Media, Cultural Theory and Education Autumn 2013

Omar Ceja Salgado

Question 1:

Choose a media and/or cultural theorist whose work you find particularly valuable in the fields of Media and/or Cultural Studies. Explain a) why you consider their work to

be of particular value and b) show how their work helps you to analyze a contemporary cultural text, object, event or practice.

Manovich’s principles of new media as an approach to analyzing “Portal” as a learning object

FINAL SUBMISSION I confirm that I have read and understood the Institute’s Code on Citing Sources and

Avoidance of Plagiarism. I confirm that this assignment is all my own work and conforms to this Code.

Word count (number of words): 5213

Student evaluation submitted: N

Copy posted on Moodle: Y

Names of Tutors:

John Potter Andrew Burn

Alison Gazzard

MA in Media, Culture and Education Institute of Education, University of London

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CONTENTS

Introduction _______________________________________________________ 4

Digital Media Is Software _____________________________________________ 6

Principles Of New Media _____________________________________________ 9

Game Analysis ____________________________________________________ 12

Numerical Representation _________________________________________ 13

Modularity ______________________________________________________ 15

Automation _____________________________________________________ 17

Variability ______________________________________________________ 18

Transcoding ____________________________________________________ 19

Portal As A Learning Object __________________________________________ 20

Conclusions ______________________________________________________ 21

Illustrations _______________________________________________________ 24

Games Cited _____________________________________________________ 24

References _______________________________________________________ 25

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FIGURES

Figure 1.0 Table of principles of digital media and learning objects. ___________ 11

Figure 2.0 Example of binary code. ____________________________________ 13

Figure 3.0 Example of game programming code. _________________________ 14

Figure 4.0 The Sims avatar creator. ____________________________________ 14

Figure 5.0 Project Spark terraforming tools. ______________________________ 14

Figure 6.0 Portal: Entrance and exit portals. _____________________________ 15

Figure 7.0 Portal: Montage of game screenshots. _________________________ 16

Figure 8.0 Portal: Artificial Intelligence. _________________________________ 17

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INTRODUCTION

A lot has been said about media from its usage, production, distribution, and effects.

The results of a simple Google search are a testament to the incredible amount of

information coming from marketing, publicity, education, news, and social sites, to

name a few.

Media has become not only a common word in everyday language, but also

media objects have come to be a familiar sight and inherent elements of different

societal relations and environments. In fact, media objects play such an important role

in the way we interact with the environment and with others, that they can be

considered one of the ways in which humans make sense of their surroundings; that

is, they can be used as mediators. Therefore, media objects are semiotic constructs

in themselves, but they also keep a close symbiosis with the social context out of which

they are born.

Lev Manovich has dedicated most of his academic years to the analysis of

media creations and software, and how the transition from analogue to digital media

has resulted in the creation of interfaces that allow the user to interact and alter the

properties of such productions through software. This, in his words, has come to

“change how media functions. […] The properties of digital media (how it can be

edited, shared, and analyzed) are now defined by the particular software as opposed

to solely being contained in the actual content.” (Manovich, 2013a:30)

The purpose of this essay; therefore, is not to be one more paper posing the

idea of how media has an irrefutable place in culture and society; nor does it intend to

become a compilation of the statements presented by Manovich or other academics

in the area of media objects and culture studies. This paper tries to explore the

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educational value that the five principles of new media1, which Manovich (2001)

named in his book The Language of New Media, may bring to the creation of media

objects given the similarities that such process has with the production of learning

objects.

For the purpose of serving as an example of the propositions made in this

essay, screenshots of the computer game Portal2 will be used. This computer game

will be analyzed as a cultural object to which Manovich’s principles can be applied. It

will also serve as the basis for the idea behind the use of computer games as learning

objects.

In order to give this essay a clearer structure, it has been divided into four

interrelated sections: the first one explains Manovich’s idea that there is no such thing

as digital media; the second section presents the five principles of new media

described by Manovich in his latest book and how those principles relate to learning

object design; finally the third and fourth sections are composed by the analysis of the

game which draws from the idea behind using computer games as learning objects,

based on the principles reviewed previously.

1 The term “New media” has often been related to the interactive side of online magazines and newspapers, on-demand television, or social media sites and applications. In this paper, the term will be used to make reference to digital media objects or creations such as video, audio, and still images that are not born out of analogue hardware, but out of software. 2 Portal is a first-person, puzzle computer game developed and published by Valve Corporation in the year 2007.

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DIGITAL MEDIA IS SOFTWARE

Opposed to the traditional view of new media as a digital form that has resulted from

the shift from analogue formats, Manovich (2013a) makes a very detailed argument

as to what that shift represents and the misconception of the term.

For the author “none of the new media authoring and editing techniques we

associate with computers are simply a result of media ‘being digital’.” (Manovich,

2013a:31)That is, those techniques are not inherent elements of the objects

themselves, but rather concessions from the software; while at the same time, they

come as the result of a social process in which software and its features are created

by groups of people by taking into account the feedback and needs of users, as well

as the features of software that has been released to market previously.

Analogue, as opposed to digital media, relies on hardware3 rather than on

software and it is that property that gives it the features that would differentiate a

painting from a photograph, a song played on a piano from a video made through a

linear editing technique, or even two recordings of the same conversation, or a

duplicate of a photograph. The raw nature of hardware guarantees a result that cannot

be replicated as a carbon copy, and reproductions can be seen not as mere

duplications, but as new creations in themselves. This is the quality that gets lost in

the shift from analogue to digital formats, and the one Manovich relies on to argue the

absence of individual properties of digital media due to its dependence on software.

So, what role does hardware play in this new era? Is it only the instrument

through which media objects can be experienced, and in which software is stored and

3 I use the term hardware in a broader sense which includes not only that of computer science, but also mechanical and other types of physical equipment.

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used? As it stands, while hardware influenced heavily the creation of analogue media

by giving it individual properties; what the integration of software has done to digital

media is to strip hardware from the ability to pass on such properties, and at the same

time, it has helped in unifying all these new creations not only through the need of

computing devices, but in making them essentially undistinguishable from one another

due to the lack of individuality of features and; therefore, allowing the creation of

carbon copies; as Benjamin puts it “the criterion of authenticity ceases to be applicable

to artistic production” (1935:5).

Manovich (2013a) believes that the fact that these new media creations share

a common platform, the computer; and that software is used in the production, editing,

and appropriation process of media objects is proof enough that digital media is a term

that denotes something that does not exist in itself, but as a result of the use of

software; that is, “media becomes software.”4 (Manovich, 2013a:37) One must ask;

however, if that same analogy can be used to cast out “old media” or analogue media

objects as an equally inefficient term when it comes to its reliance on hardware, and

further question the idea behind whether such a distinction is valid for one format and

not the other.

Just the way Benjamin regards Marx’s critique of the modes of production in

the beginnings of Capitalism as having a “prognostic value,” (1935:1) he certainly

foresaw, in the same way, Manovich’s propositions in regards to the loss of

authenticity towards the changes happening in art (media) production, or as Benjamin

calls it, the withering of the “aura” (1935:1) which he defines as “[the] presence [of art]

4 Regardless of the validity of the term or the misconception of its use as it has been discussed to this point. As a differentiator and due to the popularity of the term, new media creations which rely on software and computers will be referred to as “digital media” along this essay.

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in time and space, its unique existence at the place where it happens to be” (1935:3).

What he may not have anticipated, however, is how prominent digital media would

become and how essential the ability to duplicate an object would be when it came to

defining it and analyzing its features.

After considering the propositions of both authors, it can be said that new media

may be viewed from a perspective that is twofold; on the one hand, as a production

that has lost its essence and that, as a result, risks being seen as inferior; and on the

other, as a new kind of creation that has become free of the boundaries of analogue

media, a kind of media object that emerged from analogue formats, but now stands

on its own and which demands to be seen from its own meritory standpoint where it is

a creation with its own features (or the ones of software for that matter) and which has

departed from its analogue upbringing.

Digital media, and especially computer games, as is the case of this work, have

long been seen as a convergence of different analogue formats, be it paintings or

photography, video or film, audio, etc. In a way, digital media are “the representation

of one medium in another” (Bolter & Grusin, 2000:45) that is, digital media are subject

to a process of “remediation” (Bolter & Grusin, 2000:45). That particularity of the

medium is what links it to analogue formats, but at the same time, it is what sets it

apart from them.

In trying to conciliate Benjamin and Manovich’s views, digital media objects can

still be seen as situational in the sense that they continue being influenced by the time

and place of their creation, but in the same way, the features that unify these objects

and that are the reason for the loss of their authenticity and uniqueness have become

the new essence of their being, that is, the five principles of media that are the focus

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of this work “will ultimately define new languages of expression. And it’s those

languages that will tap the potential of digital media as new vehicles of expression”

(Hotzman, 1997:15).

Therefore, while it makes sense to think about authoring and creation

techniques as something that is not embedded in digital media, and assuming the

conception that the essence of its being is in fact software or its “aura” recalling

Benjamin’s (1935) term, one must agree with Manovich (2013a) when he argues that

digital media objects do not possess properties of their own, but they borrow them

from the software that gave them birth.

Furthermore, the differentiating factors between one creation and another are

purely stylistic or “representational,” as well as semiotic or “expressive” while still being

subject to the five principles to be described in the following section.

PRINCIPLES OF NEW MEDIA

Manovich (2001:49) named five different principles which he considers to be inherent

to all new media creations thanks to the computerization of culture. Those five

principles can easily be exemplified through computer games, from how they are

structured and how the game’s assets are organized and montaged together, given

that computer games are not only a convergence of different kinds of media objects

(For more on convergence culture see Jenkins, 2008) such as still images, videos,

audio, and animation, but also a combination of the programming languages and

software used in the creation of the myriad assets that conform them. Although, an in

depth analysis would show how those principles can be found as deep in the games

as the code itself.

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It is those five principles that all new media creations possess, and which are

the focus of this critical work due to the similarities they have with the features of

learning objects. Furthermore, They can act as the starting point for the use of digital

media in educational settings, regardless of whether they were created following an

instructional design or not.

Learning objects are mostly regarded now as creations in the area of computing

or computer sciences and they have been defined as units of information, designed

following an instructional purpose, or to serve an educational purpose (See Beck,

2010; Enríquez, 2004; Wiley, 2000); however, it is not a requisite for a learning object

to be conceived as one,5 since it is the use of such objects in an instructional design

what further guarantees their efficiency as learning tools, and not the objects

themselves.

While digital media creations do not have a limit as to how large6 they can be,

other than the data support in which they are stored or perhaps considerations as to

how they can be shared, streamed, or distributed; learning objects have mostly been

seen as small in size in order to foster the level of granularity necessary for them to

be combined with other objects. This is especially true when we refer to films and

computer games that can be made in a smaller scale, but still be considered larger

than other types of digital media objects such as images or audio.

The size and the granularity of learning objects is of course just part of the

considerations behind the design of digital media. Figure 1.0 contrasts the five

5 Although there are different terms such as pedagogical components, components of instruction, educational software components, online learning materials, resources, just to name a few (see Wiley, 2000:5-8) and which are used to describe learning objects in the academic field. The term learning object will prevail along this essay as to avoid confusion in its use. 6 It is important to note that the concept of the dimensions of an object in digital media is of a very distant nature of that in analogue formats, or at least twofold, one being the physical or visual perception of the scale, while the other being the amount of data necessary for the object to be stored.

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principles that Manovich (2001) put forward against the characteristics of learning

objects as posed by Beck (2010). It should be noted that Manovich did not consider

these principles, or the idea of digital media as being relevant to instructional design,

most likely due to the area of study not been directly related to his research field;

nonetheless, the distinctions and correspondences are more evident when such

principles are presented side by side.

Manovich’s principles of new media: Beck’s properties of learning objects:

Numerical representation Can be aggregated and modified

Modularity Reusability

Can be put in a sequence

Self-containment

Automation -----

Variability Interoperability

Accessible

Durability

Transcoding Are tagged with metadata

Figure 1.0 Table of principles of digital media and learning objects.

As it can be noted in the table above, some of the properties of learning objects can

be considered part of the same principle in Manovich’s propositions. Only the principle

of automation does not have a related feature among Beck’s listed characteristics.

Furthermore, following the assumption that learning objects are fully digital creations

now a days, one can come to the premise that all learning objects can be seen as

digital media, but not all digital media can be regarded as learning objects.

Whereas there is a widely held idea that learning objects must follow an

instructional process in their design, and that they must be created with an educational

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objective, learning activities, and evaluation resources embedded in the objects

themselves; there is also a group of scholars who regard learning objects in a wider

definition, one in which they are simply units of information that serve an educational

purpose, and from that perspective the educational objective, learning activities, and

evaluation resources are part of the instructional design of the class; that is, learning

objects do not have to be created with that purpose in mind, or what is the same, any

digital media object can be incorporated into the curriculum with the proper

instructional design to determine the conditions of its use (See Beck, 2010; Enríquez,

2004; Wiley, 2000).

Going back to the syllogism posed above, depending on the view on what a

learning object is, it can determined whether digital media can be considered one or

not. As it has been defined before, this paper follows the idea behind the wider use of

the term in which all digital media can be incorporated in an educational setting with

the proper design and; therefore, can be seen as learning objects.

The following section is focused on the analysis of the computer game Portal

through the views and principles posed in the previous pages. For that reason, it has

been decided to define each of the characteristics of learning objects and principles of

new media along with the analysis in that section. The incorporation of still images

taken from the game can serve as a better example and as a visual cue of what those

principles imply for cultural practices, or in this case, the creation of computer games

and learning objects as a form of cultural text.

GAME ANALYSIS

The computer game Portal is “a hybrid of FPS [first person shooter] style and a new

genre of spatial brain teasers, […] Set in the mysterious Aperture Science

Laboratories, [where] players must solve physical puzzles and challenges by opening

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portals, maneuvering objects, and moving themselves through space in ways that

used to be impossible.” (Valve, 2014)

The game follows a very simple narrative, the player (Chell) is a test subject

who wakes up in a room inside a laboratory. She is asked to solve a series of puzzles

with the use of portals created with an “Aperture Science Handled Portal Device”

throughout nineteen chambers in the promise of cake by the end of the experiments.

There are a series of visual and auditory cues that help in solving the puzzles, and

GLaDOS (Generic Life Form and Disc Operating System) is a computer generated

voice that explains the plot of the game by giving messages to the player in different

sections of the chambers. These elements give context to the story and break the

sense of isolation in the deserted laboratory.

NUMERICAL REPRESENTATION

As it was mentioned before, Portal is a digital media object in the form of a computer

game and as such it conforms to the principles laid out by Manovich. Reduced to its

minimal expression, all the computer game’s assets and; as a consequence, the game

itself is formed by pieces of code which means that it can be not only represented by

mathematical functions, but also modified by algorithms, which constitutes the

modification of its code; this is what Manovich (2001:49) called numerical

representation.

Figures 2.0 and 3.0 are examples

of binary code, the language system that

computers use, and a piece of game

programming code, respectively. They

are the basis for all digital creations and

Figure 2.0 Example of binary code.

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can be seen as a digital DNA that

determines features and behavior of

the digital media they are a part of.

One of the properties of

learning objects is their ability to be

aggregated or modified, and this is

precisely where the numerical

representation comes to relevance

since, even though user interfaces

have been created so that

individuals who are not familiar with

the language of programming can

use software to modify or re-

appropriate a media creation, in

essence the process behind it is the

same. The code of the object is

aggregated or modified and;

consequently, such changes are

reflected as stylistic and behavioral

alterations.

Perhaps a clearer example could

be found in computer games such as

The Sims (see Figure 4.0) or the yet to

be released Project Spark (see Figure

5.0) where players can create and

Figure 4.0 The Sims avatar creator.

Figure 3.0 Example of game programming code.

Figure 5.0 Project Spark terraforming tools.

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modify elements of the environment and the avatar at will, within the parameters

determined by the software. Even though the changes are previously scripted, these

kinds of games give a sense of freedom that is essential to foster creativity.

In the case of Portal, this principle is better noticeable in the changes that take

place inside the video game with the input of the user; that is, the result of the

interaction between the player and the game, such as in the creation of portals.

Game mechanics are nothing

more than code that is programed to

behave in a certain way. Figure 6.0

shows how that programmability of

media is acquired in account of its

numerical representation. The game

allows for interaction with means that changes although previously scripted, appear to

happen on the spot as a result of the player’s interaction with the game.

MODULARITY

The second principle is the modularity of media which makes reference to how media

objects are made out of smaller individual pieces such as letters, words, icons, images,

sounds, pixels, polygons, etc.

Perhaps this is the principle that is most clearly visible throughout Portal.

Although it probably responds to the need of having consistency within the sections in

the game, as well as the game dynamics. Its modularity allows the creators to re-

purpose assets in many of the sections of the game world, from the implementation of

doors, buttons, cameras, portals, crates, and lasers, to the execution and use of

behaviors, interactions, textures, images, sounds, and all types of visual cues such as

text and signs (see Figure 7.0).

Figure 6.0 Portal: Entrance and exit portals.

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Rather than creating a sterile environment, the re-use of media objects within a game

helps in creating a game world that is clear and easy to understand, in opposition to

convoluted areas where perhaps something more than visual cues would be

necessary to understand them. Moreover, modularity helps in optimizing time and

resources since the code can be used as is, or it can be modified or aggregated to

create new objects.

Due to the nature of this quality, media objects can be split and its pieces will

keep their own integrity. It also means that those pieces can be rearranged to create

new objects. This is a principle that was previously posed by David A. Wiley (2000)

Figure 7.0 Portal: Montage of game screenshots.

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when he described learning objects and how they could be created and applied

through instructional design theory.

As it was stated before (see Figure 6.0) not only the assets within the computer

game, but also the game itself can be reused and put in a sequence with other media

objects to serve an instructional purpose, even though these creations are in essence

self-contained, which means that if they are isolated from the sequence, their features

will remain a part of the object, as they are not borrowed from other elements nor

obtained by being part of a group.

AUTOMATION

The third principle involves the idea of new media being at least partially created

automatically. This automation, as Manovich (2001) defines it, can be exemplified in

the way scanners or image editing software is able to automatically improve the quality

of an image by altering its contrast, color, size, brightness, etc. In a similar way, a

video editor can split scenes from a recording, or put different clips together and add

music and effects with very little human involvement.

The same principle is fairly evident in the example used previously regarding

numerical representation in The Sims and Project Spark (see Figure 4.0; Figure 5.0)

where the altering of the code is done automatically while at the same time the

computer game acts as the software that makes those changes possible. In a way,

the game allows for the creation of a

game within itself.

In the case of Portal, the best

example of automation is represented

with the game’s A.I. (Artificial

Figure 8.0 Portal: Artificial Intelligence.

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intelligence). Small robots can track the player’s movements and attack if Chell is

within their field of vision (see Figure 8.0).

VARIABILITY

Following the idea of conversion culture proposed by Henry Jenkins (2008) the

variability of a new media object, the fourth principle, implies that it can be presented

in many different mediums and it is not exclusive to a single platform. As Jenkins posed

“the migratory behavior of media audiences who will go almost anywhere in search of

the kinds of entertainment experiences they want” (2008:2) determines the how, when,

where, and why these media creations become available for their consumption. This

is a testament to the influences between culture, new media, and the social practices

of users, as well as the reasoning behind the creation of such objects.

In the case of Portal, the principle of variability applies to a certain degree. While

it is true that computer games, as well as the assets that are contained in them such

as audio, video, and still images, have the potential to be used or experienced in

different platforms7, there are restrictions to such activities. Copyright policies and

political interests between developers, publishers, and console manufacturers are just

some of the elements that play a role in determining how many, which platforms, or to

what extent computer games and the media objects that conform them become

available.

The fact that computer games such as Portal adhere to the principle of

variability, implies that there can be different versions of the same product; although,

one could argue whether after the modification of a media object to create a variant of

it, such object can be considered a new creation in itself as it was discussed in the

7 Among the myriad of computer game platforms, there are: personal and dedicated gaming computers or devices, PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Nintendo WiiU, Steam boxes, tablets, smartphones, PlayStation Vita, Nintendo 3DS and 2DS, and Nvidia Shield, to name a few in the market in present.

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previous sections. From Beck’s vision of learning objects, this relates to the fact that

computer games can be used in different settings and with different platforms, ergo,

they are interoperable. In the same way, they can be accessed to a certain degree

and for a particular period of time that is determined by the platforms and the political

considerations discussed earlier.

TRANSCODING

Finally the principle of transcoding represents and area that goes beyond the media

object. It alludes to the fusion of the language of computers and the language of

culture, both interlaced in the semiotic relationship between its components: computer,

software, the media object, and the user.

For Manovich this principle can be seen as the synergy between two layers, the

“cultural layer” (2001:63), as he calls it, through which the user makes sense of the

object by interpreting its signs with the help of language and the cultural sememes

stored in his/her mental schema8; and the “computer layer” (2001:63) which is formed

by the pixels, megabytes, file extensions, binary code, etc. that conform the language

of the “computer’s own cosmogony, rather than of human culture”. (2001:63)

The principle of transcoding also makes reference to how media objects adapt

to the properties of a format. An example of this idea is found in how computer games

need to be modified not only stylistically or graphically, but also in their play mechanics

in order for them to be used on smartphones or on dedicated gaming consoles; the

game system has to be modified in order to serve better the needs of touch sensitive

screens. To that end, “transcoding designates the ways in which media and culture

8 The term schema comes from Cognitive theory. Jean Piaget used it to refer to the integration of cultural sememes into a wide mental network that is used for the interpretation of the environment and the different stimuli a human is presented to. This information or knowledge is called schema and is constantly modified by the conciliation of conflicting information that is acquired through new experiences. (see National Development Plan, 2002)

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are being reshaped and transformed by the logic of the computer.” (Sorapure, 2003:5)

Metadata is part of that reshape, the need to categorize, store, and find information

into catalogues of libraries has made it necessary to incorporate a system that holds

data in the data itself.

As it has been discussed in this section, the principles of new media and the

properties of learning objects are too alike to be ignored as important elements of the

creation of media objects and how they can ideally be seen as two sides of the same

product. The following section will delve further in this area in an effort to characterize

Portal as a valuable tool in instructional design.

PORTAL AS A LEARNING OBJECT

The relationship between culture and new media is determined by language, whether

visual, auditory, or otherwise. Language has an important influence in the design and

creation of new media. At the level of sememes, structure, and interaction dynamics,

the development of software and hardware platforms is linked by its computer and

human components. Of course such interaction is not a unidirectional phenomenon,

there is a mutual flux of influence where one media creation triggers a reaction on the

human side; that is, the feedback of users, the result of which alters future productions

and; therefore, creates a cycle that repeats itself.

Although the process is much more complex and with many more components

than what has been posed in the previous paragraph, such a simplistic example serves

as the basis for the idea that media objects are deeply rooted in culture and to that

end, they are part of the human context which is used as an acculturation and

socialization tool (see Barbero, 1987; Barbero, 1993; Gerbner, G. et al., 1996; Orozco,

1996; Singhal et al, 2004; Montero, 2006).

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Consequently, as media objects are used in shaping one’s world by being the

elements through which humans interact and make sense of their surroundings, they

are in a unique position in culture to make them useful as learning instances, but not

only as part of informal education, as it has been implied.

By being created for, or integrated into the school curriculum, media objects

can be part of formal educational systems as main drivers of education as a whole,

and not only in a media class. As McQuail said “[media constitutes, for the most part,

a social reality and normativity for a shared public and social life and they are an

essential source of standards, models, and norms.]” (2001:116) [Original in Spanish]

One must ask then, why are educational systems so reluctant on integrating media in

all areas of the curriculum? A question whose answer would require a more in depth

view of the matter than the reach of this essay.

CONCLUSIONS

This short piece of critical work regarding Manovich’s five principles of new media and

Beck’s features of learning objects has served as the framework for the brief analysis

of the computer game Portal to show how through that framework and the filter of

instructional design, the game can be seen as a useful tool for education.

The so called “features” one would relate to certain types of new media such

as pixels, frames, or musical notes, and that would act as differentiators from one

media object to another can be reduced to their minimum components and; therefore,

be seen as nothing more than pieces of code, or series of numbers that conform the

binary language between computers and software and, in essence, as Manovich

makes note, they cannot be considered differentiators as they are all reduced to such

minimum pieces.

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Overall, users do not delve into such depths and technicalities in the creation

of new media. The implementation of user interfaces and the automation of many of

the processes done by software such as Photoshop, MovieMaker, or Webly,

guarantee that, other than the creators of the software, people do not need to worry

about learning about programming and imputing long pieces of code to do what now

has come to be assumed the simplest things such as changing the font type, color, or

size of a website, applying filters to images, or effects to videos, just to name a few.

As it has been debated, digital media is indeed software and their qualities or

principles that rule them are those of the software with which they were created,

semiotic and stylistic aspects being the only elements of individuality to them. Seeing

these “new” media creations as a setback in artistry, or as inferior to analogue media

is an invalid conception given that it relies in the analysis of a medium through the

eyes of another. A position which would always put one in an disadvantage point.

It is debatable whether all the principles discussed in this work are essential or

maintain a certain level of importance within a learning object in order for it to be

effective in reaching the goal that was set when it was designed. Nevertheless, both

the principles of new media and the properties of learning objects (See Figure 1.0) are

too alike to be ignored as important elements of the creation of media objects and how

they can ideally be seen as two sides of the same product. However, this brief analysis

of the structure of a computer game as a learning object did not intend to discuss on

aspects of level of influence or of effectiveness; furthermore, to look for an in depth

view of such an area would have proved impractical and beyond reach for a work of

this nature.

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As it has been mentioned before, all learning objects are digital media objects,

but not all digital media creations can be considered learning objects in themselves,

although they can certainly be implemented in educational settings with the

appropriate planning and laying out of objectives and uses.

As stated by Gerard, “Learning is the modification of behavior by experience;

and formal education is a conscious effort to modify behavior in chosen ways by

appropriately structuring experience.” (1967:218) Learning objects, and videogames

such as Portal, can have the same potential for helping in the creation of such

experiences. In this particular case, players learn about physical principles, such as

momentum, mass, length, speed, etc. as well as the development of logical and critical

thinking skills and geometrical thinking (see Valve Corporation, 2013).

Although it cannot be said that Portal is a learning object based on the premise

that learning objects must be designed as instructional tools, the computer game holds

enough elements and dynamics in order for it to be used as part of the instructional

design of a class; therefore, it can be used as a learning object.

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ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 1.0 Table of principles of digital media and learning objects: Adaptation of principles of new media in Beck, R. J. (2010), Learning objects. [Online]. Available at http://www4.uwm.edu/cie/learning_objects.cfm?gid=56 Last accessed 05/01/2014. and Manovich, L. (2001), The Language of New Media. London: MIT Press.

Figure 2.0 Example of binary code: (2010), [Image]. Available at http://theknightinvintagedenim.wordpress.com/2010/11/25/ive-got-the-code0001-0011-0110-0101-0101_digital-media/ Last accessed 07/01/2014.

Figure 3.0 Example of game programming code: Barrowclift, M. (2013), [Image]. Available at http://arstechnica.com/gaming/2013/04/selling-coding-and playing-the-worlds-largest-videogame/ Last accessed 07/01/2014.

Figure 4.0 The Sims avatar creator: Maxis. (2011), [Image]. Available at http://forum.rpg.net/showthread.php?593565-Help-Making-a-quot-Create-aCharacter-quot-feature-for-an-RPG Last accessed 07/01/2014.

Figure 5.0 Project Spark terraforming tools: Microsoft Studios. (2013), [Image]. Available at http://i2mag.com/microsoft-build-2013-day-1-keynote-highlights-and-pictures/microsoft-build-conference-project-spark-3/ Last accessed 07/01/2014.

Figure 6.0 Portal: Entrance and exit portals: Portal [Computer Software]. (2007), Kirkland, WA: Valve Corporation.

Figure 7.0 Portal: Montage of game screenshots: Portal [Computer Software]. (2007), Kirkland, WA: Valve Corporation.

Figure 8.0 Portal: Artificial intelligence: Portal [Computer Software]. (2007), Kirkland, WA: Valve Corporation.

GAMES CITED

Portal [Computer Software]. (2007), Kirkland, WA: Valve Corporation.

Project Spark [Computer Software]. (2014), Redmond, WA: Team Dakota. Microsoft Studios.

The Sims [Computer Software]. (2000), Emeryville, CA: Maxis. Electronic Arts.

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