Introductory Microbiology

Introductory Microbiology

TrC\orGro _ Principal Lecturer

Department of Biological Sciences

The Manchester Metropolitan University

Manchester

UK

J am: Faull

Department of Biology

Birkbeck College

University of London London

UK

tC\ e K cttL ridge

Staff Development Officer Queen Mary and Westfield College

University of London

London UK

and

Derek ~pnngh<lm

Queen Mary and Westfield College

University of London

London UK

Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V.

First edition 1995

© 1995 Trevor Gross, Jane Faull, Steve Ketteridge and Derek Springham Originally published by Chapman & Hall in 1995

Typeset in II .5114 pt Garamond by ROM Data Corp. Ltd, Falmouth. Cornwall

ISBN 978-0-412-45300-7 ISBN 978-1-4899-7194-4 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7194-4

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of repro graphic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers at the London address printed on this page.

The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 94-70974

To our parents

...................•.•....................•...............••••••••........................................••..•...

Contents ...................•.•..•.........••.••••••..............•.•...•...............................................•..

Preface xi Acknowledgements xiii

1 Introduction to the microbial world 1 Microorganisms and size 3 Microorganisms as experimental subjects 5 Microorganisms in industry 6 Microorganisms in the environment 7 Microorganisms and disease 9

Further reading 9 Questions 10

2 Microbial structure 12 Structure and function of eukaryotes and prokaryotes 14 Structure and function of eukaryotic and prokaryotic organelles 19 Cell walls 21 Motility 22 Motility in eukaryotes 24 The bacterial cell surface 26 Bacterial endospores 27

Chapter summary 28 Further reading 28 Questions 29

3 Microbial growth 31 Major and minor chemical elements 31 Microbial growth factors 34 Growing microorganisms in the laboratory 37 Batch culture 43 Continuous culture 46 Synchronous growth 49 The effect of environmental conditions on microbial growth 51 Control of microbial growth 53 Chapter summary 58

Further reading 59 Questions 60

viii COi\'TEiVTS

····························~·····················································································

4 Energy production in microorganisms 62 Energy and thermodynamics 62 Energy from chemical reactions: oxidation-reduction 66 Fermentations 72 Alternative pathways for the fermentation of glucose 76 Respiration 80 Anaerobic respiration 89 Photosynthesis t)()

The Calvin cycle 101 Archaebacterial photosynthesis 104 Chemolithotrophy: energy from the oxidation of inorganic

electron donors 1 OS Chapter summary 106

Further reading 107 Questions 1 07

5 Biosynthesis 110 Anaplerosis 111

Biosynthesis of low-molecular-weight compounds 113 Synthesis of macromolecules 117

Polypeptide synthesis 118 Polynucleotide synthesis 126 The eubacterial cell wall 135

Chapter summary 146 Further reading 148 Questions 148

6 Coordination of metabolism 150 Control of enzyme activity 150 Control of enzyme synthesis 155 Induction of the lac operon 159 Alternative mechanisms of controlling protein synthesis 170 Gene regulation in Saccharomyce.r reretJiJiae, a eukaryotic

microorganism 171 Chapter summary 172 Further reading 1 72 Questions 173

7 The microbial genome: organization, mutation and repair 175 Advantages of using microorganisms for genetic studies 176 DNA is the genetic material 177

CONTENTS !X

····························~·····················································································

Organization of the hereditary material 181 Mutation 184 Mutagenesis: making mutations happen 191 Selection of mutants 19 5 Reversal of mutation 197 Recombination 201 DNA repair systems 203 Chapter summary 207 Further reading 207 Questions 208

8 Bacterial gene transfer and genetic engineering 211 Bacterial plasmids 211 Conjugation and the F factor 214 Transduction: bacteriophage-mediated gene transfer in bacteria 222 Gene cloning and genetic engineering 229 Eukaryotic microorganisms and genetic engineering 236 Chapter summary 23 7 Further reading 238 Questions 238

9 Eukaryotic microorganisms 241 Structure and growth of protistan microorganisms 244 Structure of the fungi 244 Structure of the protistan algae 250 The protozoa 254 Reproduction in the fungi and the Protista 260 Growth and reproduction in the algae 275 Growth and reproduction in the protozoa 280 Chapter summary 284 Further reading 285 Questions 286

10 Viruses 287 Distinctive properties of viruses 287 Major groups of viruses 294 Types of viral infections 295 Structure of virus particles 301 The viral genome 310 Assaying viruses 319 Virus multiplication 328

X CONTENTS ····························~·····················································································

Chapter summary 338 Further reading 339 Questions 340

11 Microbial biotechnology 342 Alcoholic beverages 343 Other yeast products 352 Fermented foods 356 Antibiotic production 359 Production of human insulin by genetic manipulation 373 Production of hepatitis B vaccine by gene manipulation 377 Enzyme production 379 Steroid transformations 380 Organic acids 382 Amino acids 385 Purification of organic wastes 385 Chapter summary 389 Further reading 390 Questions 391

Answers to selected questions 393

Index 403

····························~··~~~················································································

Preface ..•••••••••.••••••.•••...................................••.•.••••.............................................•..

In view of the wide range of microbiology texts currently on offer from bookshops, one might reasonably question the need for another. In light

of this, the authors of an entirely new microbiology book have an obliga­tion to explain why they were inspired to make their own contribution.

In writing the present text, we have tried to produce a genuine intro­duction to the biology of microorganisms, presenting fundamental information and ideas about microorganisms in an understandable, straightforward fashion, without resorting to over-simplification. At the same time, we hope that we have given sufficient, detailed information to inspire the readers to progress to more advanced and specialized texts. These objectives are relatively easy to reach with a book on microbiology, because most undergraduates in biological sciences have a natural interest in the subject, particularly in its applied aspects.

In writing the book we had in mind two particular kinds of readers. We

hope that it will constitute an attractive introduction to students in the early years of a specialist degree or diploma course in microbiology. But we have also written the book for students who are taking courses in a wide range of biological disciplines. Although these readers will not necessarily be­come microbiologists and do not require the advanced, detailed treatment

of an honours microbiology undergraduate, they do require a sound and concise grounding in the basics of the subject with clear links to microbi­ological applications. In contrast to many of our competitors, we have

covered all the major groups of microorganisms and resisted the tempta­tion to concentrate only on the bacteria. The emphasis is on those aspects of microorganisms which separate them from plants and animals.

Although an ultimately rewarding experience, preparation of the text has proved difficult and time-consuming. We are indebted to our editor, Dom­inic Recaldin, whose advice and enthusiasm have been major sources of

encouragement throughout the enterprise. The comments of a number of reviewers were extremely valuable, particularly when we were taking our first tentative steps preparing drafts of the first chapters. I would like to acknowledge Dr Peter Gowland's contribution during the early stages of production. Especially warm thanks go to Jane Faull, Derek Springham and

xii PREF~CE

····························~·····················································································

Steve Ketteridge who contributed chapters on eukaryotic microorganisms,

microbial biotechnology and viruses respectively. 1 am further indebted to Steve Ketteridge for reading the drafts of many of the chapters and for his helpful advice. Finally, I thank my wife, Gerry, for typing a large proportion

of the manuscript, and for her constant encouragement and cups of tea!

Trevor Gross

........................•.........................••••••••••.••••...................................•••••••••••...

Acknowledgements ·······························~··················································································

Chapman and Hall gratefully acknowledge the following sources for redrawn figures.

From: The Microbes (1987) Paul J. Van Demark and Barry L. Batzing, Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Co. Inc. Figures: 1.1, 2.9, 2.12, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, Box 3.4, 7.1, 7.2, 8.4, Box 8.1, 8.3,8.8

From: Microbial Ecology (1987) R.M. Atlas and R. Bartha, Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Co. Inc. Figure: 1.2

From: Cell & Molecular Biology (1986) P. Scheeler and D. Bianchi,). Wiley & Sons Ltd Figure: 2.1

From: General Microbiology (1988) Robert F. Boyd, Times-Mirror/Mosby College Publishing Figures: 2.2, 2.4, 2.8, 2.11, 4.11

From: Microbiology (1986)

R.J. Canon and J .S. Colome, West Publishing Co. Figures: 2.3, 2.5, 2.7

From: Schaum's outline of theory and problems of biochemistry (1988) P.W. Kuchel et aL, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Figures: 4.1, 4.13

From: Photosynthesis (1972) D.O. Hall and K.K. Rao, Studies in Biology No. 37., Edward Arnold Ltd Figure: 4.18

XIV ACKNOII"'!J~DGLML,\T\

····························~·····················································································

From: Biochemistry of Bacterial Growth (1982)

J. Mandclstam, K. McQuillen and I. Dawes, Blackwell Scientific Publica­tions

Figures: Box 5.3, 5.28

From: Molecular Biology (1986) D. Freifelder,Jones & Bartlett, Boston

Figures: 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 5.10, 5.11, 5.12, 5.13, 5.15, 5.16, 5.17, 5.18, 5.19, 7.4, 7.6, 7.24, 7.25, 7.2()

From: Physiology of the bacterial cell (1990)

F.C. Neidhardt,J.L. Ingraham and M. Schaechter Sinauer Associates Inc. Figure: 6.11

From: Genetics

Ursula Goodenough, Saunders College Publishing Figure: 7.3

From: Genetics: a molecular approach (1989)

T.A. Brown, Van Nostrand Reinholt (International) Figure: Box 7.4