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Economic Botany ISSN 0013-0001Volume 64Number 4 Econ Bot (2010) 64:352-366DOI 10.1007/s12231-010-9132-1

Local Markets and Medicinal PlantCommerce: A Review with Emphasis onBrazil

1 23

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Local Markets and Medicinal Plant Commerce: A Reviewwith Emphasis on Brazil1

JULIO MARCELINO MONTEIRO*,2,3, ELCIDA DE LIMA ARAÚJO4,

ELBA LÚCIA CAVALCANTI AMORIM5, AND ULYSSES PAULINO DE ALBUQUERQUE

2

2Laboratório de Etnobotânica Aplicada, Departamento de Biologia, Área de Botânica, UniversidadeFederal Rural de Pernambuco, Av. Dom Manoel de Medeiros s/n, Dois Irmãos, CEP 52171-900Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil

3Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Piauí, Campus Profa. Cinobelina Elvas, BR 135,CEP 64900-000 Bom Jesus, Piauí, Brazil

4Laboratório de Ecologia Vegetal e Ecossistemas Naturais, Departamento de Biologia, Área deBotânica, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Av. Dom Manoel de Medeiros s/n, DoisIrmãos, CEP 52171-900 Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil

5Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal dePernambuco, Av. Prof. Nelson Chaves s/n, Cidade Universitária, CEP 50670-901 Recife,Pernambuco, Brazil*Corresponding author; e-mail: juliommonteiro@ufpi.edu.br

Local Markets and Medicinal Plant Commerce: A Review with Emphasis on Brazil. Localmarkets unite, concentrate, maintain, and diffuse empirical knowledge about plant andanimal resources and therefore help guarantee the resilience and maintenance of folkknowledge concerning useful species. A critical review is presented here that focuses on theimportance of these local markets, emphasizing the diversity of medicinal products offered,the different approaches to this subject, and the evolution of the research approaches takenin studying the medicinal plant products sold. To this end, the scientific literature wasexamined for research on these markets so as to provide a panoramic view of the differentapproaches taken, the diversity of plants being sold, the methodological proceduresemployed in collecting research information, and the specific nature of the studies. Fromour point of view, it is necessary to intensify the ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacologicalinvestigation of these markets, especially with comparable methods and techniques.

Mercados locais e o comércio de plantas medicinais: Uma revisão com ênfase no Brasil. Osmercados tradicionais são importantes por reunir, concentrar, manter e difundir o saberempírico sobre a diversidade de recursos tanto da fauna como da flora, sendo fontesimprescindíveis para a resiliência e manutenção do conhecimento acerca dessas espéciesmedicinais. Essa proposta de revisão crítica enfocou a importância desses centros de compras,ressaltando a diversidade de produtos ofertados, os diferentes enfoques das pesquisas realizadase a evolução das abordagens ao estudar os produtos vegetais comercializados nos mercados.Dessa forma, realizou-se uma busca em periódicos para evidenciar o desenvolvimento daspesquisas com mercados intencionando-se uma visão panorâmica das diferentes abordagensutilizadas. Sobre isso, foram abordados: a diversidade vegetal comercializada, as partes vegetaismais encontradas nos mercados, bem como os procedimentos metodológicos para coleta deinformações e a natureza desses estudos. A partir das análises realizadas, recomendações foramsugeridas para futuras pesquisas em mercados tradicionais: a realização de inventários locaissobre espécies úteis associado a comparações com informações já existentes.

Key Words: Ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology, Brazil, traditional botanical knowledge.

1 Received 28 January 2010; accepted 6 September2010; published online 25 September 2010.

Economic Botany, 64(4), 2010, pp. 352–366.© 2010, by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.

Author's personal copy

IntroductionLocal markets unite, concentrate, maintain,

and diffuse empirical knowledge about plant andanimal resources and therefore help guarantee theresilience and maintenance of folk knowledgeconcerning useful species (Albuquerque et al.2007). The present text has adopted the term localmarket from among the various denominationsused in the literature (traditional markets, fairs,open markets, etc.). Cetina (2006) reported thatlocal markets evolve over time, incorporating anddisseminating cultural diversity while supplyinglocal demands. In studying local markets in Peru,Bussmann et al. (2007) noted that the localpharmacopoeia changes over time, and that thenumber of species offered appeared to increase asthe herb sellers experimented with new plants intheir search for new remedies. Albuquerque et al.(2007) pointed out that markets are different ineach society, as they represent, on a proportionalscale, their cultural and biological diversity.Numerous authors have examined the importanceand diversity of natural products sold in thesepublic local markets, principally in terms of itemslinked to the therapeutic practices of humanpopulations (Alves and Rosa 2008; Botha et al.2004; Delang 2005; Hanlidou et al. 2004; Levand Amar 2002; Macía et al. 2005; Narváez andStauffer 1999; Nicholson and Arzeni 1993; Ugent2000; Whitaker and Cutler 1966; Williams et al.2000).

