Lau 2009 Book Chapter Nova Press PDF ADVANCED CONSIDERATIONS IN STRENGTH TRAINING: STRETCHING,...

In: Strength Training: Types and Principles… ISBN: 978-1-60876-221-7 Editor: James T. Kai © 2009 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 5

ADVANCED CONSIDERATIONS IN STRENGTH TRAINING: STRETCHING, CONCURRENT TRAINING

AND MONITORING OF TRAINING LOAD

Patrick W.C. Lau1*, Del P. Wong2, Anis Chaouachi3,

Aaron Coutts4, Karim Chamari5 and Tze Chung Luk6 1Department of Physical Education, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong*.

2Department of Health and Physical Education, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong.

3Scientific Research Unit, ''Evaluation, Sport, Health'' at the National Centre of Medicine and Science in Sports, Tunis, Tunisia.

4School of Leisure, Sport and Tourism, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia. 5Scientific Research Unit, ''Evaluation, Sport, Health'' at the National Centre of Medicine

and Science in Sports, Tunis, Tunisia. 6Department of Physical Education, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong.

ABSTRACT

This chapter aims to specify different forms of static and dynamic stretching routines, and its effects on the development of strength. Furthermore, it has been suggested that concurrent training (combining several training modes, e.g. strength and aerobic training, strength and plyometric training, strength and speed training) has superior effects as compared to single training mode alone. Therefore, the modes of concurrent training, its training effect, and some precautions when designing the programs to meet the specific demands of professional athletes, are also discussed. Finally, since it is important to monitor training load to optimize strength gain and enhance performance level, and prevent over-training, several monitoring methods that can be used to monitor training such as training volume, session-RPE (rate of perceived exertion), and heart rate response are examined.

Corresponding Author. * Email: [email protected]

Patrick W.C. Lau, Del Pui-lam Wong, Anis Chaouachi et al. 2

1. EFFECT OF STRETCHING ON MUSCULAR STRENGTH

Stretching is traditionally performed as a standard part of warm-up routines to increase

flexibility (intrinsic property of the body tissues that determines the range of motion) achievable without injury at a joint (Thacker et al., 2004). It is believed that stretching will enhance subsequent performance, reduce the risk of injury, and alleviate muscle soreness symptoms (Bacurau et al., 2009; Marek et al., 2005; Nelson et al., 2005a). Therefore, performing a stretching routine before the main exercise session, such as strength training exercises or strength assessment tests (Perrin, 1993) has been a common practice among athletes, coaches and other rehabilitation professionals. In this regard, numerous stretching techniques are used to increase flexibility, and the most common and easiest are static and dynamic stretching (Bompa, 2000; Hedrick, 2000; Karp, 2000; Thacker et al., 2004; Torres et al., 2008). The former is performed by placing muscles at their greatest possible length at a point of slight discomfort and holding that position for a period of time (10-60 seconds). The dynamic stretching consists of fast specific movement patterns that usually mimic sports activities (Baechel & Earle, 2000). It is further defined by Fletcher and Jones (2004) as ‘‘controlled movement through the active range of motion for each joint’’. Because static stretching and dynamic stretching are common activities practiced by recreational and elite athletes, it is important to determine to what extent the static or dynamic stretching exercises may influence strength performance.

1.1. Effects of Static Stretching on Strength Recent systematic reviews and experimental studies have reported that static stretching

prior to an exercise may temporarily impair muscular performance by reducing subsequent strength and power production (Cramer et al., 2004; Cramer et al., 2005; Evetovich et al., 2003; D. Knudson & Noffal, 2005; Kraemer et al., 1995; Marek et al., 2005; Nelson et al., 2005b). In fact, pre-event stretching has demonstrated an inhibitory effects on isometric (Behm et al., 2001; Fowles et al., 2000; Kokkonen et al., 1998) and isokinetic force (Nelson et al., 2001), strength endurance (Nelson et al., 2005b), muscle activation as measured by electromyography (Behm et al., 2001; Power et al., 2004; Rosenbaum & Hennig, 1995) and the interpolated twitch technique (Behm et al., 2001; Power et al., 2004). Even when combined with an aerobic warm up (Behm et al., 2004; Behm et al., 2001; Cè et al., 2008; Fletcher & Anness, 2007; Holt & Lambourne, 2008; Power et al., 2004; Vetter, 2007), dynamic warm up (Winchester et al., 2008) or skill rehearsal (Young & Behm, 2003), static stretching can exert a negative influence upon subsequent performance.

