innovative interventions for sustainable vegetable production ...

INNOVATIVE INTERVENTIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE

VEGETABLE PRODUCTION UNDER CHANGING CLIMATE SCENARIO

(3rd September to 23rd September 2019)

Organized by:

CENTRE OF ADVANCED FACULTY TRAINING IN HORTICULTURE (VEGETABLES)

Department of Vegetable Science

Dr Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and

Forestry Nauni -173 230 Solan,

Himachal Pradesh, India

Director CAFT : Dr A K Sharma

Course Coordinator : Dr Y R Shukla

Course Co-coordinator : Dr Kuldeep S Thakur

Compiled & Edited by : Dr Devinder K Mehta

Technical support :

Dr H R Sharma Dr H Dev Sharma Dr Ramesh K Bhardwaj Dr Sandeep Kansal Dr Amit Vikram Dr Menu Gupta Dr Vipin Sharma

Financed by : ICAR New Delhi

CENTRE OF ADVANCED FACULTY TRAINING IN

HORTICULTURE (VEGETABLES)


Dr Y S Parmar University of Horticulture

and Forestry Nauni -173 230 Solan,

Himachal Pradesh, India

Foreword

Over the recent past, many factors have worked together to expedite

growth in the agriculture sector in India. With the introduction of new

cultivated species and breeding of improved varieties, we have achieved food

security by producing over 275 million tonnes of food grains. However, our

struggle to achieve the nutritional security is still on. The 2015 Global Hunger

Index report ranked India 20th amongst leading countries with serious

malnutrition situation. In near future, the problems of malnutrition and under

nourishment are raising into a silent challenge to our nation. The depleting

land and water resources for agricultural use and weird changes in climatic

conditions are aggravating the prevailing situations. To address these

challenges and to ensure the nutritional security for ever increasing

population, it is important to diversify the agricultural activities in areas like

horticulture.

The horticulture, especially vegetable cultivation has gained importance

in recent years as a significant component of agriculture in India. The new

impetus is given for the development of the horticulture, particularly for

growing fruits and vegetables, which constitute important segment of India

Dietary System (IDS). India is one among the many important fruits and

vegetables producing countries of the world. It ranks second after China in the

production of vegetable crops. Besides, their value in human consumption,

vegetable crops plays an important role in commerce, particularly in export

trade and processing industry. Employment opportunities provided by this

sector to the farm population engaged in production, transportation,

processing and marketing operations in addition to the entrepreneurs seeking

self-employment. Keeping in view its importance much emphasis has been laid

to augment the production of horticultural crops in our national plans.

In the past two decades, the vegetable production in India has been

increased 2.86 times from 58.5 MT in 1991-92 to 167.5 MT in 2017-18. With

the food production is increasing so it is essential to sustain increased

production to meet the nutritional standard of people. To enhance the

vegetable productivity by using new innovative methods and technologies is the

best alternate to sustain the food security. Vegetable production in the country,

have led to increase per capita availability of vegetables. India has first rank in

pea and okra production while 2nd rank in tomato, cauliflower, potato, onion

and brinjal.

Current trends in population growth hint that global food production is

unlikely to gratify future demands under predicted climate change scenarios

unless the rates of crop improvement are accelerated. These challenges come at

a time when the plant sciences are witnessing remarkable progress in

understanding fundamental processes of plant growth and development.

Drought, heat, cold and salinity are among the major abiotic stresses that often

cause a series of morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecular

alterations which adversely affect plant growth, development and productivity,

consequently posing a serious challenge for sustainable food production in

large parts of the world, particularly in emerging countries like India. This

emphasizes the urgency of finding better ways to translate new advances in

plant science into concrete successes in agricultural production. To overcome

the pessimistic influence of abiotic stresses and to maintain the food security

in the face of these challenges, new, improved and tolerant crop varieties,

contemporary breeding techniques, and deep understanding of the

mechanisms that counteract detrimental climate changes are indubitably

needed to sustain the requisite food supply.

Accordingly, the topic “Innovative Interventions for Sustainable Vegetable

Production under Changing Climate Scenario” chosen for the present training

under Centre of Advanced Faculty Training in Horticulture (Vegetables) is

appropriate and relevant under present circumstances of agriculture. I am

sure, the lectures delivered by the faculty of this university, invited speakers as

well as the exposure visits conducted during the training might have benefited

the participants. Further, the giving compilation of lectures in the form of

compendium to the participants of training will also help in strengthening the

teaching programmes in their respective institutions in this area. All the faculty

members and staff of the department of vegetable Science deserve appreciation

for the efforts made in the smooth conduct of the training programme.

(Parvinder Kaushal)

Vice Chancellor

Acknowledgements

Vegetable being an effective alternative to protective food, have become

an essential component of human diet. Although there has been spectacular

increase in the vegetable production from 15 million tonnes during 1950 to 188

million tonnes during the current year, but we still need to produce more

vegetables to meet the minimum requirement of at least providing 300 g of

vegetables/day/capita. The target can only be achieved through combined use

of growing high yielding varieties having resistance to various biotic and abiotic

stresses with improved nutritional quality and matching agro techniques by

utilizing available resources. Developing countries like India whose

geographical areas comprises of mountainous regions comprising of Himalayas,

central plateau region, northern plains, coastal regions, deltas etc. are

particularly vulnerable for climate change as little change in the climate will

disturb the whole ecology and in-turn the traditional pattern of vegetables

being grown in these regions. Latitudinal and altitudinal shifts in ecological

and agro-economic zones, land degradation, extreme geophysical events,

reduced water availability, and rise in sea level are the factors which affect the

vegetable production. Unless measures are undertaken to adapt to the effects

of climate change, vegetable production in the developing countries like India

will be under threat. Hence, the present training programme organized by

Centre of Advanced Faculty Training in Horticulture (Vegetables) on “Innovative

Interventions for Sustainable Vegetable Production under Changing Climate

Scenario” is important as it will sharpen the focus on production of vegetables

under changing climatic conditions. The Centre of Advanced Faculty Training

in Horticulture (Vegetables) gratefully acknowledges the patronage provided by

Dr Parvinder Kaushal, Ho’ble Vice-Chancellor of this University. The financial

assistance received from the Indian Council of Agricultural Research in

conducting the training and generating useful instructional material along with

assistance for need based post-graduate research is also highly acknowledged.

The Centre also appreciates sincere efforts of all the resource personnel within

and outside this university for interaction with the participants. All the faculty

members and staff of Department of Vegetable Science, Deans and Directors of

the University, other Statutory Officers and Heads of the Departments deserve

special thanks for their help and co-operation in making this training

programme a success.

(A K Sharma)

Professor & Head cum Director CAFT

CONTENTS

S. No. Title Pages

1. Climate Change: An Argument to Agreement

A K Sharma and Sudheer Annepu

1-9

2. Breeding for Protected Cultivation of Vegetable Crops

Ajmer S Dhatt

10-24

3. Prospectives of Hybrid Development in Indian Onion

Ajmer S Dhatt

25-38

4. Impacts of Climate Change vis-a-vis Vegetable Production

Akhilesh Sharma, Hem Lata and Ranbir Singh Rana

39-48

5. Potential Role of Underutilized Indigenous Vegetable Crops

in the Changing Climatic Scenario

Akhilesh Sharma, Eshanee, Jagmeet Singh and Priyanka

49-60

6. Improving the Availability and Quality of Vegetable Seeds for

Higher Profitability

BS Tomar

61-74

7. Recent Advances in Seed Production of Root Crops

B S Tomar

75-81

8. Aquatic Vegetables is the “New Gold” under Changing

Climate Scenario

Rakesh Kr Dubey*, Vikas Singha, Jyoti Devi, K.K. Gauta, P.M.

Singh and Jagdish Singh

82-92

9. Climate Resilient Underexploited Vegetables for Nutritional

and Economic Security

Rakesh Kr Dubey*, V. Singha, Jyoti Devi, K K Gautam, P M

Singh and Jagdish Singh

93-114

10. Protected Cultivation of High-Value Vegetable Crops under

Changing Climate Conditions

Y R Shukla

115-124

11. Impacts of Climate Change/Variability on Phenology of Vegetable Crops: Adaptation and Mitigation Strategy

Satish Kumar Bhardwaj

125-137

12. Sustainable Solanaceous Vegetable Production under

Extreme Conditions

H Dev Sharma and Vipin Sharma

138-150

13. Development of Climate Resilient Cucurbitaceous

Vegetables

Ramesh Kumar and Reena Kumari

151-162

14. Climate Change: Vegetable Seed Production and

Options for Adaptation

Devinder Kumar Mehta and Nair Sunil Appukuttan

163-196

15. Breeding for Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Vegetable Crops

under Changing Climate Scenario

Amit Vikram

191-199

16. Organic Farming: As a Climate Change Adaptation and

Mitigation Strategy

Kuldeep Singh Thakur and DK Dingal

200-204

17. Impact of Climate Change on Pathogens and Plant

Diseases

Sandeep Kansal

205-214

18. Management of Diseases of Solanaceous and

Cucurbitaceous Vegetables under Changing Climate

Meenu Gupta and Arunesh Kumar*

215-224

19. Insect Pest Responses to Climate Change: Implications

for Vegetable Production

Divender Gupta and Isha Sharma

225-231

20 Biotechnological Interventions for Sustainable Vegetable

Production under the Scenario of Climate Change

Rajnish Sharma, Bhuvnesh Kapoor and Parul Sharma

232-236

21 Quality of Vegetables under Climate Resilience

Vipin Sharma and H Dev Sharma

237-245

22 Socio-Economic Impact of Climate Resilient Technologies

on Agriculture

Ravinder Sharma

246-251

23 Climate change vis-a-vis pollination; affecting vegetable

production

Raj Kumar Thakur and Ankush Dhuria

252-265

24 4 R’s Nutrient stewardship

Rajesh Kaushal

266-269

25 List of faculty of department of Vegetable Science 270-271

26 List of participants 272-285

INNOVATIVE INTERVENTIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE VEGETABLE PRODUCTION UNDER CHANGING CLIMATE SCENARIO (3-23 September 2019)

1

Climate Change: An Argument to Agreement

A K Sharma and Sudheer Annepu


Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry

Nauni 173230 Solan, Himachal Pradesh

Introduction

The earth‟s climate has changed throughout its geological history. There

have been seven ice age cycles followed by the warming and retreat of glacial

advance. The natural causes such as volcanic activity, ocean currents,

continental drifts, etc were majorly responsible for these changes in the earth‟s

history. However, the changes occurred in the last 10 decades due to the

human civilization and its associated developmental activities marked the

beginning of the modern climate era. It is widely accepted that human activities

are now increasingly influencing changes in the global climate. Recently, a 34

member panel of the Anthropocene Working Group (AWG) voted in favour of

designating a new geological epoch the anthropocene. It is the present

geological time interval in which human activity has profoundly altered many

conditions and process on earth. The report signals the end of the tolocene

epoch which began 11,700 years ago.

The average surface temperature of the planet has risen to 0.9°C since

the late 19th century. On a record five warmest years took place since the

beginning of the 21st century. The current trends in changing global climate

and warming patterns are having particular significance as these resulted from

the human activity and proceeding at a rate that is unprecedented over

decades to millennia (IPCC 5th Assessment Report). Human-induced changes in

climate will have both common and differentiated impacts. It is now widely

accepted that the average mean temperature will increase by 1 to 2ºC during

this century. These changes leading to adverse rise in temperature,

precipitation and sea level which in turn will disturb the food, water and

livelihood security systems in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, regions

where already widespread hunger prevails.


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What is climate variability and what is climate extremity?

Detecting climate change is difficult because any climate change signal is

superimposed on the prejudice of natural climate variability. Hence, clear

understanding between climate variability and extreme weather event is

critical. Climate is the average of weather over time and across large regions,

even the entire planet. Weather is what is happening in one place at one time.

The global climate has always varied for many reasons, such as interactions

between components in the climate system (oceans, atmosphere, ice sheets,

etc.): - El Niño, a climatic phenomenon where the surface temperature of the

eastern Pacific Ocean warms, affecting the weather worldwide, is an example of

this. Climate change, on the other hand, occurs because the amount of energy

in the entire climate system is changed which affects each and every

component in the system. Changes in the Earth‟s orbit, the energy received

from the Sun and the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere can all

cause climate change.

The bell curve represents the probability of climate variations under

present-day and future greenhouse warming conditions (Fig 1). An increase in

mean (average) temperatures, which is depicted as a rightward shift in the bell

curve, indicates that there is increased probability of warmer temperature

events.

In addition, the entire temperature distribution shifts a bit warmer,

meaning that outbreaks of extremely cold weather become fewer and outbreaks

of extremely hot weather become more common. This doesn't mean that, cold

outbreaks will cease as the world warms. Indeed, very cold weather can still

occur. Take the climate conditions prevailed in United States of America during

February, 2019. It was extremely cold in that region, and a couple of areas

actually had their coldest February on record (since 1895). So, yes, the weather

can still sometimes be frigid even amid global warming. But, added up over

time, fewer cold outbreaks and more heat waves occur. The increase in hot

weather has been most notable at night (more record warm nights) than during

the day. The same goes for the reduction in extreme cold; the decrease in very

cold nights has been more notable than decreased extreme cold during the day.


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a. Climate variability b. Climate extremity

Fig 1 Comparison of climate variability and extreme climate events


4

The problem of climate change denial

Over the last two decades, exceptional work done by an US based

organization, IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), has

conclusively proven that, climate change is happening and it is a reality. The

global warming is no more a hoax and it is happening majorly due to

anthropogenic reasons. Still, there is a significant section of political spectrum

that simply refuses it. The problem is that, on one hand the science is showing

that, our position is getting increasingly desperate by the way of catastrophic

changes in the climate. On the other hand some of the global leaders saying it

are a hoax from the developing nations towards the global economy. Though

many people across the globe, takes such statements are irrational, US exit

from the Paris Agreement has wide spectrum of negative effect on the

commitment made by the member nations of IPCC to combat the climate

change. Unless we found a base for the impact of climate change on agriculture

and other fields, the questions raised by these skeptics will get the merit and it

is not possible to achieve the sustainable livelihoods by mitigating the climate

change.

Climate change and its impact on Indian agriculture

Climate sensitivity of agriculture is one of the most sensitive and

uncertain part which influences the food security of the nation and the

mankind as a whole. For instance, Indian agriculture normally referred to as a

„„gamble with monsoon‟‟ would become even more to weather behavior

vulnerable. With lesser precipitation and increased evapotranspiration, survival

and productivity of agri-horticultural crops would become a serious problem

(Swaminathan and Kesavan, 2012). The coastal soil and aquifers would become

salinized and staple food crops like paddy would come under severe stress. A

rise in sea water temperature will affect mortality of fish and their geographical

distribution. Decline in the corals in the Indian Ocean is already reported. A

change in the species and intensities of pests attacking crop plants due to

climate change has also been envisioned. Continued changes in the frequency

and intensity of precipitation, heat waves, and other extreme events are likely,

all which will impact agricultural production. Furthermore, compounded

climate factors can decrease plant productivity, resulting in price increases for

many important agricultural crops. Shift in agricultural zones, salinization and

alkalization of the soils, reduced soil fertility and soil erosion, incidence of pest,

diseases and new weeds are some of the broad level effects of climate change

on agriculture.


5

Projected Impact on developing countries

International rate of increase in the population is about 2% i.e. 2× each

30-35 years which is now about 7 Billion. Demand for food is increasing

continuously while cultivated area or involvement of the area (old and new) is

not proper with the increase in demand. Rich countries can either produce or

import even if with high cost, while poor or developing countries are suffering

from hunger situations and malnutrition (in Asia, Africa, and Latin America).

One of the main reasons for hunger is the unbalance situation between

number of people/km² area, and the arable land used for production. For

example, Asia had reached saturation per km², which means low food supply

and low new land to be added, because of increasing in the number of people.

3/4th of the total global population is spread in the developing countries with a

0.21ha of arable land per person. Comparing the energy and protein

requirements, the population from developing nations derives 90% of their

requirement from the plant sources whereas, in the developed countries 56% of

their protein requirement is meeting through the animal sources. This

indicates the dependency on agriculture to meet their dietary requirements in

these developing countries. Allowing the temperatures to rise beyond 1.5°C

would render these developing countries including India uninhabitable and

even poorer. India is losing about 1.5 per cent of its GDP every year due to

climate change-related risks. In food production, climate induced risks exposes

a greater proportion of an already vulnerable population to poverty, food and

livelihood insecurity.

Case study: Climate change induced extreme rainfall events in onion

growing regions of India

The onion is not only considered as a vegetable crop but also an essential

commodity in the day to day life of a common man. The steep rise in the onion

prices is always creates turbulence in the Indian market. In the past, the

dramatic rise in the onion price influenced the many political situations in

India. Due to the extreme rainfall events occurred in the central Indian region

where the majority of onion is under cultivation often resulted in the rise in the

onion prices. Again this situation happened in the month of July and August,

2019 where onion prices raised at an alarming rate due to the reducing supply

of onion from the major onion growing states such as Maharashtra, Karnataka

and Madhya Pradesh. So it creates curiosity to make out the relation between

repeated occurrences of extreme torrential rains in the onion growing region

due to the changing climate scenario. A detailed study published by Roxi et al


6

2017 on the rise in widespread extreme rain events over central India is helpful

to demonstrate that climate change is not any more a deception.

The westerly winds blowing from the west to the east carry the moisture

from the heated Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean and responsible for monsoons

in India. Roxi et al 2017 analyzed the data on monsoons of India and the

moisture carried by the westerly trade winds for a period of 65 years from

1950-2015. The study clearly reported that, despite of reduction in the mean

precipitation over this period, threefold increase in the events of extreme

rainfall (i.e >150 mm/ day) over the central India. The raise in the surface sea

temperatures allowed these trade winds to carry more amount moisture along

with them and causing wide spread flash floods in the central region of India. It

is an established fact that, increasing anthropogenic CO2 emissions causing

rise in global temperatures and the raise in these temperatures results in

changing the monsoon patterns. The changes in the monsoon patterns cause

extreme events such as prolonged drought spells followed by flash floods which

ultimately results in crop damage.

The winds which are blowing from the Indian Ocean are majorly

responsible for the south west monsoon in India. These winds are weakening

owing to a combination of factors including the warming of the Indian Ocean,

increasing frequency and magnitude of El Niño events, increased air pollution

and land use changes over the subcontinent and resulting in weakening of

monsoon circulation. However, the winds which carrying the surge of moisture

from the heated north Arabian sea are directly carrying the moisture to the

central Indian region and resulting in extreme rainfall events within short

period of time. As we all know that the ocean is a major sink for absorption of

most of the excess heat generated from the greenhouse gas emissions, leading

to rising surface ocean temperatures. In the above case with reference to Indian

monsoon cycle, these variations are responsible for both reductions in the

mean monsoon levels and at the same time rise in the extreme rainfall events

causing flash floods in several areas. This phenomenon clearly establishes the

fact that, onion production is affected by this climate change induced flash

floods.

Occurrence of extreme events at global level

Severe floods, deadly heat waves, recurring droughts and rising sea levels

predicted by IPCC's Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C are already

being experienced by communities across India. Gradually people are

acclimatizing these conditions and feeling like its normal phenomenon in their


7

region. But truly speaking extreme is not the new normal if we forgot the region

and look at the global perspective. Let us observe the catastrophic events took

place due to climate change in the year 2018. There have been over 100

extreme events since the beginning of the year 2018 such as unprecedented

storm season in India (May, 2018); hottest day in April in Earth‟s history in

Pakistan (April, 2018); Sahara desert, the hottest in the world received 40 cm

of snow (January, 2018); deadly winter storm in Europe (March, 2018); hottest

summer in 100 years in Iceland (July, 2018); severe drought in southwest USA

(April, 2018); heat waves in Canada (July, 2018); Peru‟s glacial lake turns into

a deadly flood (June, 2018), and many more such events across the globe (DTE,

Sept, 2018).

The influence of climate change on vegetable cultivation

India is the second largest producer of vegetables (17.3 t/ha) after China

(22.5 t/ha). In the past two decades, the vegetable production in India has

been increased 2.86 times from 58.5 MT in 1991-92 to 167.5 MT in 2017-18

(NHB database, 2017). We have almost reached a plateau in area and

production of vegetable crops in India. Increasing in population rate, reduction

in availability of arable land and incidences of more climatic extremities further

increases the pressure on vegetable cultivation in India. Vegetables are

generally sensitive to environmental extremes, and thus high temperatures and

limited soil moisture are the major causes of low yields. Under changing

climatic situations crop failures, shortage of yields, reduction in quality and

increasing pest and disease problems are common and they render the

vegetable cultivation unprofitable. This ultimately questions the availability of

nutrient source in human diet (Koundinya et al. 2017).

The net effect of climate change on vegetable cultivation is likely to be

negative (Bisbis et al. 2018). Although some regions and crops will benefit,

most will not. The plants which are continuously exposed to higher radiation

levels results in accumulation of more antioxidants in their sink. Drought

conditions forces the plants to increase the water use efficiency. In northern

hemisphere, the increased mean temperatures results in extending the

production season and ensure the market supply for a longer duration. Carbon

fertilization is the new concept where, increased yields reported due to the

higher CO2 levels in the atmosphere. Despite of these positive effects, the

significant negative effects overweighs these benefits. Many reports are

observed that, the loss of nutrient and biochemical quality in the vegetables

due to the heat stress. Increased temperatures results in accelerated phenolgy


8

in many vegetables and also results in insufficient cold accumulation in

temperate crops. Higher respiration rates due to the increased temperatures

detiorates the post harvest shelf life of all the vegetable crops.

India’s National Action Plan on climate change (NAPCC)

In June 2008, India announced its National Action Plan on Climate

Change (NAPCC). When it happened, we were just one of the 10-odd countries

in the world to have a consolidated policy instrument to tackle climate change.

Some of the important schemes announced to combat the climate change are

National Water Mission (NWM) with an objective to ensure water security and

improve access to the resource; National Mission For Sustaining Himalayan

Ecosystem (Nmshe) & National Mission For Strategic Knowledge On Climate

Change (NMSKCC) to bridge knowledge gap on climate change and protect the

Himalayas; National Solar Mission (NSM) to hike renewable energy capacity;

National Mission For Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) for improving

energy efficiency and meeting energy demands of the country; National Mission

On Sustainable Habitat (NMSH) to reduce emissions in cities; National Mission

For Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) to climate-proof agriculture and reduce

emissions from the sector.

Conclusion

From a detailed insight into the influence of climate change, it is

understood that climate change threatens crop production and its impacts will

continue in the future, causing global food security to worsen. It necessitates

the framing up of needs-based sustainable adaptation and mitigation strategies

that can effectively combat climate change, avoid risk and uncertainty in

agriculture. Anticipatory research to checkmate the adverse impact of

unfavourable weather is urgently needed. Drought and floods codes will have to

be developed and implemented. Climate risk management research and

training centres should be established in all agro-climatic zones. Gene Banks

containing genetic resources for a warming planet should be set-up. The poor

nations will suffer most from the climate change, since they do not have the

necessary coping capacity. Agricultural research should therefore be tailored to

the need for climate resilient farming systems. The calamity of climate change

should be converted into an opportunity for developing and spreading climate

resilient farming techniques and systems.


9

References

Bisbis MB, Gruda N and Blanke M. 2018. Potential impacts of climate

change on vegetable production and product quality- A review. Journal of

Cleaner Production 170: 1602-1620.

Koundinya AVV, Kumar PP, Ashadevi RK, Hegde V and Kumar PA. 2017.

Adaptation and mitigation of climate change in vegetable cultivation: A

review. Journal of Water and Climate Change 9 (1), 17-36

National Horticulture Board Data Base – 2017. http://nhb.gov.in/area-

pro/database-2017.

Roxy MK, Ghosh S, Pathak A, Athulya R, Mujumdar M, Murtugudde R,

Terray P and Rajeeven M. 2017. A threefold rise in widespread extreme

rain events over central India. Nature Communications. DOI:

10.1038/s41467-017-00744-9.

Swaminathan MS and Kesavan PC, 2012. Agricultural Research in an Era of

Climate Change. Agriculture Research. 1(1): 3-11. DOI 10.1007/s40003-

011-0009-z

http://nhb.gov.in/area-pro/database-2017.

http://nhb.gov.in/area-pro/database-2017.


10

Breeding for Protected Cultivation of Vegetable Crops

Ajmer S Dhatt


Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana -141 004

E.mail: [email protected]

Introduction

Agriculture has been the backbone of Indian economy and till date 43%

of India‟s geographical area is used for agricultural activity. Though after

independence, special emphasis on agriculture in the five-year plans and

steady improvements in irrigation, technology, application of modern

agricultural practices and provision of agricultural credit and subsidies since

the Green Revolution have increased crop yields per unit area of all crops but

today, fragmentation of land, small land holdings, urbanization,

industrialization, declining biodiversity, climate change and food demand of

burgeoning population are mounting pressure on limited resources of the

country. Furthermore, when compared internationally, the average yield in

India is only 30% to 50% of the highest average yield in the world. Thus,

alternate means for improving the quality and increasing the productivity from

limited land is a matter of concern for researchers and policy makers.

Vegetable crops on the other hand, hold prime responsibility of meeting

nutritional requirement of the population, generating employment and

improving economic condtions of the people. During the last four decades, area

and production of vegetables has increased by 77 and 187% respectively, but

still per capita availability is lower than the recommended (300g) dietary

requirement. Therefore, it is extremely important to improve the productivity of

vegetables by adopting intensive cultivation practices like protected cultivation

to produce more produce per unit area with increased input use efficiency.

Protected cultivation offers an opportunity to grow vegetables under

adverse conditions, in which natural environment is modified to achieve

optimal growth and development of the plant. The modification of micro-climate

around the plants by trapping the solar energy gives new dimension to produce

more per unit of area. It has been estimated that if one lakh hectare area

under vegetable cultivation is brought under poly house cultivation the annual

availability of vegetables will be increased by at least 100 lakh tons. Besides

mailto:[email protected]


11

this, it will also increase the significant jobs opportunity for the skilled rural

men, youths and rural women.

Protected cultivation is not only used for off-season high value-low volume

vegetable production, but also for nursery raising, hybrid seed production and

breeding programmes. It also enables vegetable growers to address the vagaries

of climate, realize high returns per unit area and offer other benefits like

earliness, longer duration, and efficient use of fertilizers and eco-friendly

management of pests, weeds and diseases. In last 20 years, this technology has

been adopted by farmers all over the country, resulting in increase in area from

525 to 40,000 ha.

This technology has a very good potential especially in urban and peri-

urban areas adjoining to the major cities which is a fast growing market for

fresh produce of the country. But it requires very careful planning,

maintenance and management about timing of production and moreover,

harvest time to coincide with the shortage period of availability of vegetables

and high market prices, choice of varieties adopted to off season environments,

and able to produce higher and economical yields of high quality produce

etc. As per the requirement of geographic region, work on design of proteced

structures, crop selection and agronomic practices has been done, but little

attention has been paid to develop exclusive varieties for enclosed, vertical and

fixed space/structures to harness the maximum potential.

Breeding for protected cultivation

The success and economic return of protected cultivation is determined

by what to produce, when to produce, how to produce and where to sell. Since

there is a high initial investment, every possible effort should be drawn to have

higher production in terms of quantity as well as quality. Under such situation

two options are available either select the species having higher economic

potential with best suitable cultural practices or select crops suitable for the

available structures. In the present situation, the second option fits well as the

prime focus in this technology till now was on the development of the location-

specific structures and the production technologies.

