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Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802– 817

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Industrial Crops and Products

jo ur nal homep age: www.elsev ier .com/ locate / indcrop

eview

nsecticidal properties of Mentha species: A review

eeyush Kumar, Sapna Mishra, Anushree Malik ∗, Santosh Satyaentre for Rural Development & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India

r t i c l e i n f o

rticle history:eceived 21 December 2010eceived in revised form 17 February 2011ccepted 24 February 2011vailable online 23 March 2011

eywords:entha

ssential oilnsecticidal

a b s t r a c t

In view of the environmental, food-safety and health related issues associated with the application ofchemical insecticides, growing emphasis is being laid on insect-pest control through plant resources. Men-tha (mint) is one of the most common herb which has been known for its medicinal and aromotherapeuticproperties since ancient times and in the last few decades, its insecticidal potential has also been investi-gated. The present review consolidates studies concerning insecticidal activity of Mentha against variousstored grain pests and vectors. Insecticidal properties of different Mentha species are commonly inherentin its essential oils or plant extracts which is correlated with their chemical composition. Insect/pestcontrol potential of various Mentha species has been evaluated by conducting adulticidal, larvicidal andgrowth/reproduction inhibition bioassays. Fumigant and repellent activity of Mentha essential oil has

tored grain pestsectorsormulation

been studied against several stored grain pests (Tribolium castaneum, Sitophilus oryzae, Acanthoscelidesobtectus, etc.) and vectors. Nevertheless, studies exploring larvicidal and growth/reproduction regula-tory activity of Mentha, are relatively less. Among the vectors, mosquitocidal activity of several Menthaessential oils and their constituents is established. However, the studies directed towards formulation orproduct development and performance assessment in actual field conditions are lacking. Hence, althougha ground has been set based on the lab scale research investigations, field studies on these aspects are

warranted to ensure wide scale application.

© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

ontents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8022. Mentha: species and occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8033. Chemical composition of Mentha essential oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804

3.1. Menthol rich Mentha oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8043.2. Carvone rich Mentha oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8043.3. Pulegone/piperitone rich Mentha oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804

4. Insecticidal activity of Mentha oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8054.1. Repellency and adulticidal activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805

4.1.1. Storage pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8064.1.2. Vectors/other insect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806

4.2. Larvicidal activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8094.3. Growth and reproduction inhibition activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809

5. Mechanism of action of essential oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8106. Insecticidal activity of Mentha extract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8117. Conclusions and future prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 11 26591158; fax: +91 11 26591121.E-mail addresses: anushree@rdat.iitd.ac.in, anushree malik@yahoo.com

A. Malik).

926-6690/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.oi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.02.019

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815

1. Introduction

Plant essential oils and their components have been known toexhibit biological activities, especially antimicrobial, since ancienttime. The ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans knew peppermintas flavouring agent for food and as medicine while the essential oils

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P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Cro

f mint were used as perfumes, food flavours, deodorants and phar-aceuticals (Barıs et al., 2006). During the middle ages, powderedint leaves were used to whiten teeth (Hajlaoui et al., 2008). Even

oday, about 80% of the world’s population relies predominantlyn plants and plant extracts for health care (Werka et al., 2007).articularly, in recent years, essential oils and their componentsre gaining increasing interest due to being relatively safe for thenvironment as well as to the human health, their wide acceptancey consumers, and their exploitation for potential multi-purposeunctional use (Ormancey et al., 2001).

Plant insecticides have been used to fight pests for centuriesIsman, 2006). For instance, use of plant extracts and powderedlant parts as insecticides was widespread during Roman Empire.here are reports that in 400 B.C., during the reign of Persian kingerxes, the control of head lice in children was done with a pow-er obtained from the dry flowers of pyrethrum plant (Addor,995). However, after the Second World War a few plants and plantxtracts that had shown promising effects, and was of widespreadse, was replaced by synthetic chemical insecticides. With the

ntroduction of synthetic insecticides, use of botanical insecticideslmost started declining. Later on, the adverse effect of chemicalnsecticides was realized with the problems like environmentalontamination, residues in food and feed and pest resistance. Sinceajority of plant insecticides are biodegradable, it leads to revival

f growing interest in the use of either plant extracts or essentialils. More than 1500 species of plants have been reported to havensecticidal value, and many more exist. Although compared with

odern synthetics the plant substances are relatively less effective,heir relatively safe nature has resulted in the opening up of a newista in plant insecticides research.

Mentha (commonly known as mint or pudina) is one of the mostommon herb which has been known for its medicinal and aro-otherapeutic properties since ancient times. Mint is mentioned

n the Icelandic Pharmacopoeias of the thirteenth century whilehere is also report of its cultivation in China during Ming Dynasty1368–1644) (Dai, 1981). In late seventeenth century, peepermintMentha × piperita) was recognized as a distinct species, when thenglish botanist John Ray (1628–1705) published it in the sec-nd edition of his synopsis Stirpium Britannicorum in 1696, andn whose herbarium the oldest specimens of peppermint coulde found. In 1721, M. × piperita L. was admitted into the Lon-on Pharmacopceia as Mentha piperitis sapore in recognition of

ts medicinal properties (Flückiger, 1879; Blumenthal, 1998). Inurope, it came into general use as medicine for nausea, vomit-ng and gastro-intestinal disorder during middle of the eighteenthentury (Grieve, 1931). Beside their medicinal properties mintnd its various species have also been known for its insecticidalalue against ants, mosquitoes, wasps, hornets and cockroachesWorwood, 1993). Moreover, oil of Mentha and its components arelso reported for its antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-cancerousroperties (Lee et al., 2001; Bakkali et al., 2008; Tyagi and Malik,010a,b), which makes them worth exploring. Since Mentha findsse in foods and aromatherapy, its prospects to be used as insectepellent increases. There are also few reports of toxicity and muta-enic activity of some Mentha species at higher concentrationFranzios et al., 1997; Gardiner, 2000), which necessitate knowl-dge of dose and procedure of application. Earlier, a brief reviewy Shrivastava (2009) focused on the chemistry, pharmacology,nalysis, and uses of peppermint oil (M. piperita L. and M. arvensis.) while Bakkali et al. (2008) described the biological effects (viz.ytotoxicity, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity) of the several essen-

ial oil. Nevertheless, in the last few decades many studies haveeen reported on the insecticidal activity of several Mentha speciesuch as M. microphylla, M. viridis and M. longifolia. However, aomprehensive literature describing occurrence, composition andnsecticidal properties of various Mentha species is lacking. The

Products 34 (2011) 802– 817 803

present work portrays a comprehensive picture of the insecticidalproperties of different Mentha species against various stored grainpests and vectors. Attempts have also been made to include repel-lent and growth regulatory activities of Mentha essential oils andextracts, which eventually play a significant role in pest control.

2. Mentha: species and occurrence

The genus Mentha, one of the important members of the Lami-aceae family, is represented by about 19 species and 13 naturalhybrids. They are fast growing and invasive and generally toleratea wide range of agro-climatic conditions with distribution acrossEurope, Africa, Asia, Australia, and North America (Brickell andZuk, 1997). However, all mint species prefer and thrive in cool,moist spots of partial shade (Bradley, 1992). They are fast growing,extending their reach along surfaces through a network of run-ners. The most common and popular mints for cultivation are M.× piperita L. and M. spicata L. Given below is the brief descriptionabout some of the Mentha species noted for its insceticidal activity.

Mentha pulegium L. (Syn. Pulegium vulgare Mill.), is native toAfrica, Temperate Asia and Europe (GRIN, 2010). The mint is smallerthan other mints and creeps along the ground and spreads rapidlythrough its underground root system (Bradley, 1992). Stems arered-purple and highly branched while leaves are scales like (Shu,1994; Harley, 1972). Flowers have verticillasters arrangement.Mentha spicata L. (Syn. M. aquatica var. crispa (L.) Benth., M. cordi-folia Opiz ex Fresen., M. crispa L., M. viridis (L.) L.) is native ofAfrica, Temperate Asia and Europe (GRIN, 2010). The plant hasmatted and creeping root system (stolon) from which erect stemsup to 40–130 cm in height arise. Leaves are sessile or subsessilewith serrated margin while flowers are spikes with verticillastersarrangement (Shu, 1994). Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. (Syn. M. can-dicans Mill., M. capensis Thunb., M. royleana Benth., M. spicata var.longifolia L., M. sylvestris L.) is native of Africa, Temperate & TropicalAsia and Europe (Harley, 1972; GRIN, 2010). The plant is a peren-nial herb and fast-growing. Rhizomatous plants give rise to highlybranched, whitish, erect stems which grow to the height of 100 cm(Shu, 1994). Flowers arrangement is verticillasters. Mentha arvensisL. (Syn. M. austriaca Jacq., M. gentilis L.) is native to Tropical Asia andEurope (GRIN, 2010). The plant is perennial, rhizomatous and growsup to 80 cm in height (Harley, 1972). Mentha suaveolens Ehrh. (Syn.M. insularis Req., M. × rotundifolia (L.) Huds Auct.) is native of nativeof Africa, Temperate Asia and Europe (GRIN, 2010; Abbaszadehet al., 2009). Herbs are perennial, rhizomatous and stoloniferouswhich give rise to erect stems (30–80 cm) which are striated andare branched pyramidally (Harley, 1982). Leaves are usually sessilewith crenate or crenate-serrate margin. Verticillasters arrangementis present in terminal, dense cylindric spikes (Harley, 1982). Menthaaquatica L. (Syn. Mentha palustris Mill.) is a native of Africa, Temper-ate Asia and Europe (GRIN, 2010). It is perennial, rhizomatous plantgrowing up to 90 cm in height (Harley, 1982). The green or purplestems are square in cross section, and variably hairy to hairless. Theflowers are tiny, densely crowded, tubular, and purple to pinkishto lilac in colour (Harley, 1982).