Decreases in strength ranged from 4.5% to 28% after static stretching, irrespective of the testing mode (i.e. isometric, isotonic or isokinetic) (Rubini et al., 2007). Although the mechanism for this deficit has not been fully elucidated but could be due to mechanical factors, such as alterations in the viscoelastic properties of the musculotendinous unit (Cornwell et al., 2002; Cramer et al., 2004; Cramer et al., 2005; Evetovich et al., 2003; Fowles et al., 2000; Nelson et al., 2005a; Nelson et al., 2001; Torres et al., 2008), and neuromuscular factors including decreased motor unit activation, firing frequency, and altered

Advanced Considerations in Strength Training: Stretching, Concurrent Training… 3

reflex sensitivity (Avela et al., 1999; Behm et al., 2001; Cramer et al., 2005; Fowles et al., 2000; Power et al., 2004; Torres et al., 2008). Fowles et al. (2000) reported that after 15 minutes of recovery from intense stretching, most of the decreases in muscular force-generating capacity were attributable to intrinsic mechanical properties of the musculotendinous unit rather than neural factors. Specifically, it was hypothesized that stretching may have altered the length-tension relationship and/or the plastic deformation of connective tissues such that the maximal force-producing capabilities of the musculotendinous unit could be limited. Some researchers hypothesized that stretching reduces muscle stiffness, which places the contractile filaments at a less-than-optimal length for the development of maximal tension. It is possible, therefore, that stretching-induced alterations in the length-tension relationship may be manifested through changes in the angle-torque relationship, which in turn, may be evident by changes in the area under the angle-torque curve (Marek et al., 2005). In addition, stretching may cause signals from neural structures such as muscle spindles, to be less responsive, thus reducing the number of muscle fibers that are subsequently activated (Beedle et al., 2008; Cramer et al., 2004). Moreover, it is suggested that to compensate for the decrease in force production, a greater activation/stimulation rate was required, and this in turn resulted in a faster rate of neural fatigue. Finally, a few researchers have demonstrated that blood flow through a muscle can be impaired during the time that the muscle is being stretched (Nelson et al., 2005b; Poole et al., 1997).

Although the majority of studies showed that static stretch has a negative impact on performance, there are a few studies that have indicated no effect of static stretching on performance (Beedle et al., 2008; Knudson & Noffal, 2005; Torres et al., 2008; Unick et al., 2005). Torres et al. (2008) reported that static stretching did not impair subsequent upper-body muscular performance in young adult male athletes. Knudson et al. (2004) demonstrated that static stretching has no influence on muscular performance during a tennis serve. Egan et al. (2006) also did not report any significant impact of static stretching on peak torque production during concentric knee extension at 60 and 300°s-1. Likewise, Cramer et al. (2006) found that a static stretching bout did not affect knee extensor eccentric peak torque production at 60 and 80°s-1. Yamaguchi and Ishii (2005) have suggested that leg extension power after static stretching of several muscle groups of the lower limbs for 30 seconds, was not different from that of no stretching. More recently, Beedle and colleagues (2008) reported that moderate-intensity static stretching does not seem to adversely affect 1RM in the bench press and leg press .

There have only been a few studies that have examined the influence of stretching intensity. Typically, these studies have compared stretching maximally or to the point of discomfort (POD) was compared with submaximal intensity static stretching on subsequent exercise performances. Indeed, Knudson and colleagues published two studies (Knudson et al., 2001; Knudson et al., 2004) where the participants were stretched to a point "just before" discomfort, and neither study showed significant decreases in performance. In addition, there are some evidence in the literature suggesting that less than maximal intensity stretching might not produce stretch-induced deficits (Knudson et al., 2001; Knudson et al., 2004; Young et al., 2006). They found that two minutes of static stretching at 90% intensity had no effect on muscle performance (concentric calf raise and drop jump height). Conversely, Behm and Kibele (2007) found static stretch-induced impairments in jump performance with maximal (100% or POD) and submaximal (50 and 75% of POD) intensity of stretching.


