Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction in Urbanization in Bangladesh: A Scoping Study

Oxfam GB Bangladesh Programme, House-4, Road-3, Block-I, Banani, Dhaka-1213 Web: www.oxfam.org.uk

Development Frontiers Flat 3, Level 4, Sattar Tower

9, West Kafrul, Taltola Agargaon, Dhaka-1207

Email: [email protected]

Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction in Urbanization in Bangladesh: A Scoping Study

http://www.oxfam.org.uk/

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Oxfam GB Bangladesh Programme, House-4, Road-3, Block-I, Banani, Dhaka-1213 Web: www.oxfam.org.uk

Development Frontiers Flat 3, Level 4, Sattar Tower

9, West Kafrul, Taltola Agargaon, Dhaka-1207

Email: [email protected]


http://www.oxfam.org.uk/

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A.K.M. Mamunur Rashid1 Dr. Shahjalal2

Dr. Tawhidul Islam3 Maruf Hasan Sakib4

Naznin Nahar5 Bebek Kanti Das6 Chaity Rahman7

Md. Rajibul Islam8 Salma Azzad9

SarfarazNewaz10

1A.K.M. Mamunur Rashid is the National Project Manager of Poverty Environment Climate

Mainstreaming (PECM) Project of General Economics Division of Bangladesh Planning Commission. He was the honorary adviser to the study. He advised the strategic direction of the study and build partnership with Planning Commission.

2Dr. Shahjalal is a Professor of Anthropology in Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka and honorary Chairman of Development Frontiers. He was the technical advisor of the study. 3Dr. ShiekhTawhidul Islam is the Professor of Department of Geography and Environment in

Jahangirnagar University. He was the urban expert and physical planning expert of the study.

4 Maruf Hasan Sakib is a graduate of Urban and Rural Planning Discipline, post-graduate of

Development Studies, post-grad student of IWFM-BUET and former consultant of World Bank, DMB, SDMC and UNDP. He was the research coordinator of the study

5 Ms. Naznin Nahar is MPhil student of department of Urban and Rural Planning of Khulna

University. She was the research associate for Khulna and Mongla cities. 6Bebek Kanti Das is a graduate of Geography and Environment from Chittagong University. He

was the research associate for Mymensingh and Sirajganj cities. 7 Ms. Chaity Rahman is a post-graduate student of disaster management in Dhaka University.

She has graduated in economics from BRAC University. She was research associate for Dhaka North and South City.

8Rajibul Islam is a graduate of Civil Engineering from Khulna University of Engineering and

Technology. He was research associate for physical planning work of all cities. 9 Salma Azad is a graduate of public administration from Rajshahi University. She was research

associate for Rangpur and Nageshwari cities.

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ABBREVIATION ADP Annual Development Plan ADB Asian Development Bank BAPA Bangladesh PoribeshAndolon BBS Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics BCCRF Bangladesh Climate Change Resilience Fund BCCSAP Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan BCCTF Bangladesh Climate Change Trust Fund BSPCR Bangladesh Special Programme for Climate Resilience BELA Bangladesh Environmental Lawyers Association BIP Bangladesh Institute of Planners BIWTA Bangladesh Inland Water Transport Authority BIWTC Bangladesh Inland Water Transport Corporation BMD Bangladesh Meteorological Department BPDB Bangladesh Power Development Board BRAC Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee BSCIC Bangladesh Small and Cottage Industries Corporation BTCL Bangladesh Telecommunication Company Limited BUET Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology CBO Community Based Organization CCA Climate Change Adaptation CCTF Climate Change Trust Fund CCU Climate Change Unit COP Conference of the Parties CDMP Comprehensive Disaster Management Plan CPEIR Climate Public Expenditure and Institutional Review CRMP Community Risk Management Planning CTP Chief Town Planner DANIDA Danish International Development Agency DCC Dhaka City Corporation DIT Dacca Improvement Trust DMB Disaster Management Bureau DND Dhaka-Narayanganj-Demra DoE Department of Environment DPDCL Dhaka Power Distribution Company Limited DPHE Department of Public Health Engineering DPZ Detailed Planning Zone DP Development Partners DRM Disaster Risk Management DRR Disaster Risk Reduction e.g For Example 10SarfarazNewaz is a graduate of public administration from Chittagong University. He was

research associate for Durgapur city and RAJUK and KDA.

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ERD Economic Relations Division EPZ Export Processing Zone FAR Floor Area Ratio FFZ Flood Flow Zone FYP Five Year Plan GED General Economic Division GIS Geographic Information System GoB Government of Bangladesh IAB Institute of Architects, Bangladesh IWM Institute of Water Modelling i.e. That is JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency J.L. Jurisdiction List LGED Local Government Engineering Department mld Million liter per day MoHPW Ministry of Housing and Public Works NGO Non-Government Organization NUC Nagar Unnayan Committee PP Paurashava Planner PVC Polyvinyl Chlorate REB Rural Electrification Board REHAB Real Estate & Housing Association of Bangladesh RHD Roads and Highways Department R.S. Revisional Survey/Revisional Settlement SoB Survey of Bangladesh SP Structure Plan SPZ Strategic Planning Zone STP Strategic Transport Plan TGTDC TITAS Gas Transmission & Distribution Company TWG Technical Working Group UAP Urban Area Plan UNCHS United Nations Centre for Human Settlement (Habitat) UNDP United Nations Development Programme viz Namely WASA Water and Sewerage Authority WDB Water Development Board

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The research entitled “Mapping of Urban Planning Process of Bangladesh Government (national to local level) to explore scope for mainstreaming urban DRR into development planning (including physical) process in Bangladesh” provides the review of literature on urban disaster risk reduction in Bangladesh and also offers some recommendations to incorporate DRR into the plan and budget of the city corporation, municipality, and relevant organizations. A team from Development Frontiers has conducted the research. Funding for the research has contributed by Oxfam Bangladesh. It has taken eight cities as sample city areas, which are - Dhaka North and South City Corporation, Mymensingh Municipality of Mymensingh district, Durgapur Municipality of Netrokona district, Khulna City Corporation (KCC and KDA) of Khulna district, Mongla Port Municipality of Bagerhat district, Sirajganj Municipality of Sirajganj district, Rangpur City Corporation of Rangpur district and Nageshwari Municipality of Kurigram district. First of all, we would like to express a deep sense of appreciation and profound gratitude to Oxfam for their sincere help in providing funding for these types of research work in Bangladesh. We also express our deepest gratitude and honour to the Honourable Mayors, Chief Executive Officers, Engineers and Town Planners of all City Corporation, Development Authorities, Municipality and other relevant organizations for their cordial help in the data collection process. Our sincere greeting goes to the Chairman and Director of RAJUK and Urban Development Directorate for their help and coordination. The research team is also grateful for the supporters in report writing who were devoted to the work and contributed their valuable time.

Dated: April 21, 2013 Development Frontiers

Dhaka, Bangladesh.

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PREFACE When we started our journey as organization "Development Frontiers" in Bangladesh in 2007, we had a clear aim to work with urban societies. Over the past six years, we had conducted a few studies in disaster risk reduction, but only one was done in 2010 in the field of urban post disaster governance. We were very tempted to work on urban society and for that we thought of studying the urban policy context in Bangladesh. In November, when OXFAM GB called for an expression of interest to conduct a study on urban disaster mainstreaming scoping, we found this as a good opportunity to start towards a comprehensive work in urban societies. The work is very introductory but has higher opportunity to get insight of different aspects to understand the urban society. The policy, institution, planning, budget, and capacity of urban governments and urban service providing entities are key aspects of the study, which has strong possibilities to offer an insight also to understand urban society at large. We are a group of researchers who have conducted the study, and most of us live in different urban centres in Bangladesh. A few of us have also lived in different cities in the world in different time scale in different durations, but hardly have we had any individual and collective effort to consolidate our urban life experience into a black and white paper. Disaster is an important aspect, which offers a beautiful scope to look deep into the urban society, where government, culture and its operation are very interlinked and provide wider scopes to understand a complex society. Many of us involved in this study are trained in Anthropology, and have strong experience in working with simple and rural society. We – the two anthropologists - worked with one economist, one geographer, one urban planner, one environmentalist andtwo political scientists in a team, who all have experience in the field of disaster risk reduction. We worked less, engaged more in debates and sometimes after hours of debate become more confused and thus after spending almost 2880 hours in field and table, we have come to a broader outline of the problem of the urban society in terms of disaster mainstreaming. We learned together that urbanization as a process produces reproduces and manifests a different vulnerability context than rural vulnerabilities. Hazard exposures and genesis of new types of hazards within urbanization process constitute a complex disaster risk environment. The urban risk, therefore, has much development relevance to include the risk reduction in the urbanization process. We have also learned that mainstreaming is not an activity, nor a product but a process. Bangladesh is a resourceful country but it is one of the most disaster prone areas in the world. Every year Bangladesh faces several hazards such as flood, cyclone, salinity, drought, and earthquake that turn into disaster. As a result the country loses huge amount property each year and people suffer a lot. Now-a-days cities of Bangladesh face a serious problem due to enormous population and unplanned urbanization. Urban disaster risk

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is a serious challenge for cities around the world, particularly in developing countries where urbanization is happening. It threatens to increase vulnerabilities, destroy ecology of the area as well as disturb the whole environment.. The corollary of urban disaster risk impedes both social and economic development. The urban dwellers’ lives are hampered and they cannot lead normal lives due to the lack of awareness, initiative, consideration into the planning sphere by the Government and other non-government organizations. Most of the cities and municipalities in Bangladesh do not consider the disaster risk issues in their plan. The Oxfam has taken initiative to find the reason behind this lack of consideration. The study has deemed a total eight study areas as samples to conduct the research. The main objectives of the study are to find out the gap of urban disaster risk reduction, formulate recommendations to address them and consider urban disaster risk reduction issues in the plan of the city authorities such as the City Corporation and municipality.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Urban growth has occurred both by way of influxes of rural migrants into the big cities and through re-classification of erstwhile rural centres. The proliferation of slums, particularly in Dhaka and Chittagong, has been an integral feature of the urbanization process. Urban services have not generally kept pace with urban growth, and an overall feature of unplanned growth marks the process. This unbalanced urban growth in two major cities and some other metropolitans has a contribution in discouraging the rural to urban migration in policy spheres. In last twenty years, the country has observed drastic changes in the physical, economic and social structure in the urban areas due to unplanned rapid urbanization, which has created serious challenges for sustainable urban development. Urban areas are now afflicted with innumerable problems ranging from the law and order situation to deteriorating environmental conditions. Although a majority of the urban centres faced such challenges, severity of the problems varied depending on the size of the centres. The environmental problems of urban areas have direct and immediate implications for human health and safety, especially for the poor, and for business productivity. Urban environmental problems are of central concern for policy makers since adverse environmental conditions resulting from inadequate waste management, poor drainage, air pollution, lack of access to safe water and sanitation, exposure to excessive noise, traffic congestion, and inadequate health services exact a heavy toll on the quality of life. Poverty in Bangladesh in the past was found mostly in rural areas, but with rapid urbanization during the last few decades, poverty has increasingly been visualized in urban centres by way of transfer of the rural poor in urban areas. The manifestation of urban poverty is often more appalling than that of rural poverty due to lack of social safety nets, hazardous habitats, highly risky work environment in informal sectors, very poor-quality housing, sanitation, water and personal safety, and many other reasons. The urban poverty is highly linked with rural disaster risks. The disaster-vulnerable people and those who are severely affected in past disasters and lost their basic economic assets and employability are pushed from the disaster hotspots and pulled to large cities. The current poverty scenario of Khulna City, Mongla City, Nageshwari City is observed to be strongly linked with disasters in catchment rural areas. Cities of Bangladesh are exposed to a number of natural and human-induced hazards, which are likely to intensify on account of climate change. Natural disasters include floods, land-slides, river erosion, earth-quake, and water-logging. Human-induced disasters include settlement growth in hazardous locations such as unstable slopes, ravines, wetlands, etc., unplanned growth leading to greater vulnerability, social exclusion leading to reduced capacity of marginalized communities to cope with disasters, low building standards and poor zoning policies. The cities in flood plains, coastal areas and hilly areas are found highly exposed to hazards (for the detailed list,

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please see Table 13 in annex, which describes the risk exposure of major cities in Bangladesh and Table 14, which lists medium and small townships affected by cyclone Sidr in 2007 and cyclone Aila in 2009). The hazards in urban areas are not very distinct from those of rural areas, except a few hazards that have grown from the urbanization process: fire, building collapse, and water logging. The major hazards in urban areas are useful to discuss in brief at this stage. The above mentioned problems are examined through a comprehensive policy, institutional and expenditure context for urban disaster risk reduction to find out and explore the possible entry points for mainstreaming DRR into urban planning and budget process. This is simple in its current sense but very complex in architecture with a lot more puzzles to unpack through careful and in-depth analysis of urban disaster risk reduction under existing policy-institutional-expenditure (or budget) niche of urban development. The further scopes to narrow down the analysis to “range of capacity” necessary for disaster risk reduction be embedded within the rules and allocation of business of different service proving entities. The study therefore tried to identify the entry points in the following sectors/community of practices in urban development.

- City Governments (City Corporation and Municipalities) - Key Urban Service Providers (Water, Electricity, Gas, Health, Civil Defence,

Education, Sanitation, Drainage, transport) - Key Physical Planning Entities (Development Authority/ Wing in Municipalities/

Regulatory Authority) - Key Development Planning Mechanisms (Mid Term Budget Framework, Annual

Development Programme, Long and Mid Term Plans) - Key Policy Mechanisms (Parliament and Ministry; Disaster Policy, Urban Policy,

Poverty Reduction Policies, Education Policy, Health Policies and other policies; and policy making process)

- Private Sector - Mass Media - Civil Society Engagement

Objectives of the Study • To observe the extent to which DRR is considered in urbanization process and it’s

development and whether it is in the process of mainstreaming. • Mapping of key government service providers departments in urban areas with its

nature of services offered through various development schemes / programme particularly those which have high potential to address disaster risks

• Capacity and Resource (technical) assessment (situation analysis and needs assessment) of urban planning authorities/departments in the context of DRR mainstreaming

• Explore strategy entry point for mainstreaming in Media and Private Sector Organizations.

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Ontologically DRR refers to a systematic approach to identify, assess and reduce risks of disaster or to be more comprehensive it aims to reduce socio-economic vulnerabilities to disaster as well as dealing with the environmental and other hazards that trigger them: Here it has been strongly influenced by the mass of research on vulnerability that has appeared in print since the mid-1970s. The conceptual framework of elements considered with the possibilities to minimize vulnerabilities and disaster risks throughout a society, to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the adverse impacts of hazards, within the broad context of sustainable development (as of UNISDR). DRR incorporates elements, concept, particularly disaster, risk and reduction. These notions are inextricably linked to each other constructing the essence of DRR. Disaster risk reduction is a systematic approach to identify, assess and reduce the risk of disaster. In other words, DRR is the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyze and reduce the casual factors of disaster. There is often confused duality in the term 'urban disaster'. Usually the term refers disasters in cities, and very specifically the natural hazards in cities and its consequences on city dwellers. However, the term 'urban disaster' does not carry the full meaning only by referring the hazards or disasters occurred in city centres. This connotation only describes the hazard (i.e. flood) exposures in city life and the suffering of city dwellers by such exposures. There are other ways to think about the phenomena of 'urban disaster', where the disaster is typically different from the 'rural disaster', not only that the hazards occurred in cities but also how urbanization as a process creates a condition that is highly susceptible to any hazard onset. Therefore, 'urban disaster' unfolds a large number of associated concepts: urban vulnerabilities, urban hazards, urban risks and urban disaster preparedness, response and recovery along with prevention and mitigation as core dimensions of disaster risk reduction in socio-cultural and built environment of cities. The first connotation demands analysis of specific nature of cities and how that nature could be factored during prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery phases of disaster management. The second connotation will unfold the issues of the way urbanization creates a risk context different from rural risk (a function of hazard and vulnerability) process. These two connotations are not same in their meaning, though they seem to be the same to the majority of the readers. The first connotation does not see city as a product of the dynamic urbanization process rather as a 'polygon' where a hazard is exposed. Therefore, there is a shortcoming in analyzing urbanization and discussion of how this process contributes in hazard onset and creates new types of vulnerabilities and social resilience. Mainstreaming is not an “activity” but a “process." Mainstreaming is a long-term and dynamic process, and it requires the involvement of a wide range of stakeholders. Putting all the components in the framework in place requires collective action through co-operation, consultation and negotiation at different levels (local, national and international) between the relevant actors. Mainstreaming Spheres Framework is

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an attempt to operationalise such a process mapping out a coherent system of different and dynamic spheres and levels. Mainstreaming Spheres Framework is not merely a listing of variables or entry points, but they represent “spheres" of action, that are linked and interrelated in a particular way and ultimately, they re-enforce each other. Mainstreaming Spheres Framework is not hierarchical; it does not indicate a starting component but suggest a process the user should consider identifying levels of interventions, needs, opportunities and barriers to mainstream DDR. Mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into development policy, planning and implementation is not a matter of choice or preference. It’s a necessity. Mainstreaming disaster risk reduction is a continuous process of integration of disaster's implications and lessons learned into design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Mainstreaming requires consensus and active participation of decision makes and planners at the national level and support from donors and development community. Analysis, approach definitions and strategic thinking are prerequisites for success. Integrating urban planning and DRR result to be fundamental in addressing poverty reduction in urban areas. Disaster Management Act 2012 and BCCSAP do address issues of risk reduction and climate adaptation. However both documents lack explicit reference and recognition of the way unplanned urbanization and disaster aloof physical and economic planning limit the urban communities to cope up with disaster vulnerability and hazard exposures, especially for low-income urban poor people. The inference is that the country has got to consider disaster risks of the urban communities as a serious issue. National Urban Sector Policy 2011 is in process of consultation which envisages strengthening urban aspects and measures to deal with its negative consequences to achieve sustainable urbanization. The future endeavours and dimensions proposed under this document are promising and provide an ideal entry point to incorporate disaster risk reduction into the development agenda under urban areas. This combined with provisions under DM Act, Water Policy, BCCASP, NAPA, BNBC and others detailed under Annexure 1 and 2 (of the part 2 of the report) of this study can be considered as a basis to advance comprehensive urban disaster risk reduction policy. Bangladesh has not yet developed institutions, strategies and policies relevant to mainstream disaster risk reduction in post 2015 development agenda. There is legal and institutional framework of decentralized system of local government with provisions to establish disaster management committee; urban areas are not yet considered as priority with regards to country resilience. There is substantial overlap and lack of proper functional relationship amongst different agencies in the urban areas. Disaster Management Committees are proposed to be the mechanism to ensure institutional collaboration and coordination by integrating different efforts, however, they are found to be inactive and often not grounded into the urban communities. These committees are weak as factors including weak executive system

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and poor resource allocation. They do not possess institutional capacity to plan, implement, finance and monitor services related to risk reduction. In Dhaka and Khulna, , there are vibrant City Corporation administered by Ministry of Local Government division and Development Authority administered by Ministry of Public Works. Study revealed that without functional relationships and mutual trusts between organizations in Dhaka (north and south), Chittagong, Khulna and Rajshahi, the development and reduction of urban disaster risk would be challenging. The effectiveness of these authorities, however, is generally limited by factors such as inadequate management and financial system, multiplicity of institutions with urban development function within their jurisdictions, uncoordinated development, lack of integration with other agencies, inadequate manpower and lack of public participation. Disaster risk reduction needs to be mainstreamed into City Corporation, development authority and service providing organizations like WASA. The entry points have to be the organogram, allocation of business of the organizations, and rules of business among organizations for a better coordinated resilient city. The legal and institutional framework at the local level should have inclusive and decentralized decision making mechanisms to operationalise mainstreaming of risk reduction services into their routine business.Rangpur, Mymensingh, Sirajganj and Mongla cities, there is a planning cell, responsible for planning. The issues of disaster risk reduction could be potentially mainstreamed in the planning cell, and the planning cell of the municipalities should be the potential entry point for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction. The history of both physical and development planning in Bangladesh isn’t new and has gone through a lot of evolutionary steps to redeem proper attention for progress. Yet, as dynamic as it is, much has to be done in the development and physical planning spheres of Bangladesh in term of effectiveness and reality of the modern societies. Similarly, the concept of disaster management has been a very familiar topic in many development planning arenas in Bangladesh. On the other hand, the concepts of urban disaster management and mainstreaming DRR in the urban planning process is rather fresh in Bangladesh although it incorporated some aspects of disaster management through different physical planning activities like master plans or through even some infrastructure development initiatives. Over time, physical plans for urban areas has started to incorporate and mainstream lots of more development considerations to enhance the quality of these physical plans and to ensure efficiency and compatibility with overall urban development activities in Bangladesh. As a result, projects like CDMP, PECM are also being implemented alongside planning projects like DMDP; DAP of Dhaka, Khulna; local level physical planning initiatives like UTIDP, DTIDP etc. Spatial analysis has been carried out for selected urban centres the analysis shows that inter-connections and dependency between locations is important determinant to understand the risks and vulnerability of cities in a country like Bangladesh where physical processes are strongly active. This understanding may provide

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arguments/rationale for adopting different kinds of planning process and institutional setup to address the dynamic factors and processes that characterize the type, intensity and magnitude of disasters. However, the current planning process and related strategic approaches offer limited space to accommodate disaster risk reduction measures since the objectives of urban planning/management are not sufficiently aligned with reducing disaster risks. However, this section demonstrates the gaps in this regard based on some spatial analysis. The narratives argue that understanding the problems at-scale and within the wider regional settings are necessary to grasp the dimension, magnitude of disaster risks in an urban context and to devise methods/approaches to address disaster risks. Current urban planning process, specially the Master Plans, and related strategic approaches got limited space to accommodate disaster risk reduction measures since the objectives of urban planning/management are not sufficiently aligned with reducing disaster risks. Besides, this planning instrument (i.e. the Master Plan) is designed for a certain duration (i. e. 20 years) and non-flexible/fixed in nature. Critical spatial assessments, considering scale issues (e.g. the inter-connections of locations, considerations of catchment characteristics) for physical or social processes are rarely considered in Master Plan developments in Bangladesh. Assessment of Mymensingh Master Plan, Khulna Master Plan, Detailed Area Plan (DAP) for Dhaka indicates that mapping exercises are carried out in the name of spatial assessments as to produce general land use maps. But spatial analysis based on physical and social variables, scenario based projections, climate change impacts are strongly missing in these planning documents. It is imperative to mention here that in an interview the Team Leader for Khulna Structural Plan mentioned that DRR considerations are missing in the Master Plan. He also indicated that there are components/elements like indication of open spaces, wetlands etc. in the Structural Plan which could be used to align current Structural Plan more DRR responsive/focused. However, based on the discussions above, some recommendations are given in the following sections to develop efficient Master Plans in Bangladesh. The most important considerations for these expenditures to describe the Climate and Disaster sensitive budget/ expenditure in the table no 9 are as the followings:

1. It was observed that in almost every city the development budget is greater than the revenue budget, which provides good opportunities for mainstreaming DRR in urban development.

2. It was perceived that every year the development budget allocation is increasing compared to the previous years.

3. Sometimes development budget increases due to the development-project allocation.

4. In the Budget of DCC-North 2012-2013 Development budget a fund mentioned about ‘’Climate change and Disaster management’’ and BDT 0.50 crore is allocated in this fund. This is a new expenditure sector for DCC-North.

5. Besides, there are many Development projects running in DCC and Pourashava to be implemented in 2012-2013 financial year. Those are UGIIP-2(Urban

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Governance & Infrastructure Improvement Project-phase 2), STIFPP-2(Secondary town’s integrated Flood protection-phase 2), UPPRP, District town Infrastructure Development project, MSDP (Mymensingh Strategic Development Plan), clean air and sustainable environment program etc. many of these development programs are related with solid waste management, municipality improvement, climate change and disaster management.

6. In the budget of DCC-North and South, a welfare expenditure is mentioned as ‘’ Natural Disaster (Flood, Accident and Fire hazard). Here we can see 125% increases in the budget allocation for this sector. Nevertheless, this part is not well described because we know Accident and Fire Hazard are not actually natural disasters. We know that Dhaka city is in a potential threat of Earthquake disaster, which is not mentioned in this point. And it is not described whether the amount allocated is for pre- disaster preparedness or post-disaster response.