Breeding for protected cultivation will be a tough task as the cultivars

need to be designed/developed for the already created structures and growing

conditions. The microclimate inside the structure is not only congenial for the

optimum growth and development of the plant but also for the pathogens.


12

Based on the market demand, government subsidies, farm type, climatic

conditions, topography, cost/benefit ratio, shorter shelf-life and avoidance to

overlap the market arrival of open field produce; there is a limited choice of

vegetables to be grown in these structures viz., solanaceous (tomato, pepper,

eggplant) and cucurbitaceous (cucumber) crops.

Cultivars suitable for open field conditions are usually not suitable for

polyhouse cultivation. The cultivar should have uniform and indeterminate

growth, shorter and more number of internodes, resistance to root knot

nematodes and sucking pests, resistance to soil pathogen viz., Fusarium sp.,

Verticillium sp., Ralstonia sp., etc, tolerance to low temperature, low light

conditions, low CO2 compensative point, longer harvest duration, high quality

and higher yield. The grower, traders and consumers are the extrinsic factors

that will further influence the development of a cultivar. For farmer, higher

economic yield, extended harvesting span and resistance to biotic and abiotic

stresses are major considerations. The trader demands longer shelf-life and

unique characteristics of the produce appreciated by the consumer whereas,

for the consumer, product must be easy-to-use, versatile, good in taste and

rich in nutritional properties.

All the above aspects have to be kept in mind by the breeder, while

developing varieties for the protected cultivation. Recent advancement in

breeding technologies has led to development of new cultivars having disease

resistance, adaptability to suboptimal temperatures and light, nutritional

quality and other specific traits, such as parthenocarpy, indeterminate growth

habit and suitability to the grafting. The biotechnological approaches have

facilitated the gene pyramiding of multiple traits in a single cultivar. The recent

developments on silencing or editing of the targeted gene(s) can further trigger

the targeted breeding programme on protected cultivation. The breeding

objectives and methodology for the major crops under protected cultivation are

discussed as under:

Tomato

Tomato is a high value vegetable crop for off and main season production

under protected conditions. The productivity of determinate tomatoes under

open field condition is 400-600 q/ha, whereas, that of indeterminate tomatoes

under polyhouse conditions is 2000-2400 q/ha. Since, the breeding for the

protected conditions in India is still in infancy, farmers are forced to buy the


13

hybrid seeds of indeterminate hybrids introduced from Israel or other countries

at exorbitant prices of 1.50 - 2.00 lakh/kg every year. Tomato is susceptible to

more than 200 diseases caused by pathogenic fungi (Fusarium wilt, Verticillium

wilt, Late blight, Early blight, Alternaria stem canker, Powdery mildew),

bacteria (Bacterial wilt, spot, speck), viruses (TYLCV, TLCV, TSWV, ToMV), or

nematodes (Root knot nematode). Additionally, it is also susceptible to various

abiotic stresses such as low and high temperature, flood, drought and salinity

stresses. In protected structures, whitefly transmits viruses‟ viz., geminiviruses

and begomoviruses, which are major constraints throughout the world. Over

use of pesticides have resulted in pesticide-resistant variants of this pest,

which are now associated with 20 different begomoviruses in tropical and

subtropical regions of the world. Eleven different strains of begomoviruses have

been reported in India.

Keeping above problems in mind, concerted efforts should be made to

develop varieties/hybrids with following characteristics for protected conditions

in tomato such as, indeterminate growth habit for utilizing the vertical space of

the structure, higher yield and earliness for higher returns, cluster bearing of

fruits for higher number of fruits, uniform fruit size and colour, biotic and

abiotic stress resistance, self pruining gene/habit for fruit thinning as fruit

thinning is a tedious, laborious but important task required for maintaining

fruit size and quality in clusters, fruit setting at low and high temperatures as

the crop will be subjected to both temperature extremes at different growth

stages. Other desirable characteristics include longer shelf life, high in

nutrition (lycopene/carotene rich), photo-thermo insensitivity and processing

attributes.

The most effective way to combat biotic stresses is adopting resistant

genotypes. Stable resistant sources have been identified in cultivated and wild

species and can be successfully deployed in to cultivated background through

conventional and biotechnological methods. The genetics of different traits has

thorougly been studied in tomato. To achieve the breeding objectives for

protected cultivation important genes (Table 1) and source of donors (Table 2)

are given as below:


14

Table1. Important genes for protected cultivation of tomato

Gene

symbol

Trait Gene

symbol

Trait

Pat Parthenocarpic fruit Mp Modifier of parthenocarpy

(increase fruit set under low

temp)

R Yellow flesh B/c High beta carotene

Pst Persistent style o/s Compound inflorescence

Ssp Suppressor of self

pruning

rl/cr Radial cracking resistant

Bg Bursting resistance Dfd Delayed fruit deterioration

Hp High pigment U Uniform ripening

Lc/lo Reduced locule

number

Cmr Cucumber mosaic

resistance

Ty TLCV resistance Cf Cladosporium fulvum

resistance (tomato leaf

mould)

Mi Meloidogyne incognita

resistance

Fr-1 Fusarium wilt resistance

Bw Bacterial wilt

resistance

Cmm Clavibacter michiganensis

(Bacterial canker resistance)

Table 2: Resistant donor to biotic and abiotic stresses in tomato

Trait Donor(s)

Fusarium wilt Pan American, S. pimpinellifolium, S. hirsutum (PI

13448), S. peruvianum (EC 148898), Roma,

Columbia, HS 110

Verticillium wilt VR Moscow, S. peruvianum, Loran Blood, NFVR

Late Blight West Virginia 63

Early blight College Regal, 68 B 134, Southland, S.

pimpinellifolium

Alternaria Bacterial

canker

Bulgarian 12, Honma, Utah 737

Leaf curl virus S. hirsutum, S. peruvianum


15

Fruit borer S. hirsutum (PI 126449)

Low temperature

tolerance

S. pimpinellifolium, Fireball, Red Cloud, Outdoor

Girl, Immuna, Cold set, Pusa Sheetal, Avalanche,

Tempo, Oregon 11

High temperature

tolerance

S. habrochaites (EC-520061), S. pipminellifolium (PI-

205009, EC-65992) Philippine, Punjab Tropic, S.

cheesmanii (EC 130042, EC 162935), PS-1

Salt Tolerance S. cheesmanii, Sabour Suphala, S. sitiens, S.

peruvianum

Drought tolerance S. pennellii, IIHH 14-1, 146-2, Earliana, S. sitiens

Capsicum

Sweet or bell pepper is in great demand due to its use in various salad

and culinary preparations. In Indian market, some hybrids like Indra, Bomby

and Orobelle are dominating due to their colour, shape and yield parameters.

Fast food and canning industries have wide demand of capsicums, varying in

fruit shape (elongated to square), size (medium to large), weight (80-300 g),

consistence, colour (green, red, yellow, and chocolate) and flesh thickness,

different from the traditional varieties (green, four lobed and thick pericarp)

being grown in open fields. To breed capsicum for protected cultivation, plant

should have erect growth habit, shorter internodes and wider canopy. The early

and late flowering contributes in prolonging the harvesting span. Sweet pepper

is an often cross-pollinated crop and incorporation of parthenocarpy helps in

enhacing the fruit set percentage.

Depending upon maket demand fruit shape for fresh marketing can be

conical, blocky with four lobes, thick pericarp, without pungency and low seed

content whereas, for processing (canning, pickling) fruit colour retention and

flavour are important to consider. Resistance to temperature (high and low),

moisture stress and salinity can widen the adaptibility of capsicum. Flowering

and fruit set is the most susceptible stage for water stress in Capsicum. Flower

and fruit drop, reduction in dry matter production and nutrient uptake, poor

seed viability is the major impact caused by the water stress.

Among biotic stresses, soil borne pathogens particularly Fusarium wilt

and nematodes causes rapid decline and severe yield reduction. Repeated

cultivation inside the same structures year after year further aggravates the

situation. Therefore, host plant resistance is the best alternative for capsicum

cultivation in protected structures. Resistance from non-cultivated or small,


16

hot chilli types can be introgressed into the bells. The genes of interest and

source of resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses are given in Table 3 and 4,

which can be exploited for improvement of the sweet pepper.

Table3. Important genes for protected cultivation of Capsicum

Gene

symbol

Trait Gene

symbol

Trait

Dt / Ct Indeterminate habit Ef Early flowering

Lf Late flowering H Pubescent leaf surface

Mf-1, 2, 3 Multiple flower per

node

Fa Cluster fruit bearing

Ci Compound

inflorescence

y, y+, cl Fruit color

Sel-1, 2 Seedless Pf Parthenocarpic fruit

Me Meloidogyne resistance B / t Beta-carotene

Bs Bacterial spot

resistance

Rsr Ralstonia resistance (Bac

wilt)

Lmr Leveillula taurica

(powdery mildew)

resistance

Pfr Phytopthora capsici

resistance

Pvr Potyvirus resistance N Root knot Nematode

Table 4: Resistant donor to biotic and abiotic stresses in Capsicum

Trait Donor(s)

Fruit Rot C. chinense, Accs 1555, 1554, 906, Chinese Giant,

Yolo Y, Hungarian Yellow Wax, Spartan

Cercospora leaf spot California Wonder, Hungarian Wax, C. frutescens

Powdery mildew Avelar

Fusarium wilt College No. 9

Root Knot Santaka XS, Red chilli, G 2, Bombay 742, Oakview

Wonder

Leaf curl Pant C1, Puri Red, Puri Orange

Thrips Caleapin red, Chamatkar, NP 46A, BG 4

Aphid Kalyanpur Red, X 1068

Drought / high C. chinense, C. baccatum var. pendulum, C.


17

temperature eximium, Arka Lohit

Cucumbers

Cucumber is mainly cultivated for salad pursose under protected

conditions. It is a cross pollinated crop and do not set fruits due to lack of

pollinators under the enclosed structures. Varieties for open field cultivation

are monoecious in nature and generally bear female flowers from seventh-

eighth node. Since, the enclosed structure will have limited number of

cucumber plants, bearing of female flowers from lower nodes is important for

higher production. Therefore, varieties must possess parthenocarpy and

gynoecious traits for successful cultivation. Attractive green colour, cylindrical

shape, tender skin, sweet (cucurbitacin free) and crisp fruits are demanded by

the consumer. Dry spell induces powdery mildew whereas; high humidity

results in downy mildew inside the structures. An early and high yield fetches

more returns to the growers. Resistance to Fusarium wilt, mosaic virus,

powdery mildew, and downy mildew and root knot nematodes are desirable to

lower pesticide load and better quality of the produce. Therefore, incorporation

of genetic resistance alongwith desiable horticultural traits is the major

concern for the cucumber breeders. The following genes and donors (Table 5

and 6) can be exploited for developing polyhouse cucumber.

Table5. Important genes for protected cultivation of Cucumber

Gene Trait Gene Trait

Pc / P Parthenocarpy Bi Bitterfree (Also resistance to

Cucumber beetles & spider

mites)

mp

/Mp-2

Multi-pistillate tu Smooth fruit surface

Te Tender skin of fruit Gy Gynoecious

Pm Powdery mildew

resistance

Dm Downey mildew resistance

Cmv Cucumber mosaic virus

resistance

prsv /

wmv-1-

1

Papaya ringspot virus /

watermelon mosaic virus 1

resistance

Foc Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.

cucumerinum resistance

Bw Bacterial wilt resistance

Mj Root knot nematode Ar / Anthracnose resistance


18

resistance cla

Ch Chilling resistance Sa Salt tolerance

Table6. Resistant donor to biotic and abiotic stresses in cucumber

Trait Donor(s)

Powdery mildew Polaris, Ambra, Yamaki, Murata, C. s. var sativus,

PI 197088, Ashley

Downey mildew PI-197087, PI 197088, Poinsette, Sadao Rishu, C.

s. var sativus

Bacterial wilt PI 200816, PI 200817, PI 196477

Angular leaf spot Poinsette, Dixie Gemin

Root Knot nematode West Indian Gherkins

Drought Hanski 264, C. pubescens, INGR-98018

Low temperature

tolerance

Azerbarjan

CMV Kyoto 3 feet, Table Green 65, Market More

Brinjal

Brinjal is suitable for cultivation in tropical and subtropical regions. It is

sensitive to frost and highly prone to the attack of shoot and fruit borer. It can

be saved from both these issues by cultivating under protected conditions.

However, heterostyly nature of the flowers lowers fruit setting due to lack of

pollinators and wind under the enclosed structures. Therefore, natural fruit

setting ability without pollination is required in cultivar to grow under

protected conditions. Though there is huge genetic diversity in brinjal with

regard to shape, size, colour, taste and other fruit characteristics. The problem

is to engross these favourable characteristics together in varieties or hybrids

adapted to protected cultivation. The North-Indian varieties have great fertility,

earliness and strong pigmentation, but when grown inside protected

structures, they bear small, irregular shaped, soft and cotton-like textured

fruits. The varieties of the southern group however, bear big fruits with

acceptable yields but are slow in growth and succumb to various diseases.

These noticeable varietal differences can be related to their specific

transpirations.

The market demands for bright fruits with dark violet to black skin

pigmentation and uniform coloured flesh but clubbing of these traits result in

sour or pungent products. The white flesh varieties though are superior in


19

taste, have a firmer flesh and can be harvested in a more leisurely way but

lacks consumer preference in the market. As a result it is difficult to unite the

favourable characteristics of colour and quality. Besides, erect growth habit of

the plant, high yield, shining fruits in different size segments, low solanine,

resistance to phomopsis blight, bacterial wilt, verticilium wilt, anthracnose,

root knot nematodes, jassids and high and low temperature is desirable.

Several landraces and local types of brinjal are reported to have resistance or

tolerance for important biotic and abiotic stresses as mentioned in Table 7.

Table 7: Resistant donor to biotic and abiotic stresses in eggplant

Trait Donor (s)

Bacterial wilt SM-6, SM6-6, SM-141, Cipaye, Aroman, Surya,

Dingaras Multiple purple, Pusa Purple Cluster, Arka

Keshav, Arka Nidhi, Arka Neelkanth, S. incanum, S

indicum, S. integrifolium, S. sisymbrifolium, S. nigram, S.

torvum

Verticilium wilt PI 164941, PI 174362

Phomopsis blight Muktakesi, Bargan, White Gih, Florida Market, Florida

beauty, Pusa Bhairav, S. indicum, S. torvum, S.

xanthocarpum, S. sisymbriifolium

Fusarium wilt S. incanum, S. integrifolium, S. indicum, S.

sisymbriifolium

Shoot and Fruit

borer

Annamalai, Pant Samrat, Bhagyamati, Aushay, Pusa

Purple Cluster, S. gilo, S. anomalum, S. indicum, S.

incanum

Root knot

nematode

Kalianpur T2, Long Bangalore, S. sisymbriifolium,

Kalianpur T2, Long Bangalore, Florida Market, Florida

beauty

Jassid Manjari Gota

Frost tolerance S. incanum

Drought Bundelkhand Desi, Atabekil, S. macrocarpon, S. gilo, S.

macrosperma, S. integrifolium, supreme, PKM-1, Violette

High

temperature

R-34

Little leaf Pusa purple round, swati, BB-2, S. integrifolium, S. gilo


20

Other potential crops

Vegetables like spinach, lettuce, celery, brussels sprout, chinese

cabbage, coriander etc have high economic potential under protected

conditions, paricularly during off-season. Varieties of leafy vegetables that grow

faster under low light conditions, offers more number of cuttings, better quality

and higher yield are ideal.

Spinach variety should have early and quality yield with multiple

harvesting, adaptive to protected conditions, resistant to insect-pest and

diseases, low light intensity (UV-B) and other environmental factors. Lettuce is

commercially consumed throughout the world mainly as salad or in

sandwiches. Lettuce is susceptible to number of diseases and pest. Downy

mildew is serious problem and resistant cultivars (Valverd and Calmar) have

been bred against newly evolving virulent strains of this pathogen. The

resistance was reported to be governed by Dm loci with multiple alleles. Big

vein disease caused by virus and transmitted by root inhibiting fungus

(Olpidium brassicae). Celery is a salad crop mainly grown for its long fleshy

stalk. In India, maximum area is in Punjab and Uttar Pradesh, whereas, it is

commercially grown in USA, France and other European counties. The main

breeding objectives regardless of varietal type are higher quality yield,

uniformity, slow bolting and disease resistance. The uniformity is in term of

colour, size and texture. The leaf should be free from cracking, pithiness and

stringiness. Diseases like fusarium wilt and blight are of major concern. Four

races of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. apii were identified. A partial dominance in

A. panul and A. chilense have been observed for late blight resistance while

early blight is governed by more than one gene.

Brussels sprout (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera DC.) is cultivated for

sprouts or buttons (swollen buds). The architecture of plant variety depends on

early maturing and greater number of sprouts. Until stem reached to its height,

sprouts do not develop while taller plants have greater number of sprouts with

small size. So the objective for protected structure must be earliness with

greater height and without lodging. TuMV resistance was controlled by 4 genes,

which are highly heritable. While, resistance to cauliflower mosaic virus is

generally dominant. However, presence of some recessive genes has also been

reported. Among insect, cabbage aphid (Brevicorne brassicae) is serious

problem. Chinese cabbage is mainly grown as salad crop. The main breeding

objectives are early, higher yield with resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses.


21

Cold and heat tolerance along with slow bolting behaviour are desirable for

protected conditions. Downy mildew resistance is controlled by two dominant

genes.

Varieties for protected cultivation

World over, capsicum, cucumber, tomato and melons are the favourite

crops in greenhouses. Coloured capsicums, parthenocarpic and gynoecious

cucumbers, cherry tomatoes are extensively grown. Huge genetic diversity

available in cultivable and wild species of these crops has been exploited by

conventional, biotechnological and genetic engineering techniques to develop

cultivars suitable for protected cultivation. A trend of growing brinjal in net

house is building up gradually especially in Punjab, Haryana and some part of

Uttar Pradesh of India.

In India, following varieties and hybrids from public and private sectors are

popular for protected cultivation:

Crops Varieties / Hybrids

Tomato Punjab Swarna, PTP-1, PTPH-1, SH7710, Vaouro (Beef

steak group; about 200g); Nowara (Plum Oval type, square

round fruits: 100g), GS 600 (large flat round, 110g)

Capsicum Indra, Indam Bharath (green); Bomby, Triple star, Natasha,

Inspiration (red); Orobelle, Sunney, Swarna, Bachata

(yellow)

Cucumber Parthenocarpic: Punjab Kheera 1, Pant Parthenocarpic

Cucumber-2 and Pant Parthenocarpic Cucumber-3.

Satis and Keon (Nunhems), Hilton (Clause), Valley Star,

Multi Star and Silyon from (Rijkzwaan), Kuk-9 & Taxi

(Namdhari Seeds)

Brinjal PBH-1, PBH-2, PBH-3, PBH-4, PBHR-41, PC-14-13, Pusa

Purple Long, Pusa Purple Cluster


22

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Prospectives of Hybrid Development in Indian Onion

Ajmer S Dhatt


Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana – 141 004

E-mail: [email protected]

Onion (Allium cepa L.) belongs to family Alliaceae and thought to have

ancestors in Central-Asia, from where, it spread all over the world.

Physiologically onion is a long day plant, but due to suitability for cultivation

under specific photoperiod and temperature, it is classified into temperate long,

intermediate and short day and, tropical short day bulb, shallot and multiplier

groups. Short day varieties, includes not only populations developed within the

tropics, but also developed well out side the tropics as over winter crop to

provide early fresh bulb. Such varieties can also be grown as over winter crop

under sub-tropical conditions due to adaptation for bulbing at approximately

equinoctial day lengths.

Onion is mainly grown for bulb and used almost daily in every home. Its

main use is due to its aromatic, volatile oil ally-propyl disulfide that impart

cherish flavor to the food. Worldwide onion is grown on 49.6 lakh ha with

931.7 lakh MT production and 18.8 MT ha-1 productivity. In last decade

53.49% increase in area, 72.87% production and 12.63% productivity are the

indicators of growth in onion all over the world. India ranked first in area (12.7

lakh ha) and second in production (215.64 lakh MT) after the China. Onion

earns foreign exchange more than Rs. 4000 crore annually, which is about

70% of the fresh vegetables, and 50% of total vegetables and fruits. Though,

onion production in India has increased by 300% in last two decades, but

country requires 333.9 lakh MT onion by 2050 with present rate of

consumption (6.7 kg capita-1), export (9%), processing (6.75%) and losses

(20%). This much production can be achieved by increasing productivity to 28

MTha-1 or by increasing the area under onion. The horizontal expansion is

possible by covering more area, and vertical with adoption of high yielding

cultivars and precise production practices.

Objectives of improvement

Onion is photo-thermo sensitive, biennial, cross-pollinated and heterozygous

diploid with strong inbreeding depression. Though, it has originated under long



26

day conditions, but thousand years of conscious and unconscious selection

made it adaptable to variable latitudes and climatic conditions. Bulb, made up

of swollen leaf sheaths is an economical part and targeted trait for onion

breeders. Bulb traits include size, shape, colour of skin and flesh, single center,

skin retention, firmness, dormancy, pungency and concentration of soluble

solids. Production of commercially acceptable bulbs depend upon resistance to

diseases, pests and bolting losses. High-quality seed production requires

vigorous bulbs, uniform flowering, straight seed stalks and high sucrose in the

nectar. Bulbing in onion is initiated by combination of day length and

temperature and, onion breeders must understand that cultivars adapted to

one region may not produce desirable bulbs at the second location. The

unadapted material to long day, may reach the critical day length for bulbing

too early and produce small bulbs. Conversely, genotypes requiring long days

to bulb may never mature properly under the short days. Well-matured bulbs

with tight neck store better and are less likely to develop storage rots. Tight

outer dry skins protect the bulb and reduce the losses during storage. Hence

for maintenance of true to type, the breeders and seed producers always do

selection of desired bulbs. Without selection, bulbs have the tendency to

develop multiple centers and become softer and flatter.

Varietal acheivements: In cross pollinated crops like onion farmers made

selections as per growing season and location for desirable traits and yield, and

are cultivating those old land races since long. In onion, important selections

are ‘Pune Fursungi’ in Maharashtra, ‘Pili Patti’ in Gujarat, ‘Bellary Red’ in

Karnataka, „Sukhsagar‟ in West Bengal, ‘K.P’ in Andhra Pradesh, „Nirmal Local’

in Madhya Pradesh and „Balwan’ in Haryana. Several public sector institutes

improved the local populations and released more than 70 varieties of bulb and

multiplier onion for cultivation in the country. Wherein, N-53 (Kharif), N-2-4-1

(Late Kharif and Rabi) and N-257-9-1 (Rabi) were released by the Department of

Agriculture, Maharashtra; Agrifound Dark Red (Kharif), Agrifound Red-

multiplier (Kharif and Rabi), Agrifound Light Red (Late Kharif and Rabi),

Agrifound White, L-28 and L-355 (Rabi) by NHRDF, Nashik; Baswant 780

(Kharif), Phule Samrath (Late Kharif), Phule Safed and Phule Suvama (Late

Kharif and Rabi) by MPKV, Rahuri; PKV White (Rabi) by PDKV, Akola; Bhima

Dark red (Kharif), Bhima Red and Bhima Shubra (Kharif and Late Kharif),

Bhima Raj and Bhima Shweta (Kharif and Rabi), Bhima Shakti (Late Kharif and

Rabi), Bhima Super (Kharif, Late Kharif and Rabi), Bhima Kiran (Rabi) by

DOGR, Rajgurunagar; Co-1(multiplier), Co-2, Co-3, Co-4 and Co-5 (Kharif and

Rabi), MDU (Rabi) by TNAU, Coimbatore; Arka Kalyan (Kharif), Arka Pragati


27

and Arka Viswas (Kharif and Rabi), Arka Niketan (Late Kharif and Rabi), Arka

Pitamber, Arka Ujjawal-multiplier, Arka Swadista, Arka Sona, Arka Bheem-

Syn. and Arka Akshay-Syn. (Rabi), Arka Bindu (Kharif, Late Kharif and Rabi)

by IIHR, Bangaluru; GWO-1 (Rabi) by GAU, Junagarh; Udaipur-101, Udaipur-

102 and Udaipur-103 (Rabi) by RAU, Udaipur; RO-59 and RO-252 (Rabi) by

RARS, Durgapura; Kalyanpur Red Round (Rabi) by CSAUAT, Kanpur; Pusa

White Flat, Pusa White Round, Pusa Ratnar and Pusa Madhvi, Sel-126 (Rabi),

Early Grano and Pusa Red (Late Kharif and Rabi), and Brown Spanish (Long

day) by IARI, New Delhi; Hisar-1, Hisar-2 and Hisar-3 (Rabi) by HAU, Hisar;

Punjab Selection, Punjab-48, Punjab Red Round, Punjab White, Punjab

Naroya, PRO-6, PRO-7, PWO-35 and PYO-102 (Rabi) by PAU, Ludhiana; RO-1,

VL-67 and VL-3 (Long day) by VPKAS, Almora. For further strengthening the

varietal improvement programme, focus is required on development of inbred

lines and further recombining to improve the gene pool. The large GCA effects

indicate that superior inbred lines are more likely to be selected from the

populations. Over years, locations and seasons evaluation before recycling into

new populations is important for the stability of population. The day length,

temperature and season adaptability is also very important for suitability of the

variety under diverse growing conditions of India.

Hybrid potential

Onion borne perfect flowers, but is cross pollinated due to protandrous

nature. A bunch of 200-600 small flowers is called an umbel in onion. Contrary

to tomato, brinjal and cucurbits hand emasculation and pollination in a

umbels of onion is impractical at commercial scale due small size and low

number of seeds (Maximum six) in a flower. However, with the discovery of

cytoplasmic male sterility by Jones and Emsweller (1936) hybrid breeding

programme was triggered in many parts of the world, especially in USA. At

present, hybrid onion is predominantly used in new world and western

countries due to higher yield, uniformity, better storage, availability of stable

male-sterile lines and the long-term vision of varietal protection. The heterosis

breeding too has gained momentum in Asia, particulary in Japan, South Korea

and China. Resultantly, market share of F1 hybrids in USA is 81%, Japan 71%

and European countries >50%. However, concerted efforts are still lacking in

other parts of the world including India also.

In India, attempts were made to develop hybrids by using exotic male sterile

lines, but failed due to different photoperiodic requirements. In 1948, Sen and

Srivastava started the heterosis breeding programme of onion by using exotic


28

male sterile lines and local male stocks, but these male sterile lines were

unstable under short photoperiods. Later, attempts were made to identify CMS

in locally adapted material and breakthrough was attained at IIHR, Bangalore

and IARI, New Delhi in the cultivars Niphad 2-4-1, Nasik White Globe, Bombay

White Globe and Pusa Red. The male sterility identified was then transferred to

several breeding lines by back-crossing for the development of F1 hybrids. Arka

Kirthiman (MS-65 x Sel. 13-1 1) and Arka Lalima (MS-48 x Sel. 14-1-1) embark

the success of heterosis breeding in India. Both these hybrids were developed

by IIHR, Bangalore from „Nasik White Globe‟ and their adaptability remained

confined to Karnataka state only. Since then many private and public sectors

are engaged in the development of hybrids in onion, but success rate is not up

to the mark. Some short day exotic hybrids introduced by private companies

are high in yield, but very poor in storability under tropical conditions of India.