Other than the intensity of stretching, duration is another crucial factor when considering the effect of static stretching. It has been reported that a greater duration of static stretching resulted in greater deficits (Kay & Blazevich, 2009; Young et al., 2006), suggesting a dosage effect. In this regard, single static stretching exercises of a muscle group for ≥ 30 s has been shown to negatively affects maximal strength (Ogura et al., 2007; Siatras et al., 2008), whilst single static stretching < 30 s does not negatively affect muscular strength/force (Alpkaya & Koceja, 2007; Ogura et al., 2007; Zakas et al., 2006). Nevertheless, the effect of static stretching on subsequent physical performances might be specific to populations (well trained vs. untrained) and muscle groups (distal vs. proximal muscles, or large vs. small muscles) (Ryan et al., 2008).

1.2. Effects of Dynamic Stretching on Strength Several studies have examined the acute effects of dynamic stretching on subsequent

performance in athletes. Researches examining the effect of dynamic stretching on subsequent performance illustrates less impairments (Herda et al., 2008) or even facilitation of performance when power output is measured during whole-body dynamic tasks (Faigenbaum et al., 2005; Fletcher & Jones, 2004; Little & Williams, 2006; McMillian et al., 2006) and explosive multi-joint lower-body exercises (Yamaguchi & Ishii, 2005). It appears that dynamic stretching is superior to static stretching due to the close similarity to movements that occur during subsequent exercises (Torres et al. 2008). In addition, acute dynamic stretching has been shown to enhance performance in subsequent concentric and isotonic strength (Yamaguchi et al., 2007), power (Faigenbaum et al., 2005; McMillian et al., 2006; Yamaguchi & Ishii, 2005), as well as increased electromyographic activity during an isometric maximal voluntary contraction (Herda et al., 2008). Nevertheless, there have been other studies that have reported no change in isometric peak torque (Herda et al., 2008), and 1RM in the bench and leg presses (Beedle et al., 2008) with prior dynamic stretching. Together, these results support the hypothesis that dynamic stretching may be less detrimental to muscle force production than static stretching.

The mechanism by which dynamic stretching improves muscular performance has been suggested to be elevated muscle and body temperature (Fletcher & Jones, 2004) postactivation potentiation in the stretched muscle caused by voluntary contractions of the antagonist (Hough et al., 2009; Torres et al., 2008), stimulation of the nervous system, and/or decreased inhibition of antagonist muscles (Fredrick & Szymanski, 2001; Jaggers et al., 2008; Yamaguchi & Ishii, 2005). As a result of these effects, dynamic stretching may enhance force and power development (Hough et al., 2009; Torres et al., 2008; Yamaguchi & Ishii, 2005). Indeed, Faigenbaum et al. (2005) and Yamaguchi et al. (2005) hypothesized that the increases in force output after dynamic stretching are caused by an enhancement of neuromuscular function, and they implied that the dynamic stretching had a postactivation potentiation effect on performance via an increase the rate of cross-bridge attachments (Houston & Grange, 1990). Consequently, it allows a greater number of cross-bridges to form, and resulting in an increase in force production (Behm et al., 2004). However, Herda et al. (2008), reported that dynamic stretching did not improve muscular strength, although electromyographic amplitude increased, which may reflect a potentiating effect of the dynamic stretching on muscle activation.


Although almost all studies have compared dynamic and static stretching as separate conditions, there have been a few studies that have combined dynamic and static stretching in the same warm-up routine (Fletcher & Anness, 2007; Skof & Strojnik, 2007; Torres et al., 2008; Wallmann et al., 2008; Winchester et al., 2008). Contrary to previous researches only involving static stretching, the use of dynamic stretching in combination with static stretching does not appear to have an adverse effect on power and strength performance (Fletcher & Anness, 2007; Winchester et al., 2008). Furthermore, there appears to be no added benefit of dynamic stretching in combination with static stretching compared to dynamic stretching per se (Torres et al., 2008; Wallmann et al., 2008). However, combining dynamic stretching with static stretching may negate the potential adverse effects induced by static stretching. Moreover, Skof and Strojnik (2007) showed that warming-up with dynamic explosive-strength exercises such as bounding and sprinting when included with static stretching contributes to the acute improvement of the neuromuscular system and leads to a better performance in training and competition. The authors suggested that a more complex and intensive warm-up resulted in the potentiation of the contractile complex of the skeletal muscle and in the enhancement of muscle activation, which means that the neuromuscular system has improved in efficiency (Skof & Strojnik, 2007).

