MIKVEH CAVE Q27 The First Three Seasons of Excavations 2003, 2006, 2012

Contract Archaeology Reports V

MIKVEH CAVE Q27The First Three Seasons of Excavations

2003, 2006, 2012

Haim Cohen

Sir Maurice and Lady Irene Hatter LaboratoryReports and Studies of the Leon Recanati Institute for

Maritime Studies Excavations

Haifa 2015

University of Haifa Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies Sir Maurice and Lady Irene Hatter Laboratory

Editor: Michal Artzy

Technical editors: Jennifer Munro

Graphics Editor: Noga Yoselevich

http://excavations.haifa.ac.il

ISSN 965-90715-0-7

© Copyright Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies

Photo cover: Haim Cohen

University of Haifa, Mount Carmel,

Haifa 3498838

Contents1. Introduction 10

2. Bibliography 14

3. Research History 19

4. Excavations Methods 22

5. The Excavations 245.1 Area A 245.2 Area B 355.3 Area C 375.4 The Mikveh Ritual Bath 39

6. Cave Q27 Stratigraphy and Chronology 42Surface 42Stratum I 42Stratum II 43Stratum III 43Stratum IV 44

7. Pottery Assemblage (Haim Cohen, Alexander Efron) 45Chalcolithic Period Ceramics 45Iron Age Ceramics 48Early Roman Period Ceramics 49Byzantine Period Ceramics 53Quantitative Study 54Conclusion 56Plates and Tables 58

8. Supplemental Reports: Finds 70

9. Palynological Investigation, Nahal David, Cave Q27 (Dafna Langgut) 71

10. Textiles, Basketry and Cordage from Cave Q27 (Orit Shamir) 77

11. Leather Remains 91

12. The Faunal Remains of the Mikveh Cave (Guy Bar-Oz) 94

13. Petrographic Examination of Two Samples from Cave Q27 (Alexander Tsatskin) 99

14. Lithic Assemblage (Udi Grinberg) 102

15. Stone Tools 106

16. Coins (Haim Cohen, Alexander Efron) 109

17. Glass (Haim Cohen, Alexander Efron) 111

18. Metal (Haim Cohen, Alexander Efron) 113

19. Food Remains 116

20. Chalcolithic Stamp Seal 118

21. Discussions 120

22. Conclusions 123

Appendix 124a. List of Loci From the Three Seasons 124b. Field Diary 127

TablesTable 6.1 Stratigraphy 44Table 9.1 Cave Q27 palynological investigation 74Table 10.1 Textiles, cordage from Cave Q27 79Table 10.2 Textiles, basketry from Cave Q27 85Table 12.1 Distribution of the faunal remains retrieved from Mikveh Cave (N=464) 95Table 12.2 Number of identified specimens and minimum number of

individuals of each taxon represented at Mikveh Cave 96Table 12.3 Approximate ages of epiphyseal fusion in goats (based on Silver, 1969) 97Table 14.1 Debitage by area of excavation 103Table 14.2 Tool distribution and dimensions (in cm) 104

PlatesPl. 1 Area A Chalcolithic Period and Iron Age pottery 57Pl. 2 Area A Early Roman Period pottery: Bowls, cooking pot and jars 60Pl. 3 Area A Early Roman and Byzantine Periods pottery: Jars, jugs,

juglets, pithoi, misc. 63Pl. 4 Area B pottery 66Pl. 5 Area C pottery 68

FiguresFig. 1.1 Excavation staff and participants 11Fig. 1.2 General area of Cave Q27 in the Judean desert 12Fig. 1.3 Cave Q27: General plan 13Fig. 1.4 Cave Q27: Cross-section plan 13Fig. 3.1 Plan of the cave 20Fig. 3.2 Section of the pool 20Fig. 3.3 Plan of the cave 20Fig. 3.4 Section of the cave 20Fig. 3.5 Map and section of the cave 21Fig. 5.1 Area A1 plan 26Fig. 5.2 Area A1, at the beginning of the 2012 season 26Fig. 5.3 L.11002. The lower outer part of the mikveh, facing north 26

Fig. 5.4 L.11004. The lower outer part of the mikveh, sterile, soft fill with few stones 26

Fig. 5.5 L.11006. Stone pavement in the left side of the locus 26Fig. 5.6 L.11006. Note piece of red cloth and date kernel inside the living layer 26Fig. 5.7 L.11008. Note the stone pavement 27Fig. 5.8 L.11009. Note the living layer with pottery and organic remains 27Fig. 5.9 Area A2. Top projection plan season of 2006 28Fig. 5.10 L.32001. First day of 2012 season. Note big boulder in the center of

the picture 28Fig. 5.11 L.21001. Prior to the excavation. Inside the niche 29Fig. 5.12 L.21001. Area A2 top projection 29Fig. 5.13 L.21003. Looking west 29Fig. 5.14 L.21001. Prior to the start of the excavation in 2006 29Fig. 5.15 L.32001. Area A2 close-up of the filling 29Fig. 5.16 L.32002. Inside the niche. Note dusty soil fill in the front, and calcite

incrustation on the ceiling 29Fig. 5.17 L.32001. Looking east, while standing on the surface of L.21001 30Fig. 5.18 L.32001. Close-up. Note the layers of stones, gravel and soil 30Fig. 5.19 Area A2. Top projection, plan at the end of excavations season of 2012 30Fig. 5.20 L.21006. Fireplace 31Fig. 5.21 L.21006. Fireplace 31Fig. 5.22 L.21004. Fireplace east projection 31Fig. 5.23 Area A4. Top projection plan 32Fig. 5.24 L.34001. The supporting stones of the ‘pile area’ visible on the right

side 33Fig. 5.25 L.34001. West projection, at the beginning of the 2012 season 33Fig. 5.26 L.34001. Note ceiling of the small tunnel connecting the areas A4

and A2 33Fig. 5.27 L.34002. South projection 33Fig. 5.28 Area A5. Top projection plan 34Fig. 5.29 L.35003. West projection 34Fig. 5.30 L.35003. South projection 34Fig. 5.31 Area A6. Top projection plan 35Fig. 5.32 L.36001. South-east projection 35

Fig. 5.33 L.36002. Soft yellow filling 35Fig. 5.34 L.12005. Prior to the excavation 36Fig. 5.35 L.12006. Fallowing surface cleaning 36Fig. 5.36 W.12004. General view west-north projection 37Fig. 5.37 W.12004. Close-up of the filling 37Fig. 5.38 L.13001. Prior to the excavation 38Fig. 5.39 L.13002. After removing the top layer 38Fig. 5.40 L.13003. Large stones mixed within light-brown soil and smaller stones 38Fig. 5.41 The southern edge of the mikveh, with channel still in place, at the

right, north west projection 40Fig. 5.42 The remains of the stairs visible in the center of the picture 40Fig. 5.43 View inside the mikveh from the channel, west projection 40Fig. 5.44 Outer part base of the mikveh north projection 41Fig. 5.45 Close-up of a stone pavement adjoining the mikveh outer part base 41Fig. 7.1 Distribution of Early Roman Period pottery types 54Fig. 7.2 “Cave of Horror” pottery types distribution 55Fig. 7.3 Zealot occupation strata in Massada pottery types distribution 55Fig. 10.1 Textile no. 2004-9019, before conservation 80Fig. 10.2 Textile no. 2004-9016, linen, Chalcolithic Period 80Fig. 10.3 Textile no. 2004-9009, linen, Chalcolithic Period 80Fig. 10.4 Textile no. 2004-9005, wool, Roman Period 82Fig. 10.5 Textile no. 2004-9013, wool, Roman Period 82Fig. 10.6 Textile no. 2004-9019, wool, red, Roman Period 82Fig. 10.7 Textile no. 2004-9000, wool, decorated with black band, Roman Period 82Fig. 10.8 Basketry fragment, no. 2004-9041, Chalcolithic Period, open twining 86Fig. 10.9 Basketry fragment, no. 2004-9040, Chalcolithic Period, close twining 86Fig. 10.10 A plait no. 588027 87Fig. 10.11 Cord no. 579981, S2Z 87Fig. 10.12 Cord no. 2004-9036, S2Z, folded and looped 87Fig. 10.13 Cord no. 2004-9035, linen 87Fig. 11.1 Leather reinforcement belt top and bottom projections 91Fig. 11.2 Leather strips 92Fig. 11.3 Leather Reinforcement belts 92

Fig. 11.4 Leather sandal sole 92Fig. 11.5 Leather sandal sole 92Fig. 12.1 Relative frequencies of caprines’ body parts into 5 carcass parts 97Fig. 13.1 Sample 1, unporous fabric, 13.1a: Plain polarized light; 13.1b: Crossed

polarized light 100Fig. 13.2 Sample 1, porous intercrystalline fabric 100Fig. 13.3 Sample 1, fine-grained dolomite, superimposed on the red-stained

micritic calcite 100Fig. 13.4 Sample 1, the fine-grained calcite below the Fe-rich biological crust

on the surface 101Fig. 13.5 Sample 2, sampling area of the mikveh 101Fig. 13.6 Sample 2, thin-section: a charcoal-rich lime calcareous matrix with

few rounded gas pores 101Fig. 13.7 Sample 2, dolomite rock, close-up 101Fig. 13.8 Sample 2, an elongated piece of chalky marl with characteristic tiny

foraminifera 101Fig. 14.1 1) El-Khiam point, 2) Borer, 3) Awl 104Fig. 14.2 PPNA sites in the Southern Levant 104Fig. 15.1 Flat grinding stone. SF Area B, L.12002 107Fig. 15.2 Flat grinding stone, drawn 107Fig. 15.3 Oval grinding stone 107Fig. 15.4 Oval grinding stone with cup-mark. SF L.13001, Area C surface 107Fig. 15.5 Oval grinding stone with cup-mark Area A1 L.11005 108Fig. 15.6 Oval grinding stone with cup-mark Area A1 L.11005 108Fig. 15.7 Pestle 108Fig. 15.8 Handstone. L.34002 108Fig. 16.1 Coin of Agrippa I 109Fig. 16.2 Great Revolt Year 2 coin 110Fig. 17.1 Candlestick bottle, top (a) bottom (b) and cross-section (c) projections

(L.12001) 111Fig. 18.1 Square cross-section arrowhead, L.35001 114Fig. 18.2 Trilobate arrowhead, found in the wall in Area B 114Fig. 18.3 Roman iron nail, L.21006 114Fig. 19.1 Remain of Carob pod 116

Fig. 19.2 Remain of Date kernel 116Fig. 19.3 Remain of complete Date 117Fig. 19.4 Pomegranate skin 117Fig. 19.5 Carob pod seeds 117Fig. 19.6 Cooked fruit remains. Surface Area A 117Fig. 20.1 Stamp seal bottom and cross-section projections 119

10

1. IntroductionCave Q27, generally known as “Pool cave”, is located on the northern cliffs of the perennial Nahal David Spring in the Judean Desert, Israel (coordinates Cave Q27: 31°28’27”N-35°22’30”E; NIG 597898,235590), north of the dry waterfall, about 150 meters above the spring’s dry riverbed (wadi). The access to the cave is hard and dangerous, yet, does not require any special climbing equipment. The cave’s opening is hidden and almost invisible from the wadi, except from several points on the trail.

The data for the publication, presented in this report, was gathered in three seasons. Further research is called for since the excavation of Cave Q27 is not complete. The project was conducted under the auspices of three institutes in three different seasons.

First Season: The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa (IAA Permit N. G-50/2003).

Second Season: The Department of Bible, Archaeology and Ancient Near East, Ben Gurion University of the Negev (IAA Permit N. G-22/2006).

Third Season: The Sir Maurice and Lady Irene Hatter Laboratory, The Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies University of Haifa, Israel (IAA Permit N. G-20/2012).

At the end of every season, beginning with the first one in 2003, preliminary reports were published in Hadashot Arkheologiyot. These reports, prepared by Haim Cohen, included a short summary of the areas excavated, and feature photographs of the main material goods found.

The present report is an expended version of all the previously published reports as well as additional subjects such as pollen, textile, plaster and bones, which have been written by experts, not necessarily members of the expedition teams. Alexander Efron helped prepare the ceramics, coins, metals and glass chapters, alongside the organization of the final report.

The Expedition Team

Haim Cohen directed the excavations during the three seasons. In the third season, Alexander Efron served as assistant-director. Jennifer Munro, served as the photographer and website manager during the three seasons. Avishai Ofir, was the video photographer during the first two seasons. In the first season (2003) the expedition’s architect was Ma’ayan Ralbag. Excavations of such scale and difficulty (dangerous) require firm logistical and efficient management. The administrator’s role is a highly responsible one, a role Shemulik Grasiani fulfilled

11

A survey of the area in proximity of the cave required skilled rock climbers. The team of Vladimir Boslov, Boaz Langford, Moshe Meyers, Tovia Nate and Yinon Shavtiel made it possible.

Haim Cohen

Alexander Efron Jennifer Munro Shemulik Grasiani

Season 1 main members Season 2 main members Season 3 main members

Fig. 1.1 Excavation staff and participants

First Season supervisors: Area A: Haim Cohen and Iscca Erlichman; Area B: Amit Shadman; Area C: Royi Porat. Participants: Rita Berzner, Shemulik Grasiani, Dror Ben-Yosef, Vladimir Boslov, Baruch Safrai, Manuela Myers.

Second Season supervisor: Area A: Haim Cohen. Participants: Shemulik Grasiani, Boas Langford, Vladimir Boslov, Roy Dimand, Yoav Sppa, Yanon Shavtiel, Zach Fisher, Maria Karni, Manuela Myers.

12

Third Season supervisor: Area A: Alexander Efron. Participants: Lynett Matthews, Steve Roth, Shemulik Grasiani, Vladimir Boslov, Maya Rechnitzer, Hadassah Amiel, John Calabro, Leon Spitz, Trisha Elisheva Tseng, Tsao Sheng-Ying.

Acknowledgements

Special thanks to Prof. Michal Artzy, head of the Sir Maurice and Lady Irene Hatter Laboratory and the Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa, Israel. Without the logistical support of the Institute, academic guidance and advice, professional manpower and laboratory, the publication of this project could not have been accomplished.

Dr. Zvika Tzuk and Mr. Dudi Greenbaum of the National Parks Authority allowed us to conduct our project in a Nature Park, which, under normal circumstances is closed to the public. We owe special thanks to Mrs. Sheila Bishop of the Foundation for Biblical Archaeology, to Mr. Stuart and Mrs. Mimi Rose, and to Mrs. Mary Fisher for their financial support.

We thank Eran, Gal and Udi Hatzor of the Masada Restaurant for their generosity in supplying food for the members of the third expedition.

We wish to especially thank all those who took part in the excavations as well as in the following research over the years.

Finally, many thanks to my Smadar.

Fig. 1.2 General area of Cave Q27 in the Judean desert (drawing: R. Stidsing)

13

Fig. 1.3 Cave Q27: General plan (drawing: M. Ralbag, B. Arubas, I. Idelson)

Fig. 1.4 Cave Q27: Cross-section plan (drawing: M. Ralbag)

14

2. Bibliography1

List of Abbreviations

AASOR – Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research.

BASOR – Bulletin of the American School of Oriental Research.

BIES – Bulletin of the Israel Exploration Society.

DJD – The Discoveries in the Judaean Desert Series.

IAA – Israel Antiquities Authority.

IEJ – Israel Exploration Journal.

IES – Israel Exploration Society.

PEQ – Palestine Exploration Quarterly.

Aharoni Y. 1956. Archaeological Survey in Ein Gedi. BIES 1-4, pp. 27-45

Aharoni Y. 1961. Expedition B. IEJ, 11, pp. 11-24.


Aharoni Y. 1973. Beer-Sheba I: Excavations at Tel Beer-Sheba. 1969-1971 Seasons. Tel-Aviv.

Aharoni M. 1981. The Pottery of Strata 11-12 of the Iron Age Citadel at Arad. Eretz-Israel 15, IES, Jerusalem, pp. 181-205 (Hebrew).

Amorai-Stark S. 1997. Wolfe Family Collection of Near Eastern Prehistoric Stamp Seals. Fribourg: University Press.

Amit D. 1992. Hebron – En Gedi, Survey of the Ancient Road. Eretz-Israel 23, IES. Jerusalem, pp. 345-363 (Hebrew).

Ariel D. T., and Shiloh Y. 2000. Excavations at the City of David 1978-1985, Directed by Yigal Shiloh: Extramural Areas. Qedem 40. Jerusalem: The Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Hebrew).

Avigad N. 1955. Excavations at Beth She’arim, 1954: Preliminary Report. IEJ, 5.4, pp. 205-239.

Avigad N. 1961. Expedition A. IEJ, 11, pp. 6-10.


1 The bibliography for the supplemental reports can be found at the end of the appropriate reports. The following general bibliography relates to the cave and its findings, including pottery.

15

Avigad N. 2000-2012. Jewish Quarter Excavations in the Old City of Jerusalem: Conducted by Avigad N. 1969-1982. IES, Jerusalem.

Bar-Adon P. 1961. Expedition C. IEJ, 11, pp. 25-35.

Bar-Adon P. 1962. Expedition C. IEJ, 12, pp. 215-226.

Bar-Adon P. 1971. The Cave of the Treasure: The finds from the Caves in Nahal Mishmar. The Bialik Institute and the IES. Jerusalem (Hebrew).

Bar-Nathan R. 2006. Masada VII – The Pottery of Masada. Jerusalem.

Bedal A. L. 2004. The Petra Pool Complex – a Hellenistic Paradeisos in Nabataean Capital (results from the Petra “Lower Market” Survey and Excavation). Gorgias. Piscataway, NJ.

Ben-Ami D., and Tchekhanovets Y. 2011. The Lower City of Jerusalem on the Eve of Its Destruction, 70 CE: A View from Hanyon Givati. BASOR 364, pp. 61-85.

Ben-Tor A. 1985. A Fourth Millennium BCE Seal-Impression from Gamla. Eretz-Israel 18, IES. Jerusalem, pp. 90-93 (Hebrew).

Ben-Tor A. 1990. A Stamp Seal and a Seal Impression of the Chalcolithic Period from Tel Gerar. Eretz-Israel 21, IES. Jerusalem, pp. 80-86 (Hebrew).

Bignasca A. 1996. Petra, Ez Zantur I: Ergebnisse der Schweizerisch-Liechtensteinischen Ausgrabungen, 1988-1992. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz.

Biran A., and Cohen R. 1981. Aroer in the Negev. Eretz-Israel 15, IES. Jerusalem, pp. 250-274 (Hebrew).

Cohen H. 2005. Nahal David, Cave of the Pool: Preliminary Report. Hadashot Arkheologiyot, Excavations and Surveys in Israel, 117.

Cohen H. 2009. Nahal David, Cave of the Pool: Preliminary Report. Hadashot Arkheologiyot, Excavations and Surveys in Israel, 121.

Cohen H. 2013. Nahal David, Cave of the Pool, Preliminary Report. Hadashot Arkheologiyot, Excavations and Surveys in Israel, 125.

Dessel J. P. 2009. Lahav 1. Pottery and Politics. The Halif Terrace Site 101 and Egypt in the Fourth B.C.E., Reports of the Lahav Research Project / Excavation at Tell Halif, Israel 1 by J. P. Dessel, Eisenbrauns.

de Vaux R. 1961. Archéologie. In P. Benoit, J. T Milik and R. de-Vaux (eds.) Le Grottes de Murabba’at (DJD,2), pp. 3-63, Oxford.

Dothan M. 1958. Excavations in Hurvat Batar (Beer-Sheva), Atiqot 2. IAA, Jerusalem (Hebrew).

Dothan M. 1971. Ashdod II-III: The Second and Third Seasons of Excavations 1963, 1965. Atiqot 9-10. IAA, Jerusalem.

Eshel H., and Broshi M. 2003. Excavations at Qumran, Summer 2001, IEJ, 53, pp. 61-73.

16

Fiema Z. T. 2008. Petra - The Mountain of Aaron: the Finnish Archaeological Project in Jordan. Societas Scientiarum Fennica, Helsinki.

Fritz V. 1981. The List of Rehoboam’s Fortresses in 2 Chr. 11:5-12 – A Document from the Times of Josia. Eretz-Israel 15, IES. Jerusalem, pp. 54-46.

Garfinkel Y. 1999. Neolithic and Chalcolithic Pottery of the Southern Levant. QEDEM 39, Jerusalem: The Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Hebrew).

Garfinkel Y. Burian F., and Friedman E. 1992. A Late Neolithic Seal from Herzliya, BASOR 286, pp. 7-13.

Getzov N. 2011. Seals and Figurines from the Beginning of the Early Chalcolithic Period at Ha-Gosherim. Atiqot 67, pp. 81-83. IAA, Jerusalem.

Gilead I. 1988. The Chalcolithic Period in the Levant. Journal of World Prehistory 2, pp. 397-443.

Geva S. 1992. The Typology of the ‘Kitchen Ware’ in the Kingdom of Israel during the 8th Century BCE, Eretz-Israel 23, IES. Jerusalem (Hebrew).

Hirschfeld Y. 2007. En Gedi Excavations I-II Final Report 1996-2002. IAA, Jerusalem.

Hershkovitz M. 1992. Aroer at the End of Second Temple Period. Eretz- Israel 23, IES. Jerusalem, pp. 300-320 (Hebrew).

Jackson-Tal R. E. 2004. In Van den Brink, A Roman-Period Samaritan Burial Ground in Pardes Ha-Gedud. Atiqot 47, IAA, Jerusalem, pp. 143-148.

Kaplan J. 1963. Excavations at Bnei Beraq, 1951. IEJ, 13, pp. 300-312.

Kempinski A., Zimhoni D., Gilboa E., and Rosel N. 1981. Excavations at Tel Masos: 1972, 1974, 1975, Eretz-Israel 15, IES. Jerusalem, pp. 151-154 (Hebrew).

Kenyon K. M. 1960. Excavation at Jericho. British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem.

Kloner A., and Tepper Y. 1987. The Hiding Complexes in the Judean Shephelah. Hakibbutz Hameuchad Publishing House. IES, Tel-Aviv.

Lee J. R. 1973. Chalcolithic Ghassul: New Aspects and Master Typology. Ph.D. diss., The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Leonard A. Jr. 1992. The Jordan Valley Survey 1953: Some Unpublished Soundings Conducted by James Mellaart. AASOR 50.

Lovell J. L. 2001. The Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods in the Southern Levant. New Data from the Site of Teleilat Ghassul, Jordan. BAR International Series 974.

Mazar A. 1981. The Excavations at Khirbet Abu et-Twein, and the System of Iron Age Fortresses in Judah. Eretz-Israel 15, IES. Jerusalem, pp. 222-229 (Hebrew).

Mazar A. 1992. The Fortifications of the Israelite City at Kh. Marjameh in the Hills of Ephraim. Eretz- Israel 23, IES. Jerusalem, pp. 174-194 (Hebrew).

17

Mazar E., and Mazar B. 1989. Excavations in the South of the Temple Mount: The Ophel of Biblical Jerusalem. QEDEM 29. Jerusalem: Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Hebrew).

Mazar A., and Panitz-Cohen N. 2001. Timna (Tel-Batash) II: The Finds from the First Millennium BCE. QEDEM 42, Jerusalem: Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Hebrew).

McNicoll A. W. 1992. Pella in Jordan 2: The Second Interim Report of the Joint University of Sydney and the College of Wooster Excavations at Pella, 1982-1985. NSW, Australia: Meditarch, Sydney.

Moorey P. R. S. 1988. The Chalcolithic Hoard from Nahal Mishmar, Israel, in Context. World Archaeology, 20(2), pp. 171-189.

Nadelman Y. 1992. Soundings at Hirbet Dir es-Sid (Anathoth?). Eretz-Israel 23, IES. Jerusalem, pp. 216-224 (Hebrew).

Negev A. 1986. The Late Hellenistic and Early Roman Pottery of Nabatean Obod: Final Report. QEDEM 22. Jerusalem: Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Hebrew).

Netzer Y. 1981. Greater Herodium. QEDEM 13, Jerusalem: Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Hebrew).

Netzer Y. 2001. Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Jericho: Final Reports of the 1973-1987 Excavations I-V. Yad Ben-Zvi. Jerusalem.

Neuville R., and Mallon A. 1934. Teleilat Ghassul. Pontificio Istituto Biblico, Rome.

North R. S. J. 1961. Ghassul 1960 Excavation Report. Pontifical Biblical Institute, Rome.

Pakman D. 1992. Late Iron Age Pottery Vessels at Tel Dan. Eretz-Israel 23, IES. Jerusalem, pp. 230-241 (Hebrew).

Patrich J. 1985. Caves of Refuge and Jewish Inscriptions on the Cliffs of Nahal Michmas. Eretz-Israel 18, IES. Jerusalem, pp. 153-166 (Hebrew).

Perrot J. 1955. The Excavations at Tell Abu Matar, Near Beersheba I-III. IEJ, 5.1-3, pp. 17-40; 73-84; 167-189.

Perrot J. 1992. Umm Qatafa and Umm Qala’a: Two ‘Ghassulian’ Caves in the Judean Desert. Eretz-Israel 23, IES. Jerusalem, pp. 110-112.

Perrot J., Zori N., and Reich Y. 1967. Neve Ur, un nouvel aspect du Ghassoulien. IEJ, 17, pp. 201-232.

Porat R., Eshel H., and Frumkin, A. 2009. The ‘Caves of the Spear’: Refuge Caves from the Bar-Kokhba Revolt North of En-Gedi. IEJ, 59, pp. 21-40.

Pritchard J. B. 1958. The Excavation of Herodian Jericho 1951 (1952-1954). AASOR, pp. 32-33.

18

Rowan Y. M., and Golden J. 2009. The Chalcolithic Period of the Southern Levant: A Synthetic Review Source: Journal of World Prehistory, 22(1), pp. 1-92.

Sandel G. D. 1907. Am Toten Meere. Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Publisher; Harrassowitz, Vereins, 30-31. P. 73.

Schmid S. G. 2000. Petra, Ez Zantur II: Ergebnisse der Schweizerisch-Liechtensteinischen Ausgrabungen. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz.

Tal O., and Fantalkin A. 2009. An Iron Age IIB Fortress at Tell Qudadi: A Preliminary Study. Eretz-Israel 29, IES, Jerusalem, pp. 192-206 (Hebrew).

Thareani Y. 2011. Tel ‘Aroer the Iron Age II Caravan Town and the Hellenistic-Early Roman Settlement: The Avraham Biran (1975-1982) and Rudolph Cohen (1975-1976) Excavations. Jerusalem: Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology of Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion (Hebrew).

Tushingham A. D. 1985. Excavations in Jerusalem, 1961-1967. Royal Ontario Museum: Toronto.

Ussishkin D. 1992. Archaeological Soundings at Batar: Bar Kokhba’s Last Stronghold. Eretz-Israel 23, IES. Jerusalem, 260-276 (Hebrew).

Ussishkin D. 2004. The Renewed Archaeological Excavationsat Lachish (1973-1994) I-V. Tel Aviv: Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology.

Yadin Y. 1961. Expedition D. IEJ, 11, pp. 36-52.

Yadin Y. 1962. Expedition D. IEJ, 12, pp. 227-257.

Yei’vin Z. 1992. Two Watchtowers in the Jordan Valley, Eretz-Israel 23, IES. Jerusalem, 155-174 (Hebrew).

Zissu B., Porat R., Langford B., and Frumkin A. 2011. Archaeological Remains of the Bar Kokhba Revolt in the Te’omim Cave (Mughâret Umm et Tûeimîn), Western Jerusalem Hills. pp. 263-283. Journal of Jewish Studies vol. LXII. Bar-Ilan University and Jerusalem University.