7. Disaster management and Urban Planning is actually present in the Financial Budget 2012-2013 in terms of Development projects. But most of them do not have any regular fund-allocation for DRR or Disaster management. Only DCC-North has separate fund for climate change and disaster management. There is scope to create separate fund for DRR and Disaster management in their budget.

People prefer to live in the urban areas because of diversified employment opportunities, contemporary education system, improved medical facility, well-built communication and transportation system compared to the rural and backward areas. As a result, each year, thousands of people are moving to the capital city Dhaka and the nearby major urban cities in search of better living standard. Urbanization in Bangladesh is mainly due to the migration of people from the rural areas to the cities in search of employment. While people recognize that rapid urbanization has a negative impact on the overall living conditions within cities, it also significantly put additional pressure on the existing capacity of the government. Urban local government is a vital part for the delivery of services to people. Along with other responsibilities, urban local government in Bangladesh is also responsible for disaster risk reduction. The quality and capacity of city governance has an enormous influence on the disaster risk its population faces; quite simply, a good urban and environmental plan, and services and infrastructure in place, can prevent disasters better than one that does not. Bangladesh having required legislation and department to advance disaster risk reduction is an indicator of country’s seriousness to respondto the international commitments on disaster risk reduction. National Building Code and Disaster Management Act adopted by government does take into account these hazards and related risks, but effective implementation has not happened in the country especially within urban areas. Bangladesh has achieved a lot with regards to rural development and risk reduction models, but historically, all these initiatives happen only in response to some major hazards. Bangladesh has not been experienced massive earthquakes since 1896 and the present as well as the past

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generation do not have any memories about the destruction capacity of a major earthquake. Therefore, at present only a few numbers of buildings are being built in compliance with the National Building Code. Fire, another major hazard for the cities, can be spread and destroy lives and properties within a very short time. Recently, there have been some fire incidents in Dhaka, but, still precautions to reduce the risk of fire is not getting much importance. A lot more collaboration amongst the NGOs, development partners and government bodies is now essential for making our urban life fully safe, and a lot more advocacy is needed for the sake of disaster preparedness of the people. It will ensure that the government is mindful enough about implementing the existing laws, and thus we can strive for a disaster-resilient Bangladesh. There are various development partners and NGOs in Bangladesh who are doing excellent work in pocket areas in collaboration with the government. For example, the European Commission funded DIPECHO projects, after identifying Sylhet, Dhaka and Chittagong as the most earthquake-vulnerable cities of the country, are preparing for the potential earthquake and fire risks in collaboration with Sylhet City Corporation, the Fire Service & Civil Defence (FSCD), the education department and others. This was possible only in areas where the city authority was keen to work in partnership after realizing the need community people in terms of disaster risk reduction. Like this initiative, there are opportunities to offer technical support and funding for efficient disaster risk reduction efforts. Generally, the media in Bangladesh has been found active during disaster and immediate after disasters. The sensitization part of the catastrophe from any disaster has good news value and media has attention on those issues. In case of disaster risk reduction, particularly in urban disaster, media is active on earthquake and fire incidences. Though, the activism is very much confined within some talk show in the electronic media and some special feature on causes of such disasters. The interview with media professionals shows that they have huge interest on urban disaster and the whole of the urbanization process. They have varied levels of understanding and some have misconceptions and demonstrate low level of awareness about the urban disaster risk reduction issues. Some media platforms are also observed in Bangladesh. In most of print media, there is a dedicated bit for “Environment”, who covers environment, disaster, climate change and related issues. There is no such formal media forum on disaster beyond Federation of Environmental Journalists in Bangladesh (FEJB). This is a potential area, where we have observed many young journalists now involved, with very low level of awareness, who could be nourished with gradual capacity building efforts. The term ‘private sector’ is taken to mean businesses that produce goods and provide services for profit. This includes businesses of all sizes, from local enterprises up to transnational corporations. It also includes informal-sector enterprises as well as registered and regulated business: in developing countries, the informal sector is often extensive and significant economically and as an employer. Similarly, according

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to United Nations, the social responsibility of the private sector goes beyond the sector’s day-to-day operation of producing a certain range of products and services in the most efficient and economical manner. The social responsibility of the private sector (also referred to as corporate social responsibility) concerns the relationships of a company not just with its clients, suppliers and employees, but also with other groups, and with the needs, values and goals of the society in which it operates. All these groups can be regarded as stakeholders in the company. Stakeholders can be identified as those individuals or groups of individuals that have an interest, or take an interest, in the behaviour of the company both within and outside its normal mode of operation. They therefore establish what the social responsibility of the company entails or, at least, how they perceive it to be a significant factor for programming for urban disaster risk reduction. Bangladesh has witnessed dramatic growth of NGOs, which currently has a total of 26,000 NGOs registered with the NGO affairs bureau. Some of these NGOs have strong presence in urban areas and are working on various development projects with special emphasis to urban poverty, health education, literacy and governance. In the urban context, Turner (1988) and UNCHS (1988) both emphasized the growing scale and significance of NGOs working on a range of housing and neighbourhood development issues in low-income settlements. In particular, NGOs are seen as being more participatory, people-led and responsive to local needs than more formal official development assistance agencies. CSOs have played crucial roles in the development of the various important legislation including disaster management framework in the country. Comprehensive Disaster Management (CDMP), Urban Poverty Reduction Programme (UPPR) and DIPECHO funded initiatives are taking place in urban areas in conjunction with the existing regulatory frameworks, SAARC regional roadmap in Urban Risk Management, and the UNISDR safer cities campaign. There are examples of civil society working on mainstreaming disaster risk reduction in rural areas, an example which is proposed for piloting and replication in urban setting. The study has observed that there are good enough policies in urban developmentmost of which are to regulate, but very few of these policies are promoting and incentive for urban development. Many of these policies have contradictory provisions and ambiguity. The “National Urban Sector Policy” is currently under consultation process. This could be the key entry point for mainstreaming DRR in urban planning. Master plan is an ongoing process, where each city has a regulatory obligation to develop it. This master plan is the basis of urban physical and economic development. In most cases, the master plan as key document ignored the risks of disasters and failed to capture the long term climate change impacts. Though, we find that disaster and climate change is addressed in Mongla master plan but not in Khulna master plan in coastal cities. Earthquake is adequately addressed in DAP in Dhaka and in the upcoming master plan of Mymensingh. This is also observed that where there is fund from donors (Mymensinh from CDMP, Khulna from ADB), the disaster sensitivity is observed but absence of fund in cities like

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Sirajganj, Nageshwari, Rangpur and Durgapur has contributed in disaster non-sensitivity in master plans. Surprisingly, Mongla master plan has integrated disaster and climate change and that is also explored that the lead consultant for master plan was a disaster professional having town planning background. This clearly indicates the disaster risk reduction and climate change impact is yet to be matured in the urban development planning agenda. The role of media and civil society is very critical at this point and it reveals that in most cities, media professionals are very sensitive about urban service problem as they have the highest number of news stories from that angle: traffic jam, electric-water-gas failures, crimes in streets and some political processions. Except Dhaka, the study has observed very low level media activism in disaster risk reduction, when they report on urban development. The civil society sensitization in an organized form is very active in Dhaka and has reported very strongly about earthquake, fire, flood and linked with eco-systems: rivers and wetland in city. However, such activism of civil society regarding disaster-climate change-environment is very low in other cities. Though there are very high level risks in Khulna, Mongla, Durgapur, Rangpur, Mymensingh and Sirajganj the civil society activism is very low in disaster and climate change arena. It is also observed that in Khulna University, there is a growing number of academicians who are very active in civic engagement in relation to disaster risk reduction. Private sector is not active in disaster risk reduction beyond their corporate social responsibilities. In Dhaka, the study team found key concerns about fire and industrial accidents in garments sector, but there is also very low sensitivity beyond economic niche. Regarding earthquake the private sector expects governments to act and help them. There is substantial room for private sector sensitization in disaster risk reduction in urban and industrial areas. The following are the suggestive entry point for mainstreaming urban disaster risk reduction.

URBAN PLANNING: The tendency of cities to be located and expanded on river banks or coastal areas for economic reasons makes them more vulnerable to disasters. Initiatives to enhance coordination between local government organization and central government representative needs strong advocacy. Initiative to divide the physical development plans into yearly combined development plan to ensure execution will be a realistic approach.

ENVIRONMENT: The urban eco-system is characterized by interplay of the build, natural and socio-economic environment, which separately and collectively generate much of the risk that cities face today. While, we attempt to mainstream DRR into urbanization, we have to consider all three subsystems (built, natural and cultural) of the urban eco-system.

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MEGACITY AND LARGE CITY GROWTH: Dhaka as a megacity is increasingly becoming the concentration of physical, economic, social, political and cultural assets, which are being exposed to different types of disaster risks, mostly earthquake, fire and flooding. Similarly, two other upcoming megacities - Chittagong and Khulna - are already heavily exposed to climatic disasters (cyclone, waterlogging, flooding, salinity, sea level rise and tidal surge). Chittagong, Khulna, Rajshahi, Syhlet, Barishal, Rangpur, Mymensingh and Bogura are large cities in Bangladesh and are increasingly becoming the concentration of physical, economic, social, political and cultural assets, which are being exposed to different types of disaster risks and climate change vulnerabilities. These large cities in Bangladesh needs to be properly planned to accommodate at least 120 million people in the next three decades and hence these cities needs to be made safer for current and future citizens. Therefore, growth of the megacity could be a potential entry point for mainstreaming DRR. Mostly urban planning and implementation of public and private sector investments for development could be a good entry point for mainstreaming DRR.

CATASTROPHIC RISK: Cities in Bangladesh face cascading vulnerabilities that go beyond the original risk or hazard. The relevance of low probability and high consequence events should be recognized during the development and growth of the city. This is very important to keep in mind that a proper and comprehensive risk assessment is therefore a key entry point for mainstreaming urban DRR.

CLIMATE CHANGE: Climate change is becoming a threat to the urban environment. The uncertainty that arises due to climate change needs to be considered in the overall urban risk management framework. Coastal cities and cities in flooding areas have higher likelihood of being affected by climate change. Satkhira, Khulna, Bagerhat, Mongla, Mathbaria, Barguna, Zhalokathi, Kalapara, Bhola, Chandpur, Chittagong, and Coxs Bazar are key cities that remain highly vulnerable to climate change (sea level rise, increased cyclone, and tidal flooding) and they need to be brought under comprehensive risk based master plan to accommodate at least 30% more people from vulnerable rural areas around these cities only due to climate change.

INSTITUTIONALIZATION: Mainstreaming of DRR can be ensured through institutionalization of DRR in different local level organizations (city corporations, municipalities, development authorities) up to various national level organizations (such as Planning commission, UDD, LGED) responsible for urban development of Bangladesh. DRR specific rules of business, manpower, institutional activities development requires attention.

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CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT: Technical and non-technical trainings, workshops and other applied formal education on urban DRR are very significant considerations. Initiatives like Urban Volunteers for the community representative and coordination capability enhancement initiatives for appropriate officials can be vital through any disaster periods.

REVITALIZED PLANNING PRACTICE: Integration of DRR and implementation of physical development plan demands attention. Ensuring development and implementation disaster management or preparedness plan, development of an efficient inter-ministerial and inter institutional practice to coordinate and manage physical development plan are also important.

BUDGETING PRACTICE: Development of disaster management friendly budgetary system is very important. A specific climate change and disaster management budget should be introduced separately. Provision of Emergency budget should be allocated for disaster management. Development of Guidelines to formulate budgets sensitive to climate change and disaster management needs attention.

RESILIENCE: In spite of different threats, urban communities have their inherent capacities to cope with different types of shocks (including hazards). Community resilience should be considered as an asset for risk reduction in urban areas. Mass awareness aimed for increased resilience of the communities is indispensable.

DECISION-MAKING: Appropriate governance and decision making system lie at the core of risk reduction in urban areas. Special focus should be given to vital infrastructures like schools, hospitals and key public buildings. Policy development and mandating also requires attention.

ECONOMY: Urban areas are often considered as the economic hub of region or country, and therefore result in concentration of vital infrastructures in cities. The cities in Bangladesh are mostly located adjacent to rivers and also many people to the catchment rural areas see city as a place of opportunity. Therefore urban economy is growing faster, and in many cases without considering the environment, disaster and climate risks. There is a scope for widening economic opportunity in cities for climate and disaster refugees in catchment rural areas as well as during the economic growth and planning there is scope to consider environment-climate change and disaster risks.

POVERTY: The socio-economic opportunities provided by Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna, Gazipur, Rajshahi, Sylhet, Barishal, Rangpur, Mymensingh, Bagura, Jessore, cities enable people from a wide range of income brackets to interact and live, but also

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create vulnerabilities resulting from lack of access to urban goods and services. Urban livelihoods therefore have to be tied up with urban development, urban economy and addressing urban poverty in an integrated fashion. This entry point could then create more gearing effects for mainstreaming urban DRR.

PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT: Private sector priority consideration for DRR for industrial and man-made hazard as well as physical hazard needs revitalization including the corporate social practice for disaster management in Bangladesh. Promoting or introducing disaster management specific services from private sectors can be also beneficial to the overall economy.

MEDIA COVERAGE: Promote and disseminate information on disaster and related services. Enhancing the media sector capability to collect information on disaster (pre, during and post disaster) and more importantly on disaster risk factors (mostly vulnerability aspects) is a key entry point for maturing the agenda of mainstreaming urban DRR.

POPULATION: Urban areas are characterized by high density of population, which results in higher exposures. Combination of high vulnerability and exposure causes higher degree of urban risk. The entry point therefore should a whole of city awareness to communicate the risk factors in the specific city.

OTHER POLICY CONSIDERATIONS:

The upcoming “National Urban Sector Policy” is a golden opportunity for mainstreaming DRR and CCA. OXFAM needs to present the study findings to a seminar inviting two key persons: Dr. Nazrul Islam and Dr. Hossain Zillur Rahman, who are now the key drivers and shakers for this. The study recommends strong policy dialogue organized jointly with PPRC and CUS on the urban disaster risk reduction issues and mature the case of urban disaster.

The issue of urban disaster risk is not a mature issue beyond overwhelming risk of Dhaka city in earthquake. The issue needs to be matured in seven key cities through policy dialogue and media campaign. Involvement of academicians, media and civil society organizations are key in these policy dialogue inviting the city corporation mayors and development authority chairmen in the dialogue to listen the concerns.

There are many policy advocacy issues, not all are disaster related but without having change in urban governance system many of the elements of the DRR agenda will not be functional. From the findings of the study this is clear that the relationship

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between City Corporation, development authorities and key service organizations is a key and that can only happen with a very robust policy advocacy. Disaster risk reduction will be a key case to show where without the functional coordination of these entities, a resilient city is impossible in next decades.

The entry points, which are proposed in here based on the study findings are tentative and can be more dynamic in future. These entry points will be key starting points for mainstreaming DRR in urban planning but have to be open enough to explore more entry once the DRR analysis starts in urban development process.

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TABLE OF CONTENT ABBREVIATION ........................................................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................................................................. v PREFACE ...................................................................................................................................................................... vi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................. viii TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................................................................ xxii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................. 1

1.1 Background: The Urbanization and Emerging Disaster Risks in a Changing Climate and Development Context .................................................................................................................................. 1

1.1.1 Urban Poverty in Bangladesh and Disaster Relevance .................................................................. 4 1.1.2 Emerging Urban Disaster Risk ......................................................................................................... 6

1.2 Study Problem and Focus: Mainstreaming DRR in Urban Development and Physical Planning Process 8

1.2.1 Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................................... 8 1.2.2 Goals, Objectives, Outcome and Deliverables of the Scoping Study ................................ 14 1.2.3 Scope of the Study ............................................................................................................... 15 1.2.4 Limitations of the Study ...................................................................................................... 16

1.3 Methodology ................................................................................................................................ 16 1.3.1 Approaches and Its Logic .................................................................................................... 16 1.3.2 Methods ................................................................................................................................ 17 1.3.3 Analytical Framework ........................................................................................................... 17 1.3.4 Selection of Case City ........................................................................................................... 17

CHAPTER TWO: SCOPE OF MAINSTREAMING DISASTER RISK REDUCTION IN URBAN PLANNING PROCESS ..................................................................................................................................................................... 19

2.1 Policy Spheres ............................................................................................................................... 19 2.2 Institutional Spheres ..................................................................................................................... 21 2.3 Development and Physical Planning Spheres ............................................................................. 26

2.3.1 Comprehensive Mapping of the Urban Planning Process .......................................................... 27 2.3.2 Urbanization Strategy under the Sixth Plan ................................................................................ 29 2.3.3 Understanding the urbanization process within a high-risk environment ........................ 31 2.3.4 Needs for spatial assessments in Master Plan development ............................................ 32

2.4 Budget Spheres ............................................................................................................................ 35 2.4.1 Allocation of Development Resources for the Urban Sector in the Sixth Plan ......................... 35 2.4.2 Municipality Budget preparation in Bangladesh ......................................................................... 36 2.4.3 Budgetary Practice in the Local Government Institutions ......................................................... 36

2.5 Capacity Spheres .......................................................................................................................... 39 2.6 Media Spheres .............................................................................................................................. 41 2.7 Private Sector Spheres ................................................................................................................. 44

2.7.2 Different Private sector in DRR of Bangladesh and Potential Involvement ..................... 45 2.8 Civil Society Spheres ..................................................................................................................... 47 2.9 Urban Risk Analysis ............................................................................................................................. 49

2.9.1 Spatial assessment for understanding urban risks ..................................................................... 49 2.9.2 Physical condition (urban land use) and magnitude of risks in urban areas ............................. 50 2.9.3 Perceiving risks in the milieu of socio-economic and demographic conditions of the urban centre and the regional territory .......................................................................................................... 50

CHAPTER THREE: URBAN SERVICES AND NICHE FOR MAINSTREAMING DISASTER RISK REDUCTION .......... 51 3.1 Land Use ........................................................................................................................................ 51 3.2 Water ............................................................................................................................................ 52 3.3 Transportation .............................................................................................................................. 53 3.4 Sanitation ...................................................................................................................................... 55 3.5 Housing ......................................................................................................................................... 56 3.6 Power and Energy ........................................................................................................................ 57

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3.7 Solid and Non Solid Waste Management .................................................................................... 58 3.8 Revenue and Fiscal Services ........................................................................................................ 60 3.9 Fire and Civil Defence ................................................................................................................... 61 3.10 Education ...................................................................................................................................... 62 3.11 Health ............................................................................................................................................ 63 3.12 Wetland Conservation .................................................................................................................. 65 3.13 Road .............................................................................................................................................. 65 3.14 Drainage ........................................................................................................................................ 67 3.15 Development Regulation ............................................................................................................. 67 3.16 Poverty and Employment ............................................................................................................ 68 3.17 Others Urban Considerations ...................................................................................................... 69

CHAPTER FOUR: SYNTHESIS OF ANALYSIS- POINT OF CONVERGENCE ........................................................... 71 CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION ........................................................................................ 77 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................................................... 80 ANNEXES .................................................................................................................................................................... 86 List of Figure Figure 1: Changes in rural-urban head count poverty differences in Bangladesh (HIES 2005, 2010) .............................. 5 Figure 2: Conceptual niche of urban disaster risk reduction ........................................................................................... 11 Figure 3: Percentage of revenue budget/ expenditure of the case cities ...................................................................... 37 Figure 4: Percentage of disaster and climate sensitive budget/ expenditure of case cities ......................................... 37 Figure 5: Percentage of development expenditure in comparison to total budget ..................................................... 38 Figure 6: Disaster management cycle and role of media ............................................................................................... 43 Figure 7: Percentage of drinking water source in urban areas (source: SVRS 2009) .................................................... 52 Figure 8: Budget/ expenditure on water supply in case cities ........................................................................................ 53 Figure 9: Percentage distribution of household by availability of toilet facilities in the urban HHs ............................. 55 Figure 10: Percentage distribution of household by toilet facilities in urban area ........................................................ 55 Figure 11: Percentage of budget/ expenditure on sanitation of case cities ................................................................... 56 Figure 12: Distribution of household by use of lighting facility and fuel used by residence, 2008 ............................... 57 Figure 13: Unemployment rates by level of education and residence (LFS, 2005-2006) ............................................... 63 Figure 14: Percentage of budget/ expenditure for roads in case cities .......................................................................... 65 Figure 15: Percentage of budget/ expenditure for drainage in case cities ..................................................................... 67 Figure 16: Percentage of employed persons 15+ by status in employment (labour survey, 2005-2006) .................... 68 Figure 17: Programmatic approaches for mainstreaming urban disaster risk reduction .............................................. 75 Figure 18: Relationship of disaster risk reduction programmatic approaches to the urban development planning cycle .................................................................................................................................................................................. 76

List of Tables Table 1: Growth of urban population in Bangladesh ......................................................................................................... 1 Table 2: Poverty head count ratio by divisions, 2005-2010 ............................................................................................... 5 Table 3: Analytical framework of the study ..................................................................................................................... 17 Table 4: Selected case cities ............................................................................................................................................. 18 Table 5: Hierarchy of urban local governments .............................................................................................................. 23 Table 6: Development resource allocation for the urban sector in the sixth five year plan ............................................. 35 Table 7: Development resource allocation for the urban sector in the sixth five year plan ........................................ 36 Table 8: Allocation of disaster and climate sensitive expenditure in the budget (in million taka) ............................... 38 Table 9: Role of the media in disaster risk management ................................................................................................ 44 Table 10: Water supply in Dhaka city ............................................................................................................................... 53 Table 11: BNBC guideline for development of minimum standard housing ................................................................... 57 Table 12: Budget of Durgapur Municipality for the financial year 2009-2010................................................................. 61

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY

1.1 Background: The Urbanization and Emerging Disaster Risks in a Changing Climate and Development Context Urbanization is growing rapidly in Bangladesh. Migration from villages to cities contributed to rapid urban growth, from 7.6% to nearly 25% between 1970 and 2005 in Bangladesh (Government of Bangladesh 2010). Population growth in cities is faster nowthan any time before, and the urban population stood at 42 million (26.6% of total population) in 2007 and as of UN projections, it is expected to rise to 65 million within a decade (GoB, 2010). The agrarian economy of Bangladesh having an area of only 147,750 km with acute problem of allocation of land to agriculture, industry, and human settlement is experiencing a very high rate of urbanization. In 1974 people living in urban areas accounted for only 8.8% of the population (Table 1), which rose to 23.1% by 2001.

Table 1: Growth of urban population in Bangladesh

1974 1981 1991 2001 Projected figure for 2011

Number % Number % Number % Number % Number (mill)

%

Urban 6273603 8.78 13535963 15.05 20872204 18.73 31077952 23.1 44.06 29.1

Rural 70124397 91.79 76376037 84.95 90582981 81.27 99444646 76.9 107.35 70.9

Total 76398000 100 89912000 100 111455185 100 130522598 100 151.41

Source: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics

A major cause of urbanization in Bangladesh is that the agriculture sector is no longer able to absorb the surplus labour force entering the economy every year. Inability of the agriculture sector to provide sufficient employment or sufficiently high household incomes to cope with a growing number of dependents can encourage people to seek employment outside agriculture. In the case of Bangladesh the rural to urban migration has contributed to more than 40 percent of the change in urban population. The lure of employment opportunities existing in these cities is another reason for urban migration. Dhaka is the only mega city in Bangladesh, which contains 32% of the urban population, and its population is expected to rise to 19 million within 2015. The second-

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largest city is Chittagong with 4.5 million in 2007. Khulna in the south-west has more than one million populations. There are some medium and small municipalities having characteristics of dense populations. (Ibid) Urban growth has occurred both by way of influxes of rural migrants into the big cities and through re-classification of erstwhile rural centres. The proliferation of slums, particularly in Dhaka and Chittagong, has been an integral feature of the urbanization process. Urban services have not generally kept pace with urban growth, and an overall feature of unplanned growth marks the process. This unbalanced urban growth in two major cities and some other metropolitans has a contribution in discouraging the rural to urban migration in policy spheres. Bangladesh is not highly urbanized by world standards; the urban economy cannot manage the faster urban population growth, which is therefore deepening the persistent problems of poverty, unemployment and underemployment, inadequate infrastructure and housing, deficient social services, and rapid environmental degradation. Despite these problems, urban lure is a powerful force at work, and the urbanization trend is likely to get only stronger.