1.3. Practical Applications The decreases in strength as a result of static stretching may adversely affect the

performance of athletes in sports that require high levels of force production. In light of the reported reductions of strength and power performance following static stretching, strength and conditioning professionals should advise athletes performing a warm-up routine without static stretching or to include a dynamic stretching in conjunction with an aerobic warm-up, before activities that require high levels of strength and power. Since static stretching has the greatest negative impact on activities with a short contact or transition period (i.e. sprinting, bounding, jumping), it should normally not be performed prior to these activities. Activities with longer contact or transition periods (i.e. shot put, javelin, bench press) may not be adversely affected by a combination of dynamic and static stretching. Dynamic stretching could be more appropriate because it seems less likely to decrease maximal strength. From a practical standpoint, static stretching should be performed with less than maximal tension (below POD) on the muscle, be of short duration (less than 30 s), low volume (less than 6 repetitions or 60 sec per muscle) and provide a prolonged recovery period between static stretching and performance (>5 minutes).

2. CONCURRENT TRAINING

2.1. Concurrent Strength and Plyometric Training Plyometric training involves exercises in which the active muscles are stretched prior to

its shortening, i.e. the stretch-shortening cycle (Potach & Chu, 2000). The increased production of muscular power by plyometric training is explained by mechanical and


neurophysiological factors (Potach & Chu, 2000). The former states that elastic energy in the musculotendinous unit is increased with a rapid stretch and then stored. In such case, following an immediate concentric contraction, the stored energy is released and consequently increases the total force production. Furthermore, the neurphysiological factor explains the change in the force-velocity relationship of the muscle cased by the rapid stretch. In this context, a rapid stretch induces the action of stretch reflex which is an involuntary response of the body to an external stimulus. Therefore, when the muscle is stimulated by a rapid stretch, the reflexive response of the agonist muscle is increased and resulting in a higher production of total muscle force.

Plyometric exercises can be done with or without external load, and both modalities have been shown to increase jump height, power, and sprint performance (McBride et al., 2002; Rimmer & Sleivert, 2000; Wilson et al., 1993). Moreover, it has been suggested that combining strength training and plyometric training improves power and power-related skills to a greater extent than any of the two training modalities alone (Adam et al., 1992). This is further supported by previous studies which has shown that these two training modes enhance two important qualities for explosive movement: maximal force and rapid force development (or rate of force development) (Adam et al., 1992; Fatouros et al., 2000; Harris et al., 2000; Ronnestad et al., 2008; Toji et al., 1997).

There are many forms of plyometric exercises dedicated to improve the explosiveness of the upper or lower bodies (Potach & Chu, 2000). Particularly, double-arm single-leg forward jumps, single-arm alternate-leg forward bounce, and double-leg hurdle jumps have been employed as plyometric training exercises in professional soccer (Ronnestad et al., 2008). In this previous study, lower body plyometric training was combined with strength training which consisted of half squat and hip flexion performing at 4-6RM for 3-5 sets. After 7 weeks of concurrent strength and plyometric training, it was observed that squat jump height and sprint performance were significantly improved (p<0.05) in the concurrent training group as compared to the strength training group. In addition, these two groups shown significant greater improvement (p<0.05) in 4-bounce (horizontal) test, countermovement jump, squat jump, peak power with different external loading, and 40 meter sprint time, compared to control group with sport training alone. However, different landing surfaces induced various muscle soreness and resulted in different training effects on sprint and jump performances, therefore it should be consider prior to plyometric training (Impellizzeri et al., 2008).

2.2. Concurrent Strength and Speed Training Most of the competitive sports require the athletes to run at very high or maximum speed,

and it is believed that such ability is crucial for individual and team performances. Literature reveals that running speed can be improved with over-speed training, and sprint training without external resistance (Delecluse, 1997; Delecluse et al., 1995). In this context, explosive-type strength training is more effective with concurrent speed training (McBride et al., 2002). Specifically, either neural adaptations or a learning transfer occur during explosive-type strength exercises which consist of fast movement, and subsequently improve running speed (McBride et al., 2002). Contrary to explosive-type strength training, slow-speed strength training does not induce similar effects since during this training the nervous system can not learn and control the acquired level of strength in very fast movement


(Kotzamanidis et al., 2005). Thus slow-speed strength training does not significantly contribute to running speed that requires a high level of inter-limb coordination (Mero et al., 1992).