Therefore, efforts are needed to develop adapted male sterile lines for heterotic

hybrids having high yield and longer storage suitable to tropical conditions of

India. Iniatives taken at PAU for hybrid development are depicted below in

Figure 1:

Fig. 1. Male sterile flower, test crossing in pairs, maintenance of A&B

lines, F1 seed production and F1 hybrid

Male sterility systems

Male sterility arises spontaneously in natural populations as

evolutionary mechanism as well as introduced from wild relatives in bulb

onion. Two CMS systems have been characterized genetically and commercially

for use in hybrid seed production. The first source of cytoplasmic male sterility

(CMS) was discovered in the cultivar „Italian Red‟. The male-sterile plants

possess sterile (S) cytoplasm and homozygous recessive at a single nuclear

male-fertility restoration locus. A second source of CMS (T-cytoplasm) was

discovered in the French cultivar „Jaune paille des Vertus‟. Three

independently segregating loci affecting male-fertility restoration for T-

cytoplasm were identified.


29

New sources of CMS have been produced in various crop plants by

transferring cytoplasms from related species into cultivated populations.

Similarly, in bulb onion the cytoplasm of A. galanthum was transfer into

different onion populations and can be used as an alternative source of male-

sterility for the diversification of cytotype in onion. These populations do not

have anthers, which make it easy for the breeders to identify male-sterile

plants in comparison to S and T-type male sterility. Further, A. roylei

cytoplasm has also been transfered into bulb onion populations to develop

alloplasmic male sterility. Plants from alloplasmic A. cepa lines, show complete

pollen sterility, low seed set in selfing and high seed set in backcrossing. It

implies that cytoplasm from A. roylei can prove to be a vital source of novel

CMS lines for bulb onion and shallot. The sterility in this CMS system is due to

the incompatibility between the cytoplasm of A. roylei and the nucleus

of A. cepa. Therefore, any population of A. cepa might be used as a maintainer

for male sterility. It save time and resources of onion breeders to identify an

appropriate B-line for maintaining the male sterile lines).

Bulb onion N and S-cytoplasm have alloplasmic origin, while T-

cytoplasm is autoplasmic. Previous studies indicate that S and N-cytoplasm

arises from „Pran‟ (Triploid Pran onion found in Kashmir) and A. vavilovii

(Found in North Iran and Southern Turkmenistan), respectively. Whereas, T-

cytoplasm may be originated as a result of mutation in N-cytoplasm. S-

cytoplasm widely distributed in world wide onion germplasm, whereas, T-

cytoplasm is only present in Dutch, Polish and few Japanese lines. It indicates

that quite similar male sterile lines isolated independently and used for hybrid

seed production. S, T and N cytoplasms occurred in variable frequencies in

different populations, but presence of S-cytoplasm is mostly lower than the N-

type. Since organeller inheritance in onion is maternal, frequencies of

cytoplasms can change through generations, because both male fertile and

sterile plants produce female gametes, which are assumed to have equal

chances of receiving male gametes.

Genetics of male sterility

Mutation in mitochondrial genome of the cytoplasm gave rise to CMS

system in onion. The different cytoplasms are named as N, S and T, where, N

type is wild male fertile and S and T as male sterile mutants. The interaction of

sterile cytoplasm with nuclear gene(s) gave rise to male sterile plants. S-type

cytoplasmic male sterility is inherited by interaction between single nuclear


30

locus Ms/ms and sterile cytoplasm, while T-type by the interaction of one

independent locus aa, and two complementary loci bb and cc with sterile

cytoplasm. In CMS system, cytoplasm can be S or T for male sterility, but for

male fertility N-cytoplasms is required. S-cytoplasm has been more widely

exploited due monogenic inheritance and stability under diverse environments,

whereas, T show complex inheritance and less stability. The N-cytoplasmic

plants are male fertile irrespective of the Ms locus. Whereas, S-cytoplasmic

plants are male sterile only, when Ms locus is homozygous recessive.

Development of male sterile lines

Conventional approach: The determination of cytoplasm type (S and N) and

nuclear fertility restorer status (MsMs, Msms, msms) of plants is a pre-requisite

for isolation of male sterile (A) and maintainer (B) lines in onion. For

development of male sterile line from open pollinated population large number

of plants are morphologically examined for absence of pollen (Smsms).

Depending upon the number of umbels in identified male sterile plants,

individual test crosses with adjacent male fertile plants are made to identify

maintainer plants (Nmsms). This success again depends upon the presence of

S-cytoplasms in the population. Where, S-cytoplasm/male sterile plants are

not available, individual test crosses of N-cytoplasmic plants with a known

male sterile line are made to isolate maintainer line, followed by 5-6

backcrosses viz 10-12 years in biennial crop of onion for development of A and

B-lines (Fig 1). These conventional approaches are costly, labour intensive and

time consuming (Fig 2).

Molecular approach: PCR based molecular markers can identify individual S

and N-cytoplasmic plants at seedling stage and can reduce the population size

required for isolation of A and B-lines. At onset, restrictin enzymes like Hind III,

EcoRI, XbaI, EcoRV, BglII, EcoRI, and BamHI were used to distinguish N and S-

cytotypes. However, PCR based markers makes this process easy. The

polymorphism was found due to insertion of a chloroplast sequence into the

upstream region of mitochondrial cytochrome b (cob) gene in S-cytoplasm,

which caused rearrangements in its mtDNA. This divergence between the

upstream region of cob gene in mtDNA of S and N-type was revealed from

previously designed RFLP maps of onion. Sequencing of the intergenic spacer

between tRNAs T and L discovered in cp genome of onion and oligonucleotides

to show polymorphism between N and S-cytoplasms were designed. Further,

PCR based markers were developed to differentiate between S, T and N.These


31

markers were designed by combining chives (A. schoenoprasum) CMS1-specific

sequence and previously designed cob specific markers. The CMS1 specific

sequence of chives can distinguish between the sterile cytoplasms (S and T),

while cob marker between N and S. This marker system overcame the

limitation of cob marker, which gave same sized band for both N and T-

cytoplasm. With the use of SCAR marker, PCR-RFLP marker was developed,

which were able to show polymorphism between S and N-cytoplasms in the

form of two amplified bands for N and one for S. The polymorphism was due to

the absence of MspI restriction site in the psbA gene in S-cytoplasm. The actual

restriction site CCGG in N-cytoplasm is replaced by CTGG in S-cytoplasm

resulting in loss of restriction activity of the endonuclease in the latter. The

development of this marker has led to the possibility of identifying SNPs for

high throughput cytoplasmic analysis of large OPs and genetic studies at

molecular level of evolution.

Fig. 2. Scheme for development of male sterile lines through

Conventional & molecular approach

Recently, PCR based molecular markers for identification of nuclear

fertility restoration have been developed. These markers have the potential to


32

completely exclude the morphological assessment and test-cross programme

for isolation of male sterile, maintainer and restorer lines. Molecular markers

can identify the individual plants for their male sterility and male fertility

status in two PCRs viz first for S and N-cytoplasm and second for nuclear

fertility restorer locus at the seedling stage. Molecularly identified male sterile

and maintainers plants can be crossed at flowering to constitute a set of A and

B-lines. This approach can help in developing male sterile line (s) in a time

period of 1 or 2 years. However, based upon morphological scoring some of the

markers did not show linkage disequilibrium with Ms loci. Marker developed

from pectin methylesterase has limited application in marker-assisted

selection, as it is based on RNA expression and only expressed at flowering

stage. To overcome these constraints, DNA based markers developed and

showed linkage disequilibrium (LD) with Ms loci, which could be useful to

follow marker aided selection of this loci in open pollinated population of

diverse origins. One of the marker (jnurf13) is in LD with the Ms locus and

showed no discrepancies in the frequency of maintainer plants based on

phenotypic and marker aided selection. However, this marker was designed on

the basis of indel polymorphisms in the intergenic region, and the size of indel

(12 bp) was so small that marker genotyping was only possible on acrylamide

gels. In this context, a simple PCR marker (RF31446) based on polymorphism

in the AcPMS1 gene showed perfect LD in 121 accessions collected from

different countries. In addition, this marker can easily be genotyped using

Agarose gels, since a relatively large 34-bp indel was utilized. Therefore, it is

likely that the RF31446 marker can be used universally, and will greatly

enhance the efficiency of onion F1 hybrid breeding.

Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana took lead in the country by

isolating CMS lines from the adapted populations with the help of molecular

markers and named as D-97A&B (Light red from variety Punjab Naroya), D-121

A&B (Red from variety Punjab Selection), D-266A&B (Dark red from population

P-266), D-30 A&B (White from variety Punjab White), D-305A&B (Dark red

from population P-305) and D-853 A&B ( Red from population P-853). In

addition, three CMS lines viz. D-G422A&B, D-G408A&B, D-G407A&B and D-

G414 A&B with A. galanthum cytoplasm have also been developed through

backcross breeding.

Use of male sterile lines

Efficient use CMS lines facilitates heterosis breeding, as hand

emasculation and pollination of umbels is not practical at commercial scale in


33

onion. In CMS system male sterile(A), maintainer(B) and pollinator(C) lines are

needed for development of F1 hybrids. Production of elite hybrids depends upon

the availability of high-quality and fecund pollinating parent (C-line). All the

three lines should be homozygous to breed commercially acceptable hybrids

with uniform bulb size, shape, colour and days to maturity. This uniformity is

attained by increasing the homozygosity of the inbred parents through selfing.

However, onion show severe inbreeding depression, which reduces plant vigor,

bulb size and seed production. So, recurrent selection should be followed to

attain uniformity and conserve heterotic potential. It takes 10-12 years due to

biennial seed cycle of onion. To overcome these limitations, doubled haploid

technology can be used to obtain completely homozygous plants. Development

of homozygous DH onion lines can be much quicker and cost-effective than

conventional breeding procedures. DH plants are generated in vitro from

gynogenic or androgenic haploid cells. The haploid plantlets double their

chromosomes either spontaneously or are chemically stimulated to do so. DH

lines expected to express high combining ability, vigour and potential yield

than the traditional inbreds due to loss of deleterious or sublethal alleles.

After availability of A, B and C-lines, hybrid development programme can

be initiated. B-lines are used for maintenance of respective A-lines and

pollinated in isolation to maintain the male sterility and purity. Whereas, A-

lines are crossed with C-lines in different combinations for testing the

combining ability of parents. The F1 seed of different combinations are evaluted

for growth, yield, quality, storage and insect-pest resistance. The top ranking

F1‟s are further tested in station and multilocation trials to test the

adaptability. It is followed by the release of the best hybrid at the state or

national level. CMS lines developed at PAU are being used for development of

F1‟s in different combinatons with C-lines(Pollinators). Evaluation of more than

300 hybrids during different years revealed more than 60% heterosis over the

check varieties. The best performing hybrid POH-1 gives 568 q/ha yield and

has been approved by the Research Evaluation Committee of PAU for farmers‟

field trials in the state during rabi 2018-19.

Constraints

In vegetables, hybrids are rapidly adopted by growers due to significant

increase in marketable yield and uniformity for horticultural traits. In onion,

market share of long day hybrids is more than 80% in temperate regions, but

of short day is negligible in tropical parts. Though, IIHR and private seed


34

compnies have developed some hybrids, but could not gain ground among

farmers. The possible reasons that limits the spread of onion hybrid are:

Diverse conditions of cultivation: India has diverse climatic conditons and

onion is grown from down south having extreme short day to long day

condtions in the north. Onion originated under long condtions of Central-

Asia and found adaptation under different latitudes and temperature

regimes. In India, it get recognision as multiplier, rose, short, intermediate

and long day types for cultivation during late summer (Kharif), winter (Late-

kharif) and over winter (Rabi) seasons. Accordingly, various

populations/varieties were selected by the farmers and organizations for

cultivation in different parts. Therefore, as per group, season and

adaptability hybrids of different segment are needed.

Availability of stable CMS lines: Hybrid development in onion is a tedious

task. Unlike other vegetable crops, hand emasculation and pollination can‟t

be utilized for hybrid development at commercial scale in onion. It requires

three line CMS system viz. male sterile(A), maintainer(B) and pollinator (C).

Though, male sterility sources are available, but their exploitation is a

difficult task. Using conventional approach, male sterile (Smsms) plants can

only be identified visually at flowering. Then repeated test crosses have to be

attempted for isolating superior maintainer (Nmsms) plants. Thereafter, 10-

12 years of backcrossing are required for transfer of male sterility from the

known source to the desired adapted genotype. This entire process requires

lot of energy, skill, resources and time. Therfore, focus is required on

development of stable male sterility system in different genetic backgrounds

using conventional or molecular markers approach. Even after development

of male sterile lines testing for adaptability, stability and heterotic potential

requires further attention also.

Narrow genetic base of parents: Hybrids have been found heterotic to yield,

earliness, uniformity in maturity, bulb size and shape, storage quality and

dry matter, but open pollinated varieties may be equally good, if not superior

to hybrids. This may be due to the narrow genetic base of inbred lines

involved in F1 hybrid development. The 5-10% incremental increase in yield

in hybrids is not enough to reckon the technical difficulties in production of

hybrids seeds. Onion yield is increased with the improvement of bulb size,

which can be achieved by choosing suitable parents from diverse gene pools.

The synthesis of heterotic groups for parents can further broaden the base

and help in getting potential hybrids.

Lack of homozygous parents: Onion is highly heterozygous and

hetergeneous in nature due to cross pollinated behavior. Therefore, hybrids


35

developed by using male sterile (A-line) and pollinator (C-line) population are

not uniform for bulb size, shape, colour and other traits. The uniformity of F1

depends upon the homozygosity of parental lines. The homozygous inbreds

are developed through recurrent selection or with doubled haploids

approach, which again demands patience, skill, time and resources.

Poor storabiity: For the last few years some private seed companies are

introducing and marketing temperate short day hybrids in India. These

hybrids are very good in size and yield, but have less then one month

storability. Our onions are tropical in nature with high temperature

dormancy and can be stored for 4-5 months under ventilated conditions.

Thus, along with high yield, longer shelf life is equially important for our

conditions.

Seed yield and cost: The low nectar content in male sterile lines fails to

attract pollinating insects and thus poor pollination results in low seed yield

than OP varieties. Due to this, hybrids prossessing good horticultural traits

are ignored by the seed growers. To make it viable for seed grower, if seed

cost is increased the bulb growers hesitate to purcahse at higher price.

Therefore, attention should also be given on avaibility of nectar and seed set

potential of male sterile lines.

Lack of focused approach: Inspite of some constraints, onion hybrids are

covering more than 80% area in advance countries. Lack of focused

approach can be one of the major reasons for less spread of onion hybrids in

India. The focus should not be only on identification of heterotic F1

combinations for various regions, but for hybrid seed production and

marketing as per best suited adaptability also.

Conclusion: It is an established fact that long day hybrids of onion are

covering about 80% share in temperate regions due to significant edge over OP

varieties for yield and uniformity in bulb shape, size, colour and maturity.

Though, we are largest onion grower, but lagging behind in harnessing the

heterosis potential of short day tropical group . This can be achieved by giving

focus on development of parental lines, synthesis of heterotic groups, targeted

hybrid seed production programme and marketing of F1 seed as per

adaptability for different seasons and regions of the country. Use of marker

assisted selection and doubled haploids approach can further help in achieving

the objectives in shortest possible time. Development and popularization of

onion hybrids will not only increase the productivity, but will also initiate a

new seed entrepreneurship and contribute in seed repacement of 80%

unapproved OP populations.


36

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expressed sequences in onion and in silico comparisons with rice show scant collinearity. Mol Gen Genomics 274: 197-204.

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AVI, Westpon, CT.

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Schnable PS and Wise RP (1998) The molecular basis of cytoplasmic male sterility and fertility restoration. Tren Pl Sci 3:175–80

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the dominant Ms and recessive ms alleles in onion (Allium cepa L.). Euphytica 190:267–77


39

Impacts of Climate Change vis-a-vis Vegetable

Production

Akhilesh Sharma, Hem Lata and Ranbir Singh Rana

Department of Vegetable Science and Floriculture

CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur (H.P.) – 176062

e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

Introduction

Climate change may be a change in the mean of the various climatic

parameters such as temperature, precipitation, relative humidity and

atmospheric gases composition etc. and in properties over a longer period of

time and a larger geographical area. Climate change refers to any change in

climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human

activity” (IPCC, 2001). It means changes in the global environment which

results in changed environment for: crop production,flora and fauna, human

living, land-water-ecology interactions and quality of land and water.

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) article 1

defines climate change as a “change in climate which is attributed directly or

indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global

atmosphere which is in addition to natural climate variability over comparable

time period.Climate changemay occur eitherdue to geo-ecological events

likeearth quakes, tsunami‟s , global warming, long terms changes in the earth‟s

climate and due to land-use changes that include increased cropped

area/intensity of cultivation, deforestation, water-storage/dams, changed river

courses/incursion of sea water, increased use of ground water/irrigation, less

than 30% forests of the total land area of an area, mono-cropping, unbalanced

use of biocides and chemicals, and decreased recharge of ground water.

Potential effects of Global Warming

High temperature is due to the increased amount of greenhouse gases

like CO2 and CH4 in atmosphere which is known as global warming or

greenhouse effect.The mean annual temperature of India is increased by

0.750C over a period of last over 110 years since 1901 (23.940C) to 2012

(24.690C) (Data Portal India, 2013). Globally averaged surface temperature is




40

expected to rise by between 1.1°C up to 6.4°C by the last decade of the 21st

century (Minaxi et al. 2011). Global combined surface temperatures over land

and sea have been increased from 13.590C in 1901-10 to 14.470C in 2001-10

(WMO, 2013).Carbon dioxide levels, which were at 357.0 parts per million in

1994, raised up to 405.5 parts per million in 2017. According to WMO, July

2019 was the hottest month on record with heat waves and other extreme

weather events sparking warnings about the fight to tackle climate change.

Heat waves that swept around the world during July month were at par with

the hottest ever month July 2016. (WMO 2019). The Intergovernmental Panel

on Climate Change (IPCC) reported that controlling global warming to 1.5°C

will require quick and far reaching transitions in land, energy, industry,

buildings, cities and transport and that global net human caused emissions of

CO2 need to decrease by about 45% from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching net

zero around 2050. Increase in temperature will change timing and amount of

rainfall, availability of water (limited), wind patterns and causes incidence of

weather extremes such as droughts, heat waves, floods or storms, changes in

ocean currents,more rainfall during shorter periods, more evaporation and soil

moisture deficiencies, acidification, forest fires , emergence of pests and

diseases and increase the vectors that carry disease. Hastens rate of ozone

depletion in the stratosphere, caused by trace gases such as

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides results in increased levels of

ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B, 280-315 nm) reaching the earth‟s surface, which

is harmful to life (Zajac and Kubis, 2010).

Main greenhouse gases, contribution to global warming (GW) and their

source

Greenhouse gasses

% Contribution to GW

Anthropogenic Sources

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

55-60% Fossil fuel combustion,

Deforestation

Land use conversion

Cement Production

Methane

(CH4)

15-20% Fossil fuel mining

Flooded Soil crops (Paddy)

Waste dumps

Livestock Organic wastes

Human stimulated eutrophication

Ruminants


41

Nitrous oxide (N2O)

4-5% N Fertilizer

Industrial process combustion

Biomass burning

CFC- 12, HCFC- 22

6-12% Liquid coolants

Foams

Aerosol sprays

Figure: Various effects of global warming

Himachal Pradesh is facing impacts of climate change as temperature is

rising and rainfall and snowfall are becoming erratic, affecting agriculture,

horticulture and livestock. Per capita cultivable land 750 to 440 m2 by 2025

in JK, 950 to 640 in HP and 820 to 570 in UK and India 1370 to 920 m2 by

2025.Various evidences of changing climatic parameters in Himachal have

been reported. The data available on temperature in Himalayas and

downstream indicate that warming during last 3-4 decades has been more

than the global average of 0.75% over last century. Some of the values indicate

that Himalayas are warming 5-6 times more than the global average compared

to plain areas.The mean temperature change is +0.020C/year,

diurnaltemperature +0.060C/year, rainfall -3.26 mm/year. The seasonal mean

temperature trends for the 1951-2010 period shows a significant increasing

trend for most seasons viz. winters (0.02o C/yr), monsoons (0.03o C/yr) and


42

post-monsoon (0.02o C/yr) but not significantly increasing for summers (0.01o

C/yr) (Rathore et al., 2013)

Impacts of Climate Change on vegetables

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activity and livestock are

a major driver of climate change.Climate change has both direct and indirect

effects on agricultural productivity, which includes extreme events like uneven

rainfall patterns, hailstorms, drought, flooding (FAO,2019).This may also lead

to more pests, disease and weedsand the geographical redistribution of pests

and diseases which will reduce agricultural productivity.

Vegetables are important source of essential nutrients, vitamins,

minerals, dietary fiber and phytochemicals. Vegetables are strong antioxidants,

reduce the risk of chronic disease by protecting against free radical damage

and are the best resource for overcoming micronutrient deficiencies, thus also

known as protective food. Vegetables crops are sensitive to climate variability.

India is the second largest producer of vegetables after China.The vegetable

productivity in India has been increased from 10.47 MT/ ha in 1991-92 to 17.1

MT in 2016-2017(NHB, 2017). Climate change is posing serious negative effect

on potato growth in India, including productivity, production and profitability.

Focus of studies on climate change at Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI)

has been confined to the plains not only because it is main potato growing

region of the country but also because of data availability for the hills. A study

conducted on the changes in long-term climate parameters on cabbage seed

yield of Kullu valley reported that seed production per unit areawas reduced by

40%from 1981 to 2004. The increase in extreme weather like reduced

precipitation and rise in temperature affects seed production of cabbage

adversely (Kumar et al. 2009). Similarly, weather parameters affect the seed

yield and quality of cauliflower in Saproon valley of Solan district (H.P). The

data on cauliflower seed production from 1991 to 2016 found decreased in

seed yield from 380.2kg/ha to 216.0 kg/ ha respectively (Sharma et al.

2018).Increased temperature and less rainfall in winters especially January-

June will bestow adverse effects on chill accumulation units, results in upward

shift of snowline as a consequences of which shifting apple orchards towards

higher altitudes. Low precipitation reduces soil moisture and increase in evapo-

transpiration resulting into more water stress conditions.


43

Impact of climate change on plant biology, disease and pest distribution

Change in climate result in shift in the geographical distribution,

changes in the physiology of host, changes in the rate of development, more

rapid development, increased transmission and dispersal, more virulent forms,

vulnerability of present day host cultivars. Climate change also influences the

ecology and biology of insect pests. Pests that were earlier prevailing only in

plains are now invading crops in the mid-Himalayan region of Himachal,

including Kangra, Solan, Mandi, Hamirpur and Chamba districts. Tomato

pinworm, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick), is one of the major globally destructive,

invasive pests, capable of causing up to 100% damage in tomato. Increased

population of potato tuber moth in warehouse has been reported. Increased

temperature, shorten the life cycles of pest like aphids, diamond back moth,

cabbage maggot, onion maggot and colorado potato beetle, therefore produces

more generations per year than their usual rate. Climate change also affects

natural enemies of crop pests like predators & parasitoids. These natural

enemies are tiny and delicate, hence more sensitive to the climatic extremes

like heat, cold, wind & rains.Increasing temperatures results in enhanced

mortality, decreased fecundity and sex ratio of parasitoids and decreased

effectiveness in controlling pests when pest affected by climate.

The climate influences temporal and spatial distribution of plant

diseases. Bacterial wilt causes huge losses in warmer area of Madhya Pradesh

and plateau region but due to warming, the disease may enter the new areas

where it is not present. Moreover, the temperature change is likely to affect the

late blight outbreak in Punjab and western Uttar Pradesh, thus affecting the

potato seed production. Dry root rot is an emerging disease occurs due to high

temperature & moisture stress. Higher risk of dry root rot in the years when

the temperature exceeds 300C coupled with soil moisture stress at the time of

flowering and podding. High pod infection of Ascochyta blight (AB) in chick pea

is due to extended wintershas been reported at Dhaulakuan, HP, 2014.

Extended spring rain results in rust on faba bean &lentil. Late planting of lentil

and faba bean planted under irrigation results in powdery mildew however,

early planted lentil & field pea results in downy mildew.

A number of biological indicators for climate change in Himachal

Pradesh in crops have been reported by agricultural scientist. Reproductive

and maturity phase shortened by about 15 days in garden pea. Similarly 10-20

days early maturity observed in solanaceous crops, onion, garlic and okra. Rice


44

transplanted during July 10th to July 30th showed one to ten days shortening

of reproductive phase in two varieties (Himdhan-1 and K-39) in Palampur

region.

Mitigation/Adaptation Measures: The effect of climate change can be

mitigated by following various strategies:

i. Assist farmers in coping with current climatic risks like weather services,

agro-advisories, insurance, and community banks for seed and fodder.

ii. Intensify food production systems, technology and input delivery

systems, market links

iii. Improve land and water management technologies for resource

conservation and use efficiency

iv. Enable policies and regional cooperation by providing incentives to

farmers for resource conservation and use efficiency, pricing of

resources, credit for transition to adaptation technologies.

v. Strengthen research for enhancing adaptive capacity varieties, resource

conservation technologies, pest surveillance for improved assessments,

mechanism for collection and dissemination of weather, soil, water and

agricultural data.

vi. Simulated adaptations for different crops of HP (NPCC, 2013) by

changing variety as an adaptation strategy, change in external inputs

and change in planting date as an adaptation strategy. It has been found

that the best simulated planting date for maize was 20th June under

increased temperature of 1 and 2 0C and delayed sowing showed more

impact of increased temperature. The simulated planting windows for

mustard was 9th November based on 20 years simulation under

increased temperature and 1 to 3 irrigations at Palampur. The simulated

planting windows for gobhi sarson was November,9 and the yield was 50

kg /ha higher when crop was sown during 1-10 November, 2011

compared to crops sown during October 20-31 October. In Soybeandelay

of planting window by 10 days is the best adaptation measure. In wheat

changes of sowing window in normal and late during December showed

mitigation impacts. Two to four irrigations under rain -fed conditions

showed increase in yield at higher temperature scenarios.

vii. Mitigation options for GHG emission from agricultural soils:

Agriculture releases to the atmosphere can be declined by reduced

CH4emission through modification of irrigation pattern, change of crop

establishment technique, use of suitable crop cultivars, change of


45

fertilizer management, and management of organic inputs. GHGs

emissions of CO2 reduced by conservation agriculture, cover crop, crop

rotations, diversification, judicious use of off-farm input, integrated crop

management, integrating trees and livestock with crop, drip, furrow or

sub-surface irrigation, conservation/restoration of degraded soils. The

flux of N2O can be reduced through improving N fertilizer management,

optimizing irrigation practices, optimizing tillage operations, managing

organic inputs and integrated nutrient management.

viii. Smart nitrogen management in agriculture could be driving force climate

change mitigation. Approaches for increasing fertilizer use efficiency and

reducing environmental pollution include leaf colour chart, and urea

tablet/nitrification inhibitor.

ix. No-tillage cropping systems conservation agriculture recommended for

crop production globally because it restores soil carbon, conserves

moisture, saves fuel, saves labor, lowers machinery costs, reduces

erosion, improved soil fertility, controls weed, planting on the best date

and improves wildlife habitat.

x. Genetic enhancement approaches to develop climate resilient crops:

Different traitscan be used for increasing the yield, increasing the

resource use efficiency radiation, water & nutrient, increasing the yield

and stability tolerance to stresses. Genetic variation includes natural

variations from germplasm resources and induced variations by means of

mutant resources. Genomics assisted breeding and transgenic crops can

also be used. Minimization of global warming potential (GWP) toreduce

energy consumption with genotypes suitable for new agronomy,

genotypes with high input use efficiency and minimal GWP and residues

with less unutilized energy.

xi. Organic agriculture as a new paradigm in agriculture for climate

change management: Organic farmers use more agro-ecological

methods like mixed crop rotations, intercropping, grasslands and green

manure, habitats and non-farmed areas, non-chemical pest

management, therefore, switching to organic cultivation and minimizing

the use of costly external inputs. Organic agriculture discourages the

heavy use of machinery on farm, which otherwise contribute 2.6 kg CO2

to atmosphere per litre use of diesel. Promoting functional diversity

means enhancing and benefitting from ecological service functions

pollination, pest disease prevention, biodiversity preservation, soil

quality, resilience, In situ conservation of genes. Organic farming can

mitigate a total of 104.78 kg carbon equivalent CO2/ha) annually in HP.


