LCC Journal Vol2 Issue 2 2014

Unhealthy Eating Habits and Lifestyle among Hungarian Students at London Churchill College

- Nikolett David & Russell Kabir

Palimpsest in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel the Remains of the Day -Kristina Mokrousoviene

Contribution of Strategic Human Resource Management to achieve competitive advantage in FedEX

- Eva Kosturova & Rahaman Hasan

Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability - Nafisa Iffath Ahmed

UK Banking Sector and Micro-Finance System: a Case Study on HSBC & Barclays Bank PLC, UK

- Mohammad Mahbub Hasan

A Critical Evaluation of the Factors Affecting the Process of Consumer Buying Behaviour

- Samrat Hazra

The Role of Family Members in Diabetic Care for the Elderly in the Bangladeshi Community in Tower Hamlets

- Shajna Begum & Syed Tanvir Hussain

Indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuels and population’s health in rural Bangladesh: what health effects are associated with indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuels burning (for cooking and heating) in rural households of Bangladesh?

- Md Shahaneous Juel

Research Project within DHL at Dartford Regional Distribution Centre Focusing On Their Employee Motivation

- Edina Szigeti & Taslim Ahammad

The Impacts of Climate Change On Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

-Md Ashikur Rahman

JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES, VOL. II, Issue 2, 2014

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JCDMS, a biannual journal Published by

London Churchill College

London E1 2JA

United Kingdom

Copyright @ London Churchill College


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Editorial Board

Dr. Dababrata Chowdhury -Chief Editor

Dr. Mohamed Asim - Editor

Mr. R N Chowdhury - Member

Dr. Shamim Hasnain - Member

Mrs. Jennifer Newland - Member

Assistant Editors: Jane Layzell

Glen Delahaye


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EDITORIAL NOTE

Welcome again to the latest edition of the Journal of Contemporary Development and

Management Studies (JCDMS). This issue, as never before, is embedded with a variety of

articles, dealing with health care, human resource management, chemistry, literature and

finance.

The first article deals with Unhealthy Eating Habits and Lifestyle among Hungarian Students

at London Churchill College, written by Nikolett David and Russell Kabir. This work

analyses the results of the research carried out among the Hungarian students in London

Churchill College. The reader has a chance to explore the lifestyle habits of college students

and find out what recommendations were proposed.

Next, in Palimpsest In Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel The Remains of the Day Kristina

Mokrousovienė analyses the hidden narratives – palimpsests – in Kazuo Ishiguro’s novel The

Remains of the Day. The article examines unreliable narration as a narrative technique,

discusses the main protagonist’s suppressed identity and explores the theme of Englishness.

Contribution of Strategic Human Resource Management to achieve competitive advantage in

FedEX by Eva Kosturova and Rahaman Hasan discusses key aspects of successful human

resource management and presents FedEx Company as one of the most effectively running

organisations practising strategic human resource management.

In Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability Nafisa Iffath Ahmed examines

the concepts of design and the scientific philosophy of green chemistry with a set of

illustrative examples. Future trends in green chemistry are discussed with the challenge of

using the principles as a cohesive design system.

UK Banking Sector and Micro-Finance System: a Case Study on HSBC & Barclays Bank

PLC, UK by Mohammad Mahbub Hasan explores microfinance of the UK, in particular

HSBC and Barclays banks.

A Critical Evaluation of the factors affecting the process of Consumer buying behaviour by

Samrat Hazra discusses the factors affecting the process of consumer buying behaviour. In

addition, it employs the Kotlerian theory of buyer behaviour both in respect to individual or

group customers mainly for domestic-personal use, as well as business customers buying

goods for production of goods and services.

In The Role of Family Members in Diabetic Care for the Elderly in the Bangladeshi

Community in Tower Hamlets Shajna Begum and Syed Tanvir Hussain investigate how

family members are affected by someone suffering from diabetes in their family. The authors

attempt to find out available treatment methods and help available for such families.

Next, Indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuels and population’s health in rural

Bangladesh: what health effects are associated with indoor air pollution resulting from solid

biomass fuels burning (for cooking and heating) in rural households of Bangladesh? by Md

Shahaneous Juel attempts to identify the health effects of indoor air pollution from solid


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biomass fuel combustion in rural households of Bangladesh. By analysing different literatures

related to investigation, various health issues resulting from indoor air pollution from solid

biomass burning in rural households are explored.

Research Project within DHL at Dartford Regional Distribution Centre Focusing on Their

Employee Motivation by Edina Szigeti and Taslim Ahammad examines motivation of an

employee within DHL at Dartford Regional Distribution Centre. The article reveals what it is

that motivates all employees to perform at their best and achieve optimal business results at

all times.

In The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review by

Ashikur Rahman explores climate change and its tremendous effects on health. Latest

scientific assessments as occurring in Bangladesh are presented in this article.

I, on behalf of Editorial Board, would like to thank all contributors and staff who helped to

publish this journal and hope you find this issue enlightening and informative.

Sincerely,

R N Chowdhury

Member of Editorial Board


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CONTENTS

Sr. No. TITLE AND NAME OF THE AUTHOR (S) Page No.

01. Unhealthy Eating Habits and Lifestyle among Hungarian

Students at London Churchill College - Nikolett David & Russell Kabir

01

02. Palimpsest in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel The Remains of the

Day

-Kristina Mokrousovienė

14

03. Contribution of Strategic Human Resource Management to

achieve competitive advantage in FedEX

- Eva Kosturova & Rahaman Hasan

30

04. Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability

-Nafisa Iffath Ahmed

44

05. UK Banking Sector and Micro-Finance System: a Case

Study on HSBC & Barclays Bank PLC, UK

- Mohammad Mahbub Hasan

58

06. A Critical Evaluation of the Factors Affecting the Process

of Consumer Buying Behaviour

-Samrat Hazra

71

07. The Role of Family Members in Diabetic Care for The

Elderly in the Bangladeshi Community in Tower Hamlets

- Shajna Begum & Syed Tanvir Hussain

81

08. Indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuels and

population’s health in rural Bangladesh: what health effects

are associated with indoor air pollution resulting from solid

biomass fuels burning (for cooking and heating) in rural

households of Bangladesh?

- Md Shahaneous Juel

86

09. Research Project Within DHL at Dartford Regional

Distribution Centre Focusing on Their Employee

Motivation

-Edina Szigeti & Taslim Ahammad

111

10. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in

Bangladesh: a Literature Review

-Md Ashikur Rahman

128


Unhealthy Eating Habits and Lifestyle among Hungarian Students in London Churchill College

1

Unhealthy Eating Habits and Lifestyle among Hungarian Students in

London Churchill College

Nikolett David1 , Russell Kabir2

ABSTRACT

The report`s aim is to provide findings about the eating habits and quality of lifestyle among

Hungarian students in London Churchill College. Students are most likely to spend their time

for studying during college years; therefore, they draw less attention to improve their life by

doing more exercises and consume healthy food and drink. Through this report, the reader

will explore the lifestyle habits of Hungarian students in London Churchill College and some

recommendation addressed to them how they can maintain quality life during the years of

study.

Keywords: unhealthy habits, Hungarian students, lifestyle, diet, London Churchill College.

INTRODUCTION

The authors of this research project carried out a research project about the students eating

habits in London Churchill College through questionnaires among Hungarian students. 15

people have filled out the questionnaires and responded. The students of London Churchill

College believe that it is important to eat healthy food. According to their opinion, they are

able to judge which food is healthy. They believe that they are conscious food purchasers and

regularly check the labels on the food. However, one-third of the respondents say that they

eat less healthy than before they started to study in the college.

The Aim of the Research

This aim of this research is to demonstrate the factors that lead to the negative change of

healthy dietary habits among Hungarian students in London Churchill College. The other

objectives of the research:

1. Diagnose the cause of unhealthy diet and lifestyle

2. Improve the quality of life among Hungarian students of London Churchill College

3. Reduce the gap between the actual diet and lifestyle and desired eating habits and

lifestyle.

The Rationale of the Research:

1 Health and Social Care student of London Churchill College. 2 Russell Kabir is a program Leader and Health and Social Care Lecture of London Churchill College. Both

authors bare all the responsibility for the information and data communicated in this article.



2

The research was conducted, as the unhealthy lifestyle and unhealthy diet was getting more

emphasis during previous years via different media sources. People put more attention on

what they eat, how they look like, what their bodyweight is and how it can be maintained. As

the literature review indicates below, there were several studies conducted previously, but

none of them focused on Hungarian students` eating habits and lifestyle during college years.

The objective of this research is the improvement of their lifestyle and eating habits,

therefore, to improve the quality of their lives. Over the period of life, people put more effort

on going to work, complete their role within the family but they forgot how to maintain their

own health.

Research Background

The college students are the consumer of the future. In some cases, they are already

consuming as they have their own family but in some cases, the respondents are not

responsible for anybody apart from themselves. Therefore, it is important to examine the

consumption habits of this group, as it can be a determinant in the future consumption of this

group. As Paul Fifield (1998) point out in his book of Marketing strategy: The analysis of one

particular group`s consumption habit can be the determinant of future consumption. We

consider people as a group if they were born in the same time, therefore they represent one

generation. As their age is similar, they experienced similar environmental effects and their

socialisation took place under similar circumstances. Their values and consumptions are

similar. Fifield illustrates this through the milk consumption and declares that a simple

forecast of age consumption will not take into account the trends of consumption but the

group analysis will. The 30-39 years of today will be the 40-49 years in the next cycle. Their

consumption probably will remain the same or increases together with overall growth rates.

That means that the particular age groups will carry their consumption patterns. If we want to

predict the future consumption, the research should start here.

Most of the Hungarian students in London Churchill College are living very far from their

home country; therefore, they might have developed some new habits regarding their diet but

also they have the habits that been brought from their home country. In higher education,

learners like to consider what others think about them, the link to a particular social group

and friendship. They go through in varying degrees and dynamic of intellectual, emotional

and social development in these years. A new type of learning methodology has to be

acquired by them in order to accompany college rules. During the day, focus and mental

effort is expected from them in the college and they must experience the exam genre as well.

New relationships are built up, friends will be found. In connection with the previous two

points (bad) habits may appear in their lives and new consumption patterns develop. The

authors of this research are interested in the lifestyle and eating habits of Hungarian students

of London Churchill College.

The previous studies focused on college students but students were not distinguished by

ethnicity. The Study of Nutrition Knowledge, Attitudes and Food Habits of College Students



2

did choose 415 college students randomly to conduct the survey. The research emphasises on

the importance of healthy diet and it declares that healthy diet got more attention on the

previous years (Margetts et al., 1998). During the previous years there have been many

diseases caused by unhealthy diet showing increased tendency, such as cancer, cardiovascular

heart disease, obesity, high blood pressure). Therefore, in order to maintain a healthy

lifestyle, it is necessary to decrease this rate. The study notes that the health education is one

of the keys to gain the knowledge about healthy diet. Through the health education, people

will be able to decide about a particular food that how healthy it is (Harvey-Berino et al,

1997). The study also states that the main goal should be following a healthy diet in order to

conserve the health that individuals already have. This will contribute to one’s better physical

state and better lifestyle. Furthermore, it declares that most of the pupils do not have clear

knowledge about healthy food and the necessary nutrition they need. Therefore, it is

necessary to provide them with the adequate education to make healthy choices (Robinson-

O’Brien et al., 2009). The reports showed that 83,6% of the pupils eat three times a day and

85,6% have the adequate knowledge to have the right balance between the necessary nutrition

and food. Unfortunately, only 7% of the respondents said that they used this knowledge in the

practise and bought healthy food accordingly (Ruka et al., 2005). Ruka (2005) also declared

that 13 % of men and 20% of women skip eating breakfast regularly. The students do not

have the adequate knowledge to have the right control over their bodyweight. However, this

research gave a very adequate knowledge and overview of randomly selected students and

their eating habits but there is no data about their ethnicity.

A comparative study of dietary habits among college students at-risk and not-at-risk for

eating disorders and how such habits compare to dietary guidelines mainly focuses on eating

disorders and the incidences of eating disorders during college years. It asserts that eating

disorders` rate shows an increasing statistic. Behind eating disorders there can be many

physical and psychological factors. Individuals, who been diagnosed with any type of eating

disorder mostly likely to develop depression, low self-esteem, failure of any organ of the

body etc. It notes that during college years students are more affected, as it plays a major role

in their self-esteem, what others think about them (Vohs et al., 2001). The limitation of the

study is that it focuses mainly on eating disorders and the respondents are selected randomly

within more institutions, therefore there is no adequate data about different ethnicities, and

how they are affected by college years regarding their eating habits.

The study of Factors Influencing Healthy Eating Habits among College Students: An

Application of the Health Belief Model was conducted among 194 students. It declares that

the problem of today’s people is being obese or living an unhealthy lifestyle and these are the

cause of various diseases which could have been preventable by putting more attention on

healthy diet (Goel, 2006). The study puts more emphasis on the importance of physical

activities, which is not enough among college students (Rashad and Grossmann, 2004).

According to the study, the main reason of unhealthy lifestyle is the wrong choices of foods.

It points out that the diseases can be caused by unhealthy diet and lack of exercises.

According to the study, the food selection has a significant impact on one`s health. The main



3

expectancy from food according to the study is taste, price, nutrition, pleasure and the control

of body weight.

It says the taste forms first in the early childhood and is usually being carried over the

lifespan (Birch, 1999), therefore, the early health education would be the best. According to

the study, Media has a significant impact on people`s self-esteem or what choice they make

regarding their health. It also declares that only 7.3% of the respondents eat five or more

times vegetables and fruit a day. However, this report still didn’t give information about the

Hungarian ethnicity during college years, although it gave a very detailed overview about the

topic.

A Survey of Dietary and Exercise Habits and Perceived Barriers to Following a Healthy

Lifestyle in a College Population conducted data from 471 students of different colleges. It

showed that 31% of the respondents do not have breakfast which is usually one of the most

important meals to start the day healthy. 63% of the students have various snacks one or two

times a day, which contribute to obesity as snacks are rich in fat. However, it also declared

that 58% of the students eat vegetable every day but men are most likely to drink fizzy drinks

than women and the main excuse for not doing exercise is the lack of time.

The eating and physical habits of college students study was conducted in the United States,

which gives only an overview about the eating and physical habits only in America, this is

the limitation of this study, but gives a clear overview of the causes of unhealthy lifestyle in

the particular state of the USA. As it can be seen from the previous studies, none of the

research focused on Hungarian student and their eating and physical habits during college

years although they gave a deep knowledge and overview about the influencing factors of

unhealthy diet and lifestyle.

Methodology

Hypotheses:

H1 It is important for Hungarian students of London Churchill College to eat healthy food

H2 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College are able to decide whether a

particular food is healthy or not

H3 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College are conscious consumers

H4 The Hungarian student of London Churchill College wants to buy healthier food

H5 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College are happy with their body weight

H6 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College do not do regular exercises

according to the requirement of their age

H7 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College do not eat regularly although they

aware of the importance of regular meals



4

H8 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College drink less than required a day

H9 Among Hungarian students of London Churchill College, unhealthy habits (smoking and

alcohol consumption) play a significant role against healthy lifestyle

H10 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College like to eat sweet treats and

unhealthy snacks

As it clearly seen from the hypotheses, the research approached from two perspectives:

1. To measure the opinion of Hungarian students` attitudes in London Churchill College

to the healthy diet

2. To have clear view how healthy their lifestyle is

There are various types of research methodology. This research will follow a deductive

approach avoiding any possible bias. The most appropriate methodology for testing the

hypotheses was descriptive research. Its aim is always to draw conclusions, generalizations

on the basis of quantifiable research data. This kind of research answer the questions like:

what/ when/ how much/ which one etc.? The elements of quantitative research are that the

human attitude and behaviour can be measured numerically; the obtained data can be

analyzed by statistical methods.

The following main features characterise the quantitative research strategy:

The research works with well delimited variables

The variables determined in the measurable form, the result is being examine by

statistical test

New hypotheses been defined concerning the relations between the variables, the

target mainly is to justify the hypotheses or provide a forecast

The phenomenon is examined under strictly controlled circumstances and strive to

exclude undesirable effects

The study can be conducted in a relatively short period of time

The quantitative strategy is used primarily when:

The variable of the research are exact and easy to quantify

The generalization is important

It is important to examine the phenomenon in its natural environment

The prior studies and researches are advanced in the understanding of the particular

issues



5

Therefore, such primary data was collected that can be analyzed statistically from a particular

sample. The mode of collection is structured, standardised questionnaire. It is mostly used in

closed questions; the response categories are fixed in advance, the respondents did not

express them in his own words. This makes it possible to analyse the obtained data. The

quantitative research is more objective than the qualitative research. It is important to point

out that quantitative research does not mean representativeness also. The purpose of the

research is to understand the eating habits and lifestyle of Hungarian students of London

Churchill College and prove the hypotheses raised in the research.

The secondary data was collected from previously collected data, such as studies, researches,

books and journals. Fortunately, this group has entire access online; therefore, the survey can

be conducted online through email. The survey has been conducted between 15th of

November and 1st of December 2013. Within this specified period, 15 people has filled out

the questionnaire and provided reliable data.

In order to conduct the survey the emailing system will be used, which will exclude every

possible bias. This survey will be used only for the purpose of the research and will not be

used it for commercial purpose. The survey will be conducted anonymously and every

participant will remain anonymous.

The Sample Composition

It is necessary to present the composition of the sample before the presentation of the result.

The survey was conducted in London Churchill College among Hungarian students. There

were 18 questionnaires sent by email to the relevant people, 2 people did not complete and

one questionnaire was inadequate to analyze statistically.

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.1 is showing that the respondents are all studying in London Churchill College and

they are full time students. 93.3% of the respondents were women and 6.7% were men. The

significantly different rate between men and women occurred due to the reason that men do

not like to take part in surveys and are less likely to spend time to fill out any questionnaires.

93%

7%

woman man



6

Figure 1.2

Figure 1.2 is showing that 10 students are currently working while studying in the same time

and 5 students are only studying.

Figure 1.3

Regarding the topic, it is important to know the purchasing power of the respondents. 1

person earns less than £1000 a month, 7 people responded that their income was between

£1000-£1500 a month and 7 people said their income was less than £2000 but more than

£1500 a month:

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

only studying working

woman

man

7%

46%

47%

Total income per month

£500-£1000

£1000-£1500

£1500-£2000

above £2000



7

Proving Hypotheses:

H1 It is important for Hungarian students of London Churchill College to eat healthy food

This point is crucial in terms of Hungarian students in London Churchill College`s attitude

towards healthy diet. As the bar chart indicates below, 10 people from the 15 respondents

thought it was always important to have healthy diet, therefore such an assumption proves

that it is important for Hungarian students of London Churchill College to have healthy diet.

Figure 2.1

H2 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College are able to decide whether a

particular food is healthy or not

5 people from the 15 respondents declared that they knew which food was healthy and 8

people said they knew a big range of healthy food. From the total respondents it can be said

that most of them are able to decide about a particular food if it is healthy or not. Therefore

H2 is a true assumption.

Figure 2.2

10

4

1 00

5

10

15

Always Mostly yes Mostly No Never

Do you think that it is important to have a healthy, balanced diet?

0 5 10

I don`t know at all what ishealthy food

I know about few types of foodwhich is healthy

I know a big range of healthyfood

I know all the healthy food

How familiar with healthy foods

do you consider yourself?



8

H3 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College are conscious consumers

7 people said they never checked the label of the item from the 15 respondents. Therefore, H3

has not been proven, as Hungarian students of London Churchill College are not conscious

consumers.

Figure 2.3

H4 The Hungarian student of London Churchill College wants to buy healthier food

53.6% of 15 respondents said they would buy healthier foods, which is 8 of total respondents.

20.1% of total respondents said they would buy healthier foods most of the time. Therefore,

H4 has been proven that Hungarian students of London Churchill College want to buy

healthier food.

Figure 2.4

0 2 4 6 8

Never

Sometimes, but I don’t care

Sometimes and I decideaccording to that

I always check labels and Idecide to buy an item…

Do you check the label of theitem before buying it?

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Always Most of thetime

Sometimes Never

If you have the chance to buyhealthier food, becausesupermarkets separate healthyitems to make them morevisible for consumers, wouldyou buy them?



9

H5 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College are happy with their body weight

From the chart below, it can be seen that most of the Hungarian in London Churchill College

are not happy with their body weight. Only 5 people said that they were average and did not

want to do any change regarding their body weight. Therefore, the H5 could not be proven, as

Hungarian students of London Churchill college are not happy with their body weight.

Figure 2.5

H6 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College don`t do regular exercises

according to the requirement of their age

Overall, from 15 respondents, only 7% do regular exercises (which include 2-3 days a week),

33% do once in every month and the rest do not do at all. The pie chart below proves that the

H6 was right assumption among the Hungarian students of London Churchill College.

Figure 2.6

H7 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College do not eat regularly, although they

aware of the importance of regular meals

In relation to this hypothesis, we first asked the students to prioritise the meals (breakfast,

snack, lunch, snack, dinner), depending on which they thought had more importance.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

I am tooskinny

I am skinny I am average I should losea little bit of

weight

I am obese

In which group you wouldconsider yourself according toyour body weight? Man

In which group you wouldconsider yourself according toyour body weight? Woman

7%7%

33%53%

How often do you exercise?

Every week 2-3 times

Every week at least once

Every month once

I don’t do any exercise



10

According to the respondents, the order of importance of the meals is following:

1. Breakfast (87,1%)

2. Lunch (73,7%)

3. Dinner (53,6%)

4. Snack (53,6%)

This shows that the college students are aware of the importance of breakfast and lunch but if

we look at the practice, we find different figures. 67% of the students have regular breakfast,

73,7% students have regular lunch and the rest do not have regular meals how it is supposed

to be.

As figures above indicate, Hungarian students of London Churchill College know the

importance of the meals but they put into practice and most of them do not eat breakfast or

skip lunch which approves the H7 hypothesis.

H8 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College drink less than required a day

This question emphasised on the daily average drink consumption among Hungarian students

in London Churchill College. The recommendation for a day it is around 2 litres for an adult

but it depends on how much a particular person exercise, work or how much the body

weighs. 2 litres are taken as minimum drink consumption in this research. As seen from the

pie chart, only 33% of the Hungarian students drink the minimum recommended amount of

drink.

Figure 2.7

Therefore, the H8 hypothesis is right, as Hungarian students of London Churchill College do

not drink the recommended amount of drink a day.

7%

13%

47%

20%

13%

How much do you drink a day?

0-0,49liter 0.50-0,99 liter 1-1,49 liter 1,5- 1,99 liter 2- 2,49 liter



11

H9 Among Hungarian students of London Churchill College, unhealthy habits (smoking and

alcohol consumption) play a significant role against healthy lifestyle

73,7% of the respondents smoke regularly and only 6.7 % drink alcohol every day. 26,8 % do

not smoke at all and 87,1% never drink alcohol. It means, 87,1% do not drink alcohol even if

there is an occasion. Smoking is a significant determinant on one`s health. Smoke is one of

the main causes of various diseases. The results above shows that H9 assumption was proved

by the author of this research and the hypothesis was right.

H10 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College like to eat sweet treats and

unhealthy snacks

Processed food contains loads of undesired ingredients such as too much sugar,

conservatives, oil etc. If one consumes too much of the above mentioned ingredients can

lead to increasing body weight or incident of preventable diseases.

Out of the 15 respondents, four said they eat sweet treat or crisps every day, this makes 27%.

Eight people said they eat some sweets or crisps once or twice every week.

Figure 2.8

The pie chart above represents that the H10 assumption was right, and the Hungarian students

of London Churchill College consume sweets and crisps very often.

Validity and Reliability of the Research

The content validity can be tested and examined by professionals, who have carried out

research already. It contains the overview of the research, whether it contains the right tool

(questionnaire) with the right questions in order to gain answers for hypotheses. It has to be

examined if it covers the area, which has been chosen by the researcher. The literature review

27%

53%

20%

How often do you eat sweet treats or crisps?

Every day Once or twice a week Sometimes Never



12

used has valid and reliable references. The reliability can be tested by using the reliability

coefficient.

Limitation of the Research:

The research targeted one particular group in London Churchill College only. However, the

survey could have been conducted in other colleges among Hungarian students to gain more

adequate data and statistics.

CONCLUSION

The research has been conducted through survey in London Churchill College among

Hungarian students. The study results show that although Hungarian students aware of what

they should eat and what is healthy or how healthy lifestyle should be, they do not want or

they cannot follow the guidelines. Most of the respondents are unhappy with their body

weight and they want to be healthier but they do not do regular exercises. In further research,

I would suggest examining the attitude of Hungarian students and the psychological factors

that hinder to act as expected in order to have a healthy life and diet.

The research will be presented in the classroom among all the students; therefore they can

pay more attention to their health. Since the research was conducted among them, it is

directly reflecting the factors that affect their health. Students will be able to consider those

factors, discuss in the classroom and through group conversation they can find the

personalised solution.

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Californian Journal of Health Promotion 2004, Volume 2, Issue 2, 10-19.

Vohs, K. D., Heatherton, T. F., Herrin, M. (2001). Disordered eating and the transition to

college: a prospective study. International Journal of Eating Disorder. 29:280-288.


Palimpsest in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel the Remains of the Day

14


Kristina Mokrousovienė*

ABSTRACT

The present paper focuses on Kazuo Ishiguro’s novel The Remains of the Day. The paper

aims at examining the hidden narratives – palimpsests – in Kazuo Ishiguro’s novel The

Remains of the Day. The paper examines unreliable narration as a narrative technique,

discusses the main protagonist’s suppressed identity and explores the theme of Englishness.

The accomplished analysis reveals that unreliable narration serves as a means to rewrite the

protagonist’s failed past. The examination of the protagonist’s identity proves the extent of

repression exposed in relationships with other characters in The Remains of the Day and

implies submerged narratives. The investigation of the theme of Englishness unfolds its

nostalgia to the greatness of history while the concept of a great gentleman, declaring the

ideal values, remains to be questioned.

Keywords: Kazuo Ishiguro, The Remains of the Day, palimpsest, literature, genre.

INTRODUCTION

Kazuo Ishiguro (1954) is one of the highly acclaimed contemporary British authors.

Originally of Japanese ancestry, Ishiguro has spent most of his life in Britain. His novels A

Pale View of Hills, An Artist of the Floating World, Orphans won a number of prizes,

whereas Ishiguro’s novel The Remains of the Day sealed author’s fame and was later turned

into a film, starring Anthony Hopkins. Ishiguro’s later novels, The Unconsoled (1995), When

We Were (2000), Never Let Me Go (2005) and compilation of short stories Nocturnes: Five

Stories of Music and Nightfall (2009) all firmly established writer’s reputation.

Written in a form of diary the story covers six days of July 1956. Set in an English

environment the story is told from a first person point of view, narrated by an aging butler

Stevens. He interweaves recollections from the glorious days of Darlington Hall in the 1920s

and 1930s with his current thoughts and speculations on various encounters during his trip in

1956. Steven aspires to be the perfect butler, just like his father. He follows a set of codes in

order to be a great butler. Continuously looking back and assessing his waisted life, Stevens

worries he has not acted properly. Stevens, often analysed as anachronistic, digressive and

unreliable narrator, attempts to remember, manipulate or forget according to his needs.

*Academic assistant, ESOL Tutor at London Churchill College. Author bares all the responsibility for the

information and data communicated in this article.



15

Hence, his narrative contains several layers. In Genettian poetics “layered” text which builds

on, parodies, alludes to, contains traces of, or otherwise contains an earlier text is defined as a

palimpsest (Herman et al., 2005). In order to understand Stevens’s vision of the past it is

necessary to analyse the ways he modifies and rewrites the past and study the links between

Stevens’s story and history.

Some Theoretical Aspects

The word palimpsest, according to Oxford English Dictionary, originates from the Greek

words palin – “again” and psestos – “rubbed smooth”. In medieval times, due to economical

reasons, while producing manuscripts, monks often reused sheets of vellum (animal skin such

as sheep, calf or goat) by rubbing or scraping off existing written material (Dahl, 1968), thus

providing the origin of palimpsests. In a figurative sense the term palimpsest is sometimes

applied to a literary work that has more than one “layer” or level of meaning (The Oxford

Dictionary of Literary Term, 2008). As noted by Josephine McDonagh, palimpsest has been

a recurrent metaphor in literature and theoretical works both “for the human psyche and for

history” (1987).

Quincey compared palimpsest to the human spirit and memory in his work Suspiria de

Profundis (1845). His ideas were later elaborated by Sigmund Freud in his essay A Note

Upon the ‘Mystic Writing-Pad (1925). In this work Freud analyses a writing instrument

which consist of slab of dark brown resin or wax under a thin sheet of waxed paper and a

transparent plastic sheet. This instrument allows writing while a pointed stilus scratches the

surface and magically allows to re-use the writing sheet when the plastic sheet is taken away

off the board. According to Freud, the mystic writing-pad works like human memory – it can

absorb indefinite amount of information and remains as a tabula rasa, nevertheless, the

information leaves its traces in human psyche, just like the trace is left on the waxen board

under the writing sheet (ibid.).

The theory of palimpsest was thoroughly presented by literary theorist Gerard Genette in his

work Palimpsest: Literature in the second degree (1982). This important study is based on

examination of various relationships a text may have with prior texts. Graham Allen notes,

Genette’s use of the term palimpsest indicates literature’s existence “in the second degree”. It

is non original rewriting of what has been already written before or, in Genettes words, “text

derived from another pre-existent text” (Allen, 2000).

Reinvention of the Past as a Narrative Technique of the Novel

As established by the prologue, the story of The Remains of the Day takes place in 1956 at

Darlington Hall, England. Written in a form of diary the story spans a six day trip to

Weymouth during which “Old English” butler Stevens, the protagonist of the novel, reflects

on his life and events at Darlington Hall during 1920-1956.



16

The story is told by Stevens from a first-person narrative perspective. In his sophisticated

language from the first pages butler describes the current staff situation at Darlington Hall

and tells about dedication to his profession. Stevens is proud of having served such a

gentleman as Lord Darlington, and, recalling the influential individuals who visited

Darlington Hall during its glorious days, he considers his employment as a privilege.

The narrative, as presented by Stevens, has received much attention among literary critics.

For example, Sarah Gibson points out: “Stevens is significantly an unreliable narrator. It is

this unreliablility which functions to expose the myth of Englishness circulating in the

heritage/tourism industry as unreliable narrators reveal an interesting gap between appearance

and reality, between signifier and signified. There is thus throughout the novel a constant

discrepancy between the scenic presentation and Stevens’s commentary. Despite Stevens

claiming to be an objective viewer, clearly he is not” (Gibson, 2004).

Digressions, indirectness in language and memory gaps makes Stevens an unreliable

narrator. The definition provided by Gerald Prince in his Dictionary of Narratology says that

“unreliable narrator” defines “a narrator whose norms and behaviour are not in accordance

with the implied author’s norms; a narrator whose values (tastes, judgments, moral sense)

diverge from those of the implied author’s (Prince, 1987).

In unreliable narration it is often very difficult to determine whether what the narrator says

provides facts about the fictional world or only clues to his distorted and evaluating

consciousness (Nüning, 2008). Stevens reconstructs the past, examines the mistakes by using

self-deceiving rethoric. By reinterpreting certain events where his actions were inevitable,

Stevens attempts to justify his behaviour. Amit Marcus notes that unreliable narrators are

“self deceivers, unaware of the strategies they employ to convince themselves of the veracity

of the lie, and therefore their state of mind is not a consequence of an intentional act of

deception, as opposed to the state of mind of the other-deceivers” (2005). It is not random

why he says certain things, why he brings up certain topics. What motivates the narrative, as

Ishiguro explains, is the control over things he does not say. It is “a language of self-

deception and self-protection” (Mason, 1989). This idea is important as it shows the essence

of Ishiguro’s narrators and their refusal to be absolutely honest and transparent, out of the

need to protect them.

Stevens presents himself as a great manipulator of language. As Schaffer notes, Stevens uses

“his words and his narrative to convey information to us of which he is unaware” (2006).

Steven talks about himself only when he talks about others but when he talks about himself

directly, he is compelled to lie (ibid.). Mike Petry (1999) asserts that Ishiguro’s stories

frequently relies on “blank spaces”, in other words, absence in narrative. What is not told,

become more important than what is told. For example, when Stevens concludes that Lord

Darlington’s “life and works have turned out today to look, at best, a sad waste” (RD, 2005)

or that Miss Kenton’s life has become “dominated by a sense of waste” (ibid.), Stevens

describes his own life and work. Schaffer agrees that When Steven speaks of Kenton’s

nostalgia for Darlington Hall of the old days (2006.), he speaks of his own feelings, when he



17

refers to Kenton’s “sadness” and “weariness” (ibid.), he registers his own (“you do not seem

to have been happy over the years”, he tells her (ibid.).

Stevens’s profession as a butler includes many rules and a special conduct. The most

important condition to become a “great butler”, in Stevens’s mind, is “dignity in keeping with

his position” (RD, 2005). According to Stevens, dignity “has to do crucially with a butler’s

ability not to abandon the professional being he inhabits” (ibid). Under any conditions,

butlers must not lose dignity, no matter what emotional restraint their work might require.

Such profession does not allow exposure of feelings or emotions. Gradually, it becomes clear

that blind loyalty for his master is Stevens’s greatest ideal.

Ansgar Nünning notes that the general effect of unreliable narration consists of redirecting

the reader’s attention from the level of the story to the speaker and of foregrounding

peculiarities of the narrator’s psychology (2008). The reader learns that Stevens transfers

responsability for his own life onto Lord Darlington. Serving him equates meaning of

Stevens’s life: “The day his lordship’s work is complete, the day he is able to rest on his

laurels, content in the knowledge that he has done all anyone could ever reasonably ask of

him, only on that day, Miss Kenton, will I be able to call myself, as you put it, a well-

contented man” (RD, 2005).

Stevens presents his master as a gentleman which enables him to maintain the feeling of

importance that he felt being a butler in a good house. Nevertheless, such version of Lord

Darlington’s dedication to “serving humanity” (RD, 2005) contradicts narrator’s version of

the events in which Lord Darlington participated, such as Jewish maids’ dismissal.

