Male and Female Photographic Representation in 50 Years of Music Educators Journal

Journal of Research in Music Education2015, Vol. 62(4) 485 –500

© National Association forMusic Education 2014

Reprints and permissions:sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav

DOI: 10.1177/0022429414555910jrme.sagepub.com

Article

Male and Female Photographic Representation in 50 Years of Music Educators Journal

Adam J. Kruse1, Robin Giebelhausen2, Heather N. Shouldice3, and Andrea L. Ramsey4

AbstractConsidering the potential for stereotypes to shape professional expectations, the four researchers in this study investigated photographic representation of adult men and women in implied positions of authority in 50 years (1962–2011) of issues of Music Educators Journal (MEJ). Data included every photograph (N = 7,288) of adults conducting, teaching or presenting, or granted the authority of having their picture labeled with their name (named persons), and were analyzed by year over the 50-year period. Results showed that females composed 28% of these photographs, with the largest representation of females being found in the teaching/presenting category (56%) and markedly smaller representations of females found in the conducting (21%) and named persons (20%) categories. Fluctuations in certain categories across the five decades suggest that while representation of males and females in MEJ has changed in 50 years, inequity persists. Implications include a call for greater attention and effort toward equitable representation in music education media for publishers, authors, and other contributors in addition to increased sensitivity to the representations of male and female stereotypes and professional expectations encountered by music educators and students.

Keywordsmale and female stereotypes, professional expectations, sex/gender equity

1University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA2University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA3Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI, USA4University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA

Corresponding Author:Heather N. Shouldice, Department of Music and Dance, Eastern Michigan University, N101 Alexander Music Building, Ypsilanti, MI 48393, USA. Email: [email protected]

555910 JRMXXX10.1177/0022429414555910Journal of Research in Music EducationKruse et al.research-article2014

at UNIV OF NEW MEXICO on December 17, 2014jrm.sagepub.comDownloaded from

mailto:[email protected]

http://jrm.sagepub.com/

486 Journal of Research in Music Education 62(4)

Feminist theories vary tremendously, including liberal, socialist, and radical perspec-tives; however, all feminist theories confront the fundamental issue of the subordina-tion of women to men (Acker, 1987). Freedman (2003) contended that this subordination manifests in visual culture, possessing the power to manipulate, as “individuals appro-priate characteristics of visual representation, adopting these representations as a description of himself/herself” (p. 2). The adoption of accepted and expected roles for men and women portrayed in media grants media vital influence. Hamilton, Anderson, Broaddus, and Young (2006) argued that stereotyped depictions and underrepresenta-tion of women in books can “limit [readers’] career aspirations . . . and even influence their personality characteristics” (p. 757). Because images in media possess the poten-tial “both to frustrate and to advance feminist objectives” (Rhode, 1995, p. 686), the question arises of how the images presented in music education publications perpetu-ate or challenge the subordination of women. Given the powerful potential of visual representation to affect music educators’ perspectives, the four researchers in this study, employing a broad feminist theory perspective, investigated photographic rep-resentation of adult men and women in implied positions of authority in 50 years (1962–2011) of issues of Music Educators Journal (MEJ).

Review of Literature

Researchers, scholars, and educators have examined critically issues of sex and gender in the field of music education for well over 30 years. One of the earliest such studies was that of Abeles and Porter (1978), investigating the musical instrument sex stereo-types revealed by children and adults. Abeles and Porter discovered strong associa-tions of gender with certain wind band instruments and argued that this type of sex stereotyping can “serve to constrict the behavior and thus the opportunities of indi-viduals” (Abeles & Porter, 1978, p. 65). Following this important work, authors of numerous studies found consistent stereotyping of musical instruments in a range of settings and with a variety of techniques and perspectives (Bruce & Kemp, 1993; Delzell & Leppla, 1992; Fortney, Boyle, & DeCarbo, 1993; Griswold & Chroback, 1981; O’Neill & Boultona, 1996; Tarnowski, 1993). Reflecting on 30 years of such studies, Abeles (2009) found that little had changed in sex distribution of instruments among adolescent students. Eros (2008) suggested that because of these stereotypes, “students may have fewer available instruments to play, fewer ensembles in which to participate, fewer career opportunities, and they may even face verbal and physical abuse” (p. 63).

