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Managers' occupational stress in China : the role of self-efficacy Managers' occupational stress in China : the role of self-efficacy

Changqin LU

Oi Ling SIU Lingnan University, Hong Kong, siuol@ln.edu.hk

Cary L. COOPER

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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Lu, C.-q., Siu, O.-l., & Cooper, C. L. (2003). Managers' occupational stress in China: The role of self-efficacy (CPPS Working Papers Series no.141). Retrieved from Lingnan University website: http://commons.ln.edu.hk/cppswp/99

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Working Paper Series

Centre for Public Policy Studies Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences

No. 141 (8/0ηCPPS

扎1anagers' Occupational Stréss in China: The Role of Self-efficacy

Chang-qin Lu, Oi-ling Siu and Cary L. Cooper

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Managers' Occupational Stress in China: The Role of Self-efficacy

Chang-qin Lu, Oi-ling Siu and Cary L. Cooper

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LlNGNAN UNIVERSITY L1BRARY

September 2003

。 Chang-qin Lu, Oi-ling Siu and Cary L. Cooper

Dr. Chang-qin Lu is Assistant Professor in Department of Psychology,

Peking University, China.

Dr. Oi-ling Siu is Associate Professor in Department of Politics and Sociology, Lingnan University, Hong Kong.

Professor Cary L. Cooper is a Professor in Lancaster University Management School, UK.

Centre for Public Policy Studies Lingnan University Tuen Mun Hong Kong Tel: (852) 26167182 Fax: (852) 2591 0690 Email: cpps@LN.edu.hk http://www.LN.edu.hlc/cpps/

CAPS and CPPS Working Papers are circulated to invite discussion and critical comment. Opinions expressed in them are the author's and should not be taken as representing the opinions of the Centres or Lingnan University. These papers may be freely circulated but they are not to be quoted without the written pe口nission of the author. Please address comments and suggestions to the author.

Self-efficacy in managers' occupational stress

Managers' occupational stress in China: The role of self-efficacyl

Dr. Chang-qin Lu Assistant Professor

Departrnent of Psychology, Peking University, Beijing 100871 China

Dr. Oi-ling Siu Associate Professor

Departrnent ofPolitics and Sociology, Lingnan University, Hong Kong

Prof. Cary L. Cooper Professor, CBE

Lancaster University Management School, UK

Running Head: Self-efficacy in managers' occupational stress

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Chang-qin Lu at

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I The paper was fmished when the flfst author was visiting the Department of Politics and Sociology,

Lingnan University in August 2003 by the China Fund

Self-efficacy in managers ' occupational stress

ABSTRACT

The role of self-efficacy, an individual difference variable, in occupational stress

research is seldom discussed, and is even rarely examined in Chinese societies. This

study investigates the relationships between stressors, managerial self-efficacy (MSE)

and work-related strains (job satisfaction, physical strain, and psychological strain). A

to凶 of 450 enterprise managers in eight cities of the People's Republic of China

completed a battery of structured questionn組res. The results of the study generally

support that total stressors was negatively related to job satisfaction, physical strain,

and psychological strain. Furthermore, MSE w也 statistically significantly related to

仙也ns in 出at respondents wi也 high levels of MSE reported higher levels of job

satisfaction, lower levels of physical strain and psychological strain than did those

with low MSE. Related to the moderating effects of MSE on stressor-strain

relationship, only significant moderating e能ct was found in predicting physìcal straìn,

as demonstrated by a series of hierarchical regressions while controlling for age,

tenure, and position levels and educationallevels.

Key words: Occupational Stress, Manager, Self-efficacy, Stressors, Strains, and

China.

Self-efficacy in managers ' occupational stress

INTRODUCTION

Occupational stress has been noted 品 an increasing problem for employees in

Western industria1ized societies because stress is costly. Undeniably, stress in

workplace can have deleterious e宜ects on individual's well-being as well as negative

effects on organizational outcomes such as perfonnance and tumover. It has been

位gued that almost a11 occupationa1 stress research and theories were developed and

empirically tested in Western industria1ized countries (S凹， 2002; Xie , 1996)

However, the problem of occupational stress is becoming serious for countries

undergoing enonnous economic and socia1 changes. It is therefore irnportant to do

some occupational stress research in Chinese societies, which will give theoretical and

practica1 suggestions to stress management for both individuals and organizations

Most of occupational stress research has focused on demonstrating relationships

between stressors and strains, but has lagged behind in documenting the role of

individual differences in the stress processes (Jex, Bliese, Buzzell,& Primeasu, 2001)

Stress does not always directly result from the source of pressure itself, but rather

from the perception of that press叮e. Therefore, individual difference variables that

might relate to perceptions should be given more attention in occupational s仕ess

research

One general class of individual difference variables 出at has been examined over

the years from study to study is self-belief. These studies have provided some support

for the idea that stressors are less detrimental when individuals have more positive

self-perceptions. The dominant theoηin most of the past studies is the job

Self-efficacy in rnanagers ' occupational stress

demands-control model which focus on the role of perceived job control in stress

process (K缸部ek， 1979). As Litt (1 988) suggested that self-efficacy is critical because

it affects an individual's ability and willingness to exercise contro l. Some authors have

also suggested 由at perceived self-efficacy must be added to the demands-control

model of occupational stress in order to improve its predictability (e.g., Bandura, 1997;

Schaubroeck & Merritt, 1997). High job demands with opportunity to exercise control

over various facets of the work environment is unperturbed to jobholders with high

levels of perceived self-efficacy, but more stressful to those of low perceived

self-efficacy. For this reason, any efforts to reduce occupational stress by increasing

job control without raising efficacy to manage the increasing responsibilities will do

more harrn than good (Bandura, 1997).