Furthermore, Stevens is delighted that important meeting between Lord Halifax and Herr

Ribbentrop succeeded with his contribution and that he had some importance in “the course

of history”, although in truth, he contributed to evil (ibid.). Such blind devotion makes

impossible to question the “moral status of an employer” (ibid.). Therefore, Stevens cannot

judge if he meets one of the requirements to become a great butler- that is to have a noble

employer. This inconsistency in the theory of great butlers contributes to the perception of

Stevens’s as unreliable narrator. Following Chatman, “[t]he implied author has established a

secret communication with the implied reader” and indirectly conveys to the implied reader

information that differs from the narrator’s version and so discloses the narrator’s

unreliability (1989). This means that the unreliable narrator is found in texts where the norms

of the narrator somehow deviate from the norms of the implied author

Stevens’s language helps him to conceal his painful and waisted life. He hardly immerses

into uncontrolled flow of thoughts, on the contrary, his monologe is controlled and restrained.

As Parkes notes, Stevens language indirectly exposes a fracture in his psyche and soul

(2001).

Stevens’s journey from Darlington’s Hall to the West country may be perceived as a narrative

device for emphasis of the more important journey to his consciousness. Butler’s attempt to

put past together and integrate into present is the main substance of the novel as he spends



18

more time recalling events rather than engage into present. All significant actions in the past

are exposed by the memories and speculations of narrator (Parkes, 2001). Lewis (2000) notes

that The Remains of the Day is “most sophisticated treatment of the vagaries and vanities of

memory, as protagonist both represses the past and seeks to rewrite it”.

Stevens’s discourse is set in the past where the tradition of Englishness prevails and

Darlington Hall boasts of prosperity, while Mr Faradday’s discourse, American domination is

orientated in present. It can be stated that past and present are in a relationship, creating and

maintaining the myth of the great old England. Wong holds that Stevens stays at once

“extradiegetic” and “homodiegetic” to the story of his life (2000). Memory operates in

palimpsest-like manner and as noted by Guth (1999), “it ressurects the past imaginatively in

order to construct, reconstruct, its meaning”.

Unable to erase the past and start anew Stevens reinvents a new mode for his final years. As

Wong notes, holiday encounter with Miss Benn serves as an impetus for such a revision.

Steven’s recollections aim at creating a new account of his past life, more acceptable than his

real one. He seeks to narrate his life so that it concealed the “teribble mistakes” of his life and

gave more importance and meaning to his existance” (RD, 2005). To achieve this, he omits

certain details of what had happened and stresses other events. As a result, a reader notes

contradiction between Stevens’s past actions (businesslike firing of Jewish maids) and his

self portrayal which he constucts afterwards by his narrative (Crnković, 2000). Events are not

presented in a chronological order, therefore the narrative, in Genette’s terms, is defined as

anachronic. Recollecting events at Darlington Hall the narrator uses flashbacks or analepsis.

One of the examples of analepses is presented in chapter three where Stevens analyses his

behaviour after giving permission to Miss Kenton to attend her aunt’s funeral”:

“I made my exit, and it was not until after I had done so that it occurred to me I had not

actually offered her my condolences ... I paused out in the corridor, wondering if I should go

back, knock and make good my omission. But then it occurred to me that if I were to do so, I

might easily intrude upon her private grief ... I judged it best to await another opportunity to

express my sympathy and went on my way”(RD, 2005).

Stevens indirectly tries to communicate with the reader here. The result of analepses puts

emphasis on how much Stevens is haunted by his past actions and how his physical journey is

intermingled with a mental journey. Applying Genette’s terms, Stevens is a homodiegetic

narrator. He is giving us his vision at the time of the action and his voice at the time of

telling. The time in this passage has a complex temporality. Stevens’s narrative is told in

1956, however time shifts as Steven writes its different instalments on his six day journey

from Darlington Hall to the West Country where he meets Miss Kenton, now Mrs Benn.

These analepses emphasises Stevens’s preocuppation with the past behaviour, revealing how

much his physical journey to Mrs Benn (Miss Kenton) is intertwined with mental journey.

Atempting to self justify, Stevens unconsciously distorts his narrative. His concept of

“dignity” should serve as an excuse for the passive life he has led, serving for Lord



19

Darlington. It should also serve as an excuse for covering mistakes he has made in

relationships with his father and a woman he could have had a relationship with. However,

Stevens’s unreliable narration reveals his falsitivity and the reader discovers a different

version of the story.

Stevens’s Fragmented Memories and Identity

Stevens seeks to be the perfect butler, however his efforts lead us to believe that this ideal can

never be more than a performance. No matter how hard he strives to be a “buttler”, he can

only pretend to be one. This contradiction is obvious while reading his own words concerning

the concept of a great butler: “The great butlers are great by virtue of their ability to inhabit

their professional role and inhabit it to utmost...They wear professionalism as a decent

gentleman will wear his suit: he will not let ruffians or circumstances tear it off him in the

public gaze” (RD 2005).

Apparently Steven perceives his “proper role” like clothing; something that can be taken on

and off, and that one can “appear in”. Similarly, he defines dignity, concept of a butler, as a

rather hard thing to explain in a few words sir, but I suspect it comes down to not removing

one’s clothes in public” (RD, 2005). Guth notes that Stevens’s self is in constant struggle

between self definition and illustration. It is precisely “dignity” which serves as butler’s

definition (Guth, 1999). In Steven’s perception, his job is a kind of perfomance, attempt to

imitate somebody, to pretend and to self censor oneself that is “to not remove one’s clothes in

public”.

However, such self-censorship leads to constant emotional restraint, suppression of emotions.

According to the inventor of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud “surpression of emotions” mabe

be defined as repression - a function of the unconscious “that censors, displaces and

condenses dangerous material, driving it from conscious into unconscious”. John Kucich

notes that the word “repression”, has become „such a buzzword in the post Freudian world

that we rarely reflect on what we mean by it.” (Kucich, 1987). Freud defines repression as a

device protecting “the mental personality”, by which “forgotten memories” or “intolerable

wishes” are originally “pushed” out of “consciousness”. He defines the attendant

phenomenon of “resistance” as the “force” preventing “intolerable wishes” from “becoming

conscious” and compels them to “remain unconscious” (Freud, 1961). Freud states that the

essence of repression “lies in turning something away, and keeping it at a distance”, from

conscious scrutiny (Freud, 1957).

Steven is repressed in his sexual and political life (Schaffer, 2006). Worth noticing that

according to Freud, “people are in general not candid over sexual matters” (1961). In

addition, “they do not show their sexuality freely, but to conceal it they wear a heavy

overcoat woven of a tissue of lies” (1961). As for Stevens, he does conceal his sexual and

political disengagement by clothing it under a “heavy overcoat woven of a tissue of lies”.

Such concealment is first hinted at in the novel’s Prologue, where Stevens initially considers

a “five or six day” trip to the West Country to visit Miss Kenton.



20

Here Steven is worried about his travelling “costumes”, involving “the question of what sorts

of costume” would be “appropriate on such a journey”, and “whether or not” it would be

worthwhile investing “in a new sets of clothes” (RD, 2005). Noting he is already in

possession of “a number of splendid suits, kindly passed on to me over the years by Lord

Darlington himself”, Stevens worries that “many of these suits” maybe “too formal for the

purposes of the proposed trip, or else rather old fashioned these days” (RD, 2005). According

to Schaffer, this seemingly insignificant reference to Steven’s “travelling costumes”

represents one of the novel’s great concerns and controlling metaphors: the literal and

figurative ways by which the butler clothes his private self from his own understanding and

from the “public gaze” (Schaffer, 2006). These literal and figurative forms of clothing

function to conceal and paradoxically, to reveal-Stevens’s sexual and political repression to

the extent that it is concealed under the concept of “professional dignity”. It is precisely

butler’s perception of “dignity” which in his view “comes down to not removing one’s

clothing in public”.

Adam Parkes argues, “He (Stevens) believes that it (dignity) holds the key to his whole life”

(2001). However, his sense of dignity, upon which his identity is based on, must have

diminished since Darlington Hall lost its glory, or to be more precise, since the time when

Lord Darlington became infamous for his connection with Germany during WWII. After Mr.

Farraday becomes the new master, as John P. McCombe comments, Mr. Stevens thinks “Mr.

Farraday appears to lack the proper attention to his station as the resident of Darlington Hall

and the paternalistic obligations it carries” (McCombe, 2002). Consequently, Miss Kenton

serves as an excuse to retrieve his dignity back. On the other hand, hidden feelings for

Kenton reflect concealment in Stevens’s life which is repressed.

Stevens’s most obvious repression in sexual life is presented in his relationship with his co-

worker Miss Kenton. Butler claims that his relationship with the previous housekeeper Miss

Kenton has been strictly professional. Precisely Stevens’s ambition of being the ultimate

professional is one reason which prevents his and Miss Kenton’s possible love affair, as Jack

Slay points out: “(Stevens’s) extreme professionalism prevents him from responding

emotionally to Miss Kenton on any level” (1997). Due to the professionalism, Stevens never

addresses Kenton other than by her family name despite their “close working relationship”

for nearly 15 years (RD, 2005), their evening cocoa sessions are “overwhelmingly

proffesional in tone” “essentially professional” in character for purposes of “professional

communication” (ibid.).

Stevens believes that the return of housekeeper would solve the recent problems - the errors

that has been occuring lately. But, as Stevens’s narration gradually continues, it appears that

Stevens is not so sure about the reason of his trip, as he questions himself, “Why should I

hide it?” His answer suggests that he feels no need to justify his decision; he does nothing

that would not fit in “dignity”. Nevertheless, as Lilian R. Furst points out: “Stevens’s ardent

desire – almost a fixation – to have Miss Kenton back working with him suggests that more



21

may be at stake than the need for a reliable housekeeper. Yet he adamantly represses any

other way of thinking of her” (2007).

Stevens’s recollections of Miss Kenton are “mainly . . . a series of ‘clues’”, as Guth points

out (1999), and it is not until relatively late in the novel that Miss Kenton’s love for Stevens

truly emerges to the reader. It is this “turning point” in their relationship (RD, 2005) when

Miss Kenton interrupts Stevens in his pantry as he is reading a feminine romance novel.

Steven is very discontented, explaining himself that the book was “to improve his command

of English”. The whole action is characterised as a kind of sexual violation. Kenton is

described as “advancing”, “invading” and “pursuing” (ibid.) as if she were to break in and rip

off his clothes. Steven states that, “A butler of any quality must be seen to inhabit his role,

utterly and fully; he cannot be seen casting it aside one moment simply to don it again the

next as though it were nothing more than a pantomime costume” (RD, 2005). This event

makes clear, that Stevens stubbornly remains loyal to his beliefs about dignity and

professionalism at the expense of his love life. Miss Kenton puts it very well when she

exclaims: “Why, Mr Stevens, why, why, why do you always have to pretend?” (ibid).

Another striking scene concerning Stevens’s emotional restraints towards Miss Kenton is

when he is about to give her his condolences for her aunt’s death, but is unable to accomplish

anything else than point out mistakes in her work. However, looking back on this particular

incident, Stevens seems regretful: “But what is the sense in forever speculating what might

have happened had such and such a moment turned out differently?” (RD, 2005).

This also triggers his painful admittance near the end of the novel when Miss Kenton has

explained to Stevens her thoughts about the life she might have had with him: “why should I

not admit it? - at that moment, my heart was breaking” (RD, 2005). This revelation by

Stevens is the first explicit indication of his true feelings for Miss Kenton and the moment in

which his emotions finally surface. Steven consistently calls his former colleague Mrs Benn

to her face but “Miss Kenton” to himself. In this final chapter, Stevens inner feelings has

never been as wide as here. While talking to his colleague after two days after meeting with

Kenton, he breaks into tears but nevertheless insists his tears are the result of travelling,

adding, “…there is something to his advice that I should cease looking back so much, that I

should adopt a more positive outlook and try to make the best of what remains of my day”

(RD, 2005).

The duplicity helps Steven convince us and himself that despite a failed excursion and failed

life, “there is plenty of daylight left” – that the evening “may well be “the best part of the

day” (RD, 2005). However, though the butler claims that he is ready to make good use of the

rest of his life, his “awakening” is partial and rather pathetic. Stevens makes one new

resolution – to learn to “banter”, which might appear to be a viable way for him to gain

necessary emotional intimacy with other. In “bantering” Steven now contends, “lies the key

to human warmth” (RD, 2005). However, this does not promise to be a panacea for the sense

of emptiness and loneliness as he decides to go back to his new master and continue pleasing

him.



22

Stevens is repressed not only sexually, but also politically. Political repression is seen in his

relationship with his two “fathers”, his natural father and father substitute, Lord Darlington.

Stevens admires his father as someone who “not only manifests, but comes close to the

personification itself” of dignity (RD, 2005). Stevens does not speak about personal matters

with his father, that little communication they have takes pace “in an atmosphere of mutual

embarrassment” (ibid.). They both repressed their emotions in order to become “great”

butlers. Stevens is not able to pursue human conversation, only points out his father’s

inability to cope with his work any longer: “The fact is, Father has become increasingly

infirm. So much so that even the duties of an under-butler has become increasingly infirm”

(ibid.). Stevens addresses his father in the third person which shows how the cold their

relationship is.

Steven inherits many of Lord Darlington’s suits over the years (RD, 2005) just as he dons his

master’s political beliefs. Steven disowns his own political views, reasoning, “it is not my

position to display curiosity about such matters”, or “I have every trust in his lordship’s good

judgement” (ibid.). It soon becomes obvious that Steven identifies with his upper- class

“cultural” father and master, Lord Darlington. As Gurevich notes, “it is only through his

master that Stevens manages to establish his own worth” (Gurevich, 1989). The most striking

example is his master’s conference. At first responding to his dying father’s final words to

him, “I hope I’ve been a good father to you”, by nervously laughing and repeatedly saying

“I’m so glad you’re feeling much better now” (RD, 2005), Stevens then quickly return

downstairs to his conference duties for his master. When his father dies later that evening,

Steven still claims not to have time for him, remarking to Kenton who offers to close the dead

butler’s eyes:

“Please do not think me unduly improper in not ascending the stairs to see my father in his

deceased condition just at the moment. You see, I know my father would have wished me to

carry on just now. To do otherwise, I feel, would be to let him down” (RD, 2005).

But here it is not fully clear if Stevens wishes not to disappoint is his birth or his class father.

Stevens’s “political capitulations”, as Shaffer names it, may have remained insignificant,

however, Lord Darlington’s decision to fire two Jewish maids proves different. Lord

Darlington asserts that he cannot have Jews on the staff at Darlington Hall. Since it was

Steven’s duty to do that, he was forced to “cross the fine line between the loyalty that is the

essence of his professionalism and the blind obedience of ‘just following orders’ “ (Gurevich,

1989). The dismissal of the two Jewish housemaids is a significant occurance but Stevens

ignores it, and once again this situation displays Stevens’s peculiar view of dignity. Even

though Stevens admits that his “every instinct opposed the idea of their dismissal” he sees

this task as one which has to be “carried out with dignity” (RD, 2005). Thus, dignity for

Stevens in this context means to fulfil Lord Darlington’s orders by dismissing two

housemaids only to satisfy Lord Darlington’s guests, instead of displaying dignity in

questioning such a motive. This also contributes to the changing view of Lord Darlington as

we can see a connection to the Nazis’ anti-Semitism. However, the full extent of Lord



23

Darlington’s sympathy for the Nazi regime is not revealed by Stevens until the final stages of

his narrative. Although the story is told in 1956, eleven years after the end of World War II,

Stevens dissociates his narrative from the consequences of Lord Darlington’s involvement

with the Germans. Stevens has already demonstrated the true intentions of Herr Ribbentrop in

Britain, and how Lord Darlington endeavoured his guests to see the Germans in a different

light after expressing his regret of their unfair treatment at the Treaty of Versailles. In spite of

this, Stevens apparently ignores the significance of what Lord Darlington suggests when he

claims: “Democracy is something for a bygone era . . . Look at Germany and Italy, Stevens.

See what strong leadership can do if it’s allowed to act” (RD, 2005). Although Stevens

admits that “many of Lord Darlington’s ideas will seem today rather odd –even, at times,

unattractive” (ibid.), he apparently has in mind something completely different than the

reader at this stage. The extent of the influence which the Nazis have had on Lord Darlington

is obvious by now. In contrast, Stevens’s own thoughts revolve around the idea that high

political affairs are not something for common people, but best handled by true gentlemen.

Stevens’s statement is telling: “Let us establish this quite clearly: a butler’s duty is to provide

good service. It is not to meddle in the great affairs of the nation. “(RD, 2005). Stevens

apparently either does not see, or does not want to see, how the Nazis have manipulated his

employer.

On the closing scene on Weymouth pier, Stevens’s trust in his master evaporated, taking with

it both Stevens idolized image of Lord Darlington and his own self-respect (Parkes, 2001):

“His lordship was a courageous man. He chose a certain path in life, it proved to be a

misguided one, but there, he chose it, he can say that at least. As for myself, I cannot even

claim that. You see, I/trusted. /I trusted in his lordship’s wisdom. All those years I served him,

I trusted I was doing something worthwhile. I can’t even say I made my own mistakes. Really

- one has to ask oneself - what dignity is there in that?” (RD, 2005).

This moment is a “partial self-reckognition” (Parkes, 2001). Stevens comprehends that his

devotion has led to poor existence, while his concept of dignity on which he has based his life

is nothing but hollow. The butler does not ultimately succeed in overcoming his repression

and politically, he does not gain true insight about his own political disengagement, there is

no change.

Englishness: Personal and National

As Molly Westermann (2004) points out, one especially prominent “tic” of Stevens’s

narration is that he continuously returns, from various angles, anxiously, to the question of

what makes for English greatness. After a long description of the English landscape and the

“greatness” that distinguishes it, its “sense of restraint” (RD, 2005), the narrator shifts

abruptly: “This whole question is very akin to the question that has caused much debate in

our profession over the years: what is a “great” butler?” (ibid.). Here Stevens associates

butlering (and himself) with Englishness. After all, “when you think of a great butler, he is

bound, almost by definition, to be an Englishman” (ibid.).



24

When Stevens’s American boss, Mr. Farraday, exclaims, “You’re always locked up in these

big houses helping out, how do you ever get to see around this beautiful country of yours?”

Stevens thinks: “Those of our profession, although we did not see a great deal of the country

in the sense of touring the countryside and visiting picturesque sites, did actually “see” more

of England than most, placed as we were in houses where the greatest ladies and gentlemen

of the land gathered” (ibid.). Westerman states that butlers produce and order the houses that

take on the whole meaning of England and points out that, Stevens (as a part) speaks for the

whole not by an external third-person voice but by an English butler attempting to justify a

life of service.

Even these few examples suggest that Stevens’s definition of Englishness begins to split open

at the level of the text, where Stevens has more and more trouble shielding himself from his

own contradictions. England is its “greatest ladies and gentlemen” (RD, 2005) – ruling class,

and at the same time England is “butlering, dignity-as-obedience, knowing one’s place”. On

one hand, butlers are the most English part of England, on the other hand, the ruling class

they serve are that part.

Stevens attempts to reveal the principles that govern the people he has identified as

“English”. In doing so, he does not only refer to the land and specific locations for his

arguments. He also marks the importance of genealogy as the defining principle for the

citizens of a nation. Stevens also establishes the link between the greatness of the country and

the greatness of the butlers and of men in general: „It is sometimes said that butlers only truly

exist in England. Other countries, whatever title is actually used, have only menservants. I

tend to believe this is true. Continentals are unable to be butlers because they are as a breed

incapable of the emotional restraint which only the English race is capable of” (RD 2005,

44). Stevens here talks about “race” as the distinguishing factor between English and non-

English people and points to the superiority of English people in terms of restraint which, one

could ironically add, predestines them to serve as butlers.

The protagonist of The Remains of the Day, thus, clearly establishes a link between the

landscape before him, the concept of a nation and the concept of genealogy without reflecting

about it in great detail. It does not come to his mind that this line of argumentation is nothing

but his own speculation or, at worst, the repetition of fascist ideas about countries, nations

and their “races”. At the heart of Stevens’s argumentation is still the idea of imperialism and

its decline. Another dimension is added in The Remains of the Day which should not be

neglected. Englishness is not only defined by genealogy and land, but it is best represented by

those who possess most of this land, by the aristocracy of this country. At the very beginning

of the novel, the protagonist answers to his employer’s suggestion that he should “get to see

around this beautiful country of [theirs]” (RD, 2005): “those of our profession, although we

did not see a great deal of the country in the sense of touring the countryside and visiting

picturesque sites, did actually ‘see’ more of England than most, placed as we were in houses

where the greatest ladies and gentlemen of the land gathered” (ibid.).



25

The novel implies that this literary and historical tradition has been a major vehicle of a

national consciousness that requires drastic reform, both national and international, the

indigenuous and colonial, by focussing on the anti-semitism of the interwar period, an

exploration in historical and racial.

Wong (2000) notes that The Remains of the Day has generated a rich array of readings not

only about Stevens’s character but also about Ishiguro’s interpretation of Britain’s role in the

socio-political upheavals of the novel’s period – between the 1920s-1950s. A number of

critics have noted that the year when Stevens takes his holiday is important for British history

and for individual reconstruction of British national identity (2006.). John McCombe

explains, “The crisis that seemed to confirm Britain’s decline erupted when Egyptian Prime

Minister Gamel Abdel Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal Company on July 26, 1956, the

very month and year in which Ishiguro sets the novel’s narrative frame” (2002).

The transacted and under-staffed, the Hall parallels the Canal in the influence of Britain.

(Cheng, 2006). New proprietor Farraday stands as the new superpower. As Steven serves

Farraday his American employer, he is, in Susie O’Brien’s words (1996), “serving a new

world order”. America replaces Britain as the leading Western power in the Mediterranean

Sea and in the fictional scenario Farraday succeeds Lord Darlington as the proprietor of the

Hall. Cheng explains, that the omission of the Suez Crisis could be seen as a sign of

Stevens’s anachronism, because the butler, “unduly immersed in bygone glory of Darlington

Hall, is oblivious to current affairs of the outer world” (2006).

Steven’s excursion into the past is not only personal, it is also a journey to history of

England. On his way to Weymouth Stevens is “a relic from imperial past stepping into a

different time zone, mystifying others and disorientating himself” (Cheng, 2006). It is worth

notice that in 1956 Stevens has started listening to radio (“taken to listening to the wireles”

while other had already access to the television (RD, 2005), so it is not surprising that John P.

McCombe, as cited by Cheng (1991) depicts Stevens as “a walking anachronism” depending

on radio for information regardless of “its rapidly diminishing influence”. Stevens’s disregard

of the changes around him metonymises Britain’s denial of its decline: neither the butler nor

the nation is able to embrace the present as it is.

The fact, that Darlington Hall has been taken over by American, points to dilemma many

families during 1950’s: estates could be no longer kept up (Berberich, 2007). Hence, the

Englishness of traditional house setting is threatened by the influence of foreigners who

cannot afford buying them and are not familiar with the traditions, though anxious to acquiree

“the real thing” (RD, 2005), including the stereotypical butler. Stevens, reflecting on

Englishness claims that “it has been my privilege to see the best of England....within

(Darlington’s Hall) walls” (ibid.) He is also enthusiastic about the “greatness” of the English

landscape which marks it “as the most deeply satisfying in the world” (ibid.) - statement is

ironic because Steven has never been outside England and has no point in comparison beyond

what he has read in books:



26

“It is sometimes said that butlers only truly exist in England.... I tend to believe this is

true...We English have an important advantage over foreigners in this respect and it is for

this reason that when you think of a great butler, he is bound, almost by definition, to be an

Englishman.” (RD, 2005).

The novel’s formulations of national identity based on the category of “greatness”, in Jo J.

Su’s words, is both nostalgic and ironic (2005). Stevens declares that „the English landscape

at its finest, possesses a quality that the landscapes of other nations, however more

superficially dramatic inevitably fail to possess ...” This quality is probably best summed up

by the term “greatness” (RD, 2005). Greatness is revealed to be an empty term when Stevens

attempts to characterise it. He suggests that “it is the very lack of obvious drama or spectacle

that sets the beauty of our land apart” (ibid.). Su concludes that Steven’s definition of

greatness is purely negative quality, because it is defined as “lack” (Su, 2005).

Stevens himself feels to be English, and his perception of Englishness is strongly based on

the birthright citizenship. On the evening of the first day of his travel, he refers to this by

pointing out the obvious relation that exists between the countryside and the term “Great

Britain”. In his use of English and British, the terms are exchangeable, and he restricts the

second one to the British isles: “It is, I believe, a quality that will mark out the English

landscape to any objective observer as the most deeply satisfying in the world” (RD, 2005).

Stevens continues: “Yet I would venture that the landscape of our country alone would justify

the use of this lofty adjective” (RD, 2005). Here it is not clear which landscape he refers to

and which part of the country, therefore Stevens’s definition of Britishness is limited to

Englishness. In this sense, Stevens’s notion of Englishness and English people heavily draws

upon a “cult of English localism”.

While discussing personal and national Englishness, it is important to tackle the concept of a

Gentleman. Ishiguro analyses the idea of a gentleman, and deconstructs not only its

importance but also reverence which usually accompanies it. This palimpsestic narrative is

constructed around quintessential gentlemanly values, such as tradition, honour, loyalty, and

duty, and questions their validity. It presents readers with a view from below, with a servant

as protagonist.

Representation of Englishness looms large in the novel. Not only the setting of a country

house with a lord gives authentic English look but also the protagonist himself - the old

fashioned butler and a national stereotype. The profession of the butler equates the ideal of

the gentleman, one of those quintessential English ideas imitated and ridiculed worldwide.

Most debate about “the gentleman” concerns Lord Darlington who initially exposes as a

stereotypical aristocratic, English gentleman, influential and moral man whose main concern

is to improve a world which is on the brink of war. Highly idealistic, veteran of the Great

War, he befriends the defeated enemy and fight for fair treatment of Germany after

Versailles. However, lord is not fair enough. As Berberich notes, his philanthropy includes

Nazis, but excludes Jewish maids (2007).



27

In this context the 1926 conference which debates about “the gentleman” takes place. Most

of the delegates are men similar to Lord Darlinton – their upbringing is alike, as well as the

background. They live according to traditional values, unaware of changes in society. The

only true modern person is the American congressman Lewis. He perceives the dangers that

gentlemen might experience in world affairs and loudly expresses his concern, labelling

gentlemen “naive dreamers, and Lord Darlington – “amateur”: “You gentlemen here,

forgive me, but you are just a bunch of naive dreamers. (...) But his lordship here is an

„amateur”. He is an amateur and international affairs today are no longer for gentlemen

amateurs” (RD, 2005).

Congressman Lewis questions all the values important to Lord Darlington and is a

representative of modern times. Nevertheless, Darlington closes his eyes to the truth and

replies back saying, “What you describe as “amateurism”, sir, is what I think most of us here

still prefer to call “honour” (RD, 2005). In Darlington’s view, honour comprises helping to

the defeated enemy in the war (perhaps his intentions were honourable at the beginning but

later his understanding gone wrong and he fought for the wrong reason).

According to Barberich in such characterization of Lord Darlington, Ishiguro emphasises the

danger of being a gentleman in the twentieth century: “honourable notions can be

misapplied; status and influence abused for the wrong ends” (2007). History showed that

Nazis did not deserve help, while Jewish maids, dependent on Lord Darlington, needed his

protection. Lord Darlington, unfortunately, projects his power to help and protect into

working towards world peace.

CONCLUSION

The analysis of tools used to “correct” events happened in the past shows that the main

protagonist uses unreliable narration which discloses and hides parts of his life story. Such

way of narrating implies protagonist’s both self deception and protection. Unreliable

narration represents the essence of Ishiguro’s narrators and their refusal to be entirely honest

and transparent, out of the need to protect themselves. Memory operates in palimpsest-like

manner. The use of analepses emphasises Stevens’s preoccupation with his past actions and

how his physical journey is intermingled with a mental journey. Memory functions not just as

the repetition of the past, but rather as the deferred past.

The examination of Stevens’s fragmented memory and identity suggests that the protagonist

uses his memory “memory” to “trip” himself up or to “hide” from himself and his past. As

analysis showed, Stevens is surpressed in sexual and political life. These surpressions operate

as “submerged narratives”, revealing his true relationship with other characters. Stevens does

not overcome his surpressions. In the novel’s metaphor, the protagonist struggles between the

side wishing to remain securely wrapped up and the side wishing to cast off his clothing.

The analysis of personal and national Englishness in The Remains of the Day implies that the

butler and England of Remains of the Day are imitations of a mythic past. National identity



28

based on the category of “greatness”, may be referred to as nostalgic and ironic. Meanwhile

the idea of a true gentleman appears to be ambiguous due to the fact that aristocratic and

influential gentlemen appear to be politically amateur and naive, breaking quintessentially

genlemanly values.

REFERENCES

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Berberich, Ch. (2007). The Image of the English Gentleman in Twentieth-Century

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Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.

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with American and English Literature. Northwestern University Press.

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De Quincey, T. (2003). Suspiria de Profundis. In: Thomas De Quincey: Confessions OF

at English Opium Eater and OTHER Writings. Penguin Books, London.

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[Accessed 30 July, 2011].

Freud, S. (1961). Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis. New York: W. W. Norton.

Freud, S. (1957). Repression, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological

Works of Sigmund Freud, vol. 14. London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of

Psychoanalysis.

Furst, Lilian R. (2007). Memory’s Fragile Power in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Remains of the

Day and W.G.Sebald’s Max Ferber. Contemporary Literature, (48:4), pp. 530-553.

Genette, G. (1980). Narrative Discourse. An essay in method. Ithaca, New York: Cornell

University press.

Gibson, S. (2004). English Journeys: The Tourist, the Guidebook, and the Motorcar in

The Remains of the Day. Journeys: The International Journal of Travel and Travel

Writing 5.2, pp. 43-71.

Guth, D. (1999). Submerged Narratives in Kazuo Ishiguro’s The Remains of the Day.

Forum for Modern Language Studies, 35(2), pp. 126-137.

Ishiguro, K. (2005). The Remains of the Day. London: Faber and Faber.

Ishiguro, K., Shaffer, B. W., Wong, C. F. (2008). Conversations with Kazuo Ishiguro.

University Press of Mississippi.

Kucich, J. (1987). Repression in Victorian Fiction: Charlotte Brontë, George Eliot, and

Charles Dickens. Berkley: University of California Press.

Lewis, B. (2000) Kazuo Ishiguro. Manchester and New York: Manchester University

Press.

McCombe, John P. (2002). The End of (Anthony) Eden: Ishiguro’s The Remains of the

Day and Midcentury Anglo-American Tensions. Twentieth Century Literature (48.1):

77-99.



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McDonagh, J. (1987). Writings on the Mind: Thomas De Quincey and the Importance of

the Palimpsest in Nineteenth Century Thought. Prose Studies. 10.2 (Sept. 1987): 207-

224.

O’Brien, S. (1996). Serving a New World Order: Postcolonial Politics in Kazuo

Ishiguro’s The Remains of the Day Available at:

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[Accessed on 11th August 2011]

Parkes, A. (2001). Kazuo Ishiguro’s The Remains of the Day. New York: The

Continuum International Publishing Group Inc.

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New York, Wien. IX, 174 pp. Aachen British and American Studies. Vol. 12

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2000. Blackwell Publishing.

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Slay, J. (1997). Ishiguro’s The Remains of the Day. Explicator (55:3)180-182.

Su, J. (2005). Ethics and nostalgia in the contemporary novel. New York: Cambridge

University Press.

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Narration. Journal of Narrative Technique 24.1.

Westerman, M. (2004). Is the butler home? Narrative and the split subject in The

Remains of the Day. Mosaic (Winnipeg).

Wong, Cynthia F. (2000). Kazuo Ishiguro. Devon: Northote House Publishers.


Contribution of Strategic Human Resource Management to Achieve Competitive Advantage in FedEx

30

Contribution of Strategic Human Resource Management to Achieve

Competitive Advantage in FedEx

Eva Kosturova1, Rahaman Hasan2

ABSTRACT

Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) facts of Human Resource Management

(HRM) steps further. HRM tries to improve effectiveness of the organization in different

sectors, such as selection, recruitment, training, job analysis. But SHRM relates all of these.

Moreover, it helps to identify all the internal strengths of company with the external

opportunities and by matching those, defines competitive advantage. Several numbers of

studies recommend that Strategic Human Resource Management can contribute to fixed

performance. That is the reason why a lot of companies are undergoing changes as a result

of globalization, new technology application and fundamental changes of employment and

also work relations. There is a increasing demand to convert Human Resource Management

practices from focusing on a useful individual to strategic task, which basically means to put

more highlight in Strategic Human Resource Management.

Federal Express (FedEx) is one of the largest and famous transportation companies in the

world. FedEx has been always stereotyped as a service of high quality. The competitive

advantage of FedEx is continuous on quality management. FedEx is also one of the

distinguished organizations for practising Strategic Human Resource Management. This

research aim is to identify the competitive advantage of FedEx and also reveal how Strategic

Human Resource Management helped FedEx to maintain its competitive advantage for ages.

The most crucial assets in this case is the potential of people, as a powerful source of

competitive advantage for a firm in the market industry these people take the form of

employees in a firm.

Keywords: FedEx, Human Resource Management, employee motivation.

INTRODUCTION

FedEx is the world’s leading express transportation company that provides fast and reliable

delivery to every U. S. address and to more than 220 countries. FedEx Express uses a global

1 Student of HND Business course in London Churchill College. 2Programme Manager of HND Business programme in London Churchill College. The authors bare all the

responsibility for the information and data communicated in this article.



31

air and ground network to speed their delivery process – sensitive shipments which usually

take 1-2 business days with guaranteed delivery. This organisation excess – 1,000,000

customers served more than 200,000 employees across 50,000 drop-off locations 688 aircraft,

42,000 vehicles in integral global network. FedEx takes their commitment to diversity very

seriously because this company was built with putting people first.