Previous studies have combined muscular strength training with speed training to simultaneously improve athletes’ body strength and running speed at sport-specific distance (Kotzamanidis et al., 2005; Wong et al., 2009). Kotzamanidis et al. (2005) concurrently implemented muscular strength training and speed training twice per week. In this program, strength training exercises, consisted of back half squat, single leg step up, and leg curl, were performed for 3- 8RM for 4 sets with 3 minutes rest between sets. Ten minutes after the strength program, the 30 meter speed training was performed for 4 – 6 repetitions with 3 minutes rest in-between. In another study, Wong et al. (2009) conducted strength training in the morning session and high-intensity running interval (running velocity ranged 17.4 – 21 km·h-1) in the afternoon session, twice per week for 8 weeks. Strength training program consisted of high-pull, jump squat, bench press, and back half squat, at 6RM for 4 sets with 3 minutes rest between sets. It is believed that such strength program maximize strength gains by neural adaptation (Baechle et al., 2000), and induce minor muscular hypertrophy which favor most of the well trained athletes since they do not need to move with a heavier body (Hakkinen & Komi, 1985; Kyrolainen et al., 2005). In addition, the high-intensity running interval used by Wong et al. (2009) consisted of 12 – 15 running for 15 seconds (1:1 work:rest ratio) at individualized speed (120% of maximum aerobic speed).

Kotzamanidis et al. (2005) showed that after a 9-week concurrent muscular strength and speed training, significant improvement (p < 0.05) in sport-specific fitness such as 30 meter sprint, squat jump, and drop jump were observed in the concurrent training group, while no significant differences were reported in the strength training group and control group. Additionally, both concurrent training group and strength training group reported significant improvement (p < 0.05) in muscular strength such as half squat, single leg step up, and leg curl. Furthermore, it has been shown that after 8-week of concurrent strength and high-intensity running interval training (running velocity ranged 17.4 – 21 km·h-1), muscular strength, jumping ability, 10 meter and 30 meter sprints, intermittent aerobic capacity were significantly improved (p < 0.05) in professional athletes, as compared to the control group with sport training alone (Wong et al., 2009).

2.3. Concurrent Strength and Aerobic Endurance Training Many professional sports require athletes to develop high levels of strength and aerobic

endurance. However, due to the limited training time, athletes are often required to training these two physical attributes simultaneously. Therefore, the majority of previous studies investigated the concurrent training of these two modalities (Docherty & Sporer, 2000). Aerobic power is measured by maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) and expressed as either absolute value (L·min-1), value relative to athlete’s body mass (ml·min-1·kg-1), or allometric scale to athlete’s body mass (Chamari et al., 2005). VO2max depends on the body’s ability to transport and utilize oxygen. In this regard, transportation of oxygen is considered to be dependent upon the cardiopulmonary system (central component), and the adaptations that occur at the muscle tissue level (peripheral component) (Noakes, 1998). Specifically, in the


peripheral component, glycogen stores in muscle, capillary density, mitochondrial volume and density, aerobic enzymes and myoglobin content all affect the utilization of oxygen in the muscle (Docherty & Sporer, 2000). The ability to identify these two components is important in designing aerobic training program since lower intensity and continuous training is associated with central component stimulation, and higher intensity (> 80% of VO2max) interval training is associated with peripheral adaptation (Astrand & Rodahl, 1986; Docherty & Sporer, 2000; Wong et al., 2009).

Since strength training has been reported to cause muscle hypertrophy, increased contractile protein, and contractile force (Bishop et al., 1999; Sale et al., 1990), it has the potential negative effect of reducing mitochondrial density and decreasing the activity of oxidative enzymes, thus inhibiting the improvement of aerobic endurance (Sale et al., 1990). On the other hand, unlike strength training, aerobic endurance training does not induce muscle hypertrophy but increases the mitochondrial content, oxidative capacity, and converts muscle fiber characteristics from fast to slow twitch, which negatively affects explosive performances (Nelson et al., 1990; Putman et al., 2004). Previous studies of concurrent muscle strength and aerobic endurance training had different results; some reported interference effects (Dudley & Djamil, 1985; Hickson, 1980; Kraemer et al., 1995), but others showed complementary effects (Chtara et al., 2005; Davis et al., 2009a, 2009b).