46

At present 25000 hectare area is under organic farming which is

mitigating 2619.5 tonnesCO2 annually in the state.

xii. Adaptations in Horticultural crops :Apples can be grown at altitudes

1500 to 2700 meters above mean sea level in the Himalayan range but

due to shifting climate in Himachal Pradesh, apple growing belt, known

as apple line is also shifting to higher altitudes. As a result apple

farmers are taking cultivation of vegetables such as tomato, peas,

cauliflower, cabbage and broccoli. Farmers perceptions indicated the

shift of apple /horticultural crops towards off season vegetables as an

adaptations.

xiii. Weather based Advisories as adaptation to climate change: Gramin

Krishi Mausam Sewa (GKMS) provide advantage of benevolent weather

and minimize the adverse impact of malevolent weather. Advisories are

prepared on the aspects of forecasted weather, crop variety selection,

crop field selection, sowing time and maintaining crop health using the

knowledge of domain experts from different departments in CSKHPKV,

Palampur.

Future thrust

To maintain genetic diversity on farm to maintain evolution continuum to

allow genes to evolve, adopt and respond to the expected climatic

changes Indigenous diversity possess genes and combination of genes for

several desirable traits capable to meet climate change events

(EVOLUTION).

To prepare a synthesis and assessment on the maintenance and use of

livestock, agro biodiversity by rural communities under conditions of

climate change (DOCUMENT & RESEARCH)

Genetic resources evaluation and valuation for enhanced utilization to

develop climate resilient and adaptive breeds and varieties, and to

develop genomic resources (PROSPECT & USE)

To conserved optimum level of diversity ex situ as backup / insurance to

climate change (CONSERVE)

To develop new crop and animal husbandry management practices

suitable to diverse situations arising due to climate change (MANAGE)

Generate factual baseline data on climate change, share it with options

to adapt (BE INFORMED)

Integration, collaborations, and involvement of all stakeholders including

policy makers, implementers and receivers (INTEGRATE)


47

Research and development needs improvement in awareness,

information dissemination, to explore the contributions of traditional

knowledge to climate research, early warning systems, monitoring and

surveillance of climate factors. Overall regulatory framework pertaining

to land use, ground water, forestry resources and other natural

resources on which livelihood of hill people depends.

Conclusions

Climate change/changing climate has deciphered through various

evidences in agriculture, horticulture and different sectors in the hills.

Agriculture is most vulnerable to global warming as compared to other

enterprises; Indian agriculture is likely to suffer losses due to heat, erratic

weather, and decreased irrigation availability. Precision in climate change

prediction with higher resolution on spatial and temporal scale is the prime

requirement for linking with agricultural production system to evaluate the

impact and suggest suitable options for sustaining agricultural production. The

multifaceted interaction among the atmospheric composition, climate

change and human, plant and animal health needs to be scrutinized and

probable solutions to the undesirable change may be sought. The

adaptation and mitigations options be practiced to reduce vulnerability due

to climate change climate change policy be prevailed and effectively put into

practice to protect the fragile ecosystem Mountains.

References:

Data Portal India (2013). Annual and Seasonal Mean Temperature of India,

National Informatics Centre of Govt. of India. Downloaded from

http://data.gov.in/dataset/annual-andseasonal- mean-temperature-india

Food and AgricultureOrganization (2019). Agriculture and climate change

challenges and opportunities at the global and local level collaboration on

climate-smart agriculturehttp://www.fao.org/3/CA3204EN/ca3204en.pdf

Kumar PR, Shiv KY, Sharma SR, Lal SK and Jha DN (2009) Impact of Climate

Change on Seed Production of Cabbage in North Western Himalayas.World

Journal of Agricultural Sciences 5 (1): 18-26.

Minaxi. RP, Acharya KO, and Nawale S. (2011). Impact of climate change on

food . Journal of Agriculture,Environment and Biotechnology 4(2):125-127.

http://data.gov.in/dataset/annual-andseasonal-

http://www.fao.org/3/CA3204EN/ca3204en.pdf


48

National horticulture Board (2017) Horticulture statistics at a glance

http://nhb.gov.in/statistics/Publication/Horticulture%20At%20a%20Glan

ce%202017%20for%20net%20uplod%20(2).pdf

NPCC (2013)New York City Panel on Climate Change Climate Risk Information

2013 Observations, Climate Change Projections, and

Mapshttp://www.nyc.gov/html/planyc2030/downloads/pdf/npcc_climate_

risk_information_2013_report.pdf

Rathore LS, Attri, SD and Jaswal AK.(2013) State level climate change trends

in India, Meteorological Monograph No. ESSO/IMD/EMRC/02/2013

Sharma P, Singh M, Bhardwaj SK and Gupta R (2018) .Impact of long term

weather parameters on seed production of cauliflower.The Pharma

Innovation Journal 7(7): 521-523.

WMO, 2013. The Global Climate 2001-2010 - A decade of climate extremes

summary report. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.

Downloaded from http://library.wmo.int/pmb_ged/wmo_1119_en.pdf

WMO,2019.Downloaded from https://public.wmo.int/en/media

Zajc MRand Kubis J. (2010). Effect of UV-B radiation on antioxidative enzyme

activity in cucumber cotyledons. ActaBiologica Cracoviensia Series Botanica

52(2):97–102.

http://nhb.gov.in/statistics/Publication/Horticulture%20At%20a%20Glance%202017%20for%20net%20uplod%20(2).pdf

http://nhb.gov.in/statistics/Publication/Horticulture%20At%20a%20Glance%202017%20for%20net%20uplod%20(2).pdf

http://www.nyc.gov/html/planyc2030/downloads/pdf/npcc_climate_risk_information_2013_report.pdf

http://www.nyc.gov/html/planyc2030/downloads/pdf/npcc_climate_risk_information_2013_report.pdf

http://library.wmo.int/

https://public.wmo.int/en/media


49

Potential Role of Underutilized Indigenous Vegetable

Crops in the Changing Climatic Scenario

Akhilesh Sharma, Eshanee, Jagmeet Singh and Priyanka

Department of Vegetable Science and Floriculture

CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur (H.P.) – 176062

[email protected]

Introduction

Climate change is one of the major challenges worldwide threatening

mankind today due to rising temperatures triggering a host of extreme weather

events such as heat waves, drought and flooding. These climate-induced

challenges are manifesting rapidly, causing socio-economic insecurities and

health challenges, particularly in marginalised communities. There is

increasing evidence of indirect associations between climate change and the

rise in the rates of malnutrition, poor health, hunger and starvation, food and

water insecurity. In addition, climate-change impacts have put an additional

pressure on already stressed natural resource base and reducing the resilience

of agro-ecosystems that are, in part, providing food and nutritional security in

rural communities. These challenges require a paradigm shift from the current

incremental adaptation strategies towards transformative alternatives that also

place an equal emphasis on human nutrition and health, as well as on

environmental sustainability.

In the context of marginalised farming communities, a transformative

adaptation strategy is defined as one that causes a disruptive, but desirable

and sustainable change to the social–ecological state of the system. Inclusion of

adaptable nutrient dense indigenous vegetable crops into marginalised

agricultural systems and dominant food systems is considered part of

transformative adaptation Indigenous may be defined as “a crop

species/variety genuinely traditional to a region, or a crop introduced into a

region where over a period of time it has evolved, although the species may not

be traditional”. It is often described with terms such as neglected and

underutilized crops.

Underutilised indigenous and traditional crops are often characterized by

the limited development relative to their potential. Consequently, they have



50

poorly developed and understood value chains and these vary across

geographic and socio-economic settings. Various research findings have

advocated for their use as a part of sustainable agriculture techniques that

speak to adaptation, mitigation, and sustainable intensification of production

systems.

Features/Advantages of Indigenous vegetables:

• IVs (Indigenous vegetables) domesticated and used in specific areas of

the globe adapt to harsh environments.

• They could be introduced elsewhere for greater crop diversification and

increased productivity.

• They provide balanced year round nutrition, provide new market

opportunities and enhance farm income.

• There is growing recognition that use of locally available indigenous

crops can adapt to climate variability and change while supporting

sustainable diets and food systems.

• Indigenous crops may offer „new‟ opportunities in the changing climatic

scenario as they are well suited to local harsh environments, provide

nutritional diversity, enhance agro-biodiversity within farmer fields and

home gardens, create niche markets in local economies, harness and

protect local knowledge.

Furthermore, they are a mainstay of rural food systems. These reported

benefits are largely anecdotal with limited empirical evidence. Research has

also shown that most indigenous crops are low yielding and have limited

benchmarking resulting in low adoption in mainstream farming systems in

comparison to major crops (Chivenge et al. 2015).Despite the inherent low-yield

potential of these crops, the fact that they have persevered with a little formal

support suggests they may be resilient and possess certain desirable traits

within communities who utilise them which may be useful for climate-change

adaptation. There is sufficient evidence that shows that climate change will

affect crop yields and quality. A change in the observed climate will affect the

growth of crops through multiple mechanisms including changing phenology,

heat stress, water stress, water-logging and reductions in pests and diseases.

Based on general circulation models, the forecasted yield changes in

2050 are estimated to be between − 27 and + 9% across all the developing

countries for the three key staple crops [maize, rice and wheat], assuming a


51

carbon fertilization effect. According to Scheelbeek et al. (2018), the impacts of

environmental changes on nutritional quality remain unclear for

vegetable/legume and fruit crops due to scanty quantitative reports. On the

other hand, there are overwhelming data that show clear impacts in cereal

crops (Chaturvedi et al. 2017). Higher carbon dioxide concentration, for

example, is shown to lower concentrations of zinc, iron, and protein and raise

starch and sugar content in crop plants that use three-carbon fixation pathway

such as wheat, rice, and soybeans. However, there are no published reports on

indigenous crops,

As climate change threatens to reduce the land suitable for production of

major crops, this could inevitably open up more land for indigenous crops that

do well under extreme climate and edaphic conditions. Crops such as cowpea,

faba bean, chilli, yams, colocasia etc. are adapted to extreme weather (drought

and heat stress) and poor soil conditions. Research has shown that several

indigenous crops require less water and have relatively high water use

efficiencies (Chibarabada et al. 2017). They can also be grown in marginal and

fragile environments, such as dry lands and swamps, and on highly degraded

land that is no longer suitable for high input commercial crops. Therefore, land

that has been condemned as unsuitable for cultivation of major crops may be

suitable for cultivating adaptable indigenous crops. However, the cultivation

and expansion of indigenous crops at a large scale must be supported with

crop suitability mapping for effective matching of specific indigenous crops to

suitable climate.

Crop suitability mapping is an assessment of land performance when it

is used to produce specific crops. There are over 12,000 crop species worldwide

that are classified as suitable for human consumption, yet the world is fed by

only 30 crops. Among this select group, rice, maize and wheat provide

approximately 60% of the world population‟s dietary energy (Shiferaw et al.

2011). This is mainly due to strong policy support, targeted breeding efforts

that have made them highly adaptable to several environments, high calorific

value, and product versatility.

Indigenous crops form part of a species rich sub-set of agro-biodiversity.

Cultivation of indigenous crops suited for local environments could provide

nutritional diversity for communities, an option for crop rotation for farmers,

creates niche markets in local economies, harnesses and protects local

knowledge and agro-biodiversity, opportunities for farmers to disrupt pest and


52

disease cycles, replenish nutrients through improved contributions and

support of nutrient cycling, increase the presence of pollinators. Indigenous

crops can, therefore, be considered as protective and respectful of biodiversity

and ecosystems. Thus, harnessing local knowledge and the use of indigenous

crop species has enormous potential to improve food security in the developing

countries under climate change.

With the risk of a shrinking food basket under climate change,

mainstreaming indigenous crops into local food systems will mitigate

malnutrition, which is also predicted to increase under climate change.

However, despite this reported potential, indigenous crops still face significant

obstacles with regards to being mainstreamed into the dominant agricultural

landscapes and food systems.

Nutritional aspects of Indigenous Vegetables

Numerous studies have revealed that indigenous crops contain micro

and macro-nutrients which are essential for health, more than common major

crops. Several traditional legumes and vegetable crops, contain high

proportions of vitamins, calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium, and zinc, and

some indigenous vegetables contain more vitamin C and pro-vitamin A than

major crop species. Certain crops have also been reported to carry health

protection and medicinal properties, and can have protective effects against the

major chronic diseases. Depending on species, the inclusion of indigenous

crops into low-income household diets can improve the availability of some

essential nutrients, especially essential amino acids, fibre, proteins, and

promote dietary diversity. This makes them an important component for

nutritious diets and offer new opportunities to address malnutrition and food

insecurity. Kaempferol and Quercetin in Trigonella foenum-graecum, Luteolin

and Anthocyanin in Colocasia esculenta leaves are found.

Research shows that worldwide adoption of a more plant-based diet

could contribute to the reduction of food-related greenhouse gas emissions by

up to 70% by 2050. They carry anti-nutritional factors also which make them

less palatable and difficult to process e.g alpha-galactosides, the main flatus-

causing compounds are present in red and white lima beans (Phaseolus

lunatus), African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa Hochst ex A. Rich), and

jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis). These challenges, among others, could be

overcome through concerted crop improvement programmes which otherwise


53

limit efforts to exploit the full value of indigenous crops for climate-change

adaptation.

Commercially cultivated indigenous vegetables include Brinjal (Solanum

melongena), Okra (Abelmoschus esculenta), Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima, C.

pepo), Bitter gourd (Momordica dioica), Bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria), Snake

gourd (Trichosanthes anguina), Dolichos bean (Dolichos lablab), Curry leaf

(Murraya koenigii), Colocasia (Colocasia esculenta), Elephant Foot Yam

(Amorphophallus campanulatus), Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.), Faba Bean

(Vicia faba).

Important indigenous vegetable crops of Himachal Pradesh-

1. Amaranth greens

It is called as poor man‟s spinach, belonging to family

Amaranthaceae.About 15 species occur wild in India, with more diversity in

edible leafy types in the Himalayas. They possess varying pungency and several

local types have been domesticated as leafy vegetable. More variability occurs

in A. Viridis under domestication. All species are consumed after boiling as

soups or leafy vegetables. These are also fried and cooked, as a substitute for

spinach. The fleshy tender succulent shoots of A. lividus and A. viridis are used

as a substitute for Asparagus. Young plants of A. retroflexus as leafy vegetable

are rich source of nitrogen, while those of A. spinosus are rich in calcium.

Leaves are good source of Vit. A, B6, C, riboflavin, folate, and dietary minerals

including calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, copper, and

manganese. A. gangeticus Linn. syn. A. tricolour Linn. Barichulai, a leafy herb (a

very variable plant) largely cultivated but also found run wild. It is used as a

vegetable. A. viridis Linn. Syn. A. gracilis Desf. Janglichulai is a tender

herbaceous, rainy season weed occurring throughout India. The leaves and

young shoots are eaten cooked.

2. Buck Wheat (Fagopyrum Spp.)

There are two species of buck wheat namely, F. esculentum (common

buckwheat, Kotu) and F. tataricum (Bitter buckwheat, Duck wheat, Indian

Buckwheat). They belong to family Polygonaceae.Fagopyrum, commonly known


54

as Phaphru in Himachal Pradesh. Flowers produce nectar, which is used in the

preparation of honey. It is also used as a medicinal plant due to the presence of

a glucoside named “rutin” which reduces haemophilia and heart attack

chances (keep the arteries fragile, and reduces the chance of blockade of

arteries). In India, it is grown entirely in the temperate part of Himalayan range

and in South Indian hills. The species can withstand poor unferti1e and acidic

soils.

3. Allium species

It belongs to family Liliaceae/Alliaceae/Amaryllidaceae. About 30 species

occur wild in India, in temperate zone, mainly in alpine meadows in the

Himalayas. Allium stracheyi and A. victoralis are more important as edible

types. More diversity occurs in small-plot cultivation near hutments in high

altitudes at 3,000- 4,000m in the Western Himalayas. Chinese chive, Allium

tuberosum, Zimmu, a natural cross between onion and garlic is reported wild in

Himachal Pradesh and adjoining Western Himalayas. Plants are perennials and

tend to grow in clumps. Dried leaves of A. stracheyi are used for garnishing,

flavouring, or made into soups. The dried leaves/plants are stored semi-

powered and mixed in curries. Zimmu leaves/young shoots are more pungent

and consumed both raw, and cooked. Its leaves are heart stimulant and have

bactericidal properties. Allium govanianum Wall. Ex Baker syn. A. humile.

Lasanya is a herb found in the Himalayas. The young aromatic leaves are used

as green vegetable and for garnishing after drying. A. sphaerocephalum Linn. is

an herb from northwestern Himalayas. In Lahaul, its leaves are eaten. Other

species consumed likewise are: A. carolinianum DC, A. consanguineum Kunth,

A. rubellum M. Bieb, A. semenovii Regel, A. victorialis Linn.

4. Rumex vesicarius, R. acetosella, R. patientia, R. scutatus

It is also called as Sheep sorrel or Khatta palak. Over 10 species are

reported from different regions of India, mainly from the Himalayas and

consumed as potherbs. In the Western Himalayas, Rumex acetosella, R.

hastatus, R. patientia and R. scutatus are mostly confined to temperate habitats

upto 3,600 m. Some are also distributed in the Western Ghats or peninsular

hilly tracts such as R. acetosella, R. dentatus and R. maritimus. R. acetose and

R. Hastatus are more diverse exhibiting more variability in plant type, flavour

and colour. They are strongly acidic to less acidic. These also differ in tender


55

shoots possessing more sour sap. Mostly consumed raw, as salad and

considered as a famine food. Leaves of R. dentatus arerich in calcium, carotene,

and Vit. C and form a nutritious vegetable, astringent and slightly purgative. R.

hastatus leaves are mildly acidic and more preferred to other wild types. R.

patientia has leaves that taste like sorrel. Its roots are also consumed raw.

5. Curry leaf (Murraya koenigii)

It belongs to family Rutaceae and is called as mitha neem or curry leaf

tree. An evergreen shrub commonly found naturally regenerating in Shivalik

hills especially at an altitude varying from 300-900 m amsl. Leaves are valued

primarily for seasoning and flavouring the different dishes. The leaves and

shoots have also been used indirectly as additions to various foodstuffs as

condiments or flavouring agents. Curry leaf contain higher amount of vitamin A

(12,600 IU/100g), protein (6.1%), fat (1.0), which makes it superior from other

popular vegetable (Peter, 1998).

6. Endive (Cichorium endivia)

It is commonly known as kasini and it belongs to family

Compositae/Asteraceae. This herb is commonly found as weed in Punjab, and

extending to colder parts of Western Himalayas. Its edible parts are leaves and

flowers. The young shoots are used as salad, and the leaves are eaten as

vegetable. It is rich in many vitamins and minerals, especially in folate and

vitamins A and K, and is high in fiber. It acts as a stomachic tonic, has

hepatoprotective properties, favors blood circulation and acts as a laxative.

7. Watercress (Nasturtium officinale)

A small herb commonly known as Brahmi sag belonging to family

Cruciferae/Brassicaceae is naturalized at many places especially in mid hills of

HP. The tender shoots or leaves are cooked as vegetable, used in soups and

also to garnish for various dishes. Leaves exceptionally rich in vitamin C, folic

acid, ascorbic acid and minerals, especially iron. It is used as a detoxifier,

antiscorbutic, diuretic and stimulant.


56

8. Atriplex hortensis L.

It is called as mountain spinach, garden orach and sea purslane

belonging to family Chenopodiaceae. It is an annual herb and locally known as

Phaltora and Ustak in Ladakh region. Atriplex is used as health tonic and helps

in nutrition absorption, digestion and enhances the metabolism (Polunin

2009). Beside vitamin and protein the leaves of Atriplex, it is also rich in

calcium, fat, total carbohydrate, fiber, β- carotene and saponin (Sarwa 2001;

Duke 1977). Leaves are diuretic, emetic purgative and efficacious when used

externally in the treatment of gout. It is characterized by a high content of

flavonoid, mineral components and amino acids.

9. Bidens pilosa

It is known as Blackjack or Spanish needle. It is a medicinal herb in

Chinese medicine. Its edible parts are tender shoots. It is high in B-carotene,

vitamin E, ascorbic acid, iron, calcium and protein. It contains anti-

inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-gastrointestinal properties.

10. Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa)

Its edible parts are young shoots and leaves. It is an astringent and acts

as a cooling herb. Leaves are antiscorbutic, emollient, diuretic, refrigerant,

sedative, used as an emollient and as a soothing cough remedy. It is also used

as a folk remedy in the treatment of abscesses, bilious conditions, cancer,

cough, debility, dyspepsia, dysuria, fever, hangover, heart ailments,

hypertension, neurosis and scurvy.

11. Indian spinach: Basella alba (green), B. alba var. rubra (red)

It is also known as Poi. Its edible parts are tender shoots, leaves, stem

and used as vegetable, soups and stews. It is used in digestive disorders and

contain antiviral substances. Sap of mature fruit used as a colouring agent in

pastries and sweets.


57

12. Lungru (Diplazium esculentum)

Lungru is most commonly consumed fern, quite tasty, giving it the name

"vegetable”. Young fronds, rich in iron, manganese and zinc, are eaten as salad,

vegetable or pickle.

13. Spine gourd (Momordica dioica)

It is locally known as kakrol. Green fruits, rich in proteins, used for

curing ulcers, piles, sores, obstruction of liver & spleen, cough, digestive

problems and diabetes. Seeds are used for chest problems and to stimulate

urinary discharge.

14. Chayote, choko (Sechium edule)

Fruits are rich in amino acids and used as vegetable and snacks.

Infusion of leaves used in treatment of arteriosclerosis, hypertension and to

dissolve kidney stones.

15. Lasoda, Indian cherry (Cordia myxa)

Unripe fruits are eaten as vegetable, pickles while ripe fruits are used in

making country liquor. Fruits are useful in gastric problems, ulcer, leprosy,

skin diseases, dry cough, bronchitis, chronic fever and arthritis. This tree is

found in lower hill region of Himachal Pradesh. The mucilage and the Kernel

are reported to have useful medicinal properties.

16. Kachnar (Bauhinia Variegata)

It belongs to family Caesalpiniaceae and also known as orchid tree. It

occurs in sub Himalayan tract and also found in dry forests of Central, Eastern

and Southern India as well as lower dry regions of Himachal Pradesh. The buds

and flowers are traditionally eaten as vegetable in Himachal Pradesh. Flowering

occurs in March and fruits in rainy season. Flower and seed have medicinal

value. Dried buds are used in dysentery, piles and worms. The bud has high

phenolic content and provides dietary antioxidants. The buds are used as

flavouring compound, flour, pickle and in curries.


58

Many indigenous vegetable crops found in different regions of the

country are Crambe cordifolia, Himalayan Desert Candle (Eremurus himalaicus),

Tara-mira (Eruca sativa), Corchorus olitorius (Vegetable jute), Ponnanganni

greens (Alternanthera sessilis), Water cress (Enhydra fluctuans), Water spinach

(Ipomoea aquatic), Chekkurmanis (Sauropus androgynous), S. tibeticum

(Kindu),Chinese boxthorn (Lycium chinense), Common purslane (Portulaca

oleracea), Water lily (Nymphaea odorata), Indian lettuce (Lactuca indica),

Common knotweed (Polygonum plebeium), Nettle (Urtica dioica),Okinawa

spinach (Gynura bicolor), Water skin lotus (Nymphoides hydrophylla), Angelica

keiskei (Ashitaba), Anredera cordifolia (Madeira vine), Bamboo (Bambusa

bambos), May chang (Litsea cubeba), Ash gourd (Benincasa hispida), Cucumis

melo var. agrestis (Kachri), Snap melon (C. melo var. momordica), Sponge gourd

(Luffa cylindrica), Spine gourd (Momordica dioica)Balsam Apple (M. balsamina),

Bitter cucumber (M. tuberosa), Ivy gourd (Coccinia grandis),Drumsticks

(Moringa oleifera), Indian nightshade (Solanum indicum), Pahari peepal (Piper

mullesua), Pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica), Bread fruit (Artocarpus altilis),

Jackfruit (A. heterophyllus), Monkey jack (A. lakoocha), Khejri (Prosopis

cineraria), Elephant apple (Dillenia indica), Indian mulberry (Morinda citrifolia),

Water celery (Oenanthe javanica) , Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), Swamp leaf

(Limnophila rugose) , Saururus (Houttuynia cordata), Tropical violet (Asystasia

gangetica), Japanese parsley (Cryptotaenia japonica), White mugwort (Artemisia

lactiflora), Bird‟s nest fern (Asplenium australasicum), Toothache tree

(Zanthoxylum hamiltonianum), Teppal (Zanthoxylum rhetsa), Indian pandan

(Pandanus amaryllifolius), Lettuce tree (Pisonia grandis), Water mimosa

(Neptunia oleracea), Perilla (Perilla frutescens), Cluster mallow (Malva

verticillata), Oval-leaf pondweed (Monochoria vaginalis), Monkey-bread tree

(Adansonia digitate), Cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba).

Improvement Strategies of Indigenous Crops

In general, IVs are often mixed genetic populations rather than pure

lines. They are cultivated on marginalised lands with minimal inputs. Several

research findings indicated that trait variation present within a crop species is

a major determinant to be achieved through breeding and to combine the

beneficial gene alleles into a single „ideotype‟. These crops still contain gene

alleles and mechanisms for growth in poor environments and for resilience

under stress (Voegel et al. 2012). Such potential genes have lost from major

crops and hence, strategy is required to introduce variation from wild ancestors


59

for major crops (Ellstrand et al. 2010). There are issues to focus on which

indigenous crop for the assessment of genetic potential. So, select species with

beneficial traits otherwise not present in major crops e.g. drought tolerance,

nutritional value or other aspects useful for healthy diets. This will constitute a

sub-set of crops which could have a major impact on food and nutritional

security (Massawe et al. 2016. A significant progress could be made by a well-

organised conventional breeding programme with inclusion of marker-assisted

selection as an integrated component of the breeding programme.

Climate–environment co-benefits of indigenous crops

These crops are important for the conservation of agricultural

biodiversity and agro-ecosystems. These are critical for the long-term

sustainability of food and agricultural production (Baldermann et al. 2016).

Besides, they could contribute towards the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG)

emissions (Chivenge et al. 2015). Food systems make up approximately 19–

30% of global anthropogenic GHG emissions through conversion of natural

lands to agricultural land for crop and/or livestock production, intensification

of production on the existing agricultural lands, production of food from

animals utilises large areas of land and hence bears greater environmental

impacts than fruit and vegetable production due to the high levels of nitrogen

and GHG emissions (Donati et al. 2016). Approximately 80% of the emissions

from food systems are associated with livestock production (Springmann et al.

2016). Hence, our dietary food choices affect our health and the environment.

Indigenous crops can also reduce the contribution of environmental

contaminants by agriculture. These crops can tolerate pests and diseases, and

grow in soils of low quality and are known to require lower levels of inputs such

as pesticides and fertilizers.

