to as Neolithic, there is no clear cut Chalcolithic stage.

Some significant discoveries were made from Darjeeling and Kalimpong areas by Dasgupta (1967)

Fig. 23.12: Stone artefacts and pottery from excavation at Daojali Hading (after Sharma 1989)

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and Banerjee (1971) from Odhare, Romtek Basti close to Gangtok. A.K. Sharma (1981) discovered a number

of Neolithic stone artefacts (Fig. 23.11) from North and East districts of Sikkim, particularly from the areas

like Lingthen, Lingdon, Barpak, Sankalan, Lingden, Gytong, Sangdong, Gnon, Tarang, Gor-Tarand and

Likyong. The collections made by A.K. Sharma (1981) comprised 2 harvesters, 1 knife, 7 axes, 19 adzes,

2 single and double perforated celts and 2 polishers, made of shale, basalt and dolerite. Most of the

artefacts are ground or polished all over. Pottery is conspicuously absent. Sharma believes that the absence

of pottery is due to the absence of desired type of soil for pottery making. In east Sikkim around Pakhyong,

6 polished celts comprising 2 axes and 4 adzes along with a polisher were also reported from Pakhyong and

Shamsing villages. Double perforated celt is typical of Sikkim Neolithic. Banerjee (1987) also reports Neolithic

artefacts such as adzes, celts, chisels, perforated celts, splayed axes, knives and harvesters from the

sites of Barpak, Gnon, Gor-Terange, Gytong, Lingden, Lingdon, Lingthen, Linkyong, Manshitong, Sangdong,

Sankalong, Terang, Pakhyong and Shamsing. Lama (2008: 39-49) assessed the Neolithic material collected

by earlier scholars. P.K. Mishra and his team explored the Northern, Central and Eastern regions of Sikkim

and recorded over a hundred stone tools which show a close affinity with that of South China and Southeast

Asia (Mishra 2008).

Northeast India

As only a limited number of sites have been excavated in Northeast India so far, most of our

understanding of the culture is based on surface finds. Thanks to the collaborative efforts of the British

administrators and a few Indian scholars who reported Neolithic stone artefacts from different areas of

erstwhile (undivided) Assam which includes the present day administrative boundaries of Arunachal Pradesh,

Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura during the pre-independence period (for details

see Hazarika 2006a, 2008a, 2008b, 2011a, Dikshit and Hazarika 2012a). These stone artefacts covering

different regions provided a basis for establishing a prominent Neolithic stage in this part of the country

having affinities with neighbouring regions of South China and Southeast Asia in the east (Hazarika 2011b,

in press) and areas of Bihar, Bengal, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh in the west (Dikshit and Hazarika 2012a).

There is no evidence to suggest a Chalcolithic stage in this part of India unlike Middle Ganga plain, Northern

Vindhyas, Orissa and Bengal which makes the region distinct from other early farming cultures of Eastern

India.

It was the untiring efforts of late T.C. Sharma in association with late M.C. Goswami who established

the Neolithic phase in stratigraphic context at the site of Daojali Hading in the North Cachar hill district of

Assam during 1961 and 1963 (Goswami and Sharma 1963). The artefacts from excavation comprised

edged tool, grinding stones, querns, mullers, and quartzite pebbles made of locally available shale, sandstone,

quartzite and fossil wood. Shale was used for making edged tools and so also fossil wood; sandstone for

grinding stones whetstones, and querns (Sharma 1966). The pottery is classified into three varieties, i.e.

Cord-impressed, Stamped dull red and brick Red variety. Majority of the potsherds are heavily weathered

and broken into small fragments which prevent in identifying the shapes and forms of the vessels. The

Cord-impressed coarse grey ware is made of coarse and unevenly mixed clay, heavily tempered with large

quartz particles. These vessels were prepared by the coil-building method (Sharma 1967) (Fig. 23.12).

Since then, a number of sites have been put to excavations such as Parsi-Parlo in Arunachal Pradesh

(Ashraf 1990), Sarutaru and Marakdola in Assam (Rao 1973), Nongpok Keithelmanbi and Napachik in

337

Manipur (Singh 1993), Selbalgiri 2 (IAR 1966-67 and 1967-68) and Pynthorlangtein in Meghalaya (IAR 1992-

93, Taher and Rao 2005). Excavation at Parsi-Parlo during 1982-83, revealed about 50 to 100 cm thick

cultural deposit belonging to a single culture. Scrapers and large cutting tools with rudiments of pecked and

ground techniques characterize the phase I of the site. Raw material used for manufacturing tools of this

phase consisted of sandstone and quartzite. Phase II represents the layer (2) and is characterized by the

occurrence of pecked and ground stone implements, wasted blade/axe and faceted tools with handmade

pottery. It is the continuation of the preceding phase with conspicuous absence of scraper and other large

cutting tools and also the emergence of pottery. The tool kit, in general, provides hafting facilities and is

mostly agriculture based. At the site of Parsi-Parlo, a small number of potsherds represent square-grid and

honey-comb (web) beater-impressed pottery. Lavigation is poor and it contains high percentage of gritty

particles. The pottery represents bowl with featureless rim and constricted neck, lipped pot with globular

body made for culinary purposes (Ashraf 1990).