With the results of previous studies, Docherty and Sporer (2000) proposed a continuum model to explain the interference effect of different types of concurrent strength and aerobic endurance training. This model stated that not all kinds of concurrent training induce interference effects, but only strength training with >10RM and aerobic training at 95-100% VO2max intensity generate the greatest interference effects as both training stimulate the peripheral adaptations. In this sense, concurrent strength training with <5RM and aerobic endurance training at the intensity lower than the anaerobic threshold would not interfere each other since the former stresses on neural adaptation and the latter stresses on cardiovascular adaptation. Recently, Nader (2006) provided a summary of the effects of concurrent strength and aerobic endurance at the molecular level. The results of this study demonstrated that strength training results in an increased activity of muscle-protein synthesis such as phosphoinositide-3-dependent kinase (P13K) and protein kinase B (PKB). On the other hand, aerobic endurance exercise was shown to activate the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) which reduces skeletal muscle-protein synthesis (Nader, 2006).

Some recent studies which reported complementary effects by employing concurrent strength training and aerobic endurance training were discussed here. Chtara et al. (2005) found that concurrent training induced significant improvement (p<0.05) in 4 kilometer running performance, VO2max, maximal aerobic speed (MAS), and time to exhaustion at MAS, compared with aerobic endurance or strength training alone. The aerobic endurance program used by Chtara et al. (2005) was 100% of MAS with active recovery of 60% of MAS, repeated five times in each session. There were two training sessions per week, and the program was lasted for 12 weeks. In another study of Wong et al. (2009), concurrent training (strength + aerobic interval + sport) significantly (p<0.05) enhanced muscular strength, vertical jump, 10 meter and 30 meter sprints, intermittent aerobic, and MAS, as compared to the control group with sport training alone. The concurrent strength training program consisted of exercises with high load, i.e. 6RM for 4 sets with 3 minutes rest in-between. In addition, the concurrent aerobic endurance training program consisted of 12 – 15 interval running at 120% of MAS for 15 seconds, separated with 15 seconds passive rest. An


innovative design of concurrent training has been used by Davis et al. (2009a, 2009b). Unlike other studies which employed strength training and aerobic endurance training in two separated training sessions, Davis et al. (2009a, 2009b) integrated the strength training and aerobic training into one training session. Specifically, before every set of strength exercise, athletes are required to perform a brief (~1 minute) and vigorous aerobic exercise to increase the heart rate response. Despite both groups performed the same strength training exercises (seated inclined bilateral leg press, seated bilateral leg extension and flexion, front lat pull-down, flat bench press, shoulder press, biceps curl, and triceps kickback) with the same protocol (3 sets each, 8-12 repetitions per set), the mean heart rate was higher in the integrated concurrent setting (~151 beat·min-1 or ~65% of heart rate reserve), as compared to the concurrent training with two separated sessions (~108 beat·min-1 or ~32% of heart rate reserve). After 11 weeks of training (3 days per week), lower-body muscle strength, leg press endurance, increment of fat free mass, and VO2max were all significantly higher in the integrated concurrent setting as compared with the separated concurrent setting (p<0.05) (Davis et al., 2009a, 2009b). These studies shown that, concurrent muscle strength and aerobic endurance training, when carefully arrange into training program, does not interfere with each other.

3. MONITORING OF TRAINING LOAD

3.1. Importance of Monitoring Training Load Improvement of sport performance could be achieved by appropriate periodization of

training and recovery (Gamble, 2006; Kibler & Chandler, 1994; Noakes, 2003; Rowbottom, 2000; Woodman & Pyke, 1991). It is believed that both training stress and recovery affect sport performance (Selye, 1956). Specifically, when homeostasis of the athlete is disrupted through training overload (Martveyev, 1982), a number of catabolic events occur resulting in a breakdown of structural proteins and a depletion of energy stores (Viru & Viru, 2000). In this regard, performance is temporarily decreased as results of the catabolism since the body works to re-establish energy stores and increase protein synthesis. However, performance is improved as soon as the athlete adapts to the training stress, i.e. supercompenzation (Bompa, 1996). Periodization is based on this principle, and it is commonly thought that a cumulative overload of training will result in a more powerful stimulus for adaptation if appropriate recovery periods are planned (Bompa, 1996; Martveyev, 1982). Nevertheless, this type of cumulative training is risky if recovery is not appropriate and could lead to over-reaching or even over-training with a concomitant decrease in performance (Halson & Jeukendrup, 2004).