A number of authors have pointed out thevalue of these important traditional commercialcenters in Brazil (Albuquerque 1997; Albuquerqueet al. 2007; Almeida and Albuquerque 2002; Alvesand Rosa 2006, 2007; Alves et al. 2009; Carvalho2004; Costa-Neto 1999; Nunes et al. 2003;Ramos et al. 2005; Shanley and Luz 2003; Vogelet al. 1993). In addition to medicinal resources,these markets also sell materials used in magico-religious practices (Albuquerque 1997; Vogel et al.1993). Vogel et al. (1993) thus viewed localmarkets:

“. . . whether in terms of their more permanentforms, or the periodic aspects of the weekly markets,these ‘cities for one day’ . . . always attract theattention of travelers and writers, not just as centersof an intense social life, but also their picturesque orexotic appeal to the traveler. With their strange soundsand aromas they can either shock or seduce theobserver, often both at the same time. As places formeeting people, making transactions, finding out news

or about scandals, they have their own rhythm . . . dueto the shifting agglomeration of bodies and objects in aspace that often appears just too small to hold it all . . .but the medicinal plants are the items that dominate onthe tables set up by the herb-sellers . . .”

The present review addresses the importance ofthese local markets, focusing on the diversity ofmedicinal plant products offered for sale, thedifferent approaches researchers have taken instudying them, and the evolution of the researchtechniques employed in studying the useful plantproducts found there. The varying approachesemployed make for difficult quantitative compar-isons; for example, many researchers fail todisclose the total number of species sold or thetype of methods used. Our primary objective was togather information and analyze the results concerningthe diversity of species being marketed, the part of theplant that is sold, the largest family for sale, the regionsthat are most often studied, and the methods. Inorder to gain a panoramic view of the differentapproaches utilized, surveys were made of periodicalsavailable on the Internet that could provide insightinto the development of research focused on localmarkets. Key-word associations were used in research-ing these articles, including local markets, traditionalmarkets, ethnobiology, ethnobotany, and medicinalplants. In the searches of Brazilian periodicals, weadded to the translations of the above-mentionedkey words the word raizeiros (for root or herb-seller).The data sources used in the literature searchincluded Biological Abstracts, Web of Science,Scirus, Scielo, and Google. Some articles wereencountered through the COMUT (Brazilian Pro-gram of Bibliographical Permutation) library link orby direct contact with the authors (e-mail).

Two tables listing the articles publishedbetween 1966 and 2009 were prepared in orderto illustrate the range of ethnobotanical studiesinvolving local markets. These tables indicate thelocality (city and country where the research wasperformed) and the reference (author and year).The first table presents information about thefloristic diversity encountered and the plant partsand plant families most frequently observed beingsold in each market (a total of 41 studies). Thesecond table focuses on the methods used in eachstudy and on the nature of the research, specifyingthe methods used to collect and analyze the findingfrom each market. In terms of classifying theresearch as qualitative or quantitative, we considereda study to be quantitative when it employed

353MONTEIRO ET AL.: LOCAL MARKETS AND MEDICINAL PLANT COMMERCE2010]

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technical applications that allowed statistical treat-ments of the data. A qualitative approach simply didnot use numerical applications or mathematicaltools. The second table also contains seven researchpapers that present information concerning thecommerce and distribution of medicinal plants thatwere not included in the first table because they didnot cite the floristic diversity or the plant part orplant family most frequently encountered.

DIVERSITY OF COMMERCIALIZED PLANTS

A total of 41 surveys concerning plant diversitywere considered here, of which 15 were under-taken in Brazil and 26 in other countries(Table 1). Less than half (n=18; 46%) reportedfloristic diversities equal to or greater than 100medicinal species (whether in Brazil or in the restof the world). Inventories with more than 200species were reported in a number of differentlocalities, strengthening the role of these marketcenters in maintaining traditional knowledgeabout medicinal plants. The average for all ofthe inventories was 117 useful species (122species in Brazil; 113 in the rest of the world).Two factors may explain the low diversity of

useful plants encountered in some local markets.One is that the researchers encountered difficul-ties in gaining access to information in localmarkets. Gil et al. (2003), for example, observedthat merchants can be reticent about providingcomplete information concerning plants that theyconsidered secret (for more information aboutmethodological questions in ethnologicalresearch, refer to Albuquerque et al. 2007,Nguyen 2005, and Ramos et al. 2005). A secondpossibility is that the markets that were visitedwere simply very small, and therefore offered lesscommercial plant diversity.