Self-efficacy is a critical component of social cognitive theoη， which is a primary

inf1uence on human thought, motivation, and action. Bandura (1986) defined

perceived self-efficacy as a construct, which is concerned with people's beliefs about

their capabilities to organize and execute, designated courses of action. According to

the above defmition, self-efficacy is not concemed with the skills or abilities one

possesses, but rather the judgment of what one can do with these. Essentially,

self-efficacy refers to a sense of competence to control over one' s environment. It is

logical to conclude that stressors would be much more threatening to those who do

have low confidence in performing their job tasks . Presumably then, self-efficacy

impacts stressor-strain relationships because individuals with high self-efficacy are

more likely to believe they can rnaintain high levels of job performance despite the

Self-efficacy in managers' occupational stress

presence of challenging job-related stressors. Another way 伽t self-efficacy may

impact stressor-strain relationships is how to cope with stressors in the workplace

(Leiter, 1992). It has been shown that individuals with high self-efficacy tend to use

problem-focused or active coping strategies, whereas the coping strategies of those

with low self-e缸icacy tend to be more emotion-focused or avoidant, and have greater

tendency to woηy about job-related stressors. ln a review provided by Semmer (1 996),

people who have the tendency to employee problem-focused coping tend to report

less physical and psychological strains. Some authors have found that self-efficacy do

not only directly impact on individuals' strains (O 'Neill & Mone, 1998; Saks, 1994;

Tang, Au, Schwarzer, & Schmi包， 2001), but also a moderating effect on

stressor-strain relationships (Jex & Gudanows徊， 1992; Schaubroeck & Merritt, 1997;

Siu, Cheng, & Lu, 2003).

Despite the intuitive appeal of self-efficacy 臼 a moderator of stress肘-strain

relations, there have been few empirical tests of 血is moderating effect. Furthermore,

出e results have been mixed. For examp1e, Jex and Gudanowski (1 992) found little

evidence 出at self-efficacy moderated relations between stressors and strains. More

recently, some authors (e.g., Jex & Bliese, 1999; Schaubroeck, L缸n， & Xie, 2000;

Shaubroeck & Merritt, 1997) have found that self-e伍cacy moderated several (but not

all) stressor-strain relationships (Jex & Bliese, 1999; Schaubroeck et al., 2000).

The more serious limitation in most of above studies on self-efficacy's moderation

in stressor-strain relationships is self-efficacy measurement. They mainly focused on

general self-efficacy or related general self-efficacy. Some authors elaborated

Self-efficacy in managers' occupationa1 s甘ess

self-efficacy 部 bo也 a state and a stable personality trait that can generalize 台omone

situation to the next (e.g. , Chen, Gully, & Eden, 2001; Eden,1996; Schwarzer, Babler,

K wiatek, Schroder, & Zhan皂， 1997; Shere, Madd眩， Mercandante, Prentice-Dunn, &

Rogers, 1982), and developed the general self-e伍cacy scale, which has served many

populations and situations. But in the development of the self-efficacy construct,

Bandura (1986; 1997) has deliberately avoided the trait approach of studying

self-efficacy, and suggested 出at self-efficacy should refer to be!iefs about specific

behaviors in specific situations (specific self-efficacy). Nearly all authors agreed that

these general self-efficacy measures often have weak predictive va1ue when comp缸ed

to self-e伍cacy measures 血at are matched to specific domains of activity (e.g.,

Bandura, 1997; Earley & Lituchy, 1991).

THE PRESENT STUDY

It is claimed 血at efficacy is shaped through socia1ization processes based on

cultural context (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1989). As iterated by Bandura

(1 996) , despite the cultural generality in self-efficacy effl凹的， culture inf1uences ways

of how efficacy be!iefs are molded. For instance, Oettingen (1 995) found 也別 East

Berlin children had a lower sense of personal efficacy 也an did those in West Berlin. It

is argued that self-efficacy ref1ects individualistic Westem va1ues, and the buffering

effects of self-efficacy may only be evident in individua1istic cultures (e.g. , Earley,

1994; Oettingen, 1995; Schaubroeck et 刻， 2000). Nevertheless, Bandura (1 996)

stresses 出at perceived efficacy is valued, not b巴cause of reverence for individualism,

Self-efficacy in månagers' occupationaJ s甘ess

but because a strong sense of perceived efficacy is vital for success regardless of

whether it is achieved individually or by group members who put credits to collective

terrns. Not surprisingly, in order to successful1y make one adapting to dramatic

economic and social change, people in traditional collective societies have to develop

or maintain higher level of personal efficacy than before. Notab旬， a recent study by

Egri and Ralston (2001) has demonstrated that Chinese youths are more similar to U.S

youths than they 缸e to their Chinese elders. Silbereisen and Wiesner (2002) have also

revealed no difference of self-efficacy between East and West Germany.

The present study is one of the very few which tests the moderating role of specific

self-efficacy in occupational stress research in the People's Republic of China, a

society that is culturally different from those that have been studied thus t缸. Since

China has the largest workforce in the world and plays an increasingly important role

in the world economy, it is imperative to explore the generalizability of Westem

managerial theories and practice to China and to pinpoint the differences between

China and the Westem societies σE咒， 1996). Lu (2001) provided support for the main

effects of self-efficacy on job performance and work attitudes, but he did not

investigate the moderating role of self-efficacy in stress processes

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of self-efficacy on

occupational stress in China. Specifically, we examined relationships between

甜的sors ， MSE and strain indices (job satisfaction, psychological strain, and physical

symptoms), and the role ofMSE as a stress moderator was also examined

Based on previous literature reviewed, the following hypotheses were proposed

Selι皂白cacy m rnanage悶 ， occupational stress

Hypothesis 1: High levels of total stressors will be associated with low levels of job

satisfaction, high levels of psychological strain and physical strain.

Hypothesis 2: Low levels of self-efficacy will be associated with low levels of job

satisfaction, high levels of psychological strain and physical strain.

Hypothesis 3: Self-e伍cacy will moderate the impact of job-related stressors. More

specifically, self-efficacy will interact with total stressors to determine strains, in 出at

the negative effects of total stressors on strains wiU be greater when level of

self-efficacy is low than when it is high.

METHOD

Subjects

Data were collected from enterprise managers in Beijing City, Urumchi City of

Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Qinqdao City and Yanta City of Shangdong

Province, Guangzhou City and Shenzhen City of Guangdong Province, Heifei City

and Fuyang City of Anhui Province from October 2000 to June 200 1. Beijing City,

Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and Shangdong Province are in the northem

p缸t of the People's Republic of China. Guangdong Province is in the southem, and

Anhui Province is in the central 訂閱. The sample was drawn by a purposive sampling

method. A total of 580 questionnaires were distributed by the first author to managers

of different kinds of organizations in 血e field , and 450 valid questionnaires were

returned in the end, making a response rate of 77.59%. The sample consisted of 305

men (67 .9%) and 145 women (32 .1 %), aged between 19 and 59 years old. The

Self-efficacy in manage悶， occupational stress

average age was about 36 ye訂s . The average ye缸s of management experience w部

about 9.4 (SD = 7.25). A tot叫 of 53.8% ofthe samples were drawn from state-owned

sectors, 38% from private sectors, 4.9% from joint ventures, and 3.3% from other

sectors. The education levels of the sample were varied: from junior high school

education (2%), senior high school education (1 4.4%), vocational or technical college

certificates (30 .4%), bachelor's degree (49.5%), to master's degree (3.6%) .

Measures

Total stressors. The shortened version of the Sources of stress scale of the

Occupational Stress Indicator-2 (OSI-2) (Williams & Cooper, 1996) was adapted. The

reliability and validity of this shortened version have been demonstrated ín Chinese

societies (Siu, Lu, & Cooper, 1999; Yu, Sparks, & Cooper, 1998). Siu (2002) has also

found 也at this shortened scale is a reliable measure. To avoid a too lengthy

questionnaire, 12 items were extracted for use from this scale which measured the six

sources of stress. They were items 3, 5, 7, 10, 12, 13 , 16,17, 20 , 31 , 37, 39. The

rationale for choosing these items is that 出ey are more applicable to managers in

Chinese context. Example items 訂e : factors intrinsic to the job (e.g., having to work

long hours), management role (e.g. , conflicting job tasks and demands in the role 1

play) , relationships with others (e.g. , lack of social support by people at work), career

and achievement (e.g. , under promotion--working at a level below my level of ability),

organisational structure and climate (e.g. , morale and organisational climate),

home/work interface (e.g. , demands my work makes and its conflicting demands on

Self-efficacy in rnanagers ' occupational stress

my relationship with spouse/children). Respondents were asked to indicate whether 個

item was a source of pressure on a 6-point scale ranging from "veηdefinitely not a

source" (1) to "very definitely a source"(6). The score of the index for occupational

stressors is the summation of scores of all six 蛇essors (high score = higher level of

pressures 血at arise from occupational s仕的sors) . The Cronbach's alpha for this scale

is .83 .

Strains. Three scales were used to measure strains. They are: (a) Job

sαtisfaction scale: measuring "Satisfaction towards the job itself' . The modified

version of MSQ (Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire) (Wei凹， Dawis, Lofquist, &

England, 1966) w臼 used to develop a 5-item job satisfaction measure, and was

proven to be reliable and valid in Chinese societies (Lin, Fang, & Zhang, 2002). Each

item is rated on a 6-point scale ranging from “ve可 unsatisfied"( 1) 的“very

satisfied"(6) (high score = high job satisfaction). Example item is “The degree to

which you are satisfied with yo山 job"; (b) Physical strain scale: measuring "Physical

symptoms". The modified version of Well-being subscale of the OSI-2 was used to

develop 也is four-item physical strain measure, which was proven to be reliable and

valid in Chinese societies (Ma & Bao,1999). Example item is “Feeling unaccountably

tired or exhausted"; (c) Psychological striαn scale . measuring "State of mind" and

"Resilience" . The modified version of the Well-being subscale of OSI-2 was used to

develop 出is 7-item psychological strain measure, which was also proven to be

reliable and valid in Chinese societies (Ma & Bao , 1999). Each item of bo出 physical

and psychological strain scales was rated on a 6-point scale, ranging from “very

10

Self-efficacy in managers ' occupational stress

true"(6) 的“vey untrue"(l), with respective 凶gh score denoting more physical and

psychological strains. The Cronbach's alphas for the three scales are .78，肘 ， and .85

respectively.

Managerial Self-φcacy. Based on a literature review and the managerial

self-efficacy questionnaire developed by Robertson and Sadri ' s (1 993), a Chinese

version of managerial self-efficacy scale (MSE) with 24 items was developed by the

first author. The CF A (confirrnatory factor analysis) results show a good fit model

with reasonably high goodness-of-fit indexes (The value of X2/df = 2.22, GFI = .91 ,

AGFI = .89, CFI = O.兒， NFI = 0.89, RMSEA = 0.05) (Kelloway, 1998), and

correlation between MSE and managers ' year-end performance was .43, which

showed 也at 也e MSE was a reliabe and valid measure (Lu, 2001). The Chinese

version of the MSE consisted of six subscales which assessed managers ' level of

task-related confidence on the following six essential managerial job duties:

supervision (e.g. , give subordinates constructive feedback) , harmonizing (e.g. ,

negotiate with others on order to reach an agreement or solution) , information

handling (e.g., gather inforrnation from sources outside organization), planning and

organizing (e.g., analyse any problems arsing in unit or organization),

problem-solving/ innovation(e.g. , implement changes in work procedure, work tasks

and work behavior), monitoring(e.g., maintain or ensure the maintenance of

appropriate record of the unit or organization). Each item of this scale was rated on a

10-point scale (O=total抄 unconfident to 9=totally confident) with respective high

11

Self-efficacy in managers ' occupational stress

score denoting higher levels of confidence in completing the core managerial tasks.

The Cronbach' s alpha for this scale is .93 .

Demographic inforrnation was also collected inc1uding age, gender, education,

occupation, tenure (years in the current job), and job level (position in the current

organization, with high score denoting high position).

RESULTS

Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations of the variables and their

inter-correlations. Most of the relationships between occupational stressors, MSE and

strains are significant and are in the expected direction except the relationship

between occupational stress (total 甜的sors) and job satisfaction. Specifically, total

stressors was positively related to physical and psychological strains, whereas total

stressors was not found to be related to job satisfaction significantly. Therefore,

Hypothesis 1 can only be partially suppo巾d . Table 1 also shows that MSE was not

only positively related to job satisfaction but also negatively related to physical and

psychological strains. Therefore, H2 is fully supported. As far as demographic

variables are concemed, age, management tenure, management position levels and

educational levels were significantly correlated with some strains, with older

managers reported more job satisfaction, and managers with more management

experience and higher educationallevels reported less psychological strain.

[Insert Table 1 & 2 about here]

12

Self-efficacy in managers' occupational 甜的S

A series of hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to test the moderating

e在ects of MSE on stressor-strain relationships when job satisfaction, physical strain

and psychological straÎn were regressed on in sep缸ate regression analysis. Prior to

perforrning the hierarchical regression analysis, demographic variables were

examined to test for any confounding effects. Only age, management tenure, position

levels and educational levels were found to be statistically significant in predicting the

outcome variables, therefore these variables were controlled for in the regression

ana1ysis. By regressing the dependent variables (i.e. job satisfaction, physical strain

and psychological strain) on the independent variables separately in a hierarchical

manner, three steps were conducted: the demographic variables were entered first and,

in the second step, total stressors (TS) was entered. ln the third step, MSE was entered

ln the fourth step, TS x MSE was entered

The results depicted in Table 2 show that MSE moderated the relationship

between total 甜的sors and physical strain significantly (戶= 1. 15 , F = 6.64, p < .01)

Therefore, H3 can only be partially supported

Following Cohen and Cohen (1 983), the be阻 value and constant of the moderated

regression equation obtained at Step 4 were used to plot the regression of physical

strain on MSE at two levels of stress for managers: high stress (+ 1 SD above the

sample mean), and low stress (-1 SD below the sample mean) (see Figure 1). Figure 1

shows 由前， irrespective of their MSE , managers reported less physical symptoms

when the total stress level was low. An increase in stress added physical strain for

respondents with low MSE. However, a high level of MSE could buffer the negative

13

Self-efficacy in managers' occupational stress

e旺ect of stress on physica1 strain. Respondents with strong high level of MSE could

maintain a relatively lower level of physica1 strain even when s甘ess levels were high.

Hence, MSE buffered 出e effect of stress on physical strain.

[Insert Figure 1 about here]

DISCUSSION

According to the results obtained from this study, stressors and MSE were proved

to be determinants of job satisfaction, physical s甘ain and psychologica1 strains. These

results corroborate previous studies conducted in Westem and Chinese societies (e.g.,

Schaubroeck et al., 2000; Siu, 2002; Siu et al., 2003; Siu, et al., 1999; Siu, Spector,

Cooper, Lu, & Yu, 2002). Furthermore, the present study provides 阿tial support to

previous findings 出at self-efficacy significantly moderates the effect of stressor on

physica1 strain (e.g. , Jex & Bliese, 1999).

However, unlike previous studies (e.g. , Jex & Bliese, 1999; Schaubroeck et 泣，

2000), the moderating effect of self-efficacy on relationship between stressor and job

satisfaction was rather weak. One possible reason is that managers in the PRC often

have lower job satisfaction than other occupations since challenging goals are

inevitable. Nowadays, as the PRC has entered the World Trade Organization (WTO),

due to occupational characteristics, managers may have got used to the experience of

high levels of job-related stressors. Perhaps the perception of high levels of stressors

may not necessarily lead to lower levels of job satisfaction. This is perhaps the

explanation for the non-significant relationship found between stressors and job

14

Se1f-efficacy in managers' occupationa1 stress

satisfaction in the present study (see Table 1). Another possible explanation for this is

也at the reliability of the scale for measuring job satisfaction is relatively lower than

other scales. Future research is needed to replicate similar studies. The present study

did not consistently provide suppo口 for the positive buffering effects of self-efficacy

on relationship between stressors and psychological strain, which also needs further

investigations in the future

In sum, we may conclude 企om the results obtained from this study, like previous

studies (e.g. , Jex & Bliese, 1999; Schaubroeck et 泣， 2000), that self-efficacy is an

important variable in the study of occupational stress. Specifically, high levels of

self-efficacy were associated with self-reported higher levels of job satisfaction, lower

levels of physical strain and psychological strain than did those with lower levels of

self-efficacy; and individuals with higher levels of self-efficacy had lower levels of

physical s甘ain despite the presence of challenging job-related stressor生:Examining

the effects of self-efficacy on occupational stress could extend our knowledge and

understanding of the role of self-efficacy in stress processes, which would also extend

the domain of self-efficacy and theories in occupational stress. It follows that, as

argued by Leiter (1 992), self-efficacy is one of the central individual difference

variables, which deserves more attention in future research of occupational stress. In

terms of practical implications, as suggested by recent research evidence (e.g. , Choi,

Price, & Vinokur, 2003 ; Malone, 2001), senior management should conduct more

training programs aimed at changing employees' efficacy belie品， which in turn

al1eviate their occupational stress level

15

Self-e伍cacy m manage悶 . occupational 甜的S

There are several limitations of the study. It should be kept in mind 曲的 these data

all carne from self二reported manner. One cannot draw causal conc1usions, and there is

the concern about possible percept-percept bias. The sarnple population might lack

generalization to other professions. It is more difficult to generalize the results to a

wider population of workforce in the PRC or other Chinese societies. In addition,

longitudinal data would be more useful for examining causal hypotheses in the fu仙re .

16

Se1f-efficacy in managers' occupationa1 stress

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22

Self-efficacy in managers' 。ωupational stress

Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Inter-correlations among Variables

N Mean SD 2 4 6 9 1.1S 434 14.08 2.43 2.PhS 421 13 .73 4.48 -.19 3.PsS 420 23.68 6.76 -.18" .67 4.TS 407 44.75 9.12 -.02 .17" .20 5.MSE 434 182.66 24 .63 .24 -.13 -.15 .18 6.AGE 381 35.63 8.59 .12' -.03 -.07 .01 .11 7.TEN 370 9.08 7.25 .10 -.01 -.13 -.03 .11 .71 8.POS 426 na na .11' .05 -.08 -.05 .17" .54" .32 9.EDU 404 na na -.05 -.10 -.18 -.12 .08 .06 -.06 .28

Note. TS-total stresso悶， JS一job satisfaction, PhS-physical strain, PsS - psychological strain,

MSE-managerial self-e伍cacy， TEN-ten叮e， POS-position, EDU-education level

na - not applicable

... Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

.. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

23

Self-efficacy in managers ' occup甜on剖泣ress

Table 2. Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting Physical S甘ain

lndependent Standardized F variables cot乎ci凹的，自

Stepl TS 24 Step2 MSE -.13"

S也2 TS x MSE 1.1 5 6.4600

6 R2

.05 02 02

Note . None of the demographic variables was significantly related to PhS, so TS was entered first

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

24

Self-efficacy in managers ' occupational stress

Figure 1. Moderating effect of managerial selιefficacy (MSE) on the relationship between total

stressors (TS) and physical strain

20

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Low T S H i;h T S

Total Stressors

25

Centre for Asian Pacific Studies

Deoartrnent of Economics

Dr. CHEill寸G， Kui-yin (張鉅賢)

Dr. FAN, Chengze Simon 仔巨承澤)

Professor HO, Lok-sang (何灣生)

Dr. L肘， Pi月(林平)

Dr. MA, Yue (馬躍)

Dr. RAN, Jimmy (冉齊鳴)

Dr. VOON, Thom品(溫演繹、)

Dr. W凹，犯angdong (魏向東)

Centre Fellows

Deo缸恤lent of Politics and SocioloQ:v

Dr. BAEHR, Peter

Professor BRIDGES, Brian

Dr. CHAN, Che-po (陳舊博)

Dr. HARRIS, Paul

Dr. LEE, Keng-mun William (李經艾)

Professor LEUNG, Kit-fun Beatrice (梁潔芬)

Dr. REl心， Yue (任越)

Dr. WONG, Yiu-chung (王耀宗)

e3 w o aL Er

叮a r o n o H

Dr. CHEUNG, Hoi-cheung (張海祥)

Dr. LU, Fei-yun (陸耕去)

Dr. NG, Chi-wing Raymond (吳志榮)

Centre for Public Policy Studies

Centre Fellows

Deoartment of Economics

Dr. FAN, Cheng-ze Simon (范承澤)

Dr. LEI, Kai-cheong (李繼祥)

Dr. L肘， Ping (林平)

Dr. MA, Yue (馬躍)

Dr. VOON, Jan-piaw Thomas (溫演練)

Dr. W凹， Xiangdong (魏向東)

Deo缸恤lent of Politics and Sociology

Dr. HARRIS, Paul

Dr. LEE, Keng-mun Wil1iam (李經文)

Dr. SIU, Oi-ling (蕭愛鈴)

Working Paper Series

No. 1盟主 Author

60 (16/97) CPPS Filial Piety and Caregiving Burden in Shanghai, Professor WiIIiam T. Liu, People's Republic ofChina Professor Elena S. H. Yu,

Professor Shang-Gong Sun and Professor Y in Kean

61 (17/97) CPPS How to Help the Rehabilitated Drug Abusers Not to Dr. Wai-kin Che Relapse to Drugs Again? A Successful Case - Hong Kong

62 (1 8月7) CPPS The Value ofTime and the Interaction ofthe Quantity & Dr. Chengze Simon Fan the Quality of Children

63 (19月7) CPPS Generational Dependency and Elderly Care: Dr. Yi峙-yi Hong and A Psychological Interpretation ofCultural Norms and Professor W il1iam T. Liu Exchange

64 (20/97) CPPS Living Arrangements 創ld Elderly Care: The Case of Professor Rance P. L. Lee, Hong Kong Dr. Jik-Joen Lee,

Professor Elena S. H. Yu , Professor Shang-Gong Sun and Professor WiIIiam T. Liu

65 (21月7) CPPS The Social Origin of Alzheimer' s Disease: A Path Professor Wi lIiam T. Liu and Analysis Professor Shang-Gong Sun

66 (22月7) CAPS Country of Origin Rules: Its Origin, Nature and Professor Lok-sang Ho Directions for Reform

的 (23月7) CAPS A Long Term Monetary Strategy for Hong Kong and Professor Lok-sang Ho China

68 (24月7) CPPS Are Union Jobs Worse? Are Govemment Jobs Better? Professor John S. Heywood ,

Professor W. S. Siebert and Dr. Xiangdong Wei

69 (25 /97) CPPS Restructuring the Party/state Relations : Dr. Yiu-chung Wong China' s Political Structural Refonn in the 1980s

70 (26月7) CPPS Estimating British Workers' Demand for Safety Dr. Xiangdong Wei

71 (27月7) CPPS Managerial Stress in Hong Kong and Taiwan: A Ms . Oi-Iing Siu, Comparative Study Dr. Luo Lu and

Professor Cary L. Cooper

72 (28月7) CPPS Teaching Social Science in the East Asian Context Professor William T. Liu

73 (1/98) CPPS Interpreting the Basic Law with Chinese Characteristics Professor James C. Hsiung

No. 主盟主 Author

74 (2/98) CPPS Worker Participation and Firm Perforrnance: Evidence Professor John T. Addison, from Germany and Britain Professor W. Stanley Siebe泣，

Professor Joachim Wagner and Dr. Xiangdong Wei

75 (3/98) CPPS The Nature of Optimal Public Policy Professor Lok-sang Ho

76 (4/98) CPPS Symbolic Boundaries and Middle Class Formation in Ms. Annie H. N. Chan HongKong

77 (5/98) CPPS Urbanization in Sha Tin and Tuen Mun . Problems and Mr. Hong-kin Kwok and Coping S甘ategles M r. Shing-tak Chan

78 (6/98) CAPS Coping with Contagion: Europe 缸1d the Asian Dr. Brian Bridges Economic Crisis

79 (7月8) CAPS New World Order and a New U.S . Policy Toward China Professor James C. Hsiung

80 (8/98) CPPS Poverty Policy in Hong Kong: Western Models and Dr. William Lee and Cultural Divergence Professor Jolm Edwards

81 (9月8) CAPS The Paradox of Hong Kong as a Non-Sovereign Professor James C. Hsiung lnternational Actor

82 (1 0/98) CAPS Po1itica1lmpacts of Catholic Education in Dr. Beatrice Leung Decolonization: Hong Kong and Macau

83 (1 1/98) CAPS The Rise and Fall ofthe HK Economy Professor Lok咽ngHo

84 (1 2月8) CAPS 中國貿易保護代價的測算 方法、結論和意義 張曙光教授

85 (13月8) CAPS 中國居民收入差距的擴大及其原因 趙人偉教授、 李實教授

86 (1 4月8) CAPS The Labor lncome Tax Equivalent of Price Scissors in D r. Hiroyuki lmai Pre-Reform China

87 (15/98) CPPS Complementarity, lnvestment Incentives, and Evolution D r. Ping Lin and of Joint Ventures Dr. Kamal Saggi

88 (16/98) CPPS A Theory of Health and Health Policy Professor Lok-sang Ho

89 (1/99) CPPS Towards a New Tnternationa1 Monetary Order: The Professor Lok-sang Ho Wor1d Currency Unit and the G1oba1 Indexed Bond

90 (2/99) CPPS Age Differences in Work Adjustment: A Study ofMale Dr. Oi-ling Sill, 剖1d Female Managerial Stress , Coping Strategies and Professor Palll E. Spector, LOCllS ofCon甘01 in Hong Kong Professor Cary L. Cooper,

Dr. Kate Sparks and Dr. lan Donald

No.

91 (3/99) CAPS

92 (4/99) CPPS

93 (5/99) CPPS

94 (6/99) CAPS

95 (7/99) CPPS

96 (8/99) CPPS

97 (9/99) CAPS

98 (1 /00) CAPS

99 (2/00) CAPS

100 (3/00) CAPS

101 (4/00) CPPS

102 (5/00) CPPS

103 (6/00) CPPS

104 (7/00) CPPS

105 (8/00) CPPS

主盟且

A Comparative Study of Managerial Stress in Greater China: The Direct and lndirect Effects of Coping Strategies and W ork Locus of Control

Implementing Efficient Allocations in a Model of Financial Intermediation

R & D lncentives in Vertically Related lndustries

Testing for a Nonlinear Relationship among Fundarnentals and Exchange Rates in the ERM

Health Care Delivery and Financing: in Search of an ldeal Model - Re f1ections on the Harvard Report

A Structural Equation Model ofEnvironmental Attitude and Behaviour: The Hong Kong Experience

Hong Kong's In f1ation under the U.S. Dollar Peg: The Balassa-Samuelson E叮ect or the Dutch Disease?

Structural Transformation and Economic Growth in Hong Kong: AnOther Look at Young's “A Tale ofTwo Cities"

Corporatism and Civil Society in the People's RepubJic of China: Empirical Evidence and Theoretical Implications

GJobalization and Sino-American Economic Relations

Government Expenditures and Equilibrium Real Exchange Rates

A Case Study of Economic Ecology: The Hong Kong Economy's Plunge into a Deep Recession in 1998

lncentives and Corruption in Chinese Economic Reform

Safety CJimate and Employee Health Among Blue Collar Workers in Hong Kong and China: Age and Gender Differences

The Political Economy ofHong Kong SAR's Fiscal Policy

Author

Dr. Oi-ling Siu, Professor Paul E. Spector, Professor Cary L. Cooper, Dr. Luo Lu and Dr. Shanfa Yu

Professor Edward 1. Green and Dr. PingLin

Dr. Samiran Banerjee and Dr. PingLin

Dr. Yue Ma and Dr. Angelos Kanas

Professor Lok-sang Ho

M

呵

am uh rmc gm nvd ﹒」「u

ok papa DD

Dr. Hiroyuki lmai

Dr. Hiroyuki lmai

Dr. Wong Yiu-chung and Dr. Chan Che-po

Professor C. Fred Bergsten

Professor Ronald J. Balvers and Dr. Jeffrey H. Bergstrand

Professor Lok-sang Ho

Dr. Chengze Sirnon Fan and Professor Herschel 1. Grossman

Dr. Oi-ling Siu, Dr. Ian Donald, Professor David R. Phillips and 恥釘. Billy Kwok-hung She

Professor Lok-sang Ho

No. 主盟if Author

106 (9/00) CPPS A Two-wave Trend Study of Organizational Clirnate Dr. Oi-ling Siu and Psychological Distress arnong General and Psychiatric Nurses in Hong Kong

107 (1 /01) CPPS Realistic Exchange Rates: A Post-Asian Financial Professor Lok-sang Ho Crisis Perspective

108 (2/01) CPPS Health Care Financing and Delivery in Hong Kong Professor Lok-sang Ho What Should Be Done

109 (3/01) CPPS The World Currency Unit: Can it Work? Professor Lok-sang Ho

110 (4/01) CPPS Strategic Spin-Offs D r. PingLin

111 (5/01) CPPS Downstrearn R&D, Raising Rivals' Costs, and lnput Dr. Sarniran Banerjee and Price Contract D r. Ping Lin

112 (6/01) CPPS Ecology and Foreign Policy: Theoretical Lessons from D r. John Barkdull and the Literature D r. Paul G. Harris

113 (7/01) CPPS Evolving Norrns ofNorth-South Assistance: Will They D r. Paul G. Harris and be Applied to 凹V/AIDS? D r. Patricia Siplon

114 (8/01) CPPS “One Countrγ， Two Systerns" in Practice: An Analysis Dr. Wong Yiu-chung of Six Cases

115 (9月 1) CAPS 中國自由貿易區的構想-WTO框架下中國大陸與 遲福林教授

港、澳、台經質關係展望

116 (10/0 1) CAPS Econornic Reforrns and Growth Prospects in lndia Professor Lawrence R. Klein and Dr. Thangavel Palanivel

117 (1 /02) CAPS 加入 WTO對台灣製造業的衝擊.微觀分析 陳信宏博士、史惠慈博士

118 (2/02) CAPS 中國大陸加入世貿組織對大陸經濟發展之影響 回君美博士

119 (3/02) CAPS 入世後瓊台農業項下自由賀易展望 李昌邦教授

120 (4/02) CAPS 兩岸入世賀後智慧財產權爭議解決之探討 王琇慧女士

121 (5/02) CAPS 台灣入世銀行服務業在法規和政策上之調適 王應傑先生

122 (6/02) CAPS 加入 WTO對台灣與大陸證券業之衝擊與因應 吳桂燕博士

123 (7/02) CAPS 兩岸工業部門國際分工程度之比較分析 吳中峻博士

124 (8/02) CAPS 兩岸入會後的金融新情勢 薛琦教授

) 25 (9/02) CAPS 世貿組織與質易相關投資措施協定與跨國投資之 王泰銓教授、楊士慧女士規定問題

No. 主且iε Author

126 (10/02) CAPS 中國大陸加入 WTO後政府職能之變遷﹒調適與挑戰 陳德昇博士

127 (1 1102) CPPS Competition PoJicy under Laissez-faireism: Market Professor Edward K. Y Power and lts Treatment in Hong Kong Chen and Dr. Ping Lin

128 (1 2/02) CPPS R&D in China and the Implications for Industrial Dr. Ping Lin Restructuring

129 (13/02) CPPS Education Refonn: An Economic Perspective Professor Lok Sang Ho

130 (1 4/02) CAPS Do China and Hong Kong Constitute An Optimum Dr. Yue Ma and Professor Currency Area? Shu-ki Tsang

131 (15/02) CAPS Dirty Coal: Voluntary International Environmental Paul G. Harris and Chihiro Agreements and Sustainable Development in the Udagawa People's Republic of China

132 (1 6/02) CAPS Spillover Effects of FDl on Innovation in China: An Cheung Kui-yin and Ping analysis ofProvincial Data Lin

133 (1 7/02) CAPS Competition Policy in East Asia: The Cases of Japan, Ping Lin People's Republic ofChina, and Hong Kong

134 (1 /03) CPPS On the Equivalence of the Noncooperative and YueMa Cooperative Solutions in a Two-Person Game

135 (2/03) CPPS Education Reform in HK: The ldeal versus the Reality Lok Sang Ho about Competition

136 (3/03) CAPS US-Japan Relations: Convergence and Divergence in the Brian Bridges Post-September 11 tb World

137 (4月3) CAPS The Role ofNon-judicial Mechanisms in Protecting Ren Yue lndividual Rights: The China and Hong Kong Experiences

138 (5/03) CAPS lnstitutional Disarticulation: The Changing Educational Anita Y.K. Poon and Wong Governance in Post-Handover Hong Kong Yiu-chung

139 (6/03) CPPS The Effect ofTrade on Wage Inequality: The Hong Kong Lok Sang Ho, Xiangdong Wei Case and Gary Wai-chung Wong

140 (7月3) CPPS Structural Change and the Narrowing Gender Gap in C. Simon Fan and Hon-Kwong Wages: Theory and Evidence 台om Hong Kong Lui

141 (8/03) CPPS Managers' Occupational Str巴ss in China: The Role of Chang-qin Lu, Oi-1ing Siu and Self-efficacy Cary L. Cooper

A full list of working papers titles is also available at the Centre homepages ht伊://www.LN. edu. hklcaps/ and ht伊 //www.LN. edu. hklcpps/

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