For some professional sports, the typical model of periodization usually includes the following phases: general preparation, specific preparation, pre-competition and competition (Kelly & Coutts, 2007; Woodman & Pyke, 1991). A well designed training plan has these cycles systematically planned to develop the physiological and performance capacities of athletes that allow them to best achieve their performance goals. Additionally, previous studies have clearly shown that training should be periodized to alternate hard-easy sessions on a regular basis (Bruin et al., 1994; Foster & Lehmann, 1997). Moreover, the training load should also be gradually progressive throughout the preparatory period (Rowbottom, 2000)


and athletes should undertake a period of rest or taper prior to competition (Coutts et al., 2007b; Mujika & Padilla, 2003). With respect to strength training for professional athletes, intensity and volume are usually both high in the general preparation phase in which no competition is scheduled and in which limited number of sport-specific skill training take place (Wathen et al., 2000). During this phase, the strength training causes significant fatigue and involves large time commitments, consequently the sport performance is usually not at the optimal level. After that, the volume is decreased and the intensity is increased in the specific preparation phase (Wathen et al., 2000). In this phase, strength training is sport-specific, and the volume of strength training is decreased in order to increase the involvement of sport-specific skill training. The strength training volume is further decreased in the pre-competition phase so that the sport-skill training is optimized and maximized (Wathen et al., 2000). There are various tapes of tapering technique used for professional sports in this phase (Bosquet et al., 2007; Mujika, 1998; Mujika et al., 1996a; Mujika et al., 1996b; Mujika et al., 2002a; Mujika & Padilla, 2003; Mujika et al., 1997; Mujika et al., 2002b; Thomas et al., 2008), but the optimal taper strategy for strength training is unknown. Lastly, very high intensity (>90% of 1RM) and very low volume (1-3 sets of 1-3 repetitions) of strength training is performed in the competition phase (Wathen et al., 2000). The majority of training time is devoted to sport-specific skill training and recovery in this phase in order to achieve peak performance (Wathen et al., 2000). It is widely thought that these fundamental principles of periodization should be applied to most of the professional sports (Wathen et al., 2000).

Monitoring training load is important as it can provide information to coaches and scientists that can be used to control the training process and avoid negative training responses sich as over-reaching, over-training, injury and/or illness. For example, Putlur et al. (2004) reported that the incidence of illness and reduction in salivary immunoglobulin levels were associated with increased workloads over nine weeks training period in a group of trained collegiate female soccer players. Additionally, others have also reported changes in reductions of muscular strength, power, speed and aerobic capacity during 6-8 weeks preparation and competition period of a semi-professional rugby league team who completed high training loads (Coutts et al., 2007a). It has also been shown that a reduction in pre-season training load of semi-professional rugby league players between seasons caused a reduction in training injuries and a meaningful increase in physical performance tests (Gabbett, 2004).

A precise understanding of training load completed during training can be beneficial for both the coach and the athlete. The coach can use feedback from training to systematically modify future training so that future performances can be improved. Athletes can use this feedback for motivation for future training. In the following part we will talk about the methods of monitoring training load in order to optimize performance, and prevent over-training and injury.

3.2. Methods of Monitoring Training Load

The effectiveness of the monitoring program depends on the methods that quantify and

measure training load. There are several common methods that now can be used to quantify strength training load: (1) the external load completed by the athlete (e.g. number of repetition performed, and the load lifted), or (2) the internal load endured by the athlete (e.g.


heart rate, and blood lactate concentration), or (3) the global rating of perceived exertion during each training session (session-RPE).

External load completed during strength training can be quantified by multiplying the number of sets by the number of repetitions by the weight lifted per repetition (Sets x repetitions x weight). For example, a professional athlete performing 4 sets of half squat each with 5 repetitions at 100kg provides a 2000kg external load. However, this method does not take into account of the duration of rest period, the speed of movement during the sets, and the individual response to the training session. Therefore, its usefulness for future planning and modification of training programs is limited.