Plant Parts Most Often Offeredfor Sale

In surveys of the plant parts most frequentlyencountered in local markets, nine citations werefound in which the use of leaves and rootspredominated, and seven for fruits (Table 1). InBrazil, there were three indications of the use oftree bark, two of roots, and one of leaves andfruits.When analyzing each of the nine continents

separately, we found that Africa had the mostreports of the predominant use of roots in localtherapies (six citations), while these citations were

more diversified on the other continents. Only inIndia were fruits indicated as the most commonlyused plant part in four of the five studiesinventoried (Table 1).Analyses of these findings suggest the existence

of cultural or local environmental factors drivingpreferences for certain plant parts. In studiesundertaken in the semi-arid region of Brazil, forexample, tree bark was found to be an importantmedicinal resource because of its year-roundavailability (in contrast to leaves or fruits, whichwould only be present during irregular and oftenshort rainy periods) (Albuquerque 2006; Almeidaand Albuquerque 2002; Monteiro et al. 2006).Additionally, tree bark can be stored for longerperiods of time than either leaves or fruits withvery little additional care. The same reasoningmay help explain the predominance of the use ofroots for medicinal purposes on the Africancontinent (Table 1).

Plant Families Most FrequentlyEncountered in Surveys

Asteraceae and Lamiaceae were the mostfrequently encountered plant families, with 13and 9 citations, respectively (Table 1). In Brazil,Lamiaceae and Asteraceae had four citations each.In the other works analyzed, there were a total ofeight citations for Asteraceae and six for Lamiaceae.These two plant groups have been the focus ofnumerous phytochemical and pharmacologicalstudies and are associated with many popular useindications. The vast majority of the representativesof these two families exhibit an herbaceous habit.Stepp (2004) underscored the importance of herbsas therapeutic resources, and Stepp and Moerman(2001) noted that these species are easily located indisturbed areas and secondary forests. They notedfurther that herbs have evolved a number of classesof bioactive compounds as defense mechanisms andto enhance competitiveness (Stepp and Moerman2001). These features—bioactive compounds, easeof access, and presence in disturbed habitats—helpexplain their high frequency in markets (see alsoAlencar et al. 2009, Almeida and Albuquerque2002).Additionally, Moerman and Estabrook (2003)

analyzed the importance of the different plantfamilies within the medicinal plant repertoires ofthe Americas and discovered that Asteraceae,Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Ranunculaceae, and Apiaceaehave high percentages of medicinal species in relation

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TABLE1.

RESE

ARCH

UNDERTAKEN

INTRADITIO

NALMARKETSCONCERNIN

GUSE

FULMEDIC

INALPL

ANTRESO

URCESARRANGED

ACCORDIN

GTO

THERESE

ARCH

LOCA-

LITY,IN

DIC

ATIN

GTHEFL

ORISTIC

DIVERSITYREPO

RTED

AND

THEMOST

IMPO

RTANTPL

ANTPA

RTS.

Researchlocality

Florístic

diversity

aMostim

portantfamily

Mostim

portantplant

part

Reference

Africa

Benin

(Nigéria)

58Cucurbitaceae

Not

specified

John

sonandJohn

son19

76Brazzaville(Congo)

51Rub

iaceae

Roots

DiafoukaandBitsindou19

93Witw

atersrand(South

Africa)

511*

Fabaceae

Roots

Williamset

al.20

00Yaoun

dé(Cam

eroon)

35Ann

onaceaeandFabaceae

(Mim

osoidae)

Bark

Betti20

02

Mpu

malanga

(South

Africa)

176#

Not

specified

Roots

Botha

etal.20

04Limpopo

(South

Africa)

70#

Not

specified

Roots

Botha

etal.20

04Bam

ako(M

ali)

19b

Fabaceae

(Caesalpinoideae)

Roots

Maiga

etal.20

05Maputo(M

oçam

bique)

99*

Fabaceae

Roots

Kroget

al.20

06Enogu

(Nigeria)

96Fabaceae

(Caesalpinoideae)

Leaves

AyelojaandBello

2006

America

MexicoCity

(Mexico)

150

Not

specified

Not

specified

Bye

andLinares19

83CiudadJuárez,Chihu

ahua

and

Hidalgo

deParral(M

exico)

47AsteraceaeandFabaceae

Entireplant

Bye

1986

Monterrey

(Mexico)

135

Asteraceae

Leaves

Nicholso

nandArzeni19

93Toluca(M

exico)

71Asteraceae

Leaves

Ugent

2000

Mérida(Venezuela)

16Asteraceae

Leaves

Gilet

al.20

03La

PazandElAlto

(Bolívia)

129

Asteraceae

Aerialportion

Macíaet

al.20

05Pu

ebla(M

exico)

62Asteraceae

Aerialportion

Martin

éz-M

orenoet

al.20

06Trujillo

andChiclayo(Peru)