19

3. Research HistoryThe cave was first revealed to the scientific community by Sandel G. D. in 1905, when a group of local Bedouins showed him an uncharted cave. He described the cave, its opening, which was closed with a stone wall, the plastered cistern along one of the walls, and a couple of large jars with remnants of some liquid inside.2 Sandel's description of the cave is quite general (Fig. 3.5). Until 1956 no work was conducted in the cave. In 1956, Yohanan Aharoni visited the cave as part of his survey in the Judean Desert, and labeled it Cave Q27. A small scale excavation was conducted, alongside a survey of the cave.3 A small number of pottery sherds from the Iron Age and the Roman Period were found. At the same time, a plan for the cave was drawn (Figs. 3.1, 3.2). Another expedition worked in the cave in 1960-1, under the direction of Nahman Avigad.4 The expedition revealed a layer dating to the Second Temple Period, as well as numerous finds from the Chalcolithic and Iron Age II periods. Avigad did not mention the wall, which closed the entrance, and large vessels inside the cave (Figs. 3.3, 3.4). In 2003, Haim Cohen started a three-season project;5 the second season was conducted in 2006.6 In 2008 a small-scale survey was carried out, as part of the project, and in 2012 the third season was conducted.7

Sandels’ description of the cave (see Fig. 3.5):8

…We were a little disappointed by the way the cave looked because we had imagined we would see it cut into the rock by man. It is a big natural cave, in which few traces of human activity are visible except the small built and plastered cistern at the entrance and a few low terrace walls – the floor level descends towards the inside.

We didn’t find coins or even inscriptions. The remains of everyday objects were remarkable. A small cavity located on the left-hand side of the entrance was used by inhabitants as a kitchen, judging from the cut pieces of bones, ash, a natural chimney and the many pieces of pottery. We found pieces of glass vessels as well as of vessels which were made of fine clay. Further inside stood several half-destroyed bigger vessels, which contained something fermented that looked like pigeon dung, but probably had been something like grape-honey or something similar made out of

2 Sandel 1907. p. 79.3 Aharoni 1958. p. 40. 4 Avigad 1961. pp. 15-18; 1962. pp. 169-183.5 Cohen 2005.6 Cohen 2009.7 Cohen 2013.8 Sandel 1907. p. 82.

20

fruits. These vessels (jars) were not wheel-made but hand-made, they were shaped almost like a ball with a small stand (base), narrow neck and two handles. They have a diameter of approximately 80 centimeters. The shape of these jars is completely different from the big ‘dscherra’ currently in use. At a spot (place), which was located a little bit higher and could have been used as a bedstead, the remains of a mat made out of palm leaves was lying. These remains, as well as pieces of a threefold plaited rope, 5 cm thick, made out of palm leaves and a well made basket of the same material led to the conclusion that the cave was occupied at a time when palm trees still grew in Ein Gedi. According to the remains, pomegranates and pistachios must also have been growing there.

The plaster of the small cistern, with a capacity of only 12 CBM, located at the entrance is still very well preserved. The water came down from above the mountain (plain) to the cistern in a vertical channel, which ran along on the outer side of the rock. The

Fig. 3.1 Plan of the cave (Aharoni 1956. p. 41) Fig. 3.2 Section of the pool (Aharoni 1956. p. 42)

Fig. 3.3 Plan of the cave (Avigad 1962. Fig. 1) Fig. 3.4 Section of the cave (Avigad 1962. Fig. 2)

21

lowest part led to the cistern (2 meters high) and is still preserved. The view from the cave into ‘wadi sder’ with the Dead Sea in the background is really outstanding.

A wounded deer once showed our guide the way to the cave. The guide asked me, whether a man named Rahib Buhera could have lived in the cave. Many are looking for traces of him. I must admit that I don’t know anything about this historical person. From the findings alone it would be very hard to say anything definite about the cave’s inhabitants.

Fig. 3.5 Map and section of the cave (Sandel 1907)

22

4. Excavations MethodsCave Q27 is located in the midst of a very steep mountain 450 m. above the Dead Sea ca. 3 kilometers from Ein Gedi. It is isolated from its surroundings. The only way to reach it involves a climb of more than two hours. It can be reached by one unmarked access route that passes along the northern slopes of the mountain west of the Nahal David (Ein Gedi) Preserve. The pathway to the cave was first marked in the 2002 survey map of the cave conducted by H. Cohen and D. Ben Yosef. The great distance from the camp to the cave demanded special logistics to enable the transportation of equipment, water, food and other necessary items for the project. In the course of every excavation season, hundreds of kilos of earth were removed from the cave. Since the cave is located close to a public nature reserve, the soil was dumped near the entrance of the cave itself. During the excavation season, many stones of varied sizes were exposed, placed aside and at the end of each season used to cover the plastic sheets placed over the excavated area.

Sealing the dig area

At the end of each season photography of the site was undertaken. Archival data sheet of the excavated area was placed in a sealed triple-layer plastic bag placed below a plastic sheet, which was then covered with stones and soil.

Excavation procedures

The Field School at Ein Gedi served as the base camp of the expedition.

From the first season onward, the daily schedule was:5:00 - two hour climb to the cave. 7:30-10:30 - work in the cave.10:30-11:30 - breakfast and rest.11:30-14:30 - work in the cave.14:30-16:00 - one and a half hour’s descent to the camp.18:00-19:00 - Supplementary activities including cleaning ceramics, cataloging the finds, etc.

Excavation inside the cave

The cave is 33 m. long, penetrating the mountain in a general east - west direction. It is dark inside and extremely dusty due, especially, to a large pile of bat guano in area C. Since the excavation took place inside the cave, mainly in Areas B and C, complicated means of lighting and ventilation were required.

23

Area A: The daylight from the entrance was insufficient to enable safe excavation without additional lighting. Inside Area A2, the niche, it was completely dark and artificial light was needed at all time.

Lighting and ventilation equipment used:

a) Generator carried from the camp to the cave at the beginning of the season and taken back at the end.

b) Headlight ‒ every participant in the dig was asked to have one.

c) Big lamp - powered by a rechargeable battery.

d) Ventilation Units – carried from camp and deployed within the cave powered by the generator.

Sifting

Soil was sifted before removal from the cave, in baskets, from the beginning. Finds were placed in a bag tagged with the locus and basket number.

Metal detection

During the excavations, S. Grasiani frequently used a metal detector during the three seasons of excavation and was joined by J. Calabro in the third season.

Photography and video photography

During each season, advanced digital photography equipment was used. This included the work by professional photographers: J. Munro and video photographer, A. Ofir. The photographs were transferred to a computer daily.

Daily general photos of the excavation area were taken at the start of work and end of the day.

Video photography was also used during most of the work in the cave and in the stay in the desert. The purpose was to document the project, its participants and the project’s ‘atmosphere’.

24

5. The ExcavationsGeneral information about the cave and its parts

Cave Q27, generally known as “Pool cave”, after the large cistern found inside, is located in the Judean Desert, Israel, the northern cliffs of Nahal David Spring (coordinates NIG 597898,235590) (Fig. 1.2). South of it is a dry waterfall, situated ca. 150 meters above Nahal David’s dry riverbed (wadi). The spring is perennial; although the cave area is dry most of the year. The access to the cave is hard and dangerous, yet, does not requires any special climbing equipment. Ropes were added to secure the descent of the expedition members only for one season. The cave’s opening is hidden and almost invisible from the wadi, except from several spots on the trail.

Cave Q27 (Figs. 1.3, 1.4) is a natural carstic cave, 34 m. long, with a width fluctuating from approximately 3-6 m. and height from 1.5-5 m. The floor descends towards the inner part of the cave, and the difference between the entrance and the furthest point is approx. 6 meters. The entrance is wide, and the cave narrows towards its end. A number of smaller prolonged carstic niches are connected to the main area, mostly below the current level of the cave floor. Their lengths differ between 2.5 and 3.5 meters, and they are approximately 1 meter wide in the entrance, narrowing towards the end. Initially the cave was artificially divided, by Avigad, into three rooms, which later became excavation areas A, B, and C.

5.1 Area AGeneral description of Area A

This is the area at the cave’s entrance, which we named: ‘first room’. It is the best lit part of the cave, and most of the area does not require artificial light. The surface of the area is not even. Its North-Eastern part is much higher, and the remains of a fieldstone wall are still visible near the cave’s wall. The floor descends towards the inner parts of the cave and tilts slightly in a N-S direction. The ceiling is relatively high enough for excavators to stay upright. On the ceiling, however, about 5.5 meters from the entrance, there is a lower area, which requires attention and necessitates wearing headgear. The mikveh, which gave the cave its name, is located along the northern wall of the area. A small niche, oriented E-W, is located in the southern wall of the cave. A large heap of dark-grey soil, supported by a wall of field stones found in the cave, covers the inner part of the area, and adjoins the southern wall. The modern floor of the cave consists of dusty black-grey soil mixed with a large amount of small and medium sized stones, modern items and ancient artifacts – ceramic sherds, organic material of various sorts and animal dump. The ceiling is blackened both by

25

fire and lichen from ancient and modern times. The natural color of the cave walls and ceiling is yellowish-white, and can be observed just outside the cave. This area was not excavated by the Avigad expedition, which concentrated its efforts around the inner rooms II and III.

Area A consists of the six sub-areas described below:

Area A1 – This is the area in the center of the first room of the cave, bounded by the cave entrance from the east with the remains of an enclosing wall, the mikveh wall from the north, and the artificially drawn line from the edge of the mikveh to the south. The southern boundary is square A5. The area was excavated during the first season and continued into the second. Three squares were excavated in this area. First, an initial sounding right to the south from the mikveh were made (L.11001 -50.3 -51.42 m.bsl, L.11002 -51.02 -51.16 m.bsl L.11003 -51.16 -51.24 m.bsl) No archaeological layers were reached, but a brown soil fill, almost empty of findings, was seen. A square 3x3 m. in size was opened 0.5 m. to the south from this sounding. After cleaning up the modern debris, left by previous excavations and tourists that consisted of blackened soil mixed with debris and organic material, together with stray sherds (L.11005, -50.77 -51.3 m.bsl), a layer of brown soil, mixed with reeds was reached (L.11006, -51.01-51.31 m.bsl). The living layer is tilted in NE-SW direction. Below this layer, a small area 0.8x0.8 m covered by a stone floor was uncovered. The stones were placed at an angle, in the row, and the gaps were filled with brown soil (See Fig. 5.5). The stones were spread out as far as the area, where the first step leading to the mikveh, was placed. The floor was tilted a little, its northern part was higher than its southern section, almost reaching the surface. In order to clarify the stratigraphy, another probing trench was opened 0.5 m to the west, along the western side of the square. After clearing up the surface layer – blackened soil, mixed with modern debris (L.11008, -51.01-51.52 m.bsl) a living layer, made of brown soil mixed with reeds and various finds was reached (L.11009, -51.52-51.59 m.bsl). The excavation ended at this point, leaving L.11009 and L.11006 to the next season.

Area A2 – A sort of niche (c. 1.5×3.0 m.) whose ceiling slopes towards the southwest. It is located in the southern part of the cave, close to the entrance. Sandel entered the cave via this niche – which has two openings: one onto the path leading to the cave and another onto the Area A3 and the cave. They are separated by a large boulder, which apparently fell from the ceiling. Remains of a north–south aligned wall, which sealed the opening of the cave, were discerned east of the niche. The quarrying marks of the niche were still apparent on its eastern and western sides. The floor of the niche sloped from N-E to S-W, from the elevation -50.8-51 m.bsl to -52.17 m.bsl. Scant remains of light calcite material were found between the cracks in the niche’s ceiling. Another boulder, which possibly fell from the ceiling, occupies half of the niche space, almost

26

Fig. 5.1 Area A1 plan (drawing: R. Stidsing) Fig. 5.2 Area A1, at the beginning of the 2012 season

Fig. 5.3 L.11002. The lower outer part of the mikveh, facing north

Fig. 5.4 L.11004. The lower outer part of the mikveh, sterile, soft fill with few stones

Fig. 5.5 L.11006. Stone pavement in the left side of the locus

Fig. 5.6 L.11006. Note piece of red cloth and date kernel inside the living layer

27

dividing it into two separate areas. The boulder covers and is attached to a number of smaller stones inside the niche’s southern wall. It is impossible to remove the stones as long as the boulder is on them. A small tunnel connecting the niche and the main area of the cave (into the Area A4) was found at a depth of approximately -52m.bsl.

Another feature of the area is a small cavity, generally aligned north–south (L.32002; length c. 2.5 m. depth at end of excavation -54.16 m.bsl) located in the lower southeastern part of the niche (elevation of the roof c. -53.0 m.bsl). The cavity was filled with a mixture of yellow colored powdery soil and gravel, 5-7 cm. long, and was devoid of any archaeological finds. The walls of the cavity were covered with an undisturbed layer of calcite incrustation. The excavation in the cavity was halted when it became apparent that the material is geological in nature and clean of any anthropogenic remains.

The niche was excavated as a single entity, once the artificial nature of the fill became clear. The excavation started by removing L.21001 (-50.80-54 m.bsl) – in the western part of the niche. This was a yellow powder-size soil and the gravel material, similar to what was found at the foot of the slopes, bordering the cave. The same material was removed during Season 3 in L.32001 (-51.16-52.8 m.bsl) to the east of the central

Fig. 5.7 L.11008. Note the stone pavement Fig. 5.8 L.11009. Note the living layer with pottery and organic remains

28

boulder. This mixed soil filled the niche from a specific point – the passage into the Area A, which was also used by excavation members to enter the niche. Below the L.21001, a layer, consisting of a large number of flint flakes and yellowish soil was reached at the lowest points of the northern-western part of the niche (L.21003, 54 m.bsl). It was decided to suspend the excavation in the area so as to leave the prehistoric layer as undisturbed as possible. A small probe was dug in the center of the excavated area, but at the depth 54.46 m.bsl a large limestone rock blocked the descent. It is unclear, if the excavation arrived at bedrock, or just a large slab. In the 2012 season, excavations continued in the eastern part of the niche, in L.32001, revealing a similar fill of soil and stones/gravel. As the excavation descended inside the L.32001, the quantity of gravel in the fill increased. Also, a small number of bones, belonging to small mammals, probably rodents, covered with calcite incrustation, were found. Only a few artifacts were found in this material, although virtually every basket that came out of the niche was sifted thoroughly. They included a few ceramics, rims and body sherds, boned and wood/reed organic material, non-burned. A small rectangular piece of white cloth was found at a depth of ca. -52 m. The piece was found near the cave wall, which means it could have fallen between the stones of the fill. However no cracks wide enough were encountered. Below it, sterile fill and niche L.32002 were found, and the excavation was stopped.

Fig. 5.9 Area A2. Top projection plan season of 2006 (drawing: R. Stidsing)

Fig. 5.10 L.32001. First day of 2012 season. Note big boulder in the center of the picture

29

Fig. 5.11 L.21001. Prior to the excavation. Inside the niche

Fig. 5.12 L.21001. Area A2 top projection

Fig. 5.13 L.21003. Looking west Fig. 5.14 L.21001. Prior to the start of the excavation in 2006

Fig. 5.15 L.32001. Area A2 close-up of the filling Fig. 5.16 L.32002. Inside the niche. Note dusty soil fill in the front, and calcite incrustation on the ceiling

30

Fig. 5.17 L.32001. Looking east, while standing on the surface of L.21001

Fig. 5.18 L.32001. Close-up. Note the layers of stones, gravel and soil

Fig. 5.19 Area A2. Top projection, plan at the end of excavations season of 2012 (drawing: R. Stidsing)

31

Area A39 –This is the probe trench extending to the west from the square A1. The dimensions were 1x2 m. Under a thick layer of dark powdery fill mixed with organic material, L.21004 (-51.10 m.bsl) a layer of grayish soil mixed with reeds and straw was uncovered (L.21005, -51.50 m.bsl). An excavation below the fireplace L.21006, found that it was placed on top of bedrock. We could not clearly distinguish the stratigraphy.

Fig. 5.20 L.21006. Fireplace Fig. 5.21 L.21006. Fireplace

Fig. 5.22 L.21004. Fireplace east projection

Area A4 – This area is located in the southwestern part of the entrance to the cave, opposite the mikveh. The purpose of the excavation in this area was to clarify the nature of a dark soil heap (length c. 6, width c. 2.5 m., average height 2.5 m.). The heap adjoined the southern cave wall, and was enclosed from the north by a crude wall, built with fieldstones and several ashlars. The heap was composed of dark soil, burnt material, remains of organic matter whose nature is unclear, and numerous

9 We started digging in this area because of illegal excavations carried out by thieves conducted in the cave between 2003 and 2006. when nobody official was present at the site.

32

archaeological finds, mainly ceramics, bones, olive and date pits, and remnants of textiles and cords.

A square (2×3 m) was opened in a general north–south direction (L.34001) and the excavation reached a maximum depth of 52.3 m.bsl. Remains of basket tags and a newspaper left by the Avigad expedition (1961) were found close to the surface level (50.7 m.bsl) inside the dark soil heap. At a depth of 51.9 m.bsl, a layer (L.34002) was discerned, consisting of a light brown soil mixed with various archeological finds including fragments of pottery vessels and Roman glass, pieces of cloth and cord, animal bones and an iron arrowhead. Numerous flint tools were found lower down to a depth of 52.3 m.bsl. The excavation was suspended at this point to allow prehistory specialists to continue in the future. The tunnel which leads from Area A2 into the main space of the cave was unearthed. At the final depth 52.3 the dimensions of the tunnel allowed a regular sized person to crawl through. The tunnel floor was not reached.

Fig. 5.23 Area A4. Top projection plan (drawing: R. Stidsing)

33

Fig. 5.24 L.34001. The supporting stones of the ‘pile area’ visible on the right side

Fig. 5.25 L.34001. West projection, at the beginning of the 2012 season

Fig. 5.26 L.34001. Note ceiling of the small tunnel connecting areas A4 and A2

Fig. 5.27 L.34002. South projection

Square A5 – A square (2×4 m. initial elevation 50.25–50.74 m.bsl) was opened along the southern part of the room, opposite the mikveh. A small balk of approximately 0.5 m. was left between areas A5 and A4, which adjoin it from the west. The balk was removed later – it consisted of the same material as L.32001. Powdery gray soil on the surface level (L.35001) contained archaeological finds mixed with modern material.

34

At a depth of 50.50 m.bsl (L.35002) a light brown soil layer, with the remains of a straw floor, mixed with a variety of finds including fragments of pottery vessels, pieces of leather, cloth and cord, and animal bones, was discerned. Remains of a leather sandal were found. A layer of darker yellow–brown earth (L.35003) was discerned at a depth of 50.75 m.bsl. The layer tilts toward the inner part of the cave, 50.75-50.85. Numerous straw items and cords, including the handle of a wicker basket next to which were c. 100 date pits, were found in the layer’s upper parts. The excavation reached a depth of 51.16 m.bsl, and a small probe square was excavated in the north-western part of the square. At the depth 51.70 bsl no stones or artifacts were found – although the color of the soil remained the same.


Fig. 5.29 L.35003. West projection Fig. 5.30 L.35003. South projection

Square A6 – A heap of archaeological material mixed with dark burnt organic matter was excavated west of Square A4. It was bounded on the north by large stones, some of which were dressed. These are similar to those found in Square A4. A probe (c. 3×3

35

m.) was excavated along a north–south axis. The surface level and the heap, which sloped from east to west, abutted the wall of the cave from the south. Black–gray powdery soil mixed with organic matter (L.36001; 51.65–52.70 m.bsl) was excavated. At the bottom of the dark soil a number of fragments of ceramic vessels, animal bones, pits, remains of wood, flint and glass were found. The underlying layer of soil was brown–yellow (L.36002) and similar to that discovered in Area A4 and A5. The excavation reached a final depth of 52.85 m.bsl.


Fig. 5.32 L.36001. South-east projection Fig. 5.33 L.36002. Soft yellow filling

5.2 Area BArea B (or Room II) is located further into the cave, c. 9.5 m. from the entrance (Fig. 1.8) Its floor is much lower than that of Area A and is slightly tilted down towards the inner western part of the cave. The excavation started at point -53.16m. This area

36

is much darker, compared to the Area A, especially in the northeastern part, where a protruding section of the wall created a corner, and blocked direct sunlight from the entrance. The surface of the area is covered with large boulders, which had fallen from the ceiling in the period preceding human occupation of the cave - two boulders have distinctive cup marks on their upper surface although it was impossible to date them. The soil between the boulders was dark-grey, mixed with small stones.

The area was excavated as a single unit, without any subdivision, as a square 3x3 m., bordering the northern wall and the aforementioned corner, and later additional “patches” were added from the west and the south to enlarge the excavated area. This area was previously excavated by the Avigad expedition, and they found a large pile of ashes mixed with cooked fruit remains covering the boulders.10 It looks as if they moved the ashes aside, but did not continue to excavate in between the rocks – Avigad does not mention the features, which the current excavation unearthed, including the cup marks on the boulders.

The excavation started in L.12001 (53.16-53.58 m.bsl) – a soil between the large boulders, mixed with small stones. Below it, L.12002 (53.58-53.78 m.bsl), a fill, dark soil with small stones. After moving a number of large stones, a cattle pen with a concentration of bones was uncovered at a depth of 53.73 m.bsl. At that point the excavation spread into the North-West. This part of the area was clear of boulders. A crude wall (W.12004, 53.01-53.58 m.bsl) built of two rows of fieldstones, in a roughly west-east direction was uncovered. The wall enclosed a section between the large and lesser boulders, and the cave wall. In the fill to the north, L.12005 (53.01-53.35 m.bsl) a coin was found. To the south, collapsed stones of the enclosing wall W.12004 created a small terrace, and in the fill (L.12006, 53.58-53.76 m.bsl) under the stones, a number of datable artifacts were found. The excavation ceased at that point.

Fig. 5.34 L.12005. Prior to the excavation Fig. 5.35 L.12006. Fallowing surface cleaning

10 Avigad 1962. p. 172.

37

Fig. 5.36 W.12004. General view west-north projection Fig. 5.37 W.12004. Close-up of the filling

5.3 Area C The area was excavated in the narrow corridor (3 m wide) in the inner part of the cave. Two small niches, 3.5 and 4 m. long, protrude from each wall, northern and southern. They are a natural carstic feature, which was used by rodents as a nest. A carstic chimney rises a few meters just above the northern part of the excavation square. Currently it is inhabited by bats. The excavation square 3x3 m was opened among a number of the large boulders, which had fallen from the ceiling. On the western ¼ of the square, between two boulders sunk into the fill, an opening of the pit was found. Large amounts of small and medium stones were found in the inner part of the cave, probably the refuse from previous excavations of the main room (Area B). The surface fill of the area was the dark brown soil, mixed with a large number of the tree branches (reed and palm trees, which do not grow in the cave’s immediate vicinity) and other organic material, brought to the cave by men or animals. Some of the branches were burnt at the edges as they were used as torches. This soil was mixed with the organic waste of the wild animals (bats, rodents) and many small stones. A large amount of recent material was collected from the surface of the area – cigarette butts, bullet cases from 1955, newspaper pieces and other materials. The surface of the square is tilted slightly from the north (p. -1.2) to the east (p. -2.5) and south (p. -5.0)

The excavation started by removing the floating stones from the surface and descending into the surface layer (L.13001). A thick (ca~ 0.5 m) round fireplace was

38

found at the north-eastern corner of the excavated square, adjoining the northern wall of the cave. The upper part of the fireplace was at the surface, and not covered by any fill or material. Some burnt pottery ceramics, of Early Roman and Chalcolithic Periods, originated in this fireplace. A thick burnt layer (L.13002) was found in the northern part of the square, immediate under the large stone. It consisted of a large amount of ashes, many lime stones and small pink-white stones. The even character of the ash pile and the stones in it resembled “guano burning”. The “guano burning” process is common in the Judean Desert caves, usually done by Bedouins, in order to clear “bad animals” from the area. The material comes from a vertical niche, which is located straight above, and the pile of bats’ dump still covers the area. The burnt layer is 8-15 cm thick, and below it a mixed layer 13001 is continued. Under the surface layer, a layer of fallen materials (large stones and boulders, which had fallen from the ceiling) was uncovered at different heights (L.13003 -34-80). Large stones are mixed within light-brown soil and smaller stones. At some points adjoining the boulders, small patches of the dark-brown material were found down to -1.75. They constitute

Fig. 5.38 L.13001. Prior to the excavation

Fig. 5.39 L.13002. After removing the top layer Fig. 5.40 L.13003. Large stones mixed within light-brown soil and smaller stones

material, which had penetrated from the upper layer, L.13001 via the space between the soil and the boulders. Below the fallen stones a layer of calcitic / salt / gypsum breccias was found at the depth of -1.0 (L.13004). Inside it, some bones were spotted in the same fashion as those from lower parts of the L.21002/32001 in Area A2. The excavation ceased at that point, and did not reach any distinctive living layer.

39

5.4 The Mikveh Ritual BathThe Pool is the feature after which the Q-27 cave was named by Avigad in 1961. The mikveh is located at the cave entrance, and adjoins the northern wall. The mikveh is built in three sections – the closest to the entrance (1.4x0.9 m), the second (1.3x1.3m), separated from the former by small rounded threshold, and the main water holding cistern (2.8x1.1 m). The depths of the sections are 1 meter for the first and second, and 2.5 m. for the third. It was cut into a small natural carstic niche, built on top of the gravel fill ca. 0.3m in thickness, which in turn rested on bedrock. A heavily oxidized iron tool was found in the fill below the mikveh, and few pieces of it were recovered. The walls from the inside and the outside, and the bottom of the mikveh were covered with three layers of exceptionally well-preserved hydraulic plaster of excellent quality, without traces of crushed pottery, and gray in color (See chapter 8.1 and 8.5 this volume). Remains of the stairs are now visible on the southern skirting of the mikveh. During the excavation, in proximity to the mikveh, a small area covered with small stones was found; it adjoined the missing stairs. The mikveh was fed by a small drain, constructed from the same plaster as the mikveh itself, the remains of which are still standing connected to the mikveh’s eastern skirting (Figs. 5.41, 5.43). The drain received the rain-water from atop the cliff, via a number of natural cracks. An experiment was conducted, in which water was poured from atop the cliff via these cracks. As a result, the water flowed down to the entrance of the cave, to the point where the drain was originally placed.

The dating of the mikveh was based both on the parallels found in other caves in the area and in Jerusalem, as well as on stratigraphy. The construction of the mikveh precedes the accumulation of the living layer Str. IIa (see Ch. 6), which covers the traces of the stairs, and the stone floor adjoining it.

Other plastered mikvaot (ritual baths) were found during surveys and excavations of other caves. The examples in the caves are Q40 cave in Nahal Harduf.11 This pool had one section, that was also partly built, partly hewn, with the built part destroyed. The cistern was plastered, in a similar way to the Q27 mikveh.12

Other examples of the plastered mikvaot in the caves were found in the cave in the “Western Compound” in the Nahal Michmas,13 and in Wadi Murabaat 1.14 The gray-colored plaster, with no trace of crushed pottery is common for the mikvaot ritual

11 Aharoni 1962. pp. 17-18, Pl. 5B. 12 Aharoni 1961. p. 18. 13 Patrich 1985. p. 154.14 de Vaux 1961. Fig. 10:5; pl. X.

40

baths of the Second Temple Period. Following the excavation of Area A. Stratum II, we found steps that led to the pool. The complete absence of ceramic sherds in the plaster is in line with the Talmudic ruling regarding ritually unclean pottery.15 We suggest, therefore, that “Avigad’s pool” is a ”Jewish Mikveh”

A pollen study16 of the plaster suggests that it was built in the spring (when the heat is bearable) and was constructed from building materials brought from the Dead Sea Lake area or semi arid environment. Petrographic analysis17 of two specimens from the mikveh plaster shows no signs of man-made substances that were detected in thin sections.

Fig. 5.43 View inside the mikveh from the channel, west projection

Fig. 5.41 The southern edge of the mikveh, with channel still in place, at the right, north west projection (Avigad 1961. Pl. 3.)

Fig. 5.42 The remains of the stairs visible in the center of the picture

15 See: Cohen 2010. Plaster Characteristics at Ancient Jewish Sites Characteristics of the plaster used in mikvaot (Jewish ritual baths) for purification as well as in oil and wine production installations as indicators in identifying Jewish sites from the end of the Second Temple period to the Talmudic Period – Initial research.

16 See part 8.1 Pollen. 17 See part 8.5 Petrographic Examination.

41

Fig. 5.44 Outer part base of the mikveh north projection

Fig. 5.45 Close-up of a stone pavement adjoining the mikveh outer part base

The following passages are descriptions of Q27, by Sandel and Avigad.

Sandel: …The plaster of the small, only 12 cbm containing cistern at the entrance is still very well preserved. The water came down from above the mountain (plain) to the cistern in a vertical channel which ran along on the outer side of the rock and of which the lowest part leading to the cistern with a height of 2 meters is still preserved…18

Avigad: …The most interesting find in the cave was the water Pool near the entrance, which is partly hewn out of the rock and partly constructed; the whole structure is faced with plaster of high quality, which dates to the Roman Period, i.e. to the time of Bar-Kokhba. The total length of the tank is roughly 5 m., and its average width is 1.20 m. Aharoni calculated its capacity at about 12 m3. Rainwater entered the Pool from above, by way of a vertical gully which has been partly preserved; first the water was channeled into a sedimentation tank. If this installation indeed functioned as a water reservoir, it was no mean engineering feat and one which must have required great effort and ingenuity, particularly in view of the location of the cave. The owners of the cave and those who installed the water reservoir were most probably notables of nearby Ein Gedi, who were the leaders of the revolt against the Romans, and made provision in advance for the emergency of a siege and, when the time came, took refuge in the cave…19

The greater part of this reservoir is hewn out of rock and faced with stone and coated with plaster. The rainwater, flowing down into it through a vertical gulley, was first channeled into the sedimentation tank, and from there made its way on down into the main, bath-shaped, reservoir, the front wall of which is entirely built of stone. The lower limit of the plaster on its outer face marks the original level of the floor of the cave next to it.20

18 Sandel 1907. pp. 83-84. 19 Avigad 1961. p. 10. 20 Avigad 1962. p. 170.

42

6. Cave Q27 Stratigraphy and Chronology Prior to the current excavations the stratigraphic picture of the cave was neither clear, nor published properly. During the excavations, conducted by N. Avigad in 1961, Area A was left unexcavated for uncertain reasons,21 and the work was conducted in the inner part of the cave, in areas B and C. The reports published in the IEJ22 are mostly preliminary, and centered on the finds, rather than stratigraphy. They claimed that they managed to distinguish the occupation layer 50cm thick. The recent excavations of 2003-2012 elucidated a stratigraphic picture. Currently, the cave holds four strata, not including the modern surface layer.

SurfaceThe surface or the modern cave floor is a mix of the natural and artificial materials. It consists of blackened powdery soil, which is the result of partial decomposition of the organic materials such as droppings of the wild animals, rodents, bats, mixed with ashes and charcoal. This soil covers the cave floor, together with a large amount the fieldstones of various sizes – from the smallest to the large boulders. Most of them were removed from their original place during the excavations of 1961 and 2003-2012. A number of the artifacts were found on top of the floor – pottery, palm branches, ropes, and glass pieces. The surface did not show any architectural features. A heap of excavated material, which was collected beside the southern cave wall and supported by a small west-east terrace was built during the excavations of 1961. It was decided, that due to the absence of any stratifical features in this heap, to refer to it as a surface, although a number of artifacts were uncovered during the excavation and sifting of the heap.

Loci: 11001, 11002, 11003, 11005, 11008, 13001, 13002, 21002, 21004, 21005, 34001, 35001, 36001

Stratum IBright yellowish powdery soil fills in niche A2. This layer cuts into the preceding living layer, Str. IIa, and the material was brought from outside the cave – it was basically devoid of material remains. Its color is yellowish to white-yellow, similar to the lower prehistoric and geological layers, and to the eolation and gravel formations, which are found under the limestone cliffs along the wadi’s course. We found few pottery sherds inside the fill (L.21001, L.32001).

Loci: 21001, 32001.

21 Avigad 1962. p. 170. 22 Avigad 1961. 1962.

43

Stratum IIThe main occupation stratum of the cave. This stratum is distinguished by the soil’s brown color, which is distinct from the cave’s natural yellowish color. It is divided into three phases.

Phase IIa

Layer of brown soil, mixed with a large amount of grass and reeds, forming a compact layer up to 15 cm thick. This layer was uncovered in Area A, where a previous expedition decided not to excavate. The layer is tilted slightly towards the inner part of the cave, and its northern section is also higher than its southern one, following the natural outline of the cave floor. In Area A1, this layer is laid on top of the small patch of a stone floor, adjoining the mikveh from the south. The layer is absent in niche A2, and the cut is visible near the niche-cave entrance. The layer is filled with organic material: wood, reeds, palm branch mats, and food remains, in addition to a large amount of pottery, glass, bones.

Loci: 11006, 11009, 21006, 35002

Phase IIb

A small patch of stone floor, adjoining the mikveh in the Area A1, from the south. The patch ends at the point where the stairs, which lead into the mikveh, were built.

Loci: 11002, The mikveh 11006

Phase IIc

Brown soil below Phase Ib. This soil is almost empty of any finds and stones. Its color is almost indistinguishable from that of Phase Ib-Ia, except for the absent reed floor. In the layer’s lower part, it is mixed with the underlying yellow soil, and the color changes slightly into yellowish-brown. The thickness of the layer varies: Locus 34002, for example, is 40 cm thick, while others did not exceed 20 cm. It can be assumed, that Avigad’s 50 cm living layer refers to Phases Ib-c, which taken together, create a layer ca. 50 cm thick. This phase is absent in the Area A2.

Loci: 11004, 12005, 12006, 34002, 35003, 36002

Stratum IIIThis is a layer of bright yellowish soil with a large amount of flint flakes from the PPN Period. Its upper part is mixed with soil from Phase Ic. The layer is compressed, and

44

the soil, though powdery, is hard. It was reached inside the niche A2 only, and the excavation did not continue.

Loci: 21003

Stratum IVGeological material, reached in areas C and Area A2. This material is yellowish powdery soil, and a large amount of gravel. Much of this powdery soil, lying undisturbed in a thick layer ca. 30 cm, with a small amount of the gravel underneath was found inside the cavity L.32002. It seems that soil penetrated and deposited into the cavity, while it was closed with gravel from the outside.

Loci: 32002, 13004

The periods in which the cave was in use are listed in the following Table: Note that some of the periods mentioned here are represented by the scattered finds only.

Table 6.1 Stratigraphy

Period Area Loci no. and references PPNA A Stratum III, L.21003 (See Lithic Assemblage

chapter 14 this volume)

Chalcolithic A+B+C Various scattered finds from the surface to the Stratum IIc (See Pottery Assemblage chapter 7 this volume, Avigad 1962. p. 173).

Iron Age A+B+C Various scattered finds from the surface to the Stratum IIc (See Pottery Assemblage chapter 7 this volume, Avigad 1962. pp. 174-175).

Second Temple‒Early Roman Periods

A+B (C) Living layer and the mikveh. Phase IIb, L.11006, 11009, 21006, 35002. Stray sherds in Area C.

Bar Kochba A+B (C) Living layer. Phase IIa, L.11006, 11009, 21006, 35002.Byzantine Period A Two large pithoi in Area A (See Pottery Assemblage

chapter 7 this volume). Stray sherds in Area C.Middle Ages --- Only a number of textile pieces. See 8.2 this

volume.

45

7. Pottery AssemblageHaim Cohen, Alexander Efron, Sir Maurice and Lady Irene Hatter Laboratory, Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa

The ceramic assemblage dating to the Chalcolithic and Iron Ages, was found scattered throughout all the cave areas. The pottery dated to the Second Temple Period-Early Roman Period however, it originated mainly from the excavated areas, and from the stratigrafically dated areas. Plates drawn by: R. Stidsing and S. Ad.

Chalcolithic Period Ceramics Although many indicative sherds originated in Area A, most of the Body sherds belonging to the Chalcolithic Period vessels were found during excavation in Area C. The descriptions of the indicative pottery by types are listed below:

Bowls

Pl. 5:1 – Small V-shape bowl. Handmade, pointed rim, slightly rounded walls.

Pl. 4:1-2 – Two examples of medium sized V-shape bowls. They have pointed rims, straight and everted walls. 4:1 was made on a slow wheel, and has a much more levigated fabric, with medium dark grits. The upper part of its rim and outer wall are painted red. 4:2 is handmade, with coarser ware.

These bowls are characteristic of Late Chalcolithic (Ghassulian) sites. While the rounded walls of the small handmade bowls are more common in the Middle Chalcolithic Period,23 they still appear among the slow-wheel-made V-shaped bowls of the Ghassulian family. The V-shaped bowls are most prominent in Late Chalcolithic sites,24 but among the cave’s assemblage, they do not exceed the percentage of the other types. Due to the small number of the sherds it is difficult to carry out any statistic research.

Whole Mouth Jars

Only two indicative sherds from the Q-27 excavation may be assigned to this type.

Pl. 1:1. - The vessel is handmade, and its fabric is not well levigated, containing large quartz and limestone grits. They differ in size from 3-4 mm to small gravel of 1 cm. It

23 Garfinkel 1999. p. 160.24 Garfinkel 1999. p. 210.

46

has a vertically grooved rim, and its outer part is covered with soot, suggesting usage as a cooking pot.

Pl. 4:3 - Simple pointed rim of the handmade Whole Mouth jar. On the inner part of the rim, there are traces of a strip of brown self-slip. Large chalk grits, 4-5 mm size.

The Whole Mouth Jar usually represents a relatively large group in the pottery assemblages of Chalcolithic Period settlements (See Garfinkel 1999 for an example of the percentage in the Beer-Sheba region). At same time, this pottery type does not appear in the tombs of the discussed period (Jericho III). The vessels are handmade, usually with some amount of white and chalk grits. This type of vessel served as medium / large storage vessels, and sometimes as cooking pots. One such example is the vessel from Pl. 1:1, which is covered with soot, both inside and outside.

Storage Jars

Small, low-neck jars with everted rims (Pl. 1:2-4) – They are handmade, and their rim’s diameter varies between 7-8 and 15-17 cm. Nos. 3 and 4 are blackened from fire on the outer side and probably served as cooking vessels. 1:2 has traces of a red paint band on the rim’s upper part. This type of small jar is common in the Late Chalcolithic Period.

High-neck jars with loop handle (Pl. 1:5-6) – Two sherds from two different vessels of this type were found. The neck of these jars is high, straight and somewhat conical, narrowing toward the rim.25 The described parts are a shoulder-neck connection, with remains of the small loop handles. Storage Jar (1:6) has a triangular handle profile, and the Storage Jar (1:5) is oval. The decoration, traces of red slip, can be seen on the outer part of the vessel. The high-neck jars are common in the Ghassulian Chalcolithic, and do not have a designated place for handles – examples may be found on the shoulders, the widest part of the body, loop, and ledge and pierced likewise.26

Handles, Body sherds, Bases

Pl. 5:2 – A curved body of a closed vessel, probably, of a “small jar with multiple handles”.27 The surface is decorated with painted parallel red bands. The fabric is well levigated, with few large and tiny dark grits. The inner surface is smoothed, suggesting the vessel had a wide opening.

25 Garfinkel 1999. p. 231.26 Garfinkel 1999. p. 233.27 Garfinkel 1999. p. 234, Fig. 142.

47

Pl. 4:4 – A painted body sherd of a small jug. The surface is decorated with intersecting wide painted dark-red bands. The inner surface of the vessel is coarse.

Pl. 1:7 – A horizontal pierced handle of a large vessel, probably storage jar.

Pl. 1:8-11, 5:3 – Flat bases, belonging to different vessel types. Some of them are recognizable: 5:3 is the base of the V-shaped bowl, red-slipped on outer side and smoothed on inner. 1:10 is the base of the red-slipped jug, with inner surface unsmoothed and blackened, either from burning after being broken, or from its content. 1:11 is the base of the small storage jar or Whole Mouth Jar, used as a cooking vessel. The lowest part of the base from both sides is clear of soot, and the fabric color is more reddish than the body part. This particular vessel was probably placed inside the small fireplace. Heavy smoke rising from insufficient combustion “painted” the walls of the vessel black. It is possible that one of the rims (Pl. 1:3-4) and this base belong to the same vessel. The 5:3 base has a distinctive straw mat impression.

Fabric Analysis

The petrographic analysis is yet to be carried out, but even with the naked eye, it is possible to separate the vessels into two main groups, divided by the quality and content of their fabric. The first group consists of jugs and bowls (1:2, 1:5, 1:10, 4:1, 5:2, 5:3) produced from well levigated clay, with some medium and small size dark grits. The bowl was produced on a slow wheel, while the rest are handmade. They are decorated with a red slip and a band of red paint. In general, these vessels are “better looking” than the second group. The second group (1:1, 3-4, 11; 4:2, 3; 5:1) vessels are made from coarser clay, with large numbers of big and small white and quartz grits. A number of unidentified body sherds show an equal volume of the clay and the additives, and in some of them, the grits exceed the volume of the clay.

In general, the reported repertoire is similar to the assemblages from other Late Chalcolithic sites in the vicinity, but two characteristic ceramic types are absent. They are both of domestic usage, used for storage, food preparation and serving. Cornets, the “fossil directeur”, of the Ghassulian culture were not found either in the previous or last excavations. In Ein Gedi28 this type is reported in large numbers, and this is the case for Teleilat Ghassul. In J. Perrot’s excavations, in Umm Qatafa and Umm Qal’ah caves, a similar situation appeared, when cornets were found in one cave, while in the other cave, located nearby, they were totally absent.29 In other caves, on the shores of the Dead Sea cornets were not found, as well (See IEJ, 11, 12, 59, Bar-Adon 1980). The second type of ware absent in the assemblage is the “churn”, which is more common

28 Garfinkel 1999. p. 219. 29 Garfinkel ibid.

48

to the Beer-Sheva region,30 but does appear in some other caves (Like “Cave of the Treasure”, Bar-Adon 1961). The noted difference between the wheel-produced and the handmade ceramics in the cave requires further study using petrography. It is possible that this difference signifies the connections between the small community with local simple pottery making traditions, and a larger production center, which produced more elaborate wares.

Iron Age CeramicsOnly a small number of sherds belonging to the Iron Age were found in the cave. They can be divided into three types – bowls, cooking pots and jugs.

Bowls

Incurved-rim bowls - Two rims of this type were found, with no stratified context. This type is rare, although it does appear in small numbers in some sites with Iron Age II. The whole vessel has an everted rim and a round base, distinguishing them from the later types in the Hellenistic period.

Thickened rim bowls - This is the most common type of medium and large bowl in the Iron Age II. The core of both is gray and the surface red, with white grits. The rim is thickened outward, and the base of the vessel supposed to be flat.31 Bowl 1:14 has horizontal burnish lines inside and outside. Parallels can be found in any Iron Age II site from the Mediterranean shore to the Dead Sea. See as examples Tel Qudadi,32 Jerusalem,33 Lachish34 and Ein Gedi.35

Cooking Pots

Two types of cooking pots were found in the cave.

Pl. 4:5 – This is the common type of closed cooking pot, with a grooved rim and a vertical handle from the rim to the shoulder. The fabric is dark gray core to dark red on surface, with some small grits, and is covered with soot. This type can be found in any Iron Age II site, with great variations among the rim forms.36

30 Perrot 1992. p. 110.31 See complete profile from the cave in Avigad 1962. 32 Tal and Fantalkin 2009. pp. 198-200. 33 Tushingham 1985. Fig. 1:31, 2:1-6. 34 Ussishkin 2004. IV, p. 1793. 35 Aharoni 1956. p. 32, 4:3; Hirschfeld 2007-I. pl. 1:19-3036 See examples in Tushingham 1985. Fig. 4:2-6; Thareani 2011. Pl. 2:1, 14:4.

49

Pl. 5:4. This is the “closed” type of cooking pot, with a high vertical rim, globular body and, usually, one handle. This particular rim has a small grooving on top of the rim, probably a place for a lid. This type is common in the southern regions in Iron Age II.37 Exact parallels to this sherd were not found, although some similar types were found in Jerusalem.38

Jugs/Juglets

Only one rim and two body sherds belonging to this group were found.

Pl. 1:16 - An everted rim of a small juglet or flask. Red fabric, white grits.

Pl. 1:17 – A body sherd of the jug, decorated with parallel black lines, thick and thin. This kind of decoration on a red surface sometimes appears on the vessels of Iron Age II. Examples are reported from Aroer (Thareani 2011, figs. 17:1, 83:2,3, 102:4, 107:5,6), and Jerusalem (Ariel and Shiloh 2000, Fig. 27:12.)

Pl. 4:6 – A body sherd of the juglet. Wheel-made, well-fired, burnished surface, with horizontal burnish lines. No parallels were found.

From the three expeditions only a small number of sherds belonging to the Iron Age II period were reported. The limited number prevents a comparison between Cave Q27 and the other Iron Age II sites, although the types themselves are reported to have been found in nearby Ein Gedi.

Early Roman Period CeramicsBowls

Carinated bowls (Pls. 2:1-4, 4:8). The rim is everted, and the carination of the body creates an S-shaped profile. These bowls are thin, with brown and red-brown fabric. Nos. 1 and 2 have a thin gray core, while the others are coreless. A small amount of white grits was added to the well-levigated and well-fired clay. The bowls lack any decoration. Closest examples were found in Jericho, Ez-Zantur, Ein Gedi,39 and Jerusalem.

Nabataean fine-ware shallow bowls (Pls. 2:5, 2:7-8, 4:7). This is the best-recognized part of the Nabataean ware. The rim is inverted in a sharp angle, and in the case of 4:7 thin dark-red painted lines are applied on the interior. This type is dated to the 1st c. CE.

37 Aharoni M. 1981. p. 191.38 Tushingham 1985. Fig. 8:24.39 Hirschfeld 2007. II. pl. 1:8-9.

50

The body sherds of Nabataean fine ware bowls (Pl. 2:7-8) are decorated in a distinctive pattern of darker red circles with ovals and thin lines, applied on the inner surface. Their fabric is dark-grey, while the surface is red.

Deep bowl with flattened rim (Pl. 2:6). The bowls in the cave are Nabataean, or produced in the Nabataean tradition. Nabataean ceramic was reported from many southern sites, the Negev, the Judean Desert and the Dead Sea. Neutron Activation Analysis shows that the production center of the fine ware was in Petra,40 while coarse ware was produced locally, in Negev centers like Oboda.41 The earliest examples of this ware are of an excellent quality, distinct with bright colors of the painted decoration and fine firing. With time, the quality of the vessels declines, until this ceramic group disappeared completely during the end of the Roman Period.42 These bowls also appear in Jewish settlements in the South (Ein Gedi, Massada, Aroer), as fine tableware. The simple floral and geometric ornaments were not controversial and did not contravene the strict Jewish prohibition of depicting faces.

Cooking Pots

Cooking pots represent a large proportion of the ceramic assemblage in the cave. Out of 51 identified vessels, 15 are cooking pots. They were divided into five groups. All cooking pot types presented here were in use from 1st to the 2nd century CE.

Cooking pot with stepped-grooved rim(Pl. 2:9, 10, 11). The cooking pots of this type have a thin neck, vertical or slightly everted, and the rim has a distinctive sharp “ridge” on the outer side. This type is often dated to the second half of the 1st and first half of the 2nd centuries CE.43

Cooking pot with triangular rim (Pl. 2:12, 13, 14). The cooking pots of this type have thin walls, a straight or slightly everted neck, and a triangular profile of the rim. This type is also dated to the 1st-2nd centuries CE.44

Cooking pot with straight rim (Pl. 2:15). This type is distinguished by thin walls, a straight long neck and simple pointed rim. This type is also dated to the 1st-2nd

centuries CE.45

40 Bedal 2004. p. 24.41 Negev 1986. p. XXI.42 Negev 1986. p. XXI.43 Ben-Ami and Tchekhanovets 2011. pp. 72-73.44 Ben-Ami and Tchekhanovets ibid.45 Hershkovitz 1992. p. 310.

51

Cooking pot with incurved rim (Pl. 2:16). The rim of this type is somewhat similar to the triangular rim CP, but the inner part of the rim is bent outward, and is not straight. 1st-2nd centuries CE.46

Cooking pot with short neck (Pl. 2:17). This type has a short vertical neck and the rim is pointed. 1st-2nd Centuries CE.47

Cooking pot with ledge rim (Pl. 4:9; 2:18, 19). This type of cooking pots has a carinated shoulder, straight neck, and a ledge rim, protruding horizontally. The rim may vary in length. This type is dated to the end of the 1st - first half of the 2nd Century CE.48

Misc. (Pl. 2:20, 21). No. 20 is a closed globular cooking pot with a sloping triangular rim, no. 21 is too small to identify.

Storage Jars

Most of the storage jars found in the cave belong to the “Bag-shaped jar with ridge-neck” type, common during the Early Roman Period.49 We divided them into groups, based on the rim shape. All of them belong to the same period – 1st and the early 2nd Centuries CE.

Infolded rim (Pl. 2:22). Short vertical neck, the rim is thickened in the inner part.

Plain rim (Pls. 2:23, 5:6). High vertical neck, the rim is rounded.

Thickened rim (Pl. 3:1-4). High vertical neck, the rim has a square profile.

Flattened everted rim (Pls. 5:7, 3:5). High neck, the top of the rim is flattened, thickening it a bit. Inside, the rim and neck are covered with a dark-brown slip.

Grooved ledge rim (Pl. 3:6). High neck, the horizontal ledge rim has a small groove on top.

Flaring rim SJ (Pl. 5:10). This type is different from the Ridge-Neck SJ, although it is also dated to the 1st Century CE.50

46 Eshel and Broshi 2003. p. 65, Fig. 4:7. 47 Ben-Ami and Tchekhanovets 2011. p. 73. 48 Kloner and Tepper 1987. p. 357. 49 Ben-Ami and Tchekhanovets 2011. p. 71-72. 50 Pritchard 1958. Pl. 58:5.

52

Jugs and Juglets.

Jugs and juglets with various forms of outwardly everted rims are common in the Early Roman Period.51

Jug with elongated triangular rim (Pl. 3:12). The variations of this type (Pl. 3:16, 17) are common in the 1st century CE.52

Globular juglet with cup rim (Pl. 3:13). Most common type in Herodian sites.53

Jug with outwardly offset rim (Pl. 3:14). Sec. 1st-2nd centuries CE.

Elongated piriform juglet (Pl. 3:17).54

Pl. 3:18-19 - The bases of the jugs. 3:18 – Ring base of ovoid jug. 3:19 is an omphalos base of a globular lagynos or biconical jug, with combed walls. The angle between the base and the wall creates a small groove, in which traces of the dark-blue substance remains. These types of jug with an omphalos base were found in Massada55 and Herodion.56

Pl. 4:11 - The rim and the neck of Nabataean cream-ware jug. The rim is flaring inside, and the neck is combed. This type of jugs is common in the Dead Sea and Negev regions, sometimes called “the water jug”,57 and parallels may be seen in Ein Gedi, Massada and Aroer,58 as well as in Oboda. The distinctive white-yellowish color of this ware is thought to be the result of a salt addition to the regular reddish clay (‘Amr 1992, cited by Vincenz in Herschfeld Y. 2007. p. 292).

The juglets of the types found in the cave, were used for the storage of non-essential goods, such as perfume, oils, balsam (Pl. 3:15, “balsam juglet”). They are common in inhabited sites in the area (Ben-Ami and Tchekhanovets 2011. p. 70; Masada VII pl. 33, Ein Gedi-II pl. 6). In the Dead Sea region, their percentage in the assemblages is high, while in the caves, reshaped into the refuge shelters, their number and diversity are lower (See assemblages in Kloner 1987. p. 350; Porat, Eshel and Frumkin 2007. p. 28, Fig. 8).

51 Hershkovitz 1992. p. 310. 52 Netzer 1981. p. 58.53 Netzer 1981. p. 59.54 Ibid.55 Bar-Natan 2006. Pl. 19:22, 20:41.56 Netzer 1981. pl. 9:5.57 Hershkovitz 1992. p. 314.58 Thareani 2011. pl. 247:1.

53

MiscellaneousPl. 5:8 – An unidentified part of the vessel with part of a handle. The fabric is fine, well levigated and fired, and resembles juglets and storage jars of the Roman Period. The vessel may be the neck of the juglet or a handmade oil lamp. Pl. 3:22 – A stone bowl, made on a lathe-turning, polished, with a small groove under the pointed rim. This is a distinctive vessel for Jewish sites of the Early Roman Period. They were used widely due to the major role that religious purity laws played in daily life. According to the laws, stone vessels do not acquire impurity (Ben-Ami and Tchekhanovets 2011. p. 75).Pl. 3:20 – A shoulder of the cooking pot. The shoulder-neck connection is smooth and the shoulder does not have carination, common for the 2nd century CE cooking pots. Pl. 5:5 - A combed shoulder and the loop handle of the storage jar.

Byzantine Period CeramicsTwo rims of pithoi of different types are presented in Plate 3:7-8.

Pl. 3:7. A rim and a part of the shoulder with combed decoration were found. The fabric is yellowish, with a few quartz grits. The rim is vertical, grooved, with an incised line below it. The combed decoration is very dense, and the recovered part shows the beginning of the combed lines. This type of decoration is common for Byzantine Period pottery, especially around the Dead Sea region.59 Aharoni60 and Avigad61 published a rim and base of the same type (it is possible that these parts even belong to same vessel), and while no exact parallel of the rim was found, the high ring base and the dense combed decoration are common in the Byzantine Period.

Pl. 3:8. A rim of the pithos, produced from unlevigated clay with additions of straw, and badly fired. The fabric color is dark-grey to brown and the surface is dark-brown. This pithos has a folded rim with a thumb decoration that is wheel-made. Its body is handmade, and the base was not found in recent excavations. Avigad62 and Aharoni,63 both, published the second variation of the rim (Avigad 1962. Fig. 5:8; Aharoni 1956.Fig. 14:11) as well as the base (Aharoni 1956. Fig. 14:13). Both of them date it to the Roman Period in general. In the recent excavations in Ein Gedi a number of similar vessels in a stratified context of the Byzantine Period were found.64 An interesting

59 Fiema 2008. p. 287. 60 Aharoni 1956. p. 43, Fig. 14:9-10.61 Avigad 1962. p. 176, Fig. 5:10, 12.62 Avigad 1962. p. 176, Fig. 5:7-8.63 Aharoni 1956. p. 43, Fig. 14:11-13.64 Hirschfeld 2007. p. 250, Pl. 22.

54

parallel can be found in the excavation of the City of David III. Fig. 7:3 – a body sherd of a large storage jar, decorated with a bow thumb-impressed decoration and combed decoration, similar to the 3:7. Thus we date this vessel to the 6th – 7th Century CE.

Quantitative StudyDue to the much larger number of identified vessels of the Early Roman Period, it was possible to do a limited quantitative study. 51 vessels were counted by the rims and bases: 15 cooking pots; 13 jugs and juglets; 12 storage jars; 10 bowls; and 1 unidentified.

cooking pots29%

Jugs and Juglets25%

storage jars24%

bowls20%

unidentified2%

Fig. 7.1 Distribution of Early Roman Period pottery types

Cooking vessels form the majority among the corpus in the cave, while the numbers of the Storage Jars (SJ) and the small container jugs and juglets, are roughly even. With the addition of the pottery published by the previous excavators the picture doesn’t change dramatically. The cooking pots still form the majority (32%) and storage jars, jugs and juglets represent are 25% and 26% respectively. We decided to compare this data to the information gathered from other sites in the Desert Sea region, Jerusalem and Judean Foothills.

In refugee caves in the Judean Foothills no complete statistical study was made. Random counting in three caves reveals that Bug-shaped SJ (Ridge-Neck SJ in our case) are the majority in the corpus.65 One must remember that many of these caves were re-used in later periods. In the “Hazan Mansion” the SJs are 75% of the assemblage, found in the undisturbed system.66

65 Kloner and Tepper 1987. p. 339.66 Ibid. p. 359.

55

From the “Cave of Horror” in Nahal Hever, an assemblage of 29 vessels was published.67

cooking pots28%

Jugs and Juglets41%

storage jars31%

Fig. 7.2 “Cave of Horror” pottery types distribution

“Cave of the Treasure” – no statistical study was made. However, storage jars and cooking pots are mentioned as constituting the majority of the corpus.68 In the Lower City of Jerusalem, a quantitative study shows that storage jars are the dominant type in the assemblage, accounting for approximately 40%. Cooking Pots account for 25%.69

In Massada, the Zealot occupation stratum yielded about 3,700 vessels.70 The distribution is as follows:

cooking pots14%

Jugs18%

storage jars54%

Juglets14%

Fig. 7.3 Zealot occupation strata in Massada pottery types distribution

67 Aharoni 1962. p. 191, 193. 68 Bar-Adon 1971. p. 233.69 Ben-Ami and Tchekhanovetz. 2011. p. 71. 70 Bar-Natan 2006. pp. 385-386.

56

In the Winter Palaces in Jericho,71 in a Ritual Bath complex which is dated to later than 48 CE, the distribution is as follows: Storage jars: 20%, tableware: 38%, Kitchen ware: 25%.

In the Roman Villa the assemblage is as follows:72 Storage jars: 26%, tableware: 36%, Kitchen ware: 32%.

From the examples given here, we can see that where a site was utilized as a refugee shelter, such as Massada, or the Judean Foothills’ caves, the percentage of the storage jars is very high. On the contrary, the living sites give us a higher percentage of cooking vessels, and small tableware (jugs and juglets). The small number of the Storage Jars and the larger number of the Cooking pots in Q27 cave shows us that the cave was not intended to be a shelter, and if used as one, then only for a very limited time.

ConclusionThe ceramic assemblage shows a correlation between the main occupation periods in Ein Gedi and in the cave. With some exceptions, the parallels for the vessels or for the general types may be found in excavations conducted in the Desert Sea area, or cultural centers of the period, such as Teleilat Ghassul, Jerusalem, and Petra. In some cases, such as the Iron Age II cooking pot (Pl. 5:4), or Byzantine pithoi (Pl. 3:7-8) the lack of an exact parallel in surrounding sites or other areas suggests that production was local in the general tradition of the period. Some of the vessels may even come from areas further away, thus no parallels for them were found.

The limited typological repertoire and small number of the vessels of the Chalcolithic and Iron Age II periods, as well as the absence of some of the common types, found in dwelling sites, [as well as the absence of the distinct living strata] suggest that the cave was used as a temporary dwelling or hiding place for a limited period of time. In the Early Roman Period, the cave was used as a living place, mainly in Area A. The large number of cooking pots, a defined living layer in form of the floor made of hay, straw and earth, a relatively small number of storage vessels all suggest that the cave was not especially prepared as a hiding place for a lengthy period. The existence of the cooking vessels with carinated shoulders suggests that it was in use during the Bar Kokhba Revolt in the 2nd century CE. In the Byzantine Period the cave was used for small-scale storage of some of the large storage vessels.

71 Netzer 2001. V, pp. 42-43. 72 Netzer 2001. V, p. 44.

57

Pl. 1 Area A Chalcolithic Period and Iron Age pottery (R. Stidsing 1-6, 9-12; S. Ad 7-8)

Plates and Tables

1

2 3 4

56

7

89

10

11

12

15

16

17

13

14

0 5 cm

58

N. Inventory N. Part Type Description Parallel

1 ND-A4L.34001/4

Rim WMJ Brown-gray fabric, many large light grits, soot on outer side.

Bar-Adon 1980. p. 136, PL. III.2-1; Kenyon 1960. V. Fig. 130:1.

2 ND-A5 L.35001/4

Rim SJ Orange fabric, large white grits, traces of the red paint band on top of rim.

Bar-Adon 1971. p. 143, Fig. 8.

3 ND-A4L.34001/3

Rim SJ Orange fabric, many grits, large and small, white and dark, soot on outer side.

Dothan 1958. p. 33, Fig. 15:5.

4 ND-A3L.21005B.110083

Rim SJ Red-orange fabric, brown inner surface, soothed outer surface, many large and small white and gray grits (30-45% of the material).

Bar-Adon 1971.p. 143, Fig. 9.

5 ND-A4L.34001/5

Shoulder&Handle

Jug Orange fabric, large light grits, red slip on outer side.

Kenyon 1960. I. Fig. 18:12; Neuville 1934. Pl. 43:3.

6 ND-A6L.36001/3

Shoulder&Handle

Jug Yellow-grey fabric inside, light red outside, large dark grits.

Pritchard 1958.Pl. 21:8.

7 ND-A3L.21005

Pierced Handle

Jar Light-brown fabric, white grits.

8 ND-A3L.21006

Base WMJ (?) Dark-brown fabric, black and white grits.

9 ND-A4L.34001/9

Base Jar Orange fabric, many small dark and light grits.

10 ND-A5L.35003B.110083

Base Jug Light-orange fabric, dark-gray inner half of the wall, with lighter core, dark-red slip on surface, some gray and dark-gray grits, few quartz pieces.

Garfinkel 1999. Fig. 140-12.

11 ND-A6L.36002/1

Base Jar Gray to light brown fabric, many white grits.

12 ND-A5L.35001/2

Rim Incurved Rim Bowl

Dark-red fabric, few light grits. Aharoni 1973. Pl. 59:1; Ariel and Shiloh 2000. Fig. 18:20.

59

N. Inventory N. Part Type Description Parallel

13 ND-A6L.36001/2

Rim Incurved Rim Bowl

Red-brown fabric, some dark grits.

Aharoni 1973.Pl. 59:1; Ariel and Shiloh 2000. Fig. 18:20.

14 ND-A1L.11001B.110001/1

Rim Bowl Dark-orange fabric, gray core, some dark grits, many small white grits, few large white grits, horizontal burnish.

Tal and Fantalkin 2009. p. 200, Fig. 9:5.

15 ND-A1L.21004B.110083

Rim Bowl Dark-orange fabric, gray core, some dark grits, many small white grits, few large white grits.

Aharoni 1973.Pl. 72:8.

16 ND-A1L.11001B.110003/1

Rim Juglet Reddish fabric, brown-gray core, many tiny white grits, few large white grits.

Amit 1992. p. 358, Pl. 20:14.

17 ND-A1 L.21003B.110081

BS Jug Reddish fabric on surface, orange in inner part, few medium white and black grits, wheel-made, black parallel lines painted on surface.

Legend:

ND (Nahal David) - Area, Locus, Basket/Item

Types: WMJ Whole Mouth JarSJ Storage JarCP Cooking PotV-SB V - Shaped BowlBS Body Sherd

60

Pl. 2 Area A Early Roman Period pottery: Bowls, cooking pot and jars(R. Stidsing 1,4,7-8, 13, 16-17, 19, 22, 23; S. Ad 2-3, 5-6, 9-12, 14-15, 18, 20-21)

1 2 3

4 5

6

78

910 11

12

15 16 17

18 19 20

2122 23

1314

0 5 cm

61

N. Inventory N. Part Type Description Parallel1 ND-A5

L.35003/2Rim Bowl Red fabric, dark-brown core, no

visible grits.Netzer 2001. III, p. 28, 524, 526; Mazar and Mazar 1989. pl. 1:1.

2 ND-A SurfaceB.110083/8

Rim Bowl Red fabric, thin gray core, tiny white grits, few large white grits.

Netzer 2001. III, p. 28, 524, 526; Mazar and Mazar 1989. pl. 1:1.


Rim Bowl Brown fabric, no visible grits. Netzer 2001. III, p. 28, 524, 526.

4 ND-A3L.32001/5

Rim Bowl Brown fabric, few white grits. Netzer 2001. III, p. 28, 524, 526; Mazar and Mazar 1989. pl. 1:1.

5 ND-A Surface Rim Bowl Brown-red fabric. Herschfeld 2007.p. 418, Pl. 76-9.

6 ND-A1L.21002110026/2

Rim Bowl Red fabric, few dark grits, red slip on outer side.

Bignasca 1996.p. 269, 846.

7 ND-A1L.11005 B.110015/15

BS Nabataean Bowl

Reddish fabric, dark-gray core, dark red lines and dots decoration.

Hershkovitz 1992. p. 314, Pl. 9:7; Herschfeld 2007.p. 310, Pl. 1:24.

8 ND-A1L.11005 B.110013/17

BS Nabataean Bowl

Reddish fabric, dark-gray core, dark red lines and dots decoration.

Hershkovitz 1992. p. 314, Pl. 9:7; Herschfeld 2007.p. 310, Pl. 1:24.

9 ND-A3L.21005

Rim CP Brown-reddish fabric. Aharoni 1973.Pl. 76:8.


Rim CP Red fabric (inner layer gray) no visible grits.

Porat, Eshel and Frumkin 2009. p. 28, Pl. 8:8.

11 ND-A1L.11006B.110026/1

Rim CP Red fabric, no visible grits. Pritchard 1958. Pl. 58:20; Netzer 2001. V, 1.9: 686.

12 ND-A Surface110083/4

Rim CP Reddish-brown fabric, lighter core, small white grits.

Porat, Eshel and Frumkin 2009.p. 28, Pl. 8:9.

62

N. Inventory N. Part Type Description Parallel13 ND-A5

L.35003/1Rim CP Dark-brown fabric, no visible

grits.Porat, Eshel and Frumkin 2009. p. 28, Pl. 8:9.

14 ND-A1L.11001B.110001/2

Rim CP Dark red fabric, dark-gray core, few white grits.

Eshel and Brosji 2003. p. 65, Pl. 4:16.

15 ND-A1L.11003B.110009/2

Rim CP Red fabric, brown core, tiny white grits.

Hershkovitz 1992. p. 311, 4:10.

16 ND-A2L.32001/2

Rim & handle

CP Brown fabric, no visible grits, heavy soot.

Eshel and Brosji 2003. p. 65, Fig. 4:7.

17 ND-A5L.35002/5

Rim CP Red surface, dark-gray core, no visible grits.

Ben-Ami and Tchekhanovets 2011. p. 68, Fig. 7:14.

18 ND-A1L.21006

Rim CP Brown-reddish fabric. Herschfeld 2007.p. 449, Pl. 6:80.

19 ND-A5 L.35001/1

Rim CP Dark red fabric, few white grits, soot on outer side.

Kloner and Tepper 1987. Fig. 5:10.

20 ND-A1L.21001

Rim CP Yellowish fabric. Pritchard 1958. Pl. 59:3; Netzer 2001. V, Pl. 1.5:623.

21 ND-A3L.21006

Rim CP Brown-reddish fabric. Herschfeld 2007.p. 449, Pl. 6:76; Negev 1986.p. 103, 74.

22 ND-A1L.11003B.110009/1

Rim Jar Red fabric, gray core, white grits.

Netzer 1981.pl. 2:11.

23 ND-A1L.11003B.110009/4

Rim Jar Brown fabric, few tiny dark grits, darker brown surface.

Ben-Ami and Tchekhanovets 2011. p. 72,Fig. 9:10.

63

Pl. 3 Area A Early Roman and Byzantine Periods pottery: Jars, jugs, juglets, pithoi, misc.(R. Stidsing 2, 7-8, 10-12, 19-20, 22; S. Ad 1, 3-6, 9, 13-18, 21)

1 2 3

4 56

7

8

910 11 12

15 16 17

18 19

2021 22

13

14

0 5 cm

64

N. Inventory N. Part Type Description Parallel1 ND-A Surface

110083/7Rim Jar Orange fabric, few dark grits. Avigad 1962.

p. 178, Fig. 5:3. 2 ND-A1

L.11001B.110081/2+3

Rim Jar Brown fabric, gray core, few small white grits.

Netzer 1981.Pl. 3:14.


Rim Jar Brown fabric, dark-gray core, some medium white grits.

Kloner and Tepper 1987. Fig. 1:7.


Rim Jug Reddish-brown fabric, lighter core, small white grits.

Herschfeld 2007. pl. 5:20, p. 447,Pl. 4:49.

5 ND-A1L.11009B.110025/1

Rim Jug Thin reddish fabric, thick gray core, some white grits, dark-red slip on inner side.

Nadelman 1992. p. 221, Pl. 5:15; Aharoni 1956.p. 43, Fig. 14:7.

6 ND-A Surface Rim Jar Dark-brown fabric. Netzer 1981.pl. 3:20.

7 ND-A5L.35002/3

Rim Pithos Yellow-gray fabric, no visible grits.

Aharoni 1956. p. 43, Fig. 14:9; Kaplan 1963.p. 176, Fig. 5:10.

8 ND-A5L.35001/5

Rim Pithos Brown porous fabric, white grits, soot.

Aharoni 1956. p. 43, Fig. 14:12; Kaplan 1963. p. 176, Fig. 5:7; Herschfeld 2007. Pl. 22:2, 4, 6.

9 ND-A3L.21006

Rim Jar Orange-white fabric. Parallel was not found.

10 ND-A2L.32001/1

Rim Jug Orange fabric, few dark grits. Porat, Eshel and Frumkin 2009.p. 28, Pl. 8:10.

11 ND-A6L.36001/1

Rim Juglet Light-brown fabric, few white grits.

Parallel was not found.

12 ND-A Surface Rim Juglet Bright-gray fabric. Netzer 1981.Pl. 1:14.

13 ND-A3L.21006

Rim Juglet Light-brown fabric. Netzer 1981.Pl. 4:24.

14 ND-A Surface Rim Juglet Light-yellowish fabric. Herschfeld 2007.p. 446, Pl. 3:41.

65

N. Inventory N. Part Type Description Parallel15 ND-A Surface

B.110083/2Rim Juglet Yellow-gray fabric, no visible

grits.Nahman 2000-2012. III, Pl. 4.4:8.

16 ND-A3L.21006

Rim Juglet Light-brown fabric. Schmid 2000. 341.

17 ND-A3L.21006

Rim Juglet Light-brown fabric. Netzer 1981. Pl. 4:27.

18 ND-A Surface Base Jug Brown-reddish fabric. Negev 1986. p. 104, n.886.

19 ND-A5L.35001/3

Base Jug Orange fabric, lighter core, few dark grits. Traces of dark blue colored liquid in the depression.

Bar-Natan 2006. Pl. 19:22, Pl. 20:41.

20 ND-A2L.32001/3

Shoulder and neck

CP Brown fabric, no visible grits, heavy soot on surface.

Netzer 1981.Pl. 5:8.

21 ND-A3L.21006

Rim Jug Light brown fabric. Negev 1986.p. 103, 875.

22 ND-A1L.11005 B.110025/2

Rim Stone Bowl

Limestone polished bowl. Netzer 1981.Pl. 11:8; Kloner and Tepper 1987. Fig. 4:1.

66

Pl. 4 Area B pottery (R. Stidsing 3-4; S. Ad 1-2, 5-11)

1

2

3

4 5 6

7

8

9

10 110 5 cm

67

N. Inventory N. Part Type Description Parallel1 ND-B

L.12002B.120004/1

Rim V-SB Reddish fabric, many grits of various sizes (up to tiny stones), wide red band on the upper and the outer side of the rim, traces of soot.

Lovell 2001.Fig. 4.31-3.

2 ND-BL.12001B.120007/1

Rim V-SB Gray/orange fabric (gray on outer side, orange on inner), many large bright grits (quartz), traces of dark-red slip on top of rim, soot on outside.

Lovell 2001.Fig. 4.31-1.

3 ND-BL.12001B.120001/1

Rim WMJ Gray fabric, many large and medium white grits (chalk) few small black grits.

Lee 1973.Fig. R-V, 6288 B9/E; McNicoll 1992-2. Pl. 14:2.

4 ND-BL.12001B.120007

BS Jug Light-orange fabric, some bright grits, red paint on surface (straight angle).

Lee 1973. Fig. D-VIII, 6999, A7/D

5 ND-BL.12001B.120007/2

Rim CP Brown to dark red fabric, gray core, small grits, traces of soot on outer side.

Dothan 1971.Fig. 40:11.

6 ND-BL.12001B.120007/13

BS Jug Gray-brown fabric, few small grits, wheel burnished on outer side, traces of darker lines on burnish.

Parallel was not found.

7 ND-BL.12002B.1200003/2

Rim Nabataean Bowl

Gray-brown fabric, few tiny white grits, dark-red lines painted on inside.

Hershkovitz 1992. p. 314, Pl. 9:7.

8 ND-BL.12002B.120003/1

Rim Bowl Brown fabric, few dark grits, few large white grits (limestone).

Netzer 2001. III pl. 28:525; Schmid 2000. 167-169.

9 ND-BL.12005B.120009

Rim CP Red fabric, few light grits, trace of soot on outer side.

Netzer 1981.Pl. 1:10.

10 ND-BL.12002B.120002/1

Rim Jar Light-brown fabric, few tiny grits. Pritchard 1958. Pl. 58:5.

11 ND-BL.12006B.120001/2

Rim Jug Yellow-gray fabric, few tiny light grits. Brown-grey paint (???) on outer side.

Herschfeld 2007. p. 293, Fig. 117; Pl. 75:1-3.

68

Pl. 5 Area C pottery (R. Stidsing 2, 5-6, 8; S. Ad 1, 3-4, 7)

12

3

4

5

6

7

8

0 5 cm

69

N. Inventory N. Part Type Description Parallel1 ND-C

L.13001 B.130003/1

Rim V-SB Reddish surface, bright-orange core, some small dark grits.

Lee 1973. Fig. R-IV, 6286 B7/E; Garfinkel 1999. p. 162, Fig. 95:2; Neuville and Mallon 1934. p. 96, pl. 41, 42:1.

2 ND-CL.13001 B.130007/3

BS Jug Light orange fabric, dark grits, three painted parallel red lines.

Dothan 1958. p. 33, Fig. 15:12.

3 ND-CL.13001B.130009/3

Base Bowl Brown fabric, large dark grits, red slip outside.

Ein Gedi-I,Fig. 2.8-15.

4 ND-CL.13001B.130009/1

Rim CP Brown fabric, gray core, many large light grits, traces of soot on outer side.

Aharoni 1981.p. 195, pl. 7:4; Aharoni 1956. p. 32, 4:10; Tushingham 1985. Fig. 8:24.

5 ND-CL.13001B.130009/5

Shoulder SJ Red fabric, dark-gray core, gray-brown surface, small white grits.

Netzer 1981. Pl. 3:11.

6 ND-CL.13002B.130004/1

Rim SJ Dark-brown/red fabric, few quartz grits.

Ben-Ami and Tchekhanovets 2011. p. 72, Fig. 9:10.

7 ND-CL.13001B.130001/2

Rim SJ Gray-brown fabric, thin darker core, many small white grits, whitish surface.

Nadelman 1992.p. 221, Pl. 5:15; Aharoni 1956.p. 43, Fig. 14:7.

8 ND-C SurfaceB.1300081/1

Neck and Handle (?)

? Cream fabric, few tiny dark and white grits.

No Parallel was found.

70

8. Supplemental Reports: FindsFinds, which required additional processing and study by the specialists, were sent to the relevant researchers. The figures are numbered separately for each report. The reports included bones, flint tools, pollen, textiles, and petrographic research of the mikveh’s plaster. Other finds were processed by the excavation team, and short reports are presented here. We would like to thank all the respective relevant researchers, who gave their time and experience to complete this part of the report. Unfortunately, some of the reports were not completed in time for publication, owing to financial circumstances. We will add them later as an addendum. This includes the petrographic research of the Chalcolithic pottery, wood and botanic remains from Stratum II, and the enigmatic organic material, which was found, scattered across the cave, in various strata (With an exception for Area A2).

71

9. Palynological Investigation, Nahal David, Cave Q27Dafna Langgut, The Laboratory of Archaeobotany and Ancient Environments, The Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University

Samples from the mikveh (cistern) and from the interior cave walls and ceiling coating, taken from Nahal David the Cave Q27 in 2003, were palynologically analysed in order to shed more light on the period when the mikveh was established as well as when and how the coating on the upper cave walls and ceiling was created.

Methods

Field sampling

Two samples were collected on October 2003 during the excavation, one from each context:

1) Plaster sample from the interior wall of the mikveh. The mikveh was covered by several plaster layers; for palynological investigation only the outer layer was sampled.

2) A sample of the coating of the upper interior cave walls and ceiling, a relatively soft white material.

Laboratory analysis

For pollen extraction, a tablet of Lycopodium (containing 10,679 spores in average) was first added to each sample in order to calculate pollen concentration (Bryant and Holloway 1983; Faegri and Iversen 1989). Subsequently the samples were treated with HCl to remove the carbonates, and then a density separation was carried out in a ZnCl2 solution with a specific gravity of 1.9, together with sieving in order to extract an organic residue. Next, samples were subjected to an acetolysis process in order to dissolves cellulose, chitin and other materials (thereby concentrating the pollen). Then, residues were stained with safranin, homogenized and mounted onto microscopic slides using silicone oil.

Pollen identification

A light microscope, with magnifications of 200X, 400X and 1,000x (immersion oil) was used for identifying and counting the pollen grains. The comparative reference collection of the Palynological Laboratory of the Zinman Institute of Archaeology,

72

University of Haifa as well as regional pollen atlas (Reille 1995; Reille 1998; Reille 1999) were used to identify the pollen to the highest possible systematic level (family, genus and where possible, to the species level).

Following extraction, the pollen grains were identified, counted and their relative ratios were calculated (Table 9.1). Percentages of the various pollen types are arranged in two groups: Arboreal Pollen (AP) and Non Arboreal Pollen (NAP). The total number of pollen counted in each sample, unidentified palynomorphs, fungus, Lycopodium spores, as well as pollen concentrations are given at the bottom of the column.

Results and Discussion

The mikveh (Sample 1)

The sample included 312 well-preserved pollen grains. The good state of preservation may explain the relatively high palynomorphs concentrations - 5,794.2 (per gram sediment) and the relatively large variety of pollen taxa, which were identified. The spectrum is composed of 17.3% of arboreal pollen, with the dominance of Pinus halepensis (9.0%), and Olea europaeae (3.8%), both typical of the Mediterranean maquis/forest occupying the nearby Judean Mountains (Zohary 1973). According to Baruch (1993), Pinus proved to be highly over-represented in the pollen rain of the Dead Sea area, as well as in other regions (e.g., Faegri and Iversen 1989). P. halepensis is the only naturally occurring pine species in the land of Israel (Weinstein-Evron and Lev-Yadun 2000). The Olea pollen could have been derived from olive plantations in the eastern slopes of the Judean Mountains, as was previously identified by palynological studies from this area (Baruch 1993; Neumann et al. 2007; Neumann et al. 2010; Litt et al. 2012; Langgut et al. 2013; Langgut et al. 2014). Other taxa within the AP group are the two oak types (evergreen type and deciduous type) and the Pistacia, which are all typical members of the Mediterranean maquis/forest. Salix, which usually inhabits banks of permanent and intermittent streams also presents in the arboreal group. The NAP group is dominanted by Poaceac pollen (24.0%) as well as by elements which characteriz the semi-arid and the arid environment such as Chenopodiaceae (13.8%) and Artemisia (5.8%). Sarcopoterium spinosum appears in relatively high percentages (9.0%); this might suggest the period when the mikveh was build since this spiny shrub is palynologicaly classified in our region as a secondary anthropogenic indicator. Its appearance in pronounced values is mainly as a result of overgrazing (Baruch 1986; Baruch 1993). The dramatic increase in S. spinosum pollen frequencies in the Southern Levant is dated to the Early Roman Period and reflects the intensification of human pressure on vegetation, and especially overgrazing as mentioned above.

73

The most surprising find within this pollen assemblage is the Myrtle which is the only member of the Myrtaceae family that grows naturally in Israel, predominantly in the north (Zohary 1973). While most of the identified pollen grains within this spectrum belong to wind pollinated plants and therefore have relatively high pollen dispersal efficiency (e.g., Baruch 1993), the Myrtle is insect pollinated and hence its pollen does not spread to great distances. It is therefore suggested that the Myrtle pollen within the plaster could have been retrieved from the plaster’s outer pores and tiny cracks, rather than from the plaster material as was identified by previous studies (Weinstein-Evron and Chaim 1999; Schoenwetter and Geyer 2000; Langgut et al. 2013), which showed that pollen grain can penetrate to a plaster layer during the drying process or via the water which is used to mix the plaster; however an extraction of sediments from the plaster’s pores and tiny cracks was not conducted in this study, and therefore the exact source of the Myrtle pollen can not be verified. Because of the appealing odor characteristic of the myrtle, it is suggested here that this plant may have been used as part of the ritual immersion in the mikveh.

The wall and ceiling coating (Sample 2)

This sample is characterized by low pollen state of preservation in comparison to the pollen assemblage retrieved from the mikveh. Therefore relatively low pollen concentrations were calculated (15.5 per gram sediment) with high percentages of unidentified pollen (22.6%), and relatively low taxa diversity (only eight pollen taxa were identified). According to a previous study (Bryant et al. 1994), a statistical correlation exists between low pollen concentrations and high percentages of unidentified pollen, pointing to progressive deterioration of palynomorphs. Consequently, pollen deterioration in this sample seems moderate. Only 53 pollen grains were retrieved; the arboreal group is dominated by the over-represented Pinus halepensis (18.8%) and by the deciduous oak pollen type (15.1%). The non arboreal group is characterized by high frequencies of Poaceae (11.3%) and Chenopodiaceae (39.6%). Pollen grains of Olea and Sarcopoterium spinosum are totally absent from this sample.

Pollen penetration mechanism

It seems that pollen grains had penetrated to the mikveh’s plaster via the material that was used during its preparation. The mikveh is located in the vicinity of the opening of the cave; the latter is facing the eastern side where almost no vegetation exists, and the few plants, which do grow there, are not members of the Mediterranean vegetation (e.g., oaks, pines, terebinths, olives). Therefore the pollen could not have been trapped while the plaster was drying. It is suggested that the pollen penetrated the plaster via the water that was used to mix it. In that case, the water was probably taken from a nearby pond / spring / water reservoir, where pollen could have easily

74

accumulated (in the same way that pollen is deposited and well preserved in the Dead Sea; e.g., Baruch 1993; Litt et al. 2012; Langgut et al. 2014).

It is also suggested here that the pollen penetrated the upper wall and ceiling soft white coating via water that percolated above the cave and penetrated the dolomite rocks on top of the cave, all the way to the cave’s ceiling and upper walls. The total absence of Olea may point to the possibility that the coating was created before olive cultivation in the region (Chalcolithic Period), and definitely before the Roman Period due to the lack of Sarcopoterium spinosum pollen. This may also indicate that the coating was natural (rather than man-made), and is corroborated by the sedimentological evidence (Alexander Tsatskin, personal communication, 2004).

Table 9.1 Cave Q27 palynological investigation

Sample ID and its contextSample no. 1, field ID: COP2003 pollen #1, mikveh, plaster

Sample no. 2, field ID: COP2003 pollen #2, white coating

Taxon Absolute numbers

% Absolute numbers

%

Quercus calliprinos type evergreen oak 6 1.9 2 3.8Quercus ithaburensis type deciduas oak 2 0.6 8 15.1Pistacia spp. terebinth 2 0.6Pinus halepensis Aleppo pine 28 9.0 10 18.8Olea europaeae olive 12 3.8Salix sp. willow 4 1.3 1 1.9TOTAL AP 54 17.3 21 39.6Poaceae grasses 75 24.0 6 11.3Artemisia sp. wormwood 18 5.8Cheno/Ams Goosefoot/Amaranth 43 13.8 21 39.6Asteraceae ast. sunflower 22 7.1Asteraceae cich. sunflower 8 2.6 1 1.9Centaurea sp. knapweed 12 3.8 4 7.5Gundelia type gundelia 4 1.3Fabaceae legume 35 11.2Plantago lanceolata type ribwort plantain 10 3.2Sarcopoterium spinosum Sarcopoterium 28 9.0Myrtus communis myrtle 3 1.0TOTAL NAP 258 82.7 36 60.3AP+NAP 312 100.0 57 100Fungus 9Unidentified 4 1.2 12 17.4Lycopodium 1084 15Weight (g) 31.7 40.0Total counted 325 63Pollen Concentration (g/sediment-1)

5,794.2 15.5

75

Reference

Baruch U. 1986. The late Holocene vegetational history of Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee), Israel. Paleorient 12(2):37-48.

Baruch U. 1993. The Palynology of Late Quaternary Sediments of the Dead Sea. Jerusalem, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Hebrew).

Bryant V. M., and Holloway B. A. 1983. The Role of Palynology in Archaeology. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 6:191-224.

Bryant V. M., Holloway R. G., Jones J. G., and Carlson D. L. 1994. Pollen preservation in alkaline soils of the American Southwest. In: Traverse A, editor. Sedimentation of Organic Particles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p 47-58.

Faegri K., and Iversen J. 1989. Textbook of Pollen Analysis (4th edn by Faegri K., Kaland P. E., and Krzywinski K.). Wiley, New York.

Langgut D., Gadot Y., Porat N., and Lipschits O. 2013. Fossil pollen reveals the secrets of the Royal Persian Garden at Ramat Rahel, Jerusalem. Palynology 37:29-115.

Langgut D., Neumann F. H., Stein M., Wagner A., Kagan E. J., Boaretto E., and Finkelstein I. 2014. Dead Sea Pollen Record and History of Human Activity in the Judean Highlands (Israel) from the Intermediate Bronze into the Iron Ages (~2500-500 BCE). Palynology 38(2):1-23.

Litt T., Ohlwein C., Neumann F. H., Hense A., and Stein M. 2012. Holocene climate variability in the Levant from the Dead Sea pollen record. Quaternary Science Reviews 49:95-105.

Neumann F., Kagan E., Leroy S., and Baruch U. 2010. Vegetation history and climate fluctuations on a transect along the Dead Sea west shore and their impact on past societies over the last 3500 years. Journal of Arid Environments 74(7): 64-756.

Neumann F. H., Kagan E. J., Schwab M. J., and Stein M. 2007. Palynology, sedimentology and palaeoecology of the late Holocene Dead Sea. Quaternary Science Reviews 26(11):98-1476.

Reille M. 1995. Pollen et Spores d’Europe et d’Afrique du Nord. supplément 1. Marseille.

Reille M. 1998. Pollen et Spores d’Europe et d’Afrique du Nord. Marseille: Laboratoire de Botanique Historique et Palynologie.

Reille M. 1999. Pollen et Spores d’Europe et d’Afrique du Nord. Marseille: Laboratoire de Botanique Historique et Palynologie.

Schoenwetter J., and Geyer P. S. 2000. Implications of Archaeological Palynology at Bethsaida, Israel. Journal of Field Archaeology 27:63-73.

Weinstein-Evron M., and Chaim S. 1999. Palynological investigation in Sumaqa: 1995-1996. In: Dar S. (ed.), A Roman and Byzantine Jewish Village on Mount Carmel, Israel: Oxford. 8-365.

76

Weinstein-Evron M., and Lev-Yadun S. 2000. Palaeoecology of Pinus halepensis in Israel in the light of palaeoecological and archeobotanical data. Ecology, Biogeography, and Management of Pinus halepensis and P. brutia Forest Ecosystems in the Mediterranean Basin. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden: 30-119.

Zohary M. 1973. Geobotanical Foundations of the Middle East. Stuttgart: G. Fischer.

77

10. Textiles, Basketry and Cordage from Cave Q27Orit Shamir, Israel Antiquities Authority Introduction

The organic materials presented below were discovered during excavations conducted in 2003 at the Mikveh Cave in Nahal David on behalf of Haifa University under the direction of H. Cohen.

The cave was excavated before by Avigad (1962. p. 178) and Bar-Adon who mentioned organic materials briefly in preliminary reports but most of the artifacts never reached the Israel National Collections.

Preserved by the arid climate, the perishables include textiles, basketry and cordage fragments from different periods. The artifacts presented below are from the Chalcolithic, Roman and Medieval period mixed together. In addition, recent finds also exist.

Textiles

Twenty nine textile fragments were studied and registered. The textiles are listed here by period and then by type of fiber: wool and linen. They were found in a dirty and crumpled condition (Table 10.1, Fig. 10.1). None of the pieces was complete. Edges and sewing were not preserved.

Chalcolithic Period

Five textiles were found from the Chalcolithic Period (Figs. 10.2, 10.3). Generally their state of preservation is relatively good; most of them were not worn, or even damaged by insects. It seems that the original cloths were not used much.

Material, Spinning and Weaving - All the textiles are made of undyed linen. Their present color is cream. The threads are S spun, sometimes plied in a final S twist for better cohesion. In some textiles the threads are very fine and delicate, in others they are crude. A few pieces have threads of varied thickness in the same cloth.

The weave is tabby characterized by slightly more warp threads than weft threads per cm (tpc). The density of the warps ranges from 11 to 14 threads per cm and to wefts with a density of 8 to 11 threads per cm.

The spinning tightness is medium. In contrast to later periods there are usually no differences in spinning characteristics between the warp and the weft. The weave ranges in density from medium to dense, the majority being of high density.

78

Table 10.1 Textiles, cordage from Cave Q27

Locus Basket IAA No. Exca-vator No.

Material Con-dition

Size (cm) Spinning direction

Spinning tightness

Threads per cm

Weaving tech.

Dencity Colour Decora-tion

Other fragments

Period Comments

WA WE WA WE WR WE WA WE WR WE11006 110006 2004-9013 55 W M 1.5 1 S S T L 11 11 T D UC UC R Warp threads are thinner than

weft threads.11006 110006 2004-9014 91 L M 2.7 2.3 S S M M 14 11 T M UC UC R 11006 110016 2004-9019 84 W G 10.5 6.5 S S OT L 14 9 T D R R R Crepe appearance.12001 120001 2004-9009 4 L M 1.6 1.2 S2S, S S2S, S M M 12 11 T D UC UC 2.5 x 1.3 C 12001 120006 2004-9001 58 W P 2.5 3 S S T L 7 20 WE.F D R R R 12002 120003 579846 55 L P 5.2 2 S2S, S S2S, S M M 11 8 T D UC UC 3.4 x 1.3 C 12002 120003 2004-9016 55 L G 2.5 1.8 S2S, S S2S, S M M 13 11 T D UC UC 2 x 1.2 C 12002 120003 2004-9017 55 L P 8 1.5 S2S, S S2S, S M M - - T M UC UC C 12004 120000 579924 41 L G 3.2 2.5 S S T M 13 11 T D UC UC R 12005 120011 580042 95 W M 3.2 2 S S T L 9 20 WE.F D UC UC B* R *Black, Z-spun, width 0.7 cm,

warp threads grouped at the band. Black band.

12005 120011 580041 95 W (warp), G (weft)

M 3 3.5 S2Z Z T L 3 8 WE.F D UC Pig.B R

12005 120011 580043 95 W P 1.1 2 S S T L + + WE.F D R R R 12005 120011 580044 95 W M 2 1 S S T L 9 20 WE.F D UC UC R 12006 120012 2004-9010 38 L M 2.5 1.9 SS SS M M 4x2 5x2 EX.T D UC UC R 13001 130002 579922 105 L? M 6.5 9 S S M M 15 11 T D UC UC M? 13001 130002 2004-9018 33 W M 5.2 3 S S M M 10 9 T D UC UC 4.2 x 1.1 R Warp threads are thinner than

weft threads. Weaving faults.13001 130003 579826 28 L M 2 1 S S M M 11 11 BAL D UC UC R 13001 130003 579923 21 W G 2.2 1.2 S S T M 11 19 T D UC UC R 13001 130003 2004-9011 28 L M 2 1.8 SS SS M M 4x2 3.5x2 EX.T D UC UC R 13001 130003 2004-9012 28 L M 3.5 1.2 S S M M 11 11 BAL D UC UC R 13003 130011 2004-9000 50 W M 4 4 S S T L - - T D UC UC B* R *Only the band was preserved

and two weft threads. Warp threads grouped at the band. Black band.

Surface 579821 108 W P 4 1.1 S S T L - - - - UBEIGE UBEIGE R Surface 579941 75 L M 1.8 1.8 S2S, S S2S, S M M 14 9 T D UC UC C Surface 2004-9002 92 L G 1.5 1.3 SS SS M M 10 8x2 EX.T D UC UC R Surface 2004-9003 74 L M 2 1.3 S S T M 12 11 T D UBEIGE UBEIGE M? Warp threads thinner than

weft. Mate. Surface 2004-9004 74 L G 4 2.5 S S M M 17 15 T M UBEIGE UBEIGE M? Warp threads thinner than

weft. Surface 2004-9005 74 W G 3 2 S S M M 9 8 BAL D ULY ULY R Surface 2004-9006 108 L G 4.5 4.3 S S M M 13 13 BAL D UBEIGE UBEIGE 2.3 x 2, 1.6

x 1.1R

Surface 2004-9007 108 L M 5.5 4.5 S S M M 17 7 WA.F D UBEIGE UBEIGE R Knotted at the edge.

79

Table 10.1 Textiles, cordage from Cave Q27

Locus Basket IAA No. Exca-vator No.

Material Con-dition

Size (cm) Spinning direction

Spinning tightness

Threads per cm

Weaving tech.

Dencity Colour Decora-tion

Other fragments

Period Comments

WA WE WA WE WR WE WA WE WR WE11006 110006 2004-9013 55 W M 1.5 1 S S T L 11 11 T D UC UC R Warp threads are thinner than

weft threads.11006 110006 2004-9014 91 L M 2.7 2.3 S S M M 14 11 T M UC UC R 11006 110016 2004-9019 84 W G 10.5 6.5 S S OT L 14 9 T D R R R Crepe appearance.12001 120001 2004-9009 4 L M 1.6 1.2 S2S, S S2S, S M M 12 11 T D UC UC 2.5 x 1.3 C 12001 120006 2004-9001 58 W P 2.5 3 S S T L 7 20 WE.F D R R R 12002 120003 579846 55 L P 5.2 2 S2S, S S2S, S M M 11 8 T D UC UC 3.4 x 1.3 C 12002 120003 2004-9016 55 L G 2.5 1.8 S2S, S S2S, S M M 13 11 T D UC UC 2 x 1.2 C 12002 120003 2004-9017 55 L P 8 1.5 S2S, S S2S, S M M - - T M UC UC C 12004 120000 579924 41 L G 3.2 2.5 S S T M 13 11 T D UC UC R 12005 120011 580042 95 W M 3.2 2 S S T L 9 20 WE.F D UC UC B* R *Black, Z-spun, width 0.7 cm,

warp threads grouped at the band. Black band.

12005 120011 580041 95 W (warp), G (weft)

M 3 3.5 S2Z Z T L 3 8 WE.F D UC Pig.B R

12005 120011 580043 95 W P 1.1 2 S S T L + + WE.F D R R R 12005 120011 580044 95 W M 2 1 S S T L 9 20 WE.F D UC UC R 12006 120012 2004-9010 38 L M 2.5 1.9 SS SS M M 4x2 5x2 EX.T D UC UC R 13001 130002 579922 105 L? M 6.5 9 S S M M 15 11 T D UC UC M? 13001 130002 2004-9018 33 W M 5.2 3 S S M M 10 9 T D UC UC 4.2 x 1.1 R Warp threads are thinner than

weft threads. Weaving faults.13001 130003 579826 28 L M 2 1 S S M M 11 11 BAL D UC UC R 13001 130003 579923 21 W G 2.2 1.2 S S T M 11 19 T D UC UC R 13001 130003 2004-9011 28 L M 2 1.8 SS SS M M 4x2 3.5x2 EX.T D UC UC R 13001 130003 2004-9012 28 L M 3.5 1.2 S S M M 11 11 BAL D UC UC R 13003 130011 2004-9000 50 W M 4 4 S S T L - - T D UC UC B* R *Only the band was preserved

and two weft threads. Warp threads grouped at the band. Black band.

Surface 579821 108 W P 4 1.1 S S T L - - - - UBEIGE UBEIGE R Surface 579941 75 L M 1.8 1.8 S2S, S S2S, S M M 14 9 T D UC UC C Surface 2004-9002 92 L G 1.5 1.3 SS SS M M 10 8x2 EX.T D UC UC R Surface 2004-9003 74 L M 2 1.3 S S T M 12 11 T D UBEIGE UBEIGE M? Warp threads thinner than

weft. Mate. Surface 2004-9004 74 L G 4 2.5 S S M M 17 15 T M UBEIGE UBEIGE M? Warp threads thinner than

weft. Surface 2004-9005 74 W G 3 2 S S M M 9 8 BAL D ULY ULY R Surface 2004-9006 108 L G 4.5 4.3 S S M M 13 13 BAL D UBEIGE UBEIGE 2.3 x 2, 1.6

x 1.1R

Surface 2004-9007 108 L M 5.5 4.5 S S M M 17 7 WA.F D UBEIGE UBEIGE R Knotted at the edge.

80

Discussion

During recent years, and especially following ‘Operation Scroll’ (Mivza Megila) carried out in the Judean Desert by the Israel Antiquities Authority in November-December 1993, much information has been collected regarding textiles of antiquity. The caves in lower Wadi el-Makkukh and adjacent areas were particularly rich in Chalcolithic organic treasures, and they are a welcome addition to the textiles reported from this period.

The most important Chalcolithic sites in the Southern Levant that have yielded textiles are the Cave of the Treasure (Bar-Adon 1980) and the Cave of the Warrior (Schick 1998), but Chalcolithic textiles have also been found in many other caves, including Nahal Ze’elim southwest of the Dead Sea, the Qarantal Cave VI/46 (near Jericho) (Schick 2002. p. 234), and the Cave of the Sandal–Cave VIII/28 (near Jericho) (Eshel and Zissu 2002. p. 119).

The Chalcolithic linen threads from this region are S-spun. The textiles have the characteristic mixture of S-spun and S-plied threads. Plied threads are considered characteristic of early textiles (Schick 2002. p. 238) until the Early Bronze Age in the

Fig. 10.1 Textile no. 2004-9019, before conservation

Fig. 10.2 Textile no. 2004-9016, linen, Chalcolithic Period

Fig. 10.3 Textile no. 2004-9009, linen, Chalcolithic Period

81

Southern Levant, and indicate splicing, a technique that was used to achieve better cohesion (Shamir 2014. p. 148).

The cloth remains described above, although often very small and fragmentary, exhibit high quality thread work. The exclusiveness of flax as raw material in Chalcolithic textiles is repeated also in these sites. Both spinning and weaving are regular and the few details of decoration suggest that more elaborate textiles were also manufactured and used by the local society. The finds corroborate our conclusions that a skilled establishment was engaged in the production of cloth.

The present cloth specimens represent a typical assemblage from Chalcolithic times. It serves to confirm that the textile crafts were already very advanced and accomplished in the 4th –5th millennium BCE.

The details conform with those observed in other Chalcolithic cloth remains e.g. at the ‘Cave of the Treasure’ and ‘Cave of the Warrior’ (Bar-Adon 1980; Schick 1998, 2002. pp. 223, 231; Shamir 2014).

The fragments may have originated from dress items and they don’t bear stains of body fluid as seen in the textile at the ‘Cave of the Warrior’ (Schick 1998). Linen seems to be the sole material for the manufacture of textiles during the Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods (Schick 2002. p. 238). The textiles were produced by the horizontal ground loom (Shamir 2014. p. 149).

Roman Period

Wool

Eight analyzed items from the Roman Period are made of wool (Figs. 10.4, 10.5). One textile (580041) is made of wool in the warp and goat hair fibers in the weft.

All are S-spun. The woolen fabrics are tabby, balanced, warp-faced, weft-faced, and extended tabby. The density of the warps excluding extended tabby) ranges from 7 to 20 threads per cm and that of the wefts from 9 to 20 threads per cm. The majority of the wool textiles are natural cream or beige in color. Three pieces were dyed red (Fig. 10.6). Two undyed textiles (Nos. 2004-9000, 580042; Fig. 10.7) were decorated with a black band. Although the weft threads of the ground fabric didn’t survive, the density of the wefts in the ground fabric is probably lower than that in the bands. This effect was achieved by grouping two warps to work as one in a repeat pattern.

Bands are a common decoration in the Roman Period. Roman weavers made good use of the contrasting decorative effect which can be achieved by beating up the weft

82

tightly into bands or other reserved areas within a plain ground weave (Wild and Wild 1996. p. 248).

Clavi decorated tunics woven into a natural-colored fabric are the norm, but more colorful combinations also occur (Mannering 2000a. p. 285). At some sites, such as Murabba’at, bands were the only decoration.

Linen

Twelve textiles are of linen. They are made of S-spun threads, woven in various tabby techniques: five tabby, three balanced tabby weaves, three extended tabby weaves,

Fig. 10.4 Textile no. 2004-9005, wool, Roman Period

Fig. 10.5 Textile no. 2004-9013, wool, Roman Period

Fig. 10.6 Textile no. 2004-9019, wool, red, Roman Period

Fig. 10.7 Textile no. 2004-9000, wool, decorated with black band, Roman Period

83

and one warp-faced tabby. The density of the warps excluding extended tabby) ranges from 10 to 17 threads per cm and that of the wefts from 7 to 15 threads per cm. All are undyed.

Discussion

Although most of the textile pieces recovered at the Mikveh cave are of insufficient size to identify the original garment or any other possible use, they provide much information, particularly regarding the nature of the materials, as well as on spinning, weaving, and dyeing techniques.

Materials - The large quantity of woolen materials is comparable to other arid-zone sites of the Roman Period.

Techniques - The spin direction of wool and linen is S, as at other Roman-period sites in this region, e.g. the Cave of Letters (Yadin 1963. p. 190).

The spinning is of a high standard, and the threads in the fabrics are of uniform thickness.

No weaving techniques that were more complex than variations of the plain weave were found. This contrasted to other Roman Period sites, e.g. Wadi Murabbaat (Crowfoot and Crowfoot 1961. pp. 51, 54-55), Masada (Sheffer and Granger-Taylor 1994. pp. 208-210), Shaar Ramon, and Mo’a (Shamir 2005a), which yielded twill fabrics.

Dyeing and Decoration - Some of the woolen fabrics were dyed or decorated with bands. Decorative bands in shades of red, wine and purple were preferred in the Roman world; as well as at Dura-Europos (Pfister and Bellinger 1945. p. 12). Black bands are rare and were found at the Christmas cave (Shamir and Sukenik 2010), Wadi Murabba’at and the Cave of Letters.

Origin - The textiles were produced in the Land of Israel because they are S-spun – a typical spin direction to the Land of Israel. The source of linen could be local Galilean, Beth She’an (Scythopolis) or the Jordan Valley including Jericho and not from Egypt (Midrash Rabbah, Genesis 19:1; Babylonian Talmud, Mo’ed Qatan 18b; Safrai 1994. pp. 155-157; Shamir 1996. p. 142).

Function - The tunic was decorated with bands descending from the shoulders on the back and front (clavi in Latin, imrah in In Hebrew). In certain periods their widths designated the rank of the wearer of the garment, for example Roman senators wore tunics with wide clavi. However, at the time of Bar Kokhba this mark of status had lost much of its value, and Pliny (Natural History 33, 29) bitterly complains of the difficulty in distinguishing senators by the width of their clavi, as even those who

84

were not entitled to them wore such tunics (Bergman 1975. pp. 41-42; Pfister and Bellinger 1945. pp. 12-15, Pls. 5-7 ; Shamir 2013; Yadin 1963. pp. 207, 218-225).

The decorative bands on the Mikveh cave textiles are similar to those on textiles from other sites in the area: Wadi Murabbaat (Crowfoot and Crowfoot 1961. p. 52), the Cave of Letters (Yadin 1963. p. 213), Masada (Sheffer and Granger-Taylor 1994. pp. 188-195), Dura Europos (Pfister and Bellinger 1945. p. 12) and Nubia (Bergman 1975. pp. 41-42).

Linen at the Mikveh cave was used mainly for garments as at, e.g. Cave of Letters (Yadin 1963. pp. 261, 264); Wadi Daliyeh (Crowfoot 1974. p. 67); and Wadi Murabbaat (Crowfoot and Crowfoot 1961. p. 59, No. 78). In the Cave of Letters (Yadin 1963. p. 259) linen fabrics were used for sacking, scarves, and wrapping scrolls. Extended tabby weaves are similar to Masada No. 104(A), which was probably part of a sack (Sheffer and Granger-Taylor 1994. p. 177).

Looms - The finds do not indicate the kind of loom employed, and no loomweight or whorls were found at the cave. The use of the warp-weighted loom ceased almost entirely in the country in the late first century CE and was replaced by the upright loom (Shamir 1996. p. 148; Sheffer and Granger-Taylor 1994. p. 231). They were found at Masada (Shamir 1994. p. 277); and En Gedi (Shamir 2007) from the first century CE but not later.

Warp grouped for bands without crossed threads were found also at the Cave of Letters, Christmas cave (pers. obs.), Khirbet Qazone (Granger-Taylor 2000) and Crimea (Granger-Taylor, Jenkins and Wild 1989. p. 150, Fig. 4C; Granger-Taylor 1992. p. 22).

Medieval period

Three S-spun plain weave undyed linen textiles are probably Medieval. They are matte compared to more Roman Period textiles which are glossier. This was probably due to some difference in the preparation of the flax.

Medieval textiles were found also at other Judean Caves: Cave 38 which also yielded silk textiles (Shamir and Baginski 2013), Northern Judean Desert caves (Shamir and Baginski 2002a), and Kasr al-Yahud (Shamir 2005b; Shamir and Baginski 2002b).

Basketry

Nine basketry fragments were found, all from the Chalcolithic Period. Two are made in open twining (Table 10.2, Fig. 10.8). The items made of unidentified stems, are very delicate. The biggest one is 14.5 x 8 cm (2004-9040, Fig. 10.9).

85

The artifacts are manufactured in the open or close weft twining. The weft stem twines around stems, which form the ‘warp’. The direction of the twist is down the left in S lay. They were probably used as mats and are typical of the Chalcolithic Period (Schick 2002. p. 237; Shamir 2014. p. 149).

The number of elements per 10 at passive element (‘warp’) is 10-42 and at active element (‘warp’) is 20-44.

In No. 2004-9040 (Fig. 10.9) each passive element consist of 5-7 stems and the fragment becomes narrower and more crowded at one side.

Cordage

Forty four unattached cordage fragments (Baginski and Shamir 1995. p. 33) were discovered at the Mikveh cave. They are made of Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera)

Table 10.2 Textiles, basketry from Cave Q27

Locu

s

Bask

et

No.

IAA

No.

Mat

eria

l

Tech

niqu

e

Size

Pasiv

e ele

men

t-N

umbe

r of e

lem

ents

pe

r 10

cmPa

sive e

lem

ent-

Num

ber o

f ele

men

ts

per 1

0 cm

Comments

Hig

ht (c

m)

Wid

th (c

m)

12002 120004 580850 Close twining

Very poor preservation.

13001 130001 580849 Stems Close twining

Very poor preservation.

13001 130004 27 579996 Stems Close twining

3.5 2.5 25 45

13001 130009 54 580848 Stems Open twining

2.7 3.2 42 20 A few more fragments.


3 1.5 20 40

13002 130006 61 580845 Stems Open twining

2 1.8 40 25


1.5 2 30 40

Area C - 39 2004-9040

Stems Close twining

14.5 8 21 44 Each passive element consist of 5-7 stems. The fragment becomes narrower and more crowded at on side.

Surface 54 579997 Stems Close twining

2.5 1.5 10 40

86

Fig. 10.8 Basketry fragment, no. 2004-9041, Chalcolithic Period, open twining

Fig. 10.9 Basketry fragment, no. 2004-9040, Chalcolithic Period, close twining

fibers, or leaflets (36), linen (3) and hair mixed with wool (1) and unknown vegetable origin (4). The longest one is 17 cm. The widest is 1.6 cm.

When dealing with cordage it is impossible to distinguish between the various periods.

Date Palm Fibers or Leaflets

Thirty six items are made of date palm fibers (17) or leaflets (9). The products made of leaflets were friable and easily torn, especially those which are made of one knotted leaflet. Two are plaits (Fig. 10.10).

Almost all the plant cords are plied from 2-5 Z-spun strings (Fig. 10.11). Usually, the spinning is of equal strength and the cords are of uniform thickness. Some cords have knots, usually intended to prevent the rope ends from unraveling mainly overhand knots.

No. 2004-9036 is a cord, S2Z, 0.2 cm in diameter folded 10 times and looped (Fig. 10.12). Some of them were creating a loop. Maybe the cords were used for tying herbs or other plants, but also perhaps for binding other items as well. They contrast with items from Nahal Hemar, which have loops in a chainlike formation (Schick 1988. p. 32).

Mixed Goat Hair and Wool Cord

One cord (No. 580841) is made of Z2S mixed goat hair and wool fibers. It is dated to the Roman Period. We know this because no wool existed in Israel before the Middle Bronze Age.

87

Linen Cords

Two are attributed to the Chalcolithic Period. No. 2004-9035 has one edge preserved. It is made of linen thread wrapped around the others for 1.7 cm (Fig. 10.13).

Discussion

Only one cord is of animal origin. The remaining cords are of vegetal material, abundantly available and requiring little or no special processing before use. Sheep and goats, on the other hand, had to be raised and shorn before their wool and hair could be used. Moreover, goat and camel hair were available only in the shearing season, while vegetal materials, such as palm fibers, were obtainable year-round.

Most of the cords from the Mikveh cave are in the Z direction, as at neighboring sites. No long and/or unused ropes were recovered, most being short and well-worn pieces (Baginski and Shamir 1995). The textiles, basketry and cordage found at the cave provide some indication of these arts. The spinning and weaving workmanship at the cave is of a high standard, but no complex weaving techniques are evident.