Explanation of the Factors that Contribute to the Process of Successful Research

Selection

FedEx Express business topic was chosen for a few reasons. FedEx is continuously one of the

biggest shipping organizations which driving force in the green environment. Another reason

is that FedEx branch is in my neighbourhood and every day I am passing either on my way to

college or to work. It is always in my eyes. FedEx provide its customers and other businesses

around the world with a broad portfolio of transportation, e-commerce and also business

services. FedEx has been practicing Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) in

many years. In this research I tried to identify how SHRM helped achieved its competitive

advantage.

What are the Theories to Achieve Competitive Advantage?

FedEx passed through historic stages to bring competitive advantage through network

improvements. FedEx started differentiating themselves by providing better services to their

B2B customer to track their packages better control. FedEx focused on excelling in

information availability as a competitive advantage which required increasing technology.

Company introduced 3D globe with use of webcam which could analyse data and produce

statistics on the business in all countries where FedEx is located (FedEx, 2013).

What is the Recent Practice HRM within FedEx?

These are the recent practices in HRM in FedEx (123 Help me, 2013):

Rewards – cash rewards or performance based bonuses

Progress and Personal Development – using their own program PRISM for

employee data to monitor, job training and testing.

Survey Feedback Actions (SFA) program

Employee Communication program– open door, SFA or GFTP- just to make sure

that all employees’ complaints are resolved.

Retention – FedEx managing to keep turnover less than 6% (20% industrial

turnover); extensive training

Potential Problems and Recommendations – at the moment FedEx keeping labour

costs lower than any other firm.



32

FedEx should keep improving and innovating itself to keep their employees satisfy (new

awards system, letting part – timers to become full time instead giving jobs to other people

from outside of the firm) (123 Help me, 2013).

What Other Problem Based on HRM Practice within FedEx?

Pilots and flight crew members complained about their hours and also time schedule that is

why they suppose to fix this problem as soon as possible to save them a lot of money.

Statement of the Problem

FedEx has proven to perform very well under most circumstances, company has been able to

adapt to changing markets in order to stay successful. However, company has a few problems

which really need to be mentioned; there are several subsidiary companies with FedEx opens

potential for individual poor performance to affect the company. FedEx Kinko’s (chain of

stores offering retail outlets for FedEx and FedEx ground – copying, printing, shipping, etc.)

has posted losses for the past several years but they still open few stores. Also there are more

advances in digital technology which will be much harder to find customers which needs hard

copies of documents and this could be a big problem for whole company. Because of the

FedEx operation which is global is really dependent on economical and political factors

which with rising conflict around the world FedEx seems to be affected in future (Academia,

2013).

HR has a great impact with the institution and the implementation of different policies,

procedures which can affect the success or failure of the performance, competence as well

and can also affect the loyalty of the entire workforce of the organisation and because of

these policies and procedures individuals are being attracted, retained, motivated as well as

developed in order to perform the work of the company. This is due to the fact through these

policies and procedures and each company has to look for the actions of their employees to

operate successfully. This high quality employment helps to improve and maintain the

position of the company in the market by the process of reinforced ability to complete and

provide. Process of incorporating the top management’s goals to the HRM practices and

policies will help to bring out as well as reward the different types of behaviour that are

important in achieving the strategy of organisation. The effectiveness of the HRM practices

can help to improve the company advantages in creating both the cost leadership and

differentiation. HRM is painstaking as the policies, procedures and allow practices which are

connected to the administration of the employees of a company. It has a big contribution in

successful process by developing, motivating and also maintaining high performing

workforce which helps to gain competitive advantage of the company. To improve and

maintain the leading position in the market each company has to offer high quality of

employment (Purcell, 2011).

Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM)



33

The main goal of the Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) is improvement of the

way that HR managed in strategic manner in the company with the connection to the

definitive goal of the improvement organizational performance which is judged by its

influence of the corporate strategy of the company and the concern of the customers and

shareholders (Brewster & Mayhofer, 2000).

FedEx SHRM Practices

Federal Express corporation greatest asset is people. FedEx aims to promote a working

environment where employees feel satisfied, respected and appreciated. FedEx primary link

is value chain and value is created by focusing on employees first. This emphasis on

employee satisfaction is shown annually by company by survey (FedEx, 2013).

Recruitment and Selection Process of FedEx

FedEx takes care of its employees; they will deliver very good service demanded by

customers which will reward company with profitability to secure FedEx’s competitive

advantage. FedEx believes that motivated and diligent people provide professional service to

ensure the profit and growth of the company. Company also selects people regardless of

gender, race, religion, disability or any religion issues (FedEx, 2013).

Career Development of FedEx

Every FedEx office offers open and supportive environment for its employees where each of

the staff can contribute to the company success. People – Service – Profit means that people

are the most valued asset of FedEx success. All employees have opportunity to go further

within the company (FedEx, 2013).

Company promotes a working environment that is built on the People – Service – Profits

principle. This part has been implemented by asking and answering different kind of

questions, e.g. what are employees’ expectations?

FedEx tries to use as much time to answer all important questions from their personnel by

extensive orientation programs which show and define the entire values of the company.

FedEx strictly implements their promotion with connection with IT technologies to

implement job posting system which helps employees to be informing about other

opportunities to look for other position available in the company (Denton, 1992).

Another career program is “Tuition refund program” where company reimburses employees

for tuition fees. Competitive advantage of FedEx: UPS, DHL but FedEx provides critical

competitive advantage.



34

Benefits of FedEx

Federal Express knows that acknowledging efforts is essential for motivated and satisfied

workforce. One of the nice things about FedEx is that customers are left out of this reward

process and they have a voice in selecting outstanding service. Federal Express “Highest

award” is the 5 star award given to individuals for outstanding performance which has

materially helped the corporation, profitability, teamwork and also improved service. Several

categories of employees are eligible of the award including managers, senior managers,

managing directors and also non-managerial employees. FedEx Corporation offers its

employees competitive salary with benefits. Each employee can grow and be successful.

Company is also aware that employees have unique needs and this is a reason why they

created benefits package and employees can choose options which help their needs. Company

pays for basic life insurance. They provide pension plans too and also retirement saving plan.

They offer Tuition assistant program, reduced shipping rate and global travel opportunities

(FedEx, 2013).

FedEx offers support to their workers in building their career, compensation and very

progressive benefits program which rewards every employee contributions to business.

Communication of FedEx

Communication is the key of success which is very important. FedEx uses most successful

tool “Guaranteed Fair Treatment Procedure” (GFTP) which gives each employee right to

have any eligible issue go through a systematic review by progressing higher level of

management and this GFTP ensure that they have a right to complain without any fear.

Employee Motivation of FedEx

Employees are well motivated which leads to higher productivity and also improving

company performance.

Employee Training of FedEx

FedEx believes that training is the key to successful business. FedEx treats employees with

respect and dignity. They give their employees freedom to do their job and tool to perform

their job in possible highest level. FedEx believes that effective training plays critical role in

retaining a highly motivated and productive workforce and is also an important factor in

ability to deliver superior value for stakeholders and shareholders (FedEx, 2013).

Methodology

Research is based on a descriptive method. SHRM practices in FedEx were collected from

different sources and analysed afterwards. All Primary sources have been collected from the

Questionnaire. Secondary sources are from articles and newspapers on SHRM FedEx articles

which have been published on website and magazines. Market research involves collecting



35

and analysing data from existing consumers and also potential consumers in order to provide

products and services that meet their needs (Saunders, 2007).

Primary research is designed to collect primary data which is obtained especially for the

study in question and never been collected before. It can be collected in three ways –

observation, questionnaire or experimentation (Saunders, 2007).

Secondary research is the collection of secondary data which was previously collected by

others and was not designed especially for the study in question. Secondary data is much

cheaper and also faster for collection than primary data but could be out of date by the time

that it is researched. The main sources of secondary data are reports from companies, books

and publications (Saunders, 2007).

Primary and secondary research provides business with data which is related to its markets

and also their consumers. This data can then be used to describe the current situation in the

marketplace or for predicting what will happen in the future of the company and also to

explain the trends that have occurred. Each business also use that data to segment the market

which involves spreading the market into the groups of consumers who have similar

characteristics and main ways for segmentation of the market are done by consumer

characteristics, by demographics or by location (Brassington & Pettitt, 2000).

Quantitative research highly depends on the population and that data is numerical and could

be analysed statistically and graphically. The most common types of sample which can be

used to collect quantitative data are random sampling where respondents are chosen by

computers from a telephone contact, quota sampling where all respondents needs to be

grouped (age, gender) (Saunders, 2007).

Questionnaire is meaning of direct contact with consumers which can be done by personal

questionnaires like door to door service or interview or postal questionnaires, group

questionnaires or questionnaire done by telephone. Questionnaires can be very expensive and

also time consuming for the companies and in that point could be very difficult to manage

and very important that every respondent must be asked the same questions in same order. A

questionnaire provides quantitative method of data collection which means that this data is

expressed in numerical terms. Advantage of the questionnaire is that we can reach large

numbers of people. A questionnaire is more rigid than interview. A questionnaire must be

designed well to get what we want out of it. While preparing the questionnaire the aspects

followed were these (Learner’s previous academic work, 2012):

I have introduced myself and also we explained what the aim of the questionnaire is

I have tried to have a sequence to take questions that way questions are relevant

I have developed clear questions which are easy to understand

In this research quantitative method was used when dealing with numbers and figures. To

select the respondents non-random judgemental sampling was chosen because there was no



36

list of people and category was judgemental sampling because is easier and flexible and in

that case researcher has more control (Brassington & Pettitt, 2000).

Questionnaire Survey

For my Questionnaire Survey non-random judgemental sampling was chosen because is

flexible, researcher has more control and is also much easier to analyze. So to collect

quantitative primary data every single researcher has to design a questionnaire or an

observational form. Each questionnaire has to translate the information needed into a set of

specific questions. Designing a questionnaire is like an art. We can provide guidelines for

development but the truth is that not every questionnaire is suitable for every research needs

and the process starts by specifying information which is needed. The following step includes

decision on the content of questions. Those questions have to be written in a way that every

single respondent will understand them easily. If respondent is not informed he might be

unable to answer (Brassington & Pettitt, 2007).

Sometimes respondents do not want to participate when they are pushed. Questions can be

open-ended or close ended. Most commonly used scales are limit, staple and semantic

differential. Each question must be written in simple words and also clearly defined who,

where, when and what. Each researcher should avoid leading operations. Special

consideration should be given to opened questions, difficult questions, type of information

and also subsequent questions. Questions should be arranged in a logical order. Design of the

questionnaire is a very important aspect of marketing research and efforts devoted to this task

can pay off handsomely in terms of quality and completeness of data and results (Learner’s

previous academic work, 2012).

I have developed the mind map which including aspects (length of employment, satisfaction

of the employee, reason of staying in current job, personal development, contribution of

employee on decision making and motivating factors for employee to help us to design a

questionnaire. These aspects were the objectives from which questions were developed. It

was important to make sure that by this questionnaire necessary information would be

received and that the questionnaire survey will be as short as possible just to avoid the fail of

participation. The questions had to be written in a simple style so that anyone could

understand and any difficult wording had to be avoided. Also, it was important to use as

many closed questions and rating scales as possible because analysing is much easier than

analysing open ended questions where respondents can write their own opinion. In addition,

pilot survey was designed and distributed to three individuals with the intentions to correct

the survey if required. If no corrections are necessary, it can be distributed to 55 respondents.

Self-developed Questionnaire Survey is attached in the appendix of the assignment.

The questionnaire was chosen because it is much easier to communicate with people and

researcher has more control because we designed the questionnaire by ourselves.



37

Findings and Analysis

Q6 Calculation of Standard Deviation (Easy calculation, 2013)

Data (X): 19, 6, 6, 24

Data set (X): 6, 6, 19, 24

Mean: 55: 4 = 13, 75

n = 55

n-1 = 54

Table 1 Standard deviation

X M (X-M) (X-M) 2

6 13, 75 -7, 75 60, 06

6 13, 75 -7, 75 60, 06

19 13, 75 5, 25 27, 56

24 13, 75 10, 25 105, 06

55 252, 74

S = √∑(𝑥−𝑀)2

𝑛−1 = 252, 74: 54 = 4, 68 average

Result above of Standard deviation is 4, 68 which means exact value of the difference

completes from Mean when we consider operations. If I have a lower diffusion result that

would mean I have to measure data more exactly. Out of 55 respondents selected as their

biggest motivator is Friendly environment.

Correlation Coefficient (CC) = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 x 100 =

4,68

13,75 x 100 = 34%

According to the result of the correlation coefficient is 34% diffusion compared to the

average and that’s mean exact outcome.



38

Source: Primary research, 2013

Figure 1 above clearly shows that majority of their employees working for the company more

than 5 years which means that FedEx retain their employees very well, trying to keep the

employees in the highest possible level. Employees are clearly satisfied working for them.

Source: Primary research, 2013

Graph (Figure 2) above shows that most of the employees of FedEx are satisfied with their

current job, basically more than a half of total employees are happy but 35% which is very

close to 54% are dissatisfied which means that company need to find out why their

employees are not really happy.

0

10

20

30

Less than 1 year 1 - 5 years 5 - 15 years More than 15years

Figure 1: How long you work in FedEx?



39

Source: Primary research, 2013.

Figure 3 here clearly shows that most of their employees pointed the reason for staying

working for FedEx because they are very satisfied with their training opportunities.

Employees are also happy to stay in FedEx because they are happy with their salaries and

their job security.


Figure 4 above shows that majority of the respondents think that employees have big chances

to really go further within the company in higher level which is very good point and that’s

why I assume that employees are staying in the company longer to be successful.

0 5 10 15 20 25

Salary, Benefits, Security

Working hours

Vacation Leave

Promotional opportunities

Training opportunities

Other

Figure 3: What are your reasons to stay in current job?

Yes64%

No36%

Figure 4: Do you think that you have chances for career development in this company?



40


In Figure 5 we can clearly see that majority of the respondents mentioned that FedEx let their

employees to get involved in decision making process which obviously is very good point

and making their employees more motivated in the point and also their performance is in

higher level.


In Figure 6 above we can clearly see that the best motivating factors for the employees are

definitely workforce they work in and salary. Company really care for their employees in all

levels which help to gain their competitive advantage.

0 5 10 15 20 25

Salary

Promotion

Figure 6: Which from following factors are most motivating aspect for you?

0 10 20 30 40

Yes

No

Occasionally

Figure 5: Does the top management involve you in decision making which are connected with your

department you work?



41

85%

4%11%

Figure 7: Are you happy with training opportunities in the company?

Yes No Sometimes


Figure 7 above clearly pointed that employees of FedEx are really happy with training at the

company. Only 2 (4%) out of 55 respondents which is really low amount to be not satisfied

with their training opportunities.

Recommendation and Justification of Further Consideration of FedEx

Even FedEx as a successful company has got strong relationship with its employees, there are

different aspects that must be maintained and improved as a Career development. Another

very important part which must be considered is internal communication between employees

which help to know employees demands and needs:

Improve labour efficiency

Educate entire public about services and also delivery options

Promote customers pre-visit activities

Develop communications methodology and operational practices to customers to

desired delivery channel

Expand customer reach through self-service channels

FedEx’s standpoints are presented in this description:

Fully-Skilled workforce which gives employees opportunities to utilise skills to work

Communication strategy which includes two way communication – employees

participate in interactive discussion

Compensation strategy provides highly competitive salaries and pay for performance

incentives

Development and training strategy which is 100% satisfaction of employees

FedEx is one of the companies which found effective way how to keep employees and

career opportunities is one of the reason why employees stays with FedEx

FedEx retains employees as well as improves the skills of them by making sure that

their employee receives proper training in job performance skills.



42

FedEx Express values its employees and believes that well motivated and satisfied workforce

is essential in definitely help provide quality service. Company believes that its employees

are on the competitive advantage. FedEx has well skilled and motivated employees.

Company’s HRM strategies are specifically made to fulfil company’s objectives and goals.

Company policies and practices are designed to focus on providing competitive salaries and

benefits, providing equal opportunities, providing well-being on workforce, career

development programmes, training and others. Workforce of the company is a source of

competitive advantage of FedEx Express.

REFERENCES

123 Help me. (2013). [Online] Available at: http://www.123helpme.com/federal-express-

fedex-case-view.asp?id=165018 [Accessed on: 14 November 2013].

Academia. (2013) Problem Statement of FedEx [Online] Available at:

http://www.academia.edu/707668/FedEx_Problem_Statement [Accessed on: 16

November 2013].

Bar Chart, Open University. (2010). Bar Charts and Histograms [Online] Available at:

http://www.openlearn.open.ac.uk/mod/resource/view.php?id=210667 [Accessed: 11

April 2010].

Bell, J. (2010). Doing your Research Project. 5th Edition. London: Open University

Press.

Brassington, F., and Pettit, S. (2000). Principles of Marketing. 2nd edition. Essex:

Pearson Education Limited.

Bubblews. (2013). Competitve Market Advantage [Online] Available at:

http://www.bubblews.com/news/990885-competitive-market-advantage-at-fedex

[Accessed on: 14 November 2013].

Case Study. (2013). Best Practices at FedEx [Online] Available at:

http://www.casestudyinc.com/hr-best-practices-at-fedex-best-company [Accessed on: 15

November 2013]

Cohen, L. Minion, L. and Morrison, K. (2007). Research Methods in Education. 6th

Edition. Antrim: Rutledge.

Denton, K. (1992). Keeping Employees: The Federal Express Approach.

Easy Calculation. (2010). Standard Deviation Tutorial [Online] Available at:

http://www.easycalculation.com/statistics/lean-standard-deviation.php [Accessed: 15

November 2013]

Gill, J. and Johnson, P. (2010). Research Methods for Managers. 4th Edition. London:

Sage Publication.

Pegg, Jr. E. (2010). Mean, Median, Mode [Online] Available at:

http://www.demonstrations.wolfram.com/MeanMedianMode/ [Accessed: 15 November

2013]

Purcell, I. and Boxall, P. (2011). Strategy and Human Resource Management third

edition (Management Work and Organisations). 3rd edition. Basingstoke: Palgrave

Macmillan.

http://www.123helpme.com/federal-express-fedex-case-view.asp?id=165018

http://www.123helpme.com/federal-express-fedex-case-view.asp?id=165018

http://www.academia.edu/707668/FedEx_Problem_Statement

http://www.openlearn.open.ac.uk/mod/resource/view.php?id=210667

http://www.bubblews.com/news/990885-competitive-market-advantage-at-fedex

http://www.casestudyinc.com/hr-best-practices-at-fedex-best-company

http://www.easycalculation.com/statistics/lean-standard-deviation.php

http://www.demonstrations.wolfram.com/MeanMedianMode/



43

Pie Chart, Open University. (2010). Pie Charts [Online] Available at:

http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/mod/resource/view.php?id=210667 [Accessed: 11 April

2010]

Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thorn-hill, A. (2009). Research Methods for Business

Students. 5th Edition. London: Prentice Hall.

Thomas, R. and Lynn, P. (2009). Survey Research in Practice. London: Sage

Publications.

http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/mod/resource/view.php?id=210667


Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability

44


Nafisa Iffath Ahmed*

ABSTRACT

Green Chemistry is a relatively new emerging field that strives to work at the molecular level

to achieve sustainability. The field has received widespread interest in the past decade due to

its ability to harness chemical innovation to meet environmental and economic goals

simultaneously. Green Chemistry has a framework of a cohesive set of twelve principles

which help to explain what the definition means in practice. This article covers the concepts

of design and the scientific philosophy of green chemistry with a set of illustrative examples.

Future trends in green chemistry are discussed with the challenge of using the principles as a

cohesive design system.

Keywords: Green Chemistry, chemicals, pollution, hazards.

INTRODUCTION

The chemical industry has been

understood poorly by the public in

general for years. Very few people are

aware of the chemical industries vital

role for the society and economy.

Eventually, everything we do in our daily

routine is made possible by the chemical

industry; starting from the products we use to food and transportation. However, in the recent

years the industries impact on environment and public health has become well known. Some

of the challenges that the chemical industry face such as carbon dioxide emissions, high

energy consumption and resource exhaustion are also threats to our economy and

environment. Scientists and researchers think green chemistry can be a solution to deal with

the challenges in the current society and industry without damaging our environment

(Anastas and Warner, 1998).

Green chemistry, synonymous with sustainable chemistry, is a relatively recent attitude to

propose products, services or processes that minimize the use of hazardous or harmful

contents. It applies throughout the lifecycle of a product, including the production, usage and

disposal. The basic principle is to design and manufacture chemical products through energy

* BSc in Chemistry student from Ryerson University, Canada. The current paper was a thesis submitted for the

degree. The author bares all the responsibility for the information and data communicated in this article.



45

efficient, safe, environmentally sustainable and effective processes (Ryan, 2003). According

to EPA, green chemistry reduces pollution at molecular/atomic level, leads to ‘source

reduction’ since it prevents pollution, designs and implements chemical technologies and

services in such a way so as to minimise their intrinsic hazards (EPA, 2013).

Green chemistry aims to decrease pollution at its source by minimising the risks of solvents,

feed stocks, reagents and finally chemical products. This is different from remediation

(cleaning up pollution) because remediation includes separating harmful chemical from the

rest of the materials and treating them for safe disposal. Usually remediation activities do not

apply to green chemistry (EPA, 2013). Green chemistry excludes hazardous substances from

the environment in the first place, while remediation removes hazardous materials that are

already present in the environment.

Moreover, green chemistry encourages eco-compatible technologies and economical

processes that help to improve chemical yield and at the same time lowers cost of disposing

of wastes. The focus is to reduce the hazard and maximise the effectiveness of any chemical.

Adoption of green chemistry innovations can give academia and industry alternatives to

processes and products which will meet market demands as well as reduce human health

problems, be sustainable and improve the economy (Vert et al., 2012).

Green chemistry intends to be a more eco-friendly substitute to conventional chemical ways

and processes. The green revolution ultimately aims to a green bio-based economy by

achieving sustainability in three key areas; namely the reagents used for manufacturing,

renewable energy technologies and benign alternatives to present day technologies. This

revolution started very recently in the 1990s, particularly in the developed countries such as

United Kingdom, United States and Germany. A number of acts and legislations have been

developed to treat and control pollution and there have been efforts by the academic and

industrial communities to invent novel processes that discourage use of hazardous materials

(Kidwai, 2001). This article focuses on how well the chemical industry and academia have

incorporated the principles of green chemistry and the problems and challenges that need to

be addressed.

Figure 1: A green chemical process compared to a regular chemical process

Source: Sheldon, 2007.



46

Figure 1 shows a regular chemical process which results in wastes and products from starting

materials like solvents and substrates. If most of the starting materials are recycled, waste can

be prevented. For instance, reagents and catalysts that are confined to a solid phase can be

filtered and maybe reused later. On the other hand, substrates can be added continuously to

result in a product that will be removed constantly from the chemical process while the

reagents and catalysts are kept on hold (Sheldon, 2007).

Principles

The US EPA published a set of twelve principles of green chemistry to help explain the

definition and start its practice (EPA, 2013). The principles cover such areas as:

The design and application of energy efficient processes.

The use of green substances and chemicals where possible.

The design of innovative processes to maximize the amount of starting materials that

results in the final product.

More usage of sustainable resources.

Prevention of waste in the beginning of a chemical process.

Tools and methods to evaluate environmental impact.

Further development of environmental routes and bio-based alternatives which lead to

important products.

The twelve principles that demonstrate the concept of green chemistry are (EPA, 2013;

Anastas and Warner, 1998):

1. Waste prevention: Prevent waste rather than treat waste after it has been formed.

2. Maximize atom economy: Design synthetic methods to incorporate the maximum of all

materials in the final product.

3. Less hazardous chemical syntheses: Design synthetic methodologies that are non-toxic to

humans and environment.

4. Design safer chemicals: Design chemical products to preserve their desired function while

reducing toxicity.

5. Safer solvents and reaction conditions: Auxiliary substances such as separating agents and

solvents should be avoided wherever possible and safer chemicals should be used.

6. Increase energy efficiency: If possible chemical reactions should be conducted at room

temperature and pressure.

7. Utilize renewable feedstocks: Where economically and technically practicable use

renewable starting materials relative to depletable feedstocks (natural gas, coal).

8. Reduce chemical derivatives: Derivatives such as protecting or blocking groups should be

avoided where possible since they generate waste and may utilize additional reagents.



47

9. Make use of catalysts: Catalytic reactions reduce waste. Catalysts can carry out a chemical

reaction many times, unlike stoichiometric reagents that can carry out a reaction only one

time.

10. Design chemicals for degradation: Design chemical products so that they degrade to

innocuous substances after their desired function and not persist in the environment.

11. Analytical methods for pollution prevention: Analytical methods need to include real-

time and in- process monitoring also control during reactions to reduce formation of

hazardous materials.

12. Prevention against chemical accidents: Chemical substances and the form in which they

are used in a process should be chosen to reduce the risks for accidents, fires and explosions.

The E Factor

The concept of E factor plays a major role in grabbing the attention of pharmaceutical plants

because it focuses on waste production problem during the manufacturing process. In the late

1980s Environmental factor or E factor was introduced by Sheldon (2007) which is defined

by

Sometimes E factor is assessed differently for organic and inorganic wastes that are lost and

extracted in an aqueous waste streams.

In one case, during the first laboratory synthesis of Viagra (anti-impotence drug) at Pfizer, a

pharmaceutical company, the drug had an E factor of approximately 105. Before Viagra went

on the market, a research team at Pfizer re-examined each step of the process and replaced

hydrogen peroxide, all chlorinated solvents and oxalyl chloride which can produce carbon

monoxide. Ultimately, Viagra’s E factor was cut down to 8 by the researchers (Sanderson,

2011).

It has been reported that the pharmaceutical industry usually produce about 25 to 100

kilograms of waste/ kilogram of product. An E factor of almost zero is achieved during

petroleum refining while manufacture of fine and bulk materials can give an E factor of

anywhere in the range 1 to 50. However, E factors do not apply to the waste toxicity. A

correction factor namely ‘unfriendliness quotient’ Q would account in that scenario. If its

recyclable waste than the quotient would be less than 1, if the waste has almost no negative

effect on the environment than it would be 1 and with hazardous and toxic waste the quotient

would be more than 1 (Sheldon, 2007). Still, E factors are widely accepted in the chemical

industry for comparison purposes.



48

Another measure for the environmental acceptability of a manufacturing process is atom

efficiency. It is calculated by

Atom efficiency is mostly a theoretical value and does not include the actual chemical yield.

Moreover, the term is used for qualitative rather than quantitative description of a chemical

reaction (Sheldon, 2007).

A Brief History of Green Chemistry

By the late 1980s chemical industry worldwide realised it had to perform some action

regarding its environmental reputation. The public became aware of the 1978 Love Canal

scenario near Niagara Falls, New York, where buried toxic waste made an entire

neighbourhood evacuate from that place. In addition, the 1984 disaster in Bhopal, India

which killed at least 3000 people and left hundreds and thousands injured did not help the

industry’s reputation either. Eventually, chemical industries tried to deal with their waste

production responsibly but the tons of volumes of waste were simply daunting. In 1991,

around 278 million tons of hazardous waste was produced from 24,000 sites. More than 30

million tons of waste came from one chemical company alone; the Dow Chemical Company

in Michigan and other firms like Amoco in Chicago and DuPont in Delaware followed close

after (Sanderson, 2011).

Green chemistry can probably be linked to environmental activist and writer Rachel Carson.

Her publication of the 1962 literature ‘Silent Spring’ is thought to have ignited the

environmental movement. She helped spread public awareness of the hazards of pesticides

and how they are linked to environmental pollution. In 1969, President Richard Nixon

established a Cabinet-level Environmental Quality Council and the Citizen’s Advisory

Committee on Environmental Quality as an effort towards environmental sustainability.

Nixon’s efforts were not forceful enough and later that year the National Environmental

Policy Act (NEPA) was developed. This act also established the Council on Environmental

Quality (CEQ) (Marteel et al., 2003).

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was born in 1970 under the orders of President

Richard Nixon. Its purpose is to protect the environment and human health by enforcing laws

and regulations. By the 1980, it was recognised that a shift from end-of-pipeline treatment to

pollution prevention is needed. Therefore, in 1988 the Office of Pollution Prevention and

Toxics was established. In 1990 the Pollution Prevention Act was passed under George H.W.

Bush Administration. This act enforced eco-friendly policies to deal with pollution and

allotted grants to states in efforts of waste reduction (EPA, 2013).

It has been said that Kletz introduced the concept of green chemistry in his 1978 paper. He

suggested that research chemists should look for alternative processes rather than the ones



49

involving hazardous chemicals and conditions. However, in 1991 Paul Anastas, who was a

staff chemist in the EPA at the time, coined the term ‘green chemistry’. He is widely known

today as the ‘Father of Green Chemistry’ for developing ‘the twelve principles of green

chemistry’ along with John Warner. The EPA initiates the Green Chemistry Program in

1993, which encourages the design and application of products and processes that minimize

the use of hazardous materials. In 1995 Anastas persuaded President Bill Clinton to start the

Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Awards. The award honours the companies and

academics that have incorporated the principles of green chemistry and eco-friendly

manufacturing processes into their practices (Anastas and Warner, 1998; EPA, 2013).

In the previous decade spanning to the present day some major green chemistry

achievements include the California Green Chemistry Initiative which was passed by

Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger in 2009. That same year President Obama nominated

Anastas as head of EPA’s Office of Research and Development. Besides these, Europe

developed the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation, and Restriction of Chemicals

(REACH) program in 2007, which requires companies to provide data showing that their

products are safe (Renner, 2009).

In the recent years since eco-awareness has spread to the consumer market and the general

public has become more concerned regarding the hazards of certain chemicals and

substances, pharmaceutical plants and companies are revamping the ways they have been

using chemicals (Ryan, 2003). Some of these practices include:

A reduction in the usage of formaldehyde, which is linked to a number of health

issues, in the manufacturing process of products.

Minimizing the use of dyes in the manufacturing procedure.

Eliminating the use of CFC’s in products which was previously widely used.

Development of bio-technology alternatives that lessens negative environmental

impact.

Development of sustainable technologies in agrichemical treatment for agricultural

and farming purposes.

Development of novel systems to formalise raw materials for manufacturing

important products.

Nowadays, companies perform proper assessment of materials and work with

manufacturers to redesign products and materials which are more safe and

sustainable.

Companies and firms also evaluate risks like release of toxins during the

manufacturing procedure or into the chemical products, and emissions that are

harmful to human health and environment.

Green Chemistry and Developing Countries

In developing countries, the concept of green chemistry is still in its early stages of

development. In spite of the need, most of the practices are far from areas of pollution



50

prevention, energy efficient designs and safety. The major problems that developing

countries are suffering from today are waste production and environmental pollution.

Policies based on end-of-pipeline treatment instead of preventing pollution at its source and

poor management of industrial waste are just some of the reasons that can be linked to these

problems. Recently a United Nations report indicated that developing countries suffer from

very limited energy resources and high levels of energy consumption (Kidwai, 2001).

The main concern for most of the industries and companies in developing countries is cost

effectiveness instead of eco-efficient methods. There have been a few joint ventures between

industries and academia but there is still an increasing need for this kind of collaboration.

Governments in some developing countries have enforced environmental regulations and

legislations. One such example of government initiative is vehicles converting to compressed

natural gas (CNG) from diesel or other gases. Therefore, more funding and greater

coordination between academia, government and industry is required (Kidwai, 2001).

Green chemistry could play a vital role in dealing with the chronic issues such as waste

management, water sufficiency and use of bio-degradable and safe materials that the

developing nations face (Kidwai, 2001). Also, the governments should take initiatives to

educate the public about green chemistry, enforce strict environmental laws and regulations,

and encourage further research into green chemistry innovations and technologies.

Some Recent Literature Examples

Some recent developments in green chemistry include the 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry that

was awarded to Chauvin, Grubbs and Schrock (2005) for ‘the development of the metathesis

method in organic synthesis’. Metathesis means ‘changing places’. In a metathesis reaction

carbon-carbon double bonds are broken and the carbon atoms change places with other atoms

to make new bonds, therefore producing new molecules. This kind of reaction occurs in the

presence of a catalyst. The Nobel Prize Laureates demonstrated in their paper how developed

synthesis methods are more environment friendly, more effective and easy to use. Metathesis

will reduce hazardous waste via smarter production methods which will benefit the overall

environment and society.

Figure 2: Chauvins’ (2005)



51

Figure 2: Chauvins’ mechanism can be described as a dance where the ‘catalyst pair’ and the

‘alkene pair’ change partners with one another. Based on Chauvin, Grubbs and Schrock’s

(2005) principles recently the concept of green pharmacy was developed. Baron (2012)

explored smarter and greener pharmacy by developing green pills and sustainable processes,

reducing drug footprints and their E-factors. The author explained that using biotechnology

and enzymes can minimise the environmental impact and at the same time help

pharmaceutical companies to continue their development. Then in 2011, BioAmber Inc.

developed a technology that produces large scale succinic acid by fermentation of renewable

feedstocks at a low cost due to an E. coli biocatalyst. The technology costs less than the

petroleum-based succinic acid and offers a lesser carbon footprint (EPA, 2013). BioAmber

has signed partnership agreements with a number of major firms and plan to produce the bio-

based succinic acid on a commercial scale that will meet market demands, as well as reduce

pollution and increase health benefits.

Furthermore, in one quantitative study not only was the greenness of a chemical process

taken into consideration but also other variables such as chemical yield, safety when handling

chemicals, temperature/time, hardware demands, simpler product workup and purification,

cost of reaction components, and technical setup were factored in (Aken et al., 2006).

Another green study looks into a new polymer Sorona which is based on 1,3-propanediol

(3GT) and has been manufactured from corn sugar through bio-based fermentation process.

Its unique stretch recovery characteristic due to zigzag shape, crystalline molecular structure

and high melting point (228 °C) makes Sorona more beneficial over other polymers, namely

2GT and 4GT. The diol has economic and environmental advantages over other conventional

diols and can be used to make new polyesters for manufacturing carpets (Kurian, 2005).

Figure 3: Comparing the molecular shape of Sorona with other polymers

Source: Kurian, 2005.