Conclusions

Lack of research implies there is no robust, comparable and reliable

empirical information. There is a need to develop a clear agenda for research

and development of these crops through concerted efforts involving all the

stakeholders from farmers and consumers to researchers and policy makers. It

is through these co-ordinated efforts, these crops would significantly contribute

to food and nutritional security globally. They represent a rich heritage of

genetic material which is of global importance. Nurturing of these genetic

assets can play a critical role in building a robust, resilient and economically


60

vibrant agricultural sector to sustain our food and nutritional security under

climate change.

References:

Baldermann S, Blagojević L, Frede K, Klopsch R, Neugart S, Neumann A,

Ngwene B, Norkeweit J, Schröter D, Schröter A, Schweigert FJ, Wiesner M,

Schreiner M (2016) Are neglected plants the food for the future? CRC Crit

Rev Plant Sci 35:106–119

Chaturvedi AK, Bahuguna RN, Pal M, Shah D, Maurya S, Jagadish KSV (2017)

Elevated CO2and heat stress interactions afect grain yield, quality and

mineral nutrient composition in rice under feld conditions. For Crop Res

206:149–157.

Chibarabada T, Modi A, Mabhaudhi T (2017) Expounding the value of grain

legumes in the semi- and arid tropics. Sustainability 9:60.

Chivenge P, Mabhaudhi T, Modi A, Mafongoya P (2015) The potential role of

neglected and under utilised crop species as future crops under water

scarce conditions in Sub-Saharan Africa. Int J Environ Res Public Health

12:5685–5711.

Ellstrand NC, Heredia SM, Leak-Garcia JA, Heraty JM, Burger JC, Yao L,

Nohzadeh -Malakshah S, Ridley CE (2010) Crops gone wild: evolution of

weeds and invasives from domesticated ancestors. Evol Appl 3:494–504

Massawe F, Mayes S, Cheng A (2016) Crop diversity: an unexploited treasure

trove for food security. Trends Plant Sci 21:365–368

Scheelbeek PFD, Bird FA, Tuomisto HL, Green R, Harris FB, Joy EJM, Chalabi

Z, Allen E, Haines A, Dangour AD (2018) Efect of environmental changes on

vegetable and legume yields andnutritional quality. Proc Natl Acad Sci

115:6804–6809.

Shiferaw B, Prasanna BM, Hellin J, Bänziger M (2011) Crops that feed the

world 6. Past successes and future challenges to the role played by maize in

global food security. Food Secur 3:307–327

Springmann M, Godfray HCJ, Rayner M, Scarborough P (2016) Analysis and

valuation of the health and climate change cobenefts of dietary change.

Proc Natl Acad Sci 113:4146–4151.

Voegel R, Padulosi S, Bergamini N, Lawrence T (2012) Red list for crops-a tool

for monitoring genetic erosion, supporting re-introduction into cultivation

and guiding conservation eforts. In: On farm conservation of neglected and

underutilized species: status, trends and novel approaches to cope with


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climate change. Proceedings of an international conference, Frankfurt,

Germany, 14–16 June, 2011. Bioversity International, pp 137–142

Improving the Availability and Quality of Vegetable

Seeds for Higher Profitability

B S Tomar Head, Division of Vegetable Science, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi -110012

India ranks second in vegetable production, but productivity it lags

behind in most of the vegetable crops (FAO, 8). Apart from other factors, limited

availability of quality vegetable seed and at reasonable price is one of the major

cause. However quality seed alone can lead to 15-20 % increase in productivity

Singh et al. (28). India grows vegetables in an area of 9.3 million ha and

requires around 51,000 tonnes of seeds for sowing annually but the actual

availability is around 40,000 tonnes and large quantity of seeds is still being

multiplied by farmers themselves (Dutta, 7).

Indian seed industry is the 5th largest in world and is worth of 2.7 billion

US $ (Dubey, 6). Vegetable seed industry consist of agencies viz. like National

Seeds Corporation, state seed corporations, SAU‟s, ICAR institutes and private

seed companies. Unlike cereals, vegetable seed is categorised as low volume

high value seed, and dominated by the private seed companies. The private

sector concentrate on the production of hybrids seeds of tomato, cabbage,

brinjal, chilli, okra and cucurbits, where the seed production is comparatively

easy and more profitable. The government R&D institutes and production

agencies are largely concentrated on development and seed production of OP

varieties. Although 461 varieties have been released by AICRP- (vegetables) but

more than 60 % varieties are open pollinated. ICAR institutes and SAU‟s

produce breeder seed, which is made available to the seed producing

agencies/corporations and small private seed companies which don‟t have their

own R&D setup.

Private seed companies are making available quality vegetable seeds to the

farmers, but high seed cost is limiting factor to small and medium farmers who

are unable to afford the high cost of seed e.g. capsicum and tomato seed price

can be as high as 60- 90 thousand rupees/kg. The availability of quality seeds


62

can enhanced by two approaches one by increases the production and

productivity of seeds and second by increasing the quality of the seeds by

enhancing the germination, seed vigour and storability etc. There by reduction

of seed rate could be possible. The use of improved seed production and seed

enhancement technologies shall not only be helpful in increasing the

profitability of the seed producers but will also helpful to vegetable growers by

making available the best quality seed. The technological interventions could

improve the seed productivity and increase the availability.

1. Strengthening the breeder seed production and public private

partnership in seed production

India has the large network of 63 SAU‟s, ICAR research institutes and many

autonomous research institute working on the vegetable improvement which

have large land banks, which can be utilized to produce breeder seed and

the same must be provided to of 15 state seed corporations, National Seeds

Corporation, KVK‟s and 100‟s of smaller and medium seed companies and

producers which don‟t have R & D setup.

2. Practicing the generation system of seed production: The varieties and

hybrids gain acceptance when the farmer gets genetically pure seeds of high

quality. Employing the generation system comprises of breeder, foundation

and certified seed could provide adequate safeguard to quality reduction by

rouging frequently at farmer‟s field. Thus it will cut down the labour cost

and increase the net profit from seed production. The choice of a proper

seed multiplication model is the key to further success of a seed

programme. For Self-pollinated & asexually reproduced crops (garden pea,

methi, cowpea, cluster bean, potato and garlic) 5 generation model, often

cross pollinated crops (okra, brinjal, broad bean, dolicus bean) 4 generation

model and in cross pollinated crops (cole crops, leafy vegetables and

cucurbits) 3 generation model is suggested for multiplication to minimize

the expenditure involved in rouging.

3. Seed production of hybrids & high yielding varieties: Since, the

vegetables are being cultivated by resource poor farmers and largely self-

saved seed is being used by them and contribution of hybrid seed is less of

total seed demand and limited to selected crops. The seed production of

hybrids varieties is one of the means to meet the demand of quality seed.

Since hybrids/varieties have been released in number of vegetable crop by

public sector. Thus, production of genetically pure and quality seeds by


63

adopting suitable seed production techniques specifically in remote areas

where market for fresh vegetables are not adequate.

Hybrid seed production on commercial scale is being done by hand

emasculation and pollination. Hence, involvement of skilled labours

resulting employment to rural youth and also producer fetches higher price

of hybrid seed as compare to open pollinated variety seed production and

vis-à-vis commercial vegetable production.

4. Identification of new productive seed production pockets: The state of

Karnataka produces nearly 90 % of the total vegetable hybrids in India and

majority of the area is concentrated around Ranebennur area, apart from it

Jalna in Maharashtra and few other pockets in Telangana and Gujarat.

There is a need to identify new seed production pockets which are having

higher production potential eg: onion seed is traditionally produced in

Maharashtra, where the seed yield is around 700-800 kg/ha, whereas the

seed yield in Saurashtra region of Gujarat is 1000-1200 kg/ha (Gupta and

Sharma, 9). Identification of new areas of seed production is also essential

to reduce the build-up of soil borne disease eg. Sproon valley in Solan,

Himachal Pradesh has become endemic to black rot disease of cauliflower

and made the seed production uneconomical and forced to shifting to other

crops.

5. Seed demand forecasting: It is essential since the seed multiplication

under generation system requires at least 4-5 years of advance planning.

Forecasting based on production trends, consumer preference and other

economic analysis is an essential to ensure the adequate production and

supply of seed.

6. Healthy nursery raising for transplanted crops: Quality seeds of hybrid

seeds is costly and even the single seeds is valuable, but in traditional

system of nursery raising the demand for seed is higher due to lower

seedling establishment. In order to reduce seed demand, uniform seedling

growth, seedling production under adverse condition and enhance

production one should opt protected nursery raising. A plug-tray nursery

raising technology by using vermiculite, cocopeat and perlite (3:1:1) as

soilless media has been standardized for raising seedlings of many

vegetables. This high-tech nursery raising technology is capable of vigorous

root development, virus free healthy seedling production and suitable for

raising of large number of seedling at minimum space without any damage


64

to the seedlings. Besides, the production of quality seedlings, the plug tray

production under protected structures could be adopted by the agricultural

graduate and farmers as a side business for enhancement of income.

7. Methods of growing: There are four method of growing viz. flat, ridge and

furrow, raised bed and hill channel method in different crops. Flat bed

method reduces the crop growth, fruit set and increase susceptibility to

disease and pest. Legume vegetable like garden pea should be grown in

raise bed to protect the crop from frost during flowering and pod

development by providing the irrigation between the raised beds, otherwise

flood irrigation suppresses the growth and podding and reduces the yield. A

successful demonstration of raise bed seed production of garden pea cv.

Pusa Pragati has been successfully adopted by Shri. Man Mohan Singh in

Amritsar, Punjab. Onion bulb crop could be grown over raised bed for better

bulb development & reduction in disease incidence which ultimately

reduces the cost of cultivation. Hill channel method in cucurbits is of

economical for seed production as compare to flat bed, saved inputs.

8. Relay sowing of cucurbits for higher seed yield: In north India early

sowing especially in wheat belt crops like musk melon and water melon can

be planted as a relay crop in hill channel method to protect the crop from

low temperature and better growth. The relay planting in wheat resulting

more fruiting and more time for fruit development and maturity leading to

higher seed yield & better quality in musk melon & water melon.

9. Stacking & Pruning: In traditional system of growing plants are allowed to

grow at the soil, hence fruits prone to the disease infestation and leads to

more number of fruit decay on the ground because fruits have to stay till

maturity in seed crop. In order to enhance the seed yield and quality the

intervention of stacking can play a vital role. During rainy season or under

irrigated situations, the vegetable crops like tomato, chilli, capsicum and

brinjal should be stacked. So that the fruits can be prevented from direct

contact with the soil and water and are supported with the stick or rope for

vertical growth to protect from disease & proper aeration.

10. Trailing in cucurbits: Seed production of cucurbits by use of low cost

trailing system has been done and various studies have indicated the

superiority of trailing method over traditional methods. The trailing method

resulting more number of fruits, seed yield and quality in case of bottle


65

gourd seed production of Pusa Hybrid-3 & Pusa Naveen Kalyanrao et al.

(16); Sharma et al. (26). Trailing method avoids shading and allows better

utilization of the sunlight. The superiority of quality attributes is due to the

sound development of fruit and seed due to an early induction of male and

female flower in trailing and protection of fruit from rotting which also leads

to production of seeds with less fungal load as indicated from the table 1.

Table 1: Effect of trailing on seed yield and quality traits in bottle gourd cv. PH-

3 & Pusa Naveen

11. Direction of sowing: Seed production by adjusting the orientation of the

row can influence the light interception as well as crop canopy micro climate

significantly which in turn may change the crop growth parameters and

pest & disease scenario and leads to increased production of fruits and

higher seed yield. In bottle gourd (Sharma and Tomar, 26) reported that

sowing of seed in E-W direction (over the trailing) is beneficial as compared

to other crop orientations for attaining better plant growth, fruit yield, seed

setting, higher seed yield and quality traits. The comparison of direction of

sowing is given in table 2.

Table 2: Effect of direction of sowing on seed yield and quality traits in bottle

gourd cv. Pusa Naveen during Kharif 2014

Characters Direction of sowing

E-W direction N-S Direction

Number of fruit set/vine 4.40 3.76

Seed weight/fruit (g) 107.06 89.61

Seed yield/acre (kg) 423.75 396.50

Germination % 97.65 97.43

EC (μmhos/cm/g) 92.20 105.05

Characters PH-3 Pusa Naveen

Trailing Traditional Trailing Traditional

Number of fruit

set/vine

6.65 4.70 4.08 3.48

Seed weight/fruit (g) 98.14 59.78 98.33 77.64

Seed yield/acre (kg) 689.6 248.2 410.13 371.00

Germination % 97.85 93.11 97.54 95.21

Disease infestation

(%)

44.62 87.29 45.02 83.08


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12. Frequency of leaf cutting in leafy vegetable seed production: Seed

production of leafy vegetable without cutting leads to lodging of crop, less

reproductive phase and causes problem during monitoring and makes seed

production uneconomical. Thus, leaf cutting is beneficial practically in leafy

vegetables viz; palak, methi, coriander and vegetable mustard which

favoured the high penetration of light, reduces disease incidence, less crop

growth and more reproductive phase and sale of cut leaves fetch additional

benefit. Two leaves cutting in palak variety All Green has given 6 quintal

seed yield per acre valued of 60,000 under Delhi condition & makes leafy

vegetable seed production economical in peri-urban area of Delhi .

13. Enhanced pollinator activity and pollination method: Pollination

management is essential particularly for producing the hybrid seeds.

Urbanization, pesticide application and habitat loss of pollinators have

reduced the pollinator load which results in insufficient pollination of flower,

less fruit and seed set and lower yield and quality in seed production plot.

However, in order to increase seed set and seed yield 2-3 medium bee hives

needs to be introduced in the periphery of seed production plot of

cauliflower, cabbage and onion.

14. Method of pollination: Hand pollination is employed for hybrid seed

production in many vegetable crops being hand pollination favour to higher

number of fruit set, higher number of seed per fruit and seed yield per plant

in bottle gourd and pumpkin (table 3) Vishwanath et al. (35) and Tomar et

al. (32) than natural pollination. Generally single pollination is

recommended for higher seed set in cucurbits, but in case of tomato

repeated pollination has been reported to increase fruit set and seed yield

under poly-house condition.

Table 3: Effect of methods of pollination on seed yield and quality traits in

bottle gourd & pumpkin hybrid seed production

Characters Methods of hybrid seed production

Bottle gourd Pumpkin

Natural pollination

Hand pollination

Natural pollination

Hand pollination

Number of fruit set

6.70 7.40 1.78 3.27

Seed yield/plant (g)

146.01 215.60 46.00 83.66

Germination % 85.00 90.00 91.00 96.00

EC (μmhos/cm/g)

90.60 72.65 57.67 58.88


67

15. Mulching: Black-gray, bio-degradable plastic mulch enhance crop

performance during winter season in north Indian condition coupled with

drip irrigation lead to higher root growth and development of plant. Natural

mulches like wheat or paddy straw mulching can be used in crops like onion

for higher yield and quality seeds Anisuzzaman et al. (1) reported that

synthetic plastic opaque mulches do not allow the light but control of weed is

effective, it also raises soil temperature and protected from frost injury.

16. Foliar spray of micro nutrients: Application of mineral nutrients is

essential to fetch the higher yield and quality because Indian soils are

deficient in micro nutrients. For better plant growth and development micro

nutrients are needed but in small quantities however their deficiency cause

a greater disturbance in the physiological and metabolic processes and

ultimately reduced seed yield and quality. Micro nutrients elements,

especially B, Zn, Ca and Mg avoid antagonistic effects of nutrients during

uptake from soil. In onion Sanjay et al. (25), reported that foliar spray in

combination of B+Zn+Ca+Mg (Recommended dose at 30 & 60 DAP) is

beneficial for getting higher number of productive umbels, seed yield and

quality.

Table 4: Effect of foliar spray of mineral nutrients on seed yield, quality and

disease infection in onion cv. Pusa Riddhi

Treatments

Seed

setting

(%)

Seed

yield/umbel

(g)

Seed

yield/ha

(q/ha) Germination

%

EC

(µmhos/cm/g)

Disease

infected

plants

(%)

RD of B at 60DAP 83.82 3.33 7.03 90.08 1.85 15.5

RD of Zn at 60DAP 79.69 3.69 7.14 89.42 2.09 9.5

RD of Ca at 60DAP 81.41 3.74 7.25 89.00 1.82 12.5

RD of Mg at 60DAP 79.29 3.67 7.25 88.50 1.75 19.0

RD of B+Zn at 30 &

60DAP 89.05 3.64 7.48 90.40 1.68

10.0

RD of B+Zn+Ca at

30 & 60DAP 91.37 3.93 7.89 90.83 1.50

10.0

RD of B+Zn+Ca+Mg

at 30 & 60 90.18 4.18 8.35 91.84 1.65

10.5

Control (Water

spray) 78.13 3.17 6.00 86.83 2.32

24.0


68

17. Post harvest ripening enhances seed yield: Fleshy fruits usually need

to be stored before seed extraction for after ripening. Vinod et al. (34)

reported that pumpkin fruits harvested at 70 DAA and cured for 10 days

had highest seed yield and seed quality parameters. After-ripening

facilitates the further development of the seed and removal of dormancy.

18. Use drip-irrigation and fertigation: The water management and

fertigation studies have revealed that seed productions over low pressure

drip/pressurized drip not only saves farm inputs but also increases the seed

yield and quality. Tomar et al. (33) realised that seed yield and quality in

onion crop was the highest over drip irrigation method as compared to

surface irrigation and similar results were obtained in carrot, cauliflower,

onion and turnip. The comparative performance of drip and flood irrigation

is given table

Table 5: Comparative performance of seed production under drip and flood

irrigation

Crop Variety

Drip irrigation Surface irrigation

Seed yield

/plant (g)

Germination

%

Seed

yield

/plant (g)

Germination

%

Onion cv. Pusa Madavi 94.61 92.13 44.08 79.75

Carrot cv. Pusa 41.27 98 28.37 97

Cauliflower cv. Pusa 34.00 99 14.93 97

Onion cv. 15.33 98 13.20 97

Turnip cv. 43.77 99 39.47 98

19. Manipulation of sex expression in cucurbits: Auxin, ethylene and

gibberlic acid are the important PGR‟s which regulate various physiological

responses in plant. Alteration of sex ratio to produce more female flowers

particularly in monoecious cucurbitaceous crop like cucumber, bitter gourd

and production of male lines in gynoecious lines of cucumber is essential to

increase the productivity. NAA 50 ppm and cycocel 750 ppm spray in

cucurbits doubled the number of female flowers. In summer squash cv.

Pusa Alankar spray of 350 ppm ethephon at 2-4 leaf stage can enhance the

number of female flowers for hybrid seed production. 100 ppm GA3 spray in

chilli can enhanced the seed yield by 30 %.

20. Bio-fertilizers and integrated nutrient management: The role and

importance of bio-fertilizers in sustainable crop production has been studied

by several authors and found that chemical fertilizers integrated with


69

vermi-compost and bio-fertilizers were found to be superior in improving the

seed yield and seed quality. The combined application of bio-fertilizers -

Rhizobium + PSB + PGPR resulted in 13 % increase in garden pea seed yield

Mishra et al. (20).

21. Use of protected structures for seed production: Grow seed crops

under protected structures for higher seed yield and quality. Insect proof

net house has been utilized for hybrid seed production of tomato, sweet

pepper, chilli, okra, brinjal and cucurbits under north Karnataka condition.

However, Kaddi et al. (14) reported higher seed yield of cucumber Pant

Shankar-1 in insect proof net house as compared to open field condition

under Delhi condition (table 6).

Table 6: Effect of growing condition on seed yield & duality in cucumber cv.

Pant Shankar-1

Growing conditions Seed yield/1000 m2 (kg) Germination %

Open 4.2 63.85

Net house 14.17 71.69

Poly house 14.06 72.30

Semi-climate controlled greenhouse is suitable for hybrid seed

production of indeterminate hybrids, cherry tomato, sweet pepper and

parthenocarpic cucumber varieties. Seed yield is 3-4 times higher than open

filed.

22. Seed quality enhancement and fruit regulation: Seed quality and yield

in vegetables can be enhanced by regulating the fruit number. One fruit per

vine in pumpkin cv. Pusa Hybrid-1 Kumar et al. (18) during summer and

three fruits/vine in bottle gourd cv. Pusa Hybrid-3 during Kharif, Kalyanrao

et al. (16) have been reported for superior seed yield and quality under open

field condition in Delhi. Two fruit/vine in cucumber Cv. Pant Shankar-1and

summer squash variety and Pusa Alankar given higher seed yield and

quality under insect proof net house under Delhi.

Improving the availability of the seed by upgrading the seed quality

Quality seed refers to seed which is genetically pure, free from inert matter,

disease free, higher germination % and seed vigour. Good quality seeds not

only yield better but also helps in reducing the seed rate and following

approaches shall be helpful.


70

a) Revising the seed quality standards: A seed can be termed as quality seed

if it genetically pure. Breeder seed should be 100 % genetically pure,

foundation seed 99.5 % and certified seed should be 99 % genetically pure.

Hybrids and seeds produced by hand emasculation or by use of CHA‟s

should be 95 % and 90 % genetically pure respectively. Apart from this the

seed lot should have high germination percentage and a minimum of inert,

weed and other crop seeds and are free from diseases. The genetic purity of

OPV and hybrids produced by use of male sterility system can be

maintained by adhering the isolation requirement, following seed village

concept if the isolation distance is not adequate. IMSCS, 2013 prescribes for

seed health standards at field level and health test of the seed lot is not a

mandatory. Seed health testing should be included as a routine test since

the seed in most case act as a primary inoculum for disease. Seed vigour

determines the true planting value of the seed lot. At present there is a need

to standardize the appropriate vigour test in vegetable seed and the same

needs to be incorporated as a lab test for quality test of seed lot.

Germination standards of many vegetables are very low and needs to be

increased eg. in case of cucurbits the minimum germination requirement is

60 % which is very low and needs to relook.

b) Moisture impervious packing and dessicants for enhancing the seed

viability: Most of the vegetable seeds are poor storers and cannot be stored

beyond 8- 9 months without loss of seed vigour and viability. The seed

viability can be enhanced by reducing the moisture. Fluctuating Relative

Humidity (RH) in the tropical country like India bringing down the seed

moisture to safe storage level is difficult. Khanal and Paudel (17) reported

that the moisture of onion, pea and tomato seeds can be reduce to 4-6 % by

using zeolite beads within 3-4 days and the seeds maintained higher

germination and vigour after storage.

c) Seed coating and pelleting for enhancing the planting value and

precession sowing: Coating of seeds with thin layer of polymers is helpful

in adhesion of plant protectants, water absorption, protection against

temperature stress etc. Polymers also increase the flowability and the

ballistic properties of the seed which help in precision planting.

Hydrophobic coatings reported to reduce soaking injury (Hwang and Sung,

11) and imbibitional chilling injury (Chachalis and Smith, 4; Taylor and

Kwiatkowski, 31). The reduction of water uptake by hydrophobic polymer

coatings, especially the absorption of water from the vapour state Henning,


71

(10) may also have a role in improving seed storage by maintaining lower

moisture content in uncontrolled storage conditions. Polymers can also be

colour coded which helps in visibility, appearance and overall marketability

of seeds. Brooker et al. (3) reported that the polymer coating of seeds along

with plant protectants like captan, metalaxyl and or thiabendazole reduced

the soil borne diseases and the polymer provided extended release of active

ingredients due to less leaching loss in the soil. Seed pelleting alters the

shape and size of the seeds so that the direct seeding can be done in small

seeded crops like onion, lettuce etc. Plant protectants, micronutrients,

growth hormones can also be included in the peletting material. Due to

improved efficacy of the applied pesticides, the polymers coating and

peletting also reduces the dosage of the pesticides to be delivered with seed

d) Seed sorting using image analysis and chlorophyll fluorescence marker:

The advances in imaging technology have been utilized in the seed

processing industry. It serves two purposes 1) discarding contaminating

seeds of other crops or weeds and inert material, and 2) eliminating poor

physiological quality seeds. In both cases, seed is conditioned using

cleaning equipment which uses vibrating or rotating sieves, and air-stream

separation techniques allowing a non-destructive separation of weed seeds,

innert matter, undersized or immature seeds (Copeland and McDonald, 5).

The technique of chlorophyll fluorescence to enhance the germination was

reported by Jalink et al. (12) in white cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.) and in

carrot (Daucus carot subsp. sativus) seeds by Sreckel et al. (30).

e) Seed stimulation by use of electromagnetic waves: The exposure of the

seeds for short period of time to electromagnetic field has been reported to

increase the seed germination as well as vigour of seeds. Podlesni et al, (23)

reported reduced germination time, increased seed vigour and seed yield in

broad bean. Moon and Chung, (21) reported that percent germination rates

of the treated tomato seed were accelerated about 1.1–2.8 times compared

with that of the untreated seed. Even though the benefits of magnetic

stimulation on seed have been reported by several workers its commercial

exploitation is limited due to operational difficulties of the technology for

treating large quantities/ volume of seeds.

f) Seed quality enhancement through seed invigoration: Seed priming is

defined as controlling the hydration level within seeds so that the metabolic

activity necessary for germination can occur but radicle emergence is


72

prevented. Seed priming can be effective on-farm technique to which can

not only reduce the seed rate but also increases the field stand. Priming has

been reported to increase germination and field emergence in onion and

tomato (Singh et al. 29; Pandita and Nagarajan, 22)

g) Seed quality improvement through monitoring and seed legislation:

Seeds act 1966 provides various provisions for regulation of seed quality

during production and sale. Regular inspection and quality checks can

check the sale of spurious/ substandard vegetable seeds.

Vegetable seed industry has enormous employment generation potential.

Hybrid seed production of vegetable requires lot of manual labour for

emasculation and pollination. There is a need to diversify the vegetable seed

production hubs to non-tradition high productive regions. Funds under various

government programmes like Tribal sub plan, MNREGA should be made

available to the rural areas for training them in seed production. Village level

entrepreneurship development must be encouraged. Promotion of ancillary

activities and diversification of farm enterprise is one of the important

strategies outlined by the government to double the farmers‟ income by 2022,

for which seed production of vegetables can be a major role player in doubling

the farmers‟ income. India with its diverse climatic and soil and vast pool of

man power can become the world leader in export of vegetable seeds and can

ushering the rural prosperity.

References:

Anisuzzaman, M., Ashrafuzzaman, M., Ismail, M.R., Uddin, M.K and Rahman,

M.A. 2009. Planting time and mulching effect on onion development and

seed production. Afri. J. Biotechnol. 8: 412-16.

APEDA. 2013. http://agriexchange.apeda.gov.in/indexp/reportlist.aspx.

accessed on 1st September, 2016

Brooker, N.L., Lagalle, C.D., Zlatanic, A., Javni, I., and Petrovic, Z. 2007. Soy

polyol formulations as novel seed treatments for the management of soil-

borne diseases of soybean. Comm. Agric. Appl. Biol. Sci. 72: 35–43.

Chachalis, D. and Smith, ML. 2001. Hydrophobic-polymer application reduces

imbibition rate and partially improves germination and emergence of

soybean seedlings. Seed. Sci. Technolo. 29: 91–8

Copeland, L.O. and McDonald, M.B. 2001. Seed conditioning and handling. In

Principles of Seed Science and Technology. Copeland, L.O. and McDonald,

M.B (ed.). Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, pp. 252-67

http://agriexchange.apeda.gov.in/indexp/reportlist.aspx


73

Dubey, B. 2016. Seed export- India and world. Seed times. January- June,

2016. pp 21-22

Dutta, O.P. 2004. Recent innovations in hybrid seed production in vegetables.

