Late pre-Islamic burials at Mleiha, Emirate ofSharjah (UAE)

The history of two monumental grave buildings (nos. 4 and 5), excavated in area P ofthe late pre-Islamic city of Mleiha, has been studied in detail. Like all other tombsexcavated up to the present day in Mleiha, their chambers had been emptied in ancienttimes. They were found devoid of human remains and grave-goods. In the upper partsof the grave fills, however, skeletal remains were encountered. One of the skeletonswas radiocarbon dated to AD 623–656, the time of the Islamisation of south-east Ara-bia. A radiocarbon date of 384–233 BC for a wooden beam from the same tombshowed that it was built during the late pre-Islamic period (PIR-A). These dates andstratigraphic observations made clear that the interments were intrusive. The sur-rounding sediments were deposited by flooding. Directly underneath the skull of thedated skeleton, a layer of sandy loam was encountered, showing mud cracks. Tounderstand the relationship between the burial and these deposits, micromorphologi-cal analyses of the surrounding sediments were conducted. The microstructural orga-nisation of the sedimentary components implied that the skull was interred as part ofa burial, and not deposited by natural processes.

Keywords: south-east Arabia, Mleiha, PIR-A period, burials, micromorphology

Adelina Kutterer1, BrunoOverlaet2, Christopher E.Miller1, Johannes Kutterer1,Sabah A. Jasim3, ErnieHaerinck41Institute for ArchaeologicalSciences, University of T€ubingen,R€umelinstr. 23, 72070T€ubingen, Germany2Royal Museums of Art &History, Jubelpark 10, B-1000Brussels, Belgium3Directorate of Antiquities,Sharjah, UAE4Near Eastern Art &Archaeology, Department ofArchaeology, Ghent University,Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 35,B-9000, Ghent, Belgiume-mail: mail@adelina-kutterer.de

IntroductionThe late pre-Islamic city of Mleiha in the Central Regionof the Emirate of Sharjah (UAE) is outstanding withregard to its size, architecture, organisation and other fea-tures (Mouton 1999, 2008, 2009; Benoist, Mouton &Schiettecatte 2003). It has a long history of archaeologicalresearch starting in the 1970s (e.g. Madhloom 1974) andcontinuing to the present day. Various teams have exca-vated at Mleiha over the years (Jasim 1999; Mouton 2009;Haerinck & Overlaet 2011a, 2011b). Results obtained dur-ing this long period of research indicate that the impor-tance of Mleiha was mainly based on its integration intothe early trans-Arabian trade network. Far-reachingconnections in all directions are well documented bynumerous finds from Mleiha (e.g. Benoist, Mouton &Schiettecatte 2003; Mouton 1999, 2009).

While very rich in all sorts of archaeological finds, thesite of Mleiha has until recently been completely sterile

with regard to the physical remains of its formerinhabitants. A shallow pit-burial with the inhumation of aninfant, newly excavated by the Sharjah team in the settle-ment area (Kutterer & Jasim 2013) was the only excep-tion. This is remarkable because, since the beginning ofexcavations, the existence of large cemeteries, clearly sep-arated from the domestic areas, were observed (Mouton2008). In the graveyards along the southern and easternborders of the ancient city there are different types ofgrave buildings, including monumental tombs constructedwith great care, which are surrounded by different kinds ofsimpler tombs (Mouton 1999, 2008, 2009). Over theyears, a large number of these graves have been excavated.They differ in size and form within the graveyards them-selves and over time, but they never contain humanremains (Mouton 2008), although animal bones of cameland horse inhumations were regularly encountered inproximity of the presumed human graves (Jasim 1999;

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Uerpmann H.-P. 1999). Thus, the discovery of humanskeletal remains inside two grave monuments excavatedby the Belgian mission in 2011 was extraordinary. In orderto clarify the special situation of these two inhumations, adetailed analysis of the archaeological findings and arte-facts, radiocarbon dating of construction elements of oneof these tombs and of one of the skeletons, as well asosteo-archaeological studies were carried out. In addition,soil micromorphological analysis of the sediment sur-rounding one of the skulls was used to determine how andin what state the corpse was buried.

Excavations of the monumental tombs 4 and 5 inArea PFrom 2009 to 2013, the Belgian team excavated at a lowmound on the southern side of Mleiha, identified with

the letter P on the 1986 surveyor’s map (Mouton 1999:11–12, fig. 2). The excavations confirmed the originalidentification as a graveyard. In an area of some 300 m²,no less than seven monumental tombs and five pit graveswere discovered (Fig. 1). The monumental tombs of AreaP all consisted of an underground pit—dug out in the marlor limestone—that was closed with horizontal beams,sometimes set in plaster, and built over with a massivetower or platform of mud bricks. Several of these monu-ments had a small podium—the size of a single mud brick—at the northern side and all were covered with a layer ofwhite plaster. At least two of the seven tomb-towers haddecorative mouldings and crenulations. This type of con-struction suggests a date in Mouton’s PIR-A phase (latefourth–mid-second century BC) (Boucharlat & Mouton1998: 18–21, figs. 2–3, 5). Although obvious traces oflater intrusions were recognised in all of the monumental

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Fig. 1.Mleiha Area P with tomb-towers 1–7 and pit burials 8–11 (drawing A. Timmerman).

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mud-brick tombs and almost all burial goods had beenremoved, the few remaining finds in the area, including astamped Rhodian amphora handle produced between 188and 150/147 BC (Monsieur et al. 2013: no. 10), confirmedthis dating. Moreover, the 14C dating of one of the woodenbeams that closed the burial pit of tomb 5 with a calibrateddate of 384–233 BC (Table 1) falls well within theexpected range.

Skeletal remains were found just above the burial pits intombs 4 and 5. The question was whether these remainsbelonged to the original interment and were displaced dur-ing the plundering of the tomb or whether these were laterinterments. In the latter case, this might have happenedduring the ‘lifespan’ of the graveyard or at the moment of,or after, the tomb was plundered. The archaeological evi-dence suggests that these interments occurred after theemptying or plundering of the tombs.

Tomb 4The monumental tomb 4 was an almost square mud-bricktower or platform measuring 329/319 cm (north and southside) by 324/326 cm (west and east side) with a smallstepped podium at its northern side. The outside of thefunerary monument, the podium and the adjacent areawere all plastered. The mud-brick construction was

disturbed in its north-western part (Fig. 2), indicating alater intrusion by which the burial chamber was accessedin a later phase.

To explore the subterranean construction, a 2 x 2 mexcavation trench was sunk at the centre of the monument.At c.0.9 m below the old surface (the plastered level onwhich the small platform was placed), a c.70 cm-deeprectangular, empty burial pit, dug into the compact marllayer, was encountered. Remains of wooden beams werenoted at several locations. At least one was placed length-wise across the pit and supported a series of transversalbeams.

The skeletal remains discussed in this paper were dis-covered above and at the level of these wooden beams.The body was inserted through a horizontal tunnel thathad been dug from the southern side towards the edgeof the burial pit, more or less at the level of the woodenbeams. These beams possibly represented an obstaclewhen the intrusive grave was dug, forcing those whomade this grave to stop at the point where the body wasthen inserted into the tunnel. The skeleton was incom-plete (Table 2). In view of the distances and positioningof the bone fragments, it seems the corpse was placed ina squatting, slightly upright position facing west. Thepelvis was situated partly above the burial pit, above thelengthwise-placed beam and below the level of the trans-versal beams (Fig. 3). If the body had rested on top ofthese, the decay of the wood may explain the position-ing of the pelvis.

The tunnel through which the body was inserted wasfilled with loose earth, fragments of mud brick and otherbuilding debris and wadi sediments. There were no grave-goods specifically associated with the corpse. A small

Table 1. Radiocarbon dates of wood and bone samples from tomb 5.

MAMS Material 14C Age 13C cal 1 sigma cal 2 sigma

15099 Wood 2252�22 �20.4 384–232.5 BC 390–207.5 BC15100 Bone

(apatite)1406�23 �38 AD 622.5–656 AD 605.5–661.5

Fig. 2.Tomb 4: the central trench measuring 4 x 4 m in the massive mud-brickconstruction cuts through the robber’s hole.

Table 2. Summary information on the skeletal remains from tomb 4.

Skeletal element Remarks

Radius LeftUlna LeftHands Right Proximal Phalanx I

Left scaphoidVertebrae One fragment of a lumbar vertebraPelvis Right side: nearly complete

Left side: only Ilium presentFemur Right /leftPatella Right/leftTibia Right/left

Left tibia: PeriostitisFibula Right/left

Left fibula: PeriostitisFeet Right Calcaneus

Right Os naviculareDistal Phalanx I (bone spurs)

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alabaster vessel and some fragments in the fill were ofPIR-A date (Mouton 2008) and should be considered asspoil remaining from the earlier emptying of this and otherArea P tombs.

Tomb 5The monumental tomb 5 was an almost square mud-bricktower or platform measuring 332/344 cm (north and southside) by 337/326 cm (west and east side). Approximately30 cm were preserved above the ancient surface, estimatedin view of the level where the plastering of the outside

finished. At the surface it was apparent that the tomb hadbeen looted, as an almost circular hole was visible at theeastern side and a large area was disturbed near the north-eastern corner (Fig. 4).

To explore the subterranean construction, a 2 x 2 mexcavation trench was sunk at the centre of the monument.At c.0.95 m below the ancient surface a compact marllayer was reached. A c.80 cm-deep rectangular burial pitwas dug into this marl. The remains of several woodenbeams crossed the width of the pit. Some can be seen inthe eastern section (Fig. 5). Skeletal remains were discov-ered on top of the fill of the burial pit (Fig. 6). At a slightlydeeper level, more wood was found—clearly the remainsof the same beams that had dropped into the old burial pit.There were no grave-goods associated with the skeleton.

The position of the individual on top of the beams thatclosed the old burial pit indicates that this burial post-datesthe construction of the tomb. The massive disturbance ofthe north-eastern and western part of the mud-brick struc-ture, visible on Figure 5 (right) seems to be the result ofthe looting or clearance of the ancient tomb. The more dis-crete tunnelling from the western side, visible on Figure 4and in the eastern section (Fig. 5, left) and close to theposition of the human remains, is likely to be the way theintrusive burial was introduced into the monument. Whatremains to be explained, however, is the obvious layeredsedimentation that is visible in the sediment attached tothe skull and in the section of the suggested access used todeposit the deceased (Fig. 5, left). The access tunnel mayhave been closed—possibly with some beams or branchessupporting a few mud bricks—in such a way that a hollow

Fig. 3.Tomb 4: view of the 2 x 2 m trench in the centre of tomb 4 with itspartly excavated burial pit (outlined). The human remains can be seen insitu on the edge of the burial pit and in the tunnel (outlined) through themassive mud-brick tomb-tower.

Fig. 4.Tomb 5 with the robber’s hole and the access for the later interment indicated.

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burial room was left. The caving in of such a closure, bysimple decay or by flooding (known to occur regularly inthis wadi area), would have caused this type of sedimenta-tion. Similarly, flooding or animal activity could accountfor the displacement of some of the bones.

Considerations on deposition and taphonomy of thehuman remains from tombs 4 and 5The situation of the human bones in the upper parts of therespective grave fills—without any grave-goods—indi-cated that they might be intrusive and derived from a later

period than the construction and first use of the gravemonuments. Stratigraphic conditions, however, did notallow for a clear reconstruction of the history of depositionof the two corpses.

A radiocarbon date obtained from a piece of wood fromthe beams of the tomb construction that was adhering tothe skull of the individual found in tomb 5, corroborates aconstruction date of the grave during the Mleiha period. Itwas measured as 2252�22 YBP (MAMS 15099), whichcan be calibrated to an age of 384–233 BC. The humanskeletal remains from this grave, however, are younger:apatite of a cortical bone of the skeleton yielded a date of

Fig. 5.The eastern and western side of the tomb 5 trench with the outlined disturbance of the mud-brick construction. Remains of the beams across the burialpit are outlined in the trench profile.

Fig. 6.The grave pit of tomb 5, at the bottom of the 2 x 2 m trench, was dug into the marl. The situation during (with skull in situ) and after excavation. Theblack arrow indicates the location of the micromorphology samples.

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1406�23 YBP (MAMS 15100) resulting in a calibratedage of AD 623–656. Apatite was used because no colla-gen was preserved. The necessary apatite fraction wasextracted with the help of acetic acid (Balter et al. 2002);this method is also used when dating charred bone (Zazzoet al. 2011). Thus, the dated human skeleton and verylikely also the individual in the other grave are later addi-tions to the archaeological record of ancient Mleiha.

How they became incorporated into the older graveswas not immediately evident from the observations duringthe excavation. Throughout the excavated pit of tomb 5,fluvial sediments were observed. A few centimetres belowthe base of the skull a layer of sandy loam was recovered,displaying mud cracks (Fig. 7). Several layers of the sameloam could also be traced in the section of tomb 5, show-ing that flood events regularly took place in the area of theburials. A small vertebra of a fish, detected near the skull(Fig. 7) reinforced the impression that water played a rolein the local sedimentary environment. In order to under-stand the relation between the buried individual and thesesediments, it was decided to recover the skull and somesurrounding sediment in a block and to have thin sectionsprepared for micromorphological analyses.

Micromorphological sediment analysisThe sediment block containing the skull from tomb 5 wasprocessed for micromorphological analysis. The block wasindurated under vacuum with a mixture of polyester resin,styrene and methylethylketone peroxide and allowed to setuntil the mixture had achieved a gel-like consistency. The

block was heated for c.24 hours at 60 °C to harden theresin completely, and the hardened block was then slicedwith a rock saw. We collected three sub-samples measur-ing 60 mm x 90 mm from the block for thin-section pro-duction. The sub-samples are VAE-1, which includes thebase of the skull and the sediment located directly belowit; VAE-2, which includes the side of the skull and theadjacent sediment; and VAE-3, which was collected fromwell below the skull in the visibly bedded sediments(Fig. 8). From these blocks thin sections (30 lm thick)were produced for micromorphological analysis.

The thin sections were scanned with a flat-bed scanner(Arpin et al. 2001) and analysed under the naked eye andwith a range of magnifications (25x–200x) using a ZeissAxioimager petrographic microscope with plane polarisedlight (PPL), cross-polarised light (XPL) and blue light flu-orescence. Thin-section description and analysis followprotocols and methods described by Courty, Goldberg andMacphail (1989) and Stoops (2003).

Sample VAE-3 was collected in order to determine thenature of the sediment outside the possible burial pit. Thebedding structures that were visible in the block beforeprocessing are also visible within the thin section. Thesebeds are composed of rounded to sub-rounded mediumsand-sized grains of quartz and sparitic and micritic car-bonates. The sand-sized grains are closely spaced and sep-arated by packing voids. Occasional, larger (2.5 mm)rounded grains of altered rock, probably ophiolite, are alsopresent. The beds exhibit weak grading and are capped bylaminated slaking crusts composed of calcareous silt andclay, with rare inclusions of humified and carbonised plantmaterial and vesicular voids. These slaking crusts werevisible in the block as mud cracks. In thin section, theslaking crusts display cracks which are partially filled withsecondary gypsum. Rare, rounded clasts of reworked slak-ing crusts, c.2.5 mm in diameter, are included within thesandy deposits. Nodules of gypsum and carbonate arepresent throughout the sample as are rare mesofauna pas-sage features.

The sediments in sample VAE-3 are what we wouldexpect for those deposited in a wadi environment. Higher-energy floodwaters deposited the sands and, as the floodsubsided, the fine calcareous silts and clays settled out ofthe low-energy standing water. Upon drying, the silty andclayey deposits cracked, forming slaking crusts. Evaporiticminerals (i.e. gypsum) then formed within the cracks.

Sample VAE-1 includes the lower portion of the skulland the sediments located directly below it. The sedimentsare very similar to those described in sample VAE-3 and

Fig. 7.Sediment block with skull fragments (A); a layer of sandy loam displayingmud cracks (B); fish vertebra (C); fragments of a wooden beam (D).

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represent typical wadi sediments (Fig. 9). The skull restedon rounded medium sand-sized grains of these naturalwadi sediments. Directly below the skull was a 0.6 mm-thick zone where the carbonates have been removed fromthe matrix. We hypothesise that this limited decalcificationof the sediment directly in contact with the skull was prob-ably a result of humic acids released during the decay ofthe body.

Sample VAE-2 was collected directly adjacent to theskull, above the sample location for VAE-1. This samplecontained a portion of the skull surrounded by a sedimen-tary matrix that superficially resembles the deposits foundin samples VAE-1 and VAE-3. Although the sedimentarycomponents in this sample are the same as described inthe other samples—sand-sized grains of quartz and car-bonate, weathered grains of ophiolite and reworked slak-ing crusts—the microstructural organisation of thesecomponents is very different in this sample. In samplesVAE-1 and VAE-3, the components are generally tightlypacked and exhibit graded bedding. In sample VAE-2, thesame components have a more open microstructure andappear poorly sorted. Types of voids not seen in the othersamples, such as planar voids and vughs, are common inVAE-2. A decalcified zone of sediment adjacent to theskull is also visible in this thin section.

To date, few micromorphological studies have focusedon burials (e.g. Brothwell et al. 2010; Goldberg 1998;Huckleberry, Stein & Goldberg 2003; Sandgathe et al.2011) and to the authors’ knowledge, no researchershave been allowed to make thin sections that include theskeletal material from the burial itself. The lack ofpublished comparative or experimental material for themicromorphology of human burials makes it difficultdirectly to assess which micromorphological featurescould be associated with intentional human interment.There are, however, several micromorphological charac-teristics of the samples collected here that suggest thatthe body was interred as part of a burial, and not de-posited naturally through geological processes. Mostconvincingly, the sediment directly adjacent to the skull(sample VAE-2) appears disturbed. The sedimentarycomponents found in this sample are the same as thosefound in the natural wadi deposits. Their structural orga-nisation suggests, however, that after deposition within anatural environment, the deposits where disturbed.Furthermore, the thin zone of decalcification surroundingthe skull suggests that the body still contained flesh atinterment and subsequently decomposed in situ. Theloose, open structure of the sedimentary componentsadjacent to the skull is similar to deposits that formed

Fig. 8.Thin-section scans of samples VAE-2 and VAE-1 (tomb 5) showing the position of the skull (marked in grey) in the samples. The red zones are areasthat have been decalcified, probably caused by the decay of the body. The contact between the intact wadi sediment and the disturbed wadi sediment ismarked with a dashed line. Because the disturbed sediment was also subjected to decalcification adjacent to the skull, it seems likely that this sedimentformed through excavation and infilling of a grave pit.

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(a) (d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 9.a, b & c. Thin-section scans of the samples, and microphotographs from these thin sections (tomb 5); the skull location is outlined in black; d. sampleVAE-2, PPL; the loose structural organisation and poor sorting of wadi sediment in the area adjacent to the skull probably formed through the excava-tion and infilling of a grave pit; e. sample VAE-1, XPL; a zone of decalcification (d) and the original calcareous wadi sediment (c); the zone of decalcifi-cation is found adjacent to the skull and probably formed as humic acids were released during the decay of the body; f. sample VAE-1, XPL; beddedand laminated intact wadi deposits found below the skull; a slaking crust (s) formed after silt and clay settled out of standing water, which subsequentlydried out; gypsum (g) formed as an evaporative secondary mineral between the cracks of the slaking crusts; some weathered sedimentary grains (w),probably ophiolite, are found in the wadi sediments; g. typical, well sorted and graded sands of the intact wadi deposits exhibiting close packing voids.Note the difference in microstructure between this sample and that shown in d.

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through anthropogenic dumping (Miller et al. 2009;Schiegl, Goldberg & Conard 2003), but similardisturbance could be produced naturally through biotur-bation. We would expect bioturbation near the skull ifthe corpse was buried while still covered in flesh and wewould expect the bioturbation to occur after burial. Thedecalcification zones adjacent to the skull overprint thedisturbed deposits, however, suggesting that the distur-bance occurred prior to the decomposition of the body.We therefore hypothesise that the distinct microstructuralorganisation of the sedimentary components found insample VAE-2, formed when natural wadi sedimentswere removed during excavation of a grave pit that wassubsequently filled in after the interment of the body.Furthermore, the thin zone of decalcification surroundingthe skull suggests that the body was still covered in fleshat interment and subsequently decomposed in situ.

Human skeletal remainsTomb 4The skeleton recovered in tomb 4 mainly consists of thelower part of the body from the pelvis downwards (seeTable 2 and Fig. 3). Of the feet only the right Calcaneusand Os naviculare are present. One fragmentary lumbarvertebra and parts of the left radius and ulna are the onlypreserved skeletal elements of the upper part of the body.No skull bones or teeth are present.

For age estimation the ‘Revised auricular surface ageingmethod’ (Buckberry & Chamberlain 2002) was used. Theauricular surface is well preserved on the right Os coxaeand stages IV–V could be recorded. This argues for an ageof 50–60 years, but this cannot be confirmed with the helpof other methods as no other relevant skeletal elements arepreserved.

For the assessment of sex the greater sciatic notch ofthe pelvis was used. It is rather narrow in this case,implying the male sex. Another male trait is visible,namely the absence of a sub-pubic concavity (Phenice1969).

The bones of the left lower leg (tibia and fibula) exhibitan inflammatory process of the bone surface with longitu-dinal striation, fine pitting and new bone formation, proba-bly caused by a non-specific inflammation.

Tomb 5As in tomb 4, the remains of only one single individualwere recovered in tomb 5. The skeleton was found in adisturbed state with the skull being fragmented and partly

displaced (see Fig. 6). Parts of the wooden construction ofthe tomb were embedded in the soil around the skullbones. They were used for radiocarbon dating (see above).In addition, several foot bones were found around theskull. Some of the other bones, however, were still lyingin anatomical order—for example the left clavicle andparts of the ribcage. The orientation of the burial wasroughly north–south with the skull to the south. An inven-tory of the bones (Table 3) showed that in particular, skel-etal elements of the right side of the body are missing. Itseems quite clear that at one time the body was lyingwhole in the grave, but that the skeleton was subsequentlydisturbed. During this disturbance bones were displacedand/or lost, or were destroyed.

The bones are moderately well preserved. The skull isfragmented and the whole facial area is missing. Due tothe state of preservation of the skeleton, exact ageing andsexing is not possible. Because the pelvis is missing it isnot possible to use its traits for sex determination. Thesupra-orbital margins—exhibiting a relatively sharp rim—are pointing towards the female sex. The gracility of theskull and post-cranial bones also indicate that the individ-ual may have been a female.

As regards the age, it can only be stated that the individ-ual was at least adult. The preserved articular surfaces ofsome vertebrae are free of signs of degeneration. A frag-mented part of the mandible exhibits ante-mortem loss ofsome molars. The preservation is, however, too poor toenable us to tell how many of the teeth were lost, but thealveoli of at least two molars are fused and atrophy of thebone is visible. Besides ante-mortem tooth loss, a healedfracture of a medial phalanx of the hand was identified.

Table 3. Summary information on the skeletal remains from tomb 5.

Skeletal element Remarks

Skull and jaws Fragmentary, facial skull not preservedPars petrosaMandible fragmentary, maxilla not preserved

Dentition Crown of one molar (M3)Vertebrae Axis, fragments of Vertebrae cervicalesClavicula LeftHumerus Proximal leftUlna Distal leftRadius Medial leftHands Left Os metacarpale V

Several phalanges of both handsHealed fracture of a phalanx

Femur Distal leftPatella LeftFeet Left Proximal Phalanx I

Left Os cuneiforme I

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ConclusionsCareful excavation and documentation of tombs 4 and 5and associated skeletons, in combination with micromor-phological sediment analysis and 14C dating, yieldedinformation on the burials of two individuals. The radio-carbon dating of bone and of the roof beams of tomb 5produced deviating ages, confirming the assumption thatthe interments were intrusive burials, the skeletons beinglater than the construction of the graves. While the eventsuntil the time of these burials can be reconstructed, thecause of the post-mortem disturbance of the skeletonscould not be fully resolved, but an involvement of animalsor disturbance by flowing water is likely. Whatever thecase, the preservation of these two skeletons inside tombs4 and 5 indicates that the sedimentary environment doesnot explain the general absence of human remains in allother excavated grave monuments at Mleiha.

The calibrated radiocarbon date of AD 623–656 for theintrusive burial in tomb 5 is from the period during whicheastern Arabia came under Islamic rule. Intrusive burialsof ‘warriors’ dated to the period of Islamisation are alreadyknown from the region (Benton & Potts 2010; UerpmannA. et al. 2006). In these cases they were buried in BronzeAge tombs—in two cases together with their camels(Uerpmann & Uerpmann 1999). Anthropological analysisof the human remains from Mleiha, identifying one indi-vidual as probably female and the other as a male ofmature age, as well as the absence of weapons or any other

grave-goods expands the group of persons entombed inintrusive burials of the transitional period. This adds a newfacet to life during an eventful time.

AcknowledgementsThe Belgian team of Ghent University (E. Haerinck) andthe Royal Museums of Art and History at Brussels (BrunoOverlaet) as well as A. and J. Kutterer (T€ubingen Univer-sity) work in close collaboration with Sharjah’s Director-ate of Antiquities, headed by Dr S.A. Jasim, who wasmost helpful in the field. Financial support for the Belgianexpedition was provided by the Research Foundation-Flanders (FWO) and by the Belgian Federal Science Pol-icy (IAP–VII ‘Greater Mesopotamia – Reconstruction ofits environment and History’). Apart from the authors,staff working on tombs 4 and 5 included archaeologistsMartine Coppejans, Bart De Prez and Possum Pinc�e, pho-tographer Erik Smekens and engineer-architect AnneliesTimmerman.

Financial support for studies by the German team wasprovided by the German Research Foundation (DFG) andthe Government of Sharjah. Radiocarbon dates weremeasured in the Curt-Engelhorn-Zentrum Arch€aometrie(Mannheim). Thin sections for micromorphology wereprepared by P. Kritikakis of the Micromorphology Labora-tory at T€ubingen.

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