Multiple studies have shown the influence of gender on music perceptions, includ-ing performance quality (Davidson & Edgar, 2003; Elliott, 1996), perceptions of con-ductors and composers (Bartleet, 2002, 2008; Colley, North, & Hargreaves, 2003), and perceptions of student achievement (Green, 1993; Hanley, 1998). In the case of con-ductors, Bartleet (2002) argued,

Due to historical and societal precedence, men have had the power to develop the role of the conductor. The discourses that surround and inform it are saturated with masculine



Kruse et al. 487

values, and therefore, the masculine gendered body and its associated behaviour are understood as being the norm. A female conductor, then, is defined by her difference to the masculine norm. On the gendered podium “male” is the unmarked category and “female” the marked. Woman is perceived as “Other.” (p. 51)

Historical and societal precedence for sex and gender inequity manifest in the demographics of the music teaching population. In the past 25 years (1986–2011), the percentage of females in the total public school teacher population in the United States rose from 69% to 84% (Feistritzer, Griffin, & Linnajarvi, 2011). This overwhelming and growing majority of female American educators reflects the historical precedent of the role of educator being labeled as female. In 2001, the Music Educators National Conference (MENC, now the National Association for Music Education [NAfME]) reported that 54% of its 48,000 members were female (MENC, 2001), presenting the role of music educator as somewhat gender neutral. However, the appearance of gen-der neutrality does not stand up to further investigation.

A detailed breakdown of the demographics of MENC’s 2001 membership (MENC, 2001) reveals disparity between male and female educators in terms of grade level and subject taught. Seventy-one percent of the preschool- and elementary school–level teachers were female, while only 39% of the secondary and college/university teach-ers were female. A similar imbalance of representation existed by music subject, where 67% of band teachers and 77% of jazz teachers were male, and 68% of choral teachers and 71% of general music teachers were female. McKeage (2004) found similar dis-parity of female performers in jazz programs, and Gould (1992) examined comparable sex stereotyping within a variety of music teacher demographics. Puller’s (2009) investigation of sex and authority associated with applied voice teachers in American postsecondary settings showed that proportions of female faculty members decreased as the rank of faculty members increased.

Koza (1991, 1992, 1993a, 1993b, 1994) completed numerous investigations of these and other sex and gender issues in multiple music education textbooks and jour-nals. Her critical examination of a 19th century women’s magazine revealed that “the doctrine of separate spheres narrowly limited women’s musical options to those most commonly associated with the home and restricted women’s status to that of ama-teurs” (Koza, 1991, p. 123). An analysis of “missing males” in the Music Supervisors Journal from 1914 to 1924 revealed that while advocacy for the music education of male and female students existed, concerns of male issues received a majority of the journal’s gendered focus (Koza, 1993b). Koza (1993a) also found this focus on male-specific issues in postsecondary choral music texts, reinforcing misogynistic and homophobic dialogues.

Further content analysis of educational textbooks led Koza to inspect illustrations and music-related figures for issues of sex equity. Koza (1992, 1994) found that “exclusion, underrepresentation, and stereotyping” existed in children’s music texts published in 1988 when examining the ways in which the images represented males and females engaged in musical activity. Koza (1992) argued,




As valuable as it is to understand how sexism may be manifest across disciplines (for example, in representations of girls as passive and boys as active), it is equally important for music educators and publishers to be aware of the unique forms sexism can take within the discipline of music. Unless there is sensitivity to the latter problems, blatant examples of sexism may slip by unnoticed. (p. 30)

Concerned with issues of gender equity in instrumental music and influenced strongly by Koza’s work, McWilliams (2003) completed a mixed-method content analysis of 24 issues of the Instrumentalist magazine published from 2000 to 2002. This analysis revealed that “women were largely absent from the ranks of wind band conductors and wind and percussion musicians within the text” (McWilliams, 2003, p. 148), leading McWilliams to argue that little attentiveness had been paid to gender equity issues.

Other studies have shown similar inequality in gender representations. In an analy-sis of a Spanish music textbook, Digón Regueiro (2000) found far more men than women in illustrations of performers and conductors as well as sex stereotyping con-sistent with prior studies on instrument preference. Humphreys (1997) investigated images of male and female representation in two music education history textbooks published 55 years apart (1937 and 1992) and found that inequity of female represen-tation remained consistent between the two publications. The prevalent inequity with which printed music education materials have represented females in the profession calls for the investigation of the appearance of possible stereotypes among influential music education publications. In this study, we aim to investigate the possible mes-sages of sex stereotypes and professional expectations presented to the teachers, administrators, researchers, and scholars who make up the readership of MEJ.

Previous studies of male and female representations in various examples of printed music education materials have revealed an inequity in the presentation of females. The purpose of this study was to investigate male and female representation as depicted in photographs of persons in positions of implied authority over the past 50 years (1962–2011) of MEJ. Specifically, the analysis focused on photographic depictions of adults conducting an ensemble, teaching or presenting, or granted the authority of hav-ing their picture labeled with their name (named persons) within this time period.

Method

The researchers chose to focus on MEJ given its wide and diverse readership among teachers, administrators, college students, and music industry professionals. With a distri-bution nearing 80,000, MEJ provides a public forum for dialogue among the members of NAfME. MEJ addresses topics of interest for instrumental, choral, general, and elemen-tary music educators as well as researchers and teacher educators. Because a study of this journal covering so many years has not yet been completed, the researchers employed a broad perspective of the entirety of images presented in MEJ, including magazine covers, images accompanying articles, and images appearing in advertisements. Limitations and alternatives to this design are discussed elsewhere in this article.



Kruse et al. 489

Due to concern with the visual representations of men and women in positions of implied authority, researchers determined three categories of visual representation in MEJ that assumed authority relevant to the journal’s readership. The first category of implied authority included music conductors, which consisted of persons either (a) engaged in the act of conducting (e.g., waving arms and/or a baton in front of a class-room or ensemble) or (b) clearly positioned in the role of conductor (e.g., standing in front of a music ensemble on or off a podium). (For an example of a “conductor” photograph, see Figure S1 in the online supplemental material at http://jrme.sagepub .com/supplemental.) The second category of implied authority included teachers or presenters, which consisted of persons clearly positioned in the role of teacher or pre-senter (e.g., speaking to an audience or classroom, instructing a classroom, group, or an individual positioned in the role of student). (For an example of a “teacher/pre-senter” photograph, see Figure S2 at http://jrme.sagepub.com/supplemental.) Persons were not categorized as conductors or teachers/presenters unless they could be confi-dently identified as such (e.g., a photograph of an adult standing by an advertised music product would not be counted, as the adult could not be clearly identified as a teacher/presenter or conductor). The third category of implied authority was labeled named persons and included images identified with the photographed person’s name appearing in the caption or surrounding text of the photograph (Koza, 1994). (For an example of a “named person” photograph, see Figure S3 at http://jrme.sagepub.com/supplemental.) Although these images may not show authoritative activity, providing a person’s name and often his or her title (e.g., MENC president) exudes an authority that anonymous photographs do not possess.

Photographs were included in only one category of implied authority so as not to grant one image 2 or 3 times the statistical impact of another. Because this study focuses on visual representation, images that displayed both action (e.g., teaching, conducting) and a named caption were categorized by the images’ action and not the named caption. Occasionally, photographs of persons younger than college age were presented in these positions of implied authority; however, they were not included in this study. This is because the study is concerned with presentations of professional stereotypes, and the assumed readership of MEJ consists of primarily adults. Drawings, cartoons, artistic portraits, or other nonphotographic illustrations were not included in the study. Photographs of objects (e.g., a photograph of a CD case with a male conduc-tor on the front) were excluded, and photographs of named groups (e.g., Kronos Quartet) were not counted unless each member of the group was named individually. Recognizable persons who were unnamed were not counted. For example, a photo-graph of Duke Ellington without specific text identifying his name would not be counted, a photograph of Duke Ellington labeled with his name would be counted as a male named person, and a photograph of Duke Ellington conducting an ensemble would be counted as a male conductor whether or not his name appeared in a caption or in the surrounding text.

Researchers identified all photographs of persons in the three categories of implied authority (conductors, teachers/presenters, named persons) that accompanied articles as well as those in advertisements and appearing on covers in each MEJ issue from


http://jrme.sagepub.com/supplemental







1961 to 2011 and categorized each person in the photographs as male, female, or inde-terminate in sex. Each photograph was counted as one representation, whether group or individual. For group photographs, sex was fractionated proportionately. For exam-ple, a photograph of three named persons containing one male and two females would be tabulated as 1/3 male and 2/3 female. (For an example of a photograph using frac-tional counting, see Figure S4 at http://jrme.sagepub.com/supplemental.) In this man-ner, the total number of photographs could be counted accurately, and all photographs received the same weight whether group or individual.

Prior to dividing the 50 years’ worth of MEJ issues among the four researchers for photograph content analysis, interjudge reliability was assessed with a pilot study of four issues from 2011. Eighty-four photographs from these four issues fit the previ-ously described criteria. The four researchers independently categorized these photo-graphs by identifying each according to sex and category (conductor, teacher/presenter, or named person). During this pilot study, researchers reached 100% agreement in determining the sex of the adults in all 84 photographs and 97.42% agreement on the category (conductor, teacher/presenter, or named person) for the adult(s) photo-graphed. Because of the high level of agreement among judges, it was concluded that having multiple judges review every photograph for all 50 years was unnecessary.

Results

Researchers categorized 7,288 photographs of adult males and females in positions of implied authority from the 50 years of MEJ. Of the total number of photographs, 11.94% depicted conductors, 22.05% depicted teachers/presenters, and 66% depicted named persons. While most persons were discernable as either male or female, occa-sionally sex was indeterminate due to neutral clothing, neutral hairstyle, photograph size/clarity, or face and body position (e.g., back to camera, facing ensemble or class). Of the total number of photographs categorized, 71.38% of the pictures were male, 28.09% were female, and 0.53% were indeterminate. Given the very low percentage of indeterminate photographs, the indeterminate category was eliminated from the data analysis.

The percentage of females pictured in implied positions of authority has increased over time. This overall increase occurred despite a decrease from the late 1990s to 2004. In no year during that time span did the percentage of females pictured exceed 50%, though photographs featuring women reached over 40% during several years (2009, 2007, 2006, 1999, 1997 1994, 1993, 1992, 1990; see Figure 1).

Of the years counted, percentage of female representation varied depending on the photograph’s category (see Figure 2). The categories of conducting and named photo-graphs contained the largest numbers of years (32) in the range 0% to 25%. The cate-gory of teaching/presenting contained female photographs most frequently in the range 51% to 75% (27 years). Teaching/presenting was the only category in which females were depicted in the classification 76% to 100% (4 out of 50 years).

Males accounted for an average of 79% of the 871 photographs of conductors over the 50 years. One hundred percent of the conducting photographs featured men in




491

Fig

ure

1. T

otal

per

cent

age

of fe

mal

e re

pres

enta

tion

by y

ear.



492

Fig

ure

2. N

umbe

r of

yea

rs a

ccor

ding

to

perc

enta

ge o

f fem

ale

repr

esen

tatio

n by

cat

egor

y.



Kruse et al. 493

several years (2001, 1997, 1979, 1974, 1971, 1967). Despite the percentage increase in female conducting photographs in the last 30 years, the overall percentages still remain relatively low. From 2002 to 2011, females made up 30.6% of the number of conductors pictured (see Figure 3). In years with higher percentages of female con-ducting photographs (i.e., 2007, 1994, 1985), there were smaller numbers of males pictured rather than increased numbers of females.

Females accounted for an average of 56% of the 1,608 photographs of teachers/presenters over the 50 years. From 1982 to 2001, female representations of teachers accounted for almost two thirds of the teaching photographs. Recent issues (2002–2009) had nearly even male and female representations of teaching, but a sharp decrease in female representation occurred in 2010 (18%) and 2011 (24%) (see Figure 3). The percentages of female teacher representations in 2010 and 2011 are the lowest of the 50 years studied.

Males composed 80% of the 4,813 photographs depicting named persons through-out the 50 years. Similar to the photos of female teachers, there is a gradual increase in the percentage of photographs of named females as well as the same abrupt percent-age decrease in 2010 and 2011 (see Figure 3). Over 90% of the photos of named per-sons featured males during several years (1989, 1975, 1971, 1970, 1966, 1965, 1964). Percentages of named-person photographs featuring men were at their lowest in 2009 (48%), 2010 (54%), 1992 (58%), and 2006 (59%). However, even in the last 10 years (2002–2011), males accounted for 69% of the named persons in MEJ.

Discussion

Visual images play a powerful role in the construction of one’s identity, and individu-als tend to adopt characteristics of visual representations “as a description of himself/herself” (Freedman, 2003, p. 2). Of the 7,288 photographs counted in MEJ between 1962 and 2011, only 28% represented females in positions of implied authority. When a woman opens her professional journal and views photographs that predominantly portray males rather than females in these positions of implied authority, it may hinder her ability to imagine herself as a potential holder of these positions. Thus, a lack of equitable visual representation of females can be detrimental to women’s identity development and navigation as music educators. Given the fact that images in media possess the potential “both to frustrate and to advance feminist objectives” (Rhode, 1995, p. 686), this inequitable photographic representation of females in MEJ might serve to perpetuate an impression of the subordination of women to men as profession-als in the field of music education. These visual impressions could potentially influ-ence the professional perceptions and expectations of all readers, regardless of their sex or gender.

Although the photographic representation of females in MEJ has increased over the past 50 years, in only nine of those years did the percentage of females exceed 40%, and it was recently as low as 20% (in 2003). It is surprising and notable that total female representation has dropped in the two most recent years surveyed, 2010 and



494

Fig

ure

3. P

erce

ntag

e of

fem

ale

repr

esen

tatio

ns b

y ye

ar a

nd c

ateg

ory.



Kruse et al. 495

2011. In 2011, females represented only 32% of conductors, 24% of teachers/present-ers, and 35% of named persons featured in photographs published in MEJ.

The only category within which females were more frequently represented than males overall was that of teaching/presenting, with 56% of these photographs repre-senting females. This is in sharp contrast to the conducting and named-persons catego-ries, which were heavily dominated by representations of males; on average, females composed only 21% and 20% of the photographic representation in these respective categories. This starkly disproportionate representation of females as compared to males is not encouraging to young women aspiring to conduct or hold leadership posi-tions in music education and could send an inadvertent message that women are less capable in these roles than are men.

The persistence of sex equity issues in the field of music education warrants our attention. Although over 20 years have passed since Koza’s (1991, 1992, 1993a, 1993b, 1994) initial studies of sex/gender issues in music education textbooks and journals, results of the current study reveal that inequalities in sex representation simi-lar to those found by Koza, Humphreys (1997), Digón Regueiro (2002), and McWilliams (2003) still exist in the present. The fact that such little progress has been made in the equitable portrayal of women in music education publications suggests we must continue attempting to heighten awareness of this issue.

One might argue that this disproportionate sex representation in photographs is merely representative of the perceived reality that more males than females hold these positions. However, MENC (now NAfME) membership data starkly contradict this perception. In 2001, females accounted for approximately 54% of the MENC mem-bership (MENC, 2001). This statistic is dramatically at odds with the photographic representation of females in the issues of MEJ published in 2001, in which females represented 56% of the teachers but only 23% of the named persons and 0% of the conductors. This percentage of MEJ photographs depicting persons in teaching roles who were female does provide a more gender-neutral representation than the actual statistic that 71% of general music teachers who were members of MENC in 2001 were female. However, despite MENC’s 2001 female membership making up 33%, 49%, and 68% of the band, orchestra, and choir teachers, respectively, 100% of MEJ’s photographs of conductors in 2001 showed men in that role. The fact that in 2001 a considerable percentage of MENC members who held conducting roles were female yet none were represented in photographs in MEJ is extremely troubling and, to use the words of Koza (1994), “marginalizes women and their achievements” (p. 166).

Suggestions for Future Research

One limitation of the current study is that the photographs were not categorized according to the context in which they appeared. Although the categorization is not supported in the numerical data for this study, the researchers informally noted that a substantial number of the photographs published in MEJ were in the form of advertise-ments. A replication of the current study might differentiate between photographs fea-tured in advertisements and those that accompany articles. Such an investigation might




reveal different findings than the current study and could indicate whether recommen-dations regarding sex equity in photographs should be directed to MEJ or its advertis-ers. Photographs accompanying articles might be categorized further according to article type (e.g., practitioner or researcher generated), specialization (e.g., instrumen-tal, choral, elementary general), and/or topic.

Similarly, the grouping of teachers and presenters into a single category is another limitation of this study. While examining the photographs in MEJ, the researchers informally noted that photographs of teachers seemed to feature considerably more females than males, while photographs of presenters appeared to feature more males than females. Separating the teacher and presenter roles into two distinct categories would result in statistics that might tell a different story than the one told by combining these two roles. Authors of future research might aim to investigate these roles separately.

Authors of future studies also might seek to examine the nature of conductor pho-tographs in greater detail. This might be done by categorizing photographs of conduc-tors according to ensemble type (e.g., choir, band, orchestra, other) and/or level of the students (e.g., elementary school, high school). These more specific categorizations might reveal subtle trends regarding females in the conductor role.

Given the results of the current study in female representation among conductors in MEJ, authors of future studies also might investigate the sex representation among photographs of conductors in other publications, such as the Instrumentalist or Choral Journal. McWilliams’s (2003) conclusion that “women were largely absent” (p. 148) from issues of the Instrumentalist magazine published during 2000 to 2002 further supports the need for a broader study of the representation of male and female conduc-tors within these journals. Such studies might reveal interesting similarities or differ-ences as compared to the results of the current study.

The researchers noticed additional qualitative details that emerged through careful examination of the photographic evidence. For example, female conductors often were pictured leading women’s choirs or handbell choirs and seldom leading large orchestras. Additionally, many of the photographs of named women in 1960s and 1970s listed the women as “Mrs. John Doe,” as the wife of a named man, rather than stating their actual names. The researchers noted these trends as subtle yet important messages regarding the roles of women in music education; however, these emergent trends are not represented in the actual data of this study. While this examination of the quantities of photographs of males and females in MEJ tells an important story, future researchers might undertake an examination of the qualitative nature of the photo-graphic portrayal of males and females, which may tell a different yet just as meaning-ful story.

Other studies of sex representation could be undertaken. These might include a study of the sex makeup of past and present MEJ editorial boards and whether this relates in any way to the findings of the current study. Similarly, authors of future stud-ies might aim to reveal trends in sex representation among presenters or conductors featured at music education conferences at the state or national level, such as Sheldon and Hartley (2012), who studied gender and ethnicity among conductors at the



Kruse et al. 497

Midwest Band and Orchestra Clinic. Furthermore, researchers might survey or inter-view in-service and/or preservice teachers regarding their perceptions of the male/female stereotypes portrayed in the photographs of MEJ and other publications. One such study might involve examining awareness of these stereotypes and/or the degree to which these stereotypes are present among incoming music education majors. Another possible approach might be to explore the formation of these stereotypes among children and/or whether being exposed to more equitable representation pre-vents or eliminates these stereotypes.

Implications

It should be noted that the process of selecting photographs for inclusion in MEJ is complicated and multifaceted. To illuminate this process, one of the researchers inter-viewed a former academic editor of MEJ who shared that “the vast majority of the photos that are used in stories [in MEJ] are stock photos that have no connection to the author or his or her teaching situation” (M. Robinson, personal communication, March 23, 2012). Many photographs come from “a bank of stock images that MENC [now NAfME] has purchased” (M. Robinson, personal communication, March 23, 2012). Additionally, the former editor noted that the content of advertisements is not medi-ated by MEJ.

Although many journal editors or publishers may have little control over the photo-graphs they are publishing, the results of the current study suggest that editors and publishers might pay greater attention to issues pertaining to equitable representation (e.g., that of sex/gender, race, disabilities) in the images they are disseminating and the messages these images could be sending to the readership of their publications. Seeking out a more diverse set of stock images and finding ways to facilitate and encourage the submission of images from journal contributors can help alleviate this issue. Given the fact that many of the photographs counted in this study were adver-tisements, results suggest that advertisers could be more aware of the sex-related ste-reotypes in the images they are putting forth in publications. Advertisers, especially universities trying to attract students to their music programs, should be cognizant of the messages they send through images used to represent their organizations or products.

These equity issues in published photographs are also pertinent for authors and other contributors to music education journals. Knowing that images otherwise will come from a stock that may not represent diversity in an equitable manner, contribu-tors might submit their own images to accompany articles. In doing so, contributors might consider and increase the likelihood of equitable representation of adults and children in terms of sex, race, age, disability, and other issues.

Finally, music educators can be more sensitive to the representations they are encountering as well as those they are presenting in their classrooms. Teachers might consciously consider the images they view in journals and the impact that representa-tion in these images might have on their perceptions of gender roles for both adults and students in the field of music education. In doing so, teachers can develop




their awareness of issues of representation and stereotyping and apply this critical awareness to the images they are using in their own classrooms. What messages are teachers sending to their students through textbooks, articles, posters, videos, and other materials regarding gender roles among composers, conductors, and other musi-cians? By addressing these issues of representation and critically investigating mes-sages sent implicitly through advertisements and other materials, teachers also can raise awareness and encourage critical investigation of gender issues among their stu-dents. According to Gould (1992), “music education is obligated to go beyond being a mirror of what society is and reflect, instead, what society is striving to become” (p. 11). While the photographs examined in this study may not reflect the society that the field of music education is striving to become, heightening our awareness of represen-tations and stereotypes and ensuring equitable opportunities for all individuals in music education can help us toward that goal.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge the guidance and support of Dr. John Kratus and the music education faculty of Michigan State University in the preparation of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Supplemental Material

Figures S1-S4 are available at http://jrme.sagepub.com/supplemental.

References

Abeles, H. F. (2009). Are musical instrument gender associations changing? Journal of Research in Music Education, 57, 127–139. doi:10.1177/0022429409335878

Abeles, H. F., & Porter, S. Y. (1978). The sex-stereotyping of musical instruments. Journal of Research in Music Education, 26, 65–75. doi:10.2307/3344880

Acker, S. (1987). Feminist theory and the study of gender and education. International Review of Education, 33(4), 419–435. doi:10.1007/BF00615157

Bartleet, B. (2002). Re-embodying the “gendered podium.” Context, 23, 49–57. doi:1038-4006Bartleet, B. (2008). Women conductors on the orchestral podium: Pedagogical and professional

implications. College Music Symposium, 48, 31–51. Retrieved from http://search.proquest .com/docview/908303684

Bruce, R., & Kemp, A. E. (1993). Sex-stereotyping in children’s preferences for musical instru-ments. British Journal of Music Education, 10, 213–217. doi:10.1017/S0265051700001777

Colley, A., North, A. C., & Hargreaves, D. J. (2003). Adolescents’ perceptions of the music of male and female composers. Psychology of Music, 31, 139–154. doi:10.1177/ 0305735603031002291


http://search.proquest.com/docview/908303684



Kruse et al. 499

Davidson, J. W., & Edgar, R. (2003). Gender and race bias in the judgement of Western art music performance. Music Education Research, 5, 169–181. doi:10.1080/1461380032000085540

Delzell, J. K., & Leppla, D. A. (1992). Gender association of musical instruments and pref-erences for fourth-grade students for selected instruments. Journal of Research in Music Education, 40, 93–103. doi:10.2307/3345559

Digón Regueiro, P. (2000). An analysis of gender in a Spanish music textbook. Music Education Research, 2, 57–73. doi:10.1080/14613800050004431

Elliott, C. A. (1996). Race and gender as factors in judgments of musical performance. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 127, 50–55. Retrieved from http://search .proquest.com/docview/907621407

Eros, J. (2008). Instrument selection and gender stereotypes: A review of recent lit-erature. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 27(1), 57–64. doi:10.1177/8755123308322379

Feistritzer, C. E., Griffin, S., & Linnajarvi, A. (2011). Profile of teachers in the U.S. 2011. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Information. Retrieved from http://www .ncei.com/Profile_Teachers_US_2011.pdf

Fortney, P. M., Boyle, J. D., & DeCarbo, N. J. (1993). A study of middle school band stu-dents’ instrument choices. Journal of Research in Music Education, 41, 28–39. doi:10.2307/3345477

Freedman, K. (2003), Teaching visual culture: Curriculum, aesthetics, and the social life of art. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Gould, E. S. (1992). Gender-specific occupational role models: Implications for music educators. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 11(1), 8–12. doi:10.1177/875512339201100103

Green, L. (1993). Music, gender and education: A report on some exploratory research. British Journal of Music Education, 10(3), 219–253. doi:10.1017/S0265051700001789

Griswold, P. M., & Chroback, D. (1981). Sex-role associations of music instruments and occupations by gender and major. Journal of Research in Music Education, 29, 57–62. doi:10.2307/3344680

Hamilton, M. C., Anderson, D., Broaddus, M., & Young, K. (2006). Gender stereotyping and under-representation of female characters in 200 popular children’s picture books: A twenty-first century update. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 55(11/12), 757–765. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9128-6

Hanley, B. (1998). Gender in secondary music education in British Columbia. British Journal of Music Education, 15(1), 51–69. doi:10.1017/S0265051700003764

Humphreys, J. T. (1997). Sex and geographic representation in two music education history books. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 131, 67–86. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/62450944

Koza, J. E. (1991). Music and the feminine sphere: Images of women as musicians in “Godey’s Lady’s Book,” 1830–1877. Musical Quarterly, 75(2), 103–129. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/907462612

Koza, J. E. (1992). Picture this: Sex equity in textbook illustrations. Music Educators Journal, 78(7), 28–33. doi:10.2307/3398355

Koza, J. E. (1993a). Big boys don’t cry (or sing): Gender, misogyny, and homophobia in col-lege choral methods texts. Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning, 4(4)/5(1), 48–64. doi:10.1177/8755123310378451

Koza, J. E. (1993b). The “missing males” and other gender issues in music education: Evidence from the Music Supervisors Journal, 1914–1924. Journal of Research in Music Education, 41, 212–232. doi:10.2307/3345326




http://www.ncei.com/Profile_Teachers_US_2011.pdf

http://www.ncei.com/Profile_Teachers_US_2011.pdf






Koza, J. E. (1994). Females in 1988 middle school music textbooks: An analysis of illustrations. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42, 145–171. doi:10.2307/3345498

McKeage, K. M. (2004). Gender and participation in high school and college instru-mental jazz ensembles. Journal of Research in Music Education, 52, 343–356. doi:10.1177/002242940405200406

McWilliams, H. J. (2003). Gender equity issues in the depiction of females in “The Instrumentalist” magazine (August 2000-July 2002) (Doctoral dissertation). University of Wisconsin–Madison. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/305283344

Music Educators National Conference. (2001). Gender trends among MENC music educators. Teaching Music, 8(6), 52–53. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/870778

O’Neill, S. A., & Boultona, M. J. (1996). Boys’ and girls’ preferences for musical instruments: A function of gender? Psychology of Music, 24, 171–183. doi:10.1177/0305735696242009

Rhode, D. L. (1995). Media images, feminist issues. Signs, 20(3), 685–710. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/60057725

Puller, S. I. (2009). An analysis of gender, authority, and educational background of voice teach-ers in undergraduate degree-granting institutions (Doctoral dissertation). Florida State University, Tallahassee. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304882022

Sheldon, D. A., & Hartley, L. A. (2012). What color is your baton, girl? Gender and ethnicity in band conducting. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 192, 39–52. doi:10.5406/bulcouresmusedu.192.0039

Tarnowski, S. M. (1993). Gender-bias and musical instrument preference. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 12(1), 14–21. doi:10.1177/875512339301200103

Author Biographies

Adam J. Kruse is assistant professor of music education at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. His research interests include diversity and social justice issues in music education and vernacular music focusing on hip-hop.

Robin Giebelhausen is assistant professor of music education at the University of New Mexico. Her research interests include music technology, gender in music, and music composition pedagogy.

Heather N. Shouldice is assistant professor of music education at Eastern Michigan University. Her research interests include music teacher beliefs and their relationship to teaching practice, music teacher identity, and children’s musical identity development.

Andrea L. Ramsey is assistant professor of conducting and associate director of choral studies at the University of Colorado Boulder. Her research interests include gender in music, single-sex choirs, meanings of the choral experience, and identity development in the choral rehearsal.

Submitted October 24, 2012; accepted October 20, 2013.







Male and Female Photographic Representation in 50 Years of Music Educators Journal

Documents

Transcript of Male and Female Photographic Representation in 50 Years of Music Educators Journal