Proc. Indian sci. cong. New Delhi. November, 2004,Vol-1 (6-9). pp 217-242.

Henning, A.A. 1990. Polymeric coatings improve the storage life of soybean

seeds. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Florida, pp 96.

Hwang, W.D and Sung, F.J.M. 1991. Prevention of soaking injury in edible

soybean seeds by ethyl cellulose coating. Seed. Sci. Technol.19: 269–78

Jalink, H., van der Schoor, R., Frandas, A., van Pijlen, J.G and Bino, R.J.

1998. Chlorophyll fluorescence of Brassica oleracea seeds as a non-

destructive marker for seed maturity and seed performance. Seed Sci. Res. 8:

437-445.

Kaddi, G., Tomar, B.S., Singh, B. and Vidyadhar, B. 2015. Influence of seed

extraction methods on seed quality in cucumber (Cucumis sativus) cv. Pant

Shankar Khira-1. Progr. Horti 47(1): 16-21

Kaddi, G., Tomar, B.S., Singh, B. and Sanjay, Kumar. 2014. Effect of growing

conditions on seed yield and quality of cucumber (Cucumis stivus) hybrid.

Indian J. Agri. Sci. 84(5): 624-27

Kalia, P. 2009. Hybrid seeds making available at affordable price. In Recent

initiatives in Horticulture Chadha et al (eds). Westville Publishing house, New

Delhi. pp. 219-237

Kalyanrao., Tomar, B.S. and Singh, B. 2012. Influence of vertical trailing on seed

yield and quality during seed production of bottle gourd (Legenaria siceraria)

cv. Pusa hybrid-3.Seed Res. 40(2): 139-44

Khanal, A. Paudel, P. 2014. Evaluation of zeolite beads technology for drying

vegetable seeds to low moisture content prior to long-term storage in Nepal.

Int. J. Res. 1(8): 140-149

Kumar, V., Tomar, B.S, Dadlani, M., Singh, B., and Kumar, S. 2015.Effect of

fruit retention and seed position on the seed yield and quality in pumpkin

(Cucurbita moschata) cv Pusa Hybrid 1. Indian J. Agr. Sci. 85(9): 1210-13

Maxwell, K. and Johnson, G.N. 2000. Chlorophyll fluorescence-a practical

guide. J. Exp. Bot. 51: 659-68

Mishra, A., Prasad, K. and Rai, G. 2010. Effect of bio-fertilizer inoculations on

growth and yield of dwarf field pea (Pisum sativum L.) in conjunction with

different doses of chemical fertilizers. J. Agron. 9: 163-68.

Moon, Jae-Duk. and Hwa-Sook, Chung. 2000. Acceleration of germination of

tomato seed by applying AC electric and magnetic fields. J. Electrostat 48(2):

103–14



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Pandita, V.K., Nagarajan, S. 2000. Osmopriming of fresh seed and its effect on

accelerated ageing in Indian tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) varieties.

Indian J. Agr. Sci. 70(7): 479-80

Podlesni, J., Pietruszewski, S., Podlesna, A. 2004. Efficiency of the magnetic

treatment of broad bean seeds cultivated under experimental plot conditions.

Int. Agrophys. 18 (1): 65–71

Rao, R.G.S., Singh, P.M., Rai, M. 2006. Storability of onion seeds and effects of

packaging and storage conditions on viability and vigour. Sci. Horti. 110: 1-6

Sanjay, Kumar. 2015. Optimization of quality seed production in onion (Allium

Cepa L.) Cv. Pusa Riddhi. Ph.D thesis, IARI, New Delhi.

Sharma, R.K. and Tomar, B.S. 2016. Influence of growing direction on seed

yield and quality in bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria). Indian J. Agr. Sci.

86(7): 895-900

Sharma, R.K; Tomar, B.S Singh, S.P and Kumar, A. 2016. Effect of growing

methods on seed yield and quality in bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria).

Indian J. Agr. Sci. 86 (3): 373-78

Singh P M, Singh B, Pandey A K and Singh, R. 2010. Vegetable Seed

Production - A Ready Reckoner. Technical Bulletin No.37, IIVR, Varanasi.

Singh, P.K, Pandita, V.K., Tomar, B.S. and Seth, R. 2014. Germination and

field emergence in osmotic and solid matrix priming in onion (Allium cepa).

Indian J. Agr. Sci. 84(12): 1561-64.

Sreckel, J.R.A., Gray, D. and Rowse, H.R. 1989. Relationships between indices

of seed maturity and carrot seed quality. Ann. App. Bio. 114: 177-183

Taylor, A.G. and Kwiatkowski, J. 2001. Polymer film coatings decrease water

uptake and water vapour movement into seeds and chilling injury. BCPC

Symposium Proceedings No. 76: Seed Treatment: Challenges and

Opportunities, pp. 215–20

Tomar, B.S., Pham, T.T., Singh, B. and Kalayanrao. 2009. Studies on Methods

of pollination for hybrid seed production of bottle gourd (Lagenaria scieraria).

Seed Res. 37(1&2):171-74

Tomar, B.S., Singh, B., Kumar, M., and Hasen, M. 2004. Effect of irrigation

method on the yield and quality of onion seed. Cv. Pusa madhvi. Seed Res.

32(1): 45-46.

Vinod, K., Tomar, B.S., Kaddi, G., Kumar, S. 2014.Effect of stage of harvest

and post-harvest ripening of fruits on hybrid seed yield and quality in

pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata). Indian J. Agr. Sci. 84(6): 737-41

Vishwanath, R.Y, Tomar, B.S. and Singh, B. 2008. Studies on methods of

pollination for hybrid seed production of pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata

Poir.). Seed Res. 36(2): 214-17


75

Recent Advances in Seed Production of Root Crops

B S Tomar

Head, Division of Vegetable Science, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi -110012

Root crops include carrot, radish, turnip, beetroot and parsnip etc. and

are greatly contributing to the vegetable production basket in India. Due to the

development of varieties for round the year production off-season production

and storage facilities, radish and carrot remain in the market most of the year.

At national level National Seed Corporation (NSC) and at state level State Seed

Corporations (SSCs) are responsible for quality seed production. There is a big

gap between estimated demand of quality seed and supply. This gap is bridge

up to some extent either by the private sector companies or from the own farm

save seed by the farmers. To improve use of quality seed, there is a need of

production of quality seeds and also need for the development of seed

production practices of root crops in order to enhance the availability of quality

seed for commercial production in these crops.

Status of variety development: The crop-wise developments of

varieties from public sector in root crops are given below

S.No. Crop Asiatic/Tropical Temperate/European type

1 Radish Pusa Chetki, Pusa Desi, Pusa

Reshmi, Pusa Mridula, Pusa

Jamuni, Pusa Gulabi, Kalianpur

No. 1, Co-1, Nadauni, Arka

Nishant, Kalyani White, HR-1,

Kashi Sweta

Pusa Himani, Rapid Red White

Tipped, Scarlet Globe, Scarlet

Long, Japanes White, Chinese

Pink, White Icicle

2 Carrot Pusa Kesar, Pusa Meghali, Pusa

Vristi, Pusa Asita, Pusa Rudhira,

Selection-233, Hisar Garic

Nantes, Pusa Yamdagini,

Chanteny, Imperatar and Zeno,

Pusa Nayanjyoti (F1)

3 Turnip Pusa Sweti, Pusa Desi (Red type),

Pusa Kanchan, Punjab Safed-4

Pusa Chandrima, Pusa

Swarima Purple Top White

Globe, Golden Ball, Early Milan

Red Top

4 Beet

root

- Detroit Dark Red, Crimson

Globe, Crosby Egyptian, Early

Wonder

Areas of seed production: The seed productions of Asiatic varieties of root

crops are done in Punjab, Haryana, U.P. and parts of Rajasthan & Gujarat.


76

Whereas the seed production of temperate varieties are done in Sproon valley,

Kullu valley, Kalpa valley of H.P., Kashmir valley of J&K and selected location

of Northeast region specially Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh. The seed production

of beet root is being done by DRDO in Leh region of J&K.

Climatic requirement for seed production: Although, root crops are well

adapted to cool season but their seed production are being done in plain & hills

during winter or after over wintering. The Asiatic/tropical varieties produce

their seeds freely in the plain without chilling requirement (for bolting). The

temperate/European types need chilling/vernalizaton stimulus of 4-5◦C

temperature for 40-60 days duration for bolting depending upon the range of

temperature. Therefore, their seed production is organized in hilly areas. Due

to limited activity of honeybee at the high temperature i.e. 32◦C or above the

seed setting hampered in radish as well as turnip. Similarly, high temperature

at flowering in carrot also caused desiccation of tertiary umbels due to reduced

availability of pollen supply for secondary umbels and reduced the seed setting

resulting in lower seed yield.

Methods of seed production: There are two methods of seed production:

(a) In-Situ method (Seed to seed method).

(b) Ex-Situ method or transplanting (Root to seed method).

In seed to seed method, the crop is allowed to over-winter in the same field and

produce seed in the following spring at their original position. However, in root

to seed method, during autumn when roots fully developed are lifted and

selection of true to type is made. Under developed, deformed, split, forked,

smoothness and off-type roots are rejected. The roots are also examined for

pithiness and spongy tissue development in radish and turnip, core size and

colour in carrot and zoning in beet root. The tap root is pruned (half or two-

third part) and tops are clipped without damaging the crown shoots retaining

4-5‟‟ top with growing shoots. The selected roots are transplanted immediately

in well prepared field. The roots are stored in lower temperature and planted in

March where the temperature goes very low/below freezing (temperate region).

The ideal storage temperature for roots is 10◦C with 90 to 95% relative

humidity. The roots are stored in trenches in Leh region.

Isolation Distance: The seed production field must be isolated from other

varieties of the crop, wild relatives and other cultivated species of crop to

ensure the production of genetically pure seed. Root crops being highly cross

pollinated, therefore isolation distance for mother root production for both


77

foundation and certified seed is 5 m whereas for seed production the minimum

isolation distance is 1600 m and 1000 m for foundation and certified,

respectively.

Inspection stages during root production: For root crops generally first

inspection is done at 20-30 days after sowing for off type. Second inspection at

the time of root development or root lifting to check the root shape, colour,

pithiness, number of leaves at maturity, relative height and leaf shape.

Seed production practices of root crops:

Land requirement: Sandy loam to loam soil with pH between 6.0 to 7.5 and

rich in organic content is suitable to attained good root and colour

development. However, in heavy soil the production of root is hampered and

high production of deformed root realized.

Sowing time: In plains, sowing of Asiatic varieties of carrot should be done in

last week of August or first week of September. Among, the Asiatic varieties of

radish i.e. Pusa Chetki & Pusa Rashmi should be sown in September and

middle of October, respectively. However, the sowing of the biennial or

temperate types is done in middle of August under hills of H.P. and J&K. The

Japanese White, should be sown in the first week of August where as Pusa

Himani is sown in the middle of August. The sowing of beet root is in Mid July

in hills where as the late varieties are sown from the end of June to Mid July.

The sowing of annual or Asiatic type of turnip varieties is done from July to

September where as the biennial or temperate types are sown in last week of

August to first week of September in hills.

Seed rate: For radish 8-10 kg seed/ha is sufficient for the production of root

for 3-4 ha of land. For carrot 6-8 kg seed /ha is sufficient for root production

for further planting. However, in seed to seed method 5-6 kg seed/ha is

enough. For turnip 3-4 kg seed is sufficient to produce the root for

transplanting in 6-10 ha of land. For beet root 8-10 kg seed is sufficient for one

ha of land which is sufficient to plant 2-3 ha area under seed crop.

Thinning: In root crops, thinning is one of the most important operations

where seedling is singled as soon as possible following emergence to allow

better root and colour development. Thinning should be done in order to

maintain 4-5 cm spacing between plants in root production.

Method of Seed Production: In beet root, root to seed method is usual for

seed production in hilly areas of Kullu vally. In this method, during November-


78

December the well-developed roots are lifted. After selection, the tap root and

top of the roots are trimmed without damage to crown and planted in a well-

prepared field. In case of turnip seed to seed method gives better yield than

root to seed method. However, root to seed method is generally used for the

production of breeder/nucleus seed.

Spacing: In radish, sticklings are transplanted on ridge at 60×30 cm apart. In

carrot, sticklings re-planted at 45×30 cm spacing. In beet root the planting

distance should be 60 cm between rows and 45-60 cm within the root. In

turnip it should 45×25-30 cm.

Selection of roots for seed production: The roots are lifted along with tops

when fully developed and arranged in rows to select the true to types. The roots

are selected based upon the size, shape, foliage and further cut into the half to

examine for pithiness. The core size and colour is also examined after cutting of

root i.e. self-core colour in case of carrot cv. Pusa Kesar, Pusa Rudhira and

Pusa Ashita. The cracked forked and roots having root hairs should be

rejected. The normal roots after twisting the top are put in the bucket of water.

Those roots with a degree of pithiness, floats are discarded and the solid roots

sink are retained (Watts 1960). While in case of round rooted variety only tap

root is removed before planting. In turnip during November fully development

root are lifted and selected for true to type character and transplanted

immediately.

Preparation of stickling: In radish the selected root should be cut to half of its

size and at least 4.0 to 5.0 cm shoots with crown must retained for better crop

establishment and higher seed yield. The stickling of these crops should be

treated with thiram or captan 0.3% solution to protect the root from soil fungi.

Time of transplanting: In hills, radish roots are transplanted in last week of

October i.e. before onset of chilling winter, while in plain transplanting should

be in first fortnight of November.

Inspection stages during flowering stage: Third inspection is done at

flowering stage to check the isolation, off types and diseases. In carrot forth &

fifth inspection also made during flowing to check the isolation, off-type etc and

Sixth inspection is made at maturity to verify the true nature of umbel.

Pollinating flowering and seed setting: Radish is cross-pollinated and

pollination is done by honeybees. In radish flowering in Asiatic varieties begins

in second fortnight of December and full blooming at the end of January.


79

However, the flowering in biennial type under Kullu-valley occurs during 1st

week of April and by the end of April whole crop attain complete blooming. In

carrot Asiatic types tend to be annual and flowers during March (early spring)

in plain. However, bolting in temperate cultivars occurs in first week of April

and flowering starts by end of May in hills. The individual carrot flowers are

normally protandrous and much pollination occurs between plants in seed

crop. However, because of the extended flowering period resulting from several

successive umble per plant and the succession of flower in individual umble,

the possibility of selfing is always remains there. Seed setting is influenced by

the position of umble, order of umble, bee‟s activities and that temperature at

flowering. Beet root is predominately wind pollinated. Bolting in beet root start

in first fort night of April in Kullu vally and crop is in full bloom from mid-May

to mid June. The inflorescence is a large panicle and seed maturity begins from

the base of panicle.

Harvesting and threshing: In radish the pods become brown and parchment

like when the seeds are near maturity. The seed stalks are cut and kept in

small piles for drying at threshing floor. Although, no shattering of pod, but,

dropping of pods is severe at the time of harvesting, if crop allowed to over

desiccation in field. The seed stalks should be dried thoroughly to facilitate the

easy seed extraction from the pod. Threshing is done by tractor treading or by

stick beating. There is a chance of damage of seed coat in mechanical

threshing. In carrot seed matures in the middle of May and end of June in

plain and hills respectively. The harvesting of umbles should be done where the

secondary umbel are fully ripe and third under umbles have started to turn

brown. For high quality seed, primary & secondary umbles should harvest and

rest should be avoided. The ployvinlyl acetate is sprayed to avoid the loss of

seed from primary umbel. The umbel is cut by manually without taking the

stem part. The harvesting is done in early morning to take an advantage of dew

to reduce the loss from dropping. The carrot seed has spines and these must

be removed by deharders before further cleaning operation. Beet root crop

matures in July in Kullu valley. However, harvesting may start as early as the

last week of June, but usually it is done in July. Rains at maturity may affect

the seed quality of seed crop. Generally, when 70-80% of seed balls on plant

get hardened and those at the base of the inflorescence turn brown, the crop in

harvested. Delaying in harvesting may lead to shattering of seed during

harvesting. The seed crop is then stacked for curing and then dried under sun.

Threshing is done manually by beating with stick or by tractor treading. Turnip

has a tendency of shattering therefore care is required in cutting. It is


80

therefore, suggested to cut the whole crop when 60-70 of pods turns yellow

brown in colour. The crop is cut with sickle and left in windrows until the

seeds are mature. Through drying of crop is essential for easy threshing. The

threshing is done by beating with a stick or by thresher. The seed should be

died under sun thoroughly prior to cleaning of seed.

Seed yield and 1000 seed weight: In carrot seed yield varies among the

Asiatic and temperate types. Generally seed yield is higher in Asiatic cultivars

than temperate types. Singh et al (1960) obtained 330-350 kg/ha seed yield

from cv. Nantes in Kully-valley. However, seed yield of 500-600 kg/ha is

common in cv. Pusa Kesar, Pusa Rudhira and relatively low 350-400 kg/ha in

Pusa Vrishti. The 1000 seed weight is 0.8 g. In radish the average seed yield

varies from 600-800 kg/ha but variation within the variety were also recorded.

The average seed yield/ha of radish cultivars reported by Singh et al (1960) are

400-500 kg/ha for White Icicle, 700-900 for Japanese White and 600-700

kg/ha for Pusa Himani/Rapid Red White Tipped. In beet root, Singh et al

(1960) reported the seed yield of 8-10 q/h in variety DDR. The 1000 grain

weight is 17 g while rubbed and graded seed has the lower 1000 grain weight of

10 g but it also varies between seed lot. In turnip from 300 kg to 700 kg/ha

seed yield can be achieved in hilly area, depending upon the variety. However,

seed yield of Asiatic variety Pusa Sweti is 1028 kg /ha as observed by Tomar

(2001). The 1000 seed weight in turnip ranges 3 g and 2.5-3g in temperate and

tropical, respectively.

Seed Standards: The lot should confirmed the following seed standards but at

the time of labelling only pure seed, inert matter and germination % are

essentially to be mentioned.

No. Factors

Radish Carrot

Beet root

Turnip

F C F C F C F C

1 Pure seed (minimum) (%) 98 98 95 95 96 96 98 98

2 Inert matter (Minimum) 2 2 5 5 4 4 2 2

3 Other crop seeds (Minimum) (per kg) 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10

4 Weed seeds (Minimum) (per kg) 10 20 5 10 5 10 10 20

5 Germination (Minimum) (%) 70 70 60 60 60 60 70 70

6 Moisture (Minimum) (%) 6 6 8 8 9 9 6 6

7 For vapour-proof container (Minimum) (%)

5 5 7 7 8 8 5 5

F= Foundation Seed; C= Certified seed


81

References:

Bohart, G.E. and Nye, W.P. (1960). Insect pollination in carrot Utah. Bulletin

419. Agri. Experiment Station, Utah state Uni.

Gray, D (1981). Are the plant desertic currently used for seed production too

low. Acta Hort. III, 159. 65.

Gill, H. S. & Kertaria, A. S. (1988). Subject ka Beej padan. Indian Council of

Agri. Research, New Delhi Gill, H. S. & TOMAR, BS (1991). Vegetable

statistics at a lance. PDVR Technical bulletion no. 4 Hawthorn, L.R. (1951).

Studies on soil moisture & spacing for seed crop of carrots and onions,

USDA, circular no. 892.

Nath, Prem & Kulvi, T.S. (1969). Farm J. 11: 9-12

Nath, Prem & Kulvi. T.S. (1969). Punjab Hort. J. 981-89

Singh, H.B., Thakur, M.R. and Bagchandani, P.M. (1960). Indian J. Hort.

17:38-47

Tanwar, N.S. and Singh, S.V. (1988). Indian Minimum Seed Certification

Standards. The central seed certification Board, Dept. of Agri. & Coop.,

Ministry fo Agri. Govt. of India New Delhi Singh, S N, Chakarvarti A K &

Randhawa K.S. (1986). A note on the control of aphid in radish seed crop.

Indian J. of Entomology 45:4, 481-484

Sinha, S N. & Chakarvarti, A K (1992). Insect pollination in carrot seed corp.

Seed Research 20: 1,37-40

Sinha, S N & Chakarvarti, A K (1992). Insect pollination in carrot seed crop.

Seed Research 20:1,37-40

Sinha, K P & Malik, Y.S. (1986). Chemical weed control in carrot seed corp.

Indian J. of Weed Science. 15:1,12-6

Tomar, B.S. (2001). Comparison of methods of seed production in root crop

(un-published) Watts, L.E. (1960). Flowers and vegetable plant breeding

growns book, London


82

Aquatic Vegetables is the “New Gold” under Changing

Climate Scenario

Rakesh Kr Dubey*, Vikas Singha, Jyoti Devi, K.K. Gauta,

P.M. Singh and Jagdish Singh

ICAR- Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi – 221305

a. RRS, ICAR-IIVR, Sargatia, Kushinagar, UP

*email id: [email protected]

Aquatic vegetables are naturally available in plenty. Areas rich in water

bodies like lakes, lagoons, ponds, ditches, marshy wet places are natural abode

of most of the aquatic vegetables. India is considered one of the suitable niches

and most of the boundaries have got unique gift of nature of unprecedented

high rain fall and unique topography to harvest and preserve the nature‟s drop,

resulting in round the year availability of green lustrous aquatic edible greens,

carbohydrate rich rhizomes and nutritionally packed flowers and fruits suitable

for various vegetable uses. Communities dominated in the wetland areas of the

India not only get their requirements of vegetables from such sources, it also

has been indispensable part of their life. Lotus, water chest nut are some of

the few examples which have been in use at various religious occasions since

time immemorial. Aquatic species such as Trapa bispinosa, Ipomoea aquatica

and Nelumbo nucifera are among the most commonly consumed vegetables.

These are eaten in mean daily quantities exceeding 50g and contain high

concentrations of Ca, Fe and -carotene. Water chestnut (Trapa bispinosa),

lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) and water spinach (Ipomoea aquatic) are grown as

aquatic vegetable. Present food habits indicate that most of consumers are fond

of rhizomes of lotus. Starch and fat-laden horned fruits of Trapa bispinosa form

a staple food. Young leaves, stems and roots of Ipomoea aquatica are eaten, as

common vegetable. Utilization of aquatic vegetables as food could alleviate

protein shortages in local population. Concerted efforts are needed to assess

the food value of the native aquatic flora for their exploitation at commercial

scale.

Aquatic vegetables in adversity

In India, lakes, rivers and other freshwaters support a large diversity of

biota representing almost all taxonomic groups. From an ecological point of

view, the diversity of species present in the wetlands is an indication of the



83

relative importance of the aquatic biodiversity issue as a whole. The total

numbers of aquatic plant species exceed 1200 and aquatic vegetation is a

valuable source of food. In the winter, migratory waterfowl search the sediment

for nutritious seeds, roots and tubers. Resident waterfowl may feed on different

species of aquatic vegetation year-round. Aquatic vegetables are

"environmentally friendly": they suffer from few diseases and pests and can be

grown without chemical fertilizers. Concerted efforts are being made to unravel

the genes lie behind some of these attractive traits, such as resistance to pests.

The information could be used to improve other crops. Efforts will make to map

the genetic sequences of some of the species.

Aquatic vegetables –life line of wet land ecosystem

India, with its annual rainfall of over 110 cm, varied topography and

climatic regimes support and sustain diverse and unique wetland habitats.

Natural wetlands in India consists of the high altitude Himalayan lakes,

followed by wetlands situated in the flood plains of the major river systems,

saline and temporary wetlands of the arid and semi-arid regions, coastal

wetlands such as lagoons, backwaters and estuaries; mangrove swamps; coral

reefs and marine wetlands, and so on. In addition to the various types of

natural wetlands, a large number of man-made wetlands also contribute to the

faunal and floral diversity. These man-made wetlands, which have resulted

from the needs of irrigation, water supply, electricity, fisheries and flood

control, are substantial in number. The various reservoirs, shallow ponds and

numerous tanks support wetland biodiversity and add to the countries wetland

wealth. It is estimated that freshwater wetlands alone support 25 percent of the

known range of biodiversity in India. Wetlands in India occupy about 60 million

hectares, including areas under wet paddy cultivation. Majority of the inland

wetlands are directly or indirectly dependent on the major rivers like, Ganga,

Bhramaputra, Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri and Tapti. Regional

wetlands are integral parts of larger landscapes, their functions and values to

the people in these landscapes; depend on both their extent and their location.

Each wetland thus is ecologically unique. Wetlands perform numerous

valuable functions such as recycle nutrients, purify water, attenuate floods,

maintain stream flow, recharge ground water, and also serve in providing

drinking water, fish, fodder, fuel, wildlife habitat, control rate of runoff in

urban area, buffer shorelines against erosion coping with the ecological as well

as nutritional needs. The interaction of man with wetlands during the last few

decades has been of concern largely due to the rapid population growth -


84

accompanied by intensified industrial, commercial and residential development

further leading to pollution of wetlands by domestic, industrial sewage, and

agricultural run-offs as fertilizers, insecticides and feedlot wastes.

Role of aquatic vegetables in phyto- remediation

Metal content Cd (non-essential), Zn and Fe (essential) in plant parts of

these selected species indicate their ability to bio concentrate in their tissues.

The concentration of these metals was invariably high in leaf tissue. Thus it is

possible to use these species to restore the biosolid and sewage sludge

contaminated sites, while exercising caution on human consumption. Leafy

aquatic vegetables are used for removal of lead and mercury from polluted

waters. It is also possible to supplement the dietary requirement of human food

with Zn and Fe as these being essential nutrients and the plant species are

edible. However, there is a need to monitor the metal transfer factor through

food chain. Glutathione and organic acids metabolism plays a key role in metal

tolerance in plants. Glutathione is ubiquitous component cells from bacteria to

plants and animals. Glutathione metabolism is also connected with cysteine

and sulphur metabolism in plants. Cysteine concentration limits gluthatione

biosynthesis. Low-molecular thiol peptides phytochelatins (PCs) often called

class III metalothioneins are synthetized in plants from glutathione induced by

heavy metal ions. These peptides are synthetized from glutathione by means of

α-glutamylcysteine transferase enzyme (EC 2.3.2.15), which is also called

phytochelatin synthase (PCS) catalyzing transfer reaction of (α-Glu-Cys) group

from a glutathione donor molecule to glutathione, an acceptor molecule. PCS is

a cytosolic, constitutive enzyme and is activated by metal ions viz., Cd2+,Pb2+,

Ag1+, Bi3+, Zn2+, Cu2+, Hg2+, and Au2+. PCs thus, synthesized chelate heavy

metals and form complexes and these complexes are transported through

cytosol in an ATP–dependent manner through tonoplast into vacuole. Thus the

toxic metals are swept away from cytosol. Some high-molecular weight

complexes (HMW) with S-2 can also be formed from these LMW complexes in

vacuole. Plants under heavy metals stress produce free radicals and reactive

oxygen species and have to withstand the oxidative stress before acquiring

tolerance to toxic metals. Glutathione is then used for the synthesis of PCs as

well as for dithiol (GSSG) production. The ascorbate-glutathione pathway is

involved in plant defense against oxidative stress. Organic acids play a major

role in metal tolerance by forming complexes with metals, a process of metal

detoxification. Chelation of metals with excluded organic acids in the


85

rhizosphere and rhizosphereic processes is indeed form an important aspect of

investigation for remediation. These metabolic pathways underscore the

physiological, biochemical and molecular basis for heavy metal tolerance.

Water chestnut: Water chestnut is one of the most important minor crops

grown in India and grown in the tropical and sub-tropical region, as submersed

plant. It thrives in soft nutrient rich water in lakes, ponds and streams with a

neutral to slightly alkaline pH. Kernel of water chestnut contains protein (up to

20.0 %), starch (52.0 %), tannins (9.4 %), fat (up to 1.0 %) and sugar (3.0 %)

and also a good source of fiber, vitamin B along with Ca, K, Fe and Zn.