In addition, Noyori (2005) in his paper recognised three key tools in green chemistry. These

are: the use of aqueous peroxide for neat oxidation reactions, the use of hydrogen during



52

asymmetric synthesis and the use of supercritical carbon dioxide which is a green solvent. He

also discussed potential examples of green chemistry namely water reactions, dry media

reactions and supercritical water oxidation reactions.

Figure 4: The three key developments in green chemistry as identified by Noyori (2005)

In some cases, development of green methods for specific reactions focuses on solvent choice

and developed catalysed reactions. For instance, in the production of steroids Woodward

Reaction has been replaced by Upjohn Dihydroxylation, which is the more developed

catalytic reaction for dihydroxylation. The economic factor that applied to the Woodward

reaction was its use and production of large amounts of expensive silver salts. Conversely,

the Upjohn Dihydroxylation reaction used osmium tetroxide in stoichiometric quantities

which is also very expensive and toxic. However, when osmium tetroxide in catalytic

quantities and the stoichiometric oxidant N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide is applied, the system

is considered green and can be used on an industrial scale (Sheldon et al., 2007).

Figure 5: Woodward Reaction uses huge amounts of silver salts

Source: Sheldon et al., 2007.

Figure 6: Upjohn Dihydroxylation uses osmium tetroxide and N-methylmorpholine-N-

oxide

Source: Sheldon et al., 2007.

Other methods have used hydrogen peroxide to reoxidise N-methylmorpholine and also used

it in catalytic amounts. In this case, water was produced as the by-product, rather than N-

methylmorpholine which makes this reaction green. Also, some catalysed reactions have

reused the osmium catalyst by either encapsulating it in a polyurea matrix or bounding it to a

resin. Another advantage of this reaction is the toxicity of transition metal impurities can be

avoided, especially in pharmaceutical products (Sheldon et al., 2007).



53

Choice of solvent is a major component of a reaction system, almost 90% by volume. Many

solvents are volatile and toxic, therefore, where possible, ionic liquids should be used.

Besides being non-volatile, ionic liquids provide a non-aqueous reaction medium. Moreover,

in a reaction system where products are removed by distillation while the catalyst stays in

ionic liquid, the catalyst and the solvent could be recovered and reused. The ideal solvent of

choice is waste because of its non-toxicity and partial chemical compatibility. Although it has

been reported that some reactions like Diels-Alder Reaction accelerate in aqueous media, but

many reagents and organometallic compounds are almost completely incompatible with

water. Therefore, development of methods that can produce important products through their

reactions in aqueous media or water is needed. Other green considerations may include

running chemical reactions in a supercritical carbon dioxide medium or under no solvent/

neat conditions, using toluene (less toxic) instead of benzene and using solvents that

microorganisms can readily degrade (Adam et al., 2003).

Due to the controversial nature of many laboratory chemicals, alternatives are being explored

widely by companies and scientists. For instance, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

(MIT) created the Green Alternatives Wizard to identify greener alternatives in place of toxic

chemicals (Coombs, 2009). Usually, solvents play a major role to the environmental impact

of a chemical process and so the focus is to introduce greener solvents into early stages of

these chemical processes. Therefore, pharmaceutical plants like GlaxoSmithKline and Pfizer

have developed Solvent Selection Guides for their research chemists (Alfonsi et al., 2009;

Henderson et al., 2011).

In a more recent study, Lin, Chen and Jiao (2012) showed that N-hydroxyphthalimide (NHPI)

catalyzes a metal-free oxidative cleavage of carbon-carbon double bonds. This method avoids

the use of toxic metals or huge amounts of traditional oxidants and shows good economical

and environmental advantages.

Figure 7: Lins’ (2012) overall reaction scheme of NHPI catalysed metal-free oxidative

cleavage of carbon-carbon double bonds

Another study demonstrated a microwave assisted metal-free synthesis of 2,8-diaryl-6-

aminoimidazo[1,2-a]pyridines using amino benzannulation. This green methodology showed

good chemical yields with less environmental impact (Nagaraj, 2012).



54

Figure 8: Reaction scheme of microwave assisted metal-free synthesis

Source: Nagaraj, 2012.

Moreover, a recent literature article explained that aliphatic or aromatic esters can be

converted to the corresponding amides under mild conditions. A good yield was observed and

the process was concluded as green, economical and practical (Kim, 2012).

Figure 9: Reaction scheme showing amidation of esters under mild condition

Source: Kim, 2012.

Another recent green study showed S-arylation of thiols with boronic acids at room

temperature. Inexpensive and environment friendly solvents were used and the process gave a

good chemical yield (Xu et al., 2012).

Figure 10: Reaction scheme of S-arylation of thiols with boronic acids

Source: Xu et al., 2012.

In addition, a Pike Research report in 2011 mentioned that in the coming decade a variety of

industrial activities will be performed using green chemical. Not only will this avoid liability

for social and environmental impacts but more importantly will offer direct and indirect cost

savings. It is predicted that industries will save around $65.5 billion by 2020. The report

explores three major pathways for green chemistry: apply renewable feedstocks in the

production of materials, replacement of existing chemical products with green alternatives,

and waste reduction in conventional chemical processes. The development of these practices



55

is driven by a number of factors namely economic, consumer choice and technical.

Particularly, advances in bio-technology like manipulation of organisms (algae, bacteria)

have produced significant industrial compounds with almost negligible waste. And the

growing cost of petroleum has stimulated interest in looking for and investing in alternatives.

Overall, the green chemistry market demand is forecasted to grow from about $2.8 billion in

2011 to around $98.5 billion by 2020 (Green Chemistry, 2011).

Challenges of Green Chemistry

Challenges that remain in green chemistry include the weaknesses in U.S. chemical

management program called the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA). Their policies have

failed to protect the environment and human health. Their existing policies have formed a

chemicals market which discounts the harmful properties of materials and undervalues the

negative impact to human health and the environment, relative to performance, price, and

chemical function. These market conditions present barriers to the commercial, scientific and

technical achievements of green chemistry, and fundamental restructuring of policies in the

TSCA is needed to correct these weaknesses and improve the demand and supply of green

chemistry processes (Wilson and Schwarzman, 2009).

Green chemistry in the past two decades has helped chemical industries become much

cleaner. However, mindsets and attitudes change slowly and the green revolution still has a

long way to go. These days, companies and industries are paying special attention to portray

their current chemical processes and technologies greener. But in most cases going green is

always seen as a trade-off among cost, benefits and feasibility. So far the industry’s adoption

of green chemistry principles has been focused primarily on small changes within the existing

chemical processes. Moreover, the evolution of green chemistry has been a subject of

technical feasibility, since the time researchers discovered alternatives to existing

conventional methods; one such example of this is supercritical carbon dioxide (Noyori,

2005).

Green industrial scale processes require mild temperature ionic liquids for removal of acid

by-products, and an integrated reaction system where by-products and products from one

process is the starting material for the next plant. This would require comprehensive

restructuring which is why the move towards green chemistry has been at slow pace among

bulk chemical producers and manufacturers. Also, giant firms that produce large volumes of

products on a daily basis, going green does not always prove to be economic (Marteel et al.,

2003).

Other barriers to the adoption of green chemistry principles are technical per say. For

instance, green solvents and ionic liquids are not always efficient compared to chlorinated

solvents, and researchers have not yet eliminated the need for toxic metals and catalysts

during chemical processes. Moreover, even after years of research manufacturing bulk

chemicals from biomolecules or renewable feedstocks, rather than starting with a simple

hydrocarbon from crude oil, is still a challenge (Sanderson, 2011).



56

Perhaps the most fundamental roadblock to wider adoption of green chemistry is the mindset.

Even though green chemistry advocates view the movement as an innovative way of thinking

about the future, critics argue that the field as more of a public relations label, non-rigorous

and fuzzy. Sceptics also question if green chemistry is a new trendy buzzword for promoting

projects of dubious or uncertain environmental value. However, scepticism has lessened over

the years as science and research have progressed. In reply, EPA has made an important

progress in addressing one of the barriers of green chemistry which is a high-throughput

screening project called ToxCast that can predict a compound’s toxicity. This approach can

save time and money in gathering toxicity data, and also save companies the hassle of

expensive and extensive animal testing. A typical ToxCast prediction costs about US$ 20,000

per chemical which is way less than the $6 to $12 million in animal toxicology tests

(Sanderson, 2011). Therefore, if these models are made reliable, companies can reduce

animal testing, predict any compound’s toxicity and choose chemicals that make their

manufacturing process green in the true sense.

CONCLUSION

Although green chemistry offers benign routes to chemical methods and principles for

development of greener solvents and alternatives, it does not have the capability to bring a

radical change in the society. Coordination between chemical practitioners and policy makers

is needed in order to achieve an overall efficiency and environmental friendliness. Research

and technology agencies in the country and worldwide that are responsible for the funding of

scientific developments must encourage and give preference to the progress of greener

technology and science. Policy makers should move away from a practice of banning and

regulating products to a culture where products are designed in a way that eliminates use of

hazardous materials in the first place. Ultimately green chemistry should be simply the way

chemistry is done.

REFERENCES

Adams, D. J., Dyson, P. J., Taverner, S. J. (2003) Chemistry in Alternative Reaction

Media. Wiley: England.

Aken, K. V., Strekowski, L., Patiny, L., Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry (2006),

2(3).

Alfonsi, K., Colberg, J., Dunn, P.J., Fevig, T., Jennings, S., Johnson, T.A., Kleine, P.,

Knight, C., Nagy, M.A.,Perry, D.A., Stefaniak, M. (2008) Green Chem., 10, 31-36.

Anastas, P. T., Warner, J. C. (1998). Green Chemistry Theory and Practice. Oxford

University Press: New York.

Baron, M. (2012). Waste and Biomass Valorization, 3(4), 395–407.

Cann, M. C., Connelly, M. E. J. Chem. Ed. 1999, 76 (12), 1639-1641.

Coombs, A. (2009). Green at the Bench. The Scientist, [Online], 1 July. Accessed from

http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/27480/title/Green-at-the-Bench/

[accessed 1Nov, 2013].



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Green Chemistry. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Accessed from

http://www2.epa.gov/green-chemistry [Accessed 29 October 2013].

Green Chemistry 2011 Small Business Award. United States Environmental Protection

Agency, [Online]. Accessed http://www2.epa.gov/green-chemistry/2011-small-business-

award (accessed Nov 1, 2013).

Green Chemistry Information about the Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge. United

States Environmental Protection Agency,[Online]. Accessed http://www2.epa.gov/green-

chemistry/information-about-presidential-green-chemistry-challenge [accessed 1 Nov

2013].

Henderson, R.K., Concepcion, J-G., David, J. C., Alston, S.R., Graham, G. A., Inglis,

G.F., Sherwood, J., Binks, S.P., Curzons, A.D. (2011). Green Chem., 13, 854-862.

Kidwai, M. (2001). Pure Appl. Chem., 73(8), 1261–1263.

Kim, B. R., Lee, H.G., Kang, S. B., Sung, G. H., Kim, J.J., Park, J. K., Lee, S.G., Yoon,

Y.J., (2012). Synthesis, 42-50.

Kletz, T.A. (1978). Chemistry and Industry, 287–292.

Kurian, J. V. (2005). Journal of Polymers and the Environment, 13(2), 159-167.

Linthorst, J.A. (2010). Foundations of Chemistry 12 (1), 55–68.

Lin, R., Chen, F., Jiao, N. (2012). Org. Lett. 14, 4158-4161.

Marteel, A. E., Davies, J.A., Olson, W.W., Abraham, M.A. (2003). Annual Review of

Environment and Resources, 28, 401-428.

Nagaraj, M., Boominathan, M., Muthusubramanian, S., Bhuvanesh, N. (2012). Synlett,

1353-1357.

Noyori, R. (2005). Chemical Communications, 14, 1807 – 1811.

Renner, R. (2009). California launches nation’s first green chemistry program.

Environmental Science & Technology, January.

Ryan, M. A. Tinnesand, M. J. (2003). Chem. Educ., 80 (3), 268.

Sanderson, K. (2011). Nature, 469, 18-20.

Sanderson, K. (2011). Box: Q&A: Paul Anastas, [Online], 5 January. Accessed from

http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110105/full/469018a/box/2.html [Accessed 4 Nov,

2013].

Sheldon, R. A., Arends, I., Hanefeld, U. (2007). Green Chemistry and Catalysis. Wiley-

VCH: Weinheim, Germany.

Sheldon, R.A. (2007). Green Chem., 9, 1273-1283.

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (2005). The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences,

[Online] Accessed from

http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2005/press.html [Accessed

31 Oct 2013].

Vert, M., Yoshiharu, D., Hellwich, K. H., Hess, M., Hodge,P., Kubisa, P., Rinaudo, M.,

Schué, F. (2012). Pure and Applied Chemistry, 84 (2), 377–410.

Weisner, M. R., Colvin, V. L. (2005). Environmental Implications of Emerging

Nanotechnologies. Island Press: Washington.

Wilson, M., Schwarzman, M. (2009). Environmental Health Perspectives, 117(8) 1202-

1209.

Xu, H.J., Zhao, Y. Q., Feng, T., Feng, Y.S. J. (2012). Org. Chem., 77, 2649-2658.



58

UK Banking Sector and Micro-Finance System: a Case Study on HSBC &

Barclays Bank PLC, UK

Mohammad Mahbub Hasan*

ABSTRACT

The concept of microfinance has been understood in the above part of study and basically,

the microfinance deals with the special provision of financial services to clients who have low

income and solidarity lending groups. The customers for micro financing can be the

customers or self-employed people who usually do not have access to the banking related

services (Goldsmith, 2002). The micro financing is a movement towards the development of

the economy and to move towards the world in which there are so many poor and near poor

households for the permanent access to an appropriate range of high quality financial

services and the services such as savings, insurance, and fund transfers are also involved in

the study rather than credits only. There are so many people who are promoting the

microfinance as they believe in the standardization in the economy and will help in removing

poverty from the country (Ross, 2001).The services of micro credit are also provided under

the microfinance and various kinds of credit services to poor clients. The micro credit is only

an aspect of the microfinance as the concept of micro finance covers lot many of things in the

financial services. The micro finance cater to the various usual and unusual problems of

poor and near poor clients and therefore, it is difficult to assess the overall impact of micro

finance and the partial impact can be known but not the complete impact of micro finance

can be known by the research study. The research will aim and focus on the microfinance of

UK and will study HSBC and Barclays Banks

INTRODUCTION

The concept of microfinance has been evolved as a voluntary help for the poorest populations

of a country so as to reduce the overall poverty from the country. But the micro finance has

been developed in a drastic manner and now, it has accepted as a solution to reduce the

poverty rate (Vitt, 2006). The microfinance has gained a considerable success in reducing the

poverty and increasing the productivity of country. The mainstream banking was influenced

highly by this commercial opportunity. The micro finance has been evolved in the

commercial banks also and the commercial banks have realised the importance of micro

* Graduate of MBA in Banking & Finance from Coventry University. Currently working as Administrative &

Finance Assistant at London Churchill College. The author bares all the responsibility for the information and

data communicated in this article.



59

financing and it has considerably created a new financial market and customer segment for

the banks (Keith, 2009).

Commercial banks are the major player of financial services markets around the world.

Therefore, it is necessary for the commercial banks to understand the importance of micro

finance and the ways to create the competitive advantages over other financial service

providers of microfinance within the industry. The commercial banks can get the advantage

over other providers by expertise in the various issues of management, infrastructural

advantages, ability to accept deposits, easy access to various sources of finance and strong

brand (Christen, 2003). The micro finance has so many positive aspects but on the other

hand, it also has some limitations with it. The limitation of micro finance is the reason for the

commercial banks and therefore, the commercial banks are putting off from entering into the

microfinance market though the commercial banks can make huge potential of profits from

the same (Gove, 2001). There are always some structure, products, procedures and

methodologies which are being followed by the commercial banks in usual manner and these

things are not much suitable for microfinance business (Rhyne, 2004). Though the micro

finance can lead to the substantial profits, it may be found as a difficult process and

expensive for the organization both in term of time and money.

There are so many options such as credit scoring, trade credit and therefore, the interest of

commercial banks in microfinance is increasing consequently and continuous improvements

can be observed in the field of commercial banking sector. The financial needs and financial

services can be linked to each other as the activities of financial services are being conducted

to carry out and fulfil the needs of the poor people and provide them a good life in near

future. In the developing countries, the rural areas are having so many activities that would be

classified in the developed world as financial are not monetized: that is, money is not used to

carry them out (Christen, 2003). Poor people find so many different ways also so as to fulfil

these needs and that ways are very creative and primarily through creating and exchanging

different forms of non-cash value. As Robinson (2008) describes, the microfinance is

developing like an industry in the market as well as the world, the main objective of this

industry is to satisfy the unmet demand of the customer on a much satisfied level and help in

reducing the poverty from the country (Benjamin, 2000). The commercial microfinance

sector had some common and usual issues which cater to the need of people to be addressed

before the industry will be able to satisfy massive worldwide demand.

There are few social interventions which are also related to the micro financing and increase

the awareness of micro financing. There are also interventions such as the “Intervention with

Microfinance for AIDS and Gender Equity” which incorporates micro financing with “The

Sisters-for-Life” program which indicates the education on the different roles of gender and

violence based on gender (Jordan, 2002). The program has two phases where first phase

consists of the ten one-hour training programs and the second phase consists of identifying a

leader amongst the group, and then, further training have to be carried out and the

implementation of the action plan can be taken at the end of the process. Microfinance can

also get combined with the education on the topics of business and with knowledge on the

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_credit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetization

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand



60

health interventions. As the concerned research study is based on analyzing and

understanding the banking and financial services with regard to the HSBC and the Barclay’s

bank. As the organizations are international and global service providers of the financial

services therefore in order to analyse their operations and management it is very broad in

nature. Also the financial sector itself is very crucial and dominant in nature. So it is very

important to have the deep understanding on the concerned issue which will be covered in the

undertaken research study through analysing the HSBC and Barclay’s PLC. The aims of the

research study are to analyse and evaluate the different types of micro financing and various

techniques available for the implementation in the Industry, to discuss the views of the people

on the micro finance from the perspectives of industry through the various techniques as well,

to analyse the skills and improvements which are being involved in the processes of the

organisation and to explore the most effective processes and techniques of micro financing.

Methodology

The research introduction is required for the purpose of justifying the research topic of study.

The research topic is about the micro financing in commercial banks on the case of HSBC a

Barclay’s PLC. The topic is justified as the banking sector is growing at a very fast pace.

Overall, this particular research is based on descriptive approach. The primary and secondary

data has to be collected for the qualitative and quantitative methods which are used as a

combination and ultimately, the useful conclusions can be drawn for the completion for the

research study. The questionnaire is also designed in the research study for the purpose of

collection of data. The research study has been implemented as in the quantitative research

(Manion, 2006). The qualitative data is used at the minimized level so as to reduce the

complexity in the research. The exploratory research method can also help in drawing the

conclusion but at the end of the research topic of study, the main conclusions of the research

can be drawn by the quantitative methods. The analysis has to be done in depth for the data

analysis and interpretations of the results of the analysis of the study. The logic application

can be better understood by the data collection and analysis of study.

The primary and secondary data is done for the purpose of data analysis and interpretations of

the data that can lead to the final conclusions of the research study. The various decisions

related to the financing of funds with the overall impact on the banking sector and the overall

productivity to the organization. This particular decision of micro finance is important as it

impacts the overall profitability of the organization. The forecasts and the various research

methodologies are made to adhere to the objectives of the company and industry as well. The

research codes are also developed for the betterment of research study (Creswell, 2005), the

analysis can be done on the made codes which are generated by the responses of the

participants of the research study. In this research case, it is very important decision that the

developed codes are developed in a predefined manner and when to generate that particular

code. The code book is also being used for the help in the analysis of generated codes and

managing codes in a proper manner can be understood by the help of code book. The process

of conducting primary research of the data is critical with the analysis of codes and the

particular responses of the respondents as the responses of the participants have to be



61

differentiated according to the response of the participants and then after, the code is being

generated for the final analysis of the research study (Golding, 2009). The codes will deploy

the digits and numerals for the purpose of conducting research study. The research strategy

chosen is the use of the questionnaire to collect and analyse the data and the questionnaire is

given to 50 employees of the each bank HSBC and Barclays to ascertain their perception

about the micro finance. The sampling technique used is probability sampling and convenient

sampling.

There are some limitations to this research study. The research is qualitative as well as

quantitative in nature, so, it will definitely take more and more of time in collecting the data

and analyzing it for the conclusions of the research study. Secondly, the findings of the

research are limited to the commercial banks and microfinance industry as the financial

institutions and providers industry is such a huge industry and therefore, the research HSBC

and Barclay’s bank (Martim, 2005). Lastly, the cost factors are also present at the time of

research study as the limiting factors exist to limit the findings of research up to a certain

extent. In the chapter of research methodology and findings stage, this factor influenced in a

substantial manner for further analysis and conclusions of research study.

Reliability and Validity of the Research

The research is being conducted in a very reliable manner so as to generate a pure and

validated data (Kirk, 2004), and it is also said that the research have to be reliable from every

manner so as to utilise the results of the research in an effective manner and the results can

also be deployed in the practical and real world. The reliability is totally dependent on the

data stability, tests of statistics, survey and so many other quantified data and information

which are reliable enough (Stern, 2006). The research has to be specifically very reliable in

the sense of reliability of information.

There are so many research methods and data collection techniques which can be used for the

quantitative and qualitative methods such as qualitative research, quantitative research,

questionnaire, survey and tools of management decisions. There is a number of tools which

are deployed for this research case and the main concern of the research is that the tools

which are being used for the research have to be reliable and trustworthy in terms of

reliability and correctness of data (Mishler, 2004). The tool for checking the reliability of data

is also present in the market for checking the actual data reliability of the research. The

correlation of two variables has to be found by this tool of checking the reliability and

ultimately, the intensity of the similarity in data is also checked at the same time. The results

of the reliability check have to be positive and the same and consistent results have to be

achieved by the research even if the research is conducted more than once. Apart from being

reliable, the research needs also to rely upon the validity of the research study (Keller, 2001);

the correct and feasible conclusions, inferences and recommendations of the research can be

found out for the completion of the research study.



62

Ethical Issues

The ethical issues are very important part of any research study and the ethical issues

concentrate upon the ethical considerations which are to be maintained by the researchers for

the better results of the research study. The ethical issues are to be considered while

conducting the research and as it can be observed in this as case, the research contains also

the confidential data of the organisation. The research study is concerned about the impact of

micro finance in the commercial banks such as HSBC and Barclays PLC so as to know the

actual importance of micro finance in the market place and the banking industry as well. The

ethical issue consists of various corporate and privacy issues which are taken proper care of

and concern for the proper functioning of the various aspects of the research (Robson, 2005).

The research topic is very important as it deals with the organisation as well as the industry as

a whole and the purpose of the research is to find out the analysis and findings of the

research. The research study deals with qualitative and quantitative research methodologies

and that requires to be ethical in each and every sense within the organization.

Presentation and Analysis of Primary Data

The responses so obtained with regard to the concerned question about public knowledge of

APR interest rates lead to government regulations that restrict the supply of credit the

responses duly agreed on this and about 16 of the respondents replied as yes where as 6 of

them disagrees and answered as no. With regard to the question that is small-scale investors

or social investors unfamiliar with microfinance interest rates are alienated from

microfinance due to these disclosures majority of the respondents about 16 agreed and replied

as yes whereas about 6 of the total respondents responded as no with regard to the

unfamiliarity to interest rates.

With regard to the question on the same information on prices available by reviewing other

data sources, such as the MIX, or by calculating portfolio yield from financial statements

about 4 respondents strongly agreed and 2 of them were neutral to this question and on the

other side about 11 respondents disagreed on the statement and 7 of them were strongly

disagreed where as 14 of them replied as can’t say so the mixed findings have been obtained.

When the respondents were asked regarding incorporation of the penalty interest or the non

payment of fees the respondents majority of the respondents about 13 replies as no for the

incorporation of the penalty and about 5 replied as yes for this.

It has been analysed that a very large no. of data lies between 36-45 years of age in the

market. The least no. of respondents lies between 46-55 years. Apart from that, there was

average response from total respondents whose age lies between 26-35 years. The gender is

also a very important factor for this observation as in this case, 56% of respondents were

male and 44% respondents were females.



63

The data can be represented in following manner:

Age Group % Of Total Respondents

15 – 25 15 %

26 – 35 30 %

36 – 45 35%

46 – 55 8 %

56 – 65 12%

Gender % Of Total Respondents

Male 56 %

Female 44%

Discussion of Finding

The following discussion on findings will focus on understanding the important and vital role

that the banks play and also the challenges faced by the banks and with regard to the CSR,

achievement of the sustainable development and risk assessment in order to accomplish the

research objectives in the significant manner.

Role of Stakeholders

With regard to the defining the CSR and the sustainability issue of the banking industry the

stakeholders have played the major and significant role. The various regulatory authorities

such as the FSA or Bureau of Treasury along with the media have been brought into focus by

undertaking the surveys. The activities of the banks are significantly affected and influenced

by the UK government and its various regulatory authorities.

Banks are aware with regard to the regulations of the governing authority and thus have taken

various steps in order to follow such rules. Also, with regard to the ill activities such as miss

selling of pension schemes, false guidance on endowment mortgage policies etc. in order to

face such false practices the bank has taken steps and, if such false activities are found, the

consumers will be duly compensated. Also the government has played a major role in putting

the pressure on the banks to improve the quality of its services and provides the various

banking products at the reasonable rates. Due to facing such pressures, the bank has taken the

initiative to lower down its rates of the products and its processing fees in order to enhance

the core competency of the bank. The survey undertaken has shown that the UK government

has played a significant role in protecting the interest of the potential customers of the bank

who are unaware and have no information regarding various loans and financial products

offered by the banks. In order to enhance its core competency and have the competitive

advantage over the others in the market, the banks have strengthened its CSR brand. For this

reason, the bank has provided its various products and services at the competitive rates and

also amended and supported the government regulations of UK. To increase the consumer

awareness and keep them informed regarding the bank practices, the bank has to provide the

differentiated offerings continuously. To have the sustainable development plan, the UK

Government and multilateral institutions such as the World Bank and UN are continuously

putting down the pressures on the banks to accept the social and environmental risk and duly



64

analyse them in order to provide the credit. Only some of the banks such as HSBC and Co-

operative Bank provide the attainment of the objectives with regard to the sustainable

development plan for the banks. HSBC, through offering various innovative products and the

services can gain the sustainable development and build the competitive advantage over the

others not only in the concerned market but also internationally. With the following

discussion it is revealed that the government, various interest groups, international

institutions, and established competitors have considerably affected the level of CSR and

sustainability plans of the major banks.

Drivers of Change

There are a number of drivers who have affected the CSR and the sustainable development

plan of the various banks the significant among them is the trade unions for e.g. British

Bankers Association, governments and international institutions that have significantly

influenced the banks and its offerings and the services. The pressure on the banks to amend

the rules and the regulations so stated by the government has also affected banks

considerably. It is, however, very important to focus on the initiatives taken up by the trade

unions. The issued guidelines has led to the concentrate on the CSR and also influenced the

banks to undertake the social and the environmental analyses in the provision of the loan.

Meanwhile various plans taken by the government and the multilateral agencies have also

played a significant role in the banking sector and to achieve the objectives attached with the

sustainable development. Thus it has been found that the banks play a very important role in

the achieving the developed and sustainable economy and also assist the economy in facing

the international issues. As a result, it is essential for the banks to be ethically and morally

sound enough in order to achieve the expectations and desires of the society.

With regard to the firm various banks has found taking the number of the sustainability

development plans. Maximum banks developed their plans according to the business case

model and so focused more on risk management, cost-savings and market opportunities of

CSR and the cost and benefits with regard to abide the regulations so defined by the

government. Providing full devotion towards the development of the industry such as the

Equator Principles, this can be taken as a major step taken in order to successfully manage

the risk and its assessment in order to overcome the social and the environmental risks

associated with the lending. If proper and due care is not taken, then it will adversely affect

the bank’s image.

However, the positive effect of the industry-wide initiatives is that banks have been

continuously engaged in the enhancing its systems and functions in order to follow the

standards of the industry which are more and more accepted by major banks. Other banks,

such as HSBC and Co-operative Bank have stepped ahead and have developed their own

guidelines and have also affected the development of industry-wide frameworks. In addition

to this, it is revealed that the banks have not taken any proactive measures in order to evaluate

the success of the sustainability development plans except HSBC and Co-operative Bank.

Also, it has been found that there is a reduced innovation in the offerings of the financial



65

products and the services which could thus assist in enhancing the sustainable development

as, for example, making the investment in the external environmental care such as renewable

energy projects, biodiversity enhancements, and debt-for-nature swaps. In order to carry out

such developmental plans the government should come forward and take necessary steps to

initiate the banks to take these measures effectively. For instance, the London Principles have

outlined the innovations in the banking sector that promote sustainable development.

However, there are various banks that support these development plans and innovations but

in reality it is found that with regard to amendment of such regulations and plans they often

step aside.

Challenges in Sustainable Banking

With regard to amend various plans for CSR and the sustainable development more clearly

provides that the cost so incurred on re-structuring the bank’s systems and functions and

accordingly follow the rules and the regulations and also to achieve the set standards the

banks has to considerably provide the training to bank employees in order to effectively

follow the set standards. Also with regard to the marketing the various innovations, made to

shareholders, investors and customers also require the additional resources and cost for the

bank. Therefore, for the CSR and sustainability initiatives the banks have been moving

forward towards following the regulations and also trying to focus on the risk so associated

with social and environmental issues and thus accordingly focusing on its effective

management. The widely recognized banks such as HSBC and Barclays can take the

initiatives to follow such regulations and the developmental plans for the CSR and

sustainable development which requires the additional costs but allows the bank to have the

competitive advantage over the others in the banking industry. However, the challenge would

be for governments, interest groups, and international bodies to pressure banks to be more

pro-active in their sustainable development and plans. Governments and interest groups

should take steps in order to make the society aware with regard to the banking functions and

the development so made, also the services and the products so offered. As it is the people

who play a major role in the effective and efficient sustainable development plan, the

educated and informed public will assist in the achievement of the developmental objectives.

The development activity should be enforced through the banks and the public support.

International organisations such as “Friends of the Earth” are working together to supervise

the bank’s faithfulness towards the international environmental and social principles through

a regular newsletter called “Bank Track”. The government should also re-examine its

regulatory system which is working in the financial sector in order to evaluate which reforms

are required to encourage the sustainability and development in the banking sector.

Benefits and Effects

The benefits of the research study are generally related to the growth of the micro finance in

the industry of banking sector and at the same time, the trade relations can be maintained

over a longer period of time. In this era, there is a lot of competition in the industry and it is

very important to understand the market and reactions of the customers according to the



66

market conditions (Malin, 2001). The organisation needs to coordinate between ample of

factors and coordinate between them in a proper manner so as to sustain in the competitive

and global environment. So, the coordination within the organization is an important factor to

be handled by the organisation and to gain success for the organization and equally, increase

the productivity and gain good profit margins for the company.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The microfinance is a very important social innovation and it is also playing a significant role

in the promotion of economic development as well as the social development in so many

undeveloped areas and the socially excluded groups (Pollinger, 2001). It is very considerable

that the micro finance has its own discussion in regards to the satisfied results and profits

from the commercial banking sector and at the same time, the discussion also reveals that the

potential contribution to micro finance and other financial providers and financial instruments

can make to the innovative activities of the clients of microfinance. There is still a need to

develop the awareness of micro finance in a better manner and the financial problems of

small firms and poor people can be encountered by the activities of micro finance (Christen,

2006). The pursuing innovative products and processes related to the micro finance and the

commercial banking sector is considerably good but there is still a need to develop the

awareness, importance and the scope of development of the micro finance in the near future

of the company and the poor people. The innovation projects require extensive funding in

terms of time and amount of money. So, it is necessary to handle these contingencies and

furthermore, there are so many small firms which are not pursuing particularly in the field of

micro finance and they are not at all taking any innovative projects for the finance concern

activities.

There is a specific nature of issues and they are considerable to the today’s scenario and they

lie across regions, sectors, and types of enterprise (Rosenberg, 2002). It is noticeable that

there is a large amount of industries which are facing problems in the innovation financing

activities and small firms will have the articulated needs to a limited extent and they will also

require the detailed consultation for the requirement of the finance inputs and any other kind

of innovation related activities (Robinson, 2000). Often several types of financing will be

needed to facilitate a combination of related innovation activities.

In conclusion, it can be said that the speculation about the innovation related activities that

can benefit the microfinance related activities and at the same time, it is likely that

microfinance will be more relevant to the incremental innovations and those which demand

less technology (Smith, 2004). The microfinance system can also support the small

enterprises, acquisition and implementation of products and processes within the commercial

banking sector.

The contribution of the micro finance to the other innovation-related activities are

considerable and the market development such as in business-to-business markets are good to

learn from their processes and get involved in the learning processes of engaging into the

MFIs (Kristof, 2008). The process of people involvement in MFIs is to primarily prepare the



67

desired business plans, establishing monitoring and reporting systems, instituting more

formalised accounting regimes and the control over the business plan in the future. The

important part is to support the innovation of the market as well as the provision of finance

directly to enable innovation-related activities.

In conclusion, the role of microfinance and the innovation in the overall sector can be

described as the needs of further exploration and analysis in the topic which means to put

innovation forward as a rationale for microfinance services (Hargreaves, 2007). The

microfinance industry has already helped to promote the developmental goals of the

organisation and the policy of micro finance helps in designing the strategy of microfinance

strategy which is to be articulated by various development agencies and financial institutions.

The micro finance can also be said as the desire help by the client who raises the help for

their profile of this area (Varghese, 2000). There are also some key principles of the micro

finance which need to be followed and these principles will also help in designing the

strategy of micro finance within the industry.

Recommendations

The impact of microfinance has been observed and the poor people have been found to be

benefitted by the financial assistance provided by the micro finance system and the lives of

poor people has considerable impact on the overall country. The data analysis and

interpretation parts of the research study have indicated results for the conclusion of the study

and then after, the feasible recommendations can be made on the overall analysis of the study

(Hoggson, 2003). There are also some challenges for the industry with some of the good

opportunities at the same time as the risks of credit dependency and cyclical debt will be

increased and the data analysis part has also indicated the result to be interpretative and self

descriptive for the research study. The main objective was to find out the existence and scope

of micro finance in the commercial banks such as

HSBC and Barclay’s PLC bank.