The stone industry of Sarutaru includes ground stone celts made of grey to black coloured slate and

cream to buff coloured sandstone. These are manufactured in two stages: chipping and grinding. Celts

made on slate are generally flat and require less chipping. In such cases the stone celts are ground at the

working edge only. In the case of sandstone chipping clearly preceded grinding. The tools that were obtained

by chipping and grinding retain the flake scars on the surface in spite of subsequent grinding all over the

body. Numerous potsherds were recovered from the excavations at Sarutaru in association with stone

axes. Pottery is handmade and made of clay mixed with quartz particles that show up on the surface. Three

ceramic types, on the basis of colour, have been recognized: brown, buff and grey. The ceramic is sometimes

decorated with cord-impressions or basket-impressions on the exterior in the form of either parallel or criss-

cross lines (Rao 1977).

Fig. 23.13: Stone tools and pottery from Manipur (Singh 1993)

338

Pottery from the excavations at the site of Nongpok Keithelmanbi is mostly Corded ware overlying

the Hoabinhian stratum in the cultural sequence. This ill-fired and handmade pottery is heavily weathered

and in many cases the corded surface is also eroded. The cord-marks are found in the form of linear and

criss-cross patterns. The pottery is made of fine clay and tempered with sand and a few quartz particles.

Fine sands were used as tempering material for the plain pottery. From the rim fragments, the vassal

appears to be shallow bowls with flatly carved base and globular pot with constricted neck. Another site

Napachik yielded potsherds decorated with cord-marks and tripod legs in association with pebble and flake

tools as well as ground celts. The cord-marks are similar to the ones found at the site of Phunan. The Tripod

wares characterize the ceramic industry of the Napachik site of Manipur. Among the tripod legs, there is a

solid flat leg that resembles the ring tripod type of the late Neolithic of South China. Some of the flake tools

are very small and resemble non-geometric microliths. Besides, a large number of crystallized quartz with

tiny scars at the tip and side, probably for certain uses, and waste flakes are also found in the excavation.

The lithic artefacts of the Napachik site include pebble tools, flake tools, flakes, cores, ground celts and

grinding stones. Neolithic celts of triangular variety with unibevelled edge have almost circular or oval

median cross-section (Singh 1993) (Fig. 23.13).

The pottery from the sites of central and the northern parts of the Garo Hills are handmade and

predominantly grey in colour. Impure clay, tempered with quartz grits, was used in manufacturing the

pottery (IAR 1966-67). The pottery collected from the excavation at Selbalgiri 2 (IAR 1967-68) was handmade,

coarse and gritty in fabric and grey, grey-brown and dull brown in colour, with very rough texture due to the

presence of quartz grits in the clay. No decoration could be detected on the potsherds. The pottery found on

the surface was relatively thicker and less gritty.

Pynthorlangtein, another site in Meghalaya was put to excavation during 1992-93 which provided a

cultural deposit of 1 m comprising Neolithic cultural milieu. The tool comprises adzes, axes, chisels,

points, blades, scrapers, polishers, penknife, flake-blanks, cores and flakes. Majority of the celts are

chipped and a few are partly ground. Besides the lithic artefacts, a few potsherds of handmade, coarse Red

ware pottery with cord-impression were collected at a depth of 60-80 cm.

One of the intriguing problems of the Neolithic culture of Northeast India is the chronological framework

due to paucity of absolute dates. Ramesh (1989) dated the Neolithic tools from Tripura to c. 1500 BCE by

C14 method. At the Nongpok Keithelmanbi (Singh 1993) site of Manipur, the Cord-impressed ware stratum

has been dated to 4,460 + 120 years BP. The site of Napachik (Singh 1993) of Manipur gave a TL date of

1450 BCE. The Neolithic site at Dibru Valley (Saikia 1988) of Dibrugarh in Assam has yielded celts of

different variety with handmade pottery and has been dated to 2210 + 140 BCE. Another site of a Neolithic

context from Kanai Gaon Reserve, Dibrugarh, gives a date of 1440 + 80 BP, i.e. 6th century CE (PRL 1234,

sample collected by the Department of Anthropology, Dibrugarh University) (IAR 1992-93: 118). From the

available data we have at our disposal, the beginning of the culture may be placed to 2500 BCE; however,

more dating attempts are essentially required. Owing to lack of substantial floral and faunal material from

excavated sites, our understanding is limited to lithic and ceramic typo-technology. A comparative study

made by Roy (1981) on the Neolithic tools from Garo Hills and artefacts used in jhum reveals homogeneity

in function of both these modern and ancient artefacts. It can me mentioned here that the modern day iron

hoes used in jhum resembles the Neolithic polished stone tools.