Cultivars: Standard variety of water chestnut is not yet released. Nuts with

different husk colour like green, red or purple and a blending of red and green

colour are recognized. Jaunpuri, Kanpuri, Desi large, Desi small are referred to

the growers in West Bengal and other parts of Eastern India.

Climate and soil: Water temperature of 12-150C is necessary for fruit to

germinate while 200C is required for development of the flower. High

temperature during summer and low in winter is beneficial for crop. Soil does

not play much important role for its cultivation. Water bodies rich in nutrient,

friable and well manured. It can thrive well under a pH range of 6 - 7.5.

Nutrient management: Fertilizer with moderate amount of poultry manure is

essential for higher yield. But, it needs little application of phosphorus and

potassium. Application of 60-80 kg of Nitrogen per hectare area of pond after

about a month of transplanting and again after another 20 days is highly

recommended.

Fig1: Flowering, fruiting and variation in nuts of Water chestnut at ICAR-IIVR,

Varanasi

Propagation of water chestnut: Propagation of water chestnut is

commercially done through seeds. The fully mature nuts are placed in


86

container with little water to germinate the seeds. The sprouted seeds are

sorted out and broadcast in the nursery tanks. At the beginning of monsoon,

the seedlings are lifted from the nursery tanks and planted in pond, at a

spacing of 1-2 meter. Tops may be trimmed if they are too tall at transplanting.

The soil should be kept flooded with 100 -300 mm of water throughout the

growing period.

Intercultural operations: Reduction of water in the pond due to drought may

create difficulty and in such case, it should be replenished with water from

other source. Luxuriant vegetative growth of the plant may result in highly

fertile condition of the medium with lower productivity of the plants and hence,

mild pruning become necessary in such case. Regular eradication of aquatic

weeds, especially, Hydrilla and Eicchornia is utmost important during the

cropping season.

Flowering and fruit development: Flowering of water chestnut varies from

one place to other place. In general flowering begins in February onwards in

Northern India. During the summer months the fruits develop at the basal

portion of the rosettes. In autumn, the leaves change colour from green to

purple-brown, the rosettes dissolve and the fruits started to sink to the bottom

of the lake or pond.

Harvesting, yield and storage: Harvesting of nut is usually starts from

October and continues up to December. In general yield of fresh nut range

between 2500-3800 Kg per hectare area of pond which could be increased up

to 5000 kg per hectare supported with adequate nutrient management.

Harvested kernel can be stored in the bottom of the fridge in sealed plastic

bags or containers to prevent them from drying out.

Impact of integrated farming of water chestnut and cat fish on livelihood

of farmers: Growing water chestnut in combination with Cat fish (Magur)

could provide good income to the farmers of seasonal water logged areas.

Moreover, options of postharvest processing of nut to flour could potentially

avoid distress sale of excess harvest as well as provide better market price.

Growing fishes in isolated water bodies has always been vulnerable to

theft/poaching and farmers gets hesitant to invest in fisheries away from their

homestead. Hence, integration of water chestnut with cat fish could offer a

surface cover protection besides adding income. This shallow waterlogged areas

of Eastern India, where surface drainage is not possible, and water stagnates


87

with depth of more than 50 cm for a period of about six months which could be

opted as farmers friendly and cost-effective technology.

Lotus: Lotus is also known as sacred lotus, Indian lotus, East Indian lotus,

Oriental lotus, Lily of Nile, Bean of India and Sacred water lily. American lotus

(Nelumbo lutea) is native to a region stretching from south-eastern part of North

America to the northern part of South America. It is smaller than the sacred

lotus; bears scented, pale yellow flowers. Young leaves, petioles and flowers are

eaten as vegetables. Rhizome (Kamal-Kakadi, blen) is edible and sold as

vegetable. Fresh rhizomes are eaten after boiling and fried slices are used in

curry or fried as chips. Fresh rhizomes can be preserved in frozen conditions

and used as an in precooked food. Generally two types of rhizomes, white and

red are available. Rhizomes varied 60-120 cm in length and 6-9 cm in

diameter, white to buff orange in colour and possess a few large cavities in

cross section. The leaves are used as a flavouring agent and to wrap sweet and

spicy mixtures (rice, meat, fruit etc.) for steaming.

Commercial viability

Lotus is a well-known flower to everybody especially our country where it

is considered as a national flower. Lotus has many practical uses, beneficial

uses (as medicine) as well as cultural uses (to worship Laxmi). Generally we

collect lotuses from spontaneous growth of the plant, but to cultivate the plant

commercially is out of conception. Growing demand of lotus especially flower

has motivated farmers and lotus lovers to think about it. For people who are

busy but want to maintain the water plant is the right choice. Maintenance of

the lotus plant does not require much time and not technically complex. Durga

puja is an important festival all over India during this festival there is huge

demand of lotus flowers according to rituals. Each Puja pandel requires 108

lotus flowers. Therefore, how much number of lotus flowers is needed?. Then

the price of flower is not a matter, but availability of flower is really a matter.

Hence, there is a good business opportunity. To catch that potentiality, farmers

should be motivated by the public or private extension system.

Propagation: Lotus is grown from seeds or rhizomes. For one hectare planting,

10-12 Kg of seeds are required to raise seedling. Scar the seeds: File the

pointed tip of the seed down to one layer using a standard metal file. If we do

not scar the seed, it will not grow and may rot. Place the seeds into a glass of

warm water. The water should not be chlorinated and must be changed every


88

day until the lotus seeds sprout. After the first day of soaking, the seeds should

swell to nearly twice their original size. Seeds that float are almost always

infertile. If these seeds do not swell like the others, discard them to avoid

letting them cloud up the water. Growth should start after four or five days of

soaking and wait until the seedling is at least 15 cm long before transplanting.

Vegetative propagation: Rhizomes are cut into small pieces and planted with

eyes above the soil surface in March-April. Rhizomes should not be exposed to

direct sunlight or freezing temperatures. Plant the lotus within a few weeks

after the rhizomes sprouts. Plant will be ready for deeper water once the

growing tips show leaves. Smaller types of lotus need only 1 to 15 cm of water

covering the top of the soil, but larger varieties may need up to 1 meter of

water.

Daily care of lotus: Maintain water temperature of 210C. The plant only grows

at temperatures that high or higher. Give lotus as much sun as possible. After

temperatures rise about 35oC, we should consider adding some shade to

prevent the delicate leaves from burning. Prune lotus as necessary. Aphids and

caterpillars are known to be attracted to lotus leaves, so you may need to apply

a small amount of powdered pesticides to the leaves in order to kill these pests.

Lotus can winter over in the pond if the pond depth is below the freeze line for

that area. If we lift the rhizomes, store them in a cool, frost free location until

late spring.

Fig 2: Lotus grown in pond at ICAR-IIVR,

Varanasi

Standard Agro-techniques: Rhizome yield with tune of 50-60 quintal per

hectare could be obtained by application of 270 kg N, 120 Kg K2O and 15 Kg B

per hectare. It is found that lotus is more responsive to B application. Lotus is

an aquatic plant hence submerged condition is ideal for growth of the plant.

Harvested rhizome of lotus is very much vulnerable to browning disorders.

Rhizome with browning has low market value. Rhizome grown in substrate low

in Fe showed less browning from those grown in one with a high Fe content. To


89

avoid enzymatic browning of external cut surface of pre cut lotus root

treatment with a solution of 2% erythorbic acid+ 1% citric acid is most

effective.

Water Spinach (Kalmi Saag): Water spinach originated in tropical Asia,

possibly in India and is member of morning glory family. Water convolvulus,

Kang Kong and Swamp cabbage are some alternative names in English. It is

known in Mandarin as Kong xin cai (empty heart/stem vegetable); ong tsoi and

weng cai (pitcher vegetable) in Cantonese, Kang Kong in Filipino and Malasian

and in Japanese as Asagaona. It is commonly used as a food plant and act as

an antihyperglycemic. The leaves are good source of minerals, vitamins and

also considered a possible source of food protein. The plant serves as high

nutritive green fodder, fish food and feed for broilers. It has long, jointed and

hollow stems, which allow the vines to float on water or creep across muddy

ground. Adventitious roots are formed at nodes which are in contact with water

or moist soil. They exude a milky juice, and leaves are white or green,

depending on variety. Water spinach has no relationship with common

spinach, but is closely related to sweet potato. Narrow leaves are 1-2.5 cm wide

and 20-30 cm long. Broad leaves are up to 5 cm wide and 15-25 cm long. On

the basis of stem colour and other morphological attributes, the cultivars

maybe classified in three main groups:

Fig 3: Variation in shape, size and colour in Water

spinach grown at ICAR-IIVR, Varanasi

Light green: Plants of this group have light green stem. The shoots are tender,

soft and glabrous with ovate, oblong and lanceolate leaves and spread densely

in shallow water.

Red green: Stems of this group of plants are green red. Shoots are

tender, soft and glabrous with thick leaves, mostly hastate. The plants

spread and produce several meter-long trailing branches. It is the most

common type.

Red stem: Stem of this plant group possesses dark red colour and they

are soft, glabrous with a diameter thinner than of the other varieties.


90

Climatic and soil requirement: Water spinach responds well at optimal

temperature of 200C – 300C. It is grown year-round in the tropics. Flowering

occurs under short-day conditions and commences from mid-summer

onwards. Water spinach is perennial in warm climates, but an annual under

cooler growing conditions. It tolerates very high rainfall, but not frost. It prefers

full sun but where summer temperatures are very high, it is sometimes grown

as a ground cover beneath climbing plants. Water spinach should be sheltered

from strong winds. It requires fertile soils rich in organic matter. Slow releasing

fertilizers are recommended to avoid the loss of nutrients. The most suitable

soil pH ranges from 5.5 to 7.0.

Sowing and planting: In moist soil culture, the crop is grown on raised beds

60-100 cm wide. Seeds are sown directly or nursery-grown seedlings are

transplanted. Seed should be no more than 2 years old and can be soaked for

24 hours before sowing to encourage germination. Soil temperature

requirement for germination is 20 °C. Seed should be sown 5-10 mm deep in

trays with potting mix deep enough to allow the plants to develop a good root

system. Transplanting should take place when plants are 10-15 cm high, with

four true leaves. Highest yields are obtained by spacing plants at 15x15 cm.

They can also be grown in rows about 30 cm apart with plants at 20 cm

spacing within rows.

Development of package of practices for Water spinach cultivation in field

condition

Water spinach is commonly grown in waterlogged areas. However, such

cultivation requires cumbersome practices for plant protection measures and

harvesting. This also invites water pollutants harmful for human health.

Therefore, an attempt was made for cultivation of water spinach in field

conditions and promising results were obtained (Fig) for the same. This

technology can prove to be simple and be cultivated round the year which can

serve as boon for the socio-economic upliftment of farmers of this region.

Fig 4: Cultivation of Water spinach in field condition


91

Propagation from cuttings: Water spinach can also be raised from stem

cuttings, 30-40 cm long, taken from the young growth just below a node, and

planted about 5 cm deep. For aquatic culture, cuttings from the broad leaved

cultivars are transplanted in puddled soil.

Crop management: Before transplanting, the crop must be given sufficient

nutrients to produce quality water spinach. After the plants are established,

nitrogen in the ammonium form should be applied at the rate of 40-50 kg/ha,

then the water level is raised to 15-20 cm depth. Plants respond well to

nitrogen, but over-feeding must be avoided because for high nitrate

concentrations in the leaves and stems can result which is undesirable.

Harvesting, yield and post harvest management: Water spinach should be

harvested before it flowers. Crop becomes ready for harvesting 50-60 days after

sowing. More than one harvest can be taken if shoots are cut above ground

level, allowing secondary shoots to grow from nodes below the cut. The

frequency of harvesting will depend on the growth rate of the crop. The upper

part of the main shoot, about 30 cm long, is cut about 5 cm above water level.

Bundles of 8-10 shoots are marketed. Removal of the main shoot stimulates

horizontal shoot growth. About 35- 40 tones/hectare can be harvested from

three or more cuttings in a year. Rapid and careful post-harvest handling is

required to minimize damage to the fragile crop, especially due to wilting

caused by moisture loss. To prevent this, the plants should be harvested

during the coolest part of the day. After bunching, a fine spray of cold water

should be applied, and the leaves kept in a cool place away from the wind.

Leaves are usually sold in 500 g bunches in the markets at the rate of Rs 40-

50/kg.

Harnessing potential and commercial viability of aquatic vegetables:

Although aquatic vegetables, both in terms of production and consumption find

a place only in local/tribal communities of our country but holds immense

potential to contribute towards food security and economic viability. In addition

harnessing its multifaceted benefits in terms of maintaining urban bodies in

flood control, amenity uses, wild life and broader environmental benefits may

be considered in very holistic manner. The various parts of the country with

swamp lands and shallow ponds have been adjudged to be entirely unsuitable

for fish culture or agriculture and the present policy for such areas is to “drain

and develop” them for uses not in accord with their nature. This requires

searching innovative techniques that would allow using wetlands sustainably


92

and cultivation of aquatic vegetables is one of the possible ways. However,

popularization and proper augmentation of these aquatic vegetables on a large

scale could make a significant contribution towards nutritional security and

economic upliftment of the society. In addition to food and nutritional security,

this is also likely to generate on-farm and off-farm (transportation, storage,

processing, marketing etc.) employment. Owing to their potential under

wetland conditions, there is an argument to promote them to sustainably

address challenges such as increasing water logged conditions in high rainfall

areas, food and nutrition insecurity, environmental degradation, and

employment creation under climate change. With research and development,

and policy to support them, aquatic vegetables crops could play an important

role in climate-change adaptation. In view of the importance of aquatic

vegetables, crop improvement programme has been initiated at ICAR-

Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi, India in order to

popularize and augment aquatic vegetable production among growers.

References

Dubey R K, Devi J, Ranjan J K, Singh P M and Singh, B 2018. Jaleeya Sabjiya :

Poshan, Khadyya evam Arthik labh ke vaikalpic shrot. In B. Singh,

P.M.Singh., B.K.Singh., S.G.Karkute., S.Gupta., R. Singh., A.B.Rai., J.

Singh and N. Singh ( eds.). Uttar Bharat mein krishi Utpadan ki taknikein-

Vibhinnya aayam. Pub. by ICAR-IIVR, Varanasi, UP. pp 148-153. ISBN

No.978-81-932605-8-6.

Dubey R K, Ranjan J K , Devi J, Singh V, Tiwari S K, Pandey S, Singh P M and

Singh B 2017. Growing aquatic vegetables is the new Gold. In : National

Conference on food and nutritional security through vegetable crops in relation

to climate change, 9-10 December, Organized by ICAR-IIVR, Varanasi, India .

Dubey R K, Singh V, Singh M K, Singh P M and Singh B 2019. Growing aquatic

vegetables is the new gold for farmers. Published in Souvenir on Ist

Vegetable Science Congress on Emerging Challenges in vegetable research

and education (VEGCON-2019) held during February 1-3, 2019 at

Agriculture University, Jodhpur, Rajasthan Published by ICAR-IIVR,

Varanasi, UP. pp 94-97.


93

Climate Resilient Underexploited Vegetables for

Nutritional and Economic Security

Rakesh Kr Dubey*, V. Singha, Jyoti Devi, K K Gautam, P M Singh and

Jagdish Singh

ICAR- Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi-221305

a.RRS, ICAR-IIVR, Saragatia, Kushinagar

*Email id: [email protected]

Climate change is one of the global challenges faced by the mankind

today with the continuously rising temperature, triggering a host of extreme

weather events such as heat waves, drought, and flooding. These climate-

induced challenges are manifesting themselves rapidly, causing socio-economic

insecurities and health challenges, particularly in marginalized communities.

There is increasing evidence of indirect associations between climate change

and the rise in the rates of malnutrition, poor health, hunger and starvation, as

well as food and water insecurity. In addition, climate-change impacts have put

an additional pressure on already stressed natural resource base, reducing the

resilience of agro-ecosystems that are, in part, providing food and nutritional

security in rural communities. Tackling these challenges requires a paradigm

shift from the current incremental adaptation strategies towards transformative

alternatives that also place an equal emphasis on human nutrition and health,

as well as environmental sustainability. In the context of marginalized farming

communities, a transformative adaptation strategy is defined as one that

causes a disruptive, but desirable and sustainable change to the social–

ecological state of the system. In the context of this paper, the inclusion of

adaptable nutrient dense underexploited vegetable crops into marginalized

agricultural systems and dominant food systems is considered part of

transformative adaptation. Underexploited vegetable crops are defined as crops

that have either originated in a geographic location or those that have become

„indigenized‟ over many years of cultivation as well as natural and farmer

selection. The term „underexploited/underutilized/neglected/orphan/underuse

vegetables‟ has often been used to refer to vegetable crops that may have

originated elsewhere, but have undergone extensive domestication locally, thus

giving rise to local variations, i.e., „naturalized/indigenized crops‟.

Underutilized indigenous and traditional crops are often characterized by the

limited development relative to their potential. Consequently, they have poorly

developed and understood value chains and these vary across geographic and


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socio-economic settings. Several research findings have advocated for their use

as a part of sustainable agriculture techniques that speak to adaptation,

mitigation, and sustainable intensification of production systems. There is

growing recognition that the use of locally available resources such as orphan

crops can contribute to adapting to climate variability and change while

supporting sustainable diets and food systems. Underexploited vegetable crops

may offer „new‟ opportunities in the advent of climate change as they are

uniquely suited to local harsh environments, provide nutritional diversity and

enhance agro-biodiversity within farmer fields and home gardens, create niche

markets in local economies and serve to simultaneously harness and protect

local knowledge. Furthermore, they are a mainstay of rural food systems.

However, these reported benefits are largely anecdotal with limited empirical

evidence. Despite the inherent low-yield potential exhibited by underutilized

vegetable crops, the fact that they have persevered with a little formal support

suggests they may be resilient and possess certain desirable traits within

communities who utilize them which may be useful for climate-change

adaptation. In this regard underexploited vegetable crops may contribute to

building resilience of the communities over the long-term.

Climate change and underexploited vegetable led food systems

The drivers of climate variability and change are well reviewed by many

researchers. In the short term, increasing climate variability has a greater

impact on vegetable led food security than longer term changes in mean

climate values. Agriculture needs to adapt to sporadic and gradual changes in

means and distributions of temperature and precipitation. Depending on the

speed and direction of these trends, adaptation needs to be reconceptualized as

an unabating and transformative process, rather than intermittent and

incremental. Under continuously changing conditions, transformative

adaptation is needed to build resilience and ensure sustainable food systems.

Underexploited vegetable led food systems include all processes and

infrastructure involved in feeding a population, namely, growing, harvesting,

processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption and disposal of

Underexploited vegetable and related items. Theoretically, the supply and

demand of Underexploited vegetable food should balance global food systems;

however, the imbalances in the drivers have caused food systems to be in flux.

Population growth, shifting consumption patterns, urbanization, and income

re-distribution have driven the demand side. Patterns in food supply-side

drivers, which are related to resource use (water, energy, and land), and agro-


95

ecosystem services have not always been able to provide for the growing

demand. In addition, the impacts of global climate change on food systems are

complex as they are widespread; they differ across spatial and temporal scales,

and are influenced by preexisting and emerging governance, and social and

economic conditions. There is sufficient evidence that shows that climate

change will affect vegetable crop yields and quality. A change in the observed

climate will affect the growth of crops through multiple mechanisms, including

changing phenology, heat stress, water stress, waterlogging and increases or

reductions in pests and diseases. Based on general circulation models, the

forecasted yield changes in 2050 are estimated to be between − 27 and + 9%

across all the developing countries for key staple crops.

Vegetable genetic resources for future crop improvement

In general, underexploited vegetable crops are grown at small scale, often

as mixed genetic populations rather than pure lines, with minimal inputs and

on marginal land. While selection of the landrace to the local environment and

agricultural system has happened through the constant cultivation of the crop

in location, intensive selection for high input and uniform agricultural systems

has not. Several research findings have shown that trait variation present

within a crop species is a major determinant of what can be achieved through

breeding; to combine the beneficial gene alleles into a single „ideotype‟. Most

underutilized vegetable crops still contain gene alleles and mechanisms for

growth in poor environments and for resilience under stress. These have

potentially been lost from major crops and hence, programmes to introduce

variation from wild ancestors for major crops. However, there are many

disadvantages with assessing the genetic potential of underutilized vegetable

crops, not least, which ones to focus on. If we at least select species with

beneficial traits outside the range seen in major vegetable crops (whether this

is drought tolerance, nutritional concentration or other aspects which are

useful for healthy diets), then they will be a sub-set of crops which could have

a major impact on food and nutritional security. Until recently, we knew little

about the breeding systems and pollination mechanisms in many vegetable

crops (and particularly for underutilized vegetables) or the genetic relatedness

of accessions within a species. The development of Next-Generation Sequencing

and particularly generic genotyping approaches such as Genotyping-by-

Sequencing have permitted a step change in our ability to interrogate these

systems. The only prerequisite for genetic analysis is the ability to extract DNA

which can be reliably cut by bacterial endonucleases. By collecting vegetable


96

crop plants within a population and multiple seed from individuals, we can

begin to get a clearer idea of the breeding systems and the factors (insect,

distance, prevailing wind, etc.) involved in pollination. An objective for many

inbreeding major crop species is to develop hybrids. While development of

hybrids would offer potential yield increases and greater hybrid vigour, it is

unlikely to be achieved for years in many orphan vegetable crops. However, for

underexploited vegetable crops, there has often been relatively little

conventional breeding and a significant progress could be made by a well-

organized conventional breeding programme. As more information is generated

at the genetic and trait levels from underutilized vegetable crop species, it

becomes more feasible to include marker-assisted selection as an integrated

component of the breeding programme. The development of the African Orphan

Crops Consortium (AOCC; http://www.afric anorp hancr ops.org), including a

remit to generate the genome sequence of 101 African Orphan Crop Genomes

and re-sequence 100 lines of each, should accelerate the adoption of molecular

breeding and research in these crops. The first five genome assemblies have

been released for Vigna subterranea, Lablab purpureus, Faidherbia albida,

Sclerocarya birrea and Moringa oleifera and hopefully represent the beginning

of a new genome enabled breeding era for underexploited crops. The release of

the genome sequences will be important, but to be able to exploit the new

information, there is a need to develop structured genetic material for both

research and breeding to elucidate the genetic control of traits and develop

markers. Such material also could allow selections by farmers in the target

location (which requires suitable adaptation and farmer preference traits,

fitting into the current agricultural systems). For underutilized crop systems,

there is no extensive history of pedigree-based approaches which exists for

more major species and often collections of orphan crop accessions will have

very distant divergence times. This potentially makes the use of Nested

Association Mapping (NAM), Multiparent advanced generation intercross

populations (MAGIC) and even Genomic Selection (GS). Such populations could

be deployed in many locations, with local farmers identifying the material most

suited to their needs and preferences.

Under exploited vegetable production sustainability under climate change

As climate change threatens to reduce the land suitable for production of

major vegetable crops, this could inevitably open up more land for

underexploited vegetable crops that do well under extreme climate and edaphic

conditions. Crops such as Moringa, Tapioca, Cluster bean, Winged bean,


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Indian bean Jack bean, Sword bean and Rice bean are adapted to extreme

weather and poor soil conditions. Due to their inherent tolerance to water

deficit, they are cultivated under semi-arid conditions. Research has shown

that several underexploited vegetable crops require less water and have

relatively high water use efficiencies. They can also be grown in marginal and

fragile environments, such as dry lands and swamps, and on highly degraded

land that is no longer suitable for high input commercial crops. Therefore, land

that has been condemned as unsuitable for cultivation of major vegetable crops

may be suitable for cultivating adaptable orphan vegetable crops. However, the

cultivation and expansion of orphan vegetable crops at a large scale must be

supported with crop suitability mapping for effective matching of specific

orphan vegetable crops to suitable climates. Crop suitability mapping is an

assessment of land performance when it is used to produce specific crops.

Adaptation of crop growth to the capabilities and constraints of local agro-

ecological conditions is a key principle of sustainable land management and for

climate-change adaptation. Identifying optimum land for cultivation of orphan

vegetable crops is necessary for the conservation of environmental resources

and at the same time, achieving optimum yields. In addition, identifying

optimum land suitable for cultivating underutilized vegetable crops is essential

for producing more with fewer resources for sustainability. Thus, crop land

suitability mapping provides information for growing potential crops and

deriving maximum economic benefits with lower production costs. Crop

suitability mapping will facilitate a better utilization of marginal land and water

resources, providing opportunities to produce underutilized vegetable crops in

areas that are projected to become unsuitable for the production of major

vegetable crops. This is consistent with transformational adaptation which has

also been defined as fitting to or fitting with the socio-ecological landscapes,

depending on how it is conceptualized. The underexploited vegetables play an

important part of food and nutrition of local/ tribal population across the

globe. Since time immemorial, they are traditionally been esteemed for their

utilization in terms of medicinal, therapeutic and nutritional values along with

providing economic stability. They are consumed either as raw or cooked and

moreover, their consumption gives diversity to daily food intake, adding

flavours to the diet. They are rich in various nutritive elements, which can

compensate for the dietary deficiencies of vitamins and minerals necessary for

human diet. Also, the neglected and under exploited crops contribute

significantly to maintain diversity and hence more stable agro-ecosystems. This

necessitates the importance of inclusion of underexploited and neglected

vegetables which feature promptly in the food and nutritional security,


98

improved socio-economic conditions and health promoting benefits. The tribal

communities across the globe continue to practice and maintain the cultivation

of such neglected and under exploited crops. The wild, semi-cultivated or

neglected vegetables and fruits are regarded worldwide as an important area of

the nutritional and phytotherapic research. There are reports that indigenous

vegetables (IVs) like Moringa, Sword bean, Dolichos spp., Luffa spp., Colocasia,

Amorphophallus, Alocasia, Xanthosoma, Cucurbits, Yam, beans, leafy vegetables

and numerous others are known to be good source of micronutrients and also

high in antioxidants and anti-microbial phytochemicals. Furthermore,

underexploited vegetables could prove to be source of low-cost quality nutrition

for large mass of the population. Thus, these vegetables are not underutilized

but undervalued due to limited information on their nutritional, anti-

nutritional and nutraceuticals aspects etc. Therefore, studies providing

scientific evidences would create new paradigms for their large scale

preservation, collection, popularization and careful exploitation of these

potential resources for mankind. In present compilation, indigenous refers to a

crop species or variety genuinely native to a region, or to a crop introduced into

a region where over a period of time it has evolved, although the species may

not be native. Efforts on conservation, utilization of underexploited vegetables

and their popularization will bring immense prosperity among the growers.

Since, the under exploited vegetable crops have a long history of consumption,

the local people are aware about their nutritional and medicinal properties.