334

Asteraceae

Not

specified

Bussm

annet

al.20

07Asia

ArunachalPradesh(Ind

ia)

36Anacardiaceae

Fruits

Angam

iet

al.20

06Jordan

236

Lamiaceae

Seeds

LevandAmar

2002

Manipur

(Ind

ia)

47Lamiaceae,Apiaceaeand

Clusiaceae

Fruits

Chakraborty

2003

a

ArunachalPradesh(Ind

ia)

35Arecaceae

Fruits

Chakraborty

2003

bXishu

angbanna

(China)

146

Poaceae

Leaves

Xuet

al.20

04Hanoi

andSapa

(Vietnam

)55

*Fabaceae

Roots

Delang20

05Sw

at(Pakistan)

49Lamiaceae

Leaves

Ham

ayun

etal.20

06Assam

(Ind

ia)

29Apiaceae

Leaves

Kar

andBorthakur

2007

Yun

nan(China)

216

Asteraceae

Entireplant

Leeet

al.20

08Europe

Thessaloniki(G

reece)

146

Lamiaceae

Aerialportion

Hanlidou

etal.20

04

355MONTEIRO ET AL.: LOCAL MARKETS AND MEDICINAL PLANT COMMERCE2010]

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TABLE1.

(CONTIN

UED).

Researchlocality

Florístic

diversity

aMostim

portantfamily

Mostim

portantplant

part

Reference

Brazil

Belém

(PA)

167*

Fabaceae

Fruits

Berg19

84Recife

(PE)

48Lamiaceae

Not

specified

Albuquerque

1997

Barra

dePiraí(RJ)

101

Asteraceae

Entireplant

ParenteandRosa20

01Caruaru

(PE)

114

Lamiaceae

Stem

bark

Alm

eida

andAlbuquerque

2002

Cam

poGrand

e(M

S)32

*Fabaceae

Not

specified

Nun

eset

al.20

03Belém

(PA)

211

Not

specified

Not

specified

ShanleyandLu

z20

03Boa

Vista

(RO)

100

Asteraceae

Stem

bark

PintoandMaduro20

03Anápolis

(GO)

150*

Fabaceae

Roots

Carvalho20

04Recife

(PE)

119

Lamiaceae

Leaves

Ram

oset

al.20

05Rio

deJaneiro(RJ)

127

Asteraceae

Not

specified

Azevedo

andSilva20

06Goiânia(G

O)

28*

Fabaceae

Roots

Tresvenzolet

al.20

06Recife

(PE)

136

Lamiaceae

Bark

Albuquerque

etal.20

07Rio

deJaneiro(RJ)

106

Asteraceae

Leaves

Maioli-Azevedo

and

Fonseca-Kruel20

07Rio

deJaneiro(RJ)

265

Asteraceae

Aerialportion

Silva20

08Rio

deJaneiro(RJ)

115

Asteraceae

Branches

Leitãoet

al.20

09

aThistopicconsidered

only

identifi

edspecies.

bOnlytoxicplantswereinvestigated.

*The

authorsconsidered

Fabaceae

asthefamily

Leguminosae.

#These

inventoriescorrespond

toasingleresearch

paperthat

analyzed

twoseparate

markets.

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to the numbers of their species. Other interestingcases have been mentioned, for example, Fabaceaeand Poaceae, both large families with very fewmedicinal species. It seems that plants of the Poaceaefamily invest in other forms of survival and competi-tion, and have a high capacity for vegetativepropagation (Moerman and Estabrook 2003). Theauthors also highlighted the group Orchidaceae,with about 18,000 species; this family is seldomused medicinally, but is much appreciated as anornamental.

These herbaceous families often reveal highlevels of bioactivity (Gottlieb and Borin 2002).Many species of Asteraceae, for example, exhibitsignificant antibacterial, antifungal, trypanocide,cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, andantimicrobial activity. Many of these propertiesare explained by the presence of specific terpenesand sesquiterpene lactones (Abdin et al. 2003;Cheriti and Belboukhari 2007; Drewes et al. 2006;Mathekga et al. 2000; Scio et al. 2003; Tereschuket al. 1997). Significant biological activity has alsobeen noted in the family Lamiaceae due to thepresence of large concentrations of essential oilswith terpenoids and some flavonoids that haveanti-leishmaniasis, antiviral, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant actions (Kamatouet al. 2006; Matasyoh et al. 2007; Moharram et al.2006; Stojakowska and Malarz 2000; Tan et al.2002a, b).

In analyzing the continents separately, five of thenine citations of the most important families inAfrica were for the family Fabaceae. For theAmericas, excluding Brazil, Asteraceae was the mostimportant family in seven of the eight papersanalyzed (Table 1). In terms of plant parts mostcommonly used, there are also local preferences,most likely influenced by regional environmentalconditions and/or by the wide distribution andadaptation of these plants to anthropogenic envi-ronments (cleared areas, yards, trails, etc.).