The recommendation which can be given for the research study is also related to the over-all

penetration of microfinance in the country is inadequate manner and the undue concentration

of effort in the particular region and the sustainability in the efforts that are needed by banks

both through the research study. In making our recommendations, it has been recognised that

there is a need to protect the borrowers who represent a vulnerable part of the country and the

society. The proper functioning of the business environment is to be done in an effective

manner. The responsibility of the micro finance industry to provide timely and adequate

credit at a fair price in a transparent manner to the poor people and the borrower has also the

responsibility to repay the payment with interest and repayment of principal is to be done on

the committed time. A financial system is totally dependent upon the circulation of funds

within the system (Vincent, 2000), and if the recovery culture is not functioning in proper

manner, then, the flow of funds will be adversely interrupted and the whole system will suffer

due to these discrepancies in the system. The slow-down of recovery will inevitably reduce

the flow of fresh funds into the system.



68

Microfinance is an important plank in the agenda for financial inclusion. However, the micro

finance system needs a strong regulation for the proper functioning of the system. The

recommendations have been made to implement in the financial system and the industry

associations will also have to respect the decisions taken by the financial industry.

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A Critical Evaluation of the Factors Affecting the Process of Consumer

Buying Behaviour

Dr. Samrat Hazra*

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study is to critically evaluate the factors affecting the process of consumer

buying behaviour. It discusses mainly the Kotlerian theory of buyer behaviour both in respect

to individual or group customers mainly for domestic-personal use, as well as business

customers buying goods for production of goods and services. It finds significant

commonalities in both of the concepts and later brings them together for a better

understanding of the phenomena. It also draws recommendations and conclusion to explore

the topic further.

Keywords: Marketing, Consumer, Consumer Buying Behaviour, Needs& Demands.

Review of the Literature

Marketing is becoming ever more essential as firms compete against each other in this ever-

changing economically-challenging environment (Czinkota et al., 2009; Varadarajan et al.,

2009). Today’s marketplace is volatile as it has ever been. The recent banking crisis in

America caused a ripple, the force of which reaches every corner of the globe. Consequently,

ever-encouraging marketing activities are working as a catalyst to retain the existing

customer base as well as venturing into new markets (Brassington and Pettitt, 2007). Many

have tried to define marketing. The American Marketing Association (AMA 1948) takes an

economic approach: “marketing is the performance of business activities directed toward,

and incident to, the flow of goods and services from producer to consumer or user”.

According to both McNair et al., (1975), and Brassington and Pettitt (2007) marketing

embraces all the business activities involved in getting commodities of all kinds, including

services, from the hands of producers and manufacturers into the hands of the final

consumers. Marketing entails all the business steps through which goods progress on their

way to final consumption and trade at the end. This is especially true of the points in those

stages at which change of ownership takes place. Later AMA (1960) modifies the definition

and mentions that marketing is the performance of business activities that direct the flow of

goods and services from producer to consumer or end-user.

* Lecturer, HND Hospitality Management, London Churchill College. The author bares all the responsibility for

the information and data communicated in this article.



72

However, in recent years both academics and practitioners have re-modelled the definition of

marketing taking a robust view: marketing is the art and science of finding, retaining, and

growing profitable customers (Czinkota et al., 2009; Kotler et al., 2010). A more

comprehensive definition can be found in Kotler et al., (1999, p. 10) “marketing being a

social and managerial process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and

want through creating and exchanging products and values with others”. Products can be

anything that can be offered to a market for attention, acquisition, use or consumption that

might satisfy a want or need. It can include physical objects, services, persons, places,

organisations and ideas. On the other hand, services can be any activity or benefit that one

party offers to another, which is essentially intangible and does not result in ownership of

anything.

‘Needs’ are the basic amenities needed for everyday life (i.e. physical needs: food, clothing;

social needs: belonging, affecting; individual needs: knowledge, self expression). These are

also explained in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory. According to Kotler et al. (1999, p.

10) “human wants are the form taken by human needs as they are shaped by culture and

individual personality”. It can be said that as society evolves, the wants of its members

expand. However, on the other hand ‘demand’ is the human ‘wants’ that are backed by the

buying power.

Figure 1. Core Marketing Concepts

Source: Adapted from Kotler et al., 1999.

Marketers would go to great lengths to understand the needs, wants and demands of

consumers (Varadarajan et al., 2009).The consumer market could be defined as: all those

individuals and households that buy or acquire goods and services for personal consumption.

The consumer market is constantly changing as consumers themselves change (Brassington

and Pettitt, 2007). Hence it is important to study Consumer Buying Behaviour (CBB) in order

to succeed in the marketplace. CBB is the buying behaviour of end customers, individuals

and households who buy goods and services for personal consumption. A buyer is the person

who makes the actual purchase, and the user/consumer consumes or uses a product or service.



73

There are many factors influencing the behaviour of consumers including that consumer’s

culture, society, personal and other psychological factors (Figure 2). Culture is the bedrock of

our behaviour. Culture is a set of basic values, perceptions, wants and behaviours learned by

a member of society from family and other important institutions (Groucutt, 2005; Kotler et

al., 1999).

Figure 2. Consumer Buying Behaviour


Within a culture we could also have subculture and social classes. Subculture could be a

group of people with shared value systems based on common life experiences and situations.

Whereas social classes are relatively permanent and ordered diversions in a society whose

members share similar values, interests and behaviour. Social factors include groups, family

and roles and status (Czinkota et al., 2009). Groups can be membership groups, reference

groups or aspirational groups. Membership groups have a direct influence on buyer behaviour

and where the buyer in question belongs. Whereas reference groups have either a direct (face-

to-face) or an indirect, influence on a person’s attitudes or behaviour. In contrast, an

aspirational group is a group to which an individual wishes to belong.

Family is one of the important factors in the CBB Process. We could have decision making

units (DMU) within the family. In DMU all the individuals participate in, and influence, the

consumer buying-decision process. An initiator could be a person who first suggests or thinks

of the idea of buying a particular product or service. Whereas an influencer could be a person

whose views or advice carries some weight in making a final buying decision. They go a step

Consumer Buying Behaviour

Cultural Factors

- Culture - Subculture - Social Class

Psychological

Factors

- Motivation - Perception - Learning - Beliefs &

Attitudes

Personal Factors

- Age & Lifestyle Stage

- Occupation - Economic

circumstances - Lifestyle - Personality &Self-

concept

Social Factors

- Groups - Family - Roles &

Status



74

further by providing specification and information for evaluating alternative options. Then

the decider, who ultimately makes a buying decision, steps in.

Roles and status in the society are also important factors in the consumer buying behaviour

process. The buyer could belong to many groups, i.e. family, clubs, organisations. A person

could be a father, a son, a friend of someone or a manager in a reputed hotel. As

circumstances change, people change to match the role with the behaviour. ‘Role’ is the

activity a person is expected to perform according to the people around the consumer.

Consequently each role carries a status reflecting the general esteem given to it by the very

society in which we live. People often choose a product that shows their status in society.

A buyer’s decision also can be influenced by personal characteristics, e.g. age and life cycle

stages, occupation, economic situation, lifestyle etc. Families go through various stages as

they mature over time. Consequently different stages of family or life cycles have influence

the way we perceive things, thus changing behaviour. Lifestyle can be described as a person’s

pattern of living as expressed in his or her activities, interests and opinions, whereas

psychographics covers the technique of measuring lifestyles and developing lifecycle

classifications. It also involves measuring the chief AOI dimensions (activities, interests,

opinions). Personality and self concept also emerge as useful factors in consumer buying

behaviour. Personality is a person’s distinguishing psychological characteristics that lead to

relatively consistent and lasting responses to his or her own environment. Similarly, it can be

described as “self concept” or the complex mental pictures that people have of themselves.

Finally, of various psychological factors which include motivation, perception, learning and

beliefs, and attitudes, it is motivation that is best explored by Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy

of Needs Theory (Figure 3). Here, he defines needs into five different categories. Those

categories are; psychological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs and self

actualisation needs. However the ‘need theory’ is not universal for all cultures. Kotler et al.

(1999) mention that Anglo-Saxon culture values self-actualisation and individuality above all

else. On the other hand, in Japan and Germany, people are most highly motivated by a need

for personal security and conformity, while in France, Spain and Portugal, for example,

people are motivated by the need for security and belonging.



75

Figure 3. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory model

Source: Adapted from Groucut 2005; Kotler et al., 1999.

Other psychological factors include perception. Perception is the process by which people

select, organise and interpret information to form a meaningful picture of the world (Czinkota

et al., 2009). People can form different perceptions of the same stimulus because of three

perceptual processes: selective attention, selective distortion and selective retention. Selective

attention is the tendency of people to screen out most of the information to which they are

exposed whereas selective distortion is the tendency of people to adapt information to

personal meanings. Selective retention is the tendency of people to retain only part of the

information to which they are exposed, usually information that supports their attributes or

beliefs.

Learning, on the other hand, can change as people go through life cycle stages which would

influence their behaviour. Belief and attitudes would also complement each other with

learning. Belief is a descriptive thought that a person holds about something whereas attitude

is a person’s consistently favourable or unfavourable evaluations, feelings and tendencies

towards an object or idea. In this competitive marketplace, it is these above mentioned factors

which need to be kept in mind especially where consumers are highly involved in a purchase

and perceive significant differences between brands.

These are the markets for individual consumers mainly for domestic use, but we also have

buyers who would purchase things for business-production purposes, they can also be

consumers/customers of the organisations in question. Business markets can be defined as all

the organisations that buy goods and services to use in the production of other products and

services, and identify, evaluate and choose among alternative brands and suppliers. The

business buying process is the decision-making process by which business buyers establish

the need for purchased products and services, and identify, evaluate and choose among

alternative brands and suppliers (Czinkota et al., 2009). These are as complex buying

behaviour as individual consumers buy goods mainly for domestic consumption. Hence there

is a need to understand the behaviour of the individual consumer (Figure 2) as well business

ones.



76

Kotler et al. (1999) describe business buyers as being subject to many influences when they

make their buying decisions. Some think that the strongest influences are mainly economic.

They think buyers will favour the supplier that offers the lowest price or the best product or

the most service. Suppliers concentrate on offering strong economic benefits to buyers.

However, business buyers actually respond to a range of factors including environmental,

organisational, interpersonal and individual (Figure 4). Business buyers are influenced by

environmental factors. Those factors can belong to both internal and external environments

(Varadarajan et al., 2009). An external environment includes PESTEL (political,

environmental, social, technological, economical and legal) factors. External environmental

factors can actually influence the activities of a firm because firms have less control of them.

However, firms have more control on the internal environment which is related to internal

stakeholders (i.e. employees, suppliers, the community, the media).

Figure 4. Main Influences on Business Buying Behaviour


Organisational factors also play a role on purchase decision making. Each buying

organisation has its own objectives, mission, vision, policies and procedures which must be

understood by the business marketer. The business marketer should also be aware of the

following organisational trends in the purchasing area – upgraded purchasing, centralised

Business Buyer Behaviour

Environmental

- Economic developments

- Supply conditions

- Technological change

- Political & regulatory developments

- Competitive developments

- Culture & customs

Individual

- Age - Income - Education - Job position - Personality - Risk attitudes

Interpersonal

- Authority - Status - Empathy - Persuasiveness

Organisational

- Objectives - Policies - Procedures - Organisational

structure - Systems



77

purchasing, long-term contracts, extranet exchanges, just-in-time production systems and

purchasing performance evaluation. Buying departments have often occupied a low position

in the management hierarchy, but the trends are changing.

Companies are now upgrading their purchasing activities. Some companies have combined

several functions (i.e. purchasing, inventory control, production scheduling and traffic) into a

high level function called strategic materials management. This helps in the effective

management of the company. Today, many companies are offering higher compensation in

order to attract top talent in the buyer area. Consequently, business marketers must upgrade

their sales-people to match the quality of today’s business buyers.

Similarly, to make the money go further, centralised purchasing is being introduced.

Previously, in companies consisting of many divisions with differing needs, much of the

purchasing was carried out at the division level. Recently, however, some large companies

have tried to centralise purchasing e.g. head office identifies materials purchased by several

divisions and buys them centrally. Centralised purchasing gives the companies more

purchasing power over greater quantities, which can produce substantial savings (Brassington

& Pettitt, 2007). For the business marketer, this development means dealing with fewer high-

level buyers. Instead of using regional sales forces to sell a large buyer’s separate goods, the

seller may use a national account sales force to service the buyer. As a result of this, many

business buyers are seeking long term contracts with suppliers. This will not only enhance

long term relationships but would also result in cheaper deals. That is why economic and

technological changes to the external environment can make long-term business-to-business

relationships inherently unstable.

Through extranet exchanges, buyers post their detailed requirements on the internet to reach

numerous potential suppliers quickly and efficiently. This can be used for both routine and

complex products. For example, Japanese airlines use the internet to post orders where its

website carries technical specifications and drawings to show what the company wants,

including the airlines logo. It can link many industrial firms to suppliers, thus increasing

competition which would have a significant effect on price, quality and service systems. In

contrast, just-in time (JIT) production systems mean that production materials arrive fit for

use at the customer’s factory exactly when needed for production, rather than being stored in

the customer’s inventory until used. The main objective of JIT is zero inventories with 100%

quality.

However, there needs to be a co-ordination between the production schedules of suppliers

and those of the customer. Finally, not least is the need for purchasing performance

evaluation in order to aid effective management. Some companies set up incentive systems to

reward purchasing managers for especially good purchasing performance, in much the same

way that salespeople receive bonuses for especially good selling performance. These systems

should lead purchasing managers to increase their pressure on sellers for best terms.



78

With respect to interpersonal factors, the buyer centre usually includes many participants who

influence each other. The business marketer often finds it difficult to determine what kinds of

interpersonal factors and group dynamics exist in order to enter into the buying process.

Often managers cannot make decisions by themselves because they need to involve many

others (Brassington & Pettitt, 2007). Hence interpersonal factors are often delicate.

Consequently, wherever possible, business marketers must try to understand these factors and

design strategies that take those factors into account. These individual factors also play a role

in the decision making process.

Each participant in the business buying decision process brings in personal motives,

perceptions and preferences. These individual factors are affected by personal characteristics

such as age, income, education, processional identification, personality and attitudes towards

risk. Also, buyers have different buying styles. Some may be technical types who will

undertake an in-depth analysis of competitive proposals before choosing a supplier. Other

buyers may be intuitive negotiators who are adept at pitting sellers against each another to

obtain the best deal.

Discussion

The combination of Figures 2 and 4 gives Figure 5. The factors in Figure 2 have overlapping

characteristics with the factors shown in Figure 4. They can be grouped together to give a

better understanding of the scenario. They are presented by dotted lines to illustrate their

flexibility. Economic factors in business buyer behaviour will be influenced by culture,

subculture and the buyer’s social class. Hence environment and culture can be grouped

together. Social factors already overlap those of culture and environment, but a social

relationship could also develop from a buyer’s involvement in his or her workplace and

acquaintances. This would influence personal factors but also similarly influence the

individual factors shown in Figure 4. And last but not least, interpersonal has overlapping

characteristics with psychological factors.



79

Figure 5. Factors Affecting Buyer Behaviour

Overall, this study sheds more light on the understanding of buyer behaviour. It brings both

the models (Figure 2 & 4) together. In state of two sets (Figure 2 & 4) of buyer behaviours, it

would be beneficial to consider all eight of them for a better understanding of the market in

question. However, it is important to test the theories in practise not only with domestic-

consumers but also business-consumers. This will help suppliers to concentrate further on the

demographic of market-share and retain those elements which they want.

REFERENCES

Anderson, J. C., & Narus, J. A. (1990). A model of distributor firm and manufacturer firm

working partnerships. Journal of Marketing, 54(1), pp. 42-58.

Shaw, E. (2012). Marketing strategy: From the origin of the concept to the development of

a conceptual framework. Journal of Historical Research in Marketing, 4(1), 30-55.

Bensaou, M. (1997). Interorganizational cooperation: The role of information technology

an empirical comparison of U.S. and Japanese supplier relations. Information Systems

Research, 8 (2), 107-124.

Brassington, F., & Pettitt, S. (2007). Principles of Marketing, 4th edition, Harlow: FT

Prentice Hall.

Czinkota, M. R., Ronkainen, I. A., Farell, C., McTavish, R. (2009). Global Marketing.

Toronto, Ontario: Nelson Education.

Ford, D. (1980). The development of buyer-seller relationships in industrial markets.

European Journal of Marketing, 14(3): 72-84.

Hakansson, H. (1982). International Marketing and Purchasing of Industrial Goods.

Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.

Kotler, P. & Armstrong, G. (2004). Principle of Marketing, 10th Ed. London: Pearson.

Buyer Behaviour

Personal

Individual

Environment

Culture

Social

Organisational

Interpersonal

Psychological



80

Laermer, R. & Simmons, M. (2007). Punk Marketing, New York: Harper Collins.

Lancaster, A. & Lages, L. F. (2006). The relationship between buyer and a B2B e-

marketplace: Cooperation determinants in an electronic market context. Industrial

Marketing Management, 35(6), 774−789.

Lancioni, Richard A., Michael F. Smith. & Terence A. Oliva (2000). The role of the

Internet in Supply Chain Management. Industrial marketing Management,29 (1), 45-56.

Mukherji, A. & Francis, J. (2008). Mutual Adaptation in Buyer-Supplier Relationships,

Journal of Business Research, 61(2): 154-161.

Pfeffer, J. & Salancik, G. R. (1978). The external control of organisations: A resource

dependence perspective, New Yorks: Harper and Row.

Varadarajan, R. & Yadav, Manjit, S. (2009). Marketing Strategy in an Internet-Enabled

Environment: A Retrospective on the First Ten Years of JIM and a Prospective on the

Next Ten Years, Journal of Interactive Marketing, 23, pp.11-22.


The Role of Family Members in Diabetic Care for the Elderly in the Bangladeshi Community

81

The Role of Family Members in Diabetic Care for the Elderly in the

Bangladeshi Community

Shajna Begum31 & Syed Tanvir Hussain2

ABSTRACT

Diabetes impinges on 11,859 people in Tower Hamlets, as a result of high levels of glucose in

their blood. Pervasiveness is higher in Tower Hamlets on a national scale average, in part

due to the large Bangladeshi community. The reason being is the lifestyle and culture of

eating is the same. Due to this family members are stressed out and emotionally affected by

this illness. The research will be carried out in survey format and I will find out the result of

the affect it has on every one related to diabetes. The aim of this research is to find out how

to relieve the stress and provide more help. After carrying out the research we have found out

majority need help day to day looking after and family members have to look after them.

There is help available from the council but people are not familiar with these services. The

local council need to advertise more by providing leaflets in GP surgeries, school, billboard

or the local one stop shop.

Keywords: Tower Hamlets, diabetes, family.

Background

The purpose of the study is to explore how family members are affected by someone being

diabetic in the family. It will be based in the Bangladeshi community particularly regarding

the elderly person who has diabetes.

Diabetes mellitus is a form in which the quantity of glucose (sugar) in the blood is too high

because the body cannot use it appropriately. There are two main types of diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes develops if the body cannot produce any insulin. Type 1 diabetes typically

appears before the age of 40. It is the slightest common of the two main types and accounts

for around 10 percent of all people with diabetes.

Type 2 diabetes develops when the body is able to still make some insulin, but not sufficient,

or when the insulin that is produced does not work as it should be. Generally these cases are

related with being overweight. This type of diabetes typically appears in people over the age

of 40, though in South Asian people, it often appears after the age of 25. Type 2 diabetes is

1 Student of HND Health and Social Care course in London Churchill College. 2 Lecturer of HND Health and Social Care, HND Business courses in London Churchill College. Both

authorsbare all the responsibility for the information and data communicated in this article.



82

the more frequent of the two main types and accounts for around 90 per cent of people with

diabetes (Diabetes UK, 2013).

‘Most health experts agree that the UK is facing a huge increase in the number of people with

diabetes. Since 1996 the number of people diagnosed with diabetes has increased from 1.4

million to 2.9 million. By 2025 it is estimated that five million people will have diabetes.

Most of these cases will be Type 2 diabetes, because of our ageing population and rapidly

rising numbers of overweight and obese people’ (Diabetes UK, 2012).

This research is based on diabetes in elderly over the age of 55 and how it affects family

members looking after these people. Diabetes without doubt has a marked emotional contact

within families and mostly on those with close relationship with diabetes. A number of

different issues associated to diabetes can add to anxiety and stress. On the whole it can be

stressful event for the whole family. People who have been diagnosed with diabetes may go

through stages of grief and it at times is shared with the family. A person with diabetes has to

control their diet and exercise to prevent health complications. Family members might need

to follow these paths for them to avoid getting diabetes and encourage the person affected to

keep healthy, as complications can lead to blindness and amputations (Diabetes UK, 2013).

‘A care-giver who is over-involved in the daily management of the diabetes, or who is quick

to personalize medical setbacks, may inadvertently place that adolescent at risk of poor

outcomes (Touch endocrine Disease, 2006)’. Behavioural and psychosocial characteristic of

health problems have established to be significantly vital. In addition, psychological

problems such as depression and social problems such as family differences have

unfavourable effects on the route of diseases, including diabetes. Although medical treatment

improvements for diabetes carry on to advance, healthcare providers nowadays distinguish

that they too must press forward in their aptitude to answer to behavioural and psychosocial

issues that impact best possible diabetes management (Endocrine, 2006).

Department of health has stated a warning to the public and all health organization-’The UK

is heading for a “public health disaster” and the NHS facing “huge strain” with not enough

being done to prevent type 2 diabetes, it has been claimed’ (Nursing Times 2013). Elderly

people are at high risk to become a diabetic due to being frail and susceptible to illness. Any

diabetes related conditions are common and difficult to manage without help of others.

Exercising and maintaining a diet at this age is harder and therefore being diabetic makes the

condition hard to manage. At times helping someone with diabetes you can make their

condition worse it is called miscarried helping. Michael Harris researches this in details and

found out-

‘A care-giver who is over-involved in the daily management of the diabetes, or who is quick

to personalize medical setbacks, may inadvertently place that person at risk of poor

outcomes. Being aware of the risk of miscarried helping between individuals with diabetes

and their family members is critical to avoid unnecessary conflict’ (Endocrine disease, 2006).

Family which is focused on primary care has several reasons to lead to miscarried helping.

Those closest to the individual with diabetes are those in charge of day to day care demands.



83

Also family members advise, influence the person affected to control the illness and general

health care needs. They also represent model for health behaviour which includes diet,

exercise and communication with health practitioners. Finally, the psychological

benefits/burdens of family communications have been found to directly impact health status,

including metabolic control.

Diabetes affects 11,859 people in Tower Hamlets, as a result of high levels of glucose in their

blood. Prevalence is higher in Tower Hamlets than the nationally average, in part due to the

large Bangladeshi community. Prevalence is also increasing at a faster rate here than

elsewhere and there are a sizeable number of people with diabetes in younger age groups

(Tower Hamlets, 2011). Local council has put a strategy in place to cut down on the number

of people getting diabetes. The recognition and management of people at risk of diabetes

should be investigated for local implementation to combat the increasing prevalence within

Tower Hamlets.

A multi-level strategy is required to target the stabilised prevalence of smoking and obesity in

the diabetes population. Reducing levels of these behaviours would reduce diabetes

complications, even within one-five year timescale.

The diabetes care package in primary care requires ongoing monitoring of its implementation

to feedback to GP networks on progress and provides areas of key learning. The Care

Planning Approach needs to consider diabetes as common co morbidities. Improving the

quality of care for people with diabetes in secondary care should be prioritized (Tower

Hamlets, 2011).

People might experience anxiety or depression at the same time as physical limitations, and

could consequently be entitled for social care. People may also benefit from precautionary

services to tackle challenges recounting to life disturbance, social segregation and from time

to time living with indecision around prognosis.

‘People living with diabetes can also benefit from social care input as part of an integrated

approach, with health services and other partners. Social workers may facilitate care

coordination and provide linkage to physical or psychological care across a range of health

care settings’ (Tower Hamlets, 2011).

Methodology for data collection - survey of questionnaire will be carried out the Bengali

family in Tower hamlets. Elderly people with diabetes age between 55 and over. The findings

of this research will be analysed by Qualitative data analysis, which is collecting, analysing,

and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. This subject for the research was

chosen to research my mum who suffers from type 2 diabetes and which affects us as a

family when she goes really ill. My mother is the person who looks after us and it stresses us

out when she is ill and the house work depends on us entirely. As we live in a Bengali

community I thought it will be interesting to find out how other household members are

affected by someone with diabetes in their family. By creating a questionnaire I can find out



84

how many people are affected and how stressed they are, also if there is any help from the

local council or NHS to help these particular families.

The methodology in this probing qualitative research will have constituents of – “The

Family’s Involvement in Diabetes Care and the Problem of ‘Miscarried Helping’ a report by

Michael A Harris. Personal and Family Factors Associated with Quality of Life in

Adolescents with Diabetes report by Margaret Grey. The Role Of Family Members In

Diabetes Self-Care And Diabetic Crises by Lee Gunn, RCN Research Institute School of

Health and Social Studies University of Warwick by Kate Seers, Natasha Posner, Vivien

Coates. DIABETES IN THE UK 2012 - Key statistics on diabetes. Tower Hamlets Joint

Strategic Needs Assessment 2010-2011.

The study will explore the research topic using reflexive approaches and data will be

collected using questionnaire for as many people as possible. The goal will be achieved if

more than 20 people fill out the questionnaire. It will take no more than 5 minutes to fill one

out. It will be in English but if needed can be translated or explained in Bengali as I can speak

or write in Bengali. Participant comments are one of the tools of the study through close

contacts with the research participants and will occur during the formal or informal meetings.

The fieldwork of this research will run for 3 months.

People generally believe in the universal notion that “one can prove anything with statistics”.

This is only true if we use data analysis procedures improperly. There are some points that

people often overlook while doing data analysis, and also the ways people sometimes “bend

the rules” of statistics to support their viewpoint. Carrying out research on the effects diabetes

has on family member we can find the solution to relieve the stress and anxiety. We can find

out how many families are affected by diabetes and what resources are available to help

them. The best procedure to collect the data is carrying out a survey amongst the Bengali

community.

Verbal or written consent is acquired from every participant and all the required information

is provided to him or her before, during and after the survey carried out. The participant will

be given access to their questionnaire and will have freedom to withdraw from the survey at

any time. I will use strict ethical procedures and guidelines maintaining anonymity and

confidentiality of the participants and data at all stages of the research. If necessary,

participants will be provided with information about social support groups or organizations.

Sample of questionnaire- This was distributed amongst people in the community who had

time to fill out this questionnaire.

Expected outcomes – finding out how diabetes affects family members whilst looking after a

diabetic person. Finding out what can be done to relieve these people from this stress, if there

is any help from the local council.

Result – 25 people filled out questionnaire. 20 had family members who suffer from

diabetes, 5 suffer from type 1 and 15 from type 2 diabetes and 20 people said it affected



85

family members having diabetes. 10 of the respondents would like to receive help from the

local council to relieve the pressure from looking after the ill person. I went out in the

community and people filled out these surveys, a lot of people refused to fill it out as they did

not have time to do that.

Conclusion- Successful diabetes management involves devotion to a constant and compound

routine and, therefore, non-adherence is the norm moderately than the omission. Psychosocial

treatments may be used to improve adherence to the diabetes regimen and, more generally, to

develop constant pro-diabetic lifestyles.

REFERENCES

Diabetes UK (2012). About diabetes. Available at http://www.diabetes.co.uk/ [Accessed 9

December 2013].

Diabetes UK (2013). About impact on families. Available at

http://www.diabetes.co.uk/emotional-impact-on-families.html [Accessed 9

December2013].

Nursing Times (2013). About Diabetes awareness. Available at

http://www.nursingtimes.net/SearchResults.aspx?qsearch=1&qkeyword=family+affected+

by+diabetes+care&x=-1015&y=-188# [Accessed 9 December 2013].

Touch endocrine (2013). About family. Available at

www.touchendocrinedisease.com[Accessed 9 December 2013].

Touch endocrine (2013). About Miscarried helping. [online].Available.

www.touchendocrinedisease.com[Accessed 9 December 2013].

Tower Hamlets (2011). About Diabetes. Available at

http://moderngov.towerhamlets.gov.uk/documents/s24103/Diabetes%20JSNA%20Factshe

et.pdf [Accessed 9 December 2013].

WHO (2013). About Research. Available at http://www.who.int/alliance-

hpsr/alliancehpsr_defresearcharticleplos.pdf. [Accessed 9 December 2013].

http://www.diabetes.co.uk/

http://www.nursingtimes.net/SearchResults.aspx?qsearch=1&qkeyword=family+affected+by+diabetes+care&x=-1015&y=-188

http://www.nursingtimes.net/SearchResults.aspx?qsearch=1&qkeyword=family+affected+by+diabetes+care&x=-1015&y=-188

http://moderngov.towerhamlets.gov.uk/documents/s24103/Diabetes%20JSNA%20Factsheet.pdf

http://moderngov.towerhamlets.gov.uk/documents/s24103/Diabetes%20JSNA%20Factsheet.pdf

http://www.who.int/alliance-hpsr/alliancehpsr_defresearcharticleplos.pdf.%20Last%20accessed%2017-September-2013

http://www.who.int/alliance-hpsr/alliancehpsr_defresearcharticleplos.pdf.%20Last%20accessed%2017-September-2013


Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

86

Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s

Health in Rural Bangladesh: What Health Effects are Associated With

Indoor Air Pollution Resulting from Solid Biomass Fuels Burning (for

Cooking and Heating) in Rural Households of Bangladesh?

Md. Shahneous Jeul*

ABSTRACT

Indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning in rural households is increasingly

documented as a major public health hazard in most developing countries like Bangladesh.

But still there are very few researches carried in Bangladesh on that particular issue.

However, health effects are very important to quantify the burden. That is why this study is

set to identify the associated health effects of indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel

combustion (for cooking and heating) in rural households of Bangladesh.

PubMed, MEDLINE, BioMed central, EBSCO host, SciVerse Science direct (Elsevier) and

British Education Index (BEI) databases were searched for relevant studies that investigated

associated health effects of indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning in rural

communities. Studies from Bangladesh and other developing countries such as India, Sri

Lanka and China that only pertaining to indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel and

health effects were considered.

By analysing different literatures related to my investigation, various associated health

effects of indoor air pollution from solid biomass burning in rural households were being

explored such as cardiovascular diseases (hypertension, coronary heart disease and stroke),

tuberculosis, eye diseases (cataract, blindness and eyes redness), acute and lower respiratory

diseases (asthma, cough, shortness of breath, lung cancer, child’s low birth weight) and so

on in both children and adults.

Limited quantity of literature was found from Bangladesh that investigated the associated

health effects of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel combustion in rural

communities. Subsequently, it can be concluded that indoor air pollution from solid biomass

fuel burning in rural households may be considered as a neglected public health problem in

Bangladesh.

* Former Health and Social Care student of London Churchill College, currently studying at Anglia Ruskin

University. Author bares all the responsibility for the information and data communicated in this article.


Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

87

General

Exposure to Indoor Air Pollution (IAP) from the combustion of traditional solid biomass

fuels (charcoal, wood, grass, animal dung and crop wastes) and coal is a major public health

hazard and it is predominantly affecting population’s health of rural communities in

developing countries (World Health Organisation, 2002). It is estimated that globally over 2

million people living in rural areas of developing countries and still rely on energy from

using solid biomass fuels to meet their every day’s household energy needs such as for

cooking and heating (The World Bank, 2010). As a result, every single day a large numbers

of people are exposed to harmful emissions and other health

risks from solid biomass fuels burning in their homes, which typically take place in low

efficiency stoves or open fires with inadequate ventilation systems and leads to indoor air

pollution (World Health Organisation (WHO), 2002). Besides this, indoor smoke from solid

biomass fuels comprises a high level of health damaging pollutants include carbon

monoxide, nitrous oxide, sulphur oxide (mainly from coal), formaldehyde and carcinogens

such as benzo[a]pyrene and benzene (Majid, 2002). But it is expected that a large section of

rural households in developing countries will not able to move up their energy ladder to

cleaner options (liquefied petroleum or natural gas, solar energy and electricity) for a long

time because solid biomass fuels (charcoal, wood, grass, animal dung and crop wastes) are

more cheaper and easily accessible domestic fuels in rural communities of developing

countries rather than non-solid fuels like kerosene, natural gas, solar energy and electricity

(The World Bank, 2010). However, domestic fuel usages for cooking and heating in

developing countries rarely follow the “energy ladder” for increasing cleanliness, cost and

convenience and decreasing health impacts [see figure 1] (Bruce and Albalak, 2000). Thus,

indoor air pollution from burning solid biomass fuel in rural communities of developing

country like Bangladesh will remain an important public health issue. In addition, women and

children are mainly affected from indoor air pollution in developing countries due to their

gender rules such cooking, staying at home to look after the kids and so on (WHO, 2002).

This study is devoted to investigate associated health effects of indoor air pollution due the

solid biomass fuel burning in rural households by analysing national and international

existing relevant studies that especially emphasised population’s health effects.


Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh... 88

Figure 1: THE ENERGY LADDER

Source: World Health Organisation, 2011.

THE ENERGY LADDER

INCREASING CLEANLINESS, EFFICIENCY, COST AND CONVENIENCE

DECREASING HEALTH IMPACTS

NON-SOLID FUELS (clean options)

SOLID FUELS

(Unclean options)

INCREASING PROSPERITY AND DEVELOPMENT

Indoor Air Pollution and Solid Biomass Fuels

In order to investigate into the indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuels in rural

households of Bangladesh it is very important to have a clear concept and knowledge on

indoor air pollution and solid biomass fuels.

Indoor air pollution. Indoor air pollution refers to health damaging gases or particles

released into a home environment by indoor sources. For example cooking and heating at

home by using solid biomass fuels release high level of health damaging gases into home

environment caused indoor air pollution (United States Environmental Protection Agency,

2013).