Agriculture is the major employment sector in Bangladesh, and the agricultural growth is also very persistent but the classic village to city migration, which is the major cause of urbanization in Bangladesh, indicates that the agriculture sector is no longer able to absorb the surplus labour force entering the economy every year. Inability of the agriculture sector to provide sufficient employment or sufficiently high household incomes to cope with a growing number of dependents are encouraging people to seek employment outside agriculture. The rural areas also in last 40 years were highly exposed to natural disasters, which further squeezed the space for vulnerable people in the rural social structures and pushed them to cities as obscure destiny for employment with uncertainties. In the case of Bangladesh, the rural to urban migration due to general poverty, rural unemployment and disaster push has contributed to more than 40 percent of the change in urban population. The lure of employment opportunities exists in these cities is another reason for urban migration. Most of the industrial establishments and businesses as well as business services are concentrated in the largest cities. Dhaka alone accounts for 80 percent of the garments industry-the mainstay of manufacturing in Bangladesh.1 The domination of business services, particularly finance and real estate services is considerably higher in the four major cities relative to the rest of the country.2

1Dhaka Urban Poverty: Land and Housing Issues. Draft Paper, World Bank (2005). 2Bangladesh: Strategy for Sustained Growth, World Bank (2007).

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In last twenty years, the country has observed drastic changes in the physical, economic and social structure in the urban areas due to unplanned rapid urbanization, which has created serious challenges for sustainable urban development. Urban areas are now afflicted with innumerable problems ranging from the law and order situation to deteriorating environmental conditions. Although a majority of the urban centres faced such challenges, severity of the problems varied depending on the size of the centres. The environmental problems of urban areas have direct and immediate implications for human health and safety, especially for the poor, and for business productivity. Urban environmental problems are of central concern for policy makers since adverse environmental conditions resulting from inadequate waste management, poor drainage, air pollution, lack of access to safe water and sanitation, exposure to excessive noise, traffic congestion, and inadequate health services exact a heavy toll on the quality of life.

The impact of urbanization is felt more intensely in major cities across the country. In Dhaka, for example, the quantity of solid waste generated at present varies between 3000 to 3500 tons per day. DCC is capable of collecting only 50% of this waste, leaving the remaining half unattended. A part of this waste either remains in the streets or on nearly open ground. Some of the waste flows through the open drains and blocks the normal drainage flow. As a result, water logging sometimes disrupts the normal city life for days during the monsoon. The serious health hazard posed by this situation is of major concern.

One of the major problems that the urban residents are facing is the lack of access to serviced land, which is posing an obstacle to their meaningful participation in the urban economy. The urban land market which directly affects the urban environment and quality of urban life suffers from many distortions due to lack of proper land development and management policies, including lack of planning and slow provision of infrastructure and services, thus leading to unplanned or ribbon development of land in the urban periphery. Inadequate supply of serviced land from the market leads to land speculation which often prices the poor out of the formal land markets into the informal land markets which are characterized by slums and squatter settlements. During the last four decades, the price of land within urban areas increased by as much as 80 times. The level of price rise, however, varies within the area and depends on a number of local factors, including the level of services available. Of particular importance are the width of the main road, width of the access road, distance from the main road and duration of water logging. Other factors influencing land value to a lesser extent include the type of neighbourhood (planned or unplanned), distance of the closest market and distance of the closest school.

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Apart from the existing huge shortage in housing stock, the majority of the dwelling units are structurally very poor, lack services and utilities, and built without proper planning. According to BBS (2007)3 only 24.24 percent of the houses in urban areas in 2005 were pucca (made of brick/cement) compared to 71.68 percent houses made of corrugated iron sheet/wood and 4.08 percent made of straw/hay/bamboo. Rapid growth of urban population and consequent demand for land and housing has made the situation even worse, particularly in big cities. Very few households have access to land and credit facilities. The situation is particularly worse for the lower-income group and the poor who live on marginal settlements built by small land developers or by the occupants themselves without any security of tenure. Due to lack of tenure, the poor cannot meet the need for guarantees of loan repayment. This puts most conventional sources of credit for housing construction out of the rich of the poor resulting in lower level of housing investment. This led to overcrowding, lower quality of housing units and the proliferation of slums and squatter settlements.

1.1.1 Urban Poverty in Bangladesh and Disaster Relevance

Poverty in Bangladesh in the past was found mostly in rural areas, but with rapid urbanization during the last few decades, poverty has increasingly been visualized in urban centres by way of transfer of the rural poor in urban areas. The manifestation of urban poverty is often more appalling than that of rural poverty due to lack of social safety nets, hazardous habitats, highly risky work environment in informal sectors, very poor-quality housing, sanitation, water and personal safety, and many other reasons. The urban poverty is highly linked with rural disaster risks. The disaster-vulnerable people and those who are severely affected in past disasters and lost their basic economic assets and employability are pushed from the disaster hotspots and pulled to large cities. The current poverty scenario of Khulna City, Mongla City, Nageshwari City is observed highly linked with disasters in catchment rural areas. The rural poor people with their recurrent disaster exposures are migrating into urban areas. These new comers’ city dwellers face a high employment crisis in cities and with very poor-quality housing and other well being further tapping them into a deeper urban poverty cycle. Therefore, disaster and climate-change impacts have deeper relationship with urban poverty in Bangladesh. The following table shows the poverty scenario in Bangladesh.

3 Household Income and Expenditure Survey- 2005, BBS (2007)

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Table 2: Poverty head count ratio by divisions, 2005-2010

Division 2005 2010

Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural National 40.0 28.4 43.8 31.5 21.3 35.2 Barisal 52.0 40.4 54.1 39.4 39.9 39.2 Chittagong 34.0 27.8 36.0 26.2 11.8 31.0 Dhaka 32.0 20.2 39.0 30.5 18.0 38.8 Khulna 45.7 43.2 46.5 32.1 35.8 31.0 Rajshahi 51.2 45.2 52.3 35.7 30.7 36.6 Sylhet 33.8 18.6 36.1 28.1 15.0 30.5 Source: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, HIES 2005 and HIES 2010

The table 2 and following figure-1 shows the differences between percentage of poor people living in urban areas and those inrural areas during 2005 and 2010 as per the household income and expenditure survey conducted by Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. The figure 1 indicates that at national level, there are more rural poor than urban poor (43.8% rural poor while 28.4% urban poor in 2005 and 35.2% rural poor while 21.3% is urban poor in 2010) in both survey (2005 and 2010). The trend remains same in Chittagong, Dhaka, Rajshahi (including Rangpur) and Sylhet Division, but in Khulna and Barishal divisions, we find the increase of percent of urban poor rather than rural poor from 2005 to 2010. Interestingly, during 2007 and 2009 these two divisions experienced two largest and long lasting disaster effects: Cyclone Sidr in 2007 and Cyclone Aila in 2009.

Figure 1: Changes in rural-urban head count poverty differences in Bangladesh (HIES 2005, 2010)

Using a disaster perspective to the poverty incidences, we can easily find that in Khulna and Barishal division, the urban poor is higher than rural poor (Figure-1), which

-10

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

National Barisal Chittagong Dhaka Khulna Rajshahi Sylhet

2005 Rural-Urban poverty 2010 Rural-Urban poverty

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is a clear indication of the lasting impact of cyclone Sidr and Aila in these two divisions rural areas and pushed the vulnerable and rural poor to the urban centres. This is probably one of the clear indications of significance of addressing urban poverty from the view point of resilient city in Bangladesh. The figure also indicates that the readiness of urban centres to provide livelihoods and shelters for millions of disaster and climate migrants from rural communities is a upcoming challenge both from urban poverty and urban resilience point of view. A comparison of incidence of poverty in 2005 and 2010 indicates some significant differences in the pattern of urban poverty reduction. Chittagong division experienced the most rapid reduction in urban poverty. At 11.8 percent, Chittagong now has the lowest incidence of urban poverty.

1.1.2 Emerging Urban Disaster Risk

Cities of Bangladesh are exposed to a number of natural and human-induced hazards, which are likely to intensify on account of climate change. Natural disasters include floods, land-slides, river erosion, earth-quake, and water-logging. Human-induced disasters include settlement growth in hazardous locations such as unstable slopes, ravines, wetlands, etc., unplanned growth leading to greater vulnerability, social exclusion leading to reduced capacity of marginalized communities to cope with disasters, low building standards and poor zoning policies. The cities in flood plains, coastal areas and hilly areas are found highly exposed to hazards (for the detail list, please see Table 13in annex, which describes the risk exposure of major cities in Bangladesh and Table 14, which lists medium and small townships affected by cycloneSidr in 2007 and cyclone Aila in 2009).

The hazards in urban areas are not very distinct than of rural areas, except a few hazards grown from the urbanization process: fire, building collapse, and water logging. The major hazards in urban areas are useful to discuss in brief at this stage.

Flooding Hazard A recent mapping and census of slums conducted by the Centre of Urban Studies in Dhaka4 shows that nearly 60 percent of the slums in the city have poor or no drainage and are prone to frequent flooding. Poor-quality housing and overcrowding exacerbate these problems. Flood in dense, poorly serviced settlements can lead to other hazards, in particular, public health hazards. Earthquake Hazard Earthquake is a major threat to urban built environments. Though Bangladesh has not experienced a major earth-quake for over a century, recent period has seen an escalation in seismic activity. During 2007-09, there were more than 130 instances of

4CUS, 2005, Slums of Urban Bangladesh: Mapping and Census, Dhaka

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minor seismic disturbance. 8 earthquakes with magnitude of 4 on Richter's scale occurred during 2000-10. Being located in the seismotectonic command areas of youngest Himalayan mountainous terrain, Bangladesh is vulnerable, in particular, the cities of Dhaka, Chittagong, Sylhet and Rangpur. Landslide Hazard Exposed soft sedimentary rocks in the vast tract of mountainous and hilly terrains (18% of the total area within the country) and increasing number of informal settlements on these slopes can cause fatal landslides triggered by the torrential monsoon rainfall. The hilly terrain in the southeastern part from the country which holds the second-largest city of Chittagong has a long history of slope instability. The landslide that occurred in Chittagong City area and its surroundings on June 11, 2007 was a devastating one and took the lives of 127 people and caused injury to hundreds of people and made many people homeless. Fatal landslides also occurred in 2008 and 2009. Though landslides appear as one of the major hazards, systematic approaches are yet to be introduced in the Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) system.

Fire Hazard Location of unsafe industries in dense, residential neighbourhoods as well as poor-quality housing combines to make fire hazard a regular nightmare for Bangladesh’s cities. The number of fire incidents in Dhaka was 1,861 in 2003, 2,053 in 2004, and 2,279 in 2005 (The New Age, 2007). Over 350 garment workers have died and some 1,500 injured in fire-related incidents since 1990 (The Daily Star, February 25, 2006). The devastating fire at Nimtoli in Old Dhaka in 2010 has given a new scale to this hazard. Water-Logging Water-logging is a common hazard in all the major cities of Bangladesh. Heterogeneous landscape having minor slope difference causes erroneous development of drainage network, which does not follow adequate Digital Elevation Model (DEM) during construction. Dumping of wastes and construction's materials in the drainage system has further exacerbated this problem. The worst victims are the urban poor income people, who reside in the least favourable areas of cities like Dhaka and Chittagong. The vulnerabilities of urban centres are very much distinct from the rural areas. Urbanization as a process largely contributes to this vulnerability, and this needs to be shortly described throughout this section. The major urban vulnerability factors are: land associated with urban habitats, livelihoods of city dwellers, social structures, governance, policy and institution, economies and urban poverty. The issue of urban poverty is discussed in previous section, but here we will cover the land and other vulnerability issues. The precarious land-man ratio has made land the most precious resource in Bangladesh, especially in the urban areas. The rapid rise in the urban population in

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recent decades through migration has made the urban land situation even more critical. The supply of urban land is highly limited and subject to many competing claims, such as for commercial, industrial, administrative, educational, recreational, military, roads, and most of all residential purposes. Urban land prices in Dhaka city have increased eighty to hundred-fold during 1974-2000.5 The scarcity of urban land initially saw a growing problem of squatting in unused public land, but more recently cities like Dhaka and Chittagong have seen a growth in informal settlements on privately appropriated public land where the poor have to pay for their housing. A large number of government agencies are involved in the management of urban land. However, with poorly defined roles and responsibilities and in the absence of an urban land use policy, the urban land scenario is highly susceptible to unplanned growth, forcible appropriation by the powerful and inefficient use. Before 1953, there was no regulation to develop the urban areas of Bangladesh for a planned development. Town Improvement Act was promulgated in 1953, and following this, planning authorities were created for the four major cities – RAJUK for Dhaka, CDA for Chittagong, KDA for Khulna, and RDA for Rajshahi. Other than these four big cities, there is no specific land use policy for the other urban centres. During 1980s when Upazila was selected as a local level administrative unit, the Urban Development Directorate (UDD) prepared Land-Use Plan/Master Plan for the secondary towns of Bangladesh, but these were not implemented. Due to lack of legal status and financial constraints, the plans remained unimplemented. These towns are now growing in a haphazard manner. The existing urban land-use planning did not consider urban hazards in their planning principles and guidelines. Only recently, Detailed Area Plan (DAP) of Dhaka City (2008) has considered flood and water-logging issues, and the building code considered earthquake and fire hazard. However, the implementation of the DAP and Building Code still remain a big challenge for the City.

1.2 Study Problem and Focus: Mainstreaming DRR in Urban Development and Physical Planning Process 1.2.1 Conceptual Framework Though urban centres in Bangladesh face increasing disasters risks, both natural and man-made, the issue is yet to gain the required policy attention. Much of the policy thinking of disaster management has developed concerning rural realities. The pace of urban growth overwhelms more systematic thinking about sustainable development of urban centres. For example, in major cities like Dhaka and Chittagong,

5Hafiz, Roxana, 2007, The Urban Frontiers of Dhaka: Creating Space Above Water, in Sarwar Jahan & K.M. Maniruzzaman (ed) Urbanization in Bangladesh: Patterns, Issues and Approaches to Planning, Bangladesh Institute of Planners, Dhaka

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developer lobbies exercise disproportionate influence over the use of scarce land in the cities and their surroundings. Influx of rural migrants encroaches into precarious locations like hill-slopes or river-banks to meet their housing needs. Unscrupulous power-brokers exacerbate the problem by forcible occupation of such vulnerable land and renting out spaces to the urban poor. These processes will influence both the likely occurrence of disasters as well as how post-disaster challenges can be effectively addressed. It is thus very important that the issue of disasters and their management is prioritized within the evolving urban discourse.

The following issues are emerging as a likely focus of the urban disaster risk reduction: • Increasing exposure to earthquake, flood, fire and industrial accidents • Current urban expansion is ignoring the importance of disaster risk prevention

measures • Earthquake disaster is potentially most threatening given the enormous

density of Dhaka city population as well as that of urban centres. Dhaka city is on the recognized fault-line.

• Climate change is rendering coastal settlements – both rural and urban – even more vulnerable to cyclones and tidal surges.

• Land contestations and resulting misuse of land resources is a major contributory factor to urban disasters.

• The capacity of urban local government is very low to manage post disaster relief and reconstruction issues.

• The role of media and civil-society engagement in urban DRR is very little beyond some technical discussion. Much of the urban disaster issue remains in ‘identifying’ risk factors, and there is overwhelmed discussion about ‘fear’ in media but less discussion on the ‘mainstreaming’ the risk factors in economic and physical planning.

• The role of ‘private sector’ is under explored in the overall disaster risk reduction in urban areas, where as the private sector is 78% contributor of GDP; without bringing them into the DRR discourse in urban (as well as rural) disaster risk reduction, there will remain potential gaps in mainstreaming.

Ontologically DRR refers to a systematic approach to identify, assess and reduce risks of disaster or to be more comprehensive it aims to reduce socio-economic vulnerabilities to disaster as well as dealing with the environmental and other hazards that trigger them: Here it has been strongly influenced by the mass of research on vulnerability that has appeared in print since the mid-1970s. The conceptual framework of elements considered with the possibilities to minimize vulnerabilities and disaster risks throughout a society, to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the adverse impacts of hazards, within the broad context of sustainable development (as of UNISDR). DRR incorporates elements, concept, particularly disaster, risk and reduction. These notions are inextricably linked to each other constructing the essence of DRR. Disaster risk reduction is a systematic

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approach to identify, assess and reduce the risk of disaster. In other words, DRR is the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyze and reduce the causal factors of disaster.

As it incorporates concepts, it is necessary to bring at sight basic understanding about notions and concepts, in order to reveal the interrelationship. Giving to this, the concept of risk is an outline as, “risk is the probability or threat of damage, injury, liability or loss or any other negative occurrence that is caused by the functional relationship between hazard (external) and vulnerabilities (internal)”. However, risk is constituted of two organically related concepts, particularly hazard and vulnerability. These concepts are intrinsic to the concept of risk. However, the concept of hazard refers to a situation that poses a level of the threat to life, health, property and environment while the concept vulnerability is understood as the inability to withstand the effect that poses a level of the threat to life, health, property and environment. Therefore, the study explores the extent to which DRR is incorporated or being addressed in the sphere of urban life. In order to explore a relationship between DRR and urban area, a few concepts central to urbanizations are addressed.

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Figure 2: Conceptual niche of urban disaster risk reduction

i. Disaster refers inability of people or organization to manage the consequence of a hazard exposure on vulnerable elements (people, land, settlement, economy and society); whereby hazard refers an unusual event with potential of causing damages. The vulnerability refers least ability of an entity or element to protect the threat of a hazard.

ii. Reduction is to address the inability of people to withstand the effect of any situation that poses a level of the threat to life, property and environment, or minimizes the hazard exposures on the elements.

iii. Anything generated outside of the element and not depended on individual, society or nation. iv. Anything, which constitutes the element, or which is integral part of the element. It could be state of mind such as biological

and physical composition.It even could be cell, tissue, DNA characteristics and psyche. v. Higher population density and vast human features in comparison to areas surrounding it characterize an urban area. Urban

areas may be cities, towns or conurbations, but the term is not commonly extended to rural settlements such as villages and hamlets.

Disaster Risk Reduction

Hazardi Risk Reductionii

Natural Hazard Vulnerability

(Internaliv) Hazard

(Externaliii) Human Induced

Urbanv

Industrialization

Housing

Infrastructural communications

Market

Education & Health

Water bodies &

Population (Large size in a smaller area)

Occupation Groups

Drainage network

Waste Management system

Administrative infrastructure

Mass media

Slum & Squatter

Highly Heterogeneous

Household Pattern

Family relationships

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The concept urban refers to a human settlement pattern with distinctive characteristics, particularly:

- Industrialization - Housing (concrete, brick shape pattern) - Infrastructural communication (Road, underground, railway and other form of

transport both public & private) - Market (Free-market economy, market economy, central business district,

trade, commercial activities) - Drainage network and sewerage system - Waste management system - Law and policy, bureaucracy, governance - Administrative infrastructure (Official, traffic management - Judiciary system (Court) - Law enforcing agencies - Legislative body (DC office, UP office) - Education (Kindergarten, school, college, university, training center) - Health infrastructure (Govt., private, community clinic) - Power and energy (Electricity, gas) - Water-supply system ( sufficient water withdraws for urban people and other

uses) - Water body and conservation (Lake) - Open space, park, playground, recreation facilities - Mass media (Electronic and printing media) - Population (large size of population, means of living: formal and informal

sector, often informal sector is larger than the formal sector) - Occupational groups (Middle class, group with credential and certificate, White

colour workers and functioning of multinational companies) - Social stratification (based on economic groups, stratified by resources) - Slum and squatter (This is exclusive urban phenomena) - Density of population (High dense population; problem includes food,

sanitation, health, basic need) - Highly heterogeneous with deeper social inequality (Gender, class, cast,

religious, place of origin, system of belief, ethnic group, pattern of family) - Household pattern - Family relationship.

The study is investigating the way urban area with stratified population is approached from the perspective of DRR. The central essence is to observe and reveal how inability of the diverse groups of urban setting to withstand level of the threat that

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may be imposed on life, health, property and environment are supported to withstand and be resilient.

The methodology that has been followed is basically probing, analyzing, policy documents and other records such as research papers and interviewing. Initially, key research questions have been formulated, a number of research instruments and tools has been developed and used as a guideline to conduct the analysis and draw inferences.

Twenty two policy documents related to disaster and urbanization are being considered in this study. The analysis of these policy documents reveals that:

1. For urban setting, DRR has not received attention that it deserved to. 2. Most of the documents contain the construction of urban area, its expansion and

issues related to urbanization processes. 3. Policies do not provide a complete understanding as to what DRR really

encompasses and what specific methods in relation to purposes need to be adopted.

4. Although some guideline and strategy have been mentioned in the policy documents, but it is a generalized a point of view.

5. Most of the policy documents avoided to specify and distribute responsibilities among the responsible groups.

There is often confused duality in the term 'urban disaster'. Usually the term refers disasters in cities, and very specifically the natural hazards in cities and its consequences on city dwellers. However, the term 'urban disaster' does not carry the full meaning only by referring to the hazards or disasters that occurred in city centres. This connotation only describes the hazard (i.e. flood) exposures in city life and the suffering of city dwellers due to such exposures. There are other ways to think of the phenomena 'urban disaster', where the disaster is typically different from the 'rural disaster'- it is not only that the hazards occurred in cities but also how urbanization as a process creates a condition that is highly susceptible to any hazard onset. Therefore, 'urban disaster' unfolds a large number of associated concepts: urban vulnerabilities, urban hazards, urban risks and urban disaster preparedness, response and recovery along with prevention and mitigation as core dimensions of disaster risk reduction in socio-cultural and built environment of cities. The first connotation demands analysis of specific nature of cities and how that nature could be factored during prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery phases of disaster management. The second connotation will unfold the issues of the way urbanization create a different

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risk context, different from rural risk (a function of hazard and vulnerability) process. These two connotations are not same in its meaning, though they seem to be the same to the majority of the readers. The first connotation does not see city as a product of the dynamic urbanization process rather a 'polygon' where a hazard is exposed. Therefore, there is a lacking in analyzing urbanization and discussion of how this process contributes in hazard onset and creates new types of vulnerabilities and social resilience.

Mainstreaming is not an “activity” but a “process." Mainstreaming is a long-term and dynamic process, and it requires the involvement of a wide range of stakeholders. Putting all the components in the framework in place requires collective action through co-operation, consultation and negotiation at different levels (local, national and international) between the relevant actors. Mainstreaming Spheres Framework is an attempt to operationalise such a process mapping out a coherent system of different and dynamic spheres and levels. Mainstreaming Spheres Framework is not merely a listing of variables or entry points, but they represent “spheres" of action, that are linked and interrelated in a particular way and ultimately, they re-enforce each other. Mainstreaming Spheres Framework is not hierarchical; it does not indicate a starting component but suggest a process the user should consider identifying levels of interventions, needs, opportunities and barriers to mainstream DDR. Mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into development policy, planning and implementation is not a matter of choice or preference. It’s a necessity. Mainstreaming disaster risk reduction is a continuous process of integration of disaster's implications and lessons learned into design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Mainstreaming requires consensus and active participation of decision makes and planners at the national level and support from donors and development community. Analysis, approach definitions and strategically thinking is a prerequisite for success. Integrating urban planning and DRR result to be fundamental in address poverty reduction in urban areas.

1.2.2 Goals, Objectives, Outcome and Deliverables of the Scoping Study The above mentioned problems are examined through a comprehensive policy, institutional and expenditure context for urban disaster risk reduction to find out and explore the possible entry points for mainstreaming DRR into urban planning and budget process. This is simple in its current sense but very complex in architecture with lot more puzzles to unpack through careful and in-depth analysis of urban disaster risk reduction under existing policy-institutional-expenditure (or budget) niche of urban development. The further scopes to narrow down the analysis to “range of capacity” necessary for disaster risk reduction be embedded within the rules and allocation of business of different service proving entities.

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The study therefore tried to identify the entry points in following sectors/community of practices in urban development.

- City Governments (City Corporation and Municipalities) - Key Urban Service Providers (Water, Electricity, Gas, Health, Civil Defence,

Education, Sanitation, Drainage, transport) - Key Physical Planning Entities (Development Authority/ Wing in Municipalities/

Regulatory Authority) - Key Development Planning Mechanisms (Mid Term Budget Framework, Annual

Development Programme, Long and Mid Term Plans) - Key Policy Mechanisms (Parliament and Ministry; Disaster Policy, Urban Policy,

Poverty Reduction Policies, Education Policy, Health Policies and other policies; and policy making process)

- Private Sector - Mass Media - Civil Society Engagement

Objectives of the Study

• To conduct the extent to which DRR is considered in urbanization process and it’s development and whether it is in the process of mainstreaming.

• Mapping of key government service providers departments in urban areas with its nature of services offered through various development schemes / programme particularly those which have high potential to address disaster risks

• Capacity and Resource (technical) assessment (situation analysis and needs assessment) of urban planning authorities/departments in context of DRR mainstreaming

• Explore strategy entry point for mainstreaming in Media and Private Sector Organizations.

Expected Outcome of the Study

• A scoping matrix of DRR mainstreaming into different entry points at Government, Civil Society, Media and Private Sectors in Bangladesh entry points are Policy, Institution, Planning, Appraisal, Approval, Implementation, and Monitoring and Evaluation.

• Multi-stakeholder engagement that would include how civil society, academia, private sectors and government play supplementary roles to ensure resilience.

• A future road map for mainstreaming in areas of DRR including actions and methodologies.

1.2.3 Scope of the Study The study is based on literature and interviews with city stakeholders in different sample cities. The scope is to explore physical, economic, social, and environmental planning processes.

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1.2.4 Limitations of the Study The study has several limitations.

1. The study is based on literatures and plans of different cities. It is unable to provide urban risk analysis.

2. Scoping analysis based on 8 cities, which indicate limitations in representativeness of findings.

1.3 Methodology 1.3.1 Approaches and Its Logic Literature review

The study reviewed literatures for following purposes. a. To develop context of country. b. To gather information about urban DRR strategies interventions and urban

development context: policy, institutions and budget/expenditures of the last few years.

c. To reveal the different level of challenges in urban disaster risk reduction under contesting policy priorities

Over hundred planning and DRR interventions were identified from the activities with study area (eight cities) through many different sources that are classified thematically as:

• Physical plans • Development plans • Local Disaster Management • Development-Disaster Nexus

After careful examination of all interventions, interventions those were directly or indirectly involved with DNCC, DSCC, RAJUK, KCC, KDC, RCC and municipalities of the study area for the assessment from six different types of analysis were selected for desk review. Around twenty policy interventions are analyzed, as they have much tangible benefit and as most of the other interventions are made for planning process, urban risk analysis and capacity building. Secondary Data Collection from different Public Sources The following secondary data have been collected:

- Physical Plans of al case cities (if available) - Area Development Plan of Development Authorities (RAJUK, KDA) - Long Term Plans of Cities - All development projects of sample cities - Budget of city governments, public sector service organizations such as water,

electricity, gas, fire service, etc.

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- Media Reports on Urban DRR - Government Ordinances - Legislations, Rules, Acts, Policies, Framework, Tools, Plans.

1.3.2 Methods Qualitative methods were used to analyze the study. No quantitative methods were used, except spatial methods to analyze the physical planning aspects. The key research methods used in the study were:

• Key Informants’ Interview • In-depth Interview • Content Analysis (literature review)

1.3.3 Analytical Framework The following types of analysis are done in the study.

Table 3: Analytical framework of the study Analysis Rationale P/S

Policy Analysis

To understand the policy context the urban institutions functions. Also to explore the policy trade off, policy conflicts and policy gaps for urban disaster risk reduction.

Primary

Institutional Analysis

To understand the institutional architecture for urban services and regulations. Explore the institutional chaos or miss-match to address urban disaster. Critical review of the institutional coordination and synergy and if gap exists. The analysis is also very important to explore the right entry points for urban disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation.

Primary

Planning Process

To understand the planning process and the niche for disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation under the planning niche. Also to identify potential planning gaps to address the DRR-CCA in urban context.

Primary

Budget Analysis

To understand the contesting needs for financing the urban development and specific budget constraints and scopes for addressing urban DRR-CCA. Secondary

Capacity Analysis

To understand the capacity to undertake technical and strategic actions for DRR-CCA in urban contexts and to utilize DRR-CCA resources with proper fiduciary responsibility. This is also important to understand the fiscal capacity of urban governments. The capacity will be analyzed in the areas of ‘appraisal’, ‘design’, ‘implementation’ and ‘monitoring and evaluation’ aspects.

Secondary

Urban Risk Analysis

This is an important review of secondary literatures to support the whole scoping study. Secondary

Political Economy Analysis

This analysis will help to explore the role of different stakeholders other than their formal role and how the differential interest influences the decision environment. Media and Private Sector will be key stakeholders in the discussion along with civil society organizations: Poribesh Banchao Andolon, BELA, etc.

Primary

1.3.4 Selection of Case City The study has selected 8 cities as case city through purposive sampling to provide the sample of analysis. The selection of case cities will be finalized in discussion with OXFAM. Once the case cities are finalized, the study will try to reveal the disaster relevance of the case cities under its development planning process. This will strongly

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demonstrate the diversity of urban problem in Bangladesh from the point of view of disaster risk reduction. The initial selection of city is proposed as follows.

Table 4: Selected case cities Primary Hazard

Context Metropolitan City

(secondary hazard) A Category Pourashava

(Secondary Hazard) B/C Category Pourashava

(Secondary Hazard)

Earthquake Rangpur (Flood)

Mymensingh

Flood Dhaka (Earthquake)

Sirajganj (River Bank Erosion)

Nageshwari, Kurigram (Earthquake)

Cyclone Khulna (Waterlogging, Tidal Flood and Sea Level Rise)

Mongla Port (Sea Level Rise, Salinity and Tidal Flood)

Flash Flood

Durgapur, Netrokona (Earthquake)

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CHAPTER TWO: SCOPE OF MAINSTREAMING DISASTER RISK REDUCTION IN URBAN PLANNING PROCESS 2.1 Policy Spheres

Policies and regulations for urbanization have evolved in response to problems faced rather than on the basis of a vision and a long-term road map. Fortunately, for a long time Bangladesh did not experience any large scale disasters in urban areas beyond high susceptibility of earthquake and some fire incidences, eventually no such dedicated urban disaster related polices emerged. However, disaster is tacitly addressed in several policy documents. After partition of India in 1947 Dhaka became the provincial capital and experienced significant population increase. This led to major infrastructure development and building activities. In order to regulate and control urban development activities the government enacted legislations and framed rules which included the building construction act 1952, the Town Improvement Act 1953 and the Building construction rules 1953. The Building Construction Act 1952 provided for the prevention of haphazard construction of buildings and excavation of tanks which are likely to interfere with development in certain areas. The Town Improvement Act 1953 provided for the development, improvement and expansion of the towns of Dhaka and Narayanganj and certain areas in their vicinity and the formation of a board of trustees. The Building Construction Rules 1953 were made to facilitate exercise of powers conferred by the Building Construction Act 1952.

In 1959, Master Plans were prepared for Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and Rajshahi cities. This was a major venture for guiding the overall physical development of the four major cities. But in course of time, especially after independence of Bangladesh in 1971, these plans were found to be inadequate with regard to population growth and land use changes. Despite rapid urbanization in the country there was no initiative to plan or control urban development activities during 1970’s and 1980’s. It was only after 1990 that some steps were taken for control of development in big cities. All these process did not consider disaster beyond standard built environment concepts. These included preparation of development plans for Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and Rajshahi cities, and formulation of Building Construction Rules (1996), Private Residential Area Development Rules (2004) and Dhaka Metropolitan Building Construction Rules (2008). The Bangladesh National Building Code (BNBC) which was prepared in 1993 came into force in 2006 after some modification. This BNBC brings some strong disaster connotation into the design principles and will reduce the vulnerability of the city from fire and earthquake hazards. Other legislations which are

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relevant for the mainstreaming of urban disaster include Bangladesh Environment Protection Act 1995 (modified in 2010) and the Wetland Preservation Act 1998.

In intermediate and smaller urban centres, the Pourashavas are responsible for preparing and implementing Master Plans and carrying out development control functions. The Pourashava Ordinance 2008 has given the Pourashava wide responsibilities in town planning and development, public health and sanitation, water supply and sewage disposal, maintenance of public infrastructure and amenities. It is now mandatory for the Pourashava to prepare Master Plans within five years from the date of creation of a new Pourashava or from the date of enforcement of the Ordinance for the old or already created Pourashava.

One of the main reasons for haphazard urban growth in Bangladesh is the lack of proper planning. In the area of urban planning, the Pourashava Ordinance has empowered the Pourashvas to prepare Master Plan for development, expansion and improvement of any area within its jurisdiction and impose restrictions, regulations and prohibitions with regard to the development of sites, and the erection and re-erection of buildings. But due to lack of technical manpower and equipment, no Pourashava has been able to prepare and implement a Master Plan on their own.

Bangladesh follows a centralized and basically top down mechanism in development of policy, regulation and strategies. There is lack of system to promote and provide incentives that can regulate and control urban development and urban disaster as a by-product of unplanned urbanization. The existing policies and strategies have a number of provisions that can facilitate both reduction of urban vulnerabilities to disasters and urban development. However, these are remaining presently in isolation and not necessarily synergising into national development mainstreaming. There are no specialized tools and guidelines that support mainstreaming disaster risk reduction in the urban planning and development process. Lack of urban disaster specific policy and implementation mechanism clearly indicate that urban communities are less benefited from government, donor and NGO by means of programmes for disaster risk reduction in urban areas. Flood, drainage congestion, heat stress are major climate-induced vulnerabilities that affect cities like Dhaka (Alam and Rabbani 2007; UN-HABITAT 2008). These problems have enormous implications and would affect the urban communities especially poor who reside in slum. These people encounter health hazards that may lead to death.

Disaster Management Act 2012 and BCCSAP do address issues of risk reduction and climate adaptation. However both documents lack explicit reference and recognition of the way unplanned urbanization and disaster aloof physical and economic planning

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limit the urban communities to cope up with disaster vulnerability and hazard exposures, especially for low-income urban poor people. The inference is that the country has got to consider disaster risks of the urban communities as a serious issue. However, Disaster management Act 2012 declares that GoB wants to take into account the Comprehensive Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) method in disaster management plans to minimize the disaster risk. This is actually the declaration of mainstreaming DRR. Hence it could be viewed that, if there has been enough scope of the Local Disaster Management committee to provide input into Urban Planning then Urban Risk reduction could easily be included in the local level disaster management plan. This is not yet realized due to complex institutional setting that will be discussed in next section. One of the examples is that Urban Planning in Dhaka is the responsibility of RAJUK, Urban Development Directorate and City Corporation in Dhaka but it is very unclear how City Disaster Management Committee would play their role in this complex institutional setting. It would be better if the Local Disaster management committee has scope to input Urban DRR in the Urban Planning of these respective areas. National Urban Sector Policy 2011 is in process of consultation which envisages strengthening urban aspects and measures to deal with its negative consequences to achieve sustainable urbanization. The future endeavours and dimensions proposed under this document are promising and provide an ideal entry point to incorporate disaster risk reduction into the development agenda for urban areas. This combined with provisions under DM Act, Water Policy, BCCASP, NAPA, BNBC and others detailed under Annexure 1 and 2 (of the part 2 of the report) of this study that can be considered as a basis to advance comprehensive urban disaster risk reduction policy. 2.2 Institutional Spheres

Bangladesh has not yet developed institutions, strategies and policies relevant to mainstream disaster risk reduction in post 2015 development agenda. There is legal and institutional framework of decentralized system of local government with provisions to establish disaster management committee; urban areas are not yet considered as priority with regards to country resilience. There is substantial overlap and lack of proper functional relationship amongst different agencies in the urban areas. Disaster Management Committees are proposed to be the mechanism to ensure institutional collaboration and coordination with integrate different efforts, however, they are found to be inactive and often not grounded into the urban communities. These committees are weak as factors including weak executive system

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and poor resource allocation. They do not possess the institutional capacity to plan, implement, finance and monitor services related to risk reduction.

Central Government Agencies: National level agencies provide services to different urban areas including city corporations, Pourashavas and other urban centers as part of their national responsibilities. Some of the important national agencies are Urban Development Directorate (UDD), National Housing Authority (NHA) and the Public Works Department (PWD) under the Ministry of Works; the Department of public Health Engineering (DPHE) and the Local Government Engineering Department under the Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Cooperatives; the Roads and Highways Department under the ministry of Communication; the Department of Environment under the Ministry of Environment and Forest; and the power Development Board under the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources. Other Ministries such as the Ministries of Commerce, Education, Finance, Agriculture, Youth and Sports, and Water Resources Development are also actively involved in the process of urban development mainly through their regional and local level agencies.

Special Purpose Authorities: There are also some special purpose agencies that provide special services to the city dwellers. These are Water Supply and Sewerage Authority, Electricity Supply Authority, Road Transport Authority, etc. There are two water and sewerage authorities i.e. DWASA, CWASA and KWASA, which are working in three metropolitan cities: Dhaka, Chittagong and Khulna respectively. Two other agencies involved in the development activities of Dhaka Metropolitan Area are Dhaka Transport Coordination Board (DTCB) and Bangladesh Bridge Authority. DTCB is mainly responsible for planning and development of transportation facilities within the metropolitan area while the Bangladesh Bridge Authority is responsible for constructing flyovers, elevated expressways etc.

Urban Local Governments: Two types of local government institutions exist in Bangladesh e.g. urban and rural. The urban local governments are of two types. In the Divisional Level, the City Corporation functions whereas Pourashvas function in other towns. At present there are 6 City Corporations and 309 Pourashvas in the country (Table 5.4). Pourashvas or Municipalities again are classified according to financial strength. In addition, there are also some urban centers that are under Cantonment Boards.

At the local Level, Pourashava is the basic planning and development authority. Through the Pourashava Bill 2009, the Pourashava authorities were empowered to prepare Master Plan, implement development schemes and exercise building control. A Pourashava consists of a Mayor, Councilors whose number is fixed by the

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government and women Councilors of reserved seats. The Chairman and Councilors of a Pourashava are elected by direct election on the basis of adult franchise. The Pourashava (Municipal) Act, 2009 has given the Pourashavas wide responsibilities, but the administrative, financial and technical capabilities of the Pourashava are not adequate to meet the challenges associated with rapid urbanization in the country.

Table 5: Hierarchy of urban local governments Mega City For example: Dhaka Metropolitan Area City Corporations at Divisional Level For example: Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna, Rajshahi and Barisal Pourashva(Municipality) Number of Pourashva – 278 in 2001, 309 at present Category determined by income level Annual income level Class I Pourashvas Average Population (2001) - 88,907 Class II Pourashvas Average Population (2001) - 41,275 Class III Pourashvas Average Population (2001) - 25,466

Development Authorities: Pourashava were originally created for planning and management of urban areas. Later on separate planning and development organizations were created for the cities of Dhaka (RAJUK), Chittagong (CDA), Khulna (KDA) and Rajshahi (RDA). The development authorities in these cities are authorized to undertake local urban planning as well as infrastructure and site development activities for housing, commercial and industrial use. The authorities are also empowered to exert development control functions. The effectiveness of these authorities, however, is generally limited by such factors as inadequate management and financial system, multiplicity of institutions with urban development function within their jurisdictions, uncoordinated development, lack of integration with other agencies, inadequate manpower and lack of public participation.

At present KDA has a total man power of 255 of which 28 are Class-I, 16 are Class-II, 100 are Class-III and 111 are class-IV categories of man power. Out of the total sanctioned post 39 posts are lying vacant. It is very difficult to function properly with this man power for the existing jurisdiction. KDA jurisdiction is going to be enhanced by another 367.27 sq.km with the approval of the present project. This will make the situation worse. There is built in weakness in the planning department. This has to be rationally improved and town planning has to be made a part of our cultural practices in order to ensure planned development of any urban centre.

It is found that local authorities like Paurashava and Union Parishad grant planning permit within KDA jurisdiction. The Local Government Ordinance provides power to the local government institutes to issue planning permits. This has given duality in the performance of development control function resulting in chaos as KDA and local government institutes follow different rules. Conflict is also found about jurisdiction area among different agencies which needs resolution.

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Institutional Issues for DRR mainstreaming in Urban Planning Process Institutional spheres include the roles and responsibilities of major agencies involved in development of urban areas of Mongla Pourashava ensuring coordination of development activities. Development control function is very poor in KDA area and Mongla Pourashava. With the present capacity KDA cannot oversee or pro-act to guide, steer and restrict development. In order to enable KDA effectively carry out its development and development control functions it has need to be strengthened for risk free DRR. There is no institutional arrangement for training and capacity in KDA and stockholder motivation. As a result, disaster risks reduction not possible due to non-execution of planned development and development.

While urban development is treated as a next development agenda in post 2015, there is an essential need of institutional harmony amongst different agencies working in urban development. Disaster risk reduction is possible to be mainstreamed if such institutional harmony is designed and proper functional relationship is established amongst different agencies. In cities like Dhaka and Khulna, there is a vibrant City Corporation administered by Ministry of Local Government division and similarly very vibrant Development Authority administered by Ministry of Public Works. This is a critical issue revealed in the study that without functional relationships and mutual trusts of these two critical organizations in four metropolitan cities: Dhaka (north and south), Chittagong, Khulna and Rajshahi the development as well as the process of reducing urban risk will be heavily challenged. This problem is not observed in other cities like new city corporations: Rangpur, Mymensingh, Comilla and Narayanganj. However, the study has observed that in each city corporation there is a dedicated planning cell, which is responsible for all planning. There is a role conflict of this cell with development authorities in Khulna and Dhaka under the current study. The other service providing organizations responsible for critical services: water and power are very independent to city corporation and development authorities. The issues of disaster risk reduction in the metropolitan city therefore have to be mainstreamed into City Corporation, development authority and service providing organizations like WASA. The entry points therefore have to be the organogram, allocation of business of the organizations, and rules of business among organizations for a better coordinated resilient city. The functions and citizens charter of these organizations brings the following inferences:

• At citizen charter of Durgapur Municipality, it is found that in emergency period the municipality will take step when necessary. It will be systematic according to Municipality law, act, notice, official order, and circulation. Municipality is the authority of all tasks.

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• No DRM/DRR issue is addressed at Citizen chartered or City Corporation service of Rangpur, Mymensingh, Dhaka South and RAJUK.

• At citizen charter or City Corporation service, there is nothing about DRM/DRR but it is processing and will be added early at Dhaka North and Khulna City Corporation.

• There is a committee of DRM but no activity is found. After taking charge of existing committee (Newly formed), no serious disaster was faced at Durgapur, Mymensingh, Nageswari municipality and Rangpur City Corporation.

• No preparedness, no activities for warning system no funding or Budgets. For DRM/DRR in Durgapur, Nageswari , Rangpur, Mymensingh and RAJUK.

• During emergency periods local people or Civil Society take step or help (finance, shelter etc.) at Dhaka South and Nageswari.

• There is a climate change and disaster management fund containing 5000000 taka at Dhaka North City Corporation but Dhaka South City Corporation there have common maintenance fund for DRM/DRR.

• At emergency period municipality will take steps but have not mentioned how it will be done at Durgapur, Rangpur, Dhaka North and Dhaka South City Corporation.

• It is not mentioned how many people will be engaged with DRM/DRR activities in Durgapur, Rangpur, Dhaka North and Khulna City Corporation.

• It is not mentioned how the amount of money will be distributed in Dhaka North, Dhaka South and Khulna City Corporation.

In Dhaka and Khulna, , there are vibrant City Corporation administered by Ministry of Local Government division and Development Authority administered by Ministry of Public Works. Study revealed that without functional relationships and mutual trusts between organizations in Dhaka (north and south), Chittagong, Khulna and Rajshahi, the development and reduction of urban disaster risk would be challenging. The effectiveness of these authorities, however, is generally limited by factors such as inadequate management and financial system, multiplicity of institutions with urban development function within their jurisdictions, uncoordinated development, and lack of integration with other agencies, inadequate manpower and lack of public participation. Disaster risk reduction needs to be mainstreamed into City Corporation, development authority and service providing organizations like WASA. The entry points have to be the organogram, allocation of business of the organizations, and rules of business among organizations for a better coordinated resilient city. The legal and institutional framework at the local level should have inclusive and decentralized decision making mechanisms to operationalise mainstreaming of risk reduction services into their routine business.

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In Rangpur, Mymensingh, Sirajganj and Mongla cities, there is a cell responsible for planning. The issues of disaster risk reduction could be potentially mainstreamed in the planning cell, and the planning cell of the municipalities should be the potential entry point for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction.

2.3 Development and Physical Planning Spheres The history of both physical and development planning in Bangladesh isn’t new and has gone through a lot of evolutionary steps to redeem proper attention for progress. Yet, as dynamic as it is, much has to be done in the development and physical planning spheres of Bangladesh in term of effectiveness and reality of the modern societies. Similarly, the concept of disaster management has been a very familiar topic in many development planning arenas in Bangladesh. On the other hand, the concepts of urban disaster management and mainstreaming DRR in the urban planning process is rather fresh in Bangladesh although it incorporated some aspects of disaster management through different physical planning activities like master plans or through some infrastructure development initiatives. Over the time, physical plans for urban areas have started to incorporate and mainstream lots of more development considerations to enhance the quality of these physical plans and to ensure efficiency and compatibility with overall urban development activities in Bangladesh. As a result, projects like CDMP, PECM are also being implemented alongside planning projects like DMDP; DAP of Dhaka, Khulna; local level physical planning initiatives like UTIDP, DTIDP etc. After independence of Bangladesh, Urban Development Directorate (UDD) of Ministry of Housing and Public Works (MH&PW) was assigned the task of physical planning of cities and towns around Bangladesh excluding cities with their own development authorities like RAJUK for Dhaka city, KDA for Khulna, CDA for Chittagong and RTDA for Rajshahi city. Although these organizations were supposed to be responsible for their own respective city, the recent extension of the Khulna master plan by KDA also included Mongla port city and Bagerhat, changing the trend of the common practice by special development authorities. Similarly, due to limited initiatives and activities of National Housing Authority (NHA) and UDD at the nineties and the following decade, LGED is taking steps in physical plan development for many other towns. Consideration for mainstreaming DRR in the urban planning process is yet to get any regulatory framework from the government, but current urban disaster management initiatives are going through such attention based on initiative of CDMP such asMulti-hazard contingency plans, urban community volunteers, Mymensingh strategic development plan etc.

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2.3.1 Comprehensive Mapping of the Urban Planning Process

The urban planning process in Bangladesh can be described over detailed discussion from the top tiers of the policy makers to the implementation at local levels. According to Professor Golam Rahman, the urban planning process and practice in Bangladesh can be describe at four distinct levels – Policy, National, Regional and Local level. Policy Level Interventions for Urban Planning The policy level interventions of urban physical and development planning are mainly derived by highest policy level plans and documentations such as Five year plans for the government. Similarly, in order to achieve the best possible implementation process of the development activities through the national policy planning the five year plans are divided into Annual Development Plans (ADP). ADP concentrates a different way of approach; it rather focuses on the sectoral development such as housing, education, water supply, sanitation mainly with the purpose of social sector improvement. ADPs are generally constructed to ensure development initiatives through the administrative framework of the government from local to national level in a hierarchical order. As the key organization for the development of five year plans and ADPs, “Planning Commission” ensures long term strategy through project approval process with Executive committee of National Economic Council (NEC). Here, planning commission acts as a coordinative figure for all economic and development planning activities in Bangladesh. Planning Commission is divided into several divisions to ensure concentrated input within areas of considerations of those divisions. Funds are allocated on the annual development plans with priority basis of different sector. Although the urban sector of Bangladesh is purged with problems and day by day these problems are enhanced by repeated threat of natural and manmade disasters as well climate change issues, Planning Commission doesn’t have any division to directly address either the emerging urban issues or mainstreaming disaster management with the national physical or development planning. Lack of master plans and their implementations with DRR considerations can cause serious threat to urban citizen of Bangladesh. The sixth five year plan has some specific considerations on disaster management and urban issues. But, the lack of specific physical or development plans for urban areas can seriously hamper or even damage the overall development of Bangladesh. Similarly, other policy making agencies of relevant ministries and departments do not consider urban issues like urban risk reduction to be deserving of any separate treatment.

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National Level Interventions for Urban Planning Unlike the policy level, the national level of urban planning is influenced and organized by different organizations. The Urban Development Directorate (UDD) is supposed to act as the key contributor in the national level interventions for urban planning for mainly the urban areas without any specific development authorities. Other organization which directly or indirectly influences urban planning at national level includes national Housing Authority (NHA), Public Works Department (PWD), Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE), Roads and Highway Department (RHD), Bangladesh Power Development Board (PDB), Local Government Engineering Department (LGED). UDD was created at 1965 in order to prepare and advise on physical plans and policies to manage and plan increasing rapid urbanization of Bangladesh. UDD took initiatives for the “National Physical Planning Project” in the second and third five year plan period during 1980’s with financial support from UNDP and UNCHS/UN-HABITAT. The project was initiated with the aim to analyze the urbanization trend as well as projecting the future urbanization trend with relevant priority issues. Unfortunately, the project was dropped after partial execution of phases I and II due to lack of funding and some technical difficulties. Currently any specific national level policy or physical plan for urban planning with disaster management consideration is almost non-existent. But, similar projects and policies can be found for the national level addressing some of the aspects of urban planning or even disaster management. Among them “National Land Zoning Project” under Ministry of Land is supposed to be based on the “National Land use Policy, 2001”. “Strengthening Settlement Press, Map Printing Press and Preparation of Digital Maps Project” again under the Ministry of Land supposed to develop authenticate digital base maps for all district and upazilas of Bangladesh which is a basic requirement of any physical plan. In case of urban disaster management “Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme” of UNDP is working on DRR issues of urban areas of Bangladesh. But, there activities are yet to made convergence with any national level physical plans and rather contributes on the overall development plans and policies.

City Corporations with Separate Development Authority

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In case of cities with separate development authorities like RAJUK or KDA, the physical master plan development initiatives are mainly taken by the respective separate development authorities. As a dedicated organization for urban physical development for specific city, development authorities like RAJUK takes regular initiative to develop a continuous physical development plan like DMDP (1995-2015) which divided into three tier plan package viz Structure Plan (SP), Urban Area Plan (UAP) and Detailed Area Plan (DAP). These physical plan development initiatives highly poetized by the separate development authorities as per section 74 of Town Improvement (TI) Act 1953. On the other hand, city corporations in these cities with separate development authorities also have the authority to develop a master plan of their own. But, as the development of master plan is only one of the development activities they need to perform as well as due to financial reason, in Bangladesh these city corporations have the tendency to rely on the respective development authorities. Municipalities and City Corporations without Separate Development Authority

In all other cases of physical plan development in the municipalities and city corporation without separate development authorities, city corporations and municipalities themselves have the authority to develop physical master plans for the respective cities (according to local government act, 2009). But, in most cases it has been seen that a local government has to develop a physical master plan all by itself . In most cases these organizations manage physical master plan from development project or initiatives from other organizations like UDD or LGED. One of the main reasons to justify such tendency mentioned by these organizations is financing. As a local government institutions these organizations have to pay salary of their employees and other expenditures from their own earnings unlike the revenue employees of the separate development authorities. Moreover, as a city corporation they have to invest on more numbers of urban services than the separate development authorities. As a result, they have much more pressure on their financial capability and they are unable to develop physical master plan on their own.

2.3.2 Urbanization Strategy under the Sixth Plan

Sixth Five Year Plan has recognized urbanization as a key development aspect for economic growth and development of Bangladesh. The SFYP also realized that the

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urbanization strategy needs to be changed substantially to meet the challenges of future urbanization in Bangladesh. The plan identified that in the past much of the focus has been on implementing piecemeal programs for urban development. Multitudes of local government agencies, weak planning, poor governance, inadequate resources and weak project implementation capacity have limited the progress with meeting the urban challenge. The Sixth Plan will internalize these lessons of experience and shift the emphasis to the development of sound urban institutions, improv city governance and emphasize urban resource mobilization. The sixth plan has identified the following areas for better urban life and livelihoods.

- Improving City Governance - Promoting Balanced Development of Urban Centers - Urban Resource Mobilization - Developing a Sound Real Estate Market - Facilitating NGO Involvement in Housing - Taking Steps for Better Urban Land Management - Improved Environmental Management - Developing Sustainable Urban Transportation - Making Provision of Infrastructure and Services - Reducing Urban Poverty - Physical Planning and Housing

The urbanization situation, particularly the housing situation in Bangladesh is getting more acute with every passing year. Government efforts to mitigate the problem in the past have been far from adequate, and have been confined to areas in and around metropolitan cities. Residential quarters for government employees can hardly meet 10 percent of the requirement. However, private sector participation in housing especially in the metropolitan cities has been encouraging. Against this backdrop, goals and objectives for urban development under the Sixth Five Year Plan will be as follows:

a. Sustainable urban development that supports increased productivity, employment and investment;

b. Better quality of life by improving the standard and quality of civic facilities in city corporation areas;

c. Urban governance and management with greater accountability, transparency and improved public participation;

d. Institutionally and financially capable City Corporations and Pourashavas;

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e. Development of low cost houses/multi-storied buildings for housing/resettlement of slum dwellers, the disadvantaged, the destitute and the shelter less poor and in situ development of the slums and shelters for squatters;

f. Strengthening and supporting authorities like RAJUK, CDA,KDA and RDA so as to make them play important roles in town planning and regulation of urban development;

g. Development of sites and services for residential accommodation of low and middle income groups of people;

h. Construction of condominiums for low and middle income groups of people;

i. Construction of multi-storied flats for sale to government employees at different places to ease the accommodation problem;

j. Construction of housing facilities for working women;

k. Construction of low cost houses in the coastal areas of Bangladesh;

l. Involvement of the private sector with necessary incentives for its greater participation in the housing sector

2.3.3 Understanding the urbanization process within a high-risk environment

Spatial analysis has been carried out for selected urban centres and the analysis shows that inter-connections and dependency between locations is important determinant to understand the risks and vulnerability of cities in a country like Bangladesh where physical processes are strongly active. This understanding may provide arguments/rationale for adopting different kinds of planning process and institutional setup to address the dynamic factors and processes that characterize the type, intensity and magnitude of disasters. However, the current planning process and related strategic approaches offer limited space to accommodate disaster risk reduction measures since the objectives of urban planning/management are not sufficiently aligned with reducing disaster risks. However, this section demonstrates the gaps in this regard based on some spatial analysis. The narratives argue that understanding the problems at-scale and within the wider regional settings are necessary to grasp the dimension, magnitude of disaster risks in an urban context and to devise methods/approaches to address disaster risks.

Major hazard events of the region and their impacts on specific locations

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An incidence of natural hazard in an area is generally the result of relative location of that area in its regional contexts. It is not very common that hazards originate in the same place where it strikes (other than the cases like fire, building collapse, drainage congestion, tornadoes, landslides, localized flooding due to heavy rainfall). In most of the cases, hazards stem from some of the places in the wider territory. Therefore, types, forms, intensity, magnitude of certain hazards should be assessed within the perspectives of the region. Therefore, regional spatial assessment may help to understand (i) how the hazards have been formed/ originated, (ii) how additional forces (both mass and energy) are being absorbed with an already-spawned hazard events and contributes in energizing a certain hazard to develop a multiple hazard phenomenon. Slope and orientation (i.e. aspect) is also an important attribute to consider in this contextual assessment. An example may make it more clear; river Brahmaputra travels about 680 kilometres after entering into India and runs in between two highland (Himalayan high lands in the north and Shillong plateau in the south) valleys. The river takes a sharp left turn near Kurigram district and enters Bangladesh territory. This position, orientation and Bangladesh-ward slope, sudden-and-sharp bend of the river in Bangladesh border contributes in gaining huge amount of waters from adjoining mountains, sediment loads from highlands, extra energy from gravitational force from slopes and finally result in occurrence of big floods in north-western parts of the country, especially in monsoon times. During rainy seasons, when this region receives the highest among of rain within a short period of time (i.e. from June to September), the situation becomes dangerous and sometimes goes out of control causing pervasive floods and river bank erosion. Moreover, the rivers of the region are the major fault lines, which may be subject to change in an event of earthquake. The same argument is true for the rivers Ganges and Meghna. This condition is also true for Durgapur Municipality, where it receives huge amount of water by Shomeswari River from a wider upstream area that is also characterized by steep slope conditions. Districts like Mymensingh, Sirajgonj also gets flooding problems from the waters of the wider upstream regions. Arguments above indicate, the hazards vis-à-vis disasters take place in a location is the results of the physical processes of the wider region. Thus local scale impacts and wider scale processes are interconnected phenomenon and problem should be examined in that fashion.

2.3.4 Needs for spatial assessments in Master Plan development Current urban planning process, specially the Master Plans, and related strategic approaches got limited space to accommodate disaster risk reduction measures since

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the objectives of urban planning/management are not sufficiently aligned with reducing disaster risks. Besides, this planning instrument (i.e. the Master Plan) is designed for a certain duration (i. e. 20 years) and non-flexible/fixed in nature. Critical spatial assessments, considering scale issues (e.g. the inter-connections of locations, considerations of catchment characteristics) for physical or social processes are rarely considered in Master Plan developments in Bangladesh. Assessment of Mymensingh Master Plan, Khulna Master Plan, Detailed Area Plan (DAP) for Dhaka indicates that mapping exercises are carried out in the name of spatial assessments as to produce general land use maps. But spatial analysis based on physical and social variables, scenario based projections, climate change impacts are strongly missing in these planning documents. It is imperative to mention here that in an interview the Team Leader for Khulna Structural Plan mentioned that DRR considerations are missing in the Master Plan. He also indicated that there are components/elements like indication of open spaces, wetlands etc. in the Structural Plan which could be used to make the current Structural Plan more DRR responsive/focused. However, based on the discussions above, some recommendations are given in the following sections to develop efficient Master Plans in Bangladesh.

(i) Master Plans should be living documents (as opposed to its current fixed standing), which should be revised periodically and so that change, update as per the needs could be done.

(ii) Master Plans should be developed at least for 100 years’ time frame. Because shorter time window like 20 years is not enough to grasp the changes that may take place in the landforms of Bangladesh as a result of strongly active and unique physical processes in this deltaic plain/basin. In addition, climate change related impacts make these situations more variable/uncertain. Planning time frame for 100 years is a minimum requirement while putting climate change related risks in the context since the temporal scale of climate change issues are quite bigger (for example prediction models are designed targeting the year 2050 or 2080).

(iii) Master Plans development need to adopt serious spatial analysis based on present and past data (using time series and historical data) and records so that future prediction/scenario based planning could be offered. One example may make it more clear, if anyone (who plans to build a house in Uttara Third Phase area in Dhaka) requires to know the of 1987/1988 reference flood height which may enable him to take a decision about fixing plinth level so that his house will not inundate in 1887/1988 scale flood hazard; he will not get it. Because, these kinds of information on past records are completely missing the current planning documents in

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Bangladesh. However, in Bangladesh, different organizations like Survey of Bangladesh (SoB), Department of Land Records and Survey (DLRS; they have full set of Topographical Maps), Soil Resources Development Institute (SRDI; they have aerial photographs for all the country of 1955), Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC; they have agro-ecological, ecosystem data), SPARRSO got useful present and past geo-information, which could be a good source for doing efficient spatial analysis and for generating projection based planning and finally could be incorporated in Master Plans.

(iv) It is very important to make sure that the wetlands in the city areas and in surrounding areas are preserved properly. Therefore, demarcation of these features (at sufficiently large scale) in the Master Plans should be done so that people cannot claim wetlands under their names. In addition, CS/RS (Cadastral Survey, 100 years old/Revised Survey) records should not be the sole source to demarcate physical features like rivers/canals that are continuously changing in nature. For instance, Bangladesh water Development Board (BWDB) demarcated Dhaka city surrounding rivers as to follow Court verdict/direction to preserve these; BWDB did that depending on the 100 year old CS/RS map records. But river alignments have been shifted and do not currently exist in those areas where it is recorded 100 years back. Therefore, while doing demarcations, a big portion of river channel areas remained out of demarcation pillars which helped local miscreants to grab these lands. If the process is not right, a good intention may go in vain as shown by what happened in this case. In addition, drainage policy/guideline, open space policy/guideline could be developed, which could guide Master Plans in regards to preserving drainage/open space conditions. In the absence of open space policy/guidelines, the vacant government owned open spaces (i.e. khas lands) are being converted to private housing projects. RAJUK does not check the ownership of lands while giving approvals for developing housing societies. They approve the territorial extents without bothering whether any wetlands remain in the territory or not. Although they mention in their approval decrees that “…….this approval does not provide ownership rights”. Thus open spaces, canals, wetlands are filled in, squeeze urban open spaces/green spheres and increase the risks to natural hazards.

(v) There is a need to undertake a multi-disciplinary academic scrutiny to identify the challenges in regards to urban land management and to develop a planning protocol that is suitable for Bangladesh. It needs to be remembered that the country situates in a deltaic basin where natural hazards are frequent, physical processes give a changing nature and shape

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of the land, and characterize the production regimes which determines the forms and patterns of social processes and security. Adoption of this philosophy in designing Master Plans in Bangladesh may appropriately address the problems of this land.

2.4 Budget Spheres 2.4.1 Allocation of Development Resources for the Urban Sector in the Sixth Plan

Given the large backlog of unmet demand and rapidly growing new demand for urban services in Bangladesh the investment financing needs of the urban sector are large. This is also reflected in the indicative resource requirements provided by line ministries and shown in Annex attachments. Creative means will need to be found to meet the financing requirements based on a combination of sound planning of new investments, proper attention to maintaining and better using existing urban assets, strengthening of property tax system and user charges, partnership with private sector through outsourcing and PPP arrangements, mobilization of donor funding, and assigning funds from the government’s own resources. While the government recognizes the urgency of meeting the needs of the urban sector, a holistic approach to resource mobilization as stated above will be essential.

Based on the projected overall resource envelope and a careful assessment of relative expenditure priorities, Tables 5.12 and 5.13 provide allocation of development resources to the urban sector in current and constant prices during the Sixth Plan. These are indicative targets and will be reviewed on an annual cycle in light of actual resource availability, implementation performance and changing priorities.

Attachment in the annex shows the indicative costs of various programs/projects proposed by various agencies of the Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development & Cooperatives and the Ministry of Housing and Public Works for inclusion in the Sixth Five Year Plan. These programs/projects are proposed to fulfil the government’s manifesto and target to ensure safe water and sanitation facilities for all in a dynamic environment. In view of the large gap between available resources and proposed expenditures the programs/projects will have to be prioritized for funding.

Table 6: Development resource allocation for the urban sector in the sixth five year plan (Taka in crore in current price) Ministry 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 Local Government Division 8099 9519 10804 12687 14430 Ministry of Housing and Public Works 479 565 641 754 862 Total 8578 10084 11445 13441 15291

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Table 7: Development resource allocation for the urban sector in the sixth five year plan (Taka in crore in FY 2011 price) Ministry FY2011 FY2012 FY2013 FY2014 FY2015 Local Government Division 8099 8855 9392 10357 11112 Ministry of Housing and Public Works 479 525 557 616 664 Total 8578 9381 9950 10972 11776

2.4.2 Municipality Budget preparation in Bangladesh

The budget process of all municipalities is guided by Municipality Budget Preparation Manual. The manual has been prepared for the municipalities by the GoB Urban Management Unit of Local Govt. and Engineering Department. Municipalities are autonomous organizations and that is why they can prepare their own budget. The manual in its ‘’Social Development related activities’’ section describes about the necessity of Town Level Coordination committee (TLCC), Ward level Coordination Committee (WLCC), Community Based organizations (CBO) and other committee. The Pourashava Disaster Management Committee is precisely described in our Standing Orders on Disasters with detailed roles and responsibilities. This manual therefore can provide input to the Pourashava Disaster Management Committee during the preparation of Budget.

To mainstream the disaster management in the development process, municipalities can include the Disaster management committee in the budget process. Besides, to ensure a regular and special disaster fund they can allocate dedicated fund for Pourashava Disaster Management Committee.

2.4.3 Budgetary Practice in the Local Government Institutions In the budget of DCC-North and South, a welfare expenditure is mentioned as ‘’ Natural Disaster (Flood, Accident and Fire hazard). Here we can see a 125% increase in the budget allocation for this sector. Nevertheless, this part is not well described because we know Accident and Fire Hazard are not actually natural disasters. We know that Dhaka city is in a potential threat of Earthquake disaster, which is not mentioned in this point. And it is not described whether the amount is allocated for pre- disaster preparedness or post-disaster response. In the Budget of DCC-North 2012-2013 Development budget a fund for ‘’Climate change and Disaster management’’ and BDT 0.50 crore is allocated in this fund. This is a new expenditure sector for DCC-North.

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Figure 3: Percentage of revenue budget/ expenditure of the case cities Besides, there are many Development projects running in DCC and Pourashava to be implemented in 2012-2013 financial year. Those are UGIIP-2(Urban Governance & Infrastructure Improvement Project-phase 2), STIFPP-2(Secondary town’s integrated Flood protection-phase 2), UPPRP, District town Infrastructure Development project, MSDP (Mymensingh Strategic Development Plan), clean air and sustainable environment program etc.

Figure 4: Percentage of disaster and climate sensitive budget/ expenditure of case cities We can see that Disaster management and Urban Planning is actually present in the Financial Budget 2012-2013 in terms of Development projects. But most of them (only DCC-North has separate fund for climate change) do not have any regular fund-allocation for DRR or Disaster management. There is scope to create separate fund for DRR and Disaster management in their budget.

0.00%

20.00%

40.00%

60.00%

80.00%

100.00%

Dhaka North City Dhaka South City Khulna City Mymensingh City Rangpur City Nageshwari City Durgapur City

Percentage of Revenue Expenditure in Total Budget

2010-11 2011-12 2012-13

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%


Percentage of Climate and Disaster sensitive Expenditure in Total Budget

2010-11 2011-12 2012-13

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Figure 5: Percentage of development expenditure in comparison to total budget Table 8: Allocation of disaster and climate sensitive expenditure in the budget (in million taka) Revenue Budget/ Expenditure

(in million taka) Development Budget/

Expenditure

Climate and Disaster sensitive budget/

expenditure

City

2010-11

2011-12

2012-13

2010-11

2011-12

2012-13

2010-11

2011-12

2012-13

Dhaka North City - 1,221.00 1,731.50 - 4,511.50 17,931.35 1,472.30 439.70 4,197.60 Dhaka South City - 1,343.00 2,427.00 - 14,376.20 15,165.30 1,373.00 910.50 2,059.00 Khulna City 360.01 548.30 633.80 1,007.00 1,248.10 2,458.10 16.60 17.10 877.40 Mymensingh City 100.20 137.40 173.60 18.40 35.40 48.00 13.53 11.50 11.30 Rangpur City 134.20 203.80 427.20 118.20 448.40 1,008.10 33.37 114.40 130.35 Sirajganj City - - - - - - - - - Mongla City - - - - - - - - - Nageshwari City 10.20 14.20 18.40 120.20 173.80 452.10 3.64 6.48 48.25 Durgapur City 4.01 4.59 8.98 11.00 10.90 41.00 7.26 8.26 9.40

The most important considerations for these expenditures to describe the Climate and Disaster sensitive budget/ expenditure in the table no 9 are the following:

8. It was observed that almost every city the development budget is greater than the revenue budget, which provides good opportunities for mainstreaming DRR in urban development.

9. It was perceived that every year the development budget allocation is increasing compared to the previous years.

10. Sometimes development budget increases due to the development-project allocation.

0.00%

20.00%

40.00%

60.00%

80.00%

100.00%


Percentage of Development Expenditure in Total Budget

2010-11 2011-12 2012-13

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11. In the Budget of DCC-North 2012-2013 Development budget a fund mentioned about ‘’Climate change and Disaster management’’ and BDT 0.50 crore is allocated in this fund. This is a new expenditure sector for DCC-North.

12. Besides, there are many Development projects running in DCC and Pourashava to be implemented in 2012-2013 financial year. Those are UGIIP-2(Urban Governance & Infrastructure Improvement Project-phase 2), STIFPP-2 (Secondary town’s integrated Flood protection-phase 2), UPPRP, District town Infrastructure Development project, MSDP (Mymensingh Strategic Development Plan), clean air and sustainable environment program etc. many of these development programs are related with solid waste management, municipality improvement, climate change and disaster management.

13. In the budget of DCC-North and South, a welfare expenditure is mentioned as ‘’ Natural Disaster (Flood, Accident and Fire hazard). Here we can see 125% increases in the budget allocation for this sector. Nevertheless, this part is not well described because we know Accident and Fire Hazard are not actually natural disasters. We know that Dhaka city is in a potential threat of Earthquake disaster, which is not mentioned in this point. And this is not described that whether the amount allocated for pre- disaster preparedness or post-disaster response.

14. Disaster management and Urban Planning is actually present in the Financial Budget 2012-2013 in terms of Development projects. But most of them do not have any regular fund-allocation for DRR or Disaster management. Only DCC-North has separate fund for climate change and disaster management. There is scope to create separate fund for DRR and Disaster management in their budget.

2.5 Capacity Spheres People prefer to live in the urban areas because of diversified employment opportunities, contemporary education system, improved medical facility, well-built communication and transportation system compared to the rural and backward areas. As a result, each year, thousands of people are moving to the capital city Dhaka and the nearby major urban cities in search of better living standard. Urbanization in Bangladesh is mainly due to the migration of people from the rural areas to the cities in search of employment. While people recognize that rapid urbanization has a negative impact on the overall living conditions within cities, it also significantly put additional pressure on the existing capacity of the government. Rapid urban growth has made heavy demands on urban utilities and services like electricity, gas, water, sanitation, sewerage, garbage disposal, transport, telephone, cables, and social services like health and education, etc. In each of these sectors, scarcity or inadequacy of the service and mismanagement in general has caused crisis situations. This development has brought some threats for the city dwellers and infrastructures which are vulnerable to the effects of natural disasters in many instances. The unplanned and mushrooming development has increased the

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possibility of natural as well as manmade disasters. Some of the impending hazards of the urban areas are earthquake and fire. They have been ranked as the major threats as the human and economic losses generated by these two hazards are much worse than others. Urban local government is a vital part for the delivery of services to people. Along with other responsibilities, urban local government in Bangladesh is also responsible for disaster risk reduction. The quality and capacity of city governance has an enormous influence on the disaster risk its population faces; quite simply, a good urban and environmental plan, and services and infrastructure in place, can prevent disasters better than one that does not. Bangladesh having required legislation and department to advance disaster risk reduction is an indicator of country’s seriousness to respond to the international commitments on disaster risk reduction. National Building Code and Disaster Management Act adopted by government does take into account these hazards and related risks, but effective implementation has not happened in the country especially with in urban areas. Bangladesh has achieved a lot with regards to rural development and risk reduction models, but historically, all these initiatives happen only in response to some major hazards. Bangladesh has not been experienced massive earthquake since 1896 and the present as well as the past generation do not have any memories about the destruction capacity of a major earthquake. Therefore, at present only a few buildings are being built in compliance with the National Building Code. Fire, another major hazard for the cities, can spread and destroy lives and properties within a very short time. Recently, there have been some fire incidents in Dhaka, but, still precautions to reduce the risk of fire is not getting much importance. A lot more collaboration amongst the NGOs, development partners and government bodies is now essential for making our urban life fully safe, and a lot more advocacy is needed for the sake of disaster preparedness of the people. It will ensure that the government is mindful enough about implementing the existing laws, and thus we can strive for a disaster-resilient Bangladesh. Ministry of Disaster Management and relief is the nodal point within the existing institutional setup assigned with the responsibility to coordinate, deliver and mainstream disaster risk reduction in the country including urban areas. Their obvious focus initially remained to address the underlying risks and vulnerabilities of communities affected by more frequent and common hazards such as floods and cyclone. Over last few years, the shift has started to move towards urban areas in response to internal calls and campaigns related to safer cities. Dm framework of the country has identified institutional mechanisms and capacity development needs to roll out risk reduction in urban setting. But these institutions are mostly found inactive as they lack proper plan and resources required to advance the agenda. The officials mandated and assigned on leading roles have failed to prioritise disaster risks of urban areas and proposed mechanisms as the right solution to address the problem immediately.

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Government’s initiatives such as Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme is striving to invest in building the capacity of these institutions with provision of funds to a certain extent to promote implementation and mainstreaming of DRR. Building capacity of the first responders, creating volunteers group for search and rescue, developing guideline on hazards are some of the major initiatives taken by the authority. Apart from these, National Earthquake Awareness Committee is also formed to create awareness about earthquake in collaboration with civil society. Different government and non-government organizations are also working for similar purpose. Although Bangladesh National Building Code (BNBC) is in place, the parties mandated for building infrastructure, such as bar binders, mason and construction companies have very little knowledge about the building code. The authority responsible for the implementation of NBC has also been seen to compromise with the building construction plan for not having appropriate institutional arrangement and required resources to implement it. There are various development partners and NGOs in Bangladesh who are doing excellent work in pocket areas in collaboration with the government. For example, the European Commission funded DIPECHO projects, after identifying Sylhet, Dhaka and Chittagong as the most earthquake-vulnerable cities of the country, are preparing for the potential earthquake and fire risks in collaboration with Sylhet City Corporation, the Fire Service & Civil Defence (FSCD), the education department and others. This was possible only in areas where the city authority was keen to work in partnership after realizing the need community people in terms of disaster risk reduction. Like this initiative, there are opportunities to offer technical support and funding for efficient disaster risk reduction efforts. City level, development authorities and various central government departments are responsible for the urban development work, but, unfortunately they lack enough human resource and appropriate tools to mainstream disaster risk reduction into their existing programme and planning. There is a need to carryout nationwide mapping of the capacity development needs of the existing departments and their human resources available. Specialized agencies for emergency response need to be equipped to meet the demands on disasters in the urban setting which are more complicated in nature. They do not have tested plans and required equipment to perform emergency functions in the unplanned cities like Dhaka and Sylhet. The Government has to develop risk reduction plan beyond emergency response in a comprehensive manner to mitigate prevailing risks to the urban communities at national, regional and local level.

2.6 Media Spheres

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Generally, the media in Bangladesh is found to be active during disasters and immediately after disasters. The sensitization part of the catastrophe from any disaster has good news value and media puts attention on those issues. In case of disaster risk reduction, particularly in urban disaster, media is active on earthquake and fire incidents. Though, the activism is confined to some talk show in the electronic media and some special feature on causes of such disasters. The interview with media professionals shows that they have a lot of interest on urban disaster and the entire urbanization process. They have varied levelsof understanding and some have misconceptions and demonstrate low level of awareness about the urban disaster risk reduction issues. Some media platforms are also observed in Bangladesh. In most of print media, there is a dedicated bit for “Environment”, which covers environment, disaster, climate change and related issues. There is no such formal media forum on disaster beyond Federation of Environmental Journalists in Bangladesh (FEJB). This is a potential area, where we have observed many young journalists now involved, with very low level of awareness, who could be nourished with gradual capacity building efforts. The main state owned broadcasters of Bangladesh are Radio Bangladesh and Bangladesh Television (BTV). Being the premier terrestrial TV channel, BTV plays an important role of reporting the events of national and international importance and reaching even the remote parts of the country. The role of Bangladesh Betar at every stage of pre-disaster, disaster and post disaster periods is very important. On government orders Bangladesh Television (BTV) and Bangladesh Betar would, especially at the stage of pre-disaster period, alert the people and motivate them and inform them about the disaster situation and their duties in this respect. Natural disasters are occurring more frequently as the adverse effects of climate change effects are getting more pronounced worldwide and in our country. The journalists could contribute for organizing coordination among key stakeholders associated with relief, rehabilitation and recovery during any disaster including natural ones by improved use of communication techniques through print and electronic media. Media can play a vital role in educating people about the onset of natural disasters, warning about hazards and transmitting information about the affected areas that help government and relief organizations to take immediate steps minimizing the risk of disaster.

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Figure 6: Disaster management cycle and role of media

(Source: Know Disasters, Tell Disaster Risk Reduction, Training Handbook for Media Professionals, SEEDS Asia, 2009)

Bangladesh achieved substantial success in disaster management even with limited resources and it has now been treated internationally as a model of an efficient country handling disaster management. The present government is working hard to improve the socio-economic conditions of people and has taken a number of steps to face the adverse effects of natural calamities with a view to reducing the sufferings of the affected people. Media professionals should undertake objective reporting using facts and figures and comments from disaster experts that would help the government to take action plan in protecting people's life and property. (The News Today, 2011)

Disaster

Preparedness Response

Mitigation Rehabilitation

• Provide timely and factual information; extent of disaster, current situation, secondary risk, missing people, rescue, relief goods.

• Advice about actions to be taken; evacuation, tips to get water.

• Address the needs of survivors; medical aid, relief goods.

• Encourage survivors; entertainment

• Provide information on precautionary measures; evacuation, tools to be prepared, preparedness plan.

• Advocate for risk reduction • Provide appropriate, timely

information on disasters

• Appeal for financial, technical and material assistance by assessing needs of survivors; temporary housing, micro credit and medical care.

• Address reconstruction plan developed by government, UN and NGOs

• Provide information on precautionary measures and techniques; building codes on safer house construction, safety tips.

• Raise public awareness

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Table 9: Role of the media in disaster risk management Before Disaster During Disaster After Disaster

• Analysis of risk sources and patterns

• Public Information • Early Warning • Preparedness

Information • Advocate for risk

reduction • Encourage people's

participation (especially the most vulnerable)

• Inform the public with timely and factual information

• Advise the public about actions to be taken

• Tell people's story • Highlight the needs of survivors • Relay messages concerning the welfare

of isolated or trapped groups • Inform on actions being taken by

authorities and aid groups • Highlight the need for the application of

minimum standards during disasters • Communicate potential secondary risks

to minimize further disaster or damage

• Appeal for assistance from all parties

• Communicate about rehabilitation and reconstruction plans

• Encourage survivor participation in recovery

• Influence for integrating risk reduction and prevention

2.7 Private Sector Spheres The catastrophic fallout of natural disasters on the community and the people is very well documented by now. At the same time, it is their impact on the existence, survival and viability of the economic muscle of a nation, community and region, i.e. the corporate sector, which also merits equally focused attention. The critical and catalytic role the corporate sector can play in mainstreaming disaster management into not only its own functioning but also in other sectors and among the urban community is now being appreciated and duly recognized as an inalienable part of corporate social responsibility. Bangladesh has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its unique geo-climatic conditions. In view of Bangladesh’s high vulnerability profile, the recurrent phenomena of a range of geophysical as well as hydro-meteorological hazards impact millions across the country leaving behind a trail of heavy loss of lives, property and livelihoods. In many areas of the country, disaster losses tend to outweigh the development gains. The economic and social costs on account of losses caused by natural disasters continue to mount year after year as disasters occur with unfailing regularity encompassing every segment of national life including the industrial and corporate sector. Traditionally, Bangladesh had been ‘reactive’ in its approach towards disasters – with precious resources being spent on relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts. Today, after considerable and meticulous planning and a concerted effort, a paradigm shift in the approach of the Government departments and agencies as well as of other

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stakeholders including the community, the corporate sector and others has been brought about for building holistic capabilities for disaster management. The focus has shifted to a balanced approach including pre-disaster aspects such as disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness since it is felt that appropriate mitigation measures can substantially, if not wholly, reduce the heavy toll of lives and property, the dissipation of developmental, industrial and infrastructural gains and the hard-earned socio-economic infrastructure. In the developmental efforts for urban DRR through private sector at all levels the following issues needed to be addressed: • Ensuring that existing and upcoming industrial assets and infrastructure are disaster-

resistant. • Ensuring proper citing of industrial establishments considering hazard parameters. • Making industrial processes and procedures inherently safe. • Ensuring that transportation, storage, handling and usage of chemicals and other

hazardous raw materials does not pose a threat to the nearby areas and environment.

• Development of on-site and off-site DM plans by industries in association with the District Administration.

• Conducting mock-drills at regular intervals to determine the efficacy of the DM plans.

• Large-scale association with awareness generation initiatives aimed at building the knowledge, attitude and skills of the common people for a safer habitat.

• To move away from relief-centric approach to a pro-active assault on vulnerabilities through risk management measures and capacity building of industrial personnel.

• Assessment and retrofitting of existing industrial infrastructure. • Mainstreaming private sector participation in disaster management. • Establishing linkages between private sector and the community. • Networking knowledge on best practices and tools for effective disaster

management. • Development and implementation of appropriate risk transfer mechanisms.

2.7.2 Different Private sector in DRR of Bangladesh and Potential Involvement The term ‘private sector’ is taken to mean businesses that produce goods and provide services for profit. This includes businesses of all sizes, from local enterprises up to transnational corporations. It also includes informal-sector enterprises as well as registered and regulated business: in developing countries, the informal sector is often extensive and significant economically and as an employer. Similarly, according to United Nations, The social responsibility of the private sector goes beyond the sector’s day-to-day operation of producing a certain range of products and services in

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the most efficient and economical manner. The social responsibility of the private sector (also referred to as corporate social responsibility) concerns the relationships of a company not just with its clients, suppliers and employees, but also with other groups, and with the needs, values and goals of the society in which it operates. All these groups can be regarded as stakeholders in the company. Stakeholders can be identified as those individuals or groups of individuals that have an interest, or take an interest, in the behaviour of the company both within and outside its normal mode of operation. They therefore establish what the social responsibility of the company entails or, at least, how they perceive it to be a significant factor for programming for urban disaster risk reduction. Disasters disrupt business activities on which the local population depends, affecting livelihood recovery and their means to earn a living. Part of the problem is in adequate attention to disaster risk prevention and management as an economic and business issue. If the frequency and impact of natural and industrial disasters continue to rise, economic and human development will be badly affected. Disaster management should therefore be seen also as a strategy to protect the growth potential of countries, and communities. A much closer interaction between business and government is needed to ensure appropriate risk reduction strategies, adequate measures for implementation of protection and security measures, and a liability and insurance regime that takes proper account of the needs of the community and business sector alike. In a session organized as a part of the World Conference on Disaster Reduction (WCDR, January 2005, Kobe, Japan), a number of interesting viewpoints were put forth:

1. It apparent that the private sector plays both vital and varied roles in emergency management. In fact, it is not an exaggeration to state that the contributions of businesses in mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery activities have been woefully underestimated.

2. The private sector interacts frequently with the public sector to fulfil necessary community disaster functions. Therefore, the lines between the public and private sectors appear to be disappearing, blurring, or even artificial.

3. The public sector relies heavily upon the goods and services provided by the private sector. Many functions, such as public information, debris removal, and emergency medical care, could not be adequately performed without the assistance of the private sector.

4. Numerous factors facilitate coordination among the private and public sectors. Planning meetings, communications capability, and cooperation were mentioned as variables that promoted close collaboration.

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5. Much more needs to be known about the roles of businesses in disasters. For example, whether there functions performed by the private sector beyond those mentioned here.

6. Additional research on coordination will be required, focusing on the interaction of the public and private sectors in emergency management.

7. Methods of educating and involving businesses in emergency management must be promoted. Public officials and agencies should include, where possible, the private sector in all types of disaster prevention and planning activities.

8. Practitioners must continue to emphasize networking and partnering. The performance of emergency management is increasingly a result of successful collaboration among government agencies and the private sector.

9. The factors that hinder and help coordination must be explored by academia. Practitioners should familiarize themselves with the lessons provided by scholars in order to augment future emergency management capabilities.

2.8 Civil Society Spheres Civil society is “the sphere of institutions, organisations and individuals located between the family, the state and the market in which people associate voluntarily to advance common interests” (Anheier, 2004, 22). There is no consensus on the definition of civil society, let alone on its role. Nevertheless, there is a general agreement that “civil society is [somehow] responsible for profound social change” (Oakley, 2003, 32). In Bangladesh civil society - mainly the media, Bangladesh Earthquake Society, Red Crescent, academia, NGOs and private sector etc, operate as recognized auxiliaries to Government of Bangladesh. They are playing complementary role in poverty reduction and development in both urban and rural settings. Its strength has a positive influence on the state therefore seen as an increasingly important agent for supporting development agenda in Bangladesh. Civil society in Bangladesh did lack effective collaboration for a longer period of time, but over last few years we have witnessed some examples of coordinated and collaborative initiatives. They have remained active in advocating for improvements and encouraging positive initiatives jointly with government. They create a very important link between communities and government. Their role also includes resource mobilization in the country through building partnerships with international development partners. The range of support provided so far includes, services to urban poor, capacity building, community mobilization, advocacy, and awareness-raising regarding risk reduction. They are participating in grassroots legal reform to empower the most vulnerable and

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socially excluded. Civil society is striving to push for economic reforms, call for accountability and transparency, promote human rights protection, deliver services, combat social exclusion and inequalities, and above all “building constituencies for poverty-reduction, sustainable development and international cooperation” (Oakley, 2003, 33). Bangladesh has witnessed dramatic growth of NGOs, and currently has a total of 26,000 NGOs registered with the NGO affairs bureau. Some of these NGOs have strong presence in urban areas and are working on various development projects with special emphasis to urban poverty, health education, literacy and governance. In the urban context, Turner (1988) and UNCHS (1988) both emphasized the growing scale and significance of NGOs working on a range of housing and neighbourhood development issues in low-income settlements. In particular, NGOs are seen as being more participatory, people-led and responsive to local needs than more formal official development assistance agencies. CSO have played crucial role in the development of the various important legislation including disaster management framework in the country. Comprehensive Disaster Management (CDMP), Urban Poverty Reduction Programme (UPPR) and DIPECHO funded initiatives are taking place in urban areas in conjunction with the existing regulatory frameworks, SAARC regional roadmap in Urban Risk Management, and the UNISDR safer cities campaign. There are examples of civil society working on mainstreaming disaster risk reduction in rural areas, an example of which is proposed for piloting and replicating in urban setting. In Bangladesh, even governments are now increasingly viewing CSOs as an integral part of the institutional structure particularly for addressing the problem of urban risk reduction. This is reflected in the role offered to NGOs during the development of policy and representation in the major decision making forums and committees as per DM framework in the country. Bangladesh is considered to be a leading developing country for community based development and disaster risk reduction models, however, there is plenty to do in order to achieve similar stature with regards to work in urban settings. The country does not have the capacity and experience to respond and prepare for major disasters like earthquake and urban flood. The areas of improvements identified related to policy, institutional and capacity development in urban areas will remain an uphill task if civil society fails to step up to support existing Government. Civil society has presence and experience of working in urban related disaster management in other parts of the world. They have the ability to offer expertise and resources to develop urban risk reduction related model in the country.

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They can be more resourceful and innovative as they involve local communities in the identification and resolution of problems which are more cost effective, more sustainable, and more compatible with community values and norms. Civil society sector’s contribution needs to be multidimensional. CSOs need to work jointly with Government in four areas: (a) Strengthening good governance; (b) Promoting resilient development by advocating for the poor’s rights, lobbying policymakers for reforms; (c) directly providing services to the poor and marginalized; and (d) All above mentioned efforts are unlikely to succeed in the long run unless there is greater investment in human capital, particularly of the poor. In conclusion, civil society has to play an increasingly important role at the local, national and global level. Business as usual will not be the course towards the mainstreaming disaster risk reduction in urban development. Existing policies and roll out mechanisms will have to be correspondingly altered, clear strategies formulated and concrete plan of action designed and implemented immediately in order to succeed in urban settings. There is general agreement within the Government and civil society sector in Bangladesh that greater and stronger partnership and consultations is the way forward. 2.9 Urban Risk Analysis

2.9.1 Spatial assessment for understanding urban risks

In general, hazards like floods (including flash floods), earthquake, and cyclone stem from places in the regional territory. The land types, land cover and land use, morphological conditions of the terrain, elevation/height of the territory, surface lithology, geological structure, climatic conditions, drainage and hydrology of the areas from where hazards spawn in the wider territory determine the types, forms, intensity, and magnitude of hazards impacts in an area. Therefore urban risks to certain hazards should be assessed within the purview of the physical characteristics of the region. Regional spatial assessment may help to understand (i) how the hazards have been formed/ originated, (ii) how additional forces (both mass and energy) are being absorbed with an already-spawned hazard events and contribute in energizing a certain hazard to develop a multiple hazard phenomenon (e.g. severe flooding coupled with river bank erosion and sand carpeting).

In addition, absolute location of an area is a determinant of physical vulnerability of an urban area. For example, location as an attribute for Nageswari may make this town susceptible to flood that may inundate the area for prolonged times, and may also cause severe river bank erosion. The position of Durgapur town (Netrokona) at the

50

bottom of Shillong plateau makes the town vulnerable to flash floods. Similarly, location of Sirangonj on the bank of mighty Jamuna river familiarizes this town as one of the major river bank erosion prone districts in Bangladesh; flooding is also a big issue here. Therefore, place of the urban centre (i.e. the absolute location) and space (i.e. the wider geographical settings) of the location are important considerations to read the magnitude and intensity of physical hazards.

2.9.2 Physical condition (urban land use) and magnitude of risks in urban areas

Land types and other related attributes of an urban area (like vegetation cover, open space, river and canal systems, natural levees and back swamps near the rivers, conditions of ground water aquifers, micro-climatic conditions etc.), their condition and state of functioning is pivotal to ascertain the magnitude of risks of an urban area. For example, if supportive and regulatory services of wetland ecosystems in and around an urban area functions well, then flood water may stay for comparatively shorter times and water logging in pocket areas might not happen. It suggests that proper functioning of ecosystems may not contribute in fully stopping the flood event but may contribute in lowering the risks of sufferings of urban systems and dwellers. This is also true that favourable micro-climatic conditions of an urban area may contribute in reducing urban ambient heat island effects, and may also help instigate local rainfall. Therefore, urban planning and regulatory institutions need to make sure that urban ecosystems are allowed to exist in the city compositions and could perform their roles in lowering risks of natural hazards.

2.9.3 Perceiving risks in the milieu of socio-economic and demographic conditions of the urban centre and the regional territory

It is commonly observed that the poor and underprivileged groups are the prime victims of natural hazards in urban agglomerations. They are exposed to risks because they live in certain locations of the urban areas, which are poorly developed and urban amenities are scanty or non-existent. It has been discussed in earlier sections that number of vulnerable people in these urban hot spots is continuously increasing as a result of natural hazard impacts in adjoining areas of the region. Therefore, the state of poverty, livelihoods and food security, state of health systems, personal security conditions of the urban area and also of the regional areas need to be scrutinized in regular periodic intervals so that risk dynamics could be apprehended properly. Regular monitoring of these socio-economic, demographic conditions may provide useful clues and insights to the urban institutions to take strategic decisions for better management of disasters.

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CHAPTER THREE: URBAN SERVICES AND NICHE FOR MAINSTREAMING DISASTER RISK REDUCTION 3.1 Land Use Land use pattern varies from one city to another city, and it depends on many factors: population size, types of occupation, types of land, economic and social potentials, environment, and broader risk and opportunities of the city. Land use of Dhaka city is composed of commercials, industrial, residential, mixed uses both residential & commercial, road network, recreational area and water body. Detailed Area Plan (DAP) for location-6 has mentioned the existing land use where urban residential zone (76.84%) is predominant. Commercial and industrial uses are the 2nddominant uses that have been mentioned in almost all of the DAP of DMDP area. It has found that water bodies (3.80%) are very much less in all the DAP (RAJUK, 2010, Location-6). Inadequate road network (8.23% in Airport-Demara Bypass area-DAP) is seen in all the master plan that most of the roads are very narrow, even the major roads are less than 30ft wide. The plan proposed a road network characterized by 5 major road widths (300ft, 100fr, 80ft, 60ft and 40ft). The Detailed Area Plan (DAP) for Group-C suggested that all the canals, river will remain as it is which are entering in the area. It is strongly recommended that canal re-excavation and recovery should be made of all old existing khals, ponds as well as channels that once crisscrossed the planning area. The DAP for Airport-Demara bypass area (location-6) has proposed land use plan which is covered by the zoning of Main Flood Flow Zone, Sub-Flood Flow Zone, Water Supply Protection Zone, Mixed Use Planned Zone, Mixed Use Spontaneous Zone, Industrial (Low Hazard), Industrial (Moderate Hazard), Open Space, Restricted Airport Overlay, Restricted Flood Protection Reserves, Restricted Military/Public Safety, Restricted Road/Utility Reserves and Restricted Special. Most of the documents have formulated some strategy and guiding principles for sustainable land use that all land use should be environment friendly, city function to develop as per major land use zones, effective drainage through minimum hindrance to flood flow, sufficient route communication. Detailed Area Plan for Dhaka Metropolitan Development Project (DMDP) area has articulated land zoning. The zoning considered some special land use zone like overlay zone, water retention area, flood flow zone, open space etc. In the land use zoning of Mymensingh Master Plan by LGED has not mentioned land use policy or strategy. But Durgapur Municipality Master plan articulated some strategy and guideline on land use. It emphasized to follow land use policy. The plan mentioned about land development regulations to

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implement the land use plan, monitoring & evaluation of the land use plan. Thus, land use planning should contain the following key elements to be effective: • Conduct multi-hazard risk assessment (of hazards, vulnerabilities, capacities, and

risks) to build an urban risk profile for use in identifying safer locations for development initiatives

• Maintain an updated land inventory with details of residential, commercial, industrial buildings, parks, recreational areas, with the levels of vulnerabilities

• Map the risk information together with other information such as evacuation routes, temporary sheltering locations, critical facilities such as hospitals, schools etc.

3.2 Water In terms of water supply, the Detailed Area Plan for location-2 mentioned 93% households do not get water supply facility and only 7% households get this service which is medium in quality. In future it may be undertaken as a project to procure river water and supply after treatment. In municipal areas restriction on private extraction may be imposed but there is no restriction on private extraction in non-municipal areas.

Figure 7: Percentage of drinking water source in urban areas (source: SVRS 2009) Master Plan of Durgapur Pourashavas-2012 mentioned that there is no water supply network. There is no difficulty of getting drinking water from hand tube wells in winter. The water supply within the pourashava is by hand tube wells only. 100% people of the pourashava uses hand tube wells as source of drinking water. For water supply system development there is no strategy and pronoposed plan has been developed. Authority of Durgapur pourashava needs to take steps to develop the water supply network in their internal system. On the other hand water supply system of Mymensingh pourashava is covered by pipe line in the length of 103km. 54km pipe line is under construction. The pourashava is able to provide daily 1,20,46,000 litres of water where demand is in the amount of 199,50,000 litres of water.

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Figure 8: Budget/ expenditure on water supply in case cities The situation with respect to water supply is also quite unsatisfactory in Dhaka city. The Dhaka Water and Sewerage Authority (DWASA) was capable of supplying only 1500 million litres of water in 2004 (75% of demand) per day for the population of about 13 million while the demand of the consumers was 2000 million litres per day. Only a limited segment of the population is enjoying adequate supply of water while for the rest of the population the water supply is quite inadequate. The situation in low income communities is much worse. The supply of piped water at the municipality level is also extremely unsatisfactory. Only about 35% of the municipalities have some facility for supply of piped water and that is also in a very limited area in each of these municipalities. In 2005 only 28.8% of the households in urban areas had connection to piped water supply. Table 10: Water supply in Dhaka city

Sl.No Items Unit Quantity 1 Water line Km 2396.61 2 Water connection Nos. 222613 3 Daily water production MLD 1524.87 4 Deep tube wells in operation Nos. 447 5 Deep tube wells of other agencies Nos. 691 6 Overhead tank in operation Nos. 38 7 Water treatment plant Nos. 2

Source: DWASA, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

3.3 Transportation The transportation sector studies include discussions on number of vehicles registration and road network. The Mymensingh municipality gives registration of

0

5

10

15

20

25

30 Budget/Expenditure on Water Supply (In million taka)

Water supply 2010-11 Water supply 2011-12 Water supply 2012-13

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rickshaw, auto and van where 12000 no. of rickshaws, 745 no. of auto and 2000 no. of vans are under registration (Mymensingh Municipality, 2013). Durgapur Municipality Master Plan-2012 has proposed transport facilities which include bus terminal (2), truck terminal (2), tempo stand (4). It is good but needs to implement with consideration of DRR issue. As described earlier there is no national or regional road that passes through the project area. The local access road network of this part is narrow and insufficient which cannot bear the growing demand. The plan would not be successful if there is no balance between land use and transport planning. Many of the transportation problems are emanating from the conflict in the land use. It is found that congestions are created due to the land use along the side of the major roads. The remaining ¾ part is almost vacant and non-urbanized and there is no road network. Here several roads have been proposed to commensurate the proposed land use (RAJUK, 2010, DAP for location-6). However, the entire road proposal can be divided as follows:

• Widening of existing roads including proposed extension • Proposed new road • Widening of existing roads including proposed extension

For successful transportation system development all implementing agencies should keep in mind the DRR issues. To ensure the transformed use of the river bank the following steps need to be considered for transportation:

I. All the recreational facilities, which will be developed on the river bank, need to be accessed from the Buckland Bund road. In such case, the city has to face the river.

II. The high speed and heavy vehicles should be restricted on the embankment. Only the light vehicles and tourist buses may be allowed here.

III. The vehicular road on the embankment must be supplemented by pedestrian sidewalks (on both sides).

IV. The recreational belt needs to be well connected with main city. For this purpose certain roads need to be widened and extended up to the embankment.

V. There will be a need to control the flow of passengers and goods transfer to and from the terminal like one way circulation or restricting movement on certain parts of the roads or at certain times.

VI. Loading unloading on the roads needs to be strictly prohibited. VII. Proper parking facilities should be ensured near the recreational areas.

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3.4 Sanitation Provision of sewerage system is concerned with the activities of municipality. In Dhaka Metropolitan Area, it is the responsibility of Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (WASA). Only 20% of Dhaka city islinked with sewerage system. (RAJUK, 2010, location 10 and 9)

Figure 9: Percentage distribution of household by availability of toilet facilities in the urban HHs

Figure 10: Percentage distribution of household by toilet facilities in urban area Hygienic disposal of sewage poses a problem for rural as well as urban community. Traditional disposal system is a threat to public health. National sanitation program aims to mitigate this problem with the installation of sanitary toilets throughout the country. There is no sewerage network in Khulna city. Therefore, most of the toilets are onsite facilities, like pit latrines or septic tanks. Toilets with septic tanks are much

63.0

7 72.1

7

76.2

4

67.3

71.5

72.5

78.6

79.8

80.7

77.1

4

82.9

6

79.6

33.8

8

25.5

2

21.6

5

25.3

4

24.6

20

19.4

18.5

18.4

21.8

15.3

8

19.2

3.35

2.31

2.11

7.36

4 7.5

2 1 0.9 1.77

1.66

1.2

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

1994 1997 1998 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Sanitary Other None

56

higher. 68.4 per cent toilets have septic tanks and the remaining 31.6 per cent toilets are with pit. (KDA Master Plan, 2009)

Figure 11: Percentage of budget/ expenditure on sanitation of case cities 3.5 Housing The Dhaka city falls in the earthquake zone 11 of the Seismic Zonic map of Bangladesh and the area Dhaka-Narayanganj-Demra (DND) is lying between the Pagla Fault and Balu Fault as per Atlas of Urban Geology, Volume 11, ESCAP, UN, New York, 1999 (RAJUK, 2010. DAP Location-5). The soil formation is more or less irregular. The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) value in the project area varies from 1 to 15 up to 15m depth (ibid). A belt of minimum 750 meters on both sides of the fault has to be considered as ‘high alert’ zone. As per the plan suggested all buildings (about 20% of the total DND area) should be constructed taking into account seismic forces in order to minimize any future human hazard and special soil treatment is required for heavy civil construction (ibid).On the other hand the Detailed Area Plan (DAP) for location-6 is also suggested to follow building construction codes. Almost the entire pan (DAP) of DMDP area mentioned geological fault line and their strategy. DAP for location-16 recommended some suggestions against three fault line (Baunia fault, Bansi fault and Turag fault) that national building code (BNBC 1993) need to exercise for building construction. It also mentioned that the Real Estate developers must ensure 50% of the land / plot as open space including 40% of the total space for recreation and plantation. The DPZ-5 (Eastern Fringe: Predominantly residential mostly unplanned, planned private development and part planned area.) has a major geological fault line (RAJUK, 2010. DAP Group C).

0.11

%

0.00

% 0.

15%

0.56

%

0.05

%

0.04

%

0.13

%

0.00

%

0.02

%

0.69

%

0.01

%

0.05

%

0.09

%

1.22

%

0.03

%

0.56

%

0

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.01

0.012

0.014

Dhaka North City Dhaka South City Khulna City Mymensingh City Rangpur City Nageshwari City

2010-11 2011-12 2012-13

57

There is a master plan for Mymensingh Pourashava, which has been prepared in 1993 by Local Government and Engineering Department (LGED). As it was not gazetted by government it cannot follow. Strategy or guideline for housings are absent in the master plan. On the other hand a strategic plan entitled ‘Mymensingh Strategic Development Plan’ for next 2011-2031 years is ongoing on.

Earthquake zone-I comprising the northern and eastern regions of Bangladesh with the presents of the Dauki fault system of eastern Sylhet and the deep seated Sylhet fault, and proximity to the highly disturbed south eastern Assam region with the Jaflong thrust, Naga thrust and Disang thrust, a zone of high seismic risk with a basic seismic co-efficient of 0.08. Durgapur Pourashavas fall under this zone which is considered as the most vulnerable seismic zone of Bangladesh. Durgapur, in spite of being a high earthquake vulnerable zone has not mentioned any specific guideline or strategy. At last it may say that most of the master plan are not facilitated to DRR. Table 11: BNBC guideline for development of minimum standard housing

One Room Houses

Maximum Density 175 units per house Minimum plot in metro area 30 m2

Minimum plot outside metro area 40 m2 Minimum plot in dense inner city 25 m2

Two Room Houses

Minimum plot in metro area 40 m2 Minimum plot outside metro area 60 m2 Minimum plot frontage 3.5 m2 Height limitation 6 storeys, but 5 storeys preferred

3.6 Power and Energy

Figure 12: Distribution of household by use of lighting facility and fuel used by residence, 2008

42.3

0%

4.00

%

41.0

0%

0.30

% 10

.50%

0.40

%

1.60

% 12

.20%

4.50

%

41.9

0%

0.40

%

38.0

0%

0.90

%

2.10

%

52.5

0%

3.80

%

40.6

0%

0.30

%

1.20

%

0.20

%

1.40

%

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

Cowdung Husk Wood Kerosine Gas Electricity Others Bangladesh Urban Rural

58

Electricity is mainly supplied in Dhaka city area by DESA and DESCO through 132 / 33 kV grid substation and 33 / 11 kV substations located at different places in Dhaka city. Existing 132 / 33 kV grid substations and 33 / 11 kV substations, grid to towers and distribution poles are shown in detail in Map 2-2 and 2-3. The consumption of electricity in Dhaka is increasing rapidly due to rapid increase of residential buildings and commercial and industrial uses whereas the electricity supplied to the city area is less in comparison to the demand. So load shedding is a common phenomenon (RAJUK, 2010. DAP Group C). Due to rapid increase of residential buildings, industries like garments and small industries, pump houses for water supply, electrical household appliances including A/C’s in Dhaka city area, the consumption of electricity is increasing rapidly, whereas supply of electricity is not increasing in comparison to the load demand. As per information from electric supply department, the electric load required for Dhaka city area is nearly 750-800 MW whereas at present electricity supplied is only 700 MW. So about 50 - 100 MW load is to be covered by load shedding in different areas (ibid). It has been observed that most of the time inhabitants of Durgapur Municipality face higher load shedding and low voltage. Development activities of the area cannot progress than other city area. The Durgapur Municipality has proposed to GOB to supply sufficient electricity. The plan also recommended using solar energy system to solve the electricity problem. Gas Supply More pipelines shall be constructed to cover every corner of the city. CNG conversion of vehicle is increasing rapidly. So CNG filling stations are to be increased immediately. Mymensingh municipality gets also this facility but Durgapur municipality has no gas supply system. Inhabitants of Durgapur municipality depend on wood and other fuel. 3.7 Solid and Non Solid Waste Management

Many cities in Bangladesh are suffering from the problem of improper waste disposal, both solid and liquid, and this has a direct link to the spread of water-borne diseases, the increase in health risks etc. Solid waste collection, handling and disposal have become a serious issue, yet neither LG authorities nor citizens have control over the issue. The root of the issue is the absence of a proper solid waste disposal system in the LGs that is technically feasible, financially viable and socially acceptable to the public. As a result many fragile ecosystems are being used as dumping sites for all types of waste, significantly exacerbating the problem.

59

The solid waste and garbage disposal of Durgapur Pourashava include household waste, industrial waste, kitchen market waste, clinic/hospital waste, latrine waste, brickfield waste and fertilizer/chemical waste. According to Dipok Majumdar (Sanitary Inspector of Mymensingh Pourashava) all the services and activities regarding solid waste management are providing from this section. He said that there is 18 power Trolleys which is covered whole of the 21 wards of the pourashavas. Seven secondary dumping sites and one main dumping site are presented in the area. Insufficient manpower for waste collecting and dumping cannot provide better service (waste collector is 252, sweeper is 120 and garbage truck labour is 79). Authority of pourashava has community based organizations which are involved with waste collecting paying by pourashava. CBO(s) collect waste going house to house by rickshaw van every day and throw these waste in secondary dumping site by rickshaw van. The process is shown below:

There is no assigned manpower or regular staff for solid and nonsolid waste management and there are not sufficient dumping sites as a result of which environment is getting polluted & diseases are spreading. Due to unplanned solid waste management and insufficient dumping sites as well as manpower water will be polluted when any flood or flash flood occur. Insufficient drainage network create drainage congestion and as a result flood water or household waste water cannot go down to the drains. The authority of pourashava has designed a structure for dumping site but it is under processing.

Durgapur pourashava has no fixed dust bins, garbage truck and waste disposal site (Durgapur Master Plan, 2012). Due to lack of dumping site a huge amount of waste (13.135 ton per day waste) is dumped by the local people in road side drains, open space or roads adjacent to their house and these are polluting the total environment of the area. Consequently disease and other unhealthy situations are being created. The plan proposed a dumping site to dump waste. The plan also gave suggestion to the pourashava to solve the solid waste management problem going door to door to collect waste along with NGOs and CBOs (ibid).

House

House

Dump waste to main Dumping site

Power Tralee takes waste from road and secondary dumping

CBO take waste by rickshaw van

Throw waste to Road or secondary dumping

60

In the plan of DAP (RAJUK-2010, Group-C) under DMDP area, the Solid waste management of DCC viz, the system of primary collection and accumulation, transportation, final disposal and recycling are also recommended and all Solid waste management shall involve public awareness of waste segregation, recycling and reuse through public campaign and media demonstration through NGOs and CBOs involvement. However, the solutions acceptable to all in safely disposing solid and liquid waste in cities do exist as listed below:

• Avoid using flood retention areas as dumping grounds • Locate landfills away from flood prone areas • Plan and implement ways of disposing hazardous waste separately • Plan to reduce un-systematic disposal of solid waste and to implement proper

waste disposal means • Explore the potential benefits of converting solid waste into other products such

as energy, fertilizer etc. and take advantage of globally promoted programs such as the Cleaner Development Mechanism

• Promote Cleaner Production in which reducing waste at source is possible instead of disposing at the end of the pipeline

• Promote production of compost fertilizer at the levels of household and communities

• Popularize “Reduce, Recycle and Reuse” waste among people • Involve urban communities and their organizations in designing, planning and

implementing, and also maintaining, efficient and hygienic waste disposal (both solid and liquid) facilities

• Establish regular cleaning and maintenance of surface water drains, waste water network, sewerage network

• Encourage people on use of city sewerage network rather than onsite disposal in cities, where possible.

• Ensure proper treatment of sewage and waste water, prior to discharging to the sea or water bodies or to the ground.

• Encourage and promote more private and public sector partnerships in urban risk reduction measures rather than emergency response measures

• Coordinate with other urban centres and cities to implement such interventions where economies of scale and other complementary benefits could be generated

• Strictly enforce existing law against haphazard dumping of waste • Consider providing economic incentives for win-win solutions.

3.8 Revenue and Fiscal Services

61

Fiscal Services: Fiscal Services provides analysis and evaluation of expenditures, revenues, and operations of state government and the potential impact of legislative proposals to state and local government. Fiscal Analysis: Throughout the year, Fiscal Services provide information to legislators and staff regarding the State's financial condition and the potential fiscal impact of legislative and administrative rules. Fox and Menon (2008), based on fiscal perspective, presented Bangladesh as a highly centralized state in which local self- government was less devolved and the local political structure changes in accordance with the change in central government. Moreover, fiscal transfer is done through the Annual Development Program (ADP), but only a small share of the ADP allocation reaches the local self-governments. Besides, complex and fluid structure, less accountability, problems in income and expenditure, limited access to revenue sources and weak monitoring system of quality service delivery have made the local self-governments in Bangladesh ineffective.

Table 12: Budget of Durgapur Municipality for the financial year 2009-2010 Type of Earning Total Amount

(Taka) Type of Expenditure Total Amount

(Taka) Revenue Earning 5450000 Revenue

Expenditure 5450000

Development Earning

16300000 Development Expenditure

16000000

Capital Earning 330000 Capital Expenditure 330000 Total 22080000 Total 21780000

Source: Durgapur Municipality 3.9 Fire and Civil Defence The emergency services expected at a city level encompass various services such as firefighting, ambulance services, search & rescue capacity, establishment of evacuation areas etc. Although emergency services are recognized as a function at LG level, many local bodies pay little attention to building capacity to respond to emergencies within its area of jurisdiction. It is often reported that many municipalities and city LGs have acquired modern firefighting facilities in terms of equipment such as fire engines, trucks, fire extinguishers, ambulances, boats etc. but lack the capacity to deal with major scale emergencies in time. In certain instances the equipment is being donated by a donor agency but regrettably neither the authorities nor the technical personnel of the LGs are trained and educated on how to use that equipment in the event of a disaster. This incident draws our attention to several deficiencies that seemed to have existed in the system at the time of the disaster. These are the following:

62

• People were not aware of how to respond to such a disaster although the community is the first responder in any disaster event

• The personnel were not trained to handle the equipment although the equipment was installed in the premises

• A highly essential emergency service such as firefighting was not fully equipped (e.g. with ladders of correct size) until they reached the location of the disaster.

It is very important that law and order situation remains under control for the safety and security of the people in order to ensure uninterrupted economic activities. Security from all evils and miscreants of all forms is a pre-requisite for economic development. Life and property of the citizens must be protected from any unlawful and unwarranted incidence. To ensure safety and security of the people and their property adequate Law Enforcing arrangements should be available in every corner of the country. This is also a pre-requisite for the protection of global tourism. Rectifying these deficiencies is within the existing laws and even the financial and human capacity of the LGs. It is essential to correct these deficiencies before waiting for a major event to occur. There are several options within the present legal provisions for LGs to improve their position and overcome present challenges. A few suggestions are given below: • Establishment of emergency operations centres • Establish city level platforms with all stakeholder groups (government, NGOs,

private sector, civil societies) as a forum for obtaining technical assistance and resource sharing / mobilizing

• Set up emergency service units (fire and ambulance services, search-and-rescue, and evacuation) and expand the services depending on the need

• Explore the possibility of making arrangements to get emergency assistance from resourceful LG within neighbourhood. More resourceful local bodies can help neighbouring LGs to optimize capacity

• Organize periodic simulations and drills with the assistance of responsible agencies • Develop first responder capacity by establishing community responder teams and

developing skills. Organize periodic first responder training to train community volunteers

• Assist in establishing city- / community-level early warning systems and setting up mechanisms for quick dissemination of early warning messages

• Educate the general public including school children on how to respond to an emergency situation

• Pre-position essential equipment for the rescue of trapped people or to help people in need of assistance

• Identify places / areas suitable for evacuation of people during emergencies and provide necessary facilities at designated places for emergency evacuation.

3.10 Education

63

Figure 13: Unemployment rates by level of education and residence (LFS, 2005-2006) Among the surveyed households in the study area about 8.36 percent of the population is illiterate, 28.84 percent have elementary level of education, about 10.23 percent respondents have S.S.C. level education, about 21 percent have H.S.C and higher level of educational qualifications and about 9 percent of the population is under aged and the rest one percent have other type of education, for instance, religious education, etc. The most significant and observable fact is that about 61 percent of the project area’s population have elementary to S.S.C. level of education (RAJUK, 2010, DAP for DMDP, Group-C). There are 23 public and private university, 142 public college, and also medical college in the area. The authority of the university and college should take initiative to incorporate disaster issues in their curriculum. Other master plans have been reviewed but there is no mention of anything related to the disaster issue. It only mentions education status of the people of the planning area and identified educational zoning. This zoning has been observed mostly in DAP of DMDP area. All of the master plans have avoided DRR issue consideration. 3.11 Health The LGs in the cities of Bangladesh are supposed to provide health and sanitation facilities to their citizens. In addition to medical services the LGs have the responsibility to ensure hygienically maintained slaughterhouses, waste water discharging systems, sewage disposal, hygienic food stalls and markets, control of rabies caused by stray dogs and many more functions to safeguard healthy living by ensuring a life free from diseases. Every LG has specially-recruited officials dedicated to undertaking these functions. The annual budgetary provisions are generally made for daily operations to ensure proper health and sanitation facilities. Health services both in the urban and rural areas are not so good due to absence of modern health facilities such as Medical College, private hospitals, clinics and diagnostic centres. Most people in the rural areas rely on government hospitals. UP clinic and quack

64

doctors are also available for less complicated diseases. In that sense neither additional budgetary allocations nor the legal provisions are required to perform the functions assigned to local bodies unless an epidemic or any other uncontrollable situation occurs. It is therefore clear that the following functions could contribute to reducing disaster risks: • Establish better monitoring and evaluation systems to ensure routine health and

sanitation functions • Organize immunization programs to reduce the spread of diseases • Organize awareness programs for prevention of epidemic situations for cases such

as dengue, malaria and any other vector born disease before outbreak • Implement prevention programs for controlling outbreaks of seasonal health

hazards • Provide training to community health workers • Organize mobile clinics, medical assistance with help of health authorities, NGOs

etc. after monsoon seasons • Set up maintenance units to help clean polluted water sources after flood events • Lead public-private partnerships and campaigns to promote effective hygienic

practices, and making the city free from diseases • Strictly enforce law on hygienic and civic conditions. • Ensure that local authority areas are free from stray animals and animals that pose

health risks to the human population • Ensure food safety and water quality

Health services both in the urban and rural areas are not so good due to absences of modern health facilities like Medical College, private hospitals, clinics and diagnostic centres. Most people in the rural area rely on government hospitals. UP clinic and quack doctors are also available for less complicated diseases. Drainage is very important aspect for keeping the urban environment free from pollution and health hazards. Healthy atmosphere is pre-requisite for healthy living and healthy life (RAJUK, 2010, DAP for DMDP, Group-C). There is significant evidence of air pollution because of presence of dust, soot and other suspended particulate matters (SPM) due to movement of load carrying dilapidated vehicles in poorly maintained narrow road surfaces plastic factories, etc. Bad smell of human waste to open and clogged drains in some places and wards also generally create discomfort for the people of the locality and poses dangerous health risks/ hazards (ibid).

65

3.12 Wetland Conservation

Accordingly the plan of DAP for location-5 Water bodies and wetlands around Dhaka city are facing extinction as these are being filled up to construct multi-storied buildings and other real estate developments. Strategy and guideline to reserve water body as well wetlands are absent in the plan. Inadequate information about plan for wetlands conservation is the gap point. Detailed Area Plan (DAP) for location-6 is not exception of location-5 (DAP).There is no strict regulation on earth filling of ponds in RAJUK area (RAJUK, 2010, Location-16). RAJUK can fine only Tk.500 if someone fills the ponds. However, Wetlands Conservation Act exists in Bangladesh, which is applicable only to natural beels and khals. Number of ponds in the study area is reduced every year to accommodate housing and commercial structures. Wetlands play an important role as a reservoir of rain and floodwater. The wetlands Conservation Act 2000 should be reviewed for pond conservation and should emphasize people to follow the act. So most of the Detailed Area Plan under DMDP areas have avoided to formulate more appropriate strategy and guideline. Recently a plan titled ‘Mymensingh Strategic Development Plan (MSDP)’ is being prepared by Urban Development Directorate (UDD). It could not access the plan because it is in initial stage. But there is a master plan prepared by LGED in 1993 which is not gazette document. After all it has been analyzed as sample master plan document. The master plan mentioned low land and proposed these to be developed as green land or forest land which will protect the town from river erosion to and unexpected expansion of the town. As the master plan is not gazetted by GOB this proposed plan is not being implemented. So Mymensingh pourashava needs to take initiative to implement the proposed plan. 3.13 Road

Figure 14: Percentage of budget/ expenditure for roads in case cities

0.07

%

8.70

%

11.3

2%

0.56

%

39.9

7%

0.06

% 5.

79%

5.37

%

0.69

%

38.7

3%

0.32

%

4.51

%

3.10

%

0.56

%

14.0

1%

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

20.00%

25.00%

30.00%

35.00%

40.00%

Khulna City Mymensingh City Rangpur City Nageshwari City Durgapur City 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13

66

The role of LGs in terms of infrastructure such as roads and bridges is limited to a certain extent, such as for connecting critical service facilities (e.g. reservoirs, power stations, transformer stations, fuel stations) and places of transport importance (e.g. ports, harbours airports etc.). For instance, roads are very often outside the domain of LGs - except for some roads within a few metropolitan LGs. Yet LGs should consider getting involved in road construction functions of the provincial, state or central governments within the LG area in addition to maintenance and development functions of roads under the direct purview of LGs. More importantly road networks link urban centres with the rest of the economic and social functional areas of the country, the LGs are unable to ignore the impacts of poor quality roads within their operational area. Often it is difficult to maintain such lines of authority when it comes to maintenance of roads and hence LGs should be responsible for provision of emergency access in case of emergencies. In addition facilities such as terminal buildings, central stands for mass transport systems etc. are within the purview of LGs and they need to ensure that they are located away from hazard prone areas and constructed to higher safety standards with accessible roads for any emergency. Hence it is suggested the LGs consider the following actions for their own advantage: • Conduct loss estimation surveys for bridges, overhead crossings, terminal

buildings etc. within LG areas and ensure higher safety standards • Make arrangements to locate terminal buildings, central stands etc. for mass

transport systems away from high risk areas • Suggest alternative arrangements for continuity during emergencies to relevant

authorities • Special maintenance programs for roads located in flood prone areas, landslide

prone areas etc. • Make emergency maintenance groups available at all times for speedy action • Execute emergency response guidelines for staff involved in control and

maintenance of roads and mass transit services for quick recovery.

67

3.14 Drainage

Figure 15: Percentage of budget/ expenditure for drainage in case cities There is no drainage development plan for most areas undertaken by LGED or Water Development Board. Shortage of drainage and sewerage coverage cannot drain-out the wastewater and rainwater together. (RAJUK 2010, location 10) Shortage in fund allotment on Public, Private and Semi-Govt. obstruct the efficient establishment of drainage system. This is posing a serious threat to new settlements by water logging. (RAJUK 2010, location 9) Expansion of Dhaka city with a rapid urban growth obstructed the existing natural drainage system. Natural drainage system of the area drained out the excess rain water during monsoon and saved the area from flooding. People are devoted to self-interest rather than community interest. Most natural drainage systems are being filled up by new land owners and developer companies unethically. As a result rainwater will become clogged at certain places causing water stagnation and flooding. Many of these natural drainage system still exist which must be protected under the laws to save the area from flood vulnerability.(RAJUK 2010, location 10) 3.15 Development Regulation The way that urban growth has taken place in a developing country like Bangladesh resulted in informal settlements, inadequate housing, and poor utility services such as water supply, sanitation, and health services. In a large number of cities in Bangladesh there is a clearly visible division i.e. rich and formal settlements with better urban utilities and adequate supply vs. informal and poor settlements with limited or no facilities at all. This division between the ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’ is the gap that reflects not only the economic drivers of urban expansion but also the living standards, governance systems and institutional mechanisms that manage both direct and indirect implications of such concentration of people.

0.73

%

2.49

%

0.73

%

0.56

%

2.66

%

0.17

%

1.78

%

5.57

%

0.87

%

0.25

%

0.69

%

6.89

%

0.07

%

5.68

%

0.32

%

0.45

%

0.10

%

0.56

%

2.00

%

0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07


Percentage of Drainage Expenditure in Total Budget

2010-11 2011-12 2012-13

68

However there are a number of ways to change this undesirable situation. One effective option is the implementation of proper land use planning to reverse or correct things that have gone wrong in the past. Although land use planning is not a miraculous technique for solving urban problems in the world today, it can correct certain existing ills to a greater degree if it can be based on avoiding hazard prone areas or exposure to hazards when development initiatives are undertaken. Development Regulation for urban planning should contain the following key elements to be effective: • Create and maintain affordable housing opportunities • Identify low-lying areas and promote schemes to protect the natural environment

as a way of retaining the flood retention capacity • Avoid reclamation of flood retention areas • Avoid practices in mountainous areas that will destabilize the slopes such as

cutting of slopes, removal of vegetation etc. • Develop an urban spatial database to monitor development in hazard prone areas • Develop zoning regulations and strictly follow zoning guidelines • Deal with environmental issues connected with slums in consultation with

residents in poor settlements • Maintain parks, recreation facilities etc. which can be used during emergencies for

evacuation. 3.16 Poverty and Employment

Figure 16: Percentage of employed persons 15+ by status in employment (labour survey, 2005-2006)

13.87

0.27

41.9

21.68

1.99

10.71

7.48

0.7

0.51

0.88

31.2

0.28

41.63

9.52

2.34

2.21

10.07

0.93

0.69

1.13

8.48

0.27

41.99

25.46

1.88

13.35

6.68

0.63

0.45

0.8

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Regular Paid …

Employer

Self Employed

Unpaid Family …

Regular Paid Worker

Day Labours (Agri)

Day Labours (Non …

Domestic Worker

Apprentice

Others

Rural Urban Bangladesh

69

Bangladesh is experiencing a rapid urbanization process as more and more people from rural areas come and settle in the cities for a variety of reasons. Urban population in Bangladesh has grown from 5 per cent in 1971 to 28.1 per cent in 2010, suggesting that approximately 46 million people are currently living in the urban areas. The United Nations Population Division estimates that with a current annual growth rate of over 3 per cent, the urban population of Bangladesh will reach 53 million in 2015. Although, the country faces a number of micro and macro-economic challenges, in the recent past, the country has maintained a steady growth rate. The MDG progress report-2 suggests that the country has been convincingly moving towards achieving most of the MDG targets except maternal mortality and achieving universal water and sanitation. Most importantly, the report suggests that the country is on track to achieve targeted prevalence of poverty by 2015, however, rising inequality is offsetting some of the gains in poverty reduction, the report noted.

Rural-urban migration process, which initiates urban growth and drives it forward, resulted in unplanned growth of settlements in and around the city creating such a chaotic environment that it became an imperative to prepare urban plans for the control of unplanned growth and for directing urban development in the preferred areas of urban expansion.

Thus initiative was taken to prepare Khulna Master Plan 1961 in the early sixties of the last century followed by a three tier development plans in the form of Structure Plan, Master Plan and Detailed Area plan in 2001 for Khulna. In continuation of the process, the Khulna Development Authority (KDA) has undertaken the project of preparation of Development Plan for Mongla and its surrounding places to bring the area under planning coverage and thereby include the area within its jurisdiction.

3.17 Others Urban Considerations Urban population growth is largely concentrated in flood plains, coastal areas etc. as discussed above. The history reveals how human settlements thrived in the fertile flood plains of major rivers in the world. This trend continues despite the risks and disadvantage associated with floods. As much as two-thirds of the world’s population lives in such flood-affected areas. The people who choose to live within the flood plain of a river or estuary, lagoon or any coastal ecosystem do so because of the natural richness of the land and livelihood opportunities. For those who migrate to urban centres due to economic drivers, these flood prone areas are the only option available for settling even in conditions of relatively high risk as the rich has already occupied the safe locations of the city. Another natural event that affects shelter is earthquake. However, earthquakes differ from floods in one particular context; that is that earthquake risk can be reduced by engineering solutions. Earthquakes of the same magnitude kill fewer people in rich countries than they do in poor countries due to application of earthquake resistant elements in design of buildings in earthquake prone areas.

70

This section is deliberately confined to shelter in urban centres as that is under the exclusive domain of LGs who have the authority and power to set and enforce better building standards. If a building fails in the event of a disaster, LGs should be made accountable to some extent for the lapse on their part in granting approvals without enforcing building standards. While we recognize the difficulty in supervising construction, it is the responsibility of LGs to have appropriate practices introduced to ensure quality control in construction. Property developers also need to understand their responsibility and keep to norms of construction without economizing or compromising on quality, and many LGs have certification schemes to identify developers who maintain high quality standards.

In addition to building control by the local authority, responsibility lies on the provision of safe shelter in safe locations to be used in the event of a disaster. These shelters can be existing buildings such as schools; religious halls etc. and local authority should be capable of converting them in to temporary shelters by providing for immediate needs such as water, sanitation, power and food.

Furthermore, when communities have families who largely depend on livestock for their livelihoods, LGs should provide shelters for the animals since such people will be more vulnerable to the economic disruption by the possible loss. For example, multi-purpose cyclone shelters were constructed in 15 of 19 risky coastal districts in Bangladesh. There are 2,133 permanent evacuation shelters and perhaps 200 refuge sites (killas) for livestock during cyclones and storm surge.

There is a need and, at the same time, a great opportunity, to reduce the risk of injury and death in many settlements in the countries of the Asia Pacific region by adhering to better building standards in shelter and infrastructure development by the LGs. These are summarized below: • Promote strict application of appropriate building codes that integrate hazard

resistant elements in construction • Periodic review and revision of the building laws to integrate hazard related

aspects • Train local government officials to supervise, execute controls and restrictions,

and ensure building code compliance • Implement certification programs for those who are involved in the construction

process (masons, contractors, etc.) • Obtain assistance from qualified professionals for developing guidelines for shelter

and infrastructure development in hazard prone areas • Allocate funds for minor infrastructure that reduces flood risk (i.e. for construction

of drains for diverting water from stagnated areas) • Promote hazard resilient designs in housing in disaster prone areas • Ensure periodic maintenance of main roads, specially the access roads to critical

structures such as hospitals, power satiations, transformer stations, water reservoirs etc.

• Practice routine maintenance of infrastructure, government buildings, etc.

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CHAPTER FOUR: SYNTHESIS OF ANALYSIS- POINT OF CONVERGENCE The study has observed that there are good enough policies in urban development, most of those are to regulate but very few of these policies are promoting an incentive for urban development. Many of these policies have contradictory provisions and ambiguity. The “National Urban Sector Policy” is currently under consultation process. This could be the key entry points for mainstreaming DRR in urban planning. Master plan is an ongoing process, where each city has a regulatory obligation to develop it. This master plan is the basis of urban physical and economic development. In most cases, the master plan as key document ignored the risks of disasters and failed to capture the long term climate change impacts. Disaster and climate change is addressed in Mongla master plan but not in Khulna master plan in coastal cities. Earthquake is adequately addressed in DAP in Dhaka and very much in the upcoming master plan of Mymensingh.

It is also observed that where there is fund from donors (Mymensingh from CDMP, Khulna from ADB), the disaster sensitivity is observed but absence of fund in cities like Sirajganj, Nageshwari, Rangpur and Durgapur has contributed in disaster non-sensitivity in master plans. Surprisingly, Mongla master plan has integrated disaster and climate change and that is also explored since the lead consultant for master plan was a disaster professional having town planning background. This clearly indicates the disaster risk reduction and climate change impact is yet to be matured in the urban development planning agenda.

The role of media and civil society is critical at this point and it reveals that in most cities, media professionals are sensitive about urban service problems as they have the highest number of news stories from that angles: traffic jam, electric-water-gas failures, crimes in streets and some political processions. Except Dhaka, the study has observed very low level media activism in disaster risk reduction, when they report on urban development. The civil society sensitization in an organized form is very active in Dhaka and has reported very strongly about earthquake, fire, flood and linked with eco-systems: rivers and wetland in city. However, such activism of civil society regarding disaster-climate change-environment is very low in other cities. Though there are very high level risks in Khulna, Mongla, Durgapur, Rangpur, Mymensingh and Sirajganj but the civil society activism is very low in disaster and climate change arena. This is also observed that in Khulna, there is growing number of academician’s in Khulna university is very active in the civic engagement in relation to disaster risk reduction.

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Private sector is not active in disaster risk reduction beyond their corporate social responsibilities. In Dhaka, the study team found key concerns about fire and industrial accidents in garments sector, but this is also very low sensitivity beyond economic niche. Regarding earthquake the private sector expects governments to act and help them. There is substantial room for private sector sensitization in disaster risk reduction in urban and industrial areas.

The following are the suggestive entry point for mainstreaming urban disaster risk reduction.

URBAN PLANNING

The tendency of cities to be located and expanded on river banks or coastal areas for economic reasons makes them more vulnerable to disasters. Initiatives to enhance coordination between local government organization and central government representative needs strong advocacy. Initiative to divide the physical development plans into yearly combined development plan to ensure execution will be a realistic approach.

ENVIRONMNET

The urban eco-system is characterized by interplay of the build, natural and socio-economic environment, which separately and collectively generate much of the risk that cities face today

MEGACITY GROWTH

Asian megacities are increasingly becoming the concentration of physical, economic, social, political and cultural assets, which are being exposed to different types of disaster risks.

CATASTROPHIC RISK

Cities in developing countries of Asia face cascading vulnerabilities that go beyond the original risk or hazard. The relevance of low probability and high consequence events should be recognized

CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change is becoming a threat to the urban environment. The uncertainty that arises due to climate change needs to be considered in the overall urban risk management framework

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INSTITUTIONALIZATION

Mainstreaming of DRR can be ensured through institutionalization of DRR in different local level organizations (city corporations, municipalities, development authorities) up to various national level organizations (such as Planning commission, UDD, LGED) responsible for urban development of Bangladesh. DRR specific rules of business, manpower, institutional activities development requires attention.

CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT

Technical and non technical trainings, workshops and other applied formal education on urban DRR are very significant considerations. Initiatives like Urban Volunteers for the community representative and coordination capability enhancement initiatives for appropriate officials can be vital through any disaster periods.

REVITALIZED PLANNING PRACTICE

Integration of DRR and implementation of physical development plan demands attention. Ensuring development and implementation disaster management or preparedness plan, development of an efficient inter ministerial and inter institutional practice to coordinate and manage physical development plan are also important.

BUDGETING PRACTICE

Development of disaster management friendly budgetary system is very important. A specific climate change and disaster management budget should be introduced separately. Provision of Emergency budget should be allocated for disaster management. Development of Guidelinesto formulate budgets sensitive to climate change and disaster management needs attention.

RESILIENCE

In spite on different threats, urban communities have their inherent capacities to cope with different types of disasters. Community resilience should be considered as an asset for risk reduction in urban areas. Massive mass awareness could be aimed for increased resilience of the communities is indispensable efforts.

DECISION-MAKING

Appropriate governance and decision making system lie at the core of risk reduction in urban areas. Special focus should be given to vital infrastructures like schools, hospitals and key public buildings. Policy development and mandating also requires attention.

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ECONOMY

Urban areas are often considered as the economic hub of a region or country, and therefore result in concentration of vital infrastructures

POVERTY

The socio-economic opportunities provided by Asian cities enable people from a wide range of income brackets to interact and live, but also create vulnerabilities resulting fromlack of access to urban goods and services.

PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT

Private sector priority consideration for DRR for industrial and man-made hazard as well as physical hazard needs revitalization including the corporate social practice for disaster management in Bangladesh.Promoting or introducing disaster management specific services from private sectors can be also beneficial to the overall economy.

MEDIA COVERAGE

Promote and disseminate information on disaster and related services. Enhancing the media sector capability to collect information on disaster (pre, during and post disaster)

POPULATION

Urban areas are characterized by high density population, which results in higher exposures. Combination of high vulnerability and exposure causes higher degree of urban risk

With an increasingly complex and urbanizing world, sustainable urban development and management present considerable challenges and potentials for reducing urbanvulnerabilities and risks. The figure 17 illustrate possible programmatic approaches for mainstreaming urban disaster risk reduction and the figure 18 illustrate the relationship of disaster risk reduction to the urban development planning cycle.

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Figure 17: Programmatic approaches for mainstreaming urban disaster risk reduction

Finding the entry points and making the case Mainstreaming Urban DRR into policy, institution and planning process

Meeting the implementation challenge

Preliminary Assessment

• Understanding of the Urban Disaster Risk Context

• Understanding the governmental, institutional and political context for urban risk reduction

Collecting City Specific evidence

• Integrated vulnerability and ecosystem assessment

• Economic and Social Analysis of urban disaster risks

Including disaster and climate change in the monitoring system

• Indicators and Data Collection

Influencing Policy Processes

• National Level (Five Year Plan, Delta Plan, Urban Policy)

• Sectoral Level (Urban Development) • City Level (Master Plan)

Budgeting and Financing

• Financial support for disaster and climate inclusive urban development measures.

Raising Awareness and Building Partnerships

• National Consensus and Commitments

Developing and Costing Policy Measures for mainstreaming UDRR

• National, Sectoral and City Level

Supporting Policy Measures

• National, Sectoral and City Level

Strengthening Institutions and Capacities

• Needs Assessment • Working Mechanisms


• Learning by doing


• UDRR Mainstreaming as standard practice in urbanization process

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Figure 18: Relationship of disaster risk reduction programmatic approaches to the urban development planning cycle

URBAN DEVELOPMENT

PLANNING

Agenda Setting (DRR, CCA, CCM, EM,

Urban Resilience)

Policy Making (Fiscal Policy for

Resilient City)

Meeting the Implementation

Challenge (Develop Indicator

Framework of Resilient City)

Finding the entry points and making the case

Mainstreaming Urban DRR into policy, institution and planning process

Meeting the implementation challenge

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CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

The study at this stage has also some limited information about upcoming policy direction. The team is now exploring the future urban directions in all cities and is not in a position to provide any recommendations based on current analysis. However, the indicative recommendations are:

• The upcoming “National Urban Sector Policy” is a golden opportunity for mainstreaming DRR and CCA. OXFAM needs to present the study findings to a seminar inviting two key persons: Dr. Nazrul Islam and Dr. Hossain Zillur Rahman, who are now the key drivers and shakers for this. The study recommends strong policy dialogue organized jointly with PPRC and CUS on the urban disaster risk reduction issues and to mature the case.

• The issue of urban disaster risk is not a mature issue beyond overwhelming risk to Dhaka city in the case of earthquakes. The issue needs to be matured in seven key cities through policy dialogue and media campaign. Involvement of academicians, media and civil society organizations is of utmost importance in these policy dialogues. The city corporation mayors and development authority chairmans should be invited to these dialogue to listen to the concerns.

• There are many policy advocacy issues, not all are disaster related but without having change in urban governance system the DRR agenda will not be functional. From the findings of the study this is clear that the relationship between City Corporation, development authorities and key service organizations is crucial and that can only happen with a very robust policy advocacy. Disaster risk reduction will be a key case to show that without the functional coordination of these entities, building a resilient city is impossible in next decades.

• The entry points, which are going to be finalized in the study have to be tentative and can be more dynamic in future. They will be key starting points for mainstreaming DRR in urban planning but have to be open enough to explore more entry once the DRR analysis starts in urban development process.

- Risk Scenario based spatial analysis has to be the key entry points for urban disaster risk to influence policy, institutions, plans and budgets. These can be done in the following flow.

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o Understanding the nature of natural hazards in the context of the region. The major areas of assessments are as follows. Identifying major hazard events of the region that has got

impact probability on the urban areas in question. It also may include issues like assessing the possibility of multiple hazard (understanding all-hazard approach) occurrences.

Impacts/influence of physical conditions of the region (slope/aspect, orientation of physical features, hydro-climatic conditions, precipitation and runoff characteristics, sediment dynamics leading to defining/continuous readjustments of river morphometric characteristics)

Understanding the urbanization process within a high-risk environment

Risk factors assessment for urban key service providers o Assessing the changing trends of physical geography (focusing on

temporal change) of the region and its influence on the genesis, magnitude of hazards and social conditions

o Evaluating city urban conditions, land use patterns, concentration of slums and squatters; identification of planning needs.

o Understanding at-scale vulnerabilities (local, regional) and related interconnections (e.g. migrations, competition over access to resources, supply chain management)

o Development of regional disaster management system and early warning

o Demographic conditions (focusing on community at risk, specially the women, children and the disabled) and changing socio-economic-ecological conditions of the region

o Assessing supply chain conditions in all PPRR (preparedness prevention response recovery) situations

• Urban LGIs in the urban areas \ should be more vibrant organizations to serve

their citizens. The ULGIs must take advantage of the advancements achieved in the world in terms of communication and information technology. Global connectivity should be taken into the forefront of the functions of the LGs. The following are the areas that the LGs could easily adopt with no or minimal cost:

- Conduct awareness programs for various stakeholder groups to provide hazard related information

- Develop information products (if possible a web portal) to provide useful information to citizens (such as hazard prone areas, policies, regulations, tax systems etc.)

- Assist professionals to develop guidelines to reduce disaster impacts and disseminate such information (using posters, calendars, billboards, hand bills etc.)

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- Organize disaster safety day events to commemorate past disasters - Organize annual school competitions to raise awareness. - Maintain disaster databases, people’s database, and inventory of

elements at risk and update the data therein. - Maintain inventory of service providers for an emergency, their

locations, readiness to mobilize etc. (hospitals private, water bowsers, heavy machinery, and food suppliers).

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ANNEXES

Annex 1: Tables Table 13: Disaster risk profile of major cities in Bangladesh

Name Population in 200116 Census

Type of Disaster Degree of Risk

Major Disaster in

Last 5 years

1 Dhaka 6,482,877 Earthquake, Fire, Water-logging, Flood High Fire 2 Chittagong 2,202,637 Earthquake, Tidal Flooding, Landslide,

Water-logging, Cyclone, Fire High Landslide

3 Khulna 884,445 Cyclone, Tidal Flooding, Water-logging, Salinity, Fire

High Water-logging

4 Rajshahi 388,811 Flood, Erosion, Drought, Fire Low No 5 Tongi 283,099 Flood, Fire, Water-logging, Industrial

Accident High Fire,

Flood 6 Narayanganj 241,393 Fire, Industrial Accident, Flood Medium Fire 7 Rangpur 241,310 Earthquake, Fire Medium No 8 Mymensingh 227,201 Earthquake, Low No 9 Barisal 192,810 Cyclone, Tidal Flooding Medium No 10 Jessore 176,655 Fire, Water logging Low No 11 Comilla 166,519 Fire, Earthquake Low No 12 Dinajpur 157,914 Fire, Drought Low No 13 Bogra 154,807 Fire Low No 14 Nawabganj 152,223 Drought Low No Source: Newspaper Scan of last 15 years (Ittefaq, ProthomAlo)

16 We will update the information once city population census report in 2011 is published by Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. This is likely to be published in March 30, 2013. We have unpublished information, but BBS is checking this information, and there is a potential risk in huge error as already marginal error is observed higher in preliminary count.

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Table 14: Medium and small township in coastal areas affected in cyclone sidr 2007 and cyclone aila 2009

Name 200117 Urban Hazards Degree of risk

Major Disaster in last 5 years

1 Bagerhat 46,455 Cyclone, Salinity, Sea Level Rise, Tidal Flooding, Salinity Medium Cyclone

2 Bakarganj 15,176 Cyclone, Tidal Flooding, Sea Level Rise Medium Cyclone

3 Barguna 26,954 Cyclone, Tidal Flooding, Sea Level Rise, Salinity High Cyclone

4 Bhola 40,479 Cyclone, Tidal Flooding, Sea Level Rise High Cyclone

5 Jhalakati 45,428 Tidal Flooding, Sea Level Rise, Cyclone Medium Cyclone

6 Patuakhāli 62,665 Cyclone, Tidal Flooding, Sea Level Rise, Salinity, River Erosion

High Cyclone

7 Pirojpur 52,176 Cyclone, Tidal Flooding, Sea Level Rise Medium Cyclone

8 Satkhira 95,181 Cyclone, Salinity, Sea Level Rise Medium Cyclone

9 Char Fasson 15,754 Cyclone, Sea Level Rise, Salinity, Erosion High Cyclone

10 Galachipa 17,373 Cyclone, Sea Level Rise, Salinity, Erosion High Cyclone

11 Gaurnadi 37,714 Cyclone, Sea Level Rise Medium Cyclone 12 Kalapara 16,256 Cyclone, Sea Level Rise, Salinity High Cyclone

13 Lalmohan 17,937 Cyclone, Sea Level Rise, Salinity, Tidal Flooding High Cyclone

14 Mathbaria 15,407 Cyclone, Tidal Flooding, Sea Level Rise High Cyclone

15 Mehendiganj 29,281 Cyclone, Sea Level Rise Medium Cyclone

16 Mongla 56,746 Cyclone, Salinity, Sea Level Rise, Tidal Flooding High Cyclone

17 Morrelganj 21,718 Cyclone, Salinity, Sea Level Rise, Tidal Flooding High Cyclone

18 Nalchhiti 35,278 Cyclone, Sea Level Rise, Tidal Flooding Medium Cyclone

19 Swarupkati (Nesarabad) 18,083 Sea Level Rise, Cyclone, Tidal

Flooding High Cyclone

Source: Newspaper Scans of last 15 years (Ittefaq, ProthomAlo)

17 Ibid.

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Annex 2: Dhaka Metropolitan Development Plan (DMDP) 1995-2015: Detailed Area Plan (DAP)

Part-I (Group – A) : Tongi, Gazipur, Kaliganj Paurashava and surrounding rural settlement and flood plain areas of Balu, Sitalakhya and Brahmaputra River

Part-II (Group – B) : Narayanganj Paurashava, Kadam Rasul Paurashava and its surrounding areas, Dhaka-Narayanganj-Demra (DND) Triangle flood protected areas including Siddhirganj Paurashava.

Part-III (Group – C) : Areas under Dhaka City Corporation (DCC) jurisdiction and surrounded by the river Buriganga, Sitalakhya, Balu, Turag and TongiKhal

Part-IV (Group – E) : Entire Savar Paurashava and Part of Gazipur

Part-V (Group-A Extension : Part-D)

: Keraniganj (Part)

Part-VI (Group-B Extension : Part-D)

: Keraniganj (Part)

Part-VII (Group-C Extension : Part-D)

: Keraniganj (Part)

Part-VIII (Group-E Extension : Part-D)

: Keraniganj (Part)

Part-IX (Location-1) : Mirpur North to Uttara

Part-X (Location-2) : Kamrangir Char Area

Part-XI (Location-3) : Keraniganj (Part)

Part-XII (Location-4) : BegunbariKhal and its influenced area

Part-XIII (Location-5) : DND North

Part-XIV (Location-6) : Airport-Demra bypass adjacent area

Part-XV : (Location-9) : Eastern Fringe (Part)

Part-XVI (Location-10) : Purbachal connecting road to Begunbari Khal

Part-XVII (Location-11) : Eastern Fringe (Part)

Part-XVIII (Location-15) : Savar EPZ, Bypail, Ashulia

Part-XIX (Location-16) : Eastern Fringe (Part) Dhaka Metropolitan Development Plan (DMDP) 1995-2015 : Detailed Area Plan (DAP) prepared by the RajdhaniUnnayanKatripakkha (RAJUK) under the Ministry of Housing and Public Works, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh.

Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction in Urbanization in Bangladesh: A Scoping Study

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