Table1. List of underexploited vegetables

English name Scientific name Family

White yam Dioscorea alata Dioscoreaceae

Basella Basella alba Basellaceae

Winged bean Psophocarpus tetragonolobus Leguminaceae

Cluster bean Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Leguminaceae

Vegetable

Soybean Glycine max Leguminaceae

Jack bean Canavalia ensiformis Leguminaceae

Sword bean Canavalia gladiata Leguminaceae

Lima bean Phaseolus coccineous Leguminaceae

Yam bean Pachyrrhizus tuberosa Leguminaceae

Gherkin Cucumis anguina Cucurbitaceae

Spiny Amaranth Amaranthus spinosus Amaranthaceae

Leaf Amaranth Amaranthus viridis Amaranthaceae


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English name Scientific name Family

White yam Dioscorea alata Dioscoreaceae

Basella Basella alba Basellaceae

Bathua Chenopodium album Chenopodiaceae

Sorrel Rumex vesicarius Polygonaceae

Moringa Moringa oleifera Moringaceae

Fern Dryopteris filix-mas Polypodiaceae

Water cress Nasturtium officinale Cruciferae

Tannia Xanthosoma atrovirens Araceae

Diversity in Leguminous vegetables

Several wild forms and wide variability found in rice bean (Vigna umbellata)

with profuse branching, higher seeds per pod, higher number of pod per

peduncle, bold seeds and high grain yield and higher polymorphism has also

been recorded in local landraces for seed colour. Additionally, Vigna radiata

var. sublobata is known for yellow mosaic virus resistance, whereas Vigna

umbellata var. radiata is known for resistance to diseases and insect pests. In,

French bean pole type is popular among the tribal population, since it is used

for mixed cropping with maize. Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis) is also

cultivated whereas; winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) is confined to

the humid subtropical parts of the local pockets. Broad bean (Vicia faba) also

grown successfully in Jammu & Kashmir, Manipur, Odisha and Arunachal

Pradesh. Atylosia geonsis, Atylosia scaraboides, Canavalia gladiata, Mucuma

monosperma, Mucuma nivea, Mucuma utilis, Dolichus bifflorus, Bauhinia

purpurea, Vigna vexillata are the under exploited legume species of North

Eastern region. Tree bean (Parkia roxburghii), is one of the most common of

multipurpose tree species of Manipur.

Table 1. Diversities of legumes vegetable

Species Diversities rich area

Canavalia ensiformis Mizoram, Meghalaya Manipur, Assam,

Arunachal Pradesh

Dolichos bifilorus Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram,

Sikkim

Dolichos lablab Mizoram, Meghalaya, Manipur, Assam,

Arunachal Pradesh,

Parkia roxburghii Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram,

Manipur, Assam


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Phaseolus coccineous Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya,

Vigna radiata var

sublobata

Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur, Assam,

Arunachal Pradesh

Vigna umbellata var

radiate

Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram,

Manipur, Assam

Canavalia ensiformis Mizoram, Meghalaya, Manipur, Sikkim, Assam

Psophocarpus

tetragonolobus

Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram

Manipur, Assam

Vicia faba Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram,

Sikkim

Dolichos falcatus Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram,

Sikkim

Canavalia gladiata Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram,

Sikkim

Vigna umbellata Manipur, Mizoram

Phaseolus vulgaris Meghalaya, Manipur, Assam, Arunachal

Pradesh, Mizoram

Diversity in leafy vegetables

The important leafy vegetables include Lai sag (Brassica juncea), lafa

(Malva verticillata). In addition to these a wide variety of indigenous leafy

vegetables are also available. These are Amaranth (Amaranthus spp), poi

(Basella rubra and Basella alba), sorrel (Rumex rasicarius), etc. Other

indigenous leafy vegetables used occasionally are bathua (Chenopodium album)

and Kalmou sag (Ipomea reptans), Amaranthus viridis, Amaranthus lividus,

Amaranthus retroflexus and Amaranthus spinosus.

Diversity in under exploited Cucurbitaceous vegetables

There are several underexploited/ minor cucurbitaceous vegetables,

which are grown and consumed by tribal population acroos the globe. These

are mainly Cucumis hystrix, Cucumis trigonus, Luffa graveolens, Momordica

macrophylla, Momordica subangulata, Trichosanthes cucumerina, Trichosanthes

khasiana, Trichosanthes ovata, and Trichosanthes truncasa. In addition, wild

relatives of several Cucurbits are also found with significant genetic variability,

such as Cucurbita ficifolia, Cucumis hardwickii, Momordica cochinchinensis etc.

providing a reservoir of useful genes. Chow Chow (Sechium edule), is a very


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popular vegetable in the NEH region of India commonly called as squash and

grows abundantly without much care and attention.

Table 2. Diversity of underutilized cucurbits

Species Diversities rich area

Cucumis melo var

momordica

Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Assam,

Sikkim, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha

Coccinia indica Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura

Cucumis callosus Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya,

Tripura

Trichosanthus anguina Meghalaya, Tripura, Assam, Odisha

Momordica

cochinchinensis

Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh

Sechium edule Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Sikkim, Arunachal

Pradesh

Trichosanthus dioca Assam, Tripura , Odisha

Momordica dioca Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur, Assam

Benincasa hispida Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya,

Sikkim

Cylanthera pedata Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh

Cucurbita pepo Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur

Cucurbita ficifolia Nagaland Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur,

Tripura, Sikkim

Diversity in Solanaceous vegetables

In Solanaceous vegetables, the NEH region is very rich in diversity for

Solanum melongena, with several primitive cultivars having excellent quality of

soft flesh, less seeds and large fruit size. Additionally,wild species, such as

Solanum gilo, Solanum torvum, Solanum indicum, Solanum khasianum, Solanum

macrocarpon and Solanum xanthocarpum. Solanum khasianum is an important

species of medicinal value (solasodine content) and Solanum torvum,

extensively used in the Ayurvedic medicine system. These species have also

been found to possess resistance to shoot and fruit borer and root diseases,

respectively. Solanum pimpinellifolium has also expressed resistance to late

blight and tomato leaf curl virus. Capsicum annuum, Capsicum frutescens and


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Capsicum Chinense form important food crop. Capsicum minimum Syn.

Capsicum fastigiatum (Bird-eye-chilli) is cultivated across the NEH region.

Table 3. Diversity of Solanum species

Solanum indicum Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya,

Sikkim

Solanum

xanthcarpum

Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, , Sikkim,

Assam

Solanum khasianum Meghalaya, Sikkim, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,

Manipur

Solanum mammosum Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya,

Assam

Solanum

macrocarpon

Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Sikkim,

Assam

Solanum torvum Meghalaya, Sikkim, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,

Manipur

Solanum ferox Meghalaya, Sikkim, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,

Manipur

Solanum berbisetum Manipur, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim,

Assam

Solanum kurzii Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Assam, Arunachal

Pradesh

Solanum spirale Manipur, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, , Sikkim,

Assam

Solanum

sisymbrifolium

Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh,

Assam

Solanum gilo Meghalaya, Sikkim, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,

Manipur

Winged bean

Winged bean is an underexploited leguminous

vegetable crop which finds an important place in

traditional diets in several parts of the world. It is climbing

short-day plant, cultivated as an annual with

indeterminate growth. The tubers, young pods, seeds,

leaves, flowers and shoots, are rich in protein, amino acids,

oils, vitamins and minerals. Almost all parts of the plant can be eaten and are


103

consumed by incorporating in a variety of cuisines. The leaves contain 5 to

15% protein and high amount of vitamins and the tubers contain 10 to 12%

crude protein higher than other tuber crops. The green tender pods also have

high protein content (1.9- 2.9%), carbohydrates (3.1- 3.8 %), rich in calcium,

iron, phosphorus and vitamins. The mature seeds contain 29.8 to 37.4%

protein, 15 to 20% fat and 28 to 31.6% carbohydrates and are also rich in Ca,

Mg, P, Fe and vitamins. It is rich in lysine which can supplement cereal diets

that are lysine deficient. The seeds contain high content of unsaturated fatty

acids and the seed oil is rich in tocopherol, an antioxidant that improves the

utilization of vitamin A in the human body. They are low in fat, excellent

sources of protein, dietary fibre, micronutrients and phytochemicals which

accords to potential health benefits. This makes the plant a crop of economic

and nutritional importance for a large section of population across the globe.

Time for seed sowing is from the last week of June to the end of July. Seeds

can be dibbled at a depth of 3 to 5 cm which emerges in 10 to 15 days. Staking

the plant with poles gives rise to high yields of pods and seeds. Usually

flowering commences after 50 to 60 days of sowing. The basic pigmentation of

the stem is green and purple, green being the most common. The extensive root

system may help the plant to grow in nitrogen poor soils, reflecting its ability to

obtain fixed nitrogen via its root nodules. The fibrous roots of certain varieties

form tubers. Reproductive pruning increase tuber yield, whereas vegetative

pruning reduces tuber production. The winged bean is cleistogamous and

largely self pollinated since anthesis occurs prior to flower opening. Pod

formation is visible 7 days after anthesis. The length of the four-winged,

slightly bent pod varies from 6-38 cm and the seed number 5 to 20 per pod.

Plant population varies between 15,000 - 20,000/ hectare. A fruit remains in

edible stage about 10-15 days after fruit set. Number of fruit per cluster varies

from 2- 4. Average weight is about 25-30g per pod. Fruit yield varies 2 to 2.5 kg

per plant with tune of 200 - 300 q/ hectare pod yield. Sale price in market is

about Rs 40- 50/ kg.Like many legumes, the winged bean can be grown as an

intercrop with tapioca, banana, sugarcane, sweet potatoes, or other green

vegetables. Popularisation of its cultivation techniques and augmenting the

potential of this “Wonder Legume Vegetable” can play an important role for

sustaining the dietary needs as well as health benefits for a large section of

population.


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Cluster bean

Cluster bean is a drought and high temperature

tolerant, deep rooted, annual legume of high social and

economic significance. The crop holds great potential like

high adaptation towards erratic rainfall, multiple industrial

uses, importance in cropping system for factors such as

soil enrichment properties, low input requirement, etc.

Cluster bean is a three-four months crop. From sowing to harvesting it takes

about 90 to 110 days. Crop cycle starts with sowing by first to second week of

July. In general flowering stage starts after 40 to 60 days of sowing. The pod

formation takes place after 50 to 70 days from the date of sowing. Being a

legume crop, it has ability to fix extra nitrogen in the soil so that it can perform

well even in poor fertile soil and nutrient depleted soil. Cluster bean has the

ability to fix nitrogen to the tune of 30 - 40 kg/ha. Several improved varieties

of cluster bean have been evolved by Universities and ICAR Institutes in the

country. Increasing demand of cluster bean on account of growth in shale gas

industry along with other factors has made cluster bean a golden crop. If crop

is grown by adopting all improved package of practices, it is possible to get

nearly 7- 8 quintal per hectare seed yield of cluster bean under rainfed

condition and 12-15 q/ha in irrigated condition during kharif season and 10-

12 q/ha during summer season. Average cost of cultivation per ha occurs

about Rs.28,000-30,000/- for rainfed crop and about Rs.35,000-40,000 /

ha for irrigated crop. Input: output ratio for cluster bean cultivation is about 1:

1.98.8.

Tree tomato

Tree tomato is a perennial shrub, grown as a backyard

crop in Meghalaya and Sikkim. It is 2-3 m tall tree, which bears

prolifically egg shaped berries with pointed ends in cluster near

the young shoots. The long-stalked, pendent fruit, borne singly,

or in clusters of 4 to 12, is smooth, egg-shaped but pointed at

both ends and capped with the persistent conical calyx. In size,

it ranges from 7-10 cm in length and 5-6 cm in width and in colour may be

solid deep-purple, blood-red, orange or yellow, or red-and-yellow and may have

faint dark, longitudinal stripes. The inside pulp of the fruit is light orange and

the seeds are black in colour. Tree tomato is consumed as delicious chutney


105

when raw or after roasting and peeling off the skin. It is liked by the people due

to its unique flavour.

Chow-chow

Chow-chow is a very popular vegetable in the NEH region,

commonly called as squash and grows abundantly without much

care and attention in high hills of Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram,

Nagaland and Sikkim. Chow-chow produces large starchy edible

roots in addition to fruits. It is a vigorous, scrambling, tuberous-

rooted perennial plant, grown for its starchy, edible fruit and seeds. This

climber can spread to up to two meter producing huge tubers. It looks like a

large, green pear, but having a number of deep folds in the skin. Some varieties

have smooth skins, while others have dots of prickly spines on the surface. The

flesh is crisp and white with a large white oval seed in the centre.

Kakrol and Kartoli

Both are having high nutritional and medicinal with economic values.

Immature tender green fruits are cooked as vegetable. Young leaves, flowers

and seeds are also edible. The unripe fruits of both the crops act as appetizer

and astringent. The seeds are used in chest problems and stimulate urinary

discharge.

Jack bean

It is mostly cultivated in the North Eastern region. It is a

bushy, semi-erect, annual herb, 2-3 m tall and the tips of its

branches tend to twine under shade. Leaves are trifoliate and

shortly hairy. Pods are sword shaped, 10-30 cm long and 2-2.5 cm

broad. The pods are pendent, ribbed near suture and 10 to 25

seeded. Young green pods are eaten as a cooked vegetable.

Sword bean

It is used as vegetable and medicinal plants in NEH region.

The red and black sword beans have antioxidant capacity compared

to the white sword bean and this was attributed to their red and

black bean coats, which possessed extremely high phenolic content.

Gallic acid and its derivatives, such as, digalloyl hexoside, methyl

gallate and digallic acid is the main phenolic compounds in the coats of red

and black sword beans. Therefore, the red and black sword beans, especially


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their bean coats are good sources of antioxidant phenolics and may have

potential health benefits.

Tree bean

It is one of the most common multipurpose tree species in the

North eastern region, especially in Manipur and Mizoram. Locally

called „Yongchak‟ in Manipur and „Yontak‟ in Assam, its tree

commonly grows in every household of hill region. The inflorescence

head arise terminally with clusters of yellowish white tiny flowers,

hanging at the top of long stalks from the branches. The fruits in

early stages are soft, tender and bright green in colour. They turn blackish

when fully mature in March-April. Pods are formed in clusters of 10-15, each

measuring 25-40 cm in length and 2-4 cm in breadth. Based on local

preference, the pods are consumed at different stages of maturity, either fresh

or processed. Per pod cost about Rs 20.0 in Manipur.

Yard long bean

Crop is widely grown in every part of NEH region during April-

October. Besides immature pods, tender leaves and shoots are very

popular as leafy vegetable. The plant is climbing type, branched, 4.0-

5.5 m long, 20-35 nodes and flowers are large. Pods are pendent,

green and purple in colour, 25-45 cm long, fleshy and inflated.

Lai sag

It is one of the most popular leafy vegetable. This is winter season annual

crop, but being grown round the year except heavy rainfall period, having

cylindrical taproot system. The crop bears soft, fleshy, broad, green and

glabrous/ hairy leaves, fleshy stalk, and reaches a height of 60-70 cm which is

being used as green vegetable. The leaves are dried to use during rainy season.

Mustard leaves are an excellent source of vitamin E, vitamin C and beta-

carotene. They also contain vitamin B6, folic acid, niacin, magnesium, calcium,

iron, and are an excellent source of phyto-chemicals thought to prevent cancer.

Snake gourd

Snake gourd is a tropical or subtropical vine, grown for its fruit which is

used as a vegetable and for medicine. The narrow, soft-skinned fruit can reach

150 cm long. Small fruited (20-40 cm) snake gourd is popular in almost all


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regions. Its soft, bland, somewhat mucilaginous flesh is similar to that of the

Luffa.

Rice bean

It is a warm-season annual vine legume with yellow flowers. It is

regarded as a minor edible plant and fodder crop and is often grown as cover

crop and intercrop or mixed crop with maize, French bean or cowpea as well as

a sole crop in the Jhums on a very limited area. It is good source of protein,

essential amino acid, essential fatty acid and minerals. Rice bean is a fairly

short-lived warm-season annual, grown mainly for dried pulse, fodder and

vegetable.

Vegetable Pigeon pea

The green pods and immature green seeds of pigeon peas are used in

boil, vegetable and soup and very popular in every parts of country. Pigeon pea

is hardy, widely adaptable and more tolerant of drought, high temperatures,

grows well on acid soils. It attains a height up to 2.5 m along with 5-6 primary

branches. Leaves are trifoliate and spirally arranged on the stem. Flowers

occur in axillary racemes are 2-3 cm long and are usually yellow in colour. A

plant is producing 400-500 green pods and each pod contains 2-4 seeds.

Bamboo shoot

The plants are perennial, grassy and can grow up to 35 m height

and several centimetres in diameter. In general, all bamboo species

producing large shoots (Culm) are suitable for edible purpose. The major

bamboo species found in the NEH region are Bambusa, Dendrocalamus,

Arundanaria, Cephalostachyum, Melocanna, Teinostachymum,

Dinochloa, Gigantochloa, Chimonobambusa, Pseudoschyum,

Racemobamboos, Sinarundinaria, Phyllostachys.

Vegetable soybean: Also known as green-soybeans, sweet-beans, is

gaining popularity due to its rich nutritional profile, especially among

health conscious affluent urban population of the India and world. It

is valued for its tender „green-pods‟ which could be served as snacks,

salad-mixes, stir-fried or for „immature green-seeds‟ that are

harvested, slightly before it gets mature and become dry i.e. R6 stage


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of development. It is traditionally marketed as fresh pods attached or detached

from stem, frozen pods, fresh shelled or frozen shelled green beans or as dry

roasted green beans. Vegetable-soybean classifies as functional-food since it is

a rich source of protein, fiber, omega-3 fatty acid and folic-acid. Health benefits

and capacity to combat range of hazardous diseases like atheroscelerosis,

osteoporosis, various types of cancer (breast, uterus cancer, and prostrate) has

attracted people‟s attention for this special vegetable across the globe

.According to one report it contains 13% protein, 5.7% cholesterol-free fatty

acids, 6.5% TSS, 158 mg/100g of phosphorus, 78 mg/100 g of calcium, 0.4

mg/100g of vitamin B1 and 0.17 mg/100g of vitamin B2. In addition, it is also

a good source of isoflavones and tocopherols. It is one of the few green-

vegetables that have all essential amino acids in their protein compositions

thus be considered as „complete proteins‟ at par with meats, milk products and

eggs.

Climate change - health co -benefits of underexploited vegetable crops

Millions of people in the world rely on underexploited vegetable crops as

primary food sources. Numerous studies have shown that these crops are

highly nutritious, containing several micro and macro-nutrients that are

essential for health, more so than common major crops. For example, several

traditional legumes, and vegetable crop species, in particular, contain high

proportions of vitamins, calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium, and zinc, and

some orphan fruits and vegetables contain more vitamin C and pro-vitamin A

than major crop species and their staple counterparts. Certain underexploited

vegetable crops also have been reported to have certain health protection and

medicinal properties and can have protective effects against the major chronic

diseases. For example, winged bean has anticancer properties and might have

potential to contribute to the prevention of cancer initiation due to the phenolic

and antioxidant extracts. Depending on species, the inclusion of

underexploited vegetable crops into low-income household diets can improve

the availability of essential nutrients, especially essential amino acids, fibre,

proteins, and promote dietary diversity. This makes them an important

component for nutritious diets and should be part of a basket that still

includes major staple crops with high nutritional value. Sustainable production

of underexploited vegetable crops can offer new opportunities to address

malnutrition and food insecurity, which are exacerbated by the rapidly

increasing global population, the reduction in arable land, and the changing

climate. In this regard, underutilized vegetable crops offer opportunities to co-


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evolve, hence transform climate-socio-economic co-benefits of orphan vegetable

crops. Underexploited vegetable crops can provide and improve income for the

poor, especially women and youth, who generate income from agricultural

activities, particularly in rural areas.

Climate–environment co-benefits of underexploited vegetable crops

Underexploited vegetable crops require low levels of inputs such as

pesticides and fertilizers, which reduces input costs for farmers. They are also

resistant to pests and diseases, and tolerant to environmental extremes and

less favourable weather conditions, unlike major vegetable crops meaning that

the source of income for the farmers will not be disrupted. Within communities,

orphan vegetable crops can offer cross-cutting solutions to multiple

constraints. Therefore, the promotion and inclusion (i.e., mainstreaming) of

underexploited vegetable crops could contribute towards address sustainable

development goals related to social and economic issues. Underexploited

vegetable crops can also contribute to promoting food and livelihood security

and empowering vulnerable communities economically and in a sustainable

manner. This is particularly important for vulnerable groups, especially

women, as it has been shown to improve their socio-economic standing within

their homes and communities as their families and friends have a greater

respect for them. Overall, underutilized vegetable crops are culturally

acceptable, accessible, economically fair and affordable; nutritionally adequate,

safe and healthy; and are able to optimize natural and human resources.

Limitations to underexploited vegetable crops adoption and potential

Despite constituting a small share of global vegetable production

systems, orphan vegetable crops have the potential to contribute toward socio-

economic development of low-input–low-output farming systems. However,

several challenges towards their adoption and mainstreaming must be

addressed. These include, but not limited to, (1) seed systems and seed

production, (2) genetic, agronomy, and eco-physiology, and (3) utilization and

marketing. Underutilized vegetable crops are mainly believed to have informal

seed systems, also referred to as local, traditional, or farmer seed systems.

Activities in farmer seed systems tend to be integrated and localized at the farm

level, whereby the farmers themselves access seed directly from their own

harvest and disseminate it through exchange and barter among friends,

neighbours and relatives; and through local markets. Diverse genetic materials

are often land or mixed races and may be heterogeneous (modified through


110

informal breeding and use). Seeds are often of variable quality (of different

purity and physical and physiological quality). In addition, their seed systems

are not monitored or controlled by government policies and regulations.

Rather, local technical (indigenous) knowledge and standards, social structures

and norms drive their seed systems. Based on the seed scientists‟ perspective,

good-quality seed is a prerequisite for successful crop production of

underutilized vegetables.

Conclusion

Despite the noted prospects for underutilized vegetable crops under

climate change, gaps in knowledge concerning orphan crops currently inhibit

the capacity to protect and exploit the value of these crops within the scope of

transformative adaptation. The extent to which public policy addresses these

crops and their potential to contribute towards the country goals is also limited

but valid. Lack of research implies there is no robust, comparable, and reliable

empirical information which can be used to advocate for policies on orphan

vegetable crops. Indeed, as present compilation suggested, there is a need to

develop a clear agenda for research and development of these crops through

concerted efforts involving all the stakeholders from farmers and consumers to

researchers and policy makers. It is through these co-ordinated efforts that we

are likely to see researchers, who are currently less inclined to work on these

crops given the lack of any existing studies or workable intellectual framework

for their analysis, engage meaningfully with other stakeholders to research and

develop these crops as significant contributors to food and nutritional security

globally. Despite limited institutional support and an absence of basic

research, underexploited vegetables crops continue to be cultivated throughout

the world. At present, farmers in tribal areas produce a range of both major

and minor vegetable crops; these crops and the diverse cropping systems in

which they are produced contribute to the unique and rich tapestry of farming

landscapes. While the absence of firm data makes accurate assessment of the

role played by underutilized vegetable crops difficult, limited evidence suggests

that orphan vegetable crops play an important socio- economic role.

Underexploited vegetable crops have outstanding adaption capabilities to

drought and acidic soils, bestowed with considerable genetic variability,

adopted by local people for sustenance and intrinsically linked to their cultural

and traditional systems, rich source of nutrients and bioactive medicinal

substances. Concerted efforts are needed to assess the food value of these


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aquatic vegetables for their exploitation at commercial scale. It is, therefore,

urgent need to take up programme on genetic resources exploration,

management, utilization and improvement of underexploited vegetable crops to

ensure food and nutritional security for future. Popularization and proper

augmentation of underexploited vegetable on a large scale could make a

significant contribution towards nutritional security and economic upliftment

of the society. These under exploited vegetables are good sources of income

with minimum inputs and at the same time account for numerous medicinal

benefits. It may be hypothesized that the longevity of life in rural and forest

dwelling people are more as compared to the urban dwellers might be due to

the fact that daily physical work combined with these traditional foods intake

inherent with nutraceutical properties. In addition to food and nutritional

security, this is also likely to generate on-farm and off-farm transportation,

storage, processing marketing for more employment and income generation

leading to economic prosperity. In addition, they represent a rich heritage of

genetic material which is of global importance. If nurtured, these genetic assets

can play a critical role in building a robust, resilient, and economically vibrant

vegetable sector to sustain our vegetable led food and nutritional security

under climate change.


112

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Protected Cultivation of High-Value Vegetable Crops under Changing Climate Conditions

Y R Shukla


Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry Nauni 173230 Solan, Himachal Pradesh

Background:

Climate change is impacting crop production in Southeast and South Asia

through a number of ways, including high temperature, drought, typhoon

damage, flooding due to excessive rainfall, emerging pests and diseases, etc. It

also causes changes in the nutritional quality of many food crops. To cope with

these challenges, protected cultivation, wherein the microclimate surrounding

the plant body is controlled, is one of the options. Protected cultivation involves

the use of structures (greenhouses, net houses, screen houses, tunnels) or

protection (windbreaks, irrigation, mulches). In tropical and sub-tropical

climates, protected cultivation can permit fruit and vegetable cropping in areas

where field production is challenging due to extreme weather elements and

biotic and abiotic stresses caused by them.

Protected cultivation allows to grow crops where otherwise they could not

survive, prolong the harvest period, control pests and diseases with minimal

pesticide application, use water and fertilizers efficiently, increase yields,

improve quality, enhance the stability of production, and make commodities

available when they is no field production so to help farmers access to higher

off-season prices. Protected cultivation has spread rapidly over the last three

decades into relatively new areas all around the world. For example, the area

under protected cultivation in India is expected to rise at a compound annual

growth rate of 84% for the period from 2013 to 2017 (Ken Research 2013).

The aims of this training is to gather international expertise in the area of

protected cultivation to update the current status of various technological

components of protected cultivation of high-value crops such as designing of

structures for tropical and sub-tropical agro-climatic conditions; micro-

environmental control; and ideal modules on irrigation, integrated crop

management, and integrated pest management. Following these themes, the

workshop is to look at transition pathways and associated requirements


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towards establishing protected cultivation, and cooperation in the sector

to move towards market-based pricing in order to reflect improved products

and innovation.

By sharing their knowledge and experience, the workshop participants

will be able to sustain the competitiveness of the protected cultivation sector in

the tropical and sub-tropical climate areas and contribute to its further

development to the benefit of growers, consumers and the environment.

INTRODUCTION

India is a famous for its agro-climatic region. Its ranges from extreme

temperate to extreme tropical region between these sub-tropical parts exist

in our country. I mean to say that we have all the types of climate. That

result in free to grow the all types of crop with suitable climatic condition.

As far as vegetable is concern, we have diverse group of vegetable that could

be grown from extreme hot to extreme cold climate. The majority of

cultivation practices occur in the plain area, but there is vast scope for the

cultivation at the hilly regions. Statistics of horticultural crop area and

production, productivity stated that for the year 2013-14, production was

277,352 thousand MT with an area of 24,198 thousand ha. Out of these the

contribution from vegetable were 162,897 thousand MT and area of

cultivation were 9396 thousand ha (NHB, 2015). India is a leading country

in area and production after china in many crops in the world, but when we

talked about the leader in all crops, we see that we are far behind. Vegetable

production is much lower than the present requirement to feed the people of

India. The reason is predominantly use of years back technology and

cultivation practices is also traditional leading to low productivity. Also

there is lack of good management practices for the biotic and abiotic stress.

There are different ways to revive from this situation. Bringing additional

area under vegetable cultivation, use of hybrid seed and use of improved

agro-techniques are some of the important ways to increase the vegetable

production. Another approach is cultivation under protected environment.

Uncontrolled avail of harsh climate like high wind, hot and humid climate,

an extreme cool to extreme hot forces to the farmer and scientist to develop

a technology for cultivation of crops under prevailing adverse climate

condition.

The majority of hilly (part of northern plain) areas have full of fertile

land. Which is perfect for vegetable production, but facing extreme


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temperature ranges from 0–48 degree centigrate. Hence it is not possible the

year round production (Wani et al., 2011). At the plain area, