GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES OF MATHURA REGION

Mathura is one of the most important ancientsettlements of the region popularly known asBraja-kshetra, a term which in spite of occurringin ancient Indian literature became popular onlyin the medieval period. The old district ofMathura lay between Lat. 27’14’ and 27’58íNand Long. 77’17í and 78’12íE and covered anarea of about 3625 square km. The area of themodern Mathura district is 3340 square km witha population of over 2 million). The wholedistrict of Mathura is a part of Yamuna plains.Thearea in the north is slightly higher while in thesouth and south-east it is less than 600 feet MSL.Hence the slope of the land is from north to southand south-east direction. In between this areathe River Yamuna flows from north to south.

From geo-morphological point of view, theregion of Braj can be divided into threecategories: 1. the plains; 2. the hilly area; 3. thekhadar area. The plain area is much larger andis spread on both sides of river Yamuna in theeast and in the west. The area to the east ofYamuna (the trans-Yamuna tract) is more fertilein comparison to the area to the west of Yamuna(the cis-Yamuna tract) as trans-Yamuna areacomprises of domat soil (fertile clay). In the cis-Yamuna area, there are many fertile pockets likenear Tarauli, Bathain-Jab, Mora-Sakna etc.Generally the soil of cis-Yamuna tract is piliya(a light yellow loam). Vegetation in the districtis of a dry-deciduous type and the original scantytree species include Faras, Pilu, Chheokar,Reonj, Babul, Kharjal, Kadamb, Karil, Hins andBansi. Other trees and shrubs do not differ from

VII.9. Mathura

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those in Gangetic doab, though, hilly outcropsat Barsana and elsewhere produce some Dhau,Kadamb, Paserid and Pilukhan (Joshi 1968: 14).

The hilly area is limited to the west andnorth-west of Braj. These low hills (height lessthan 100 feet) are the off shoots of Aravalli andare considered of religious significance. Theimportant hills in the region are: Govardhan,Barsana, Nandgaon, Kaman, Sikri and CharanPahari. Khadar area is situated on both sides ofRiver Yamuna in the form of thin strips and ismade of soil brought in by river floods but theundulating sandy area near the river channel isalso known as khadar land.

Among the major rivers and streams in theregion mention may be made of Yamuna,Karban/Jhirna, Patwaha, Sengar/ Arind,Gambhiri, Agra Canal, Govardhan Drain andManth Branch of Ganga Canal. Among theserivers Yamuna is the most important along whichlie the major sites of Mathura, Vrindavan, Manth,Nohjhil, Gokul, Mahavan, Shergarh, Surir, Agraand Bateshwar. Frequency of ancient sites isquite high along the Govardhan Drain and theManth Branch of Ganga Canal. Gambhiri in themajor part flows in Bharatpur district. Locationof Mathura district is the most important factorwhich makes it archaeologically and culturallyso important. It is situated at the entry-pot ofGanga-Yamuna doab. The trans-Yamuna regionis climatically a part of the Ganga-Yamuna doab,while the western part of Mathura district withAravalli off shoots is more associated with thegeographical and climatic conditions ofRajasthan. Moving from north to south, it changesfrom the climatic conditions of fertile Haryanaland to a mixed climatic condition. Because ofits geographical location as a nodal point variousancient routes passed from here which havenow taken the shape of highways and railwaytracks, though some have lost their importance

because of modernization. One route comingfrom Indraprastha and going to Malwa-Gujaratregion passed from here, following almost thepresent day route. One route went to Vidishavia Pawaya; one went to Kausambi followingthe course of Yamuna in the east while one veryimportant but less studied route went from hereto west and north-west Rajasthan via Kaman,Firozpur Jhirka; other routes went towardsBareilly region crossing Yamuna and Ganga andmet with the Mauryan royal highway inbetween. Thus Mathura district served asmeeting place for the desert with doab, hills withplains, north with south and east with west. Allthese routes were so important that Mathurabecame an important centre for internationaltrade, position of which, during the Islamicperiod was acquired by Agra and Delhi, bothhaving quite the same geographical and nodalimportance. Location of ancient routes passingvia Mathura is also clear from the study of IndianRailways as Mathura is still the biggest junctionpoint of Indian Railways and possibly the onlyplace in the country from where trains can betaken to reach any place.

MATHURA IN ANCIENT LITERATURE

The epic literature, especially the Mahabharatais stocked with references to Mathura and theSurasena region. The genealogy of solar andlunar dynasties describes several kings who heldsway over this land. Paniniís Ashtadhyayimentions a number of references related withMathura (all indirectly), some of which havebeen further elaborated by Patanjali whileelaborating the sutras. It says that the glory ofMathura owes to the traditions of Mahabharata(IV.1.14, IV.2.82 and VI.2.34). The place hasbeen described as a stronghold of Andhaka-Vrishni clans (Agrawala 1952: 361-64). InPatanjaliís Mahabhashya, a text composed

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during c. 2nd century BC, Mathura is mentionedon at least eight occasions (Keilhorn 1962 Vol I:1/1/57, p. 144; 1.2.1, p. 192; 1.2.64, p. 244;2.4.7, p. 474; Vol. II; 4.1.14, p. 205; 7.1.1, p.239; 7.2.62, p. 299) and at one place the textadmires the general conditions of this placesaying that the people were happy and goodlooking and probably better off than theresidents of Sankasya and Pataliputra (5.3.57).Manusmriti (II.19) mentions Vraja region(Surasena) as part of Brahmarshi country. TheGaruda Purana (II.28.3) mentions Mathuraalong with six other most holy cities of India.Uttarakanda of Ramayana (Sarga 68-70) dealswith the incidents of Madhupuri, the fight ofSatrughna with Lavanasura and the establishmentof the capital city Madhura. Harivamsa Purana(54/56-62), which is one of the early Puranasprovides some important information aboutMathura. It also tells that this city was establishedin the forest area of Madhuvana by Satrughnaafter killing the demon Lavanasura there. It tellsabout the fortification wall, the moat, thecrescent shape, gardens, high rise buildings,prosperity (in terms of crop production,availability of precious jewels) and thecommerce of the city.

Padma Purana (73/44, 45) mentionsMathura to be even holier than the holiest cityof Kasi. It further adds that Mathura is the city ofLord Vishnu and is worshipped by many deitiesas a sanatana puri (583/12, 13, 14). In VarahaPurana (152-8, 9), Lord Varaha tells theGoddess Earth that no place on earth, space ornether world is so liked by him as is Mathurawhich is higher than the heaven in its reputationfor being the birth place of Krishna.

Even Buddhist literature as well as the Jainaliterature is replete with references aboutMathura. Majjhimanikaya (Madhuriya Sutta2.4.4) mentions that once upon a timeMahakatyayana used to reside at Gundavana inMadhura. The Dipavamsa account that ëin thepast, Sadhina and twenty two of his descendents,the last of whom was Dhammagupta, ruled inMadhuraí (Dipavamsa III 1879: 21) is also ofsome significance. Ghata Jataka, composed inSri Lanka, mentions a much altered story ofKrishna legend, actually, for which Mathura isfamous as such. The sources enumerateSurasena in the traditional list of sixteen

Fig. 1. Naga shrine, Sonkh.

Fig. 2. Katra Bodhisattva-Buddha.

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janapadas and include Madhura within thatkingdom, but there is no specific mention of itas a capital city. The Mula- SarvastivadaVinayavastu places Mathura lying nearBhadrasva and Otala, all within territory ofSurasena kingdom. It designates the latter as thefirst kingdom (adi rajya) and hence was knownas Mahasammta, ëthe Great Electedí (GilgitManuscripts 1947: 3). Lalita Vistara (1977: 21-22) mentions Mathura city along with other greatcities like Hastinapur. Milinda Panho mentionsMathura along with Ujjaini, Saketa, Magadha,Surattha, Kotumbara, etc. (1885ñ1900: 211). InBealís translation of the Chinese version ofAbhinishkramana Sutta, Mathura has beenstyled as the capital of whole Jambu- dvipa(Growse 1883: 105).

The early Pali canonical texts are silent onthe issue of the Buddhaís visit to Mathura regionbut one passage in Anguttaranikaya does saythat he journeyed along the highway betweenMadhura and Veranja (II 1885-1900: 57). TheMula-Sarvastivada Vinayavastu repeats theprophecy of the Buddha regarding the foundingof Natabhata vihara and the advent of Upaguptain Mathura (Gilgit Manuscripts 1947: 3).

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIAEXCAVATIONS AT KATRA KESHAVDEV

In 1953, M. Venkataramaiyya and Ballabh Saranof the A.S.I. (Indian Archaeology - 1953-54 - AReview) conducted the first systematicexcavation at the Katra site. This excavation wasdone in a very limited area. The site for theexcavation was selected for its rich tradition interms of literature, culture, inscriptions, coins,terracottas, sculptures and the surface find ofP.G.W. sherds. The excavators were inclined toexcavate the site also because of two rings ofmud-ramparts, one elliptically shaped and theother quadrangular suggesting citadel. The

detailed report of this excavation would possiblynever come out.

The excavators laid a small trench at adistance of about 500 feet to the north of thesuperimposed mosque of Idgah. The natural soilwas touched at of depth of 42 feet and their lastpoint was the portion of earth composed of hardclay and kankar bands. The most striking findingof the excavation was the presence of

Fig. 3. Jain chaumukhi.

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handmade potsherds besides the natural soil. Nofragment of P.G.W. was found from the layers

although some pieces were collected as surfacefinds. It was possibly because of very limitedarea of excavation. The six feet deposit abovethe natural soil revealed plain grey ware andblack slipped ware pottery types along withnormal red ware pottery. This phase would havedated to pre-600 BC period. No N.B.P.W. sherdswere found in this deposit. The other antiquitiesfrom this layer included terracotta discs, balls,beads, a boat-shaped bird and perforatedpottery.

The next period was distinguished by theoccurrence of N.B.P.W. and in the chronologicalsequence it can be divided into three periods.The earliest remains include bamboo and reedhuts with slightly baked or unbaked bricks, bonestyli or needles, carnelian amulets and beads.The terracotta objects included grey mothergoddess figurines and animal figurines includinga dog in red colour. The ring-wells also cameinto existence at the site for the first time in thislevel. The second phase of finds wascharacterized by square copper coins, cylindricalterracotta beads, ear ornaments, etchedcarnelian beads, copper antimony rods,terracotta mother goddess figurines in greycolour with appliquÈ treated girdle, elephantfigurines with lozenge shaped eyes and bodiesdecorated with punched, stamped or notchedcirclets, monkeys with three legs (mostly in redcolour). No complete plan of a house had cometo light but well laid out walls, drains and ring-wells suggest a high degree of planning. Thisperiod can be assigned a date ranging between6th century BC and 3rd century BC.

The site was deserted for a very short periodof few years after late 2nd century BC as thesealed ring-wells indicated. The third period istypified by a large variety of beads of semi-precious stones like agate, carnelian, lapislazuli,jasper, amethyst as well as beads of shell,

Fig. 4. Dvimukha Sivalinga, Aring, Mathura.

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faience and copper coins, some of whichbelonged to Kushan period. Stone caskets and aturquoise blue glazed finial were also found inthis period. The fourth period assignable fromAD 100 to AD 300 is to be identified by theterracotta figurines of dwarfs prepared by usingdouble mould technique. The fifth and the lastperiod belonged to the Gupta period asevidenced by coins, terracotta, sealings,Naigmesha, elephant and horse riders.

MATHURA EXCAVATIONS OF 1973-77

Under the supervision of M.C. Joshi, A.S.I.conducted excavations in Mathura from 1973-74 to 1976-77 at nearly fourteen sites in differentparts of the city (IAR 1973-74 to 1976-77). Theseexcavations unfolded a cultural sequencedivisible in following five periods:

Period I: from c. 6th century BC to closingdecades of 4th century BC.

Period II: from closing decades of 4th centuryBC to c. 2nd century BC.

Period III: from c. 2nd century BC to aboutthe end of 1st century BC.

Period IV: from the beginning of the 1stcentury AD to about 3rd century AD.

Period V: from c. 4th century AD to the closeof 6th century AD.

Some later remains and antiquities were alsofound in a very limited area but the excavatorscould not find regular sequence of post-Guptacultures.

PERIOD IThe excavated data suggested the beginning ofthe settlement at Mathura right on the naturalsoil in the form of a small habitation duringPeriod IA around Ambarish Tila (MTR-8), closeto Yamuna, towards the northern end of presentcity; the community used the P.G.W. andassociated pottery including B.S.W., though insmall quantity. The early settlers of Mathuralived in small huts and in some cases built themon mud platforms. Evidence from the later levelsof Period I (Period IB) indicated slight, althoughinsignificant, growth of settlement. A notablefeature of the sub-period was the emergenceof nearly 17 sherds of N.B.P.W. along withP.G.W. with some new designs suggesting anoverlap of the two classes of pottery.

During sub-period IB, the availability ofantiquities like terracotta discs decorated withpainted parallel strokes or incision along theedges, gamesmen suggesting some kind ofindoor game, terracotta ghata-shaped and semi-precious stone beads, and a pestle, antimonyrods of copper, a few iron implements, bonearrowheads and a circular object (ear-ornament)of a greenish glass were indicative of somegeneral improvement in the living conditions ofthe community.

PERIOD IIIt has been associated by Joshi with the processof urbanization as the mud fortification wall with

Fig. 5. Vaikuntha murti.

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a moat running by the side of it came intoexistence during this period. The most significantpottery of the period was plain grey ware andN.B.P.W. A number of terracotta mother goddessfigurines and animal figurines were found in thisperiodís deposit. Other antiquities of note otherthan semi-precious stone beads were: squarepunch-marked copper coins, terracotta discs,beads, gamesmen, skin-rubbers, bonearrowheads, a legged quern carved with triratnamotif, stone pestles and a variety of copper andiron objects especially arrowheads. The size ofthe settlement was as extensive as 3.9 squarekm during this period. Use of mud bricks wasquite popular in this period while the burnt brickswere used for few selected structures.

PERIOD IIIJoshi termed the Period III as the period of urbanrefinement. The archaeological material of this

period shows certain signs of urban prosperitylike the people used lime plaster for floors andtiles were used for roofing. This periodwitnessed the last phase of ring-wells, N.B.P.Wand grey ware. Red ware was used as the mainceramic industry, some with stamped marks.Most of the items of household use continuedwith addition of some sculptures, inscriptionsetc.

PERIOD IVJoshi termed this period as the period ofcosmopolitanism. This period saw the all rounddevelopment in terms of material culture as issuggested by a number of Kushan coins,sculptures, inscriptions etc. Sprinkler as a newpottery type came into use.

EXCAVATIONS AT SONKH (HARTEL 1993)

German excavation team under the leadershipof Dr. Herbert Hartel excavated the site of Sonkhabout 24 km southwest of Mathura. It was oneof the better preserved mounds with fewerdisturbances in District Mathura. The excavationwork at the site started in the year 1966 andended in the year 1973. The site provided acontinuous sequence from P.G.W. period to latemedieval periods without any significant break.The concise framework of various periods atSonkh is as follows45-

PERIOD IIt was observed in the levels 37-40. Theexcavator termed it as P.G.W. and B.R.W.period. The main pottery type of the period wasP.G.W. and to a lesser extent B.R.W. Otherimportant pottery types were B.S.W., ordinaryred and red slipped ware. Vessels were partlydecorated with incised, impressed or appliedpatterns. At the end of the period coarse greyware was observed.

Fig. 6. Vasudeva chaturvyuha.

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PERIOD IIIt was observed in the levels 29-36. Theexcavator divided it in sub-periods of Pre andEarly Maurya, Maurya and Sunga cultural phase.The exclusive pottery of the period wasN.B.P.W. along with coarse grey ware, B.S.W.and ordinary red ware.

PERIOD IIIThis period belongs to Mitras and was observedin the levels 25-28. The pottery included redware continuing from the previous tradition.Some new shapes, especially ovoid shapedstorage jars with appliquÈ cordons and symbols(svastika, nandyavarta) came into use. Somehandles in shape of monkeys were also found.Ring-wells and structures of baked brick cameinto existence.

PERIOD IVThis period belonging to Kshatrapas andRamadatta was observed in the levels 23 and24. The typical pottery of this period was redward, characterized by definite differences inthe shapes like globular water jar, small goblet,beaker. In the end of this period the fashion ofstamping the vessels with symbols begin.

PERIOD VThis period belonged to Kushans and wasobserved in the levels 16-22. The potteryinclude red ware with the characteristic Kushanstamping of storage vessels, jars etc. withsymbolic, floral and geometric ornaments.Moulded small bowl and spouted water jars werealso observed in good number.

PERIOD VILevels 12-15 of this period were ascribed toGupta and early medieval period. Red, mostly

red slipped ware was the main pottery of theperiod which was delicately thrown and had

Fig. 7. Nagadeva - Balaram.

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smooth surface with distinct black horizontalstripes. Later on black painted swans and floralmotifs were observed. Other important potterytypes of this period included moulded bowlswith relief ornaments, goblet with mouldedbowl and stem, bottles with sprinkler necks andspouts.

PERIOD VIIThe medieval period was observed in the levels8-11. In this period the quantity of pottery findsreduced considerably. Decoration was mainlyof black painted stripes, swans and peacocks.Cone lid with knob replaces bell-shaped lid aswell as bowl lid. Besides appearance of thingrey ware with white slip, incised and paintedvariety were observed.

PERIOD VIIIThis period found in levels 1-7 belonged to LateMughals and Jats. The main pottery was blackon red painted pottery. In levels 6, 7 and 8moulded grey and red jars and bottles with reliefdecoration were found. Appearance of hookahwas a new significant feature of this period.

MATHURA SCHOOL OF ART

Besides being a great urban centre, Mathura isrenowned worldwide for being one of thegreatest art centers of ancient India. Mathura hasprovided two gigantic Yaksa sculptures fromParkham and Baroda village belonging to c. 3rdcentury BC which are considered to be the oldestimages of historic India. There were many otherYaksa sculptures produced at Mathura.Terracotta art especially the figurnes consideredas mother goddesses belonging to pre-Mauryanand Mauryan times would simply outnumbersuch images from anywhere else in India. Duringthe Sunga period, Mathura continued to maintainits importance as a great art centre and a number

of Sunga reliefs of Yaksas, Nagas and Buddhistrailings are known from Mathura. It was theperiod of Kushans when Mathura became thegreatest centre of Indian art. Almost every deityísiconography originated and evolved here. Forthe Buddhist art, the first carved image of LordBuddha was the handiwork of Mathura artist.There are two dated Bodhisattva images fromMathura of the 2nd and 3rd year of the reign ofKing Kaniska found from Kausambi and Sarnath.The red sandstone images of the Buddha havesome typical features which were the inventionof Mathura artists. For Jaina art too, the earliestJina images (except for Lohanipur torsos)were carved at Mathura. Rsabhanatha,Aristaneminatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavirawere the most popular among the tweny-fourJinas. Besides the individual images, Jinas wererepresented as Sarvatobhadra/ Chaumukhi.There were some life-episodes of the life ofRsabhanatha which were carved at Mathura likethe dance of Nilanjana etc. There are some rareportraits of Kushan rulers found from Itokri Tilanear Manth, Mathura. The three kings identifiedfrom portraits are Vima Taktu, Kaniska andChastana. In terms of Brahmanical art, theactivities were even more important as theMatrkas (individual or in groups),Mahisamardini, Durga, Sri/Laksmi, Sarasvati,Kubera, Skanda-Karttikeya, Siva (in form ofAstamurti, Lingas, dvimukhalingas andpanchamukhalingas), Visnu as Vasudeva-Krsna,Samkarsana/Balarama, Ekanamsa, Chaturvyuhamurti, Vaikuntha murti etc. all find forms in stoneat Mathura by the artists working here. Evenduring the Gupta and post-Gupta periods,Mathuraís importance as an important art centrecontinued. Two Buddha images from Jamalpurmound carved by artist Yasadinna (one housedin Asoka Hall of the Presidentís House and theother one in Mathura Museum) and a Visnuimage (now in National Museum) are the

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masterpieces of c. fifth century. Iconographyof Trivikrama, Nrsimha, Varaha, Visvarupa,Ganesa etc. continued to evolve at Mathura. Itis the work of Mathura artists which later onevolved in other art forms including the othergreat school of Sarnath during the Gupta periodand the Pratihara art during the post-Guptaperiod.

ANCIENT SETTLEMENT PATTERN IN BRAJ REGION

For the study of settlement pattern in the regionduring different time periods the recentlyacquired exploratory data is going to shed somenew light on the existing knowledge. Theearliest cultural horizon of this region startsduring the proto-historic period, though, thereare confirm evidences of the presence ofpalaeolithic men in the Govardhan hills.

Potsherds belonging to O.C.P. culturaltradition have been observed at the sites of Aringand Gantholi in the cis-Yamuna tract and atGosna and Nohjhil in trans-Yamuna tract.1 Thepostsherds had incised zigzag designs on thesurface (sometimes interior also). Some black-and-red ware sherds were also part of earlycultural tradition, similar to sherds observed atthe sites of Atranjikhera and Jakhera in Etahdistrict. In the region of Mathura various varietiesof black-and-red ware can be observed ofdifferent fabrics at different sites. It is not onlyone variety of the thick black-and-red ware oflater tradition, which M.C. Joshi and his teamfound at the sites of Ambarish Tila, etc. Fromthe site of Chaubara Tila, a copper celt, possiblybelonging to Copper hoard tradition was foundby Cunningham (Ancient India No. 9, 1971: 37).In the year 1993, Mathura Museum purchased alot of Copper hoard implements (Acc. Nos. 93.5,93.6, 93.51, 93.65, etc.) from a person ofMahavan tehsil who found these implementswhile digging somewhere near Baldev.2

When we consider the archaeology of oldMathura district (until 1995), there were certainevidences of copper hoard findings from a sitenear Sadabad, possibly Rasgawan. In the recordsof Mathura Museum some Copper hoard objects(acc. Nos. 75.33, 75.34, etc.) are said to havebeen recovered from the digging of Rasganwandrain in Sadabad tehsil which came to MathuraMuseum in the year 1975. I doubt the find of aCopper hoard implement from Chaubara moundfrom Mathura to be actually belonging to a sitein Sadabad tehsil near the site Chaubara. It is clearfrom the above discussion that the area ofMathura was well in habitation by the people ofCopper hoard cultural tradition. In this study, ifwe associate the finding of O.C.P. from Noh, asite very near to Mathura border with Bharatpurdistrict, it becomes very clear that Mathura regionwas an important area for the development ofO.C.P.-Copper hoard cultural tradition.

Except for the excavations at Sonkh and atsome peripheral sites of Mathura city, no majorexcavation has taken place in the district. As faras the excavations at Sonkh are concerned thesewere definitely done meticulously by HerbertHartel and his German team and according tothem the earliest culture at the site started withP.G.W. using people. As their area of theexcavation was quite limited (about 1/3rd of thetotal site and this total area was even less thanhalf of the actual area of the ancient site), thereare chances that the few spots where O.C.P.related potsherds might have been present,were not excavated. Otherwise, it has to beaccepted that at the majority of archaeologicalsites the significant cultural sequence starts withP.G.W. period. Another important point aboutthe excavations of Sonkh is the finding of P.G.W.cultural horizon in all the trenches in differentparts of the mound where the lowest levels couldbe reached. It makes it clear that during P.G.W.

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period the settlement of Sonkh was quiteextensive and on the basis of archaeological dataand the present condition of the mound it canbe considered to be about 300 x 250 m in areaat least. It makes the case more powerful forsupporting the area of P.G.W. using culturaltradition at most of the sites as equal to thearchaeological mound present at the site.

Mathura is itself one of the largest P.G.W.period settlements P.G.W. pottery can beobserved right from Raja Bali Ka Tila in south toAmbarish Tila in the north and from Katra areain the west to Kans Ka Qila in the east. Inbetween at an under construction site in Chowkarea, a lot of fine quality P.G.W. was observedin the deposit. Various localities in theperipheral area of Mathura town developedduring the Mauryan and the early centuries ofthe Christian era like Hathi Tila, Bhuteshwararea, Kankali area, Chaubara mounds, Chaurasimounds, Govind Nagar, Chamunda Tila,Gokarneshwar, Jaisinghpura, etc. A number ofmonastic settlements (especially Buddhist) cameup on many of these sites as well as on variousroutes going out of Mathura to Govardhan,Sonkh, Bharatpur, Agra etc. From todayís levelof finding of P.G.W., it cannot be said that thesedeposits lie on some elevated soils but in thepast, those spots might have been slightlyelevated than the normal ground level. Most ofthe roads and lanes in old Mathura city seem tobe following the ancient roads and lanes.Mathuraís importance is not just limited to itsbeing one of the largest urban centers but it wasthe most important art centre of its time.Development of most of the iconographic formswhether it is the Buddha, Jaina Tirthankara,Vasudeva-Krishna, Vishnu, Durga, Parvati, Sri-Lakshmi, Hariti, Surya, Siva, Linga, RoyalPortraits etc. all owe a lot to the Mathura school.This school was at its peak during the early

centuries of the Christian era and Gupta periodand continued to survive till much later times inspite of various major hiccups.

The sites of Ambarish Tila, Hathi Tila andthe part of Katra mound seems to be the laterextensions of P.G.W. using people. The datingproposed by Joshi and his team needs a re-analysis. The main disadvantage of Joshiís datingis that he was biased towards a particular theoryas he wrote what he believed ìthe origin ofNBPW is regarded by most of scholars to besomewhere in the 6th century BC in the mid-eastern India; its transportation to Mathura (fromeastern India) might have taken considerabletime in those days. Therefore we dated PeriodIB around 500 BCî (Joshi 1978-79: 43). It wasthe reason that he discarded a number of earlydates.

Some of these early dates were:

PRL-333 (Late Level of Period II, N.B.P.W.)-610 + (-) 150 BC, uncalibrated.

PRL-336 (Mid Level of Period II, N.B.P.W.)-660 + (-) 100 BC, uncalibrated.

Besides these dates, some other datesindicated that the average date of Period II atMathura might have been earlier than 650-700BC after calibration. Keeping it in mind, it isobvious to consider a date of about 1000 BC forthe early phase of P.G.W. but it has to be keptin mind that it is for the single site of AmbarishTila, not the heartland of ancient Mathura city.Prof. B.B. Lal also tried to prove that the date ofP.G.W. horizon at Mathura would date back toc. 9th-10th century BC (Lal 1985: 109-112). Thisexercise was presumably done for fittingMathura in his theory of associating P.G.W.culture with the Mahabharata Age.

Painted Grey Ware Culture sites in oldMathura district

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P.G.W. sites in cis-Yamuna tract =138

P.G.W. sites in trans-Yamuna tract = 67

Total no. of P.G.W. sites in Mathura district= 205 (for their locations please refer to Map 1)

Considering the total area of old district ofMathura to be 3625 square km and dividing itwith the total number of P.G.W. sites, we roughlyget the presence of a P.G.W. site in an area ofabout 17.7 square km.

For the western sector, if we consider its areato be about 2200 square km, we come at thefigure of about 16 square km for the presenceof a P.G.W. site.

For the eastern sector, if we consider its areato be about 1400 square km, we come at thefigure of about 21 square km for the presenceof a P.G.W. site.

In the area west of Yamuna in the toposheetno. 54 E/ 9, the total no. of P.G.W. settlementsin an area of about 540 square km is 37 includingthe largest site of Mathura city which also hassome isolated mounds as well. Hence in this areaif we derive the minimum area required for thepresence of a single P.G.W. site, it comes out tobe 14.5 square km. This is the least area requiredfor the presence of a P.G.W. settlementthroughout the country as per the informationavailable till now. Even in this area if wecalculate the minimum area required per P.G.W.site in south, east and west sides of Chhata town,it would come out to be about 9 or 10 squarekilometer for the presence of a P.G.W. site. Thisarea shows the highest distribution of ancientsites in the country and it continued in the similarmanner during the succeeding periods ofpossibly Mauryan period, Sunga period anddefinitely during the early centuries of theChristian era. The trend of occupation of the siteshas been quite similar until the recent years.Only an increase of 10-20% can be observed in

the number of modern day settlements in thisarea.

In the toposheet no. 54 E/ 7 in the region ofKumher and Deeg, the total no. of P.G.W. sitesis about 40.

In the area of roughly 700 square km totalno. of P.G.W. sites = 40

So the area required for the presence of asingle P.G.W. site = 17.5 square km.

Total number of P.G.W. sites near Hathrasand Sasni in the toposheet no. 54 I/ 2 rangesbetween 30-35 (35 or more Mauryan sites).

The minimum area required in this regionfor the presence of a single P.G.W. site = 700/30 = 23.3 square km.

For a single Mauryan site this minimum areawould come out to be lesser than 20 sq. km.

Mauryan archaeological sites in the oldMathura district

It must be kept in mind that during the surveyof Mathura district, more than 98% of ancientsites were found to be occupied by the modernvillages. At all the sites which are lying in majorparts as abandoned mounds like Gosna, Sonoth,Bhadravan, Bhagosa, Barnauli ki Dhai, Sankhi,Sehi Garh, Tarauli, Karnawal, etc., all the earlyphases were identifiable in the form of P.G.W.,N.B.P.W., B.S.W., B.R.W. and coarse grey ware.It is clear from such sites that there was certaindegeneration in the fabric of grey ware fromP.G.W. period to Mauryan period in which theplace of deluxe pottery was taken by N.B.P.W.and the continuing tradition of B.S.W. up to someextent. At almost all the sites from where I havereported the finding of P.G.W., associated coarsegrey ware was also found. Black-and-red warepottery as well as Black Slipped Ware potteryare the pottery types which were foundassociated with both P.G.W. and N.B.P.W.

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cultural traditions. At most of the sites thesepottery types were observed. But it is quitedifficult to ascertain the period of such potsherdswhich were generally found without anyparticular shape except for the findings ofN.B.P.W. pottery. I must accept that except forthe above mentioned few mounds and few othersites; at a number of the sites N.B.P.W. potsherdswere not observed. Even at these sites thequantity of these sherds was very less incomparison to other pottery types. I strongly feelthat the typical pottery of Mauryan period in thisregion is the coarse grey ware along with B.S.W.,B.R.W. and red ware. The grey ware which wasobserved from majority of P.G.W. sites was ofboth fabrics- finer and coarser. Finer sherds weredefinitely part of P.G.W. tradition but the coarsegrey ware sherds may belong to any of the twoperiods. The pieces found at the sites occupiedby the modern villages were too small todifferentiate as to which cultural tradition thesebelonged to. But to me it did not appear at anyof the sites that the site got abandoned after theP.G.W. period. The sites continued to inhabitduring Mauryan, Sunga, Kushan and later periodswithout any major break. All the cultural periodswere present at most of these sites. I am notaware of any site which actually gotdiscontinued after any of these early periods.There might have been some small intervalsduring various cultural periods but these werenot long enough to deprive a site from the culturaldeposit belonging to any of these major periods.It is highly probable that many of the sites whichhave been described as new Kushan settlementsmight have come into existence during theMauryan or Sunga period, but in the presentcondition of knowledge this point can neitherbe proved nor discarded. We can safely assumethat the total number of Mauryan sites wouldhave exceeded the total number of P.G.W. sitesand it would have been in excess of 225.

KUSHAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN THE OLDMATHURA DISTRICT

No. of Kushan sites in cis-Yamuna tract = 235

Hence if we derive the minimum arearequired for the presence of a Kushan site, itcomes out to be, Total area of cis-Yamuna region/ Total no. of Kushan sites = 2200 / 235 = 9.36square km

Total no. of Kushan sites in trans-Yamunaregion = 110

So, the minimum area required per site =Total area of trans-Yamuna region / No. ofKushan sites in the trans-Yamuna region = 1400/110 = 12.7 square km

Total number of Kushan sites in Mathuradistrict = 345

So the minimum area required per site inthe district of Mathura = 3625 / 345 = 10.5 squarekm

Total number of Kushan sites near Hathrasand Sasni in the toposheet no. 54 I/ 2 = 60

The minimum area required in this regionfor the presence of a single Kushan site = 700/60 = 11.66 square km

From P.G.W. culture settlements to earlyhistorical settlements, a certain increase in thenumber of sites can be observed. The totalnumber of P.G.W. sites which is about 205 inMathura district might be higher than thisnumber with an approximate fluctuation of +10%. In this way the total number of the sitesmight be more than 225. There is strongpossibility of the presence of an earlier culturalhorizon like P.G.W. at the sites of Sakna,Fenchri. Ganeshra, Maraura, Junhedi, Baraulietc., so this higher number is quite a possibility.If we take the number of total P.G.W.settlements about 225 in the Mathura district,then considering the total number of early

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historical settlements at around 345, we deriveat the conclusion that there was an increase ofabout 50% from P.G.W. period to early historicalperiod. For the number of Kushanarchaeological sites, we can again assume anapproximate fluctuation of + 10%. In this waythe total number of Kushan sites might increaseto about 380. So, we may safely derive at theconclusion that during the period betweenP.G.W. (c. 9th century BC) and early centuries ofthe Christian era, there was an increase of about50-60% in the number of archaeological sites.Many of the sites which have been dated toKushan period might have actually come intoexistence during Mauryan or Sunga period (4th-2nd century BC). The grey ware which isgenerally associated with Mauryan period of thelate N.B.P.W. phase had continued during theSunga period up to some extent, so there arepossibilities of many Kushan sites actually datingback to this period. Even during the Kushanperiod itself, we do not mean only Kushanperiod but the Saka Kushan period whichactually starts in 1st century BC and there areevidences that many of important Kushan sites(many even dating back to P.G.W. period) gottheir name from Indo-Greeks and Parthians.Examples of some of these sites are Mandraknear Aligarh, Maryak near Hodal, Helak andHalena near Bharatpur, Amokhri, Tikari, Mursan,Tuksan and Lutsan in Hathras district, etc. Thisnumber of early historical sites again gets around50% additions in the form of new settlementsduring the early medieval period and medievalperiod (9thñ13th century AD and 17th centuryAD). Many of these sites might have come intoexistence during Gupta period and late Guptaperiod (4thñ7th century AD), but in the presentstate of our knowledge, we cannot say muchabout it. Another important point about this lateperiod is that even as the number of total sitesincreased to about 540, we cannot say that their

economic and social condition had improved.Many of the already existing sites might havebeen occupied for a brief period and might havehad lesser population. This period is quite longfor any specific data but there are someevidences indicating a wave of new arrivals ofThakurs and Jats during this period especiallyfrom Rajasthan side about 10th century AD. Exceptfor the villages named as Naglas (with a veryfew exceptions) most of the village and townsites of Mathura district were occupied by thelate medieval period (till about 16th-17thcentury) whether for longer periods or shorterones. At more than 90% of modern villages inthe region, I observed sculptures of medievalperiod. This occupation of almost all thehabitation settlements in Braj is furthercorroborated after looking at Growseís data asalmost all the sites before 1880 had been inoccupation for many generations.

ANCIENT ROUTES

1. MATHURA TO PALWAL

Mathura - Jaint - Ajhai khurd - Chaumuha -Akbarpur ( Sanpli Khera) - Senmari - Chhata -Dautana/ Tumola - Kosikalan - Kotvan - Hodal -Banchari - Bamni Khera - Palwal.

During the Kushan period some smallersettlements mostly religious in nature came intoexistence near this route. The new sites were-Sarai Azampur, Kota, Allahpur, Chhatikara.

Alternate Route following Yamuna

Mathura - Vrindavan - Parkham Gujar ñ Sehi ñNandghat ñ Shergarh - Majhoi to sites in theHodal region.

During Kushan period many other sites cameinto existence on this route like Jaisinghpura,Kankor Tila, Ahalyaganj, Akrur Tila betweenMathura and Vrindavan, then Sunrakh, Gond andBadi Atas, Sakraya between Vrindavan and Sehi,

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then Mai, Basai, Jaitpur, Bhogaon, Ogahabetween Sehi and Shergarh.

2. MATHURA TO AGRA

This route more or less followed the riverYamuna and went via Karnawal, Jhandipur,Runakta, Agra. Another route which is almostsame as the N.H. 2 went via Baad (possibly aP.G.W. site), Mahuan, Farah (possibly a P.G.W.settlement), Pingri, Kitham, Arsena, Runakta andAgra.

During the Kushan period on both the routesmany new sites came into existence like SaraiAzamabad, Aurangabad, Ronchi, Ladpur, BaburiKhera, Shahpur, Khairat along Yamuna in thekhadars. On the N.H. 2, the important sites whichcame into existence are Baad, Aganpur Khera,Farah and Kurkanda.

Alternate route from Mathura to Agra

This route would have passed fromMathura via Aruki, Bhainsa, Chhargaon,Bhahai, Mahwan and then would havefollowed N.H. 2. Another option for theancient travellers would have been via DhauliPiyau (Chandrapuri) crossingñ ArukiñBhainsañChhargaonñBeriñParkhamñPingriñKithamñArsenañRunaktañAgra.

3. MATHURA TO BHARATPUR AND UCHCHEN

This route is going towards Bayana and Karaulivia Bharatpur and Uchchen. The ancient route(P.G.W. period) from Mathura to Uchchenpassed via Dhauli Piyau-(Chandrapuri)crossingñNarhauliñTarsiñMurhesiñKosi KhurdñSonothñRasulpurñRarahñJaghinañBharatpurñSewarñUchchen.

4. MATHURA TO KUMHER AND NADBAI

The route to Nadbai and then towards Dausa andJaipur region was very important route of the

region. The sites which lie on this route are: PaliKherañNaugamañJansutiñSonsañSonkh. Anotheralternate route to Sonkh was MaholiñMukundpurñUspharñUnchagaonñSonsañSonkh.During Kushan period two new sites came intoexistence on this route ñ Shahpur betweenUnchagaon and Sonsa and Borpa between Sonsaand Sonkh. From Sonkh the ancient route toKumher would have passed via Bachhagaon ñTalphara ñ Pengor ñ Kumher.

5. MATHURA TO ALWAR AND SIKAR VIA

GOVARDHAN, DEEG AND NAGAR

Mathura - Satoha ñ Khamni ñ Jachonda ñ AringñJamunata ñ Govardhan ñ Gantholi ñ Bahaj ñDeeg. During the Kushan period some new sitescame into existence but these were smallsettlements more of religious nature than regularhabitation sites. These sites were Chaubaramounds, Girdharpur, Asgarpur (two sites) andPalai. From Deeg to Nagar the route passes viaancient sites of Panhori ñ Rasiya ñ Siswar ñNagar.

6. MATHURA TO FATEHPUR SIKRI, JAGNER AND

FURTHER SOUTH

Mathura ñ Narhauli - Tarsi ñ Murhesi ñ Kosi ñSonoth/ Mal ñ Santruk ñ Ol ñ Pipla ñ Ikran/Hansela ñ Undra/ Chiksana ) ñ Mahadau ñChuryari ñ Sikri.

Another stone quarry very near to Sikri isat Santha and for that one would havefollowed the route Chiksana ñ Daulatabad ñSikri/ Santha.

There is another route which might havebeen used to reach Sikri. This route goes viaAruki ñ Bhainsa ñ Chhargaon ñ Pilua SadakpurñBeri ñ Jhurawai ñ Sandhan ñ Arua Khas ñBiyarañ Daulatabad ñ Sikri/ Santha.

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7. MATHURA TO DHOLPUR AND GWALIOR REGION

VIA ACHHNERA

Mathura - Aruki ñ Bhainsa ñ Chhargaon ñ SersañPilwa Sadakpur ñ Beri ñ Parkham ñ Baroda ñKachaura ñ Achhnera.

From Achhnera the route to Gwalior regionwould have gone via Puramana/ Muriapura ñNahchani ñ Akhwai ñ Gahera Khurd and thentowards Saiyan-Dholpur region. Another routewould have gone via Raibha ñ Mahuar ñ Khaluaand then towards Saiyan region of Agra.

8. MATHURA TO FIROZPUR JHIRKA AND PUNAHNA VIA

KAMAN

a) Mathura ñ Arahra ñ Bati ñ Ral ñ Bhadal ñPelkhu ñ Sahar ñ Kamai/ Mandoi andKarahlañ Barsana ñ Unchagaon ñ Akata ñKaman.

From Pelkhu another route with slightvariations would have passed via

b) Bharna Khurd ñ Bharna Kalan ñ Dahrauli/Seeh and Palson ñ Hathiya ñ Dhabhala ñSunhera ñ Bhajera ñ Kanwara/ Kaman.

c) Neemgaon ñ Palson -Seeh ñ Dahrauli ñBarsana ñ Sanket ñ Rithaura ñ Dhilawati ñAkata ñ Kaman.

Another popular route which is quite longerpasses via Govardhan ñ Deeg ñ Parmandra ñKhera ñ Kaman.

Ancient alignments of Braj going to trans-Yamuna region

9. MATHURA TO KASGANJ, SORON AND TRANS-GANGA

REGION VIA HATHRAS

It would have been a very significant ancientroute linking Mathura and Rajasthan site withmid-Gangetic doab region. The ancient routepasses via IsapuróLohvan ñ Gosna ñ Raya ñSonai ñ Mursan ñ Hathras Qila. From Hathrasthe ancient route might not have followed the

present road to Sikandararao and Soron becauseon this stretch of about 35 km, I could locateonly two P.G.W. sites. One of these two sites,Maindhu is also a part of another importantancient alignment while another site of JauInayatpur is about 9 km distant fromSikandararao. Some new Kushan sites came intoexistence on this route like Kanchana near Sonaiand Thulai, Salempur and Jaitpur betweenMaindhu and Sikandararao. During ancient timesthe route from Hathras to Sikandararao wouldhave passed via Hathras ñ Maindhu ñ Rajpur ñPaharpur ñ Punnair ñ Todh ñ Khitauli ñPichhauntiñ Jau Inayatpur ñ Sikandararao.

There are two possible ancient routes toKasganj and Soron. One would be:

Mathura ñ Hathras ñ Maindhu ñ Daryapur ñTikari ñ Gangraul ñ Khera Sultanpur and thenafter crossing the G.T. road, towards Kasganj andSoron. From Soron the ancient route goes toAhichchhatra (Anwla) near Bareilly.

The second altered route would have beenvia Mathura ñ Mursan ñ Asroi/ Khera ñ TuksanñAhbaranpur ñ Ruheri ñ Lutsan ñ Daryapur ñTikari ñ Barhad ñ Bijaigarh and then to Kasganj,Soron and trans-Ganga sites. A very importantriver from archaeological point of view, KaliNadi is crossed near the important city site ofKasganj and the Ganga at Soron.

From Sikandararao another important routegoes towards Sahawar town via Bargawan,Naglakhera, Kapretha, Qazikhera, Akhtauli,SinSh and Atranjikhera.

10. MATHURA TO NIDHAULI KALAN AND ETAH VIA

HATHRAS

The important route to Etah from Mathura goesvia Hathras. Up to Hathras the route is similar asdiscussed in the previous route. From Hathrasthe route would have gone via Ladpur ñChaturbhuj Khera ñ Maho ñ Band Abdullahpurñ

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Hasayan ñ Andauli ñ Kanau ñ Maqsudpur(P.G.W.?) ñ Pilkhatra ñ Gadri/ Mitraul ñ MargaynñNidhauli Kalan. From Pilkhatra, Nidhauli Kalancan also be reached going via Khera Nuh but itwould be slightly longer. From Nidhauli Kalanwhich is definitely an important town site, Etahcan be reached via Dholeshwar ñ Songra ñBaragaon and Mukharna.

11. MATHURA TO KAMPIL, SANKISA AND TOWARDS

SRAVASTI VIA JALESAR

The major sites on this route are Mathura, Raya,Hathras/ Sadabad, Maho/ Sahpau, Jalesar,Awagarh and then the sites towards Ganga plainlike Sankisa and Kampil.

One of the important routes would be fromMathura to Hathras and then Hathras ñ Parsara ñLakhnu ñ Aihan ñ Gwarau (Kushan site) ñSimraoñ Jalesar.

Another alternate route would have beenHathras ñ Ladpur ñ Jalalpur ñ Khera ChaturbhujñShahpur ñ Maho ñ Gwarau ñ Simrao ñ Jalesar.

The second important route would havegone via Mathura ñ Lohvan ñ Sihora ñ Karab ñPachawar ñ Jugsana ñ Unchagaon ñ Sadabad ñSahpau ñ Isonda ñ Berni ñ Jamaun ñ Jalsear.

The third route to Jalesar would have gonevia Mathura ñ Gokul ñ Mahavan ñ Baldev ñSadabad.

12. MATHURA TO ALIGARH

Mathura ñ Isapur ñ Lohvan ñ Gosna ñ Raya ñAiyera Khera ñ Nimgaon ñ Gorai - Kaimawali ñHastpur ñ Mahua ñ Aligarh.

Another alternate route to Aligarh wouldhave passed via Mathura ñ Aiyera Khera ñBeswan ñ Kanka ñ Sasni - Aligarh.

From Aligarh the ancient route went towardsHarduaganj, Atrauli, Morra, Karnawas (crossingpoint at Ganga), Bahjoi, Sambhal/ Chandausi,

Moradabad and Himalayan region sites. Anotherroute went towards Jawan and further north.

13. MATHURA TO NOHJHIL AND JEWAR

This important route went towards north aftercrossing river Yamuna. The route would havebeen via Mathura ñ Vrindavan ñ Chamar NaglañBarnauli Ki Dhai ñ Manth ñ Bhadravan ñ Irauli ñSamauli ñ Ohawa ñ Bhidauni ñ Surir ñ Mirpur ñBagharra (Sher Ka Khera) ñ Nohjhil ñ Bajna ñAwakhera ñ Gairaula ñ Jattari ñ Khandeha ñTappal ñ Jewar. From Jewar the route goestowards Dhankaur, Ghaziabad and Meerutregion.

14. MATHURA TO KHAIR

The Mathura to Khair route passes via MathurañVrindavan ñ Nagla Chamar ñ Barnauli Ki Dhai ñArua ñ Jabra ñ Jaiswan ñ Nasiti ñ Harnaul ñKarahari ñ Lohi ñ Khayara ñ Arni ñ Khair.Another route from Mathura to Khair would havebeen via Arua ñ Nimgaon ñ Gorai ñ Deta ñRajawal ñ Arni ñ Khair. Another route can betraced as Mathura ñ Vrindavan ñ Manth ñBhadravan ñ Eroli Gujar ñ Samauli ñ Ohawa ñBhidauni ñ Surir ñ Hasanpur ñ Jarara ñ KhayarañArni ñ Khair.

OTHER IMPORTANT LINK ROUTES OF THEREGION

1. KAMAN TO KHAIR

This route passes via Kaman ñ Akata ñ RithaurañSanket ñ Anjnokh ñ Khayara ñ Bhadawal ñChhata ñ Ladpur ñ Ranhera ñ Shergarh ñ NohjhilñParsauli ñ Shall ñ Pachahra ñ Khera Kasison ñKhair.

2. KUMHER TO KHAIR

Kumher ñ Pengor ñ Kasot ñ Krenwa ñ Konder ñDehiya ñ Govardhan ñ Radhakund ñ Kaunhi ñPelkhu ñ Siwal ñ Sihana ñ Akbarpur (Sanpli

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Khera) ñ Pelhora ñ Tarauli ñ Sainwa ñ RanherañShergarh - Nohjhil ñ Parsauli ñ Shall ñ PachahrañKhera Kasison ñ Khair.

3. ALIGARH TO JALESAR

From Aligarh the route goes via Mandrak ñSasniñ Lutsan ñ Daryapur ñ Punnair ñ HetaRaghunathpur ñ Maho ñ Chirgawan ñ Jalesar.

4. ETAH TO REWARI

From Hathras the route would have gone viaRohai ñ Tuksan ñ Kaimawali ñ Gorai ñ Khair ñ

Gomat ñ Jattari ñ Tappal. From Tappal aftercrossing Yamuna, the route would have passedvia Kusnak, Palwal, Dhatir, Sohna towardsRewari. From Sohna one important route goestowards Gurgaon, Bahadurgarh and Rohtak. Onecould also reach Palwal following the GrantTrunk Road up to Aligrah and then moving fromAligarh via Lodha, Andla and Khair to Palwaland Rewari. This link route would have beenquite important joining the main Uttarapatharoute with the other areas of MathurañTaksasilatrade route.

ENDNOTES

1. This observation is based on my personalexplorations as well as the observations of Prof. D.K. Chakrabarti and his team. Besides at the site ofAring, one officer of A.S.I. Mr. L.M. Wahal (I.A.R.

1982-83 : 99) had reported finding of O.C.P. andlate Harappan potsherds.

2. Pesonal information received from Mr. ShatrughnaSharma, a senior employee of Mathura Museum.

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