M. × piperita L. (Syn. M. citrata Ehrh., M. lavanduliodora ined., M.× piperita var. citrata (Ehrh.) Briq., M. pyramidalis Ten.) is a sterilehybrid derived from a cross between M. aquatica L. and M. spicataL. Being a hybrid, it is usually sterile, and propagates only vegeta-tively, through rhizomes (Abbaszadeh et al., 2009). The purple-redstem of the plant is erect and grows up to 30–100 in cm height (Shu,1994). Flowers have verticillasters arrangement in cylindric termi-

nal spikes. M. × piperita L. nothosubsp. citrata (Ehrh.) Briq., alsoknown as Mentha citrata Ehrh., originated in Europe (Ghosh andChatterjee, 1978). The herbs have leafy stolons, which is glabrousor subglabrous throughout. The margins of leaves are remotelyserrate, upper leaves reduced and flowers have verticillasters inflo-

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escence (Shu, 1994). Mentha × rotundifolia (L.) Huds. is a hybridetween M. longifolia (L.) Huds. and M. suaveolens Ehrh. (Kokkinind Papageorgiou, 1988). One another species of Mentha, M. micro-hylla K. Kock, is apparently an allotetraploid derived from Menthauaveolens Ehrh. and Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. (Sutour et al.,008).

. Chemical composition of Mentha essential oil

Species of the genus Mentha have been reported to contain range of components, including cinnamic acids (Triantaphyllout al., 2001), aglycon, glycoside or acylated flavonoids (Fialová et al.,008), and steroidal glycosides (Ali et al., 2002). However, the mainctive component of Mentha is essential oil, which is reported toovern its various properties.

Different species of Mentha show high polymorphism in mor-hology and vary in their essential oil content and compositionChauhan et al., 2009). Existing variations in oil content and com-osition may be attributed to factors related to ecotype and thenvironment including temperature, relative humidity, irradiancend photoperiod (Chauhan et al., 2009). Similarly, chemotype of thelants, cultivation practices and method of extraction also leads toariation in oil content and chemical composition (Pavela, 2009).ther factors affecting essential oil composition, relates to agro-omic and genotype conditions, such as harvesting time, plant agend crop density (Telci et al., 2010; Marotti et al., 1994). Clark andenary (1984) obtained higher methanol content from the essen-

ial oil of the first harvest than that of the second harvest, whilencrease in menthol content with plant maturity was reported byourt et al. (1993). Similarly, different photoperiodic treatment waslso shown to be influencing concentrations of oil componentsn Mentha species (Fahlen et al., 1997). On the basis of biosyn-hetic pathway followed in different species of Mentha, subjected toarying geographical conditions, they could be divided into: men-hol rich, carvone rich and pulegone/piperitone rich essential oils.hemical composition of essential oil from some of the commonentha species, reported in literature for their insecticidal activity,

s briefly discussed in the following section while the structures ofajor chemical constituents are shown in Fig. 1.

.1. Menthol rich Mentha oils

Commercially, the most important mint species is peppermintMentha × piperita L.).

Peppermint oil is one of the most popular and widely usedssential oils, mostly because of its main components mentholnd menthone (Gul, 1994). Menthol is a waxy, crystalline sub-tance used for various medical purposes such as, to relieve skinrritation, sunburn, sore throat, fever, muscle aches and in nasalongestion while menthone is used in perfumery and as flavourgent. Normally, essential oil of M. × piperita L. has 30–55% ofenthol while composition of menthone is between 14 and 32%

ESCOP, 1997). Court et al. (1993) reported over 200 differentonstituents in peppermint oil. Samarasekera et al. (2008) inves-igated effect of essential oil of Mentha piperita L. emend. Huds.gainst local mosquitoes and subsequently carried out its GC anal-sis obtaining menthol (41%) and menthone (24%) as principleonstituents.Placios et al. (2009) evaluated insecticidal activity of. × piperita L. against Musca domestica L. and reported menthol

41%) as major constituent followed by menthone (21%). Among

he peppermints of different origins studied, peppermint of USAnd Egypt origin (Black Mitcham) contains the highest menthol andives optimum oil yield (Aflatuni, 2005).

M. arvensis L. is cultivated in many parts of the world forhe production of menthol from its essential oil. Although M.

Products 34 (2011) 802– 817

arvensis L. has been frequently used for various insecticidal assay(Kumar et al., 2009; Pavela, 2005), none of the study discussing itschemical constituents, along with, could be retrived. The princi-pal constituents of essential oils of M. arvensis L. is: l-menthone,menthol, isomenthone, eucalyptol, piperitone oxide, carvone, dl-limonene, trans-dihydrocarvone and germacrene-D (Sharma et al.,2009; Verma et al., 2010). Verma et al. (2010) studied the effectof cultivars age on terpenoids compo sition of M. arvensis L. essen-tial oil and found it to be significant. Sharma et al. (2009) studiedthree samples of M. arvensis L. essential oil collected from parts ofNorthern India, the two samples showed l-menthone as major con-stituent with the range varying between 27 and 29% while the thirdhad carvone (60%) as its most abundant component. According tosome studies, M. arvensis L. is the richest source of natural menthol(Sharma and Tyagi, 1991; Shasany et al., 2000).

3.2. Carvone rich Mentha oil

Carvone is a monocyclic monoterpene ketone which exist bothas R and S enantiomers in natural products. It has strong anti-septic properties and used as mosquito repellent and in the foodindustry as a flavouring agent. Carvone-rich essential oils have beenrecorded only for the three species; M. spicata L., M. longifolia (L.)Huds. and M. sauveolens Ehrh.

Carvone is the main component of essential oil of M. spicata L.,for which it is widely used as spices. It constitutes 50–65% of its totalmonoterpene composition (Kokkini et al., 1995). Other major com-ponents of M. spicata L. oil are limonene, and 1,8-cineole (Kokkiniet al., 1995; Telci et al., 2010). Franzios et al. (1997) who investi-gated activity of M. spicata L. against D. melanogaster reported 32%carvone in its essential oils. In another study, Sertkaya et al. (2010)which evaluated insecticidal activity of M. spicata L. against mites,reported, 59% carvone, 10% limonene and 7% 1, 8-cineole in GC/MSanalysis of its essential oil. Oka et al. (2000) which investigatednematicidal activity of M. spicata L. reported carvone (58%) andlimonene (19%) as its major component. In contrast to the abovestudies, Koliopoulos et al. (2010) investigating larvicidal activityof several essential oil against Culex pipiens, reported piperitenoneoxide (36%) followed by 1,8-Cineole (14%) as principle componentsof M. spicata L. (collected from Greece) essential oil while carvonewas present in traces.

Essential oil of M. longifolia (L.) Huds. is a carvone rich. The leafoil of this plant is characterized by high amount of carvone (62%),limonene (19%), piperitenone oxide (26%), �-caryophyllene (12%)and 1,8-cineole (10%) (Hendriks and Van Os, 1976). Koliopouloset al. (2010) reported chemical constituents of essential oil of M.longifolia (L.) Huds. collected from two different region of Greece.One of the cultivar showed carvone (55%) and limonene (20%) asmajor components while another cultivar has piperitenone oxide(33%), 1,8-Cineole (24%) and trans-Piperitone epoxide (17%) as itsprinciple constituents. M. viridis contain carvone as the major com-ponent while 1,8-cineole, Limonene, terpinen-4-ol, �-terpineol,were present in appreciable amount (Mkaddem et al., 2009).

3.3. Pulegone/piperitone rich Mentha oil

Pulegone, a monoterpene is naturally occurring organic com-pound and is commonly found in essential oil of M. pulegium L.and M. microphylla K. Koch, among Mentha species. It is used asflavouring agents, perfumery, and in aromatherapy. Essential oil ofM. pulegium L. (pennyroyal oil) contains pulegone as its main con-

stituent, the percentage of which ranged from 25 to 92% (Pino et al.,1996; Lawrence, 1998; Aziz and Abbass, 2010). Aziz and Abbass(2010) investigated efficacy of several essential oil against Calloso-bruchus maculatus, and reported 88% pulegone while Franzios et al.(1997) reported 76% pulegone in essential oil of M. pulegium L. The

P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802– 817 805

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. pulegium L. oil from different parts of the world always con-ains pulegone in quantities varying from 10 to 90% (Zwaving andmith, 1971). However, there are certain reports which have citedulegone concentration outside the above stated limits. Rim and

ee (2006) reported 99% pulegone concentration while Mahboubind Haghi (2008) obtained only 2% pulegone in GC/MS analysis of. pulegium L. essential oil in their respective study. Other com-

onents of M. pulegium L. essential oil reported in the above studyere iso-Menthone, isopulegone, �-pinene (Aziz and Abbass, 2010)

nd cyclohexanone, 8-hydroxy-�-4(5)-p-methen-3-one, 3-octanol,l-limonene, and �-pinene (Rim and Jee, 2006).

Oil of M. microphylla K. Koch was investigated for its chemicalomponents by GC-MS analysis to give piperitenone oxide (47%)nd piperitone oxide (28%) as its major constituents (Mohamed andbdelgaleil, 2008). Other constituents present in the considerablemounts were caryophyllene oxide, piperitenone and 1,8-cineole;.his study has evaluated inscticidal efficacy of M. microphylla K.och oil against Sitophilus oryzae and Tribolium castaneum.

Oka et al. (2000) analysed the leaf essential oil of M. × rotun-ifolia (L.) Huds Ehrh. by GC and GC/MS and reported isomers of,2-epoxymenthyl acetate (74%) and piperitone (13%) as the majoromponent. In another study by Aziz and Abbass (2010), linalool35%) and geranyl acetate (10%) was reported as principle con-tituent of essential oil of M. × rotundifolia (L.) Huds Ehrh.

. Insecticidal activity of Mentha oil

Lipophilic nature of plant essential oils facilitates them tonterfere with basic metabolic, biochemical, physiological andehavioural functions of insects (Jacobson, 1989). Insecticidal activ-

uents of mentha oil of different species.

ity of Mentha oil has been tested and established against variousinsects/pests. For the sake of clear presentation, these studies havebeen primarily categorized on the basis of life stage of the targetinsect, i.e. adult, larvae and other developmental stage. Majority ofstudies are conducted against adult insects and these can be cat-egorized under repellency and adulticidal activity. In comparison,few studies have targeted assessment of Mentha efficacy for changein reproductive behaviour and other stages (larvae/pupae) of insectlife cycle.

4.1. Repellency and adulticidal activity

By definition, repellents are substances that act locally or ata distance, deterring an insect (arthropod in general) from flyingto, landing on or biting human or animal skin (Blackwell et al.,2003; Nerio et al., 2010). Herbal folklore has long included theuse of aromatic herbs and oils as insect repellents. Insect repel-lents work by providing a vapour barrier deterring the arthropodand other insects by coming into contact with the desired surface(Brown and Hebert, 1997). Repellent properties of essential oils andextracts from genus Mentha are well documented. However, mostof these studies are concentrated on pests belonging to coleopteraand diptera species.

Adulticidal activities are often monitored through fumigation,topical application, contact toxicity or antifeedancy bioassays.

Fumigation is a variant of repellency and is generally used in caseof stored grain insects. Ideal fumigant should not leave any haz-ardous residues, should not adversely affect nutritional quality orprocessing characteristics of food grains and should be removed byaeration when needed (Plimrner, 1982; Lee et al., 2001). Essential

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06 P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Cro

ils have shown good fumigant properties, due to high volatilitynd low toxicity to warm blooded animals (Shaaya et al., 1997).

The term topical application is used to describe the medicinehich effects only in a specific area, not throughout the body, par-

icularly medicine that is put directly on the skin. There are someeferences in which insecticidal activity of Mentha has been testedy topical application of oils to the insects. Contact toxicity assaynd antifeedance are the other methods to assay Mentha toxicityo insects. Studies pertaining to activity of Mentha against adultsnsect/pests (repellency and fumigation assay) are relatively largen number. Therefore, this section has been dealt within two sub-ections, i.e. storage pests and vectors.

.1.1. Storage pestsInsect damage to stored grains and cereal products has been

f great concern to man throughout the ages. Storage pests, suchs the maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais), the rice weevil (Sitophilusryzae), the red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum), bruchid bee-le (Callosobruchus maculates) and others cause quantitative andualitative damage to grains (Padín et al., 2002; Bakshi, 2009).uantitative damage, due to grain weight loss caused by insect

eeding (Golebiowska, 1969) and qualitative damage due to lossf nutritional and aesthetic value has led to food shortage as wells economic loss world over. As most of these problems related togricultural pests manifest in the tropical countries, due to agro-limatic conditions and lack of adequate storage facilities, low costnd effective methods of pest management are required. Essentialils being relatively cheap and non-toxic to food grains could beood alternative for currently used chemical insecticides.

The results of studies concerning insecticidal activity of Men-ha oil against adult of storage pests are compiled in Table 1.ttempts have been made to include a brief experimental informa-

ion coloumn in the table to facilitate quick but logical comparisonsetween various reports. Repellent properties of Mentha againstgricultural pests were investigated in series of experiments bydeyemi et al. (2008) and Kumar et al. (2009). Odeyemi et al.

2008) noticed 100% repellency of M. longifolia (L.) Huds. essentialil against Sitophilus zeamais whereas Kumar et al. (2009) reported5% repellency of M. arvensis L. oil against C. chinensis.

Fumigation activity of Mentha oil has been widely investigatedgainst several storage pests. Lee et al. (2001) reported substan-ial efficacy of M. arvensis L. oil (LC50—45.5 �l/l) as well as itsonstituents, menthone, linalool and �-pinene (LC50—2.7, 39.2nd 54.9 �l/l, respectively) against S. oryzae. Similarly, Varma andubey (2001) also reported complete inhibition of S. oryzae and. castaneum, through the treatment of wheat samples with M.rvensis essential oil. However, appreciable result obtained with M.rvensis L. oil against S. oryzae in these studies was in contrast withhe earlier study (Srivastava et al., 1989), which reported fivefoldower mortality rates for the same pest. This could be attributed toifferent strain of S. oryzae or different composition of M. arvensis. oil used in the two studies. In another study, Lee et al. (2002)bserved that M. × piperita L. (LD50—25.8 �l/l) was slightly betterumigant than M. spicata L. (LD50—33.1 �l/l) against T. castaneum.

Essential oil of M. microphylla K. Koch. gave remarkable activ-ty against adults of T. castaneum (LC50—4.5 �l/l) and S. oryzaeLC50—0.2 �l/l) in fumigation bioassays (Mohamed and Abdelgaleil,008). However, low lethal doses recorded in this study couldlso result from prolonged exposure time (72 h) as compared tohorter exposures in earlier studies. Nevertheless, in the contactioassays (24 h) also, the LC50 for both the insects was quite low

0.01 mg/cm2). M. microphylla K. Koch. as well as M. viridis (L.) L. oilhowed high efficacy (LC50—1–5 �l/l) as fumigant against A. obtec-us (Papachristos and Stamopoulos, 2002). It was noticed that malensects were more susceptible than females. M. viridis (L.) L. oil waslso reported to result in 100% mortality of Oryzaephilus surinamen-

Products 34 (2011) 802– 817

sis and T. castaneum, in a contact toxicity bioassay (Al-Jabar, 2006).M. pulegium L. oil also caused 100% mortality of Mayetiola destructor,major pest of wheat in Morocco (Lamiri et al., 2001) while pepper-mint oil caused 52–62% mortality of green house whiteflies (Aroieeet al., 2005). Some studies have also evaluated the antifeedant activ-ity in terms of feeding deterrence index (FDI) for example the FDIof M. arvensis oil against C. chinensis was 94% (Kumar et al., 2009).Koschier et al. (2002) recorded 15–42% antifeedancy for Thripstabaci (onion thrips) with M. arvensis L. oil.

As evident from the above reports, it is difficult to compareresults of different studies or two individual species due to largevariation in target insect, mode/scale of experimentation, differentexposure regimes/times and concentrations employed (Table 1).Due to variation in any of these parameters, the resulting insec-ticidal activity of given oil would vary substantially. For instance,Kumar et al. (2009) reported the dependence of insecticidal activ-ity of M. arvensis L. oil on its concentration and exposure period.While 10 h exposure period was required for complete mortality ofC. chinensis at lower concentration (1 �l/l), the same was achievedwithin 2 h at higher concentration (200 �l/l). In spite of the abovementioned difficulties in comparing the studies, which makes anycomment on the relative efficacy of different species very difficult,few generalizations could be made. M. microphylla K. Koch. and M.viridis (L.) L. have been found to be more effective than M. arvensis L.and M. × piperita L. oils. Although not all the studies report chemicalcomposition of oils used, the insecticidal activity of M. microphyllaK. Koch. has been attributed to its major compounds piperitenoneoxide and piperitone oxide (Mohamed and Abdelgaleil, 2008). Tosum up, large number of studies involving insecticidal activity ofMentha species has established it as undisputable insect controlagent against adult storage pests.

4.1.2. Vectors/other insectAmong vectors/other insects, mostly diptera has been investi-

gated for repellency/fumigation study with essential oil. This workis largely concentrated on mosquito control and related to diseasesof public health concern such as malaria, yellow fever, dengue andviral encephalitis (Nerio et al., 2010). Insecticidal activity of Menthaoil against vectors and other insects is summarized in Table 2.

M. × piperita L. essential oil provided significant protectionagainst Anopheles annularis (100%), An. Culicifacies (92%), and Cluexquinquefasciatus (84%) (Ansari et al., 2000). The repellent action ofMentha oil obtained in this study was comparable to that of Myloloil, consisting of dibutyl and dimethyl phthalates which is com-mercially used as a mosquito repellent. Yang and Ma (2005) alsoreported >99% protection for mice treated with M. × piperita L. oilfrom Aedes albopictus. Erler et al. (2006) reported that the efficacy ofM. × piperita L. as a repellent increases with increase in its concen-tration from 5 �l (40% repellency) to 10 �l (77% repellency). Yanget al. (2005) investigated the adulticidal activity of M. × piperitaL. oil against Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus in fumigation bioassayand observed 97% mortality in 24 h. There are very few reports onuse of oil of other species of Mentha, apart from M. × piperita L.for mosquito control. However, oil of M. spicata L. and its majorconstituent piperitenone oxide has also shown promising resultsfor repellency against mosquito species, A. stephensi (Tripathi et al.,2004).

Repellent properties of the oil are governed by its major as wellas minor constituents. Repellent action of M. × piperita L. is chieflycontributed by its major constituent, menthol. Samarasekera et al.(2008) tested M. × piperita L. essential oil and its constituents

for knockdown effect and mortality against three-day old adultfemales of Cx. quinquefasciatus, Ae. aegypti and Anopheles tes-sellates. Menthol, a major constituent of M. × piperita L. leafoil, showed higher mosquitocidal activity against An. tessellatus(LC50—0.36 and KD50—0.54 �g/ml) and Cx. quinquefasciatus (LC50

P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802– 817 807

Table 1Insecticidal activity of Mentha oil against storage pests.

Mentha oil Experimental procedure Target organism (Nos., age) Effect Reference

M. longifolia (L.) Huds. Repellency Sitophilus zeamais (20, 10–15days old)

100% repellency Odeyemi et al. (2008)

M. arvensis L. Repellency (30 min) inY-shaped olfactometercontaining oil soaked cottonswab (100 �l/l)

C. chinensis (30) 85% repellency Kumar et al. (2009)

M. arvensis L. Fumigantion (24 h) in 3.4 lglass flask with oil applied on afilter paper & test insect held insmall cage

S. oryzae (20 adult insect,10–15 days old)

LC50—45.5 �l/l air Lee et al. (2001)

M. arvensis L. Fumigantion, 500 g wheat withoil vapour (600 ppm)

S. oryzae (20) 100% inhibition Varma and Dubey (2001)

M. arvensis L. -do- T. castaneum (20) 100% inhibitionM. × piperita L. Fumigantion (24 h) in 250 ml

conical flasksTribolium castaneum (50) LD50—25.8 �l/l air;

LD95—33.1 �l/l airLee et al. (2002)

M. spicata L. -do- T. castaneum (50) LD50—35.6 �l/l air;LD95—51.5 �l/l air

M. pulegium L. Fumigation (2 h) in a polyvinylplastic chamber covered withgauze cloths on top

Mayetiola destructor (10, 5males, 5 females)

at the concentration of6 �l/l—80% adult mortality;8 �l/l—100% mortality

Lamiri et al. (2001)

M. viiridis (L.) L. Fumigantion (48 h) in 1 l glassjars containing dental cotton asvapour diffuser

Acanthoscelides obtectus (50, 1day old) Male Female

LC50—1.2 �l/air;LC50—4.4 �l/air

Papachristos and Stamopoulos(2002)

M. microphylla K. Koch -do- A. obtectus (50, 1 day old);Male; Female

LC50—1.1 �l/air;LC50—5.1 �l/air

M. microphylla K. Koch Fumigantion (72 h) in 1 l glassjars with oils applied on filterpapers held in screw caps

T. castaneum (20) LC50—4.51 �l/l Mohamed and Abdelgaleil(2008)

M. microphylla K. Koch -do- S oryzae (20) LC50—0.21 �l/lM. microphylla K. Koch Contact toxicity (24 h), oil in

acetone (0.006–1 mg/cm2)applied on insects

T. castaneum (20) LC50—0.01 mg/cm2

M. microphylla K. Koch -do- S. oryzae (20) LC50—0.01 mg/cm2

M. viridis (L.) L. Contact toxicity (14 days), oil inacetone (0.125–0.75%) sprayedon 20 g wheat in 250 ml flasks

Oryzaephilus surinamensis (10) At 0.125%–83.3% mortality, at0.75%–100% mortality

Al-Jabar (2006)

M. viridis (L.) L. -do- T. castaneum (10) At 0.75% –100% mortalityPeppermint oil Contact toxicity (72 h), oil

solution applied via mistsystem in green housecondition

greenhouse whitefly Fatalities (%); 5 ppm—52.65%;8 ppm—62.78%

Aroiee et al. (2005)

M. arvensis L. Contact toxicity, film of oil onfilter paper in petri dish

C. chinensis (30) 1 �l/l—100% in 10 h;200 �l/l—100% in 2 h

Kumar et al. (2009)

M. arvensis L. Antifeedant (6 months), 2 mloil in metallic containers (20 l)with 15 kg chickpea seeds

C. chinensis Feeding deterrence index—94%

M. arvensis L. Antifeedant (24) on Leek leaf Thrips tabaci (10 females) 15–42% antifeedancy Koschier et al. (2002)

at

Mat×oraar(ictbts

discs containing oil/compound(0.001–0.1 ml/cm2 of leafsurface) on Petri dishes

nd KD50—0.50 �g/ml) than minor constituents of the oil, i.e. men-hone, �-caryophyllene, menthyl acetate and pulegone.

Besides being effective for mosquitoes, repellent properties ofentha oil were also reported against other flies infesting dairy

nimals. In a repellency assay done on the house fly, Musca domes-ica, Kumar et al. (2011) obtained 86% repellency with oil of M.

piperita L. (86 �g/cm2) while the EC formulation (5.49 �g/cm2)f same gave 94% repellency. Khater et al. (2009) investigated theepellent effect and protection time of the Mentha and other oilsgainst flies, M. domestica, Stomoxys calcitrans, Haematobia irritansnd Hippobosca equina, infesting buffaloes. Mentha oil was found toepel flies significantly (P < 0.05) for 6 days post-treatment. Pavela2008) evaluated insecticidal activity of 34 different essential oilsncluding several Mentha species (M. pulegium L., M. spicata L., M.

itrata Ehrh. and M. arvensis L.) against M. domestica under labora-ory conditions in fumigant and topical bioassay. In the fumigantioassay, M. pulegium L. oil (LD50—4.7 �g/cm2) was adjudged to behe most effective fumigant among all the oils. For topical bioas-ay, moderate efficacy of Mentha species was reported, however

among Mentha species, M. pulegium L. (LD50—13 �g/fly) showedbest performance.

Apart from the common vectors, studies have also been reportedon other insects such as spider mites, house dust mites, etc.When used as fumigant against adults of two-spotted spider mite,Tetranychus urticae, both M. × piperita L. (>90%) and M. spicata L.(81–82%) demonstrated significant mortality (Choi et al., 2004).While in another study, M. microphylla K. Koch. oil caused 56–100%mortality of T. urticae in fumigation bioassay (Abdelgaleil andBadawy, 2006). Sertkaya et al. (2010) recorded LC50 of 1.8 �g/mlfor M. spicata L. oil vapour against females of carmine spider mite,Tetranychus cinnabarinus. In a different study, Rim and Jee (2006)investigated the susceptibility of Dermatophgoides farinae (Ameri-can House Dust Mite) and D. pteronyssinus (European House Dust

Mite) to M. pulegium L.oil through fumigation and contact bioassay.Both the assays resulted in 100% mortality of insects. Insecticidalactivity of M. pulegium L. oil has also been reported for Drosophilaauraria whereby 100% adult mortality was obtained within 30 min(Konstantopoulou et al., 1992). Perrucci (1995) obtained 100% mor-

808 P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802– 817

Table 2Insecticidal activity of Mentha oil against vectors and other insects.

Mentha oil Experimental condition Target organism (Nos., age) Effect Reference

M. × piperita L. Repellency (overnight),1 ml oil applied on exposedparts of human volunteers

An. annularis Percent protection —100% Ansari et al. (2000)

M. × piperita L. -do- An. culicifacies 92.3%M. × piperita L. -do- Cx. quinquefasciatus 84.5%M. × piperita L. Repellency (7 h), oil (7%)

applied as paint on theexposed part of the mouseabdomen exposed tomosquitoes (2 min) everyhour

Ae. albopictus Percentageprotection—>99%

Yang and Ma (2005)

M. × piperita L. Repellency (5 h) in a Y-tube(inner dia. 5 cm) shapedglass apparatus

Cx. pipiens (10 females) Repellency; At 5 �l—40%;At 10 �l—77%

Erler et al. (2006)

M. × piperita L. Repellency in repellencychamber containing oil(27–86 �g/cm2) on filterplate in a petri plate

Musca domestica At 86 �g/cm2,Repellency—86%

Kumar et al. (2011)

40% EC formulation of M. × piperita L. Repellency in repellencychamber containingformulation(1.09–5.49 �g/cm2) onfilter plate in a petri plate

M. domestica At 5.49 �g/cm2,Repellency—94%

Mentha oil Repellency (6 days), 2.5 l oilpoured along the backlineof the buffaloes usinggraduated squeeze bottle

M. domestica, Stomoxyscalcitrans, Haematobiairritans, Hippobosca equine

Significant repellency for6 days post-treatment

Khater et al. (2009)

M. × piperita L. Fumigantion (24 h) in250 ml conical flask, oilconc. (0.2–3.2%)

C. pipiens quinquefasciatus(10–15)

Total mortality—97%;LC50—0.6356%;LT50—13.28 min

Yang et al. (2005)

M. × piperita L. Fumigantion in plasticcontainer (4.5 by 9.5 cm)with oil (14 × 10−3 �l/mlair) applied on filter paper

Tetranychus urticae Mortality—>90% Choi et al. (2004)

M. spicata L. -do- T. urticae 81–82% mortalityM. pulegium L. Fumigantion (24 h), in a

cage (250 cm3) coveredwith a breather mesh andhung in the middle of anaquarium (2.9 l)

M. domestica (50) LD50—4.7 �g/cm2 Pavela (2008)

M. microphylla K. Koch Fumigation (48 h), in 1 lplastic jars with insectsfixed to glass slides withdouble faced scotch tape

Tetranychus urticae (30females)

Mortality —56–100%(1–10 �l of oil)

Abdelgaleil and Badawy,2006

M. spicata L. Fumigation (24 h), in100 ml glass petri plates, oilconc. —0.5–15 �g/ml of air

T. cinnabarinus (10 female) LC50—1.83 �g/ml;LC90—7.55 �g/ml

Sertkaya et al. (2010)

M. pulegium L. Fumigation (60 min) inpetri plate, insectseparated from oil on filterpaper with wire mesh

Dermatophgoides farina andD. pteronyssinus (300)

Mortality—0–100%(0.0125–0.1 �l/cm2)

Rim and Jee (2006)

M. pulegium L. Contact toxicity (5 min) inpetri plate

Dermatophgoides farina andD. pteronyssinus (300)

Mortality—2.6–100%(0.0125–0.1 �l/cm2)

M. pulegium L. Contact toxicity (24 h) inparafilm-sealed petridishes with oil on filterpaper along with substrate

Drosophila auraria Adultflies (30, 2–4 day old)

100% at 2.5 �l oil Konstantopoulou et al.(1992)

Peepermint oil Contact toxicity-0.25 �lspread on internal surfaceof petri dishes; Inhalationactivity-in smaller petridishes enclosed in a biggerone containing 6 �l ofsubstance

Tyrophagus longior Contact toxicity-100%mortality; Inhalationactivity-100% mortality

Perrucci (1995)

M. pulegium L. Topical toxicity (24 h), 1 �loil in acetone delivered tothe pronota of CO2

anesthetized flies

M. domestica (50) LD50—13 �g/fly Pavela (2008)

M. spicata L. -do- M. domestica LD50—21 �g/flyM. citarta Ehrh. -do- M. domestica LD50—21 �g/flyM. arvensis L. -do- M. domestica LD50—34 �g/fly

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ality of Tyrophagus longior, by application of peepermint oil in aontact toxicity assay.