Fig. 10.10 A plait no. 588027 Fig. 10.11 Cord no. 579981, S2Z

Fig. 10.12 Cord no. 2004-9036, S2Z, folded and looped

Fig. 10.13 Cord no. 2004-9035, linen

88

Acknowledgements

Sincere thanks are due to H. Cohen for his support and encouragement, as well as his helpful comments; to Ra’aia Vinizki IAA of the IAA laboratory, who worked on the conservation of the artifacts; to IAA photographer C. Amit. Some of the photos were taken by H. Cohen and J. Munro. Thanks to the Foundation for Biblical Archaeology for the grant I received.

References

Adovasio J. M. 1977. Basketry Technology, A Guide to Identification and Analysis. Chicago.

Avigad N. 1962. The Expedition to the Judean Desert, Expedition A–Nahal David. IEJ, 12:169-183.

Baginski A., and Shamir O. 1995. Textiles, Basketry and Cordage from Nahal Omer. Atiqot 26:21-42. IAA, Jerusalem.

Bar-Adon P. 1980. The Cave of the Treasure. Jerusalem: IES.

Bellinger L. 1962. Textiles. In Colt H.D. Excavations at Nessana. London, 91-105.

Bergman I. 1975. Late Nubian Textiles. The Scandinavian Joint Expedition to Sudanese Nubia. Uppsala, Sweden: Scandinavian University Books.

Bernick K. 1994. Masada Basketry, Cordage and Related Artifacts. In Y. Aviram, G. Foerster and E. Netzer. (eds.), Masada IV. Jerusalem, 289-317.

Burnham D. K. 1980. Warp and Weft. Toronto. Carmi I. 1987. Rehovot Radiocarbon Measurements III. Radiocarbon 29:100-114.

Carmi I., and Segal D. 1992. Report 27. Rehovot (Hebrew).

Cohen R. 1991. Ancient Routes from Petra to Gaza in the Light of New Findings. In Orion A., and Eni Y. (eds.), The Spice Route. Sede Boqer, 28-77 (Hebrew).

Crowfoot E. 1974. Textiles, In Lapp, P.W and Lapp, N.L. Discoveries in the Wadi ed-Daliyeh (AASOR 41), 60-77.

Crowfoot G. M., and Crowfoot E. 1961. The Textile and Basketry. In Benoit P., Milik J. T., and de Vaux (eds.) Les Grottes de Murabb’at (Discoveries in the Judaean Desert II), Les Grottes De Murabba’at. Oxford, 51-63.

Eshel H., and Zisso B. 2002. Region VIII: Surveys and Excavations of Caves along the Cliff Slopes of the Triangulation Point 86, on the Fringe of Jebel Mra’ar el-Bas. Atiqot 41 (Part II): 117-123. IAA, Jerusalem.

Fowler C. S. 1990. James Creek Shelter Textiles. Antropological Papers 115:137-152.

Fujii H. 1976. Al Tar I. Excavations in Iraq, 1971-1974. Tokyo.

89

Fujii H., Sakamoto K., and Ichihashi M. 1989. Textile from al-Tar Caves, Part 1:Cave 12, Hill C. Al-Rafidan 10:109-163.

Granger-Taylor H. 1987. Two Silk Textiles from Rome and Some Thoughts on the Roman Silk-Weaving Industry. Cieta 65:13-31.

Granger-Taylor H. 2000. The Textiles from Khirbet Qazone (Jordan). In: D Cardon and M. Feugère (eds.), Archéologie des Textiles des origins au Ve siècle Actes du colloque de Lattes, octobre 1999. Montagnac, 149-162.

Granger-Taylor H., Jenkins I. D., and Wild J. P. 1989. From Rags to Riches: Two Textile Fragments from Cyprus. In Tatton-Brown (eds.) Cyprus andthe East Mediterranean in the Iron Age: Proceeding of the Seventh BritishMuseum Classical Colloquium. London, 146-165.

Granger-Taylor H. 1992. The Grouping of Warp Threads for Areas of Weft- Faced Decoration in Textiles of the Roman Period: A Means of DistinguishingLooms? Vlaamse Vereniging voor Oud en Hedendaags Textiel (- Aan Daniel de Jonghe), 18-28.

Hall R. 1986. Egyptian Textiles. Great Britain.

Israel Y. 1981. En Rahel. HA 77:35.

Pfister R. 1934. Textiles de Palmyre. Paris.

Pfister R. 1937. Nouveaux Textiles de Palmyre. Paris.

Pfister R., and Bellinger L. 1945. The Excavations at Dura Europos IV, 2 The Textiles. New Haven.

Precker R. 1993. Vegetable Dyes and the Dyeing Industry in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine Periods (M.A.Thesis Bar-Ilan Univ. Ramat Gan).

Ryder M.L. 1974. Report on Animal Fibres. In Lapp P.W and Lapp, N.L. Discoveries in the Wadi ed-Daliyeh (AASOR 41), 78-79.

Safrai, Z. 1994. The Economy of Roman Palestine. London.

Schick T. 1998. The Cave of the Warrior - A Fourth Millennium Burial in the Judean Desert. IAA Reports 5. Jerusalem.

Schick T. 2002. The Early Basketry and Textiles from Caves in the Northern Judean Desert. Atiqot 41 (Part II): 223-239. IAA, Jerusalem.

Shamir O. 1992. Textiles Found along the Spice Route from the Roman Period until the Early Islamic Period in Israel. Archaeological Textiles Newsletter 14:6-8.

Shamir O. 1994. Loomweights from Masada. Masada IV. Aviram Y, Foerster G., and Netzer E. (eds.), Jerusalem, 265-282.

Shamir O. 1996. Loomweights and Whorls. In: D. T. Ariel (ed.) Excavations at The City of David 1978-85, Directed by Y. Shiloh, Vol. IV (QEDEM 35). Jerusalem. pp. 135-170.

Shamir O. 2005a. Textiles, Basketry, Cordage and Whorls from Mo’a. Atiqot 50, IAA Jerusalem, PP. 99-152.

90

Shamir O. 2005b. Tunics from Kasr al-Yahud. In: L. Cleland, M. Harlow and L. Llewellyn-Jones (eds). The Clothed Body in the Ancient World. Oxbow, 162-168.

Shamir O. 2007. Loom Weights from En-Gedi. In: E. Stern. En-Gedi Excavations I, Final Report (1991-1965). Jerusalem, 381-390.

Shamir O. 2013. Dress: Hellenistic and Roman Period. In: D. Master (ed.). Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Archaeology. 2-Volume Set. Oxford,328-336.

Shamir O. 2014. Textiles, Basketry and other Organic Artifacts of the Chalcolithic Period in the Southern Levant.In: O. Brandel, M. Saban and D. Master (eds.). Catalogue exhibition “Masters of Fire: Copper Age Art from Israel”. New York University for its Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, 139-152.

Shamir O., and Baginski A. 2002a. The Later Textiles, Basketry and Cordage from Caves in the Northern Judean Desert (“Operation Scroll”). Atiqot 41 IAA, Jerusalem, PP. 241-256.

Shamir O., and Baginski A. 2002b. Medieval Mediterranean Textiles, Basketry and Cordage Newly excavated in Israel. In: Lev Y (ed). Towns and Material Culture in the Medieval Age in Middle East. Leiden, 135-158.

Shamir O., and Baginski A. 2013. Textiles’ Hoard from Jericho Cave 38in the Qarantal Cliff. Hoards and Genizot as Chapters in History. Haifa, 77*-88*.

Shamir O., and Baginski A. 2013. Textiles’ Treasure from Jericho Cave 38 in the Qarantal Cliff Compared to other Early Medieval Sites in Israel. Textile Society of America Symposium Proceedings. Nebraska, 1-11.

Shamir O., and Sukenik N. 2010. The Christmas Cave Textiles Compared to Qumran Textiles. ATN (Archaeological Textiles Newsletter) 51:26-30.

Sheffer A. 1991. The Textiles from the ‘En-Boqeq Excavation in Israel.Textile History 22:3-46.

Sheffer, A., and Granger-Taylor, H. 1994. Textiles from Masada-A Preliminary Selection. Masada IV. Aviram Y, Foerster G., and Netzer E. (eds.), Jerusalem, 153-256.

Speiser N. 1983. The Manual of Braiding. Basel.

Stuiver M., and Reimer P. J. 1993. Extended 14C Data Base and Revised CALIB 3.0 Age Calibration Program. Radiocarbon 35:215-230.

Thurman C. C. M., and Williams B. 1979. Ancient Textiles from Nubia. Chicago.

Wendrich W. 1991. Who is afraid of Basketry? Leiden.

Wild J. P. 1970. Textile Manufacture in the Northern Roman Provinces. Cambridge.

Wilson L. M. 1933. Ancient Textiles from Egypt in the University of Michigan, Baltimore.

Yadin, Y. 1963. The Cave of Letters. Jerusalem.

91

11. Leather RemainsThe reinforcement belt

The piece of leather found in Area B, L.12005, is square in shape, flat and folded from two sides, inward. Part of the strap is still visible in it. The strap could then be tied around the scroll. This part is similar to Type 4 fastening mentioned by Carswell.73

Function

The exact method by which the scrolls from Second Temple time were fastened after beeing rolled is still unclear. The fastening method is thought to have consisted of a slotted tab folded over the edge of the scroll. Fasteners were generally made of leather and were prepared in different sizes. The leather thongs may have also been used in the making of phylacteries. However, in caves 4 and 8 in Qumran74 two scrolls were found with attached fastenings to the Qumran Manuscripts.75

Fig. 11.1 Leather reinforcement belt top and bottom projections

Sandals

Front part of bottom sole layer and the back part of a sole were found in Area A. This is a typical sandal that was in use in early Roman times. The finding of the sandals is not unfamiliar to the research in the Judean Desert caves. Sandals were found in the other caves in the area: Porat, Eshel and Frumkin 2009. Fig. 10; Yadin 1963. Cave of Letters: pl. 57; Bar-Adon 1961. Cave of the Treasure pl. 15a; a similar sandal was

73 Carswell 1977. Fig. 12, p. 26. 74 Carswell 1977. Pl. IV (a-b).75 4Q448 (Known in the past as 4QSI 80) and 4 QDb, 4 Q 448 in which the name of King Jonathan

is mentioned is 9.5 cm x 17.8 cm, and it has a cut along its lower right side. Attached to its right edge is a leather square 2.9 cm long x 2 cm wide. A small strap 2.9 cm long x 1.3 cm wide is coming out of its center.

92

found by Aharoni (1962. Pl. 28C- D), among the leather artifacts in the Cave of Horor. Remains of shoes and sandals, including a complete child’s sandal with the knotted thongs still preserved were found. In the Cave of the Letters Yadin (1961) found a pair of women’s sandals in a basket together with some more artifacts, although these finds were not published.

Fig. 11.2 Leather strips (Carswell 1977. Pl. IV (b) with courtesy of the IAA)

Fig. 11.3 Leather Reinforcement belts (Carswell 1977. Pl. IV (c) with courtesy of the IAA 90-100)

Fig. 11.4 Leather sandal sole Fig. 11.5 Leather sandal sole

References

Aharoni Y. 1961. The Caves of Nahal Hever. Atiqot 3: pl. XXIII; 148–162 (English Series). IAA, Jerusalem.

Aharoni Y. 1962. Expedition B — The Cave of Horror. IEJ, 12, pp. 186-199.

Bar-Adon P. 1961. The Expedition to the Judean Desert, 1960: Expedition C, IEJ, 11, pp. 25-35.

Bar-Adon P. 1980. Cave of the Treasure. Mossad Bialik, Jerusalem.

Carswell J. 1977. Fastenings on the Qumran Manuscripts. In R. de Vaux, Qumran grotte, 4, II, I. Archeologie (DJD, VI), Appendix I, Oxford, pp. 23-28.

93

Eshel E., Eshel H., and Yardeni A. 1991. A Scroll from Qumran which includes Part of Psalm 154 and a Prayer for King Jonathan and his Kingdom Tarbiz, pp. 295-324. Mandel Institute for Jewish Studies, Jerusalem.

Yadin Y. 1961. Expedition D — The Cave of the Letters. IEJ, 12, pp. 227-257.

Yadin Y. 1963. The Finds from the Bar Kokhba Period in the Cave of Letters, IES, Jerusalem.

Porat R. Eshel H., and Frumkin A. 2009. The ‘Caves of the Spear’: Refuge Caves from the Bar-Kokhba Revolt North of En-Gedi, IEJ, 59, pp. 21-46.

94

12. The Faunal Remains of the Mikveh Cave Guy Bar-Oz, Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of HaifaThis report presents the faunal remains of the Cave Q27. The cave was excavated by H. Cohen from the Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa. All bags of bones provided by the excavator were examined and documented. The faunal remains yielded mammal and bird bone fragments, and two mollusk shells from the Mediterranean Sea (Nassarius gibbosulus and Glycemeris sp.; identified by D. Bar-Yosef). Bone remains from stratified loci and baskets from inside the cave were grouped into one single assemblage. Surface deposits, or bones without data on their context (mainly from outside of the cave) were examined, but were not included in the analysis. The complete research protocol and dataset is provided on the attached CD or may be acquired from the author. A general summary of the fauna is given.

Faunal Analysis Procedures

Every identified bone from each bag was labeled with a note marking its archaeological context (locus, basket, area of excavation). Bone remains were identified to bone element and species using the comparative collection of the University of Haifa Zoo-archaeological Comparative Collection. Skeletal elements were identified to the closest possible taxonomic unit. Elements for which species identification is less reliable than size category (i.e., ribs, vertebrae, skull fragments, and diaphysis shaft fragments) were grouped with the closest species category. Separation of sheep (Ovis aries) from goats(Capra hircus) was based on morphological criteria (following Boessneck, 1969 and Zeder and Lapham 2002). Separation of goats from ibex (Capra ibex) was based on the morphology of horn cores (Davis 1974). Sheep and goat skeletal elements that could not be identified to species were combined in caprines category.

The relative abundance of the different taxa was quantified using the number of the identified specimen (NISP) for each taxon together with the minimum number of individuals (MNI) from which the remains could have originated. These values were calculated using the assumptions described in Klein and Cruz-Uribe (1984) and Hesse and Wapnish (1985).

All identifiable fragments were searched for butchery marks and burning activities in order to indicate use of consumption. In addition, all bone surface modifications (Lyman, 1994) were noted. Skeletal parts representation was studied in order to discern meat/butchery-processing patterns. Age at death of the major culled species was analyzed based on epiphyseal closure.

95

The finds

A small assemblage of 464 complete and fragmentary faunal bones was recovered from the excavated area. The bones were unevenly derived from areas of the cave (Table 12.1). Taxa found at the site included domestic and wild animals. Wild animals included carnivores, rodents, insectivores and hyraxes and represent the local fauna in the vicinity of the cave. Most of the faunal remains of both wild and domestic animals were found in a fresh condition. At least half of the bones from all loci and baskets seem to be of recent origin. This is indicated by the odor and color of the bones.

The abundance of the remains of the 8 taxa represented is detailed in Table 12.2. The macro-mammals’ remains are comprised predominantly of caprines (91%). On the basis of taxonomically distinctive features only domestic goats (Capra hircus) were identified. Cattle (Bos taurus) contributed only 3% to the assemblage. Wild animals are represented by hyrax (Procavia capensis), hedgehog (paraechinus aethiopicus), cat (Felis sp.), and an unidentified large bird (most probably a vulture). Wild animals constitute approximately 7% of the assemblage and their economic significance is questionable. It seems reasonable to assume that each of the wild species represents a natural death rather than culturally related remains. These species could easily post-date the occupational phase, when the abandoned cave served as a den or a temporary shelter.

Signs of burning were observed on some of the goat remains (3%, based on NISP excluding teeth), a single bone of cattle (Phalanx 2), and a single bone of cat (distal humerus). Burned elements were distributed in all of the archaeological horizons without any clear pattern. An exception to this pattern is the high incidence of burnt elements in Locus 13002 Basket 130004 in Area C that included 7 burnt bones out of 9 identified elements. The distribution of burning bones across different goat skeletal elements is similar and does not indicate any systematic burning.

Signs of rodent gnaw marks were found on few a goat long bone epiphyses (N=17). In addition, two long bone fragments of a goat bore signs of carnivore’s teeth punctures and chewing. The presence of animal activities reflects post-depositional disturbances of the bone assemblage.

Table 12.1 Distribution of the faunal remains retrieved from Mikveh Cave (N=464)

Area of excavation

locus Number of identified bones

A

L.11002 2L.11003 10L.11004 2L.11005 27L.11006 22L.11008 1

B

L.12001 26L.12002 73L.12005 35L.12006 9

C

L.13001 221L.13002 26L.13003 8L.13004 2

96

The distribution of goat body parts was examined by dividing the bone remains into the five parts of the carcass (based on MNI). These are: head, represented by the skull bones; trunk, represented by the vertebrae; fore and hind limbs, represented by long bones; and toes, represented by phalanges. A comparison between the different body parts (Fig. 12.1; data from Table 12.2) revealed that all body parts are represented at the cave, although no body parts were found in articulation. Thus, it is suggested that goat carcasses were brought complete and were butchered within the vicinity of the site.

Bos taurus

Capra hircus

Felis sp.Aves

Procavia capensis

Paraechinus sp.

ChiropteraCommon name: Cattle Goat Cat Bird Hyrax Hedgehog Rodent BatHead:Sk.frag. 20 3 2Man. Cond. 20 2 1 1 1Teeth 4 25 1 1Body:Ver: Cervical 24 1Ver: Thoracic 29 3Ver: Lumbar 5 25Ver: CaudalRib frag. 55Sternum 1Forelimb:Scapula 7Humerus 18 3Radius 20Ulna 3Metacarpus 3carpalsHindlimb:Pelvic frag. 15Femur 2 17 1Tibia 20Patella 1Astragalus 1 7Calcaneum 12Cuboid 3Tarsal 17Metatarsus 6Toes:Phalanx 1 1 24Phalanx 2 1 15Phalanx 3 2 15Metapod cond. 20 1Long bone 5NISP 16 422 6 5 7 6 1 1 464%NISP 3.4 90.9 1.3 1.1 1.5 1.3 0.2 0.2 100MNI 1 6 2 1 2 1 1 1 15

Table 12.2 Number of identified specimens and minimum number of individuals of each taxon represented at Mikveh Cave

97

The caprines’ remains were dated on the basis of epiphyseal closure (Table 12.3; based on Silver 1969). The assemblage contained large proportions of bones of immature animals. Some 40% of the caprines were slaughtered before the age of 10 months. All other caprines represented are younger than 36 months but older than 12 months. These results suggest that caprines were slaughtered primarily for their meat, and an optimal butchering age is therefore fairly young (Grigson 1987).

Head Body Forelimb Hinlimb Toes

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%

Fig. 12.1 Relative frequencies of caprines’ body parts into 5 carcass parts

Table 12.3 Approximate ages of epiphyseal fusion in goats (based on Silver 1969)

Age (months) UF TotalRadius proximal 6 1 8Humerus distal 10 6 10Tibia distal 24 1 9Metapodia distal 24 5 16Femur proximal 33 5 8Femur distal 36 1 4Radius distal 36 1 4Tibia proximal 36 4 5Humerus proximal 36 3 5

Conclusions

The dominance of domestic goats indicates their economic importance. These were most probably brought to the Mikveh Cave by shepherds in the past. On the other hand, the wild animal deposits probably represent cases of the natural death of animals from the vicinity that inhibited the cave after its abandonment. Many of the

98

domestic and wild faunal remains were found in a fresh condition, the majority of these specimens seem to have originated from a recent origin as indicated by the odor and color of the bones.

The limited data available on the mortality profile of the goats suggest a preference for the slaughter of immature animals, a pattern that is usually associated with herd management aimed at meat production exploitation. The presence of bone elements from all parts of the goat suggests that whole animals were slaughtered and consumed near or at the cave. This, together with the absence of articulation joints, and the incidence of burning suggests that the goat remains found in the Mikveh represent a mixture of both primary butchery (slaughter and carcass division) and secondary butchery (consumption and food processing).

Acknowledgments

I thank N. Raban and R. Yeshurun for their help in sorting and identifying part of the bone assemblage and D. Bar-Yosef for her help in identifying the mollusks.

References

Boessneck J. 1969. Osteological Differences between Sheep (Ovis aries Linne) and Goats (Capra hircus Linne). In Brothwell D., and Higgs, E. S. (eds.), Science in Archaeology. 2nd Edition. London: 331-358.

Davis S. J. M. 1974. Animal Remains from the Kebaran Site of Ein-Gev I: Jordan Valley, Israel. Paléorient 2, pp. 453-462.

Grigson C. 1987. Different Herding Strategies for Aheep and Goats in the Chalcolithic of Beersheva. Archaeozoologia 12, pp. 115-126.

Hesse B., and Wapnish, P. 1985. Animal Bone Archaeology: From Objective to Analysis.Taraxacum,Washington.

Klein R. G., and Cruz-Uribe, K. 1984. The Analysis of Animal Bones from Archaeological Sites. University Chicago Press, Chicago.

Lyman R. L. 1994. Vertebrate Taphonomy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Silver I. A. 1969. The Aging of domesticated Animals. In Brothwell, D., and Higgs, E. S. (eds.), Science in Archaeology. 2nd Edition. London: 250-268.

Zeder M. A. and Lapham, H. A. 2002. A Guide to the Identification of Sheep (Ovis aries) and Goat (Capra hircus) Bones. Unpublished manuscript.

99

13. Petrographic Examination of Two Samples from Cave Q27 Alexander Tsatskin, Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa Petrographic analysis of two specimens delivered by Dr. Haim Cohen from the cave, Judean desert, was performed by thin sections by polarized light microscope Olympus-2. Petrographic thin sections were prepared after impregnation with polysterene resin under vacuum, then slicing and polishing a slide to 0.03 mm thickness. The slides were also stained with Alizarin Red in order to discriminate between calcite and dolomite. Petrographic descriptions follow Adams and MacKenzie (1998), Bullock et al. (1985), Gibson and Woods (1990), Goren and Goldberg (1991), Kempe and Harvey (1983), Vandiver et al. (1995).

Petrographic description

Sample # 1 (from the ceiling of the cave). In the thin sections the specimen is strongly heterogeneous, showing both solid almost unporous fabric (Fig. 13.1a – plain polarized light; 13.1b – crossed polarized light) and porous intercrystalline fabric (Fig. 13.2). Fig. 13.1 shows zoned dolomite crystals of subhedral/anhedral crystalline forms suggesting the existence of weathering and dedolomitization on a later stage of rock diagenesis. Significantly, calcite/dolomite replacement was not complete on the earlier stage of dolomitization of a limestone. Fig. 13.3 shows a stained thin section with fine-grained dolomite (upper part of the photo) superimposed on the red-stained micritic calcite. The fine-grained calcite appears in the first few millimeters below the Fe-rich biological crust on the surface of the rock (Fig. 13.4 a,b – a and b as in Fig. 13.1). This testifies to intense microbiological weathering of the rock. No signs of human made substances were detected in the thin sections. Identification: Strongly weathered dolomitized limestone

Sample #2 (plaster from the hydraulic structure). In thin sections it shows a charcoal-rich lime calcareous matrix with few rounded gas pores (Fig. 13.6 a,b – a and b as in Fig. 13.1). also shows that the lime mortar was mixed with more than 50% of a crude aggregate ranging from ca. 0.3-0.5 mm to 2-5 mm and composed of chert (upper right corner of the photo in Fig. 13.6), limestone, and other local rocks. For example, Fig. 13.7 shows a close-up of a dolomite rock. It’s euhedral crystals are partly torn apart through disintegration, Fig. 13.8 shows an elongated piece of chalky marl with characteristic tiny foraminifera. Although the amount of crude aggregate is large the mortar itself is dense, well mixed and probably strongly fired, with minimal signs of post-occupational chemical destruction. Identification: hydraulic crude charcoal-lime mortar of high quality.

100

References

Adams A. E., and MacKenzie W. S. 1998. A Colour Atlas of Carbonate Sediments and Rocks under the Microscope, Manson Publishing, London.

Bullock P., Fedoroff N., Jongerius A., Stoops G., and Tursina, T. 1985. Handbook for Soil Thin Section Description. Waine Research Publication,Wolverhampton.

Gibson A., and Woods A. 1990. Prehistoric Pottery for the Archaeologist, Leicester University Press.

Goren Y., and Goldberg P. 1991. Petrographic Thin Sections and the Development of Neolithic Plaster Production in Northern Israel. Journal of Field Archaeology, 18, pp. 131-138.

Kempe D. R. C., and Harvey A. P. (eds.) 1983. The Petrology of |Archaeological artefacts. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Vandiver P. B., Druzik J. R., and Galvan J. L. (eds.) 1995. Materials Research in Art and Archaeology. Materials Research Society, Pittsburg.

Fig. 13.1 Sample 1, unporous fabric, 13.1a: Plain polarized light; 13.1b: Crossed polarized light

Fig. 13.2 Sample 1, porous intercrystalline fabric Fig. 13.3 Sample 1, fine-grained dolomite, superimposed on the red-stained micritic calcite

a b

101

Fig. 13.4 Sample 1, the fine-grained calcite below the Fe-rich biological crust on the surface

Fig. 13.5 Sample 2, sampling area of the mikveh

Fig. 13.6 Sample 2, thin-section: a charcoal-rich lime calcareous matrix with few rounded gas pores

Fig. 13.7 Sample 2, dolomite rock, close-up Fig. 13.8 Sample 2, an elongated piece of chalky marl with characteristic tiny foraminifera

a

a

b

b

102

14. Lithic AssemblageUdi Grinberg, Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of HaifaExcavation in all parts of the cave yielded lithics. All artifacts were recovered by sieving in the field, using a 5 mm mesh.

Raw material use

At least four different types of raw materials were used by the artisans. A brown flint, a yellowish flint, a dark brown and light gray flint. All of these are of good quality, except for the core (see below).

The possible use of dolomite as a raw material is also considered. This material is abundant in the immediate area surrounding the cave. It is highly fragile and when it breaks it may appear similar to knapped debitage. A few fragments of this material might have been used by the inhabitants. Among these was a thick flake bearing removal scars, a broken flake with a white crust on it, and a bladelet fragment, recovered in Area C.

The debitage

A total of 61 artifacts were retrieved (Table 14.1).

Area A. The entrance to the cave. One flake, one bladelet, two core trimming elements and a tool were found here.

Area B. The middle part and the richest area in flints. 49 artifacts, accounting for 83% of the entire assemblage were found here. The flints consist of a core, three primary elements, 21 flakes, 21 blade/lets and three tools.

Area C. The inner part of the cave. This area was very poor in flints. Two flakes, a blade, two bladelets and a tool were recovered here.

The debris

A few chunks and chips (smaller than 15 mm) were found, except in Area C. Yet the number and nature of these do not attest to any specific knapping activity in the cave. It is highly probable that some chips were lost during sieving. The same can be said for small bladelets.

Cores

The only core found was in Area B. It is of a spheroid shape. There are several striking platforms although it seems that not one successful removal was taken. This raw

103

material is very cracked and all the trial removals ended up as hinge fractures, hence the reason for discarding it.

Tools

Only six tools were recovered (Table 14.2).

El-Khiam point, the only diagnostic piece, which can be well dated to the PPNA (Nadel, Bar-Yosef and Gopher 1991). This point is made on a small bladelet. Its base is concavely truncated and the notches are located on the proximal part. The distal part is broken.

A borer on a thick burin spall. It has a triangular cross section and its distal end is modified by a semi-abrupt retouch in the same relative position and direction on all three edges. The piece is proximally broken.

An awl on a bladelet, showing patination. This piece is complete and distally modified by alternate retouch (both sides).

A retouched blade. The piece is mesially broken and bears patina. The right side has regular to semi-abrupt retouch and the left side is nibbled. It has a triangular cross section.

A side-scraper on a thick partially cortical element. It is complete and has intrusive retouch on its right side.

A small retouched piece.

Table 14.1 Debitage by area of excavation

Area A B C unknown totalCore 1 1Primary elements 3 3Flake 1 21 2 24Blade 11 1 12Bladelet 1 10 2 13Core trimming elements 2 2Burin spall Tool 1 3 1 1 6Total 5 49 6 1 61% 8.5 83 8.5 100

104

Table 14.2 Tool distribution and dimensions (in cm)Type Location Width Length Break Blank Retouch Raw material PatinaEl-Khiam point 1C001/1 1 2.4 distal bladelet truncated brown Borer 1B002/3 1.2 3.8 proximal b.spall Semi-abrupt yellow-gray Awl 1B001/7 1.4 4.5 complete bladelet alternate +Ret. blade 1B002/2 2 4.3 mesial blade Semi-abrupt +Side scraper unknown 5.2 7.5 complete Pri.element intrusive yellowish Varia 1A005/22 2.2 2.5 complete brown

Fig. 14.1 1) El-Khiam point, 2) Borer, 3) Awl

Fig. 14.2 PPNA sites in the Southern Levant

105

Conclusions

The small size and stratigraphic context of the artifacts renders the assemblage impossible to date. Most of the artifacts where found in Area B, the middle of the cave. This might imply that this area was most frequently used, at least as far as the lithics are concerned. The only piece that can be dated reliably is the El-Khiam point, which tentatively hints at a PPNA occurrence. If this is the case, then this is the only cave in the area with an archeological horizon from this period found to date. Other PPNA sites in the area are known from the north: Jericho (Kenyon 1981), Ain Darat (Gopher 1995) and El-Khiam (Echegaray 1963). To the east: Dhra’ (Kuijt and Mahasneh 1998) and Zahrat edh-Dhra’ 2 (Sayej 2001). Future research should provide further information as to the possibility of a PPNA layer in the cave.

References

Echegaray G. J. 1963. Nouvelles fouilles a El-Khiam. Revue Biblique 70, pp. 94-119.

Gopher A. 1995. Ain Darat: A PPNA site in the Judean desert. Neo-Lithics 1, pp. 7-8.

Kenyon K. M. (ed.) 1981. Excavations at Jericho, Vol. III. The British School of Archaeology, Jerusalem.

Kuijt I., and Mahasneh H. 1998. Dhra’: An early Neolithic Village in the Southern Jordan Valley. Journal of Field Archaeology 25, pp. 153-161.

Nadel D., Bar-Yosef O., and Gopher A. 1991. Early Neolithic Arrowhead Types in the Southern Levant: a Typological Suggestion. Paléorient 17, pp. 109-119.

Sayej G. 2001. A new Pre-Pottery Neolithic- A Culture Region in Jordan: The Dead Sea Basin. In Walmsley, A. (ed.), Australians Uncovering Ancient Jordan: Fifty years of Middle Eastern Archaeology. University of Sydney, Sydney, pp. 225-232.

106

15. Stone ToolsThree grinding stone implements were found in the cave during the first season. They are approximately of the same size and two of them are the same shape (Figs. 15.1-15.6). Two implements were found on the surface in areas B&C and one was found in Area A below ground L.11005. Three of them are made of very hard lime-stone (Dolomite).

During season three, one handstone was found in Area A, L.34002 (Fig. 15.7). It is made of hard lime-stone (Dolomite), of the same type as the three other grinding stones. It was found on top of a PPNA layer (Stratum 3).

The only pestle found in the cave, was reported by Avigad in 1962 (Fig. 15.8).

The grinding at the cave was probably connected with the economy of the cave dwellers mainly during the PPNA and the Chalcolithic Periods (Ebeling and Rowan 2005. 108-117).

Dating

During the PPN Period the cave was inhabited for a long time, enough to accumulate a living layer of at least 40 cm thicknes. It is possible that these inhabitants are responsible for the cup marks on the large boulders in Area B.

Also no parallels of the same type of stones have been found in caves in the Judean Desert, or in the excavation at the nearby site of Ein Gedi. It seems that this type of grinding stone is dated to the late Chalcolithic times (Hennessy 1969. Fig. 12: 5-6; Eisenberg 2002. Fig. 10; Eitam 2009. pp. 74-104).

The use of grinding stones was long. Their exact dating is complicated (Wright 1998. p. 121).

References

Ebeling J., and Rowan Y. M. 2005. The Archaeology of the Daily Grind: Ground Stone Tools and Food Production in the Southern Levant. Near Eastern Archeology 67/2, pp. 108-117.

Eisenberg E. 2002. The Excavation of Cave V/49. Surveys and Excavations of Caves in the Northern Judean Desert 1993. Atiqot 41, Part 1. pp. 105-121.

Hennessy J. B. 1969. Preliminary Report on a First Season of Excavations at Teleilat Ghassul. Levant, 1(1), pp. 1-24.

Mallon A., Koeppel R., and Neuville R. 1934. Teleilat Ghassul I. Rome Pl. 34:1.

107

Eitam D. 2009, Late Epipalaeolithic Rock-Cut Installations and Groundstone Tools in the Southern Levant: Methodology and Classification System. Paléorient, 35, pp. 77-104.

Wright K. 1998, Ground Stone. In: The Harra and the Hamad: Excavations and Explorations in Eastern Jordan. A. V. G. Betts (ed.). Sheffield Academic Press, pp. 121-135.

Fig. 15.1 Flat grinding stone. SF Area B, L.12002 Fig. 15.2 Flat grinding stone, drawn

Fig. 15.3 Oval grinding stone Fig. 15.4 Oval grinding stone with cup-mark. SF L.13001, Area C surface

108

Fig. 15.5 Oval grinding stone with cup-mark Area A1 L.11005

Fig. 15.6 Oval grinding stone with cup-mark Area A1 L.11005

Fig. 15.8 Handstone. L.34002 Fig. 15.7 Pestle (Avigad 1962. Pl. 16.b2)

109

16. CoinsHaim Cohen, Alexander Efron, Sir Maurice and Lady Irene Hatter Laboratory, Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa

Only a small number of coins was found in the cave during all three recent seasons, as well as during the excavations of 1961-62.

1. Agrippa I, Mint in Jerusalem (Fig. 16.1). Obverse: Canopy; inscription around: BACIΛΕWC AΓPIΠA. Reverse: Three ears of corn issuing from between two leaves; in a field, date: Lς (Year 6 – 42 CE). This is the bronze “prutah” coin, a large number of which were struck in Jerusalem, when Agrippa I became king of Judea and Samaria. These coins depict designs conforming to Jewish law. Unlike his coins struck in Caesarea, these do not depict portraits of the king, his family or other “non-kosher” subjects.76

2. Great Revolt,77 Year II (Fig. 16.2). Obverse: Amphora with broad rim and two handles; around a Hebrew inscription ’for Year 2’. Reverse: Trilobate vine leaf, and the Hebrew inscribed לחירות ירושלם ‘For the freedom of ZION’. This is the coin (prutah), minted probably in Jerusalem78 in the second year of the Jewish war (67/8 CE), prior to the destruction of the Second Temple.

Fig. 16.1a Coin of Agrippa I

76 Meshorer 1982. p. 57, Pl. 10:11a-j. 77 Goodman (85) analyzes the common features of the coinage of both Jewish revolts and

stresses the rebels ‘desire to establish a new political identity. CIECIELĄG (74) analyzes the iconography of the coins struck by Roman emperors during both Jewish revolts.

78 p. 368.

110

Fig. 16.2 Great Revolt Year 2 coin

References

Deusch R. 2011. Coinage of the First Jewish Revolt against Rome Iconography, Minting Authority, Metallurgyin: The Jewish Revolt against Rome, Interdisciplinary Perspectives, Mladen Popovic’ (ed.), Brili: Leiden- Boston. pp. 361-373.

Goodman M. 2005. Coinage and Identity: The Jewish Evidence, in Howgego, C., Heuchert, V., and Burnett, A. (eds.), Coinage and Identity in the Roman Provinces Oxford University Press, pp. 163-166.

Meshorer Y. 1980. Ancient Jewish Coinage. Vol. II: Herod the Great through Bar Cochba. Amphora Books, New-York.

Porat R., Eshel H., and Frumkin A. 2006. Two Groups of Coins from Ein Gedi, Israel Numismatic Journal 15, pp. 79-86 (Hebrew).

111

17. GlassHaim Cohen, Alexander Efron, Sir Maurice and Lady Irene Hatter Laboratory, Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa

The number of the glass finds in the cave is relatively small. Most of the pieces unearthed are too small to identify. All the fragments belong to free-blown vessels, very thin, and the color of the fabric is greenish almost without weathering. The glass contains a large amount of small air bubbles.

One recognizable vessel found in the cave is a lower part of a bottle (L.12001, Area B, Season 2003), with the neck and rim missing (Fig. 17.1 a-c). Its glass color is greenish and it has a concave base and rounded squat body. This vessel is usually referred to as a “candlestick bottle”.79 This kind of bottle is very common in the area,80 dated, in general, to the end of the 1st-3rd centuries CE.81 Another fragment belonging to that same type was found during the 2012 excavations in L.35002. It is a fragment of a concave base, greenish color and with many bubbles in it. Avigad published another base of this kind,82 as well as the upper part of a bottle ‒ neck and rim (Fig. 6:1).

Another recognizable fragment was found in the same locus. It is the everted folded rim of the large bowl, its color is greenish, and its air bubbles are slightly elongated. Avigad published another fragment possibly belonging to the same bowl.83 Bowls of this type are dated to the mid-1st to 2nd century CE, although the form does continue into the Late Roman Period, in a cruder variation. These bowls usually have a ring base, as published by Avigad.84

Fig. 17.1 Candlestick bottle, top (a) bottom (b) and cross-section (c) projections (L.12001)

79 Jackson-Tal 2004. pp. 143-144. 80 Barag 1962. Cave of Horror: 209, Fig. 10.81 Winter 2006. p. 81, Fig. 3:27.82 Avigad 1962. p. 178, Fig. 6:7.83 Avigad 1962. p. 178, Fig. 6:3.84 Avigad 1962. p. 178, Fig. 6:6.

a b c

112

References


Gorin-Rosen Y. 2002. The Glass Vessels from the Cave VIII/28. Atiqot 41:2, pp. 143-145. IAA, Jerusalem.

Winter T. 2006. The Glass Vessels from ‘Ein ez-Zeituna. Atiqot 51, IAA, Jerusalem. 77-84.

113

18. MetalHaim Cohen, Alexander Efron, Sir Maurice and Lady Irene Hatter Laboratory, Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa

Two iron arrowheads were found in the cave during three excavation seasons. One was found inside the cave fill (L.35001), the second one was found in the crack in the cave wall opposite the entrance, in Area B.

The arrowhead was found close to the southern wall of the cave (L.35001, Fig. 18.1). It is a square-section arrowhead, with an iron pyramidal, square profile; length: 54 mm; 6 mm wide and a round tail (half of the arrowhead body). Its tip is bent from hitting some hard surface, maybe the cave wall. Avigad (1961), also found a similar arrowhead in the cave85 and suggested it was used by foreign mercenary units in the Roman army. The parallels for it should be sought in other regions of the Roman Empire. Only a small numbers of arrowheads of this type were found in this region,86 and were not reported among the hundreds of arrowheads found in Massada or Gamla.

The second arrowhead (Fig. 18.2) is of the type, known as: “Iron tanged trilobate arrowhead”.87 It is trilobate in section, has barbed wingtips, and a wire tang. Another arrowhead of this type was found in the cave by Avigad.88 This is the most common arrowhead type found in the area in proximity to the cave.89 It appeared during the Late Republican time (1st century BCE), but became widespread during the Imperial time. Large quantities of such arrowheads are reported from Massada and Gamla90 and were found in other caves in Judean Desert (Cave of Arrows) as well.91

In conclusion – the arrowheads found in the cave belong to two different types, but both were in use during the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. The square-section arrowhead was reported in Israel from Samaria, in Hellenistic-Persian context,92 but the lack of

85 Avigad 1961. p. 10, Pl. 3B: 8. 86 Porat, Eshel and Frumkin 2007. Fig. 10, 11; Aharoni 1962. Cave of Horror, pl. 27:b; Eshel and

Zissu 1998. Cave of the Sandal, pp. 141-142. 87 Stiebel and Magness 2007. p. 23, pl. 25-26.88 Avigad 1962. p. 178-179, Fig. 7:5. 89 Porat, Davidovich, and Frumkin 2010. Arrow head still attached to its wooden part, Fig. 7;

Porat, Eshel and Frumkin 2009. Fig. 9, 7; Eshel and Porat 2010. Fig.2; Gichon and Vitale 1991. pp. 242-257.

90 Stiebel and Magness 2007. p. 25.91 Aharoni 1961. p. 20, Pl. 9:B.92 Avigad 1961. p. 10, note.

114

any object from these periods in the cave allows us to concur with Avigad’s suggestion, that this arrow had a long life-span, and was used later. The arrowhead in Area B, which was found in the wall crack, was not deformed, except for a small bending in the tang which might have been caused by the force applied in extracting it. We can assume that this particular arrow was not shot from the entrance or from outside the cave, but was stuck inside manually. The exact locations of the arrowheads found by Avigad are unknown.

Additional metal finds

A broken iron nail (Fig. 18.3), probably from the Roman Period, was found in L.21006. Its body has a square cross-section, the head is roughly round and the sharp end is missing.

It is hard to find parallels for the nail, as Stiebel and Magness cite in their report of metal finds from Massada. It is clear that this nail is not modern (Modern nails, with round cross-sections, forged from wires were found in Avigad’s fill). An example of a similar nail was published by Aharoni in 1962.93

Fig. 18.2 Trilobate arrowhead, found in the wall in Area B

Fig. 18.1 Square cross-section arrowhead, L.35001

Fig. 18.3 Roman iron nail, L.21006

93 Aharoni 1962. pl. 27A.

115

References




Avigad N. 1962. Expedition A. 12, pp. 169-183.

Eshel H., and Porat R. 2010. Refuge Caves of the Bar Kokhba Revolt. Second Volume IES, pp. 137-143.

Gichon M., and Vitale M. 1991. Arrow-Heads from Horvat ‘Eqed, IEJ, 41, pp. 242- 257.

Porat R., Eshel H., and Frumkin A., 2007. Finds From the Bar Kokhba Revolt From Two Caves at En Gedi. PEQ, 139.1, pp. 35-53.

Porat R., Davidovich U., and Frumkin A. 2010. The Refugee Caves from Bar-Kokhba Priod between en-Gedi and Khirbet Kumran in the Light of the Renewed Exploration in the Judean Desert. Journal of Dead Sea and Arava Research 2, pp. 1-20 (Hebrew).

Stiebel G. D., and Magness J. 2007. Metal Artefacts. ‘The military equipment from Masada’, Masada VIII, The Yigael Yadin Excavations 1963-1965, Final Reports. IES Jerusalem, pp. 22-26.

116

19. Food RemainsThe excavations of the Second Temple Period’s living layer yielded large quantities of varied plant food remains. The finds include a large number of date kernels (several hundred), in various shapes of preservation (Fig 19.2), one complete date with its pulp in place (Fig. 19.3). Other remains included Pomegranates (Fig. 19.4), Carob pods and seeds (Figs. 19.1, 19.5). The most enigmatic find is the organic material (Fig. 19.6), which was found in large quantities in areas A and B, especially in the pile of debris from the 1961 excavation (A4 and A6). This is a light, black-brown, porous material, resembling the color and the texture of the oxidized fruits. There is a large amount of the material. During the excavation of the A4 area, we filled several baskets with large pieces of it, not mentioning the smaller pieces. The material requires additional study; it may shed light on the exact activity conducted in the cave during the Byzantine Period.

Most of the Date kernels found in Area A come from the surroundings of Area A5, in which we found a storage jar handle with a rope handle attached. The soil around it had many Date kernels.

This assemblage of the food remains found in Cave Q27 is not distinguishable from other sites in the area. Similar remains were found in Massada during Yadin’s excavations as well.94

Other examples of the food remains from the cave were published by Avigad (1962, Pl. 21B). Reported were the same Carob pods, Date kernels, as well as Pomegranates and nuts (of which we did not find any distinctive piece).

Fig. 19.1 Remain of Carob pod Fig. 19.2 Remain of Date kernel

94 Stiebel and Netzer 2006. pp. 22-33.

117

0 21 3 cm 0 21 3 cm

Fig. 19.3 Remain of complete Date Fig. 19.4 Pomegranate skin

0 21 3 cm0 21 3 cm

Fig. 19.5 Carob pod seeds Fig. 19.6 Cooked fruit remains. Surface Area A

References

Porat R., Davidovich U., and Frumkin A. 2010. The Refugee Caves from Bar-Kokhba Priod between en-Gedi and Khirbet Kumran in the Light of the Renewed Exploration in the Judean Desert. Journal of Dead Sea and Arava Research 2, pp. 1-20 (Hebrew).

Stiebel G., and Netzer E. 2006. The new excavations at Masada. Ariel 174, pp. 22-33 (Hebrew).

118

20. Chalcolithic Stamp SealA Chalcolithic stamp seal was found during the first season in Area B (L.12001, Item 52), its size: base 1.7 cm - height 1.8cm

The seal is made of baked gray clay. It has a flat-faced round base with a soft conical - rounded apex as a handle with a horizontal hole. The base bears incised linear ornaments; a group of parallel lines.

The seal can be compared to the Chalcolithic Period stamp seals (Wolf 1992: items 194-196; 378; Garfinkel, Burian and Friedman 1992; Getzov 2011). The seal belongs to the earliest types of stamp seals found in Israel.

Similar ones, in shape with a horizontal hole dated to the Fourth Millennium BCE were found at: Gamla - made of stone (Ben-Tor 1985), Ha-Gosherim, Nili made of clay, same size (Getzov 2011), A Late Neolithic Seal from Herzliya (Garfinkel, Burian and Friedman 1992) A Stamp Seal and a Seal Impression of the Chalcolithic Period from Tel Gerar (Ben-Tor 1990. pp. 80-86). The closest ornament parallel may be found on the Chalcolithic seal from Gilat95 and Early Bronze Age seal from Arad.96 A number of items of Anatolian origin are exhibited at the Harvard Art Museums (Items: 1992.256.271 and 1992.256.285).

The distribution of the Stamp Seal can be found during the Chalcolithic Period of the Southern Levant (Gilead 1988; Moorey 1988; Rowan and Golden 2009). Outside of the Levant, we found parallels in the region from Anatolia to the Balkans and all the way to Persia.

The stamp seals were probably personal items, and the hole drilled through it was probably to allow it to hang around the neck. They might also be items for identifying the individual or the family concerned. An example of the stamping of a straw basket was given presented by Ben-Tor (Ben-tor 1990. p. 84)

The Stamp Seals found in the cave testify to human activity in Cave Q27, probably with some connection to the Ein Gedi Chalcolithic temple, during the Chalcolithic Period. It is a rare find, one of its kind and the only stamp seal found in the Judean Desert and the Jordan Valley so far.

95 Published by Ben-Tor in “A Stamp Seal and a Seal Impression of the Chalcolithic Period From Tel-Gerar”, Eretz-Israel 21. 1990. pp. 80-86 (p. 84.).

96 Beck 1984. “The Seals and Stamps of Early Arad”, Tel-Aviv, 11(2), pp. 97-113.

119

Fig. 20.1 Stamp seal bottom and cross-section projections

120

21. DiscussionCave Q27 through the ages

The stratigraphic picture of the cave became clearer during the recent project of 2003-2012. Four strata were identified below the modern surface layer.

The first human occupation of Cave Q27 is dated to the PPNA Period. The cave was inhabited for a lengthy period, as evidenced by the accumulative living layer, which in some parts, such as the southern section, is ca. 40 cm thick. Most of the artifacts dating to the period originated in the midst of Area B, implying that it was the most frequently utilized part of the cave, at least as far as the lithic finds are concerned. The appearance of the El-Khiam point hints that the cave might have already been occupied during that period. If, indeed, this is the case, then this is the first cave in the area, with an archeological horizon from this period, found so far.

During the Late Chalcolithic Period, a small group of people inhabited the cave, although the dwelling was temporary; the inhabitants did not create a distinctive living layer, but did leave behind some of their fine tableware alongside evidence of storage and cooking as well as textiles and basketry. The dwellers seemed to have been in some form of contact with the nearby Ein Gedi Chalcolithic Temple, although a long distance network to other Chalcolithic sites are hinted by the Stamp Seal found in the cave, should also to be considered. It is the only stamp seal of this type, published so far, originating in the Judean Desert and the Jordan Valley. Like other Chalcolithic sites in Israel, the cave dwellers left it in order to return as implied by a hidden bowl in a chimney above Area C.

During the Iron Age I-III97 the cave was only sparsely utilized. There were some scattered ceramics in the cave’s entrance and in Area C. It is likely that the inhabitants of Ein Gedi village (Tel Goren), were aware of the cave, but did not use it as a dwelling place. The Iron Age occupation ended concurrently with the destruction of Ein Gedi village, in 586 BCE.

During the Early Roman Period, the cave, mainly in Area A, was utilized intensively as was the Mikveh. During this period, a wall was built close to the cave’s entrance probably intending to keep the cave in darkness and the water of the mikveh fresh. The entrance to the cave was from a small opening in its southern side. The large number of the cooking pots, clear living layer in form of the floor made of hay, straw

97 In Joshua 15:62, Ein Gedi is mentioned among the cities of the Tribe of Judah in the desert. Later, King David hides in the desert of Ein Gedi (1 Samuel 24:1-2) and King Saul seeks him “…even upon the very craggy rocks, which are accessible only to wild goats” (1 Samuel 24:3)..

121

and earth and the relatively small number of storage vessels suggest that it was in contact with the nearby settlement of Ein Gedi.

Three fire places were found in the cave: One in Area A, another in Area B and yet another in Area C, suggesting that although the main living layer were situated in Area A, the cave dwellers used its inner, dimmer part. The diet of the cave’s residents seems to have been well balanced. It included meat, some kind of dairy products (from goats and cattle, which were kept in Area B), various fruits and nuts. The prevailing number of Date kernels may suggest that their origin was from the Ein Gedi Date palms.

The dominance of domestic goat bones indicates their economic importance. These were most probably brought to the cave. On the other hand, the wild animal deposits represent animals utilizing the cave after its abandonment whose death is attributed to natural causes. Many of the domestic and wild faunal remains were found in a fresh condition. No human bones were found in the cave.

The limited data available on the mortality profile of goats suggests a slaughter preference for immature animals, a pattern that is usually associated with herd management aimed at meat production exploitation. The presence of bone elements from all parts of the goats suggests that animals were slaughtered and consumed near or in the cave. This, together with the absence of articulated joints, and the incidence of burning suggests that the goat remains represent a mixture of both primary butchery (slaughter and carcass division) and secondary butchery (food processing and consumption).

The mikveh was built in the cave entrance and it bears three layers of plaster, which suggests a lengthy period of use. The pollen study of the hydraulic plaster indicates that it was made from building materials brought in from the Dead Sea area or a semi-arid environment. Following the excavation of Area A, stratum II, we found traces of steps (negative on the wall and plaster pieces left from the steps’ debris) that lead to the mikveh. The complete absence of ‘ceramics’ in the hydraulic plaster is in accordance with the Talmudic ruling regarding the ritual impurity of the pottery.98 This strengthens the assumption that Avigad’s “pool” is in reality a Jewish Mikveh.

The reinforcement leather belt found in Area B L.12005, is square in shape, flat and folded from two sides, with the strap’s inward part still visible. The strap could then be tied around a scroll. The leather object, suggests Jewish life in the cave, although no scrolls were found in the cave so far.

During the Great Revolt of 66-73 CE, the cave was used for refuge, probably by Jews from Ein Gedi. Supporting evidence include a coin from year 2 of the Great Revolt

98 An article on the usage of hydraulic plaster in Jewish contexts from the 2nd Temple to the Talmudic and Mishnaic Periods is presently being prepared for publication by the author.

122

and arrowheads, bent at their tip, found in the cave. Both arrowheads were found in the cave’s inner section (Areas B and C) suggesting that a battle took place in the cave.

In Area A2 opposite the Mikveh, there is a small niche (ca. 1.5×3.0 m) close to the entrance. The niche was excavated during the second and third seasons. It was re-shaped by humans and the chipping signs are still visible on its walls. At the depth of -54 m.bsl, it cut through the eastern part of the PPNA strata. Later, it was filled by a composition of gravel and mountain soil, with a number of larger stones thrown into the bottom. The pottery found in this fill dates to the Early Roman Period. The excavation in the niche was stopped without reaching bed-rock.

The cave stood empty or saw only occasional visits by shepherds during the period between the Great and the Bar Kokhba Revolts. At the time of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, some of the rebels found refuge in the cave as noted by the Bar Kokhba coins found in Avigad’s project.

Unlike Ein Gedi, which was resettled and grew to become a large village during the Byzantine Period, the cave was only reused during the last years of Byzantine rule in this region. Only a few large pithoi, probably serving as storage vessels for some kind of liquid connected to a large quantity of cooked small fruits were found.99

During the Middle Age there was very little activity in the cave.

The ceramic assemblage shows a correlation between the main occupation in Cave Q27 and the nearby Ein Gedi settlement, with few exceptions. Parallels of general types of vessels can be found in excavations conducted in the Dead Sea area, or cultural centers of the period, such as Teleilat Ghassul, Jerusalem, and Petra. Notable are the cooking vessels dated to the Iron Age II, or Byzantine pithoi, found in the cave. No exact parallels were found in the surrounding sites or other areas bordering the geographical location of Q27.

The limited typological repertoire and small number of the vessels of the Chalcolithic and Iron Age II periods, as well as the absence of some of the common types of ceramics found in dwelling sites, as well as the absence of the distinct living strata suggest the temporary usage of the cave as a dwelling or hiding place for a limited period of time. The existence of the cooking vessels with the carinated shoulders suggests that the cave was in use during the Bar Kokhba Revolt in the 2nd century CE. In the Byzantine Period the cave was used for the large storage vessels for a small-scale storage.

99 A large quantity of cooked small fruit mixed with large amount of ash was found in Area A during our excavations. This is likely Avigad’s debris Area A4.

123

22. Conclusions• The human activity in the cave started during the PPNA Period, it continued to

the Chalcolithic Period. The presence of the stamp seal, exact parallel of which, were only found in Anatolia, suggests a long distance trade network. There are no indications that the cave was inhabited during the Bronze Ages. During the Iron Age, human activity, mainly of ceramic finds, was traced. The main human activity in the cave took place during the time of the Second Temple (Early Roman), with very little presence during the Bar Kokhba Revolt. During the Byzantine Period the cave became a workshop for some kind of liquid fruit production. The absence of archaeological finds from later periods suggests that human activity ceased. The cave was rediscovered in the early 20th century.

• The flint stone and ceramic assemblages show a correlation with the main occupation periods in Ein Gedi.

• The cave became a place of refuge during the wars of the Jews against the Romans, the Great Revolt and the Bar Kokhba Revolt. This is when fighting took place in and around the cave.

• A large and deep niche was cut near the entrance, but its purpose is not clear yet and will have to wait until the next seasons of excavation.

• The “Pool-Brecha” is in fact a Jewish Mikveh. The complete absence of ceramic sherds in the hydrolic plaster indicates that it was produced according to the standards to Jewish stipulations.