Solid biomass fuels. Solid biomass fuels define as biological material derived from animal

or plant matter and can be used directly as fuels without converting them into other forms

CROP WASTE, DUNG AND TREE LEAVES

WOOD

CHARCOAL AND COAL

KEROSINE

GAS, LIQUID PETROLEUM GAS, BIOGAS

ELECTRICITY, SOLAR POWER



including crop waste, animal dung, tree leaves, wood and so on [ see above figure 1] (BAXI,

2013).

Solid Biomass Fuels Use Scenario in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is the most densely populated country in the world with 150 million people in a

total area of 147,570 km². The economy of the country mainly depends on the agricultural

activities and per capita income is around 389 US dollars (US $1=77.75 Bangladeshi Taka).

Besides this, the World Bank’s Bangladesh country environment analysis report shows that

the majority people in Bangladesh are poor, live in rural areas and mostly rely on solid-

biomass fuels [see figure 2] to meet their every day’s household energy needs such as for

cooking and heating that consistently pollute indoor air and also affect population’s health

adversely in rural Bangladesh (World Bank, 2006). The average energy use in rural

Bangladesh is showing below on the pie chart.

Figure 2: The average energy use in rural Bangladesh

Source: The World Bank, 2010.

Evidence suggests that the characteristics of solid biomass fuels are so influential and also

have high*PM10 (Particulate Matter-10)4 concentrations compared to the non-solid biomass

fuels such as liquid natural gas (Dasgupta et al., 2004). Consequently, Bangladeshi rural

households using solid biomass fuels are experiencing 24-hour average PM10 concentrations

as high as 800 ug/m3. Such concentrations are far higher than outdoor PM10 levels and

considered as very dangerous for public health in rural Bangladesh (Galassi et al., 2000).

Available Government’s Policies to Reduce Indoor Air Pollution in Bangladesh

Bangladesh does not have any specific government’s policy such as a clean air act or law that

specifically addresses air pollution (both indoor and outdoor) and its management and

4 [*Particulate Matter (PM) is the term for solid or liquid particles found in the air. PM 10 refers to the air

particles which are less than 10 micrometres ((0.0004 inches or one-seventh the width of a human hair) can get

easily into the lungs and potentially causing serious health problems]

17%

21%

15%

44%

2% 1% 0.3%

AVERAGE ENERGY USE IN RURAL BANGLADESH

Animal dung

Crops residue

Tree leaves

Fire wood

Kerosene

Electricity



control. There are also no clear indications whether one will be legislated in the coming

future. But currently the primary legislations “Bangladesh Environmental Conservation act

1995” and “Environmental Conservation rules 1997” under the Ministry of Environment and

Forestry deal with indoor air pollution and other types of environment pollution issues in

Bangladesh (Bangladesh Ministry of Environment and Forestry, 2006).

Rational Behind the Study

Indoor Air Pollution (IAP) is being considered as a major global killer because World Health

Organisation (WHO) report (2002) indicated that IAP is responsible for an estimated 2.7% of

the global burden of disease. Besides this, IAP from solid biomass fuels is also accountable

for 1.6 billion deaths and 39 million DALYs (Disability – Adjusted Life Years, a measure

combining years of life lost due to disability and death) every year in the world. However,

extensive scientific research found that IAP has been consistently linked with ill- effects

which are almost five times higher than effects resulting from outdoor air pollution

(International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research Bangladesh (icddr,b), 2008).Globally,

the annual burden of disease attributable to solid biomass fuels use is given below:

Annual burden of disease attributable to solid biomass fuel use, data available from

1990s

Table 1: annually global burden of disease from solid biomass fuels use

Source: Smith et al, 2000 cited in World Health Organization (WHO), 2002.

On the other hand, in developing countries, acute respiratory diseases from indoor air

pollution due to the solid biomass fuel combustion at homes are leading cause of death

among all age groups. For example, WHO (2007) estimated that in Bangladesh annually

32,332 deaths from acute lower respiratory infections among children and 13,620 deaths from

chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases caused by indoor air pollution from solid biomass

fuels burning at homes which is accountable for 3.7% of total burden of disease and also

being considered as fourth most serious health risk factor after malnutrition, unsafe sex, lack

of safe water and effective sanitation (WHO, 2007). In addition, exposure to polluted indoor

air is normally higher among women and children in developing countries like Bangladesh

due to their gender roles such as women usually cook by using solid biomass fuels and spend

Region Deaths Illness incidence DALYs

India 496,059 448,351,369 15,954,430

China 516,475 209,727,474 9,335,387

Other Asia and Pacific Islands 210,721 306,356,582 6,599,471

Sub-Saharan Africa 429,027 350,703,204 14,323,188

Latin America 29,020 58,246,497 918,236

Mid-East and North Africa 165,761 64,150,732 5,633,022



more time at homes to look after their children (Smith et al., 2000). Furthermore, some of the

World Health Organisation’s (WHO) millennium development goals for developing countries

includes improving health of rural people, ensuring environmental sustainability and reducing

maternal & child mortality (Rehfuess et al., 2006). By identifying and reducing associated

health effects of indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels that are commonly being used

for cooking and heating in rural households of developing countries like Bangladesh might

able to attain millennium development goals (WHO, 2007). Moreover, historically public

health attention has mainly focused on the health risks from outdoor air pollution, even

though evidence suggests that indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels has far greater

health risks than outdoor air pollution. Even today, most of the researchers in the world are

still emphasising public health effects from outdoor air pollution rather than the indoor air

pollution (WHO, 2002). Consequently, health effects that are associated with indoor air

pollution from solid biomass fuel burning are being neglected worldwide including

Bangladesh and still affecting population’s health rapidly. However, in case of indoor air

pollution, people’s exposure to indoor air contains more health damaging pollutants than

outdoor air pollution that come from indoor sources like solid biomass fuels burning for

cooking and heating at houses (Bloom et al., 2000).

The Aim of the Study

The aim of the current study is to identify the health effects of indoor air pollution resulting

from solid biomass fuels burning for cooking and heating in rural communities of

Bangladesh.

Project Question to be Investigated

The project question of this current study reviews is:

What are the major health effects are associated with indoor air pollution resulting from

using solid biomass fuels in rural households of Bangladesh?

The Significance of the Study

The current study outcomes will provide valuable information for intervention studies aimed

at reducing indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuels that adversely effecting

population’s health in rural Bangladesh. It will also be helpful to create a healthier indoor air

quality for all population who live in rural Bangladesh by explaining them the negative health

consequences of indoor air pollution that result from solid biomass fuels burning, teaching

them strategies to reduce health effects from using solid biomass fuels (Kandiah, 2010).

Literature Review

To start with, literature review can be defined as “a comprehensive study and interpretation

of literature that addresses a specific topic”. In order to answer specific question related to

research study, literature review plays a significant role by exploring what is known and not

known about an area of inquiry, determining any gaps in the theory and knowledge, analysing



how the topic was investigated in the past and so on (Aveyard, 2010). This chapter of the

current study is going to present a review of available literature on indoor air pollution

resulting from solid biomass fuels burning (for cooking and heating) in rural households of

Bangladesh and other developing countries with special emphasis on health effects from

burning solid- biomass fuels. This extensive literature review also includes the survey of the

documents on relevant researches and studies from Bangladesh and other developing

countries such as India, China and Sri Lanka because search methodology of this current

study[ See Chapter: 3] indicates that there might not be any researches or very few researches

carried out on indoor air pollution in Bangladesh.

Review of Available Literature Related to my Topic Area

There is a number of literary woks which explored the close inter-relationship between

indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuels and different types of negative health

consequences in rural communities of developing countries (Smith and Mehtha, 2003; WHO,

2013). Mavalankar et. al. (1992) carried out a study in rural communities of India to find out

the association between indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels burning in rural

households and children’s low birth weight. The study findings established a strong

connection with indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuels and children’s low birth

weight. Similar research findings were also reported by Tielesh et al., 2009 and Pope et al.,

2010. It can be noted that all these studies were carried out in rural areas of developing

countries and the researchers followed totally dissimilar study designs from each other to

carry out that particular research studies.

Mishra, et al., 2005 and Dherani et al., 2008 conducted two separate research studies to

examine the correlation between indoor air pollution from solid biomass burning for cooking

and heating in rural households and the risk of Acute Lower Respiratory Infections (ALRI)

such as pneumonia, influenza, bronchitis, Asthma, cataract and others among rural household

members where the findings of those studies were positive and similar. One of the studies

was carried out by the following primary method of data collection (survey) to collect the

research data but the research samples were not mentioned on the study (Mishra et al., 2008).

On the other hand, the research samples were mentioned in another research study but data

collection methods were unclear (Dherani et al., 2008).

Gupta et al. (2001) carried out a research study to find out the risk factor of lung cancers in

rural communities of developing countries and later by Supkota et al. (2008) also conducted a

research study on indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels and the risk of having lung

cancers. Both studies found that the indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuels

burning in rural households of developing countries is mostly responsible for lung cancers

where both research study designs (Case-control) were the same and the research samples

were appropriate.

Mishra et al. (2001) led a National Family Health Survey (NFHS) to find out eye diseases

resulting from indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuels burning in rural

communities of India. The prevalence of blindness and cataract from indoor air pollution that



is caused by solid biomass fuels burning in rural households had been found as a key eye

disease where specific questionnaire forms were used to collect the data.

Lakshmi et al. (2010) conducted a research study to investigate solid biomass fuels use and

risk of tuberculosis in rural households of India where the solid biomass fuel smoke exposure

level was high. The study finding was positive and the tuberculosis was found as an

associated health effect resulting from indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuels

burning in rural communities. Similar research finding was also reportedby Shetty et al.,

2006; Koloppan et al., 2009; Behara et al., 2010. Case-control study design was noticeable

among all of that research studies, whereas research carried out by following different study

design might produce different result (Xiaohong et al., 2011).

In the review of investigating major health concern of indoor air pollution resulting from

solid biomass fuel smoke, the researchers found that non respiratory illness and respiratory

illness both in children (low birth weight, childhood pneumonia, childhood bronchitis ,

asthma) and adults (cardiovascular disease such as blood pressure, stroke, Lang cancer, eye

redness, asthma, cataract and tuberculosis ) were associated with indoor air pollution from

using solid biomass fuels in developing countries (Duncan et al., 2008).

From all of the above mentioned research literature, the research study which was carried out

by Kurmi et al. (2010) to examine the association between Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary

Diseases (COPD) such as chronic bronchitis, emphysema, chronic asthma and indoor air

pollution from solid biomass fuels burning was exceptional as it was conducted clinically.

The research findings of that research study also established that the indoor air pollution from

using solid biomass burning has great influence to develop COPD.

Followed by the preceding available literature, it can be anticipated that there might be many

researches carried out to find out the association between specific health effect and indoor air

pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel burning in rural households but there might not

exist any research carried out which would address all health effects together resulting from

indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuels burning. This is the area that this paper will

address.

Chapter 3: Methodology

Data Sources

Extensive search strategies were being conducted in different major electronic medical

databases which include PubMed, MEDLINE, BioMed central, EBSCO host, SciVerse

Science direct (Elsevier) and British Education Index (BEI) to find out research articles and

supporting information with the aim of producing an informative literature review. However,

a careful search was also performed in the bibliography of each article selected for the review

to improve reliability and validity of the study.



Search Strategies

In order to search and identify relevant research literature that already was written in my area

of interest, appropriate key words (e.g., indoor air pollution, household air pollution, solid

biomass fuels, fuels, biomass fuels, domestic air pollution, household energy, health effects,

health consequences, health impacts, rural Bangladesh, rural area, developing country, rural

communities) had been chosen. The selected different key words and combination of key

words were being used on above mentioned relevant databases for the purpose of systematic

searching. Besides this, during the systematic searching different databases were being

limited to articles published only in English language between 2000 and 2012 and also more

focused on research sources (that focused on Bangladesh and other developing countries were

included as relevant) rather than other simple descriptive programmes.

The initial searches on different databases elicited over 1020 ‘hits’, of which about 138 were

considered potentially relevant to my study. The brief descriptions of all databases that were

being searched by using selected key words or combination of key words to identify my topic

related literatures are included in the appendix.

To understand initial database searches, the summary of the comprehensive systematic

searches on different relevant databases are given below in the table.

Table 2: The summary of the initial different relevant database searches

Study Selection

After comprehensive scanning abstracts, summaries, references and rejecting duplicates of

those selected 138 relevance, about 40 sources were obtained for further consideration.

Similarly, the research sources and other descriptive sources which obviously did not include

health effects from indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning in rural areas of

developing countries were also being excluded from those further considerable 40 sources by

studying full text of the sources. Finally, only 10 research articles and few descriptive sources

Databases No of results No of selected

PubMed 54 18

MEDLINE (NLM) 186 22

BioMed Central 42 12

EBSCO host 354 38

British Education Index

(BEI)

10 0

SciVerse Science Direct

(Elsevier)

374 40

Total 6 databases were

being searched

Total 1020 titles

obtained for review

Total 138 were selected as

potentially relevant



were identified for my study which include indoor air pollution caused by using solid

biomass fuels, health effects due to indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels burning and

strategies and interventions to avoid health effects of indoor air pollution from solid biomass

fuels burning in rural communities of developing countries.

Above mentioned search strategies indicated that there were limited number of researches

carried out on health effects of indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuels burning in

rural communities of Bangladesh. Consequently, researches, descriptive programmes and

reliable reports (reports published from WHO, World Bank) published on indoor air pollution

from using solid biomass fuels in other rural communities of developing countries such as

from China, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka were considered as relevant.

Study Inclusion Criteria

Empirical researches and programmes that carried out on health effects of indoor

air pollution from using solid fuels in Bangladesh or other developing countries

like Bangladesh such as India, China, Nepal and Sri Lanka.

Only primary research articles were included

Only study published in English language

Studies conducted among rural communities in developing countries

Study published between 2000 and 2012

Research papers, reports and some descriptive programmes related to my area of

interest

Only published papers

Studies that include health effects of indoor air pollution from using solid biomass

fuels.

Studies that include strategies and interventions to reduce indoor air pollution

from burning solid biomass fuels in rural communities

Study Exclusion Criteria

Studies conducted on indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel combustion in

developed country

Studies focus on outdoor air pollution

Indoor air pollution from non-solid biomass fuels

Studies carried out on urban area.

Non published study

Studies published before year of 2000.

Units of the Analysis

By the application of different search strategies described in the methodology section, total

10 of research studies were included for this review. All included researches for the review

were conducted in developing countries like Bangladesh and published between the year



2000 and 2012 [see table 3]. The studies (units) which were being analysed in this review are

given in the table below:

Table 3: the units of the systematic research analysis

Study

No

Authors Running literature headings Year of

publication

1 Lee et al. In-home solid fuel use and cardiovascular disease 2012

2 Zhiwen et al. Indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels

combustion and the risk factors of neural tube defects

2011

3 Kan et al. Indoor air pollution from solid fuel use and

tuberculosis

2011

4 Baumgartner et

al.

Air pollution from solid biomass combustion and

blood pressure in women

2011

5 Ranasinghe MH

et al.

Risk of cataract formation with exposure to solid

biomass fuels smoke

2004

6 Lankatilake et al. Indoor air quality and respiratory symptoms 2000

7 Karunasekara et

al.

Indoor air pollution from solid fuels burning at home

and risk of asthma in children

2005

8 Khalequzzaman

et al.

Indoor air pollution & its health impacts 2007

9 Perera et al. Investigation of lung cancer to human activities 2004

10 Pathirane et al. Low birth weights of infants and exposure to smoke

from solid biomass fuels burning

2006

Analysis

The research literature which was included for this review (see table 3) is analysed below:

Lee et al. (2012) conducted a descriptive, cross sectional study to explore the association

between in-home solid fuel use and cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, coronary

heart disease, stroke in rural Chinese households. The research data was collected from

convenience sample of 14,068 Chinese adults (6,463 men and 7,605 women: age 18 year or

older) by face to face interviews, questionnaires and clinical examinations to record their

socio-demographic factors (age, gender, education, marital status and household income),

assess medical history and the duration of household exposure to solid biomass fuel smoke

from cooking and heating. Then all collected data was analysed statistically. Finally, in the

evaluation stage the research findings showed that the solid fuels use in home was

significantly associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. On the other hand,

there were some limitations of that research study. These included lack of control group in

the study and the limitation of epidemiological data on the cardiovascular effects from solid

biomass fuel use in home (Bhatnagar, 2006).

A case-control study conducted in rural population of China to examine the association

between indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels combustion at home and the risk

factors of Neural Tube Defects. The studied rural population had high exposure of indoor air



pollution from solid biomass fuels and high prevalence of NTDs. The research samples of

that study were 1447 live born and still born infants (610 with NTDs cases and 837 normal

controls) and their mothers. For the purpose of collecting data, medical check-up of those

infants was conducted and the mothers of those infants (both case and controls) were

interviewed face to face based on structured questionnaire to record their socio- demographic

characteristics (lifestyle, illness and medication use) and solid biomass fuels smoke exposure

status during preconception period. Collected data were analysed statistically followed by a

pair matching design. Finally, the research finding established that women with high

exposure to indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels combustion have higher risk of

having child with neural tube defects even though some of the limitations of that study were

identified. To start with, recall bias might be raised in that study because of case mothers who

were interviewed beside control mothers to collect the data, may tend to over report the

factors they believe to have influenced their NTDs affected pregnancies in comparison with

control mothers. Besides this, that research study was identified as the first research study

regarding the possible association between indoor air pollution and the risk of NTDs so far

(Zhiwen et al., 2011).

Another case control study also conducted in rural China to explore association between

indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel use and risk of tuberculosis. 606 people (male

and female) participated in the research from two community households with one key

informant for each house where 202 tuberculosis patients were considered as a case and 404

people of the same sex and similar age of the case were considered as controls. The data

collection methods was face to face interview with participants based on structured

questionnaire to record demographic information, smoking habits, types of stove used for

cooking and heating, tuberculosis history, location of cooking place and ventilation of

cooking place. Collected data was analysed statistically by using STATA software. Finally,

in the evaluation stage the research findings showed that with proper ventilation in cooking

places, the association between solid biomass fuels combustion for cooking and heating and

tuberculosis was not statistically significant because there was some limitation of that

particular study that can be identified. Firstly, that study did not assess participants’ exposure

status to the solid biomass fuels smoke in order to make sure whether the study participants

had a high level of exposure to solid biomass fuel smoke or not. Secondly, only one key

informant from each house was selected in terms of collecting data (Kan et al., 2011).

Baumgartner et al. (2011) carried out a cross sectional research study to assess the

relationship between indoor air pollution exposure from solid biomass combustion and Blood

Pressure (BP) in women of rural China. 280 women (age 25-90 years old) from 235

households were selected for the research. The research data was collected by measuring

Personal PM (2.5) exposure and BP measurement (before and after PM (2.5) personal

exposure), providing questionnaires (to record socio-demographic and health information for

each participant) to all participants and other measurement such as measuring BMI (Body

Mass Index) of research participants. Then the collected data was analysed by using

regression equation to assess BP (Blood Pressure)-PM (Particulate Matter) association.

Finally, the research study result showed that the indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel



combustion in rural households of China is positively associated with both SBP (Systolic

Blood Pressure) and DBP (Diastolic Blood Pressure) in women. Cross sectional study design

of that study was considered as one of the main limitation.

A hospital base case control study was conducted in rural Sri Lanka to examine the

association between solid biomass fuel smoke exposure and cataract. The research data was

collected from the convenience sample of 387 people (197 people with cataract problem were

chosen as cases + 190people with other eye problems were identified as control group) who

were admitted to the National Eye hospital. The data collection method used in that study was

questionnaire which assessed solid biomass smoke exposure of the participants and also

recorded socio demographic information (sex, education, eye disease history) of the research

study participants. Collected data were analysed statically like above mentioned others

research study. Finally, in the assessment stage the researchers found a significant association

between solid biomass smoke exposure and cataract by comparing cases with a control group.

On the other hand, participants’ solid biomass fuel smoke exposure level was not measured

quantitatively in that study which was identified as one of the limitations of that particular

research study (Ranasinghe MH et al., 2004).

Lankatilake et al. (2000) investigated the association between solid biomass fuel smoke

exposure and the risk of respiratory symptoms (cough, shortness of breath, wheezing and

lung pain, asthma, bronchitis, pneumonia and lung cancer) in both children and adults of rural

area of Sri-Lanka. The researchers of that study followed a cross sectional study design to

conduct that research. Besides this, the research data was collected from the convenience

sample of 734 people (604 children and 130 women) who were selected from 397 households

that use solid biomass fuel (fire wood) for their daily cooking. The data collection methods of

that study were face to face interview based on structured questionnaire (to record socio-

demographic information and medical history of the participants) and the measurement of

repairable dust level. Then all collected data was analysed statistically. Finally, in the

evolution stage the research result revealed that the indoor air exposure from solid biomass

fuel combustion in rural households of Sri Lanka was a significant risk factor for respiratory

symptoms. One of the limitations of that particular study was a lack of control group which

made research result problematic. However, the participants’ indoor air exposure level was

not also assessed in that study which can be identified as a further limitation of that study.

A school based cross sectional study conducted in the rural area of Sri Lanka to assess the

association between indoor air pollution from solid fuels burning at home and the risk of

asthma in children. The research data was collected from 441asthmatic and 1510 non

asthmatic school children (age between 5 and 11). Besides this, the data collection method of

that study was questionnaire that recorded socio-demographic information (sex, age, and

medical history) and assessed solid biomass fuel smoke exposure (reported by parents) of all

participants (both asthmatic and non-asthmatic children) at home. Finally, the research result

informed that the presence of solid biomass fuel smoke at home significantly increased the

risk of asthma in children. On the other hand, the cross sectional study design of that research

study can be identified as a limitation. However, there was not any measurement done in that



study to assess indoor air pollutant (PM concentrations) at home which also can be identified

as a further limitation of that study (Karunasekara et al., 2005).

Another cross sectional study was conducted in a rural area of Bangladesh to explore the

correlation between indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels combustion at home for

cooking and heating and its impact on children. The research data was collected from a

convenience sample of 116 children (age: ≤5 years) who were randomly selected from 49

families using solid biomass fuel. The data collection methods of that particular study were

questionnaires (to record socio-demographic information, medical history of the participants),

checklist (to record characteristics of household kitchens) and indoor air particles

measurement (to measure available solid or liquid particles in the indoor air). Most of the

collected data related to the participants and their household’s characteristics was reported by

the parents of research participants because of their age limit. In the final stage, the research

finding established that the indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning at home for

cooking and heating is strongly associated with different health impacts on children such as

redness of eyes, itching of skin, pneumonia, influenza, cough, shortness of breath, chest

tightness, nasal discharge and so on. Lack of control group in that study was also identified as

a weakness of that study (Khalequzzaman et al., 2007).

Parera et al. (2004) conducted a case control study in a rural community of Sri Lanka to

investigate association between exposure to solid biomass smoke and lung cancer. The

researchers obtained a convenience sample of 256 people (only male age between 41 and 50)

where 128 people with lung cancer were identified as cases and the same numbers of people

were categorised as controls. Besides this, the data collection method of that study was a

questionnaire which recorded socio-demographic information (education, income level),

medical history and the smoking history of the study participants. However, solid biomass

fuel exposure of the participants was also assessed by using the questionnaire. Then

collected data was analysed statistically. Finally, in the assessment stage the research result

indicated that there was no association between solid biomass fuel smoke exposure and the

risk of lung cancer. On the other hand, apart from assessing biomass fuel smoke exposure

status by using the questionnaire, solid biomass fuel smoke exposure level of the participants

was not measured quantitatively in that study which can be identified as a limitation of that

study.

A cross sectional study was carried out in a rural area of Sri Lanka to examine the correlation

between low birth weights of infants and exposure to smoke from solid biomass fuels

burning. The research sample was 369 new born babies and the research data was collected

by providing the questionnaire to the mothers (to record socio-demographics information of

infants and their mothers, assess mothers’ solid biomass exposure during pregnancy), face to

face interviews with mothers (to record household characteristics such as kitchen location and

ventilation systems) and measuring weight of the infants. Then the collected data were being

analysed statistically. Finally, the research results revealed that the exposure of solid biomass

fuel smoke was a significant predictor of child’s low birth weight. Indoor air quality

measurements were not reported in that study which can be considered as a weakness of that

particular study. However, there was a lack of control group in that study which made



research result problematic because of the specific research study designs (Pathirane et al.,

2006).

Findings

The relevant literature was included in this review to examine the health consequences that

might be associated with indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuels burning (for

cooking and heating) in rural households of Bangladesh. After analysing it, even though

methodological limitations in most of the studies were explored, there were different types of

health effects identified which linked with indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass

combustion in rural households. The identified health effects were cardiovascular diseases

(stroke, blood pressure both SBP& DBP), neural tube defects, respiratory symptoms (asthma,

pneumonia, influenza, cough and nasal discharge), children’s low birth weight and eye

disease (cataract, redness of eyes). In addition, in this review there were some health effects

identified which were not associated with indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass

combustion at home such as lung cancer and tuberculosis (Perera et al., 2004; Kan et al.,

2011). But in the earlier studies they were identified as health effects resulting from indoor

air pollution due to the solid biomass fuel burning in rural households (Gupta et al., 2001;

Lakshmi et al., 2010) which will be discussed briefly in the discussion chapter.

Discussions

In case of analysing different literatures (see chapter 4) to investigate health effects

associated with indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass combustion in rural

households, different types of data collection methods, study designs, research sample size

were exposed which have great influence on research findings (Aveyard, 2010). For example,

in the first included study (see chapter 4) for this review, the researchers followed cross

sectional study design. As a result there was a lack of control group in that study. However,

lack of epidemiological data on the cardiovascular diseases from solid biomass fuel uses was

also reported in that study (Lee et al., 2011). Consequently, the research findings of that

study (indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel combustion at home significantly increase

the risk of cardiovascular disease) could not be directly compared with existing scientific

evidences and also could not be compared with the control group which might make that

research result unreliable but in the previous studies (see chapter 2: literature review) it was

proved that there is an significant association between indoor air pollution from using solid

biomass fuel and cardiovascular disease (Duncan et al., 2008). As a result, cardiovascular

diseases can be identified as health effects of indoor air pollution resulting from solid

biomass burning in rural households.

In the second study included for this review (see chapter 4), the researchers used convenience

research sample size and data collection methods. The research study design was a case

control design which is more effective research study design because that type of research

study design includes a control group in the study which is comparable with research group

(known as cases) to judge the reliability of the research result (Law et al., 1998).

Consequently, the established research result (indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel



combustion is a significant risk factor for Neural Tube Defects) of the second study included

for this review can be considered as reliable but that study was identified as the one and only

first research study that was carried out to find out the association between indoor air

pollution from solid biomass fuel burning at home and the risk factors of Neural Tube

Defects (NTDs) so far (Zhiwen et al., 2011). That is why NTDs can be identified as less

likely associate health effects of indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuel combustion

in rural households and more studies are required to be repeated on that issue to check the

link between indoor air pollution from solid biomass combustion and risk factor for NTDs.

Many earlier literary sources suggest that tuberculosis is the related health effect of indoor air

pollution due to the solid biomass fuel burning in rural households (Lakshmi et al., 2010;

Shetty et al., 2006; Koloppan et al., 2009; Behara et al., 2010). But one third included study

for this review (see chapter 4) revealed totally opposite research result (with the proper

ventilation in cooking places, the association between solid biomass fuels combustion for

cooking and heating in rural households and tuberculosis is not statistically significant) which

might occurred in that study because of inconvenient research sample size which was only

606 people (202 people with tuberculosis were considered as cases and the rest of 404 people

were considered as controls) who cannot represent the whole rural population using solid

biomass fuel (Kan et al., 2011). In addition, in that study solid biomass fuels smoke exposure

status of the participants was not assessed to make sure whether the included research

participants had high level of exposure to solid biomass fuel smoke or not which might be

raised sample selection bias in that study and can be triggered on delivering dissimilar

research result from the existent relevant studies. However, in terms of collecting research

data one informant from each house was interviewed in that study which might be the cause

of recall bias in that study and could be influenced by the research result (Law et al., 1998;

Kan et al., 2011). Considering all discussed things of that research study and also based on

strong evidence available from previous existent studies (Lakshmi et al.,2010; Shetty et al.,

2006; Koloppan et al., 2009; Behara et al., 2010) tuberculosis can be identified as related

health effect of indoor air pollution from burning solid biomass fuel in rural households.

In the fourth study included for this review (see chapter 4) relationship between Blood

Pressure (BP) in women and indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel

combustion in rural households was investigated. The research findings of that study

established the positive association between BP in women and indoor air pollution from

using solid biomass fuel in rural households (for cooking and heating) where the researchers

followed cross sectional design. As a result, there was a lack of control group in that

particular study which made the research results a bit problematic but available earlier and

present literature also established the positive association between BP and solid biomass fuel

smoke exposure from indoor air pollution (Duncan et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2012). However, in

case of data collection in that study solid biomass fuel smoke exposure level of all research

participants was assessed by measuring PM (Particulate Matter) level of indoor air besides

questionnaire, whereas in other above mentioned studies participants’ solid biomass fuel

smoke exposure was assessed only by using questionnaire (Baumgartner et al., 2011).

Consequently, that study methodology can be considered as more effective than above



mentioned other studies and the blood Pressure (both systolic and diastolic) in women also

can be included as an associated health effect of indoor air pollution resulting from solid

biomass fuel combustion in rural household.

In the fifth study included for this review (see chapter 4: table 3), the research sample size

(387 people) and study design (case control) were considered as appropriate to examine the

association between solid biomass fuel smoke exposure from indoor air pollution and the risk

of cataract (kind of eye disease). The research finding of that study reported the significant

association between the risk of cataract and solid biomass fuel smoke exposure from indoor

air pollution which was compared with control group that increased the reliability of that

research result. But in that study solid biomass fuel smoke exposure status of research

participants was only assessed by face to face interviews based on structured questionnaire

that might not be able to assess participants’ biomass fuel smoke exposure status completely

except duration of smoke exposure assessment and types of solid fuel use (Ranasinghe MH et

al., 2004). Considering all discussed aspects of that study and depending on other available

earlier research studies, review of that also established a significant association between solid

biomass fuel smoke exposure and the risk of cataract (Duncan et al., 2008; Mishra et al.,

2001, 2005 & 2008).The eye disease “cataract” has been considered as a correlated health

effect of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel burning in rural households.

In the sixth study included for this review (see chapter 4) the sample size was appropriate for

the study but the cross sectional study design made the research result (indoor air exposure

from solid biomass fuel combustion in a rural households is a significant risk factor for

respiratory symptoms) a bit challenging because there was a lack of control group in that

study to judge the reliability of research result. However, in that study only repairable dust

level of research participants’ households was measured but indoor air exposure level of the

participants’ households was not measured which can be identified as a deficient of data

collection method (Lankatilake et al., 2000). Even though that study had some limitation,

many earlier and current research studies also established the same strong association

between indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass burning at rural households and the

risk of respiratory symptoms (Dherani et al., 2008; Duncan et al., 2008; Mishra et al., 2005 &

2008). Consequently, the respiratory symptoms (both Acute and Lower) can be included as

associated health effects of indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning at rural

households.

In the seventh study included for this review (see chapter 4), the study result informed that

the presence of solid biomass fuel smoke resulting in indoor air pollution at home

significantly increased the risk of asthma in children where the data was collected from a

convenience sample of 1951 children by questionnaire that included socio-demographic data

of research participants and also assessed biomass fuel smoke exposure status (duration of

exposure, types of biomass use) of all participants but indoor air pollutant level at

participants’ home was not measured in that study. However, the study design of that

included study was a cross sectional design. As a result, there was a lack of control group

which could have made research results problematic (Karunasekara et al., 2005). Considering

all discussed issues related to that particular research study and also comparing that research



results with earlier and more recent studies that also established same result, the asthma in

children can be identified as a health effect of indoor air pollution resulting from solid

biomass combustion in rural households (Duncan et al., 2008; Dherani et al., 2008; Mishra et

al; 2005 & 2008).

In the eighth study for this review (see chapter 4) to investigate the correlation between

indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel combustion at home for cooking and heating and

its impact on children, the researchers followed cross sectional study design where the data

was collected from convenience sample of 116 children (age ≤5 years) by using questionnaire

and measuring indoor air particles of participants households. Most of the collected data

related to the research participants and their household characteristics were reported by the

parents of research participants because of their age limit (Khalequzzaman et al., 2007).

Consequently, social desirability bias may be raised in that study and might be influenced the

research result (Law et al., 1998). The research finding of that study established a strong

association between indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning and different types

of health impacts on children such as chest tightness, shortness of breath, itching of skin,

redness of eyes and so on (Khalequzzaman et al., 2007). However, in that study the cross

sectional study design made the research result a bit problematic as there was a lack of

control group to make a comparison in order to increase the reliability of the research result.

Considering all aspects of that research study and also relying on the other literature that also

established the same research finding (Duncan et al., 2008; Dherani et al., 2008; Mishra et al.,

2005), all health impacts identified (chest tightness, shortness of breath, itching of skin,

redness of eyes on children) on children of that research study can be considered as

associated health effects of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel combustion

in rural households.

Many earlier and recent studies established the association between solid biomass fuel smoke

exposure and the risk of lung cancer (Gupta et al., 2001; Supkota et al., 2008; Duncan et al.,

2008). But the ninth study for this review (see chapter 4: table 3) revealed a totally opposite

result (there is no significant association between indoor solid biomass fuel smoke exposure

and the risk of lung cancer) which might occurred in that study because the solid biomass fuel

smoke exposure level of participants was not measured quantitatively. However, in that study

smoking history of the participants was also recorded. Consequently, the research focus could

be more emphasised on smoking history rather than the indoor air pollution from solid

biomass fuel combustion (Parea et al., 2004). On the other hand, as many earlier and recent

studies established, the association between lung cancer and solid biomass fuel smoke

exposure, the research result of the ninth included study cannot be identified as reliable. That

is why more appropriate researches must be carried out on that particular issue to make sure

whether the association between solid biomass fuel smoke exposure and the risk of lung

cancer is significant.

The tenth study included for this review (see chapter 4: table 3) revealed that mothers’ indoor

exposure of solid biomass fuel smoke is the significant predicator of children’s low birth

weight where the data was collected from a convenience sample of 369 new born babies by

providing a questionnaire to mothers of those infants and measuring weight of the infants.



There was a lack of control group in that study because of the particular research design

(cross sectional study design) (Pathirane et al., 2006). However, previous and current

research literature also established that children’s low birth weight and exposure of solid

biomass fuel smoke of mothers is significantly associated (Mavalankar et al., 1991; Tielesh et

al., 2009 and Pope et al., 2010). Consequently, children’s low birth weight can be considered

as a health effect of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel burning in rural

households.

Limitations of the Current Study

The important limitation of this study was a collection of different research articles from

different databases. Search strategies mentioned in the methodology section (chapter 3) of

this current study also indicates that, there were very few studies conducted in Bangladesh

that emphasised on associated health effects of indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel

combustion in rural households. Consequently, studies from other developing countries such

as India, China, and Sri Lanka that emphasised on associated health effects of indoor air

pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel burning in rural communities were included as

relevant to this study to investigate possible associated health effects of indoor air pollution

resulting in rural Bangladesh from solid biomass fuel burning (for cooking and heating). But

all identified associated health effects of indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning

in rural households of other developing countries (India, China and Sri Lanka) cannot be

useful for Bangladesh as different countries have different household characteristics, cooking

and heating style and different cultural norms (Aveyard, 2010). However, this study included

papers published only in English, so all national and local research studies that are published

in other languages could have more of important information related to my topic but were

excluded from the study.

Strategies to Avoid Health Effects. Overview

There are many associated health effects of indoor air pollution that are specifically caused

by solid biomass fuel burning in rural households that were recognised in this study.

Consequently, effective strategies must need to be included in this study to avoid such kinds

of identified health effects of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel

combustion in rural households.

Effective Strategies

Some of the effective strategies to avoid associated health effects of indoor air pollution due

to the solid biomass fuel burning in rural households are mentioned below:

Use of alternative fuels: a wide range associated health effects of indoor air pollution

due to the solid biomass fuel combustion in rural households can be avoided by

switching energy ladder of rural households from solid biomass fuels (charcoal,

wood, grass, animal dung and crop wastes) to cleaner and more efficient fuels



(kerosene, biogas, liquid petroleum gas) and energy technologies such as electricity

and solar power (see chapter 1: figure 1) (WHO, 2013).

Improved stoves: in poor and rural communities like Bangladesh where access to

alternative fuels is very limited and solid biomass fuels are the main practical fuel,

using improved stoves will be helpful to avoid the associated health effects of indoor

air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel burning for cooking and heating in

rural households. These types of stoves are adequately designed, installed and

maintained. Subsequently, they are very effective in reducing smoke because of better

combustion, lower emission levels and potentially also shorter cooking times which

spontaneously reduced the risk of health effects from indoor air pollution (Duncan et

al., 2008).

Improving ventilation: improving ventilation of cooking and living area of rural

households can contribute significantly to reducing exposure to solid biomass fuel

smoke which will naturally reduce the risk of health effects that are associated with

indoor air pollution due the solid biomass fuel combustion in rural households. There

are numbers ways to achieve better ventilation systems of the living environment

including chimneys, smoke hoods (with flues) and so on (WHO, 2013).

Behavioural change: by changing solid biomass fuel burning behaviours in rural

households can play vital role to avoid associated health effects of indoor air pollution

resulting from solid biomass fuel combustion. For example, drying fuel wood before

use would improve combustion and decrease smoke production (WHO, 2013).

CONCLUSION

In this study, the associated health effects of indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuel

combustion in rural households of Bangladesh are investigated by analysing different related

previous studies that specially focused on different health effects that associated with indoor

air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning in rural communities (literatures from

Bangladesh and also other developing countries such India, China, Sri Lanka were analysed

(see chapter 4)). Despite limited access to literature from Bangladesh, there are many

associated health effects of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel burning in

rural households that were explored after analysing selected different literature. These are

cardiovascular diseases (hypertension, coronary heart disease and stroke), tuberculosis, eye

diseases (cataract, blindness and eyes redness), acute and lower respiratory diseases (asthma,

cough, shortness of breath, lung cancer child’s low birth weight) and so on in both children

and adults.

RECOMMENDATION

During the analysis of different literatures in this study (see chapter 4), the methodological

limitations in most of the studied were exposed. However, search strategies of this current

study also suggest that there are very limited numbers of studies carried out in Bangladesh on

indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels burning in rural household. That is a why I may

propose a further research study for Bangladesh to quantify associated health of indoor air



pollution from solid biomass fuel burning in rural households by resolving all methodological

problems which were identified in this study by analysing previous related studies (see

chapter 4). The conceptual frame work of this research study for Bangladesh is given below

in the table:

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Research Project within DHL at Dartford Regional Distribution Centre Focusing on Their Employee

Motivation

111

Research Project within DHL at Dartford Regional Distribution Centre

Focusing on Their Employee Motivation

Edina Szigeti1, Taslim Ahammad2

ABSTRACT

This research project intends to explore the impact of “motivation” within Human Resource

Management practice into DHL Dartford. Company can motivate employees to do a better

job than they otherwise would. Incentives that must offer to staff including increase of pay or

improved working conditions within DHL Dartford. Motivational theories will suggest ways

to encourage employees to work better in DHL Dartford. In this day and age, a company

must not only focus on making more or profit, but also to find the most effective workforce,

which can provide positive efforts to the enterprise. However, first and foremost this study

tried to find important motivational forces for employees at DHL Dartford, as it is the main

driving force to the employees within the business organisation. The chosen methods for this

project are questionnaire, survey and interview. Within this study, in terms of motivation, it

was found that employees are mostly interested in financial incentive, taking part in decision-

making, bonus, health and safety with DHL Dartford regional distribution centre. As a

solution performance based rating work must be accomplished and DHL Dartford needs to

increase the time for achieving the set performances and this will increase profit and ongoing

improvement within the business.

Keywords: DHL Dartford, employee motivation, work efficiency, productivity.

INTRODUCTION TO DHL DARTFORD

DHL is a part of the world’s leading postal and logistics groups, Deutshe Post DHL and

encompasses three divisions: DHL Express, DHL Global Forwarding Freight and DHL

Supply Chain. The company provides dedicated and shared warehousing and distribution

operations. Sainsbury’s has an exclusive contract with DHL for its warehouse and delivery

services. This business organisation provides services in more than 220 countries with over

300,000 employees (DHL website, 2013).

“The site was built by Prologis for Sainsbury’s in 2005 and opened in October 2008, to

operate as a bonded distribution warehouse and handle the regional distribution of beers,

wines and spirits for the south-East. After two years in operation the site was re-developed

1 Student of HND Business course in London Churchill College. 2 Lecturer of HND Business course in London Churchill College. Both authors bare all the responsibility for the

information and data communicated in this article.



Motivation

112

between July 2010 and September 2011 to merge three distribution centres operating between

South-East London and Maidstone” (Employee Induction, 2011).

Dartford regional distribution centre is 6,600,000 sq. ft. (warehouse and offices) Dartford

supplies about 2.3 – 2.5 million cases to Sainsbury stores every week. The Dartford

warehouse consists of 3 departments:

1. Chill, the department of frozen products

2. Produce, the department of vegetables and fruits

3. AMBN, the department of alcoholic drinks, refreshments and sweets

Altogether 1400 people are employed; from this 1300 are physical workers, who work as

warehouse operative (Employee induction book, 2013).

Employee motivation has always been a central problem for leaders and managers. For a

huge company like DHL cooperated work is extremely important comparing it with other

companies. It proves to be indispensable for all employees working at different hierarchical

stages to be performed at a maximum level. In order to achieve this stage, motivation is

desperately needed.

This research aims to represent how DHL motivates its warehouse operatives in Dartford and

more importantly, to check the opinion of employees whether the company could reach the

highest level or not, in short, how the company can motivate employees and how these affect

their work.

Statement of the Problem

There is a need for a research on motivation, therefore the goal of this study is to reveal what

it is that motivates all employees to perform at their best and achieve optimal business results

at all times. Every company follow different strategies and motivation program depending on

what the profile of the company is.

The examined department had 1400 employees and the majority of them worked as

warehouse operatives. The question regarding their physical job description arises, i.e. what

can be defined as the main motivational factor in life at work.

Most of the cases employees mainly choose from offered jobs for means of support. At the

top of their preference this study found the specific size of the obtainable income, so as a

matter of fact, money is the main motivational aspect. With this research it determined to

enlighten whether relating to physical work money can be mentioned as the only motivation

or there is something else.

Importance of the Project

Based on several studies, good results can only be achieved through determined and

motivated employees. To achieve the goal strategic questions related to direct leaders and the



Motivation

113

quality of leadership need to be asked. The highest effect on the level of employees’

motivation can be achieved through the presumptions relating to leaders’ motivation, the

storage of motivation, and all the strength connecting to stimulation of motivation. This study

would like to receive an answer to the following questions, how the motivation of physical

employees works, how important for the company it is to keep their best employees at work

through motivation. Having considered that, finding out workers’ viewpoint is quite

important, as well as the view of the enterprise as well.

Aims

To explore employee motivation within DHL at Dartford Regional Distribution

Centre.

Research Questions

What kind of motivational policy is set for DHL within DHL at Dartford?

What are the motivational practices within DHL at Dartford?

What are the frail points in terms of motivational practice within the company?

How DHL at Dartford can highly inspire their employees through a suitable

motivational practice/s?

In the job description, where the products are evaluated easily, quantified, sometimes the best

motivational force is the money. This study also tried to find out what other motivational

methods dominate other than financial ones within the business examined by the researcher.

In addition, an attempt was made to discover the number of employees who feel that they are

morally esteemed and whether it is possible to step further inside the company. In connection

to it, it seems essential to find out how well employees are informed regarding the

possibilities, and whether it plays an essential part in their attitude to work. It was important

to accept or deny the fact that a possibility of positive advancement and moral esteem can

increase the number of products and employees or not.

Literature Review

According to BBC (2014), motivation is about the ways a business can encourage staff to

give their best. Motivated staff cares about the success of the business and work better. A

motivated workforce results in:

Increased output caused by extra effort from workers.

Improved quality as staff takes a greater pride in their work.

A higher level of staff retention. Workers are keen to stay with the firm and also

reluctant to take unnecessary days off work

Managers can influence employee’s motivation in a variety of ways:



Motivation

114

Monetary factors: some staff work harder if offered higher pay.

Non-monetary factors: staff respond to incentives that have nothing to do with pay,

e.g., improved working conditions or the chance to win promotion.

“Motivation is a goal-oriented characteristic that helps a person achieve his or her objectives.

One of the most important factors that lead to one to their goals is the drive. This drive is

known as motivation. The drive may come from an internal or external source. The individual

determines this” (Wentzel & Vigfield, 2009). It is in the interest of the employer to keep all

of his excellent employees and to improve their performances. An employer needs to

encourage its employees to work at their own pace, to develop and unfold their abilities. The

aim of an employer furthermore is to move the economy and efficiency. Hence, from a

different approach the word of motivation can be reduced to the word of motion. So to

motivate means that something is able to be moved.

Within the research of the past three decades on psychology and business literature it has

been proved that motivation can be determined as a function of different factors in the work

environment, which contain evaluation expectation, actual performance feedback, reward,

autonomy, and the nature of the work itself.

According to Frederick Tyler (1947), both theoretical and empirical research proved the fact

that human motivation relating to work can be divided into two groups: intrinsic motivation,

which is based on the intrinsic value of the work for the individual, and extrinsic motivation,

which comes from the desire to achieve those outcomes which are part of the work itself.

Classical Motivation Theories

The motivation concepts were mainly introduced around 1930’s and 1950’s. Five classical

theories can be mentioned from this period. These five classical theories are: Maslow’s

hierarchy of needs theory, Herzberg’s two factors Theory, McGregor’s Theory X and Theory

Y, Taylor’s motivational theory, and Mayo’s Hawthorne Theory. These theories will

discussed below.

Maslow’s theory is defined as the motivation of a hierarchy of needs.

Source: Encognitive, 2013.



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From the Maslow’s motivation theory it can be seen that most of the individuals are

motivated by unsatisfied needs as a basic factor, which assumes that some lower factors are

required to be achieved in order to complete higher needs. According to Maslow, there are

general types of needs (physiological, survival, safety, love, and esteem) that are really

essential to be accomplished before a person can behave unselfishly. These are called

deficiency needs. If employees are motivated to achieve these cravings, it can be said that we

move towards growth/changes, toward self-actualisation. Health can be achieved through

satisfaction, but constant seeking for gratification can cause sickness as well (Maslow, 1973

cited by Kaplan, 2006).

Criticism of the Maslow’s Motivation Theory

Researchers claimed that there was a gap in the hierarchical structure of needs proved by

Maslow. Some people may have deprived of lower level needs but are capable to achieve

self-actualisation. It happens that people are not familiar with their own needs. To measure

the satisfaction of needs is not possible. For example, with the satisfaction of safety needs, it

occurs that social needs are increasing. The need priority model cannot be used at all times in

all places. The level of motivation can be proved to be lower for a certain group of people.

For example, a person suffering from chronic unemployment may remain satisfied for the rest

of his life even if he is only provided with the necessary food supplies (McLeod, S. A., 2007).

Taylor’s Motivational Theory

According to Taylor´s research, the main motivation of people was money. In the early years

of the car assembly industry, working next to a production line was based on producing

quantity and was repetitive. Taylor considered monetary reward an essential factor. Pay at

some level means increased rates of output.

These days, this money motivation cannot suit every case, as the objectives of different

companies are different. Considering this, the appropriate method and reward should be

selected. By certain companies dealing with series production and with certain working

process, where the performance can be measured, employees can apply for remuneration and

extra bonuses based on performance. In other cases, free holiday, promotion or anything else

can be applied for motivation; money is just a substitutive allowance.

Taylor’s Scientific Management received some critics from Thompson (2003) according to

these points:

Exploitation of Workers

Taylor’s Scientific Management can make individuals feel extra stressed to perform the work

faster. Producitivity and profitability are considered quite essential. This mainly led to the

exploitation of the employees. That is the reason why many employees joined trade unions.

So mistrust between management and employees can be recognised



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Problem of Unity of Command

Taylor used functional foremanship. Which means that workers are required to report to eight

bosses. This decompose the principle of unity of command, where the workers have to report

to only one boss. Lack of unity of command is likely to make confusion and chaos in the

organisation.

Individualistic Approach

Taylor’s scientific management attributes more importance to individual performance than to

group performance. However, the success of an organisation depends not only on individual

performance of workers, but also on group performance of workers.

Wrong Assumptions

Taylor assumed that workers are encouraged only by financial gains. However, in reality,

workers are motivated not only by financial incentives but also by social needs and personal

egos.

Narrow Application

Taylor’s scientific management has a narrow application. It can be applied only when the

performance of the workers is measured quantitatively. It can be applied only for factories

where the performance is measured quantitatively. It cannot be used in the service sector

because in this sector the performance is measured differently (Thompson, 2003).

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

Factors of Herzberg in connection with motivation can be divided into 2 factors: Hygiene and

Motivation. Hygiene factors can realise satisfaction, but Motivation does not influence

motivation or a rate of satisfaction. If Hygiene factors are not displayed, then they would be

the main cause of dissatisfaction, but as for the Motivation factor, it cannot be declared. For

genuine motivation a business must be obligated to those conditions through which

employees can feel pleasant.

Criticisms

R.J.House and L. A.Wigdor (2006) critisised Herzberg’s Two factor theory in the following

points; May be “method-bound” by self-serving bias:

• Some individuals have different way of thinking when e.g. there is a desire for pay

• Also, it is not every single individual’s wish to have a well paid job, just the one

which can assure the balance of life

• Assumes satisfaction (presence of motivators) = motivation



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• Sickness can come from poor hygiene, but to be healthy it is not enough to have good

hygiene

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

The work of Douglas McGregor (1960) represents the most influential theories X and Y in

order to understand the leadership.

From his way of thinking, the managers are entitled to have 2 different views of subordinates

and conducted practises, which would suit to the changing assumption of the workers.

According to the theory, X managers believe that people do not really like to work, they do

not pay too much attention to duties. They are not so ambitious, and they receive tasks to

carry out, rather realising their importance, taking responsibilities. Actually, these people

would like to have security that is why the leaders are very strict and controlling with their

subordinates. After they had realised organisational goals, the workers are motivated to reach

their goals.

Theory Y managers are of the opinion that people consider work as a daily occurrence and

they tend to have some responsibilities. If the employees are in good health, they can perform

well at workplace. They take care of organisational objectives carried out, in return for being

rewarded for effective work. Subordinates are about to work together to make work

objectives come true and to improve strategies used to realise goals. They manage to increase

team-working and when and where possible to ensure decision-making.

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y, therefore, has a list of limitations which include:

difficulty of putting it to practice (when asked on how to put the theories to practice,

his answer was allegedly, “I do not know.”)

there are more than simply two ways to view the working environment and what

motivates the employees, theories x and y work solely on assumptions

individuals are not all either X or Y individuals, some are a mixture of X and Y

(Glicken & Robinson, 2013)

The question is not whether each of these approaches to motivation works, but where and

when they work best. The above mentioned theories can make you realise that the motivation

of employees is a hard process. But in order to make the employee feel connected to the

organisation and to let them utilise their abilities in the day-by-day tasks, then the clear

utilisation of it is indispensable. By knowing all these classic motivation theories this study

attempts to get a better insight of DHL, which category is applied for the motivation of

employees. They gain objective information on how satisfied their employees are and what

really motivates individuals.



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Among numerous studies on motivation, it cannot mention one – the testing of a group of

employees and managers; the motives and the suitable incentive program for employees must

be checked. According to the literature review, this topic requires further research. With the

help of this study the demands of employees regarding the question of performing their best

can be determined.

Within ideal working conditions employees can do their work happily even harder than the

company’s expectations and there is no need to push employees as employees are completely

motivated. At the first glance works seems pretty easy, payment is based on performances,

accountability and it is how employer motivation is done. Eventually, it can provide the

impression about a more colourful and deeper professional point, when it comes to

motivation.

Methodology

Primary data: it means collecting information from own experiences, and data recording.

Following methods are used: opinion research, surveys, experiments, researching of

motivation, which are carried out by personal, phone or postal researches, we can also

mention group-interviews, in-depth interviews, conversations and observations (Brassington

& Pettitt, 2000).

Data Collection is a detailed process in which a planned search for all relevant data is made

by researcher, primary and secondary data collected for this study.

Secondary data: information collected/transmitted by others, for example, studies, statistics,

databases, former market research results, press information, annual reports, issue of

organisations and so on. Methods of secondary data collection are internet search, meaning

that data is gathered through online resources for the purpose of a research. The other option

can be also library search and indexing, these techniques demand to examine those written

texts that have been used to carry out similar tasks.

Secondary research sources: mostly secondary data collected from published sources e.g., EU

and UK On-line sources, other websites, journals, articles and magazines.

Collecting secondary data is usually faster and more beneficial and less costly than primary

data. It should also have the ability to have the best method chosen, which seems to be the

most suitable for our purposes. For example, it is considered to be very risky to implement

the work of other people, as false statements, wrong data can ruin the work completely.

Therefore, reliable, adequate and suitable data for the purpose is required. Secondary

researches can be quantitative, qualitative at the same time (Brassington & Pettitt, 2000).

In case of DHL, this study has chosen the online secondary research. Considering the

methods of secondary data collection, collecting information online proved to be the most

adequate and there is a possibility of aimed searches, to avoid irrelevant information in a

short time.



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Data Collection Methods

Qualitative Research is generally undertaken to develop an initial understanding of the

problem. It is no statistical in nature. It uses an inductive method, that is, data relevant to

some topics is collected and grouped into appropriate meaningful categories. The

explanations are emerged from the data itself. It is used in exploratory research design and

descriptive research also (Adcock et al., 2001).

Qualitative data comes into a variety of forms like interview transcripts; documents, diaries

and notes made while observing.

Depth Interview: A great amount of qualitative material comes from talking with people

whether it will be through formal interviews or casual conversations. Focus group interviews

are an effective way to reveal how people think and judge an issue. The disadvantages of this

include difficulty to control; it dominates individuals and not representatives.

Observation: (Bryman, 2004) states that “participant observer immerses him-/herself in a

group for an extended period of time, observing behaviour, listening to what is said in

conversations both between others and with the fieldworker, and asking questions.”

Observation: in this case we observe how employees are motivated, which can only be

observed at workplace.

Quantitative Research: Any information that can be expressed using a numerical measure is

considered quantitative. Quantitative research is data that can be recorded by measurements

with standardised tools. The most essential advantage is the fact that it can be analysed easily,

and is more structured. Meanwhile, the qualitative research demands more time, it is harder

to analyse, to control (Saunders et al., 2007).

In addition, according to Cohen (1980), quantitative research is defined as social research that

employs empirical methods and empirical statements. He states that an empirical statement is

defined as a descriptive statement about what the case “is” in the “real world” rather than

what the case “ought” to be.

Within this study mixed methods for this project were chosen: questionnaire survey and in-

depth interview. Mixed method was used for interviews, semi-structured and structured

interview methods were also applied.

The questionnaire survey is considered to be the most suitable method among primary data

ways and the most effective in terms of collecting information for the question related to

DHL Company. The benefit of questionnaire survey is that a certain number of people can be

examined simultaneously in a short period of time. Furthermore, it is relatively cheap;

meanwhile a considerable amount of data can be gained. It is easier to analyse, because the

answers are in numerical figures.



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Findings and Analysis

After having examined Dartford Regional Distribution Centre, it was established that from its

workers and the motivation system of the company there are just minimal records for the

purpose of an outer person, so that is why the majority of gathered information come from

primary research, i.e. from surveys and interviews. As a result of this research, the following

information has been discovered.

The Questionnaire was filled out by 80 respondents, the results were collected, analysed and

then presented in the following figure. The survey has been set in order to get a whole picture

of how satisfied the workers with financial and non-financial benefits of company are and

with the motivation itself, the support of HR and what can motivate them personally.

Let us see how the respondents ranked their own motivation demands. Which are the three

most important factors that can determine the motivation of the company’s employees?

Figure 1. Source: Primary research, 2013.

Salary increase: from the chart, it can be

concluded that majority of individuals

are mainly motivated by salary increase

rather than recognition and promotion.

The first factor is the financial

incentives (44%) for understandable

reasons, as you and your family can live

from your incomes. It is almost certain

that everyone would feel more

motivated if they got significant increase in their salaries, but on the other side motivation

cannot only be measured by financial incentives. It does not matter if the environment,

working conditions make the situation worse and you are not in balance either with your

work environment or with yourself. Motivation originates from deeper roots, and is a more

complex phenomenon, which is driven not only by financials, and it can change greatly

individually.

Personal development classes seemed to be the least popular, as most of the people do not

care about the development of that person. In this modern world there is no time for paying

attention to other features that can boost self-esteem, and make life feel more complete.

Incentives were the second popular motivation factor. As people are supposed to gain/

receive benefits like lunch voucher, coupons, discounts for shopping, or having a free day off.

They consider it nearly as essential/effective as money.



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If we examine the average of answers, they clearly reflect the order of importance it has been

already set before. Its order was: salary increase, incentives, promotion, recognition, personal

development classes. Majority works only for money, not for other benefits like achieving a

dream job, or his/her objectives.

Figure 2.


The above showed figure represents how long employees are employed at the present

company. The half of the respondents has been employed for more than 1 year, and there are

several who have worked there nearly for 3 years. The number of those who has arrived in a

couple of months is minimal. From this data it can be concluded that not only the company

but the employees are satisfied with their jobs, and most of them plan to work in long terms.

Figure 3.




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From the next figure (Figure 3) it can be found out that most of the respondents are

dissatisfied with the support of HR Department. This can come from the fact that in the near

past the company demolished the HR Department itself (Viktor Havas, 2013) and an outer

company cares about the tasks of HR. To have links Line Manager are responsible, and they

deal with the matters of HR. Employees outside this opportunity can make contact with HR

on the phone or by emails.

The figure below represents well that those respondents who have given answer to me are

mainly satisfied with the salary and satisfied with Job security. The majority of the

respondents are satisfied or highly satisfied with the relationship with their colleagues as

well.

Figure 4.


As the next showed figure (Figure 5) demonstrates, most of the respondents are satisfied with

the benefits provided by the company.

Figure 5.




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Based on the interviews, it has collected following information in connection with motivation

politics of the company.

The motivation system of the company is based on financials. They have performance based

bonus system, which completes the base earnings. Bonus is calculated according to weekly

performance. Shift allowance is given to those who work in the afternoon and night shifts,

this way employees are motivated (Warehouse operative, 2013).

One of DHL Non-Financial motivation is Health and Safety Bingo. Each employee has a

coupon book, with which they play this game. If there were no accidents on that day, they are

allowed to draw a number. Who guesses one row, gets a paid day-off, and who guesses 3

rows, receives one whole week paid days-off. With company and sport events they try to

make employees get to know each other better (Gabor Czetnar, 2013).

Within the company there is plenty financial recognition, but moral recognition is not really

important and it is hard to step aside. Most of the employees do not have information on

training supports, however, there would be a demand for English-professional language

education, for computer trainings and logistic trainings as well. The company secures further

trainings for colleagues in higher ranks, but those physical employees has rarely asked about

further training possibilities.

Through the evaluation of motivational survey and interviews it is possible to discover

extremely colourful data, and even surprising sometimes. It can be seen, that motivation can

show several aspects, which are worth dealing with. If the employee is not familiar with the

given value, which is demonstrated though his/her work, then s/he will not feel important in

the life of the company. However, everyone who works inside the company, is an important

driver for the company, the work of every single employee has its importance, to which

attention must be paid. With small feedbacks and backslaps or handshakes it can be realised,

so that employees can feel that they do their job just right, and it is worth working harder. It

is certain that if there is motivation to work, there will be a room for development, there will

always be new, unknown ways, which one should take in order to be really satisfied and

successful in what she/he is doing. One thing is sure; everyone has to work co-operatively,

diligently and focused in order to only be a part of a successful, co-operative organisation.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

For the majority of employees the joy and excellence through motivation at work must means

the best thing in their life at work. As the organisation is not made up of one person and

everyone considers other thing to be important, so encouragement through “motivation” for

each individual should be implemented and that would be the best practice within a business

organisation. However, this cannot be implemented in practice without the willingness of the

employer. The creation of certain directives and the right implementation cannot result into

difficulties. It is indomitable within this study that business organisation must think about

multiple quick turnover from the investment through suitable motivational practice. This



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study determined that DHL Dartford needs attention and caution for motivational practice

within the company.

Recommendations for DHL Dartford:

Responsibility for employees needs to be placed squarely and explicitly with the

individual

Particular differences must be realised, employees have different demands and

necessities, so they cannot be treated in the same way

The need for empathic counselling, showing warmth, respect, and understanding are

emphasized, empathy entails reflective listening.

Self-efficacy or optimistic empowerment will engender in the employee to encourage

change and improvement within the business

Employees must be allowed to take part in decision making, which will improve them

as well set their aims and objectives

Selection of incentive packages must be the solution for performance problems,

employees will consider these incentives as consideration for the invested energy

Ongoing communication, consultation, and training will motivate employees at DHL

Dartford

The improved bonus system may work as another financial motivational factor for the

employees

One of the most essential tasks for DHL Dartford will be to secure better Health and

Safety practice within the work at all circumstances to motivate the employees

In many cases the given performance rate cannot be achieved, if every allocated task must be

done under very strict rules. When this happens, employees become frustrated and start

rushing within the work, and make even more mistakes and risks. They become demotivated

and after a while they start giving up their job. Considering the above mentioned information

and recommendations, the present motivation trends show that cost effectiveness starts

becoming more important and they put greater emphasis on individual demands.

Nevertheless, it is determined that inside the forms of motivational incentives financial

incentives are gaining more and more importance compared to natural incentives.

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pp.112.



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Appendix

Questionnaire Survey

Marking Presentation Feedback Record for 4.1

DHL Induction

Questionnaire

Dear Respondent,

As a part of my project, I would like to gather some information from you which will help me

in an in depth study of employee motivation. I would be obliged if you co-operate with me in

filling the questionnaire. Since the questionnaire is being used for academic purpose, the

information gathered will be strictly confidential.

Kindly fill the following (Please put a tick mark in the appropiate box)

1. Is the present employer the first employer?

a, Yes

b,No

2. Since when are you working with the current employer?

a, 1-6 months

b, 6-12 months

c, 1-2 years

d, 2-3 years

e, more than 3 years

3. Are you satisfield with the support from the HR Department?

a,Highly satisfied

b, Satisfied

c, Neutral

d, Dissatisfied

e, Highly Dissatisfied

4. Management is really interested in motivating the employee?

a, Strongly agree

b, Agree

c, Neutral

d, Disagree

e, Strongly Disagree

5. I feel that my supervisors always recognizes the work done by me.

a, Strongly agree

b, Agree

c, Neutral

d, Disagree

e, Strongly Disagree

6. Which type of incentives motivates you more?

a,Financial incentives

b, Non-Financial incentives

c, Both



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7. How far you are satisfied with the incentives provided by the organization?

a,Highly satisfied

b, Satisfied

c, Neutral

d, Dissatisfied


8. Please provide the following rating

(5-Strongly agree, 4-Agree, 3-Neutral, 2- Disagree,

1-Strongly Disagree)

No Factors Rating

I. Reasonable periodical increase in salary

II. Job security in the company

III. Good relationship with colleagues

IV Effective performance appraisal system

9. Is performance appraisal activities helpful in motivating?

a, Highly satisfied

b, Satisfied

c, Neutral

d, Dissatisfied


10. Rank the following factors which motivates you the most.

(Rank 1,2,3,4,5 respectively)

No Factors Rating

I. Salary increase

II. Promotion

III. Incentives

IV. Recognition

V. Personality Development Classes


The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

128

The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a

Literature Review

Md Ashikur Rahman*

ABSTRACT

In the present world, one of the most significant environmental issues is global climate

change. Not only if affects global economy, but it also affects human health. In this literature

review climate change and health will be discussed by providing latest scientific assessment

on burden and distribution of health impact in Bangladesh related to existing response

mechanism, climate change, extreme weather events and the way forward.

Keywords: climate change, impact on health, Bangladesh, diseases.

INTRODUCTION

According to Masheswary and Rosenberg (1982), global climate change and the effects are

now evident. The different level of development and different geographical locations, the

effects are not same across the world and these effects are multidimensional as we are

experiencing through irregular weather conditions. Health impacts related to the climate

change have also taken precedence in recent years. IPCC (1990) indicates that water borne

and vector borne disease would increase in the tropics, due to global warming. In recent

world 3% of all cases malaria has been estimated, because of the climate change (WHO,

2012). Estimation shows that the risk of dengue has been exposed to all of the tropical

countries at least 3,000 million people while the risk of malaria in tropics and subtropics are

2,400 million (WHO, 2012; Githeko & Woodward, 2003). Evidence shows the strong link

between other threats of human health and severity or the occurrence of some diseases and

the local climate (Woodward & Weinstein, 1998).

According to Githeko et al. (2000) in Bangladesh, vector borne diseases are very common.

Vector borne disease probably sensitive to long-term climate change and to increase the

Kala-azar, Dengue, Malaria, may have a link with heavy rain (IPCC, 1990). In late 1980s,

malaria occurred in Pakistan with higher minimum temperatures in regions. Temperature,

rainfall and humidity have been transformed due to climate change and these climate

* Former Health and Social Care student in London Churchill College. The author bares all the responsibility

for the information and data communicated in this article.



129

mechanisms cause an increase in pests, insects, in changing conditions, disease and

microorganism.

On the prevalence of infectious disease, the climate changes have tremendous effect in

Bangladesh. One of the major public health problems is malaria in Bangladesh. Malaria is

extremely endemic in 13 districts out of 64 districts, from these 13 extreme endemic districts

more than 98% of the total malaria cases are reported and almost 10.90 million people are at

risk of the disease. More than 80% of the malaria cases have been reported from Rangamati,

Khagrachri, Bandarban and Cox’s Bazar districts every year.

The most widespread mosquito in Bangladesh is Anopheles dirus and it tends to prefer a

temperature range from 24 to 27 degree Celsius. An adult infected female mosquito bites

human to obtain blood, which is necessary for their egg development and malaria parasite

(Plasmodium) is transmitted by adult infected female mosquito. 20-25 days are required from

the time of laying eggs in order for a mosquito to develop fully. Female Anopheles dirus can

bite and spread malaria over the next 20-30 days. For malaria epidemiology and mosquito

activity, three weather parameters (humidity, temperature and rainfall) are important. From

year to year humidity, temperature, and annual rainfall fluctuate in Bangladesh. Linking the

possible change in malaria with climate change, if the overall temperature rises as expected,

habits might change (WHO, 2012).

National Institute of preventive and social medicine (NIPSOM) and Bangladesh Centre for

Advanced Studies (BCAS) have carried out a study in three different climate zones

representing flood prone Manikgong district, drought prone Rajshahi district and salinity

affected Satkhira district to find out relationship between climate change and human health

and to have a better understanding of possible link with them.

The study has been carried out in three different malaria zones representing non endemic-non

epidemic prone Faridpur district, epidemic prone Sylhet district and high endemic Rang

Amati district with an aim to find correlation between malaria prevalence and climate change

factors in Bangladesh. Study report shows that among the study area, the correlation

coefficients between climate factors and MCD (malaria case detected) varied.

Due to various factors, the climate has always been changing between hotter and cooler

periods in the world. Although the basic science is now clear, the full range of effects due to

human influenced climate change is still not fully understood. As a result of greenhouse gas

emissions, it has been firmly established that its human inhabitants are altering the climate

through global warming for the first time in the earth history.

However, in the next hundred years it is know that climate change will be significant and

best estimates predict between 1.8˚ C and 4 ˚C rise in average global temperature by the year

2100, although it could possibly be high as 6.4˚ C. Crop yields depend directly on climate

(rainfall and temperature patterns) and food yields could reduce by as much as third tropics

and subtropics, because food production will be particularly sensitive to climate change.



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Meanwhile floods will become more common due to glacier melt in the summer and

changing rainfall patterns, low lying countries could inundate large areas by sea-level rise and

future tropical cyclones will become stronger and the amount of damage could increase by

the faster wind speeds. The incidence of disease and conflict may increase by climate change

and may indirectly cause misery. Furthermore, economic, cultural value and biological

diversity the source of enormous environmental will be threatened by climate change.

Climate

The term climate includes rainfall, wind patterns and temperature. Climate could define

simply the weather that is normal or dominant in a particular region. Geography, tree cover,

global air, sea currents, other factors and global temperatures influence the climate of an area,

which causes local weather.

Figure 1: A schematic illustration of the climate system

Source: Williams, 2002.

In the past cooler cycles due to variations in the earth’s orbit round the sun, volcanic

eruptions or sunspot activity, have altered the climate and the earth’s climate has always

varied naturally. Nevertheless they are still blamed for the extinction of the dinosaurs.

However, long time periods are needed for larger changes because large changes have been

very gradual.

Climate of the earth has been directly influenced by the pollution from wasteful lifestyle and

industrial processes. The climate is changing much faster than in the past under natural

process. At the First World Climate conferences, scientific evidence that human were

changing the climate first emerged in the international public arena in 1979 (Depledge &



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Lamb, 2005). The issue of the climate change was so small, it didn’t seem like big, however,

at this time the first effects of human induced climate changes were discovered. But by 1988

the dangerous consequences of climate change become clearer when the Intergovernmental

panel on Climate Change (IPCC) formed (Houghton, 2007).

The Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect, we can define as a natural process which affects the atmosphere

through various gases and water vapour. By preventing the incoming heat from the sun it act

like a glass greenhouse for plants for that reason it is so named. The earth does not give out

energy as visible light being much cooler than the sun. Instead, it emits heat in the form of

infrared or thermal radiation. In the atmosphere greenhouse gases block this infrared

radiation from escaping directly from surface to space (William 2002).

The Global Picture and International Science

The Intergovernmental panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recently published Fourth

Assessment Report (AR4) (Pachauri & Reisinger, 2007) which indicates that climate change

is contributing to the premature death and global burden of disease. Since health includes

psychological well-being, as well as social and physical and the primary goal of sustainable

development, it is very important that the impact of climate change on health should be

addressed and understood properly.

Impacts of climate change on human health are both direct and indirect. To changing weather

patterns (more frequent extreme events, precipitation, temperature and sea level rise) people

are exposed directly and indirectly through changes in agriculture, quality of water, changes

in ecosystems, air and food, industry and the economy. Disability, suffering and death could

occur for these direct and indirect exposures. Health problems reduce the capacity of groups

or individuals and increase vulnerability to adapt to climate change. In all countries and

regions the Intergovernmental panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has projected a progressive

increase even though the effects of climate change are small.

Multidimensional relationship between human health and climate change as presented

schematically in figure 2.



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Figure 2: Relationship between climate change and human health

According to IPCC (2007), the emerging evidence of climate change indicates that climate

change has:

Altered the seasonal distribution of some allergenic pollen species

Altered the distribution of some infectious disease vectors

Heatwave related death increased

The best evidence has been provided by the systematic reviews of empirical studies for the

relationship between weather and health or climate factors but such formal reviews are very

rare. Some indications were so far from the published evidence:

The vital part has been played by climate in the seasonal pattern, tick borne disease,

diarrhoeal disease, cholera, dengue or temporal distribution of malaria.

Distribution of some disease vectors, seasonal activity as well as the seasonality of

some allergenic species has been affecting by the climate change.

Long-lasting and severe effects can result from the flooding and heatwaves.

Estimates the benefits of interventions to reduce or remove these risk factors, due to a range

of risk factors quantify the amount of premature mortality and morbidity, including climate

change, a comparative risk assessment was carried out by World Health Organisation (WHO)

at regional and global levels. The study found that in 2000, over 160,000 lives are lost

annually due to climate changes (Lendrum-Campbell et al., 2003; Ezzatinet al., 2004;

McMichael, 2004). By stabilising greenhouse gas emission, the level of future burden of

climate change that could be avoided was in need of assessment (Lendrum-Campbell et al.,

2003). Study was chosen on the availability of the quantitative global models, it predicted



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future importance and the basis of their known sensitivity to climate variation and it included

the following health outcomes:

Plasmodium falciparum malaria cases

Episodes of diarrhoeal disease

Coastal floods and landslides/inland floods and its impact of fatal accidental injuries

Recommended daily calories and its non-availability

In low income countries, the adverse health impacts were greater which was shown in the

study. In all countries those at greater risk include: traditional societies, the urban poor,

coastal populations, subsistence farmers, the children and elderly. The burden of diarrhoeal

disease in low income regions, climate change is projected to increase by approximately 2%

to 5% in 2020. No additional risk of diarrhoea was detected in some countries, the countries

with an annual gross domestic product per capita of US $6000 or more. Due to diarrhoeal

disease primarily associated with drought and floods, endemic mortality and morbidity in

South-East, east and south Asia are expected to rise. Furthermore, toxicity of cholera and

temperature would exacerbate the abundance by increase the coastal water in South Asia.

One of the most important vector-borne viral diseases in the world is dengue. An association

between temporal, spatiotemporal or spatial patterns of dengue and climate have been

reported in several studies (Hales et al., 1999; Gagnon et al., 2001; Corwin et al., 2001;

Cazelles et al., 2005). According the IPCC report, climate is suitable for dengue transmission

in this region where approximately one third people of the world living in this region.

One of most complex disease to model is malaria and has limited parameters for all published

models. Intensity of malaria transmission and the geographical range have been influenced by

some of the key factors (Tanser et al., 2003; Thomas et al., 2004; Ebi et al., 2005). Given this

limitation, with contractions in other regions, climate change will be associated with

geographical expansions of areas suitable for stable malaria (plasmodium falciparum).

Longer season of transmission will occur in certain regions, it was also suggested.

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), adaptive capacity

needs to be improved in order to reduce the health impacts of climate change in the world. To

cope with extreme weather events, the high-income countries are not well prepared from the

recent impact of hurricanes and heatwaves. According to IPCC, the following measures

should be taken to address the impact of climate change on human health.

As compared to the projected impacts of climate change, the planning horizon of

public health decision-makers is short. Therefore, the planning horizons of decision

makers need to be modified because current risk management approaches that focus

only on short-term risk.

To incorporate current climate change concerns into on-going programmes and

measure, a two-tiered approach might be needed with modification. To cope with

projected climate risk, along with regular evaluation it is required to determine a



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programme’s likely effectiveness. For example; in most areas in Africa, endemic

malaria is a public health problem. So in regards to these epidemics, programmes

should be assigned in place to reduce mortality and morbidity.

National governments, including ministers of health, World Health Organisation

(WHO), any other international organisation or an individual need to take the

initiative to implement policy, measures and proactive adaptation strategy. Because

the local situation is diverse and the range of possible impact of climate change on

human health is broad, the examples are not comprehensive but illustrative.

According to IPCC, the health of population is an important element of adaptive capacity and

future trends in health are relevant to climate change. If new pathogens arise that are resistant

to our current methods of disease control, if public health systems are not efficient infectious

disease could become more prominent and will lead to falling life expectancies and

economic productivity will be reduced. The total number of people at risk, the density of

settlements and the age structure of the population are important variables in any projection

of the effects of climate change.

Future Climate Change Predictions

Temperature

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report (IPCC, fourth

assessment), global warming rate will rise by 0.2˚ C per decade. So according to IPCC report,

by the year 2100, the global temperature rise will be 1.8˚ C to 4˚ C but it could be high as 6.4˚

C (Alley et al, 2007). The global warming is depending with world community for prompt

action to stop the greenhouse gas pollution but unfortunately, very little actions have been

taken so far to stop the global warming by the world community. If greenhouse gas emission

continues to grow, the world temperature will rise 1-3˚ C within next 50 years (Stern, 2006).

Stern (2006) also describes the positive impact of the global temperature warming. If the

world temperature rises between 2-3˚C, the higher latitude region could be benefited in some

sectors from the global warming through lower winter mortality rate, higher agricultural rate,

possible boost of truism and lower heating necessities. Such as: Scandinavia, Russia and

Canada.

Furthermore, the negative impact of the global warming is higher than positive impact

because if the temperature rises as the predated amount in these areas, the local livelihood,

infrastructure biodiversity and human health will be affected by the global warming. So

compared with both effects, the positive effect will be temporary because agriculture is

expected in very higher temperature later this century.

However, most of the countries will find immediately, the increasing temperature is a major

problem in the world, because few cold days and higher minimum temperature is almost over

from all area in the world. Global warming will increase the number of deaths in the world,

particularly affecting urban poor and older people. (Lamb & Depledge, 2005). For example,



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China and Shanghai is facing the highest average temperature which is raising the mortality

rate by 35-63 extra per day. According to Stern (2006), French heatwave caused almost

15,000 extra deaths in summer of 2003.

Agriculture

Climate is very important for agriculture, because crop yields have direct effect on climate

condition. So food production will be very sensitive to climate change. Very small amount of

temperature warming in tropical region will cause the amount of crop harvest to decline but

in cold areas scenario is completely different. Crop harvest may increase in the cold area.

Global warming will be the main reason to lead huge declines in cereal (e.g. wheat, rice).

Carbon dioxide could increase in the air, from the indirect effect on crops. There are some

indirect effects on crops, such as flooding, drought and very importantly increase of the pests

which will cause less food production from the farmland (Stern, 2006). Also, drier soil and

changing monsoon pattern may reduce the food production, too. In present world crops are

already near their maximum heat tolerance and if the temperature increases with the predicted

amount, forestry will face the risk of fire damage (Williams, 2002).

Fisheries could be increased by the warmer waters, but it’s not going to sustain for long

because increasing carbon-dioxide in the air will cause to dissolve the sea and ocean and

which will become more acidic, so number of fish will be reduced for that reason (Stern,

2006). Livestock firming are also in threatened condition due to the animal disease increase

due to the global warming.

Undoubtedly, global warming is a major threat to human food supply. Almost 12% of people

in the world are already in the risk of hunger but if the temperature increases as predicted by

2-3˚C, the amount of the risk of hunger will be 30-200 million. If the global temperature

increases by 3˚C, the amount of the risk of hunger will be 250-550 million and most of the

people will be from Asia and Africa where spending capability is very low, declines in

harvest are greatest and dependence on agriculture is highest (Stern, 2006).

Drought

Water is one of the most important resources for all life and it is very indispensable for

sanitation and good health. Water is essential for economic growth and poverty reduction.

However, it might be as well very perilous for industry. Floods and drought will become very

common in many areas in the world. High latitude area will suffer for heavy rain and dry

subtropics areas will suffer less from rain (Stern, 2006).

Fewer water supplies could be the additional stress on agriculture, environment and people in

world. Already, more than 1.7 billion people living in water stress countries in the world.

Unfortunately by 2025, this figure is predictably to rise by 5 billion. Climate change is the

main reason for stresses on water which will increase the pollution. So due to climate change,

small islands and deltas will be the most vulnerable place in future (Williams, 2002).



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Heavy Rainfall

Sudden change of the weather pattern, heavy rainfall will become very common in South

Asia. Heavy rain is likely to increase the inability to cultivate the land because water will

soak the soil which will affect the soil erosion and decrease the firm incomes. Heavy rainfall

could cause the contamination of drinking water and contaminated water is one of the main

reasons to trigger the water borne disease (Adger et al., 2007). Longer period of heavier rain

also could cause flooding and loss of life and property (Depledge & Lamb, 2007).

Winds

IPCC also indicates the future tropical cyclone in their report. According to IPCC, the future

tropical cyclone velocity will be faster and stronger (Alley et al., 2007). It should be

mentioned that combination of massive storm, typhoon and hurricane will lead to high winds,

sea level rise and storm surge. The intensity and frequency could be a result of increase of

such storm from the warmer ocean temperature (William, 2002). The impacts of more

powerful cyclones and storm will increase the risk of death, disturbance of electric current

supply, damages of the property, post–traumatic stress disorder, uprooting of the trees and

damages to the crops. It should be mentioned that heavier rain and larger storm is the main

reason to exterminate the mangrove forest. The largest mangrove forest in Bangladesh is in

extreme vulnerable condition at this moment (WWF in Clime Asia, 2005).

Glacier/Snow Melts

Due to climate change, glacier or snow melt is another important problem in the world.

Human activity has already been putting the mountain region in risk. Hydrological system

and stability of the soil could be damaged by the mountain glaciers (William, 2002). Melting

glaciers will increase the risk of flood in wet season and will reduce the supply of water in

dry season. Already one billion people including the people of Bangladesh are in threatening

condition now due to the shortage of the water. Indian subcontinent will be the most

vulnerable place in the future because the climate change pattern will have appalling

consequences in this region. Because of dry season, people from the Indian subcontinent are

heavily dependable on glacier melt water to maintain the supplies.

Sea Level Rising

Due to the thermal expansion, global warming will continue to raise the sea level. The

consequences of the sea level rise will be very devastating. Loss of the costal land and

overwhelming flood will occur from the sea level rise. Assuming the situation of costal land,

a 50cm rise means the loss of the land will be 50m. Due to climate change and sea level rise,

Bangladesh and Maldeep and some of the small islands in the world already start to face this

problem (Artic Climate Impact Assessment In: EEN, 2005b).

IPCC has given the latest information about the global sea rise in their report. According to

IPCC, the global sea level will rise about 18cm but the most appalling consequence is 59cm



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sea level rise by the year of 2100 (Alley et al., 2007). The worst case scenario is half of the

world population is living in coastal region and 46 million people already been affected by

the flood, due to storm surges. Most of the people are from the developing countries

(including Bangladesh), who have been affected from this climate condition. But if the figure

of the sea level rise 50cm, the figure of the affected people will be 92 million. According to

IPCC reports, over half of the people are living in developing countries and most of them will

be highly insecure due to the storms and flood (La Trobe, 2002).

However, melting of ice caps is excluded from the IPCC prediction but scientists do not agree

with IPCC observations because they find it difficult to measure their effect on sea levels

(Hodson & Hodson, 2008). Another important impact for sea level rise from Greenland

should be mentioned. Due to climate change, Greenland ice sheet will continue to affect the

sea level rise, beyond 2100 as the melting ice is continuing to increase water level. If global

warming does not stop and melt the ice sheet continuously, the complete elimination of the

Greenland ice sheet will be prompt and a subsequently the sea level rise will be at 7m (Alley

et al., 2007).

Conflict

According to Felds (2005), the Biblical book revelation; War cannot be far behind, when the

pestilence and apocalyptic horsemen appear. He was highlighting the relationship between

the deterioration of food and war.

According to Christian Aid (2006), climate may trigger conflicts. The effect of the climate

change will be more significant if temperature increase in those areas where it is already hot,

than people in these regions would require food to sustain their life and insufficient food will

lead to the conflict.

Environmental changes also raise the risk of wars of resources. Such countries as India,

Pakistan and Bangladesh are having problems with water distribution.

Burden and Distribution of Disease: Bangladesh Scenario

According to the World Bank (2000), Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries to

infectious outbreaks, waterborne and other types of diseases. According to the World Health

Organisation (WHO) report 2006, the incidence of malaria have increased from 1556 cases in

1971 to 15,375 in 1981, and from 30,282 cases in 1991 to 42,012 in 2004. Especially in

summer months incidence of other diseases, such as dysentery and diarrhoea, have also

increased. According to Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF), example of Bangladesh

indicates that due to potential precipitation increase in summer and the combination of higher

temperature may cause the spread of many infectious diseases (Climate Change and Health

Impacts, Report prepared for Climate Change). Malnutrition, dehydration and heat-related

morbidity especially among the children and elderly could occur from climate change and

brings about additional stress. Dehydration, malnutrition and heat-related morbidity are

thought to be closely interlinked with food production, sanitation and water supply.



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Stratospheric ozone depletion, ecosystem decline, land degradation, biodiversity loss and

freshwater decline have already been linked with climate change. Human health and changes

in the above factors have a link and its impact may be direct or indirect.

Bangladesh also carries the polluted and diminishing natural resources, natural disasters and

the burden of high population. Due to climate variability and climate change, the added

burden of increased health problem will push its development achievements back.

Public health depends on good social condition, secure shelter, safe drinking water and

sufficient food. All of these conditions are likely to be affected by the changing climate. The

climate is changing rapidly and the impact of the climate change on human health is

overwhelmingly negative, especially for the poor communities in Bangladesh.

Climate change and health effects:

Increasing frequency of heat waves. Another research report has been revealed

which defined the reason for European summer heatwave of 2003 and of 2007. The

report indicates that climate change was induced by human and the occurrence of the

European summer heatwave of 2003 and of 2007 has contributed significantly.

Human induced climate change has implications for the increased temperature in

Bangladesh since the children and elderly suffer the most. The impacts of climate

change on human health are associated with heatwave and are an aggravation of

cardiovascular diseases, dehydration and heat stroke in elderly people. It should be

mentioned that Bangladesh does not have records of illnesses and deaths related to

heatwave. However, it was observed generally that during the heatwave and extreme

temperatures, the prevalence of diarrhoeal disease has increased in Bangladesh,

especially among children.

Variable precipitation patterns. The risk of waterborne disease has increased due to

the supply of fresh water and the supply of fresh water is likely to compromise with

the changes in precipitation patterns. Changes in precipitation pattern are also

associated with water logging and flood which increase the incidence of cholera,

diarrhoea, eye and skin related diseases. Precipitation patterns also have a direct link

to the food security and agricultural production which impacts the population in

Bangladesh with their nutritional status.

Malnutrition. Agricultural productions are likely to decrease, due to variable

precipitation and rising temperatures which increase the risks of malnutrition. The

people who are affected with water/vector borne or infectious disease, malnutrition

will further increase the vulnerability of those.

Vector-borne diseases. Alter their geographic range and the transmission season for

vector-borne diseases are likely to lengthen; due to the climate change. In major cities



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of Bangladesh, such as Chittagong and Dhaka, dengue is a very common disease

already.

Rising sea levels. Rising sea levels may necessitate population displacement, increase

the risk of coastal flooding and cause many other health related problems, e.g.,

malnutrition, diarrhoea, skin disease and cholera. More than half of the population of

the world now lives within 60 km of the sea. Some of the most vulnerable islands are

Tuvalu in the Pacific Ocean, Marshall Island and Maldives and some of the most

vulnerable regions are Brahmaputra-Ganges delta in Bangladesh, the Nile delta in

Egypt.

Millions of people suffer from malaria, skin diseases, diarrhoea, dengue, mental disorder in

Bangladesh. Another study has been carried out jointly by the National Institute of Prevention

and Social Medicine (NIPSOM) and Bangladesh Centre for Advance Studies (BCAS)

(Climate Change and Disaster Management Strategy Report, 2007) in 2007. The study report

indicated the annual incidence of diarrhoea, during the period of 1988-2005 there were

2,841,273 diarrhoea cases during the period of 1996-1988, 2,623,092 cases of skin diseases.

In different regions of the country, other health problems affect people such as kala-azar,

hypertension and malnutrition. During the last few decades, the incidence of some of the

major climate sensitive diseases and their trends has been shown in the following table.

Incidence of some of the major climate-sensitive disease occurring during the last few

decades in Bangladesh

Diseases Total cases per period Period Average annual cases

Malaria 1018671 1974-2004 33956

Diarrhoea 48302636 1988-2005 2842273

Dengue 19830 1999-2005 3305

Mental disorders 201881 1988-1996 22431

Skin disease 23697833 1988-1996 2842273

Source: Data modified from WHO, 2006; Director- General, Health (Bangladesh); 1996, 1997; MoEF

Burden of Disease in Bangladesh and Overall Assessment

Family planning and health service has been strengthened and invested by the government

with special attention to rural areas for more than 30 years since country’s independence. The

health service and family planning of Bangladesh are committed to primary health care

(PHC) approaches and the key health-for-all (HFA). In Bangladesh, improvement of the

health status has been substantial for over the last 30 years. However, health status of the

Bangladeshi people is still not adequate and much more improvements are required. Living



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standard of the Bangladeshi people is still very low and the mortality rate is unacceptably

high, particularly maternal and infant. Women and children are especially very vulnerable,

due to the lack of low calories which leads to malnutrition. Poverty-related and diarrhoeal

disease still dominate the top ten causes of morbidly, even though these diseases are

preventable, still the diarrhoeal disease remain to be the major killer in Bangladesh.

According to world health organisation (WHO), public health Priority increasingly

recognises climate change as the biggest threat for the world in 21st century (WHO, 2009;

Lancet, 2011). The government of Bangladesh is conscious of the probable impact of the

climate change on human health and compare to the situation, major shortcomings are in

need to be addressed, such as ensure the quality of health resources, existing health facilities,

quality of the human resource, available equipment to health facilities at lower level, logistics

and drug supply improvement, development of a comprehensive plan and efficient project

management mechanism in health system.

Existing Disease Burden for Bangladesh and its Response

Health Strategies and Policies

The Health and Population Sector Strategy (HPSS) is the cornerstone health policy in

Bangladesh and it has been introduced in 1998. Particular attention to the rural people, equity

of health and assurance of universal accessibility was the priority of the strategy. Moreover,

financial allocation also increased in health sector by the government. In public sector Child

and Maternal Health programme receives priority while recently reproductive health becomes

a priority concern. Efforts are being made to provide the service from a static service point

rather than giving door to door service to people by community workers. Existing service

structures require complete reorganisation to implement this strategy and it will be a major

shift. Such reorganisation will meet people’s expectations, increase efficiency and is expected

to decrease the cost. Privatisation of medical care is also being considered but it is only on a

selective basis at tertiary level. To achieve the health-related Millennium Development Goals

(MDGs), the progress being made is given bellow:

Intersectoral cooperation. Depending on need for cooperation, intersectoral

committees have been formed and this committee has been formed at national level to

periphery. Population and nutrition councils are chaired by the prime minister while

lowest administrative level, intersectoral coordination committees have been formed,

such as sanitation project.

Organisation of the health system. To merge/integrate the health and family

planning department, committees have been formed which includes the inter-

ministerial committees. Functionally, dichotomy exists at national and district level

but family and health planning personnel closely work at Thana. Decentralization

management is being considered.



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Managerial process. National health policy, including health policy committee and

five subcommittees were formed by the government in 1977 which caused the top-

down planning process to change and involve the stakeholder with participatory

approach in health sector. A new approach is being implemented with the assistance

of World Health Organisation (WHO) and this approach is product oriented and rather

than inputs gives emphasis on output. Decentralization management process is being

considered.

Health information system. For selected communicable diseases, weekly outbreak

control and epidemiological surveillance have been initiated throughout the country.

Activities of the health management system (HMIS) have been undertaken to

strengthen it, though it has some limitations such as: the use of data is limited and the

information support is not adequate.

Community action. The intensified action programme for PHC implementation

emphasized the role of the family, individuals and community which involves in

planning for decentralized union and thana levels. The intensified programme is

already covering total of 12 districts (86 thana). Involving 60,000 of village health

volunteers, a joint action plan has been implemented through community participation

and intersectoral collaboration. Mass media and information department are used to

support the activity of communication, education, also the participation of religious

leaders and teachers is encouraged.

Emergency preparedness. The management of natural disaster at sub-national and

national level, currently there is no legislation in the country. The Ministry of Relief

and Disaster Management issued the revised standing orders for disaster in 1997, due

to the absence of any legislation. These orders deliver the instruction and guidelines to

other ministers and departments. For different hierarchical levels of the health sector,

separate standing orders are available, such as: essential medical relief supplies,

training in emergency response, contingency plan for manpower supply, a

communication network, coordination committees, budgetary allocation for

emergency management and maintaining database. Currently, the draft of Disaster

Management Act is under review.

Health research and technology. Three organisations in Bangladesh carry out the

operational and biomedical research, namely the Institute for Cholera and Diarrhoeal

Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDRB); Essential National Health Research

(ENHR) and Bangladesh Medical Research Council (BMRC). All of the research

organisations provide research grant and they contribute significant role in policy

making from their research finding. BMRC also opened research unit in medical

college. ICDDRB and BMRC also established the field study stations. Modernised

literature search systems have been introduced by ICDDRB and BMRC and to cope



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with the growing demands of young researchers, the BMRC has recognized itself

internally.

Health system research (HSR) is independent entity and not handled as a separate. Other

relevant people and individual faculty members have been trained in HSR but surprisingly

there is no coordination among researchers. Strong advocacy group is yet to be developed for

effective critical research in Bangladesh. Health training institutions have included the health

system research curriculum very recently, so the culture of the research is still developing in

Bangladesh. Also, it is very important for funding agencies, networking and coordination

among the researchers to develop in Bangladesh.

Health Services: Health Education and Promotion

Health Education Bureau (HEB) provided the educational support to the national health

programme. Emphasis has been given to coordination with nongovernmental organisation

(NGO), hospital health education and school health education. Limitations include the low

priority given to the health education by health services, lack of opportunity for those

professionals who work in health education, the lack of IEC strategy and underutilization of

health education officer.

Prevention and Control of Locally Endemic Diseases

Dengue. Dengue is one of the most important vector-borne diseases but until its outbreak in

the summer 2000, it was very unfamiliar disease in Bangladesh. Highest incidence was in the

capital city (Dhaka) but it started in three major cities as an acute febrile illness in Khulna,

Chittagong and Dhaka. People are likely to be affected by dengue regardless of all ages and

both sexes and it could lead to the fatal dengue shock syndrome (DSS) from the infection.

Certain species of Aedes mosquito transmitted this vector-borne disease. Aedes albopictus

and Aedes aegypti mosquitos lay their eggs in small collections of clean water (e.g., in pots

and flower vases) and both of them are pre-domestic. Dengue transmission occurs during the

rainy season and until 2000, a serious endemic of dengue never happened in Bangladesh.

DHF case and dengue have been discovered in major cities and Dhaka since July 2000

onward. 16,388 dengue cases including 210 fatal cases were reported in 2004 and 1.2% was

the fatality rate case (CFR). According to local needs and adopting the guidelines from World

Health Organisation (WHO), the Director General in health service develop the national

guideline by taking some initiatives. Preventing death, reducing morbidity and controlling the

transmission of DHF or dengue fever is the objective of the guidelines.

Malaria. The resistant of Plasmodium falciparum to a number of antimalarial drugs have

increased and an epidemiological follow-up was found in 1992. In relation to 1982, the case

of malaria had doubled. After that, the National Guideline for Treatment of Malaria has been

introduced by government in 1994 and was revised in 2004. According to the government

statistics, the proportions of Plasmodium falciparum cases have increased surprisingly with



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every year from 2001 to 2005. However, the new strategy was launched subsequently to

control the malaria and World Health Organisation affirmed that malaria could not be

eradicated. The new strategy has been implemented gradually. The new strategy endorses the

four technical elements and emphasises the control of the disease. Four technical elements,

such as: management of complicated and severe cases in hospital, prompt treatment, early

diagnosis and recognition of treatment failures. The new strategy also gave the emphasis on

introduction of insecticide-impregnated bednets, preparedness for control of malaria

epidemics/outbreaks and on malaria surveillance. To control the vector-borne diseases in

countrywide, the main limitations is the capacity of the core technical unit.

Other diseases. Since the cessation of dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) spraying

operation, kala-azar has re-emerged. More than 27 district and at least 20 million people are

at risk and 35,000 cases are estimated as the cumulative disease specific burden. The

emergency plan was initiated in 11 districts of 22 thana (around five million population) in

1994-1995, under the integrated control of vector-borne project. The future expansion is

being planned because of its glorious success and patients have been treated successfully

from kala-azar at least 8000 to date. The main limitation to face this disease is almost similar

to control of malaria.

The risk of filariasis are being considered almost eighteen million in 12 districts. To

elimination of filariasis, a revised strategy is being pilot tested in one district. For a period of

three years to the total population of the district, this strategy involves administering a single

dose of ivermectin.

Prevention, Control and Management of Common Diseases and Injuries

According to Institute for Cholera and Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDRB,

1994) report, almost 145,000 (33%) children died annually due to Acute Respiratory

Infection (ARI). Admissions attributed to ARI are almost 30-40% of indoor and 40-60% of

outdoor visits. According to the recommendation of World Health Organisation (WHO)

strategies, the control of Acute Respiratory Infection programme continues to be

implemented. Considerable amount of the mortality have been reduced by the current

strategies but still, diarrhoeal disease continue to be responsible for substantial mortality and

morbidity. Timely referral, mobilising the community to ensure appropriate home base care,

multi-sectoral partners are involved. Oral Rehydration Solution depots availability has been

increased through the information in the community. There are some limitations, such as

health facilities underutilization and inappropriate use of anthelmintic particularly in private

sector.

Policy and Institutional Strategy

The Health and population Sector Strategy (HPSS) has been introduced in 1998 and future

national health policy was formed on the basis of the HPSS. Several key principles have been

involved with national health policy. Such as: equity, efficiency and quality of the



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governmental health service, especially for women; greater orientation to client needs,

essential health service provision package, one-stop shopping via co-location of service,

providing population and health services, expanded private sector role.

Objectives of the new strategy:

To support service, especially for vulnerable (children and women) and poor people,

allocate more resources.

Unify the family planning and health service delivery system from the bifurcated

system.

Compare to the provision of financing and service in private and public sector,

objective of the new strategy to achieve an appropriate balance between both of them.

Through the devolution of authority another objective of the new strategy is

decentralized management

To achieve the above mention objectives, the following activities have been identified:

With the aim of maximising benefits of the health, essential service package needs to

be delivered and it must be relative with the per capita expenditure.

Hospital and thana need to be decentralised and restructured and the mechanism of the

service delivery should be unified.

Other services are proposed to be provided with Non-Government Organisation

through partnership particularly at hospital level or services are proposed to be

provided by commissioning. Through the local level accountability, fee utilization and

retention, drug revolving fund, greater autonomy of management, as well as cost

recovery; the public sector hospital services delivery will be improved and the

integrated support system should be strengthened. Rather than having a series of

project with their individual reporting arrangement, funding, implementation and

management; a sector wide approach has been introduced to manage the health sector.

Cost recovery has increased comparing the gap of the potential resources between

project expenditure and sectorial resources for public health services.

Health insurance coverage for state owned enterprise employee or government

employee for development of the health insurance scheme was proposed to increase in

urban Bangladesh. Health service in lower level will be decentralised while health

service will be more integrated at Centre and the level of the services in hospital will

be improved.

Framework of the regulatory and policy will become stronger. Moreover, improving

quality of services, accessibility, safety of drugs and accessibility; the existing policy

will be revised and reviewed.

Financing of the services on private and public sector will be developed by new

policies.



145

The Way Forward:

To reduce the impact of climate change on human health, Bangladesh should take some

possible measures. These are as follows:

Climate change will increase the water borne diseases in Bangladesh which is one of

the major public health problem and biggest challenge in recent decade. To reduce the

possibility of the incidence and address the climate sensitivity, some initiatives are

needed, i.e., to confirm earlier findings to give more emphasis to scientific research is

needed, to tackle the appalling consequences of the climate change institutional

capacity needs to be built and finally, policy decisions to protect from climate change

have to be considered.

Close observation should be initiated separately by the government agencies for

climate sensitive disease or to measures in the existing national surveillance

programme, the Director General of health should include separate component.

To protect the climate sensitive diseases government should take the initiative to

develop dataset because dataset is required for prediction or further research.

Especially vector data is very important for further research because it is based on

geographical distribution.

Health professional could play the great role to deal with the climate sensitive disease.

That is why health professionals should have proper training and clear concept about

the impact of climate change on human health.

The government should take the initiative to train the health professionals associated

with any other organisation, which are involved in research of climate change and the

impact on human health.

The government should influence the media to highlight the awareness programme

because community resilience could be built from the programme awareness.

To tackle the impact of climate change, appropriate adaptation strategy should be

implemented considering all of the factors associated with climate change.

Sanitation and water supply facility need to be improved to protect the impact of

climate change.

Hygienic practice is also very important to reduce the incidence of water borne

disease. So people have to be encouraged for hygienic practice.

Adaptation and mitigation can contribute the significant roll to protect from climate

change.

CONCLUSION

Climate change mitigation refers to capture greenhouse gases or to efforts to reduce

greenhouse gases through certain kinds of land use. To prevent the future impacts of climate

change tree plantation must be the main response and to prevent climate become more

serious, developed Western countries must act because greenhouse gases have mainly been

emitted by developed Western countries. There are many measures, such as reducing



146

deforestation, reducing domestic emission, as well as advocating for mitigation in the develop

world that may be taken in developing countries (Calum, 2008).

Figure 3: Linkage and formulation of strategies for adaptation and mitigation.

Human interference climate change

MITIGATION of climate

Change via GHG sources

Few places in the world will experiences the range of effects in term of the impact of climate

change and the severity of changes that will occur in Bangladesh, which will include: rainfall

being less when it is needed for agriculture, more extreme hot and cold spells, average

weather temperatures rising, yet more in the monsoon when it already causes floods, more

powerful cyclones and tornado, melting of glaciers in the sources areas of Bangladesh’s river

altering the hydrological cycle, turning freshwater saline and facilitating more powerful storm

surges and sea level rise displacing communities. Bangladesh is both one of the poorest and

most populated nations on earth and the impact on the human health will be intensified by the

fact.

Also, people can adjust their lifestyle to the new situation around them and reduce the

negative effects of climate on their health and wellbeing through the process of climate

change adaptation. However, adaptation has some limitation and it is not intended as

substitute for mitigation actions. In response to the climate change, there is a number of basic

strategies that can be taken and it categorise various ways to adapt to the altered situation.

The adaptive capability and the process that starts in and with the local community are vital.

From other parts of the world many more adaptation techniques need to be either transferred

in the country. There is also a need for organisations to develop their responses and

disseminate their ideas and experiences among likeminded NGOs in Bangladesh.

Exposuresensitivit

y

Residual

Policy response

Planned

ADAPTATION

Initial impacts

Adjustment



147

Furthermore, to present effects of climate change on human health and determine more

accurately future continued research is necessary.

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