Study AreaConsidering only studies from Brazil, research

on local markets has been relatively well distrib-uted throughout that country (with the exceptionof the southern region, where only a single articlewas produced) (Table 2). Of the 15 studiesanalyzed, five were based in northeastern Brazil,three in the north, three in the central-west, threein the southeast, and one in the south. Of the fivestudies originating in the northeast, four were

undertaken by the same research group (in thestate of Pernambuco).

In terms of the 32 papers analyzed from therest of the world, 11 were based in Asia, 10 inAfrica, and 10 in the Americas (five in Mexico).Only a single ethnobotanical study of localmarkets was discovered for Europe. Hanlidou etal. (2004), searching medicinal plants commer-cialized in Greek markets (city of Thessaloniki),subdivided this trade into three categories: tradi-tional shops, modern shops, and outdoor marketsand stalls. Traditional shops are located in citycenter markets, are about 150 years old, and havearranged stalls and drawers. Herbs are in bags,and the trade is passed from father to son.Modern shops are carefully decorated and theitems are stored in drawers. Commercial oils,perfumes, soaps, and lotions are stocked. Sellersusually have a university degrees but no formalbotanical training. Their plant knowledge isderived from books or specialized literature. Theoutdoor markets and stalls, which are situated indifferent areas of the city, offer a large variety ofherbs and similar products. Sellers are generallytheir own collectors and have little formaleducation but considerable empirical knowledgeconcerning traditional therapeutics.

Methods UtilizedMany authors fail to describe the methods

utilized in their data collection, simply acknowl-edging that interviews were used (Table 2). Thiswas also the case with most Brazilian authors untilabout the year 2000. Thereafter, there was a shiftto fuller description of methodological tools. Fiveresearch papers reported using semistructuredinterviews, one used structured interviews, sevenworkers employed interviews without explainingthe type, and three reported the use of question-naires. Almeida and Albuquerque (2002), Ramoset al. (2005), and Silva (2008) employed ethno-botanical indexes (Relative Importance–IR,Informant Consensus Factor–ICF, and the Sal-ience Index) to explore various hypotheses intheir studies. Carvalho (2004), working in GoiásState, used ecological indexes to confirm thevalidity of their sample size. Azevedo and Silva(2006), working in the state of Rio de Janeiro,employed participant observation in additionto standard interviews (Table 2). Interviewsappeared to be the most commonly used techni-que in studying local markets, although addi-

357MONTEIRO ET AL.: LOCAL MARKETS AND MEDICINAL PLANT COMMERCE2010]

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TABLE2.

ETHNOBOTANIC

ALRESE

ARCH

UNDERTAKEN

INTRADITIO

NALMARKETSIN

BRAZIL

AND

INOTHERCOUNTRIESTHATHAVEEXAMIN

ED

USE

FULSP

ECIESOFTHE

LOCALFL

ORA,FO

CUSING

ON

METHODSAND

TYPE

SOFST

UDIESUNDERTAKEN.

Researchlocality

Methods

utilized

Typeof

stud

yReferences

Africa

Benin

(Nigeria)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yJohn

sonandJohn

son19

76Brazzaville(Congo)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yDiafoukaandBitsindou19

93Witw

atersrand(South

Africa)

Interviewsandecological

use-indexes

Quantitativestud

yWilliamset

al.20

00

Burkina

Faso

(South

Africa)

Structured

andsemi-

structured

interviews

Qualitativestud

yMertz

etal.20

01

Yaoun

dé(Cam

eroon)

Interviewsandtheuseof

Performance-Ind

exesa

Qualitativeand

quantitativestud

yBetti20

02

Mpu

malanga

andLimpopo

(South

Africa)

Semistructuredinterviews

Quantitativestud

yBotha

etal.20

04

Bam

ako(M

ali)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yMaiga

etal.20

05Witw

atersrand(South

Africa)

Interviewsandtheuseof

ecologicalindexes

Quantitativestud

yWilliamset

al.20

05

Enogu

(Nigeria)

Interviewsandquestio

nnaires

Qualitativestud

yAyelojaandBello

2006

Maputo(M

ozam

bique)

Semistructuredinterviews

andquestio

nnaires

Qualitativeand

quantitativestud

yKroget

al.20

06

America

MexicoCity

(Mexico)

Semistructuredinterviews

Qualitativestud

yBye

andLinares19

83CiudadJuárez,Chihu

ahua

and

Hidalgo

deParral(M

exico)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yBye

1986

Monterrey

(Mexico)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yNicholso

nandArzeni19

93Pu

erto

Ayacucho(Venezuela)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yNarváez

andStauffer

1999

Toluca(M

exico)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yUgent

2000

Mérida(Venezuela)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yGilet

al.20

03La

PazandElAlto

(Bolivia)