339

Northeast India is situated in the crossroads between two important regions which have yielded the

evidences of early rice agriculture, i.e. Gangatic valley of India and Yangtze river basin of China. Considering

the presence of wild, intermediate and domestic varieties of rice species in this region, and on the basis of

recent archaeological, genetic and ethnographic data, Hazarika (2006a, 2006b) suggests that this region

must have contributed to the process of early domestication of rice. Rice, the most important crops of the

Neolithic period of Northeast India has shaped the culture and has contributed in the historical development

in the region (Hazarika 2011c, 2011d, 2012).

Conclusion

The Eastern and Northeastern part of India is crucial for understanding the origin and development of

early farming communities of the Indian subcontinent. Particularly, some of the sites have provided very

early radiometric dates for the Neolithic in this region. In Middle Ganga plain, Lahuradeva, Jhusi and Koldihwa

can be considered as the most distinctive archaeological sites due to the presence of cultivated rice during

7th - 6th millennium BCE. Archaeobotanical evidences of barley (Hardeum vulgare), bread wheat (Triticum

aesitivum) and other winter crops along with summer crop like rice (Oryza sativa) from early level of Jhusi

in 7th - 6th millennium BCE are significant. The radiocarbon dates from Lahuradeva, Jhusi and Hetapatti in

Middle Ganga plain and Tokwa in Vindhyan region indicated that this region was one of the early centres of

agriculture in the world. Jhusi and Lahuradeva have also provided an uninterrupted history of cultural

development till the early Historic period.

The Chalcolithic period of Middle Ganga plain shows substantial development in pottery making

technology along with other notable characteristic features. The ceramics show considerable increase in

both types and technique of finishing and similarity both in fabrics and forms, though, regional variations

have been also noticed at Narahan and Khairadih. Painted Black and Red ware is a characteristic feature of

Narahan while Khairadih is characterized by painted Black Slipped ware. Other practices such as production

of bone artifacts, beads, earthen storage bins suggest that the inhabitants of this region were interactive

and skilful in craft activities. The antiquities retrieved show that fishing, hunting and gathering of wild fruits

and tubers must have been used as a dominant parallel economy.

The Cord-impressed pottery has great antiquity in East Asia (Yasuda 2002, Dikshit and Hazarika

2012a, in press) and is a characteristic feature of the Neolithic-Chalcolithic culture of Eastern India including

Northeast India (Hazarika 2013, in press). This pottery starts occurring from the early phase of the Neolithic

in Middle Ganga plain and Vindhyan region and continues in subsequent Chalcolithic phase too (Mishra

2010). In this regard, the presence of Cord-impressed pottery at Sohgaura and other sites in Middle Ganga

plain, such as Chirand, Chechar Kutubpur, Lahuradeva, Jhusi and Hetapatti shows the influence of the

Vindhyan Neolithic pottery on the Middle Ganga plain pottery. In Vindhyan area, Corded and Rusticated

ware were reported for the first time at Koldihwa and after that from Mahagara, Pachoh and Indari (Pal 1986:

92-116) and recently at Tokwa (Misra et al. 2000-2001). Besides these, an interesting feature has come

from several Mesolithic rock shelter sites in adjoining Vindhyan area (Vindhyan-Ganga region), where Cord-

impressed ware has also been reported from Baghikhor and Lekhhia in Late Mesolithic context with the

geometric microliths (Pal 1986: 76-79). As far as the chronology is concerned, there are two AMS C14

dates from Lekhahia rock shelter I, read 6420 + 75 and 6050 + 75 BCE (Lukacs et al. 1996: 301-311) which

is certainly contemporary to Neolithic phase. But this scenario has not been observed at those sites

340

situated in Middle Ganga plain such as Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahdaha and Damdama. Misra (2010) is on the

opinion that the recovery of these pots from rock shelter sites in late Mesolithic context might have been

due to the symbiotic relation between late Mesolithic and Neolithic culture. He further suggested that there

were certain people still living a Mesolithic way of life even of a time when Neolithic people was established

in this area.

The Neolithic situation in Orissa and West Bengal is not very clear as the Neolithic traits are discussed

mostly on the basis of surface material. There is noticeable indication of flourishing Chalcolithic culture

(Black and Red ware culture in West Bengal) in both the regions which is supported by excavated material.

However, a different situation is observed in north Bengal and Sikkim area. Although a large number of

stone artefacts are recovered, there is yet to record any clear-cut evidence of a separate Chalcolithic stage

in these upland areas which is also applicable to Northeast Indian ‘seven states’.

A comparison of the Neolithic cultures of Northeast India with its adjoining regions of Eastern India

(Dikshit and Hazarika 2012b) suggests that the presence of microliths, non-geometric and geometric especially

in Vindhyan hills and also in Middle Ganga plain including West Bengal and Orissa appears to be forerunners

of the emergence of Neolithic culture in some parts of Eastern India whereas Northeast Indian Neolithic

culture was definitely in close connection with the northern Southeast Asian Neolithic which was also a

derivative of the south Chinese Neolithic culture present in the Yangtze valley. Moreover, it has been

suggested that the region of Northeast India can stand alone as a separate and distinct developmental case

in the context of East Indian Neolithic tradition.

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