From the above discussed studies it is clear that in case of vec-ors most of the studies has focussed on the oil of M. × piperita L.Ansari et al., 2000; Yang and Ma, 2005; Yang et al., 2005; Erler et al.,006; Kumar et al., 2011) and M. pulegium L. (Konstantopoulout al., 1992; Rim and Jee, 2006; Pavela, 2008). Overall these studiesuggest that M. × piperita L. oil is an effective repellent (85–100%epellency) against different types of mosquitoes and also provedo be a successful fumigant against C. Pipiens quinquefasciatus with7% of adult mortality (Table 2). M. pulegium L. was found to be bet-er fumigant, and equally effective contact toxicant, than as topicaloxicant (Rim and Jee, 2006; Pavela, 2008).

.2. Larvicidal activity

The biological control of immature stages are thought to be theost powerful means of reducing target population of dipteran and

ther agricultural pests (Rey et al., 1999). Larvicidal activities ofarious Mentha oils are listed in Table 3.

In the vector category, several studies have focused on mosquitoarva from different species. Ansari et al. (2000) observed 85–100%

ortality in case of third instar larvae of An. Stephensi, Ae. aegyptind Cx. quinquefasciatus using M. × piperita L. oil (3 ml/m2) whilemer and Mehlhorn (2006) noticed 53% mortality of Ae. aegypti lar-ae using 50 ppm M. x piperita L. Recently, Koliopoulos et al. (2010)ompared the larvicidal activity of various carvone rich chemo-ypes against Cx. pipiens larvae. M. suaveolens was found to be

ost effective larvicide with LD50 of 47.88 mg/l, followed by M.picata L. (LD50—52.85 mg/l) and M. longifolia L. (LD50—59.33 mg/l).iperitenone oxide, one of the major constituent of M. suaveolenshrh. showed better larvicidal activity with LD50 of 9.95 mg/l. Lar-icidal activity of M. spicata L. has also been evaluated (Table 3)gainst larvae of An. stephensi (LD50—82.95 �l/ml), Ae. aegyptiLC50—67.8 ppm) and Ae. arabiensis (LC50—85.9 ppm). In con-rast to several studies discussed for mosquito larvae, only onetudy has taken up control of house fly larvae through M. ×iperita L. oil and its formulation (Kumar et al., 2011). Thistudy depicted 100% mortality of larvae with tremendous reduc-ion in lethal concentration for formulation as compared to theil.

Among the other insects, Pavlidou et al. (2004) evaluated theusceptibility of larvae of Bactrocera oleae (olive fruit fly) androsophila melanogaster to the oil of M. pulegium L. and its mainonstituents, pulegone and menthone. The lethal doses of pule-one and menthone for B. oleae (LD50—0.09, 0.13 �l/ml) and D.elanogaster (LD50—0.17, 1.29 �l/mL) were significantly lower

han that obtained from M. pulegium L. oil (LD50—0.22, 2.09 �l/ml).ranzios et al. (1997) also reported pulegone to be most effec-ive for D. melanogaster larvae followed by carvone and menthone.onstantopoulou et al. (1992) investigated M. pulegium L. oil against

ate third instar larvae of D. auraria and obtained 80% mortality in8 h.

Studies concerning use of Mentha for control of storage pest lar-ae are scanty as compared to those on vectors and other insects.avela (2005) investigated the insecticidal efficacy of oils of M. spi-ata L., M. pulegium L., M. citrata Ehrh. and M. arvensis L. for larvae ofpodoptera littoralis in fumigation and topical application. In fumi-ation bioassay, M. pulegium L. was found to be most effective (LD50f 11.5 ml/m3) while for topical assay M. citrata Ehrh. was best per-ormer (LD50—0.11 �l/larvae). For the larvae of tobacco caterpillar,

podoptera litura, 40–50% mortality was reported in topical appli-ation (Isman et al., 2001) and 30% mortality in antifeedancy assayith different Mentha oils (Firake and Pande, 2009). To conclude, in

he vector category, the larvicidal investigations were dominatedy M. × piperita L. and M. spicata L. oil. Thus, it will be interest-

Products 34 (2011) 802– 817 809

ing to investigate other promising Mentha oils for control of vectorlarvae.

4.3. Growth and reproduction inhibition activity

The growth regulator effect can be understood as malfunction-ing of insect metamorphosis which may be either its completeinhibition or prevention to occur at the right time (so that develop-ment of insect takes place in unfavourable condition). It may be dueto alteration of hormones related to metamorphosis which causemalformation, sterility or death in insects.

Some botanical extracts, termed Insect Growth Regulators(IGRs), can have a pronounced effect on the developmental period,growth, adult emergence, fecundity, fertility and egg hatchingresulting in effective control. Other phytochemicals have showngrowth inhibiting effects on the various developmental stages(Regnault-Roger et al., 2004; Malik et al., 2007) and prolongation ofinstar and pupae durations, inhibition of larval and pupal molting,morphological abnormalities and mortality especially during molt-ing (Shaalan et al., 2005). Volatile oils reduce egg hatchability due toeither the toxicity of the oil vapours to eggs or some chemical ingre-dients present in the volatiles of tested oils, which probably diffuseinto eggs, thus affecting vital processes associated with embry-onic development (Papachristos and Stamopoulos, 2004). Growthand reproduction inhibition activity of different Mentha oils againstdifferent pests/insects has been summarized in Table 4.

Fecundity and fertility of female mosquito, emerged from thelarvae treated with different concentration of M. × piperita L. oilwas investigated by Ansari et al. (2000). At the concentration of2 ml/m2, the percentage reduction in fecundity and fertility variedsubstantially for the emerged females of Ae. aegypti (29 and 94%),Cx. quinquefasciatus (100 and 100%) and An. stephensi (52 and 97%)while at the higher concentration of oil (3 ml/m2) no fecundity andfertility was observed in any of the emerged females. Tripathi et al.(2004) also reported 40% inhibition in oviposition of An. stephensiwith oils of M. spicata L. (60.0 �g/ml). Kumar et al. (2011) reported100% inhibition of adult emergence from the M. × piperita L. oiltreated pupae of M. domestica.

In another study, Regnault-Roger and Hamraoui (1993) testedM. × piperita L. oil against A. obtectus and observed that the meanoviposition in female was reduced to 39% while mean number ofadult emergence was decreased to 32%. Kumar et al. (2009) eval-uated oviposition deterrency and ovicidal activity of Mentha oilfor C. chinensis. The study showed increase in oviposition deter-rency with increase in oil concentration and complete inhibition inegg laying at oil concentration of 10 �l/l. At still higher concentra-tion (200 �l/l) adult emergence was completely inhibited. Aziz andAbbass (2010) investigated the effect of different concentration ofM. × rotundifolia (L.) Huds. and M. pulegium L. (0.25–1.0%) on C. mac-ulates through a series of bioassays. During the bioassay procedure,oil treated Vigina radiate seeds were inoculated with two pairs ofnewly emerged C. maculates. The study reported significant reduc-tion in female fecundity with both the oils of M. × rotundifolia (L.)Huds. (64–90%) and M. pulegium L. (82–88%), with the later show-ing significantly better performance at lower concentration. Also,significantly higher mortality (91–98%) of the resulting larvae andpupae was reported for both the oils. Mentha oil (0.5%) also showedsignificant effect on pupation (decreased by 58%) and adult emer-gence (decreased by 71%) for S. litura (Firake and Pande, 2009) whilein case of D. auraria it was found to be effective for the prevention ofegg hatching (Konstantopoulou et al., 1992). Ovicidal effects of dif-

ferent constituent of Mentha oil have been investigated by treatingeggs of T. castaneum with l-menthol and its derivatives (Aggarwalet al., 2001). Menthyl acetate was found to be most effective (nohatching) followed by menthyl propionate and menthyl formatewhich showed <7% egg hatching.

810 P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802– 817

Table 3Larvicidal activity of Mentha oils against different pests/insects.

Mentha oil Experimental condition Target organism (Nos.,instar)

Effect Reference

M. × piperita L. Larvae dipped in oil (3 ml/m2)containing water filled up to 3inch depth in enamel tray(6 × 4 inch2)

Cx. Quinquefasciatus (20,3rd instar larvae)

Mortality: 100% (24 h) Ansari et al. (2000)

M. × piperita L. -do- An. stephensi Mortality: 85% (24 h), 90%(48 h)

M. × piperita L. -do- Ae. Aegypti Mortality: 90% (24 h), 100%(48 h)

M. × piperita L. Bioassay in 500-ml glassbeaker with 200 ml oil(50 ppm) solution in acetone

Ae. aegypti (20, 3rd instarlarvae)

Mortality: 36.7% (12 h), 53.3%(24 h)

Amer and Mehlhorn(2006)

M. suaveolens Ehrh. Bioassays (48 h) done on 3rd to4th instar larvae

Cx. pipiens (20) LD50—47.88 mg/l Koliopoulos et al.(2010)

M. spicata L. -do- Cx. pipiens LD50—52.85 mg/lM. longifolia (L.) Huds. -do- Cx. pipiens LD50—59.33 mg/lM. spicata var. viridis Bioassay against 4th instar

larvaeAn. stephensi LD50—82.95 �l/ml Tripathi et al. (2004)

M. spicata L. Bioassay (24 h): oil in acetone(0.09–2.5%) dissolved in d/wfilled in enamel cups (300 ml)

Ae. Aegypti (40, 4th instar) LC50—67.8 ppm Massebo et al. (2009)

M. spicata L. -do- Ae. Arabiensis LC50—85.9 ppmM. × piperita L. Contact toxicity (48 h), oil

(139.34 �g/cm2) on filter paperin petri plate

M. domestica (20, 3rdinstar)

Mortality—100% Kumar et al. (2011)

40% EC formulation of M. × piperita L. Contact toxicity (72 h),formulation on filter paper inpetri plate

M. domestica LC50—5.12 �g/cm2 Kumar et al. (2011)

M. pulegium L. 1 ml of compound in acetone(0.1–4.0 �l/ml) applied on filterpaper in Petri dishes (18 h)

B. oleae (30) LD50—0.22 �l/ml Pavlidou et al. (2004)

M. pulegium L. -do- D. melanogaster (30) LD50—2.09 �l/mlM. pulegium L. Larvae washed with 17% NaCl

and transferred to petri dishescontaining ringer solution andoil (18 h)

D. melanogaster (50) LD50—2.09 �l Franzios et al. (1997)

M. spicata L. -do- D. melanogaster (50) LD50—1.12 �lM. pulegium L. Oil (1 �l–20 �l) applied on

filter paper placed in the petridish (48 h)

D. auraria (late 3rd instarlarvae)

Mortality—80.0% Konstantopoulou et al.(1992)

M. spicata L. Fumigation (24 h) in glass vials(100 ml) at 10 �l/100 ml

Spodoptera littoralis (15) LD50—46.2 ml/m3 Pavela (2005)

M. pulegium L. -do- S. littoralis LD50—11.5 ml/m3

M. citrata Ehrh. -do- S. littoralis Mortality—33.3%M. arvensis L. -do- S. littoralis Mortality—0%M. spicata L. 0.1 �l oil/larvae delivered in

2 �l of acetone (24 h)S. littoralis (10) LD50—0.092 �l/larvae

M. citrata Ehrh. -do- S. littoralis LD50—0.011 �l/larvaeM. arvensis L. -do- S. littoralis Mortality—33.3%M. arvensis L. 100 mg oil in 1 ml acetone

administrated to each larva(24 h)

Spodoptera litura (4thinstar, 10)

Mortality—50.0% Isman et al. (2001)

tura

tura (1

5

ileaiMfrw(a(

M. × piperita L. -do- S. liMentha oil Castor leaves treated with

(0.25–1%) and fed to larvaeS. li

. Mechanism of action of essential oils

The mode of action of the essential oils or their constituents, asnsecticides is not clearly known. However, due to observed repel-ent, antifeedant and growth regulation effects, it is evident thatssential oils affect insect physiology in diverse ways. Essential oilsnd their constituents affect biochemical processes, which specif-cally disrupt the endocrinologic balance of insects (Rattan, 2010).

onoterpenoids, constituents of essential oils, have been provenor their neurotoxicity effect against house fly and German cock-

oach (Coats et al., 1991) they also acts as pheromones in insectshich make the interactions between plants and insects complex

Balandrin and Klocke, 1988; Franzios et al., 1997). Regnault-Rogernd Hamraoui (1995) reported that oxygenated monoterpenoidse.g. carvacrol, linalool and terpineol) are more toxic than non-

Mortality—40.0%0) Mortality—30% Firake and Pande

(2009)

oxygenated compounds (p-cymene, cinnamaldehyde, anethole)against A. obtectus adults which may be again due to differentmode of action for different constituents. In lepidopteran larvae,terpenes (drimane sesquiterpines) block the stimulatory effects ofglucose and inositol on chemosensory receptor cells (Gershenzonand Dudareva, 2007; Rattan, 2010). However, it is noteworthy, thatin comparison to Mentha oil, their major components (monoter-penes) showed better insecticidal activity (Table 5 ). Moreover,pulegone was found to be most effective for nearly all the insectstreated, carvone and linalool were at par while menthol was found

to be least effective. The difference in enhanced activity of thesemonoterpenes may be attributed to difference in mechanism ofaction, diffusion capability and lipophilicity. Difference in chemicalstructure of monoterpenes is another factor influencing biologi-cal potency. Oxygenated terpenoids are reported to have a higher

P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802– 817 811

Table 4Growth and reproduction inhibition activity of Mentha oils against different pests/insects.

Mentha oil Target organism Effect Reference

M. × piperita L. Ae. aegypti At, 2 ml/m2 Reduction in fecundity & fertility—29% & 94.7%; At3 ml/m2—100% inhibition of fecundity and fertility

Ansari et al. (2000)

M. × piperita L. Cx. quinquefasciatus At, 2 ml/m2 Reduction in fecundity & fertility—100% & 100%; At3 ml/m2—100% inhibition of fecundity and fertility

M. × piperita L. An. stephensi At, 2 ml/m2 Reduction in fecundity & fertility—52% & 96.9%; At3 ml/m2—100% inhibition of fecundity and fertility

M. spicata var. viridis An. stephensi At 60.0 �g/ml, Inhibition in oviposition—42% Tripathi et al.(2004)

M. × piperita L. M. domestica At 27.86 �g/cm2 Inhibition of adult emergence—100% Kumar et al. (2011)M. × piperita L. A. obtectus Reduction in oviposition—39%; Reduction in adult

emergence—32%Regnault-Rogerand Hamraoui(1993)

M. arvensis L. C. chinensis At 10 �l/l, inhibition in egg laying—100%; at 200 �l/l,suppression in adult emergence—100%

Kumar et al. (2009)

M. × rotundifolia (L.) Huds. C. maculates At the oil conc. (0.25–1%) Reduction in femalefecundity—64–90%; Mortality of resulting larvae &pupae—91–98%

Aziz and Abbass(2010)

M. pulegium L. C. maculates At the oil conc. (0.25–1%); Reduction in femalefecundity—82–88%; Mortality of resulting larvae &pupae—94–97%

onc., R

aoieadnemttsTmdat

(sftaMSaspam(mtossdot2ot

Mentha oil S. litura At 0.5% c

ctivity than the non-oxygenated ones, and further, even amongxygenated ones, biological activity is differentiated by their chem-cal groups and saturation (Pavela, 2008). Aggarwal et al. (2001)valuated l-menthol and seven of its acyl derivatives for repellentctivity against C. maculates, S. oryzae, T. castaneum and Rhyzoperthaominica, and found the repellent activity to be dependent upon theumber of methyl group in the side chain. Further, Samarasekerat al. (2008) compared the mosquitocidal activity of synthesizedenthol derivatives with that of l-menthol in order to evaluate

he effect of derivatization and to establish structure–activity rela-ionships (SARs) of the compounds with the aim of identifyingtructural features that are necessary for mosquitocidal activity.hey compared 12 l-menthol derivatives (synthesized) with l-enthol and deduced that less bulky groups (e.g. acetate) tends to

ecrease the mosquitocidal activity while more bulky groups (e.g.cyl and aryl) tend to increase it, also, lipophilicity has a propensityo enhance the mosquitocidal activity.

There has also been report of blocking of AcetylcholinesteraseAChE) synthesis by essential oils which play role in cholinergicynapses in insects and higher animals (Fournier and Mutero, 1994)or nerve conduction and thus maintain a general co-ordination inhe neuromuscular system. However, Lee et al. (2001) did not find

direct correlation between insect toxicity and AChE inhibition.enthone from M. arvensis L. was highly toxic (LC50—12.7 �l/l) to

. oryzae but it had a relatively small inhibitory effect on AChEctivity (Ki-0.39 mM) while less toxic b-pinene (LC50—78.9 �l/l)howed high-level inhibition (Ki—0.0028 mM). Therefore, it is sus-ected that, in addition to AChE inhibition, the monoterpenes mayct on other vulnerable sites (e.g. cytochrome P450-dependentonooxygenases) also (Lee et al., 2001; Ketoh et al., 2002). Enan

2001) postulated that octopamine receptor system of insects isore sensitive to some oils (e.g. pulegone rich) than AChE. Essen-

ial oils manipulate octopamine to affect acceleration of heartbeatr increase in cAMP production in insects. Franzios et al. (1997)uggested that different constituent of essential oils may interactynergistically/antagonistically for its activity since the insectici-al toxicity of oils and their constituents were independent of each

thers. Also, efficacy and insecticidal potency of essential oils seemso be dependent on relative absorption on the insect surface (Enan,001), particularly in the case of larvicidal activity. There is reportf different larvicidal activity of various Mentha species which inurn depend upon their comparative absorption in larvae midgut

eduction in adult emergence—71% Firake and Pande(2009)

(Rey et al., 1999). This could be again due to the difference in thenature of inherent chemical constituents in different species. Dif-ferent insecticidal efficacy of the same oil for the same insect couldbe attributed to different strain of the insects or variation in com-position of essential oils used (Lee et al., 2002; Pavela, 2005). Useof insecticides resistant strain for the study also, could cause crossresistant for the essential oils and thereby leading to disparity inthe efficacy (Lee et al., 2002).

6. Insecticidal activity of Mentha extract

Mentha has been used as insecticides mainly in the form of itsoil, however, the extracts of Mentha leaf has also shown someinsecticidal properties. Insecticidal activities of Mentha extractsagainst different pests/insects are summarized in Table 6. Effec-tiveness of extract as insecticides depends upon the extractionsolvent. Solvent decides the activity of plant extract by enablingextraction of insecticidal component of designated plant. The effectof different solvents (50% methanol, acetone and hexane) on effi-cacy of resultant Mentha extract against the larvae and pupae ofstored grain pest, T. castaneum was studied by Pascual-Villalobosand Robledo (1998). In both repellency and topical applicationassay against larvae, maximum activity was obtained using hexaneextract. In the antifeedancy assay also, only hexane and methanolextracts were found to be effective. However, topical applicationand contact toxicity assays against pupae were generally inef-fective with any of the extracts except methanol. The differencein the insecticidal activity of different solvent-extract could beattributed to the polarity of solvent, which ranged from highlypolar (methanol) to mid polar (acetone) and apolar (hexane).Clemente et al. (2003) compared the insecticidal efficacy of infu-sions and dichloromethane extracts (5000 ppm) of five Lamiaceaespecies against larvae of T. castaneum. Dichloromethane extractsof M. × rotundifolia (L.) Huds. proved to be more effective causing∼74% mortality while infusions caused only ∼19% larval mortal-ity. This result implied that organic solvent is better than water

to extract metabolites with biological activity. Recently, Saljoqiet al. (2006) reported substantial repellency (24%) and mortal-ity (48%) of the ethanol extracts of M. longifolia (L.) Huds. leafagainst S. oryzae. Regnault-Roger and Hamraoui (1993) reporteda reduction of 39% in oviposition and 35% in adult emergene of A.

812 P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802– 817

Table 5Insecticidal activity of chemical components of mentha oils of different species.

Chemical constituents Experimental condition Target organism (Nos., age) Effect Reference

Menthone Fumigantion (24 h) in 3.4 l glass flask with oilapplied on a filter paper & test insect held in smallcage

S. oryzae (20 adult insect,10–15 days old)

LC50—12.7 �l/l air;LC95—25.1 �l/l air

Lee et al. (2001)

Linalool -do- S. oryzae (20 adult insect,10–15 days old)

LC50—39.2 �l/l air;LC95—77.5 �l/l air

�-pinene -do- S. oryzae LC50—54.9 �l/l air;LC95—76.0 �l/l air

Menthone Fumigantion (24 h) in 250 ml flasks T. castaneum (50) LD50—8.5 �l/l air Lee et al. (2002)1,8-cineole -do- T. castaneum LD50—7.5 �l/l airCarvone -do- T. castaneum LD50—>100 �l/l airLinalool Fumigation (14 h), insect in small glass cylinders

with screen on both ends for gas exchange,suspended in the center of a jar containing50 �g/ml air of compounds diluted in corn oil

M. domestica (10) Mortality—100% Lee et al. (2003)

Linalool -do- Blattella germanica (5) Mortality—100%Linalool -do- T. castaneum (20) Mortality—10%Linalool -do- S. oryzae (20) Mortality—0%Linalool -do- Oryzaephilus surinamensis

(20)Mortality—100%

Menthol -do- M. domestica (10) Mortality—100%Menthol -do- B. germanica. (5) Mortality—30%Menthol -do- T. castaneum (20) Mortality—0%Menthol -do- S. oryzae (20) Mortality—0%Menthol -do- O. surinamensi (20) Mortality—5%(+)-Carvone -do- M. domestica (10) Mortality—100%(+)-Carvone -do- B. germanica. (5) Mortality—80%(+)-Carvone -do- T. castaneum (20) Mortality—50%(+)-Carvone -do- S. oryzae (20) Mortality—20%(+)-Carvone -do- O. surinamensi (20) Mortality—100%Pulegone -do- M. domestica (10) Mortality—100%Pulegone -do- B. germanica. (5) Mortality—100%Pulegone -do- T. castaneum (20) Mortality—100%Pulegone -do- S. oryzae (20) Mortality—100%Pulegone -do- O. surinamensi (20) Mortality—100%(+)-Carvone contact toxicity (24 h) on adults, 0.125–80 �g/cm2

applied on black cotton fabric in a petri dishTyrophagus putrescentiae(30, 7–10 days old)

LD50—4.62 �g/cm2 Lee et al. (2006)

(−)-Carvone -do- T. putrescentiae (30,7–10 days old)

LD50—5.23 �g/cm2

Linalool Trays containing 200 ml of sea water andmonoterpene (0.5–30 �g/200 ml sea water)

Seaside mosquito,Ochlerotatus caspius (15,4th stage larvae)

LC50—55.73 �g/ml Knio et al. (2008)

(−)-Linalool Fumigation (24 h) in 1 l glass jars containingmonoterepenes (1–100 mg) on filter paper andattached to the undersurface of screw caps of jars

S. oryzae (20) LC50—66.7 �g/cm2 Abdelgaleil et al.(2009)

(−)-Linalool -do- T. castaneum (20) LC50—105.6 �g/cm2

(−)-Menthol -do- S. oryzae (20) LC50—221.7 �g/cm2

(−)-Menthol -do- T. castaneum (20) LC50—>500 �g/cm2

(−)-Carvone -do- S. oryzae (20) LC50—28.2 �g/cm2

(−)-Carvone -do- T. castaneum (20) LC50—19.8 �g/cm2

l-menthol Repellency, 20 �g substance in 1.0 ml acetone onhalf area of the filter-paper

C. maculatus (10) Repellency—100% Aggarwal et al.(2001)

l-menthol -do- R. dominica (10) Repellency—72%l-menthol -do- S. oryzae (10) Repellency—78%l-menthol -do- T. castaneum (10) Repellency—82%l-menthol Fumigation, 1.0 ml substance in acetone on a filter

paper placed in 1 l plastic jarC. maculatus (20, 5–7 daysold)

LD99—8.4 mg/litrespace

l-menthol -do- R. dominica (20, 5–7 daysold)

LD99—7.9 mg/litrespace

l-menthol -do- S. oryzae (20, 5–7 days old) LD99—7.9 mg/litrespace

l-menthol -do- T. castaneum (20, 5–7 daysold)

LD99—28.1 mg/litrespace

l-menthol Contact toxicity in petri dishes, 1.0 �l applied tothe dorsal surface of insect

C. maculatus (10 adult,5–7 days old)

LD99—823.5 �g/mgbody weight

l-menthol -do- R. dominica (10 adult,5–7 days old)

LD99—1393.7 �g/mgbody weight

l-menthol -do- S. oryzae (10 adult,5–7 days old)

LD99—1068.5 �g/mgbody weight

l-menthol -do- T. castaneum (10 adult,5–7 days old)

LD99—1545.4 �g/mgbody weight

Menthol Inhalation activity in smaller petri dishes enclosedwithin a bigger one containing 6 �l of substance

T. longior (10 adult) 100% mortality Perrucci (1995)

Menthol Contact toxicity, 0.25 �l spread on internal surfaceof petri dishes

Tyrophagus longior (10adult)

100% mortality

P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802– 817 813

Table 5 (Continued )

Chemical constituents Experimental condition Target organism (Nos., age) Effect Reference

Menthol Repellency (1 h) in two cylindrical plastic tubes,one containing compound (1.25–20 g l−1) on filterpaper, other mosquitoes

Cx. quinquefasciatus (15adult females, 3 day old)

LC50—0.50 �g/ml;KD50—0.50 �g/ml

Samarasekera et al.(2008)

-do- An. tessellates (15 adultfemales, 3 day old)

LC50—0.36 �g/ml;KD50—0.54 �g/ml

Pulgeone 1 ml compound in acetone (0.05–3.0 �l/ml) onfilter paper in petri dishes on larvae

B. oleae (30) LD50—0.09 �l/ml Pavlidou et al.(2004)

Menthone -do- B. oleae (30) LD50—0.13 �l/mlPulgeone -do- D. melanogaster (30) LD50—0.17 �l/mlMenthone -do- D. melanogaster (30) LD50—1.29 �l/mlPulegone Fumigation, females placed on cavity slide and

confined with a cover slip and placed in plastic boxT. putrescentiae (10, <7 daysold)

LC50—3.7 �l/l Sanchez-Ramosand Castanera(2001)

Menthone -do- T. putrescentiae (10, <7 daysold)

LC50—4.7 �l/l

Linalool -do- T. putrescentiae (10, <7 daysold)

LC50—7 �l/l

Pulegone Fumigation against larvae Lycoriella ingenua LC50—1.21 �g/ml Park et al. (2006)Menthone -do- L. ingenua LC50—6.03 �g/mlPulegone Contact toxicity (14 h) on larvae D. melanogaster (50) LD50—0.17 �l Franzios et al.

(1997)Menthone -do- D. melanogaster (50) LD50—1.29 �lCarvone -do- D. melanogaster (50) LD50—0.67 �lMenthone Repellency (1 h) in glass ring divided into an inner

and outer circular zone, outer zone is treated(0.7 mg/cm2)

Head lice, Pediculushumanus capitis

Repellency—39% Toloza et al. (2006)

Linalool PVC container covered with gauze containcompound applied on filter paper (5.25–800 mg/lof air)

Blattella germanica (10females, 7–8 days old)

LC50—0.12 mg/cm2 Jang et al. (2005)

Terpinen-4-ol -do- B. germanica (10 females,7–8 days old)

LC50—0.42 mg/cm2

piperitenone oxide Bioassay done on 4th instar larvae An. stephensi LD50—61.64 �g/ml Tripathi et al.(2004)

piperitenone oxide Bioassay done on 4th instar larvae An. stephensi At 60.0 �g/mlinhibition ofoviposition—100%;At 75.0 �g/mlinhibition in egghatching—100%

Piperitenone oxide Bioassays (48 h) done on 3rd to 4th instar larvae Cx. pipiens (20) LC50—9.95 mg/l; Koliopoulos et al.

oFdwafi

lfe(DSTl

oa1erHssi

(R)-(+)-pulegone Antifeedant (24 h), Compounds applied to adaxialsurface of leaves (0.01 ml/cm2)

btectus following treatment with M. × piperita L. plant material.or the same study, reduction in female life span (4%) and fecun-ity (37%) was also noticed. The only formulation of Mentha extractas reported by Sayeda et al. (2009), who tested their activity

gainst nymph of whitefly, B. tabaci and A. craccivora and reportedormulated extract to be better performing than crude extracttself.

Cetin et al. (2006) reported high efficacy of ethanol extracts of M.ongifolia L. (LC50—26.8 ppm) and M. pulegium L. (LC50—81.0 ppm)or the third- and fourth-instar larvae of Cx. pipiens while Mangalatt al. (2004) used crude extract of grounded leaf of M. rotundofoliaL.) Huds. and obtained 30% mosquito larvae mortality. Kumar andutta (1987) obtained an LC50 of 83.8 mg/l for An. stephensi withteam distillation of different plant parts of M. arvensis L. whileraboulsi et al. (2002) reported a LC50 of 39 mg/l for Cx. pipiensarvae with leaf extracts of M. microcorphylla K. Koch.

The process of extraction also affects the insecticidal propertiesf the extract. Accelerated solvent extraction and microwave-ssisted extraction were significantly more efficient (127% and15%, respectively) when compared to the classical soxhletxtraction method, while fluid-bed extraction provided the best

eproducibility (Chahad and Boof, 1994). Regnault-Roger andamraoui (1995) evaluated the toxicity of intact plant and their

team distilled component against A. obtectus. They found thatteam distillation significantly reduced the toxicity of plants,ncluding Mentha. Thus, some of the advanced techniques of extrac-

LC90—22.4 mg/l (2010)Myzus persicae relative indices of

deterrence—0.43Dancewicz et al.(2008)

tion reported to enhance the activity of extracts may be employedfor enhancing Mentha toxicity.

Although as compared to Mentha essential oil, the studiesemploying Mentha extracts are limited, several species (M. longifo-lia (L.) Huds., M. pulegium L., M. × piperita L.) have been attempted inthe mode. However, the required dose for effective insect mortalityis found to be significantly higher in the Mentha extracts comparedto Mentha essential oils.

7. Conclusions and future prospects

Mentha has a historical significance as medicinal and insectici-dal plant of traditional knowledge system. In the last few decades,intense research activity has been conducted to demonstrate theinsect/pest control potential of various Mentha species largely interms of adulticidal activity. Fumigant and repellent activity ofMentha essential oil has been studied against several stored grainpests and vectors/other pests. In the present work, attempts havebeen made to consolidate these reports; however, due to differencein methodology (bioassays), type and age of the target insect, vari-ation in essential oil composition and different ways of reporting

results, it is difficult to deduce any conclusion from the tabulateddata. Nevertheless, few generalizations could be made. Againststorage pests, M. microphylla K. Koch. and M. viridis (L.) L. have beenfound to be more effective than M. arvensis L. and M. × piperita L.oils. The insecticidal activity of M. microphylla K. Koch. has been

814 P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802– 817

Table 6Insecticidal activity of Mentha extracts against different pests/insects.

Name of plant Experimental condition Types of extract Organism Effect Reference

M. longifolia (L.) Huds. Repellency (24 h),extract (0.05%) mixedwith diet, 10 larvae(25 days old)

Hexane T. castaneum Repellency index—0–39% Pascual-Villalobosand Robledo (1998)

-do- Acetone T. castaneum No RepellencyTopical application(72 h), 3 �g/insect,larvae

Methanol (50%),acetone

T. castaneum Mortality—0–39%

-do- Hexane T. castaneum Mortality—40–69%Topical application (6day), 3 �g/insect,pupae

Methanol (50%), T. castaneum Mortality—0–39%

-do- Acetone, Hexane T. castaneum No mortalityContact toxicity (6 day)in Petri dish containing25.5 mg/cm2 of extracton filter paper, 10pupae (< 24 h old)

Methanol (50%),Acetone, Hexane

T. castaneum No mortality

Antifeedancy (10 day),extract (0.05%) mixedto diet and offered to10-day-old larvae

Methanol (50%),Hexane

T. castaneum Mortality—0–39%

-do- Acetone T. castaneum No mortalityM. × rotundifolia (L.) Huds. Extract mixed with

larvae (10) dietDichloromethaneextracts (5000 ppm)

T. castaneum Mortality—74% Clemente et al.(2003)

-do- Infusion (5% P/V) T. castaneum Mortality—19%M. longifolia (L.) Huds. Repellency (10 days) in

a set of two plasticvials joined by plasticpipe (dia.-1 cm), Onevial treated withextract and containwheat grains (20 g) andother empty

Ethanol extracts of leaf S. oryzae (10 adults) Avg. repellency—24.2% Saljoqi et al. (2006)

Avg. mortality—47.7%M. × piperita L. Petri dish containing

1 g plant material withdiet (6 kidney beans),24 h

Dry plant material A. obtectus (15 pairs, 1male and 1 fertilizedfemale)

Red. in oviposition—39%;Red. in adultemergene—35%

Regnault-Roger andHamraoui (1993)

M. × piperita L. -do- Intact plant parts A. obtectus (15 pairs, 1male and 1 female)

Red. in female lifespan-4%; Red. infecundity/female/day-37%

Regnault-Roger andHamraoui (1995)

-do- Steam distilled plantparts

-do- Red. in female lifespan-0%; Red. infecundity/female/day-12%

M. microphylla K. Koch Contact toxicity (2 h) crude leaf extract(750–5000 ppm)

B. tabaci (1st nymph) B.tabaci (3rd nymph)

LC50—309.53 ppm;LC50—1443.91 ppm

Sayeda et al. (2009)

-do- crude leaf extract in7 ml of water and 3 mlof acetone

A. craccivora LC50—509.29 ppm

-do- EC Formulation ofcrude leaf extract

B. tabaci (1st nymph) B.tabaci (3rd nymph)

LC50—170.70 ppm;LC50—947.79 ppm

-do- -do- A. craccivora LC50—392.54 ppmM. longifolia (L.) Huds. 500 ml glass jar

containing 250 mlplant extract(5–200 ppm), 20, late3rd and 4th instarlarvae

ethanol extracts of theaerial parts

Cx. pipiens LC50—26.8 ppm Cetin et al. (2006)

M. pulegium -do- -do- Cx. pipiens LC50—81.0 ppmM. × rotundofolia (L.) Huds. Contact toxicity (48 h)

larvae (10) kept inwatch glass with plantextract

crude extract ofgrounded leaf

Mosquito Mortality—30% Mangalat et al.(2004)

ts

atMt

M. arvensis L. – Steam distillation ofdifferent plant parts

M. microphylla K. Koch – leaf and flower extrac

ccredited to its major compounds piperitenone oxide and piperi-one oxide. In case of vectors most of the studies have focussed on. × piperita L. and M. spicata L.oils, which proved to be very effec-

ive repellent and fumigant. Concerning larvicidal activity, vectors

An. stephensi LC50—83.8 mg/l Kumar and Dutta(1987)

Cx. pipiens (4th instarlarvae)

LC50—39 mg/l Traboulsi et al.(2002)

have been relatively widely investigated but such reports on stor-age pests are scanty. Interestingly, at higher concentrations Menthaoil acts as a larvicidal agent while at lower concentrations it causesaberration in pupal formation which either leads to complete inhi-

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ition or reduction in adult emergence. Subsequently, fecunditynd fertility of the emerged females is also reduced significantly.uch evidences exist both in case of vectors (mosquito) as wells challenging storage pests. To sum up, large number of studiesave established Mentha species as undisputable insect pest controlgent. Nevertheless, the mechanism of insecticidal activity remainsbscure as only some studies report chemical composition of oilssed.

Investigations have also been conducted on the insecticidalctivity of major components (menthol, menthone, pulegone, Car-one) of Mentha essential oils. These studies help to explain theelative efficacy of various chemotypes and throw light on theechanism of action. It is noteworthy that in comparison to Mentha

il, several of these major components show insecticidal activ-ty at much lower concentrations against target insects. Amonghese, pulegone was found to be most effective for nearly all thensects treated; carvone and linalool were at par while menthol

as found to be least effective. In contrast, in case of mosquitoes,enthol showed the highest activity. The difference in the activity

f these monoterpenes may be attributed to difference in mecha-ism of action, diffusion capability and lipophilicity which in turn

s governed by difference in chemical structure, chemical groupsnd saturation. Hence, a combination of different Mentha speciesith diverse composition may be investigated in order to harness

he potential of multiple mechanisms responsible for insecticidalctivity.

In spite of a large body of literature, the general applicability ofentha species as insect control agent on commercial scale is lack-

ng. The reasons for this could be; relatively slow action, variablefficacy, and lack of persistence, inconsistent availability and lackf suitable/user friendly end product (Isman, 2008). It is evidenthat formulation development could increase the usability, efficacynd storability of the essential oil or active ingredient. However,ery few studies report the development of appropriate formu-ation of Mentha essential oil for insect control. The challenge ofrotecting intellectual property based on natural products, com-lex regulatory approvals and unexplored toxicity concerns couldlso restrict the commercial development of botanicals. Due tohe lack of organised production units, the current cost of Menthaased insecticides may turn out to be on the higher side. Neverthe-

ess, considering the cost incurred by environmental degradationn general and insect resistance induced by chemical insecticides inarticular, plant based insecticides would find significant place inest management system in the long run. In the nutshell, there

s a need to develop technically sound and economically viableethods of formulation to overcome the limitations in the path

f commercialization. With proper handling and innovations, lead-ng to practical applicability, Mentha species has all the potentialo restrict synthetic insecticides as well as to be used in IPM (Inte-rated Pest Management) for control of various insects/pests.

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