Semistructuredinterviews

Qualitativestud

yMacíaet

al.20

05Haw

ai’i(U

SA)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yNguyen20

05Pu

ebla(M

exico)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yMartin

éz-M

orenoet

al.20

06Trujillo

andChiclayo(Peru)

Interviews,questio

nnairesand

multivariate

analysis

Qualitativeand

quantitativestud

yBussm

annet

al.20

07

MexicoCity

(Mexico)

Semistructuredinterviews

Qualitativeand

quantitativestud

yManzanero-M

edinaet

al.20

09

Asia

Jordan

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yLevandAmar

2002

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TABLE2.

(CONTIN

UED).

Researchlocality

Methods

utilized

Typeof

stud

yReferences

Manipur

(Ind

ia)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yChakraborty

2003

aArunachalPradesh(Ind

ia)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yChakraborty

2003

bXishu

angbanna

(China)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yXuet

al.20

04Hanoi

andSapa

(Vietnam

)Structured

interviewsand

questio

nnaires

Qualitativestud

yDelang20

05

ArunachalPradesh(Ind

ia)

Interviews,questio

nnaires

andfree-listing

Qualitativestud

yAngam

iet

al.20

06

Swat

(Pakistan)

Interviewsandquestio

nnaires

Qualitativestud

yHam

ayun

etal.20

06Assam

(Ind

ia)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yKar

andBorthakur

2007

Yun

nan(China)

Semistructuredandstructured

interviews

Qualitativestud

yLeeet

al.20

08

Europe

Thessaloniki(G

reece)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yHanlidou

etal.20

04Brazil

Belém

(PA)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yBerg19

84Recife

(PE)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yAlbuquerque

1997

Barra

dePiraí(RJ)

Semistructuredinterviewsand

questio

nnaireswith

closed

anddirect

questio

ns

Qualitativeandquantitativestud

yParenteandRosa20

01

Caruaru

(PE)

Semistructuredinterviews,multivariate

analysis,andtheuseof

ethn

obotanical

indexes.(IRandFC

I)b

Qualitativeandquantitativestud

yAlm

eida

andAlbuquerque

2002

Cam

poGrand

e(M

S)Interviewsandph

armaco-botanical

techniques

Qualitativestud

yNun

eset

al.20

03

Belém

(PA)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yShanleyandLu

z20

03Boa

Vista

(RO)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yPintoandMaduro20

03Anápolis

(GO)

Interviewswith

open

questio

ns;

multivariate

analysis

Qualitativeandquantitativestud

yCarvalho20

04

Recife

(PE)

Structured

interviewsandtheuse

ofethn

obotanicalindexes.

(IRandFC

I)b

Qualitativeandquantitativestud

yRam

oset

al.20

05

Rio

deJaneiro(RJ)

Svem

istructuredinterviews,participant

observations,walkin

thewoods

Qualitativeandquantitativestud

yAzevedo

andSilva20

06.

Cam

pina

Grand

e(PB)

Questionn

aires

Qualitativeandquantitativestud

yDantasandGuimarães20

06Pelotas(RS)

Interviewsandquestio

nnaires

Qualitativeandquantitativestud

yHeidenet

al.20

06Goiânia(G

O)

Interviews

Qualitativestud

yTresvenzolet

al.20

06

359MONTEIRO ET AL.: LOCAL MARKETS AND MEDICINAL PLANT COMMERCE2010]

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tional tools have enriched the available method-ologies since 2000 (Table 2).Globally, there were six notations for the use of

questionnaires, four for semistructured inter-views, two for structured interviews, while thebalance indicated simply the use of interviews.Two research groups used ecological indexes toquantify their results (Williams et al. 2000;Williams et al. 2005), and Betti (2002) proposedthe use of a “Performance Index” in Africa toquantify use-citations for any given medicinalplant as a function of the illnesses indicated. Thisprocedure is very similar to the much-usedRelative Importance (IR) technique that alsoquantifies the importance of a medicinal plantby their numbers of use-indications (Bennett andPrance 2000; Albuquerque et al. 2008).