The common measurement of internal work completed by athletes requires heart rate monitors or blood lactate measurement device. Heart rate response has been used by previous studies to monitor training load (Hedelin et al., 2000; Iellamo et al., 2004; Otsuki et al., 2008; Pichot et al., 2000; Uusitalo et al., 2000). However, recent reviews shown that the small to moderate amplitude of the heart rate alterations limits the practical usefulness since differences may fall within the day-to-day variability of these markers (Achten & Jeukendrup, 2003; Bosquet et al., 2008). Consequently, the interpretation of heart rate or heart rate variability fluctuations during the training session requires the comparison with other signs and symptoms of over-training (Bosquet et al., 2008). Furthermore, since bioenergetic interpretations of energy transfer specify that rapid anaerobic, substrate-level adenosine triphosphate (ATP) turnover with lactate production is not appropriately represented by an oxygen uptake measurement, blood lactate has been used to monitor training load in strength training session rather than the use of heart rate (Benson et al., 2006; Scott, 2006). It is believed that blood lactate is able to reveal the body’s acute response to different strength training, and therefore could be used to monitor training load. This is supported by previous study that blood lactate concentration is ~2 times greater in normal speed strength exercise, as compared to very slow movement speed (Hunter et al., 2003). Furthermore, previous study also shown that strength training of lower limbs induce ~ 3 times higher blood lactate concentration as compared to that of upper limbs (Zajac et al., 2001). These methods can provide very detailed information on the training stress experienced by athletes, but several limiting factors can prohibit them from wide use in elite sports. In particular, these devices can be expensive, require a high level of technical expertise to operate, and data analysis can be time consuming. Additionally, these methods can not be easily used to compare the training stress imposed from various forms of training that are common in professional sports (e.g. aerobic training vs. power training).

The session-RPE method for quantifying training load has been developed (Foster et al., 1995) as a simple and valid technique to quantify whole training session intensity in strength (Day et al., 2004; McGuigan et al., 2004; Sweet et al., 2004), endurance (Foster et al., 2001; Impellizzeri et al., 2004), and intermittent-aerobic training (Banister, 1991). Indeed, recent research compared the session-RPE method with heart rate method that have been previously suggested to be precise methods for quantifying training stress (Coutts et al., 2009). Furthermore, it has been recently shown that session-RPE is a valid method of estimating global training intensity as compared with either heart rate or blood lactate concentration independently (Foster et al., 2001). The session-RPE method now allows coaches to measure the response from the training that their athletes completed and consequently have better control on the periodization of training. The session-RPE method of monitoring training load requires each athlete to provide a Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) for each exercise


session (see Table 1) along with a measure of training time (Foster et al., 2001). To calculate a measure of session intensity, athletes are asked within 30 minutes of finishing their workout a simple question like “How was your workout?” A single number representing the magnitude of training load for each session is then calculated by the multiplication of training intensity (RPE from Table 1) by the training session duration (minutes). Training Load = Session RPE x duration (mins)

Table 1. The modified rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale used for athletes to classify their perceived intensity of each training session (Foster, 1998). The athlete can

give simple numbers (e.g.: 3: moderate) or even more precise numbers as 3.5 or even 3.25 when he(she) feels the training was between ‘’moderate’’ and ‘’ somewhat hard’’

Rating Descriptor

0 Rest 1 Very, Very Easy 2 Easy 3 Moderate 4 Somewhat Hard 5 Hard 6 7 Very Hard 8 9

10 Maximal

3.3. Practical Use of Training Load Regardless of the method used, further simple calculations of two useful indicators could

be made with the measured training load, i.e. Training Monotony and Training Strain. Training Monotony is a measure of day-to-day training variability that has been found to be related to the onset of overtraining when monotonous training is combined with high training load (Putlur et al., 2004). In addition, training with lower monotony (i.e. greater variation in training load) may prevent injury, illness and improve performance. Training Monotony is calculated from the average daily training load divided by the standard deviation of the daily training load calculated over a week:

Training Monotony = average daily training load / standard deviation

A global measure of Training Strain can also be calculated from training load and

Training Monotony. Training Stain is a useful method for monitoring training when players are undertaking high training load. In professional sports, high levels of training strain are usually reached during the preparation period of training when there is no regular competition. The advantage of monitoring training strain for athletes is that recovery only becomes fundamental to training when high training loads are being undertaken. For example, when training loads are high and there has been inadequate time for recovery between sessions, the training strain is high. This type of training has been associated with


incidence of illness and poor performance (Coutts et al., 2007a; Foster, 1998; Putlur et al., 2004). Conversely, training strain is low when players complete either high or low training loads with regular recovery periods between high load sessions (i.e. low monotony). The calculation of Training Strain is:

Training Strain = weekly training load x monotony

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors thank Prof. David Behm for his assistance during the preparation of this chapter.

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