Ironing Gender Differences for Successful Income Generating Activities

IRONING GENDER DEFFERENCES

FOR SUCCESSFUL INCOME GENERATING

ACTIVITIES

Kinyashi, George Frank

DECEMBER, 2009

_____________________________________________________________ Ironing gender differences, Kinyashi, G.F 2009

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“What is good to men

is good to women too”


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ISBN 978-9987-03-039-2

Published by;

Mount Eagle Institute LLC.,

1411 Plaza West Drive, Suite C

Winston Salem, NC 27103

USA.

Phone: 336-776-0357

Fax: 336-499-2002

Email: [email protected]

© Kinyashi, G.F, 2009

Institute of Rural Development Planning,

P.O.Box. 138

Dodoma-Tanzania

Phone; +255773344511

Email; [email protected]

All rights are reserved. No part(s) of this work may be

reproduced or reprinted without the permission of the

author.

mailto:[email protected]


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“Spouses collaborating in making decisions on household

matters are more likely to have high quality of life than

those who are not”


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Acknowledgement

The preparation of this work has been made possible

through financial sacrifice made by my family members:

Upendo W. Mmari, my wife; Gracious G. Kinyashi, our

son; and Collins E Mmari, our nephew.

The review and editing work done by Dr. Lucas Shallua

and his wife Dorothy Shallua of the United States of

America is well appreciated. Much thanks is to the Mount

Eagle institute for accepting to publish this work in due

time.

Finally, the author is thankful to the Institute of rural

development planning for allowing him to use time and

its facilities in preparing the manuscript that resulted

into the production of this work.


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Abstract

This work is outcome of collection of evidences from

various studies; most of which are from Tanzania. The

work is interested in providing understanding on the

effects of gender differences to income generating

activities. The author argues that gender differences at

household level; imposes lack of confidence among

women; forces women to sabotage household properties

and causes them to get involved in actions that brings

conflicts and poverty at household level.

He concludes that these effects to the great extent

hamper effective and efficiency participation of women in

income generating activities, as they undermine their

capacity to participate.

Finally, the author is of opinion that since traditions and

customs are made by people, and it has never happened

that people are made by traditions and customs; there is

a need for communities to make changes in their

traditions and customs. Also, the author has documented

some of the ways to address gender differences for

successful achievement of income generating activities.


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Content

Acknowledgement …………………………………………………… iv

Abstract ……………………………………………………………..... v

Content ……………………………………………………………….. vi

CHAPTER ONE ……………………………………………………. 1

1. INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………. 1

CHAPTER TWO ……………………………………………………. 4

2.0 GENDER IN PERSPECTIVE …………………………………. 4

CHAPTER THEE …………………………………………………….. 9

3.0 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE SOCIETY ……………… 9

3.1 DIVISION OF LABOUR BASED ON GENDER …………… 11

3.2 RESOURCE OWNERSHIP BASED ON GENDER ……….. 13

3.3 EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT RIGHT ………………... 14

CHAPTER FOUR …………………………………………………….. 14

4.0 EFFECTS OF GENDER DIFFERENCES ………………….. 14

4.1 Failure of Women to Devote their Efforts to Household Affairs ………………………………………......

14

4.2 Less Motivation for Women to do Development

Activities ………………………………………………….......

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4.3 Sabotage of Household’s Wealth by Women ………...... 15

4.4 Women engaging in actions resulting to lack of peace

in household ………………………………………………….

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CHAPTER FIVE …………………………………………………… 19

5.0 IRONING GENDER DIFFERENCES …………………. 19

5.1 Reasons for ironing the differences………………………... 19

5.2 Some Ways to Reduce Gender Differences ……………… 21

Reference………………………………………………………… 22


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CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

Income Generating Activities (IGAs) are ventures intended

to boost income and living standard of the persons

involved in carrying out ventures. Based on FAO, (1994)

these ventures range from crop and livestock production;

processing; non-agricultural; and artisanal to commercial

ventures.

Among other things, existence of profitable IGAs depends

on whether during their establishment they were

technically, economically and financially viable; and that

they are well managed (FAO, 1994).

Good management of IGAs means having accurate

information on which to base decisions about it

operations. IGAs operations decisions often are

concerned with how to use resources in a coordinated

and effective way (Ibid); a good example is decision on

whether the resources will be used to buy or sale

goods/services; take loans or distribute profit among

shareholders.


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IGAs operational decisions made by a group of

shareholders are better than those by an individual. This

fact calls for involvement of key shareholders in making

decisions related to the IGAs operations. Shareholders of

a certain IGA depend on who have entered in a joint

venture. If neighbours agree to join their effort in doing a

certain IGA, then they become shareholders. Likewise if

household members establish their own IGA, it is

expected that husband and wife will be key shareholders.

Therefore, household IGAs are likely to be successful

where couples participate from the first step of developing

ideas about what activity should be introduced to

planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluation step.

If income generating activities fails to involve people of all

sex; especially during idea generation, planning and

income distribution; the ultimate effect will be

perpetuation of gender differences in a society.

Gender means responsibilities and behaviours which

men and women are given by the society. Its origin is

historical, economical, cultural, religious and ethnical.

The word gender expresses the reality that woman status


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in the society is not the results of morphological

differences between woman and man, but it is differences

in roles which are set by society.

The accrued benefits of income generating activities may

have positive or negative impact in consideration to

division of labour, property ownership, distribution of

benefits and decision making powers in the society. Thus,

if gender differences are not taken into considerations in

various steps of establishing income generating activities

such activities may not meet needs of women.

This being the case this work focuses on documenting

history of the gender concept, gender differences and

their effects to the society.


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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 GENDER IN PERSPECTIVE

The issue of gender inequality is historical. For many

years it has been dividing social analysts into two groups;

the first group presumes that gender inequality is natural

phenomenon, it is there to stay no one can ever bring

gender equality. In the contrary the second group,

presumes that gender inequality is the result of

socialization process, which had been set by clan leaders.

For those who presume gender inequalities to be natural

phenomenon; existing gender relations correspond to

anatomical aptitudes of human being. That, unlike men,

women’s bodies are heavily built with fatally tissues on

their breasts and buttocks as well as having tender skins.

Such structure makes them able to perform specific

roles, like household activities, where child care is the

most important.

On the other hand, men are physically bigger with facial

and body hair, narrow hips and strength which enable

them to perform paid duties; resulting to acquisition of

economic power and thus become superior to women.


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This group came out with the theory of human

programmers. The theory explains the genetically based

programme that predetermines human to behave in a

certain way. Based on this theory;

“Women are programmed by their programmers to

reproduce and care for children, hence the existence of

mother-child bond which needs not to be changed. Due to

this, women are supposed to perform domestic duties so

as to strengthen the mother-child bond” (Bowlby, 1946).

The opponents explain the existing gender relation as

something that has continuously constructed in time.

They opine that the society seems to be patriarchal; it is

dominated and ruled by men. Women are exploited

because they undertake free labour for men by carrying

out different household work and denied of their basic

rights. This has been inherited from generation to

another through socialization process.

One of them contends that “socialization molds children to

fit into such feminine masculine stereotyping. Female

children are restricted by norms and values of a given


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culture to occupy inferior positions. The restriction codes

are accelerated by societal ideologies such as religious

text, cultural practice, norms and values” (Hilther, 1953).

Based on this argument, the existing gender roles are

unacceptable. This is so because they emanates from

human culture, which is seen as diverse and endless,

and that its creation is due to human inventiveness

rather than natural biological forces. For this matter

biological and genetic characteristics should not bar

women from particular occupations.

Nevertheless, in Tanzania like in most developing

countries, it has been observed that since pre-colonial

era women had occupied inferior positions compared to

men. More so, history shows that though due to the

nature of subsistence economy, activities were to be done

and allocated mutually between men and women; still

women performed nearly all tasks connected to

household chores; whilst men were used to go out facing

dangers and exposing themselves to public tasks

(Mbilinyi, 1972).


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In that way such gender relations became part and parcel

of cultural values of many societies.

The pre-colonial era was followed by colonial era which

introduced money economy, influenced by production of

cash crops. At that time the colonial government

introduced taxes of different kinds. These taxes forced

men to leave their families in search for wage labour in

different plantations scattered in Tanzania. This practice

not only made women to have double roles compared to

pre-colonial women (Mbilinyi, 1972) but also perpetuated

the existed gender differences.

Worse still (Ibid) asserts that education system during

colonial era was based on race, because the intention

was to get low level labour required by the colonial

administration. In this racial system the African women

suffered most, as they were not considered important

labour force.

Unfortunately, even after independence there was no

great changes concerning gender discrimination were

made. Perhaps it was because of what Kirimbai, (1980)


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termed as the tendency of the government continuing

playing its peripheral role in the global capitalists system.

This situation gives an impression that traditional

patterns regarding gender roles and women humiliation

did not change. That is to say, despite the country

independence women continued to suffer the ills of

historical traditional formation of gender relations style

which gives them lowest status in the society.


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CHAPTER THEE

3.0 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE SOCIETY

Gender differences are among the obstacles for

successful operationalization of income generating

activities at household level. These differences in most

cases have resulted into poor gender distribution of

labour which according to URT, (1995) is one of the

causes of poverty facing many households in Tanzania

and Africa at larger.

These differences are many; however, in this work few

differences have been discussed, in order to stimulate

critical thinking among various people with stake in

gender and development issues. This kind of thinking will

help them to develop appropriate proposals on what

should be done to address the issue of gender differences

for successful implementation of income generating

activities.

3.1 DIVISION OF LABOUR BASED ON GENDER

Division of labour is the separation of a work process into

a number of tasks, with each task performed by a

separate person or group of persons (Online Encyclopedia

Britannica).


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Division of labour based on gender implies that, in the

society men are assigned different tasks from those

performed by women. Most studies show that in Sub

Saharan African there is bad division of labour between

men and women. These studies show that women are

working a lot for many hours compared to men.

Unfortunately, as observed by FAO, (n.d) the division of

labour between genders still remains poorly understood.

This is because much of women's work consists of

unpaid labour that produces for the household rather

than the market. Consequently, their work goes

unrecorded.

This has resulted into little or no recognition of women's

labour, in some cases even women themselves do not

know that they are working more compared to men.

Nevertheless, the truth is women are the ones who

shoulder a large share of activities as compared to men.

Evidence from Arumeru- Tanzania; shows that a Meru

woman, works for not less than 16 hours per day. The


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activities she perform range from children rearing,

shamba work, collecting fodders, grinding (milling)

cereals, taking goods to Market, fetching for fire woods,

water fetching, washing clothes, looking for vegetable and

cooking (Kinyashi, 1998).

Also Katega, (2002) observed that women in Manyoni –

Tanzania, are overloaded with duties in all seasons

compared to men. While men are becoming busy with

duties during cultivation seasons, women are busy

throughout the year in production activities, children

caring and bearing.

3.2 RESOURCE OWNERSHIP BASED ON GENDER

In rural areas of most of African societies, men are the

owners of resources and women have no right to possess

anything. This situation exist even when women and men

are equally involved in the same level of production

activities and sometime even when women are working

for many hours than men.

Owing to this situation we can not deny the facts that

women are working for men without any payment


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because every duty they are performing the profit is

appropriated by men who are said to be the resource

owners.

As a matter of fact this situation along with other issue

makes women occupy inferior position in the society. The

occupation of inferior position has made women

participation in decision making about possession,

control and use of resources to be low or non-existing.

Supporting this reality Kinyashi, (1998) postulate that

although women in villages are the main producers, they

don’t control the fruits of their labour; its men in the

family and heads of clans who have the last say on how

to use household resources.

The evidence gathered by Kinyashi, (1998) in Arumeru

villages (Tanzania) indicates that when the husband is

dead in a family a woman is not given a chance to posses

the wealth she had earned together with her husband;

instead the clan will have to meet and decide who among

the deceased’s relative should oversee the wealth and the

family. This means that even where there is no custom of


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widow inheriting; yet women are not given a chance to

possess the family resources.

3.3 EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT RIGHT

Even though the education policy in Tanzania emphasize

that every citizen have the right to get education to

his/her capability, yet statistics show that the number of

females who continue with studies is low compared to

males, and on top of that even those females who proceed

with studies, the training given to them intend to give

education on home economics and other studies which

are in the same trend of encouraging gender differences

between males and females.

With regard to employment, the Tanzania employment

policies give equal justice to men and women, provided

that the person has the qualification and there is a

vacancy. Notwithstanding the policy emphasis, women

are still allocated to inferior works claiming that they

have a task of children bearing and rearing.


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CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 EFFECTS OF GENDER DIFFERENCES

Gender differences discussed in preceding chapter are

among many differences existing in African rural

societies. These differences have effects in personal

development, family and a Nation as a whole. This

chapter is dedicated to the discussion of these differences

and their effects on income generating activities.

4.1 Failure of Women to Devote their Efforts to

Household Affairs

The discussed gender differences and many others make

women not to trust themselves that they have the ability

to perform developmental issues. This self mistrust will

result into work indulgently, inefficiently and thus

reducing household development pace.

4.2 Less Motivation for Women to do

Development Activities

It is true that anyone whether a woman or a man, once

she/he is disrespected or no one sees the importance of

what she/he is doing, she/he will not continue doing that


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work. Nevertheless, if she/he must do it, it is obvious

that she/he will not do it heartedly.

This gives an impression that the gender differences

which give a woman low status in the society, to the great

extent has caused women to lack the efficiency and hard

working spirit. This is because they feel that they are

disrespected even if they work effectively and with

efficiency no one cares.

Apparently this situation is likely to pose serious

impediments to smooth implementation of household

income generation activities as well as to the National

development strategies; considering the fact that more

than 50 percent of Tanzanians are women.

4.3 Sabotage of Household’s Wealth by Women

When women recognize that they are exploited

considering the wealth they have acquired in

collaboration with their husbands; they are likely to do

strange things. Experience has shown that they normally

say “come what may”, it is better that all of us loose than

allowing men to enjoy all benefits. In this situation


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women may be forced to destroy crops, goods or home

properties, secretly or openly to ensure that their

husbands are not profiting, having their mind that even if

they leave those properties safe they won’t get any profit.

A study by Katega, (2002) conducted in Manyoni,

Tanzania, revealed that one woman after being tired with

her husband’s behaviour, she destroy paddy which was

in their store and left home for good. (Ibid), narrates the

story as follows;

“in one household in the study village a women after being

tired of her husband’s habit of not involving her in the use

and control over resources and farm produces and

threatening to chase her out if she continues to complain,

she decided to pour water in the harvested paddy store, so

that she can destroy the entire harvest. When she

discovered that the stored paddy has started to germinate,

she quitted and disappeared from the village”.

This is one of the examples among many which have not

been researched on and untold to the society.


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4.4 Women engaging in actions resulting to

lack of peace in household

War and conflicts in different countries are caused by

competition on resources ownership and chances to

make decisions upon those resources. For that matter

women, as it is for other human beings, have the same

feelings and responses when are deprived of

opportunities to own and make decisions on resources

allocation at household, national and international level.

At household level, if a woman will be deprived the rights

of this kinds she can join with her children or even other

people outside the household to steal household

properties in order to fulfill other targets which may not

be of much interest to the household as a whole.

Once this is revealed, even if the husband does not know

that the wife is responsible for the stolen properties or

has arranged the theft, there will happen an endless

misunderstanding within the household. The result of

this endless misunderstanding is failure of households to

efficiently continue with their Income Generating

Activities (IGA).


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Katega, (2002) observed that “it is a common habit that

household members especially women and children who

are denied access to farm produces, often collaborate to

steal these products from stores when men are outside in

their leisure time, and sell them to vendors. After selling

them to vendors, sometimes they fill the empty sacks with

sand or cow dung so it takes time for men to note. When

men notice, they become angry and decide to sell the

remaining harvests when women and children are not

around in fear that they may know how much money they

got”.

It is like household members are playing game of chance,

such that at the end the families remain neither with food

nor with income. This, according to Katega, (2002) results

in the spiral of poverty to these households year after

year.


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CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 IRONING GENDER DIFFERENCES

After we have seen the impacts caused by gender

differences, it is worth concluding that “what is good to

men is also good to women”. Traditions and customs are

made by people, and it has never happened that people

are made by traditions and customs. Based on this

conclusion, communities can make changes in their

traditions and customs if they want; and in fact it is must

that changes are made before the cost is high.

5.1 Reasons for ironing the differences

a) To prevent effects resulting from gender

differences. The identified effects include; imposing lack

of confidence among women, forcing women to sabotage

household properties and causing them to get involved in

actions that causes conflicts and poverty at household

level. These effects hamper effective participation of

women in income generating activities, as they

undermine their capacity to effectively participate in IGA.

b) To harness the opportunities offered by the

spirit of cooperation. There is a Kiswahili proverb saying

“A single finger cannot kill a louse”. Generally, this


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proverb emphasizes the need for cooperation among

community members. In the context of this work, the

proverb is considered to have two sides, one side, advises

that few people should not accumulate power in decision

making and the other side advices that few people should

not be left to work alone.

It is surprising that though, Tanzanians are aware of this

proverb, they have failed to contextualize its theme in

gender relations. As a result in the country, men in most

households are left alone to “kill the louse” of making all

household decisions; while, women are left to “kill the

louse” of shouldering household and production

activities.

Owing to this life style, most of the development activities

are not effectively implemented. This calls for adjustment

in gender relation. The authors experience shows that in

households where husbands cooperate with their wives in

decision making and household chores the likely hood of

having high quality of life is higher than in households

where they are not.


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5.2 Some Ways to Reduce Gender Differences

In order to reduce gender differences, which have been

perceived as constraining factor for income generating

activities at household levels, the following advices

should be taken into consideration.

Gender education should be given to both men and

women. This is presumed that given this education the

two will agree to work together in areas like decision

making on matters of common interest.

The gender education should cover topics related to

disadvantages of tradition and customs which deprives

women of their rights to employment, inheritance and

to own and control resources.

Tree planting in farms and areas surrounding the

house, drilling of wells and searching for of improved

stoves technology; may help in reducing the work load

which in most cases is a burden to woman

Introducing appropriate technology for transporting

the agricultural products and water.

To find ways of empowering women economically. This

can be through provision of soft loans and training on

business management skills.


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References

Bowlby, J. (1946) Forty four – Juvenile Thieves, Tindall oxford London FAO, (1994), Management of rural income generating activities;

Village group training. www.fao.org/ag/ags/subjects/en/

ruralfinance/pdf/managingruraligae.pdf (accessed 11/11/2009) FAO (n.d), Gender and food security; division of labour, http://www.fao.org/Gender/en/lab-e.htm (accessed 08/08/2009) Hilther, S., (1953), Sex ethnics and the Kinsey report, Association Press, New York. Katega, I.B (2002), The effect of Gender Gaps on Rural Development Interventions: The case of Chikuyu Village Irrigation Scheme in Manyoni District-Tanzania, in Rural Planning Journal. Vol.IV No. 2, page 47-76. Kinyashi, G.F (1998), A dissertation submitted to the Community Development Training Institute, Tengeru in partial fulfillment for the award of advanced diploma in community development. Unpublished Kirimbai, (1980), Subsistence or beyond money economy activities of women in the rural Tanzania, BRALUP and UWT, Research report No. 5, Dar es Salaam. Mbilinyi, M., (1972), Male and Female; Study of sexes in

changing world, Collins and Sons Canada. Online Encyclopedia Britannica; Division of Labour, Available at http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/326 831/division-of-labour (accessed on 08/08/2009) URT, (1995) Poverty eradication strategies, Government Printer, Dar es Salaam.

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/326831/division-of-labour

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/326831/division-of-labour

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