The Nature of the Published WorksOf the total of 47 published works examined,

87% were qualitative studies (Table 2). Themajority undertaken in Brazil described the plantsbeing commercialized and discussed the quality ofthe material being sold; other texts investigatedthe conservation aspects of this trade (Table 2).In the only work undertaken in southern Brazil(Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul State), the authorsexamined aspects of the local commerce of asingle medicinal plant, “carqueja” (Baccharis L.section Caulopterae DC.). Their study revealedthat up to ten different species of “carqueja” weresold for similar purposes and in some caseswithout distinguishing between the differentspecies (Heiden et al. 2006).Analyses of research undertaken in the rest of

the world (excluding Brazil) indicated that 28 ofthe 32 publications (84%) were qualitative. Inaddition to listing the useful plants, authorsaddressed a variety of questions related specificallyto medicinal plants (Botha et al. 2004; Bye 1986;Narváez and Stauffer 1999; Nguyen 2005;Williams et al. 2000, 2005). In Mexico, Bye(1986) compared the use-indications of medicinalplants being sold in a traditional market withthose from a community in the same region andfound very high degrees of similarity between thetwo. Other studies focused on specific groups ofplants or even a single species. Narváez andStauffer (1999), for example, examined the usesattributed to palm plants in city markets inPuerto Ayacucho, Venezuela. Nguyen (2005)included plant lists in her work, and noted thatethnobotanists needed to be more rigorous in

TABLE2.

(CONTIN

UED).

Researchlocality

Methods

utilized

Typeof

stud

yReferences

Recife

(PE)

Semistructuredinterviewsandthe

useof

ethn

obotanicalindexes(IR)

Qualitativeandquantitativestud

yAlbuquerque

etal.20

07

Rio

deJaneiro(RJ)

Interviews,participantobservations

and

theuseof

indexes(IRandFC

I)Qualitativeandquantitativestud

yMaioli-Azevedo

andFo

nseca-Kruel20

07

Rio

deJaneiro(RJ)

Semistructuredinterviewsandtheuse

ofindexes(IRandthesalienceindex)

Qualitativeandquantitativestud

ySilva20

08

Rio

deJaneiro(RJ)

Semistructuredinterviewsandtheuse

ofindexes(IRandPreference

Ranking)

Qualitativeandquantitativestud

yLeitãoet

al.20

09

aThe

Performance

Indexquantifi

esthedata

byscoringtheuse-citatio

nsof

agivenmedicinalplantin

term

sof

theillnesses

forwhich

itisindicated(Betti20

02).

bIR

signifies

RelativeIm

portance;IFC

signifies

Inform

antConsensus

Factor.F

ormoreinform

ationconcerning

theseethn

obotanicalindexes,seeBennettandPrance

(200

0)and

Albuquerque

etal.(200

8).

360 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 64

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regard to vouchering plant materials examined inlocal markets into herbaria. This author alsonoted, however, that most herbaria do not acceptsterile material, and that many of the productssold in local markets are composed only of piecesof bark or roots that are difficult to accuratelyidentify.

Several authors borrowed methodologies fromother areas of science, including ecologicalindexes and laboratory techniques for identifyingactive products in plants (Table 2). Williams et al.(2005), who utilized ecological diversity indexes,equitability, and richness to analyze data gatheredin markets, reported high levels of speciesdiversity and richness among the plants beingsold. These authors attributed the high floristicdiversity encountered to the regional culturaldiversity and to the popularity of medicinalplants.

Quantitative approaches are increasinglyemployed in ethnobiological research (Albuquerqueand Hanazaki 2006; Costa-Neto 1999), and havebeen extended to studies of local markets. Fully57% of the research papers from Brazil usedquantitative techniques for data analysis, asopposed to only 19% of the papers from the restof the world (Table 2). A slight increase in thenumbers of quantitative studies occurred after theyear 2000, and of 14 studies undertaken in Brazilafter 2000, 10 took a quantitative approach.Among the other countries of the world, 6 of the23 studies undertaken after 2000 treated the dataquantitatively. Taking into account all of theresearch papers reviewed here, however, the shifttowards quantitative techniques that has occurredin ethnobiological studies is only slowly occurringin the study of local markets.

Problems Related to Research on LocalMarkets and the Commerce

of Medicinal PlantsA number of authors have voiced their concern

about intense extractivist pressure arising from thegrowing demand from local markets and fromindustries that process phytotherapeutic remedies(Almeida and Albuquerque 2002; Botha et al.2004; Costa-Neto 1999; Nunes et al. 2003;Olsen and Helles 1997; Williams et al. 2000).In particular, the burgeoning commerce inmedicinal plants collected from natural stockscan put entire plant populations at risk (Botha etal. 2004; Cunningham and Mbenkum 1993;

Melo et al. 2009). Many people are economicallydependent on the traditional commerce of medicinalspecies, but they are usually unaware that thoseresources could one day become extinct (Costa-Neto1999). Almeida and Albuquerque (2002), forexample, discussed the plant and animal speciesfrom northeastern Brazil that are vulnerable toextinction due to their systematic extraction andpredation, but not a single management plan hadbeen put into place to mitigate the effects of thesepractices. Botha et al. (2004) verified that thepopulation of Walburgia salutaris (Bertolf.) Chiov.in Mpumalanga, South Africa, decreases morerapidly in nonprotected areas as compared to thoseprotected by laws. This species is widely usedlocally because of the commercial bark harvest formedicinal purposes and is under risk of extinction,being considered a priority for conservation insome African countries. However, the above-citedauthors verified that 71% of the medicinal planttraders considered it to be easily located. Theseauthors also point out that the basal diameter andheight were significantly lower in populations ofnonprotected areas, signaling that the physiologicalstress caused by bark collection can induce somegrowth reduction (Botha et al. 2004).

Conversely, research carried out on localmarkets in Xishuangbanna in southeastern Chinademonstrated that small-scale plant collecting forcommercial purposes did not significantly affectthe local vegetation. Only 20.6% of the plantsoffered for sale in the Menglun market (one ofthe principal centers of commerce in that regionof China) were collected from native vegetation,suggesting only low levels of environmentalimpacts (Xu et al. 2004).

The storage conditions of the medicinal mate-rial, misidentification, or fraudulent sales in localmarkets present other important problems interms of the use of medicinal plants. A study ofplants sold by herbal merchants in local marketsin the city of Campo Grande (Mato Grosso doSul State, Brazil) found that 96.7% of theseplants were rejected in laboratory tests thatevaluated their quality in terms of the presenceof other plants, insects, fungi, or other impurities(Nunes et al. 2003). Moreover, Zhao et al. (2005)found that the average content of sinomenine (thealkaloid associated with the therapeutic action ofSinomenium acutum [Thumb.] Rehd. et Wils. orSinomenium acutum [Thumb.] Rehd. et Wils. var.cinereum Rehd. et Wils.) in plants being sold inlocal markets in China was significantly lower than

361MONTEIRO ET AL.: LOCAL MARKETS AND MEDICINAL PLANT COMMERCE2010]

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that observed in samples collected directly in thefield. These authors demonstrated that the alkaloidcontent of these plants varied according to thedifferent areas where they were collected, suggest-ing that the local climate (or season of the year) orstorage conditions may alter the content ofbioactive compounds (Zhao et al. 2005).The widespread and frequent medicinal use of

bark from arboreal species can present seriousproblems for the regeneration and perpetuation ofthe source trees. Extracts in Brazil are commonlymade from the bark of species such as “aroeira”(Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão), “imburanade cheiro” (Amburana cearensis [Fr. All.] A. C.Sm.), “mulungu” (Erythrina velutina Willd.),“barbatimão” (Stryphynodendron adstringens[Mart.] Coville), and “angico” (Anadenantheracolubrina [Vell.] Brenan), and large quantities oftheir bark are commercialized in fairs and publicmarkets (Albuquerque et al. 2007). In a studyconducted in Africa, Cunningham and Mbenkun(1993) reported that stem bark of Prunus africanaL. is widely collected for medicinal purposes andthat its unorganized harvesting compromises thelocal populations of these plants. Considering thenegative impacts of bark extraction, the above-cited authors recommended cultivation of treespecies, selection of substitutes with similaramounts of bioactive compounds, and adoptionof studies on bark regeneration in medicinalspecies.

Conclusions and RecommendationsThe year 2000 saw considerable increases in the

numbers of local market studies and a greaterdiversity of methodological tools to examine them.This diversification of methods and techniques isimportant as it provides a clearer understanding ofthe social and economic forces underlying localmarkets. Previously, researchers tended to compart-mentalize approaches and conclusions, and some ofthe tools they used, such as interviews, differedgreatly in their nature and in their execution.Accordingly, comparisons and reproducibilityamong studies was difficult. The analyses presentedhere give rise to two recommendations: first, thatresearchers wishing to study local markets shouldundertake initial inventories of the useful speciesand attempt to adjust their techniques to make theirresults easier to compare with existing information;and second, that researchers should focus onqualitative and quantitative approaches (Albuquerqueand Hanazaki 2006; Reyes-Garcia et al. 2006) that

allow questions and hypotheses to be formulated,tested, and compared. Ethnobotanical inventories oflocal markets can provide important informationabout species that are susceptible to destructivecollection (removal of the bark, roots, bulbs,rhizomes, entire plants), species that are exception-ally expensive or hard to find (which may indicatethat their natural reserves are becoming exhausted),and species with increased collecting or buyingfrequencies (which might indicate greater demand).When these types of questions are satisfactorilyanswered, they can provide rich sources of informa-tion for conservation and sustainable managementprograms.

AcknowledgmentsThe authors would like to thank the CNPq for

financial support (“Edital Universal”) and for grantsawarded to U.P. Albuquerque, the anonymousreviewers for their important suggestions that havehelped to improve the quality of this work, andespecially Robert Voeks for his valuable help.

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