• The reinforcement leather belt found in Area B indicates Jewish habitation of the cave.

124

Appendixa. List of Loci From the Three Seasonsa.1. Loci List Area A

Locus Date Heightin Meters

Area Description Locus above

Locus below

Period

11001 19.10.0322.10.03

-50.30-51.42

A1 Surface fill with dark soil and small stones.

--- 11002 Surface

11002 19.10.0322.10.03

-51.02-51.16

A1 Ash patch in the square’s western part , with modern findings in it.

11001 11003 Surface

11003 22.10.0326.10.03

-51.16-51.24

A1 Excavating in the same dark surface material, no modern findings. Some plaster pieces were unearthed.

11002 11004 Surface

11004 23.10.0329.10.03

-51.24-52.10

A1 Soft soil, without stones and findings. 11003 --- Phase IIc

11005 26.10.0327.10.03

-50.77-51.30

A1 New area to the south from L.11001-11004. Surface with ashes and modern debris.

--- 1100611009

Surface

11006 27.10.0329.10.03

-51.01-51.31

A1 Layer of small stones, adjoining the place where currently missing lower step inside the mikveh was placed.

11005 11007 Phase IIa

11007 28.10.0328.10.03

-51.34-51.34

A1 A layer under the organic material of 11006, with soil mixed with plaster pieces. The locus was only reached andno further excavation was conducted.

11006 --- Phase IIa

11008 28.10.0329.10.03

-51.01-51.52

A1 New square opened to the west from the rest of the excavations. Surface.

--- 11009 Surface

11009 28.10.0329.10.03

-51.52-51.59

A1 Brown living layer, mixed with organic material and various finds.

11008 --- Phase IIa

21001 -50.80-54.00

A2 A mix of the yellowish soil and small gravel found in the niche A2. Almost empty of finds.

--- 21003 Stratum I

21002 -50.43 A3 Surface

21003 -54.00-54.00

A2 A layer of bright yellowish soil with a large number of flint flakes inside.

21001 --- Stratum III

21004 13.02.0613.02.06

-50.80 A3 Surface

21005 -50.20 A3 Surface

125



Locus below

Period

21006 -50.98 A3 A living layer – brown soil mixed with reeds and straw, lying on the bedrock.

--- Phase IIa

32001 29.10.1215.10.12

-51.16-52.80

A2 The fill, filling the Area A2 from cave floor level to the bottom. Upper part consists of yellow dusty soil, with small stones and pieces of “cave plaster”, Lower parts contains more gravel and less soil.

----- 32002 Stratum I

32002 13.11.1214.11.12

-52.80-54.15

A2 A niche, ~2.5 meters long, found below 3 meters of the 32001. Sterile dusty fill inside and untouched “cave plaster” on the walls and ceiling.

32001 ----- Stratum IV

34001 29.10.1211.11.12

-50.72 m-51.90 m

A4 A large pile of dark-gray cave soil, mixed together with organic materials such as wood, bones, and charcoals, stones, taken from somewhere in the cave. The stones also support the pile from the north, while the cave’s southern wall supports the other side. The pile is roughly 1,5/3 meters high (depends on surrounding cave floor), and was raised by the expedition of Nahman Avigad, while excavating in the cave in winter 1961. The soil is unsifted.

--- 31002 Surface

34002 11.11.1215.11.12

-51.90-52.30

A4 Yellow-brown soil fill, with few stones, underneath the Avigad’s fill.

31001 ----- Phase IIc

35001 4.11.1214.11.12

-50.25-50.74

A5 A surface locus of the Area A5 (between A2 and A4), yellow / gray soil fill, with stones and modern debris. The western part of the locus mixed with the eastern part of Avigad’s pile from A4.

---- 35002 Surface

35002 5.11.127.11.12

-50.74-50.98

A5 Yellow-brown soil, with fewer stones, and a large amount of organic material (straw) mixed with it.

35001 35003 Phase IIa

35003 7.11.1215.11.12

-50.98-51.16

A5 Layer of hard, compressed soil mixed with organic material. Yellow-brown color.

---- 35002 Phase IIc

126



Locus below

Period

36001 8.11.1214.11.12

-51.65-52.70

A6 The western part of the Avigad pile, technically, similar to 34001. Dark-gray soil with a large amount of burnt palm tree wood, other mixed organic material, large and medium stones.

----- 36002 Surface

36002 14.11.1215.11.12

-52.70-52.85

A6 Yellow-brown soil, without stones, almost sterile.

36001 ---- Phase IIc

a.2 Loci List Area B

Locus Date High in Meters


Locus below

Period

12001 -53.16-53.68

B Surface soil – gray, with many stones. --- Surface

12002 -53.73 B 1200312003 -53.73

-54.00B A patch of cattle dung, found under

the 12002. 12002

12004 -53.01 B Wall, oriented SW-NE (1.20 m.long, ~0.5 m high).

12005 -53.01-53.35

B Rock slide from the cave roof.

12006 -53.58-53.85

B

a.3 Loci List Area C

Locus Date High below BM.


Locus below

Period

13001 -53.00-53.50

C Big stones and gravel Surface

13002 -53.35-53.50

C Burning layer Surface

13003 -53.50-55.25

C Brown soil/ dark Phase IIc

13004 -55.25-56.00

C Big stones and gravel Stratum IV

127

b. Field Diary

b. 1 Field Diary First Season 2003Date Area Locus Findings Description19.10 A1 11001 Surface. Ash found on western side. The gully lies on the

stones, adjoining the mikveh from the south where there are remains of the steps. Possibility for a wall to the south of the mikveh.

19.10 A1 11002 Signs of ash.20.10 A1 11001 Surface, without stones adjoining the mikveh. In the western

part, 5cm down–small stone group. Soil is a bit dense.20.10 A1 11002 Modern debris

and ashes. The locus was opened due to appearance of ashes.

21.10 A1 11001 Soil fill. Floating small stones, are removed. Few finds, no modern remains.

21.10 A1 11002 Soil, stones, modern finds, fireplace in the south-western corner.

22.10 A1 11001 Soil fill with stones, almost sterile.22.10 A1 11002 Soil fill with small stones. 22.10 A1 11003 Remains of the plaster and maybe the stair stones close to the

mikveh. Soil fill and small stones. 23.10 A1 11001 Working in the fill under the wall, sterile.23.10 A1 11004 Going down below the plaster, maybe fill under the layer.

corner of the plaster is leftin place.26.10 A1 11003 Clearing and straightening the cross-sections of L.11004. The

idea – to clarify the stratigraphy, without descending any further.

26.10 A1 11005 New area, x3.27.10 A1 11004 Going down through the soft fill.27.10 A1 11005 Surface, still modern finds.27.10 A1 11006 Many finds above the floor, middle-sized stones.28.10 A1 11006 Going down in the square’s western part, cleaning it first.

Organic material, plaster, pottery.28.10 A1 11007 The layer of the concretion – pieces floating and pieces

cemented with each other.28.10 A1 11008 Enlarging square, 0.5x3 m. to the west. Surface.29.10 A1 11004 Going down into the soft fill, almost without stones and

sterile.29.10 A1 11005 Under the removed stones – other stones floating, grinding.

Modern findings and undisturbed living layer under it.13.10 B 12001 Large boulders, fallen from the ceiling, soil and small stones.

128

Date Area Locus Findings Description13.10 B 12002 Soil fill with small stones. When we proceded further, same

soil without stones. S-E corner – larger stones, will check later.

14.10 B 12002 This is the locus of the fallen rocks – no layers. Soil fill, few middle-sized stones. Huge rocks not floating yet. Underneath, even bigger boulders found. Closed the locus because of the remains of the animal den.

15.10 B 12002 Fallen stones. Large rocks in the edges, and the center of the area. Rocks taken out and to levelling the area.

16.10 B 12002 -3.73

16.10 B 12003 -3.7319.10 B 12001 The area was expanded to 3x5 m., rest of area cleaned in

order to reveal the situation between fallen boulders. Sterile below?

20.10 B 12001 Rope Going down and cleaning between the rocks in the expanded area. Rope found between them.

20.10 B 12003 Fallen area, 1.5x1.5, m. soil fill and small stones. 20.10 B W1200420.10 B 1200521.10 B 12001 Surface, slowly descending. Under big stones remains of a

terrace found, locus closed.21.10 B 12005 Fallen stones.21.10 B 12006 Lower part of the terrace. 22.10 B 12005 Cleaning and closing.22.10 B 12006 Cleaning and closing.13.10 C 1300114.10 C 13001 Bones, pottery,

organic material, cloth, ropes.

Cleaning the debris, area divided into two parts, northern and southern. Under the debris large stones were found.

15.10 C 13001 Removing stones, and lowering the area approx. 20 cm. 15.10 C 13002 Roman and

Chalc. Pottery, ropes

Dividing the western section into an additional locus – heavy conflagration, 20cm thick.

16.10 C 13001 Ropes, cloth, basketry, pottery,

Excavating the surface, most of the finds are from the square’s eastern part, fallen stones. Following removal of the corner locus changed 13003 – falling boulders, light-brown soil, blackened small-medium sized stones.

129

Date Area Locus Findings Description16.10 C 13002 Roman pottery Going down through the burned layer, medium sized

stones. Few Roman sherds. Going down another 20 cm and connecting the loci. Excavation in other loci halted.

16.10 C At the end of the day, a large boulder slipped from the section, touching Michal (one of the excavetors).

19.10 C 13001 Cleaning the soil fill, and the stones. No changes. 20.10 C 13003 Burned locus left for a while. We excavated a little 13001,

surface, at the eastern corner. We cleaned half of the square, adjoining the south-eastern walls. Instead of the fallen boulder a stair was built, in order to prevent any additional falls. A few large stones were removed. In the western corner, under the larger stone we found a hole in the ground, between the fallen boulders, filled with soil.

21.10 C 13001 The eastern corner was cleaned of the surface material, and went down into the sterile light-brown soil between the rocks.

21.10 C 13002 Cleaning the locus.21.10 C 13003 The southern corner and the center of the area was cleaned,

to proceed down through the fallen, bright soil between the rocks. The hole in the western corner (where we removed the stone) was cleaned down to the soil. Under the boulder we found a clean and thin burned layer, -1.25. The hole was cleaned to the -1.75, we named it, at first, 13003, to be changed later, if necessary. In the eastern part the soil is sterile.

b.2 Field Diary Second Season

Nahal David Mikveh Cave, permit No. G-22/2006. February 12- 23rd 2006

Date Area Locus Basket Height and position

Finds Basket description

12.02 A1 Surface 210001 Entrance to the cave

CeramicTextileBonesYellowish alluvial material from the mikveh, found in the vicinity of Area A.

As we were working in the cave, Vladie used a metal detector and inspected the surface level below the cave where material from the cave might have slipped. One coin possibly dating to the Second Revolt - Bar Kokhba was found. All of the material is sifed and a small piece of cloth was found, dating back to the Second Temple period.

130



12.02 A2 21001 210002 0.80- T Alluvial material, ceramic, bones

The surface level in this niche slopes downwards towards the west. We plan to excavate the niche’s lower part. It seems that the walls around this niche have been built with cobble- stones one of which was found near the entrance of the cave.

13.02 A2 21001 210003 Alluvial material, ceramic, bones, flint, date kernels.

Silty earth mixed with much stone rubble was excavated. The idea is to create a section in the middle of this niche towards the east. At the very western edge of the niche, were found a concentration of bones and recent animal droppings. A darker layer was reached. At the end of the day, we started cleaning the eastern area, which is at a higher elevation because material kept falling into the already excavated area.

13.02 A1 Surface 210004 Alluvial material, ceramic, glass.

While cleaning the debris and rubble from the entrance to the cave, we found a piece of rope and a piece of cloth.

13.02 A3 21004 210005 0.80 – T B -215

Alluvial material, ceramic, Bones.

We have cleaned an area where robbers had been digging. We were able to discern two living surfaces in the section we have created. At the southern end of the eastern section, we can see an ash pit. We have also found a piece of cloth and the base of a glass juglet. Now that we have finished cleaning this area, we can start excavating it tomorrow.

14.02 A3 21002 210006 0.43 – T B - 098

Alluvial material, ceramic, bones, flint, date kernels, organic material

We removed the surface level above the living surface. No special finds were present in this material- just rubble and silt. We decided to expand the excavated area to the north all the way to the side of the mikveh.

14.02 A2 21001 210007 Alluvial material, ceramic,bones, flint, glass, kernels, wood.

As a preventative measure, we are cleaning the entrance to the niche and in the higher eastern part to prevent material falling into the lower western area.

131



14.02 A2 21001 210008 2.00– T Alluvium, ceramic,bones, flint, organic material, kernels

As we continued descending in the western part of the niche, surprisingly we found almost no finds and the roof continues sloping downward. There are no signs of smoke on the roof of the niche.

14.02 A1 21005 210009 0.20 – T Alluvium, ceramics, organic material, flint

We are excavating debris next to the cave’s southern side in front of the entrance to the western chamber. A lot of earth is mixed with ash. We found a piece of wood that Haim says has drill marks on it.

14.02 A3 21006 210010 0.98 – T Ceramics, bones, flint, glass, kernels.

This is a living surface containing small fieldstones, some ash spots, and straw. The area slopes towards the south probably because of later subsidence. The surface continues towards the north and east. We have found a piece of leather which may have been the binding of a scroll , according to Haim.

15.02 A2 21001 210011 2.29 – T Alluvium bones.

Continue clearing rubble and powdery material, which might be part of the disintegration (weathering) of the limestone. Hardly any finds except for some bones at a height of -2.18m. Some large boulders, which might be part of collapse area showed up. No ceramics were found.

15.02 A3 21005 210012 0.68 – T Alluvium, ceramics,Bones, flint, ashes, kernels, wood.

As we dug 60 cm of the debris, it became clear that we are excavating a pile of from a previous expedition. A cigarette package dating to the early 1950s (“Ogen” made by Dubeck in Tel-Aviv) and a piece of paper with a description of The En-Gedi Chalcolithic Temple was found. This pile is composed of ash, silt, and rubble.

15.02 A3 21002 210013 0.43 – T Alluvium, ceramics, bones, flint, organic material, glass, kernels.

We removed silty earth mixed with rubble, pottery sherds and many pieces of plaster that came from the mikveh. We finished removing this layer when a gray layer appeared.

132



15.02 A3 21006 210014 0.53 – T Ceramics, bones, flint, glass, kernels, wood.

The living surface was defined by a gray layer mixed with straw. We just started excavating this layer at the end of the day and will finish tomorrow. We found a piece of cloth as well as rope and fruit seeds.

15.02 A3 21005 210016 CeramicsNo work was conducted due to floods in the wadi of Nahal David, leading to the cave.19.02 A2 21006 210015 Bones, ceramics,

botanical remains, kernels, wood.

20.02 A2 21006 210018 Bones, ceramics, kernels, wood.

21.02 A3 21002 210020 Bones21.02 A2 21006 210021 Bones, ceramics,

kernels, wood. 21.02 A3 21003 210022 Bones, wood,

flint, ceramicsContinued to excavate the niche, the fill changed color to a darker one. We encountered more medium-sized stones. A large amount of the crushed shells appeared, together with a number of the Early Roman Period vessels body-sherds.

22.02 A2 21006 210023 Bones, ceramics, kernels, wood, flint.

22.02 A2 21004 210025 Bones, wood, flint, glass.

23.02 21005 210027 Bones, ceramics, kernels, wood, flint.

b.3 Field Diary Third Season

Nahal David Mikveh Cave, permit No. G-22/2006. October 28 - November 15, 2012

Date Area Locus Finds Description29.10 A4 31001 Started excavation at -0.72, in the heap. Below it a stone

fill under Aharoni’s.29.10 A2 32002 Piece of building plaster came out.

133

Date Area Locus Finds Description30.10 A4 31003 Bones, date pips,

plaster.Blackened fill with organic remains, northern part of the locus consists of stones, forming a crude supporting wall on the southern part of the fill.

30.10 A2 3200431.10 A4 31003 Ceramics,

Organic materialFrom the low ceiling we released a piece of the plaster. Afterwards it became clear that this is a piece of stone with natural calcite “plaster-like” formation on one side. The stone removed was used as a step in the entrance to the cave. After removal, the area was leveled and points were measured. Then a few large stones from the northern part of the square were removed, and the excavation went on. Underneath the black dusty soil of Locus 31003, a patch of sandy, light-brown colored layer appeared. It was decided to level the area until all the surface was cleared and, then change the locus number. This layer is probably the living layer of the Second Temple Period.

31.10 A Mikveh area

Ceramic Jar In the small crack inside the northern wall, closed with a couple of small stones a ceramic vessel in the shape of the “scroll jar” was found. The jar was closed with the lid of a distinctive form. Inside we found a number of artificially aged paper, scrolled with a rubber band. It is likely that remains of members of a‘youth movement in their activity for studying Israel’s past, left this jar here for their friends to find. This was corroborated by Ein Gedi Field School councillors.

31.10 A2 32004 Some reed material, organic.

The yellow-whitefill we are currently digging is clearly man-made. The bottom has large stones above smaller ones, and then it was sealed with the soil fill. The material is different from the other part of the cave. Once we finish leveling the trench, a new locus is likely to be added.

01.11 A4 31004 Modern material, ceramics, wood, reeds, organic material

New locus opened, -1.04, bright-yellowish soil. Following a short dig it became clear that a change of locus was unnecessary – the bright soil formed only a small patch. Inside the black fill we found a number of datable objects: a lamp for a camera’s flash [50-60th], and the piece of “Haaretz” (an Israeli newspaper) dated 14.03.1961. The black fill with stones belonging to the Avigad expedition. We dug to reach the bottom of the fill, especially in the northern part of the square, in order to reach the living layer we expected is at the bottom.

134

Date Area Locus Finds Description01.11 A2 32004 We decided to remove the stones, which fell via passage

from the Area A4, in the western part of the niche, in order to reveal the cut-section from the previous expedition. Then work along the huge boulder, to see what space the niche originally occupied. The work will start from the northern part, then L.32005, The stones of the southern-western corner cannot be moved – they actually support the huge boulder, preventing it from sliding deeper.

01.11 A2 32005 New locus, to the east from 32004. [-1.14-0.96]. In L.32005 the same artificial fill appears from the top. A yellowish dusty fill with stones. Also, the edge of the living layer of the Second Temple period became visible on the northern side. The original living layer was cut by later activity, which ended up in filling the niche with a yellow fill. Concerning the niche – the fill is later to the ST period, probably 132 CE.

04.11 A5 A new area is opened, a triangle, between A4 and A2. The area is named A5. It is leaning to the west due to the the surface conditions (eastern point - -0.25, western -0.7). The surface fill is a mix of dust and soil from A2 and A4. First we remove all the stones covering the surface, then levelled the area, minding the ST living layer lying underneath. Approximately, in the middle of the square, different fills appeared – the western part is gray to black, eastern is yellow. At some point the fills are mixed. We decided to divide it into two different loci – the “yellow” (32007) and the “gray” (32008) The top point of the 32007, next to 32005. In 32007 two sherds of Chalcolithic Period were found, while fill 32005 is almost sterile.

04.11 A5 32008 Burned limestone, modern material, ceramics, organic material

– A piece of limestone burned by heavy intense fire was found close to the border of the square, at ~-0.72.

04.11 A4 31004 Continuing to remove the Avigad fill, sifting everything. It is not certain, where this fill will end – will it reach the PPNA level, or stop before it?

04.11 A2 32005 Continuing removing yellowish fill.Heights at the end of the day: 31004: -1.3832005: -1.1532007: -0.60/-0.7032008: -0.55/-0.70

135

Date Area Locus Finds Description05.11 A4 31004 Work continues in the square, metal detector shows

something metallic below. We have at least 10-15 cm more of the Avigad fill.

05.11 A2 32005 Work continues around the huge boulder.05.11 A5 32008 Work continues, a piece of old paper [a page from

notebook?] was found. When we hit the living layer, we started leveling the rest of the square. Then changed locus number. The living layer has darker soil with stones used for leveling, and small finds inside.

05.11 A5 35002 Glass, Ceramics, modern finds, burned stone

L.35002 a new locus opened for living layer. [We changed the numbers of the upper loci, 32007 and 32008 into 35001] at -0.74. The pile of the fill next to it continues. In the north-east corner a piece of pergament paper and a bunch of electric cables came out, in the same place where layers are mixed. A stone from a fireplace was found, in the N-W corner, one side was burned, the other is clean, and a piece of Roman Period Glass was found.

06.11 Started with metal detector of the three squares. The results – rusty stapler in 31004, and strong signal in the center of 35002.

06.11 A4 31004 Bones, ceramics, wood

Removing Avigad’s excavation dirt fill reveal that the upper layers of the Second Temple were destroyed, we hope the PPNA layer is undamaged . It was not damaged. The southern part of the square was excavated. The color of the fill is changed to brown.

06.11 A2 32005 Ceramics, reeds, dates kernels

Going down very fast through almost sterile fill. Around the -1.57 the material is changing form – little more “wet”, dustier, and more findings are coming out.

06.11 A5 35002 Plaster piece, leather sandal, ceramics, wood, reed, date kernels, bones

We reached the ST period living- layer, darker-brown compressed soil, with small pieces of reed inside. Above it a post-ST period layer. In the living layer (post ST-period) a piece of hydraulic plaster from the mikveh, and of a leather sandal were found. The square was leveled and a new locus was opened.

06.11 A5 35003 Soil fill, dark brown, almost without stones. Living layer of ST period?

07.11 A4 31004 Complete date, ceramics, bones, wood

Continuing digging in the southern 1/3 of the square, to reach the PPNA layer. The color changed to brown-yellow. On the eastern cut-section of the Locus the living layer is visible, although it was not found during the excavation in the square. The sifting of the material brought out a complete date!

136

Date Area Locus Finds Description07.11 A2 32005 Worked wood, salt

water snail shell (jewelry)

Continue excavating from the -1.98, in an attempt to reach the rock floor of the cave. Same yellowish fill, feels wet. Sifting brings up a piece of worked wood (one side is straight) and a salt water shell, with pinched top (Jewelry?). During the cleaning of the tunnel (passage) a tag dating to 20.03.1961 was found.

07.11 A5 35002 Ceramics, reed, bones, glass

Continue leveling the square, at -0.84, at the ST period living layer. Two pieces of the glass perfume bottles of the Roman Period were found during sifting of the materials from previous day.

07.11 A5 35003 The layer leans slightly towards the west (~10 degrees).08.11 A4 31004 Finishing clearing half-square, changing locus and going

down.08.11 A2 32005 Flint pieces Building supports for the stone at the wall, and continue

digging. The sifting brings up a large amount of stones, and small flint pieces.

08.11 A5 35003 Organic material, bones, wood, pottery

Going down, minding the PPNA layer somewhere below, looking to check how the layers are related. Many small stones and organic material, and less pottery noted.

08.11 A6 36001 A new locus opened, 36001, to the west from A4, on the other side of the Avigad fill. Attempt to see the correlation between the pile and the living layer below. The square is 3x3 m, and due to environment, work started with removing the stones. After stones were removed, the excavation took place in two parts – S-E corner (top of the Avigad fill) and the N-W, the lowest point where the pile ended, and the cave floor is visible. Attempt to remove the pile, while keeping the lower layer visible.

11.11 A4 31004 Changed to Locus 31005 on the lower part of the square.11.11 A4 31005 Iron arrowhead Sifting of the material brought up iron arrowhead. Areas

A5 and A4 tomorrow, removing the balk.11.11 A2 32005 Pottery Keep digging down, after a long period of waiting, we

found a large piece of pottery in the sifted material, approx. 3 m. below the original niche floor. The color is changing a bit, with more white in the dust.

11.11 A5 35003 Adding 1 m. to the northern side, no work in the square.

137

Date Area Locus Finds Description11.11 A6 36001 Work continues in a small belt on the western part of

the square. The idea is to remove the thinnest part of the Avigad fill. Data was gathered from the section. The base of the fill, made of stones, is lying on the original cave floor. The stones were thrown on the ground, and the soil was piled on them. Originally, the stones covered the cave floor, later they were moved aside, thrown into a pile, and then the soil removed from the cave floor was piled on them.

12.11 A4 31004 Cleaning before removing upper steps of the square.12.11 A4 31005 Metal piece, bronze

or copper.Leveling with the lowest point, the yellow-brown fill. Found a piece of bronze or copper.

12.11 A2 32005 Baked stones, linen cloth piece, ceramics

Going down through gravel/stones/soil fill. Found and taken out a stone with one side smoked. Also, a piece of white linen cloth was found. The south wall shows an interesting feature – an additional niche, we are unearthing it right now. Found three pottery pieces, first cent. CE, and a number of small smoked stones.

12.11 A6 36001 Modern findings, bones, ceramics, wood.

M. Ding brought up a modern metal nut. We are removing the stones of the Avigad’s pile. We are going to expose the southernmost wall of the pile, and see if it is from Avigad’s excavation or earlier.

13.11 A4 31005 Flint, grinding stone, ceramics, wood.

We stopped at the yellow fill, once material from the Chalcolith and PPNA started coming out. In the lowest part of the area we found the robbers’ excavations, which went from the upper part of the Avigad fill down to the PPNA layer. The diggers put down a plastic bag which covered the stones at the edge. They cut the PPNA layer making an additional niche-step approx. 70 cm high. We are not going to continue the excavation in the area. The finds are just a few flints and a grinding stone.

13.11 A2 32005 The niche is going inside the southern wall for more than 2 meters.

13.11 A5 35003 Removal of the balks between A5 and A4/A2.13.11 A6 36001 Leveling down to the original cave floor.13.11 A2/

A4/A5/

Balks Date kernels, pottery, rope, wood, bones, modern material

A4/A5 – Was removed completely, its nature – Avigads fill. Received the number 35001/350009. A5/A2 – A large piece of leather was found on the level of 35003. Also, a loop of a rope basket handle inside the ceramic handle was found. We may see something like a knot. A large amount of the date kernels are lying around.

14.11 A2 32005 Continuing going down, cleaning the room, which goes inside the southern wall for 2,5m at least. We cannot reach the end, but it is visible.

138

Date Area Locus Finds Description14.11 A2 32006 A new locus was opened for the room, though now finds

came out. Inside, carstic material covers the walls and the ceiling, without any sign of smoke. We decided to leave the locus, for no finds were discernible, and no sign of human “activity. A note was left for future researches.

14.11 A5 35001/3 Ceramics, wood, bread (?)

Cleaning up the remains of the balk, brushing the cut-section, drawing. After that – keep going down. A piece of charred bread was found in the cleaning of the rest of the balk A4/A5.

14.11 A6 36001 Going down, removing rest of Avigad’s fill in the western side of the square – due to constant stone sliding, we work in the square rim to the most south-western part.

14.11 A6 36002 New locus, powdery yellowish-brown soil, at -2.70, below Avigad’s fill. Leveling completed. We left additional notes in the A4 and A6.

15.11 A5 35003 A small probe in the center of the square, 0.5x0.5 meters, went down approx. 70 cm, bringing sterile soil. We concluded the excavation in the area, left a note, and covered the area with plastic and stones.

15.11 A2 32005 It was decide to suspend the excavation in the area. We prepared a note, left it in the lowest part of excavated A2, and covered it with stones from inside the cave.

15.11 A2/A4/A5/A6

The areas were covered with stones, with plastic shade below them, marking the depth, where excavation suspended.

MIKVEH CAVE Q27 The First Three Seasons of Excavations 2003, 2006, 2012

Documents

Transcript of MIKVEH CAVE Q27 The First Three Seasons of Excavations 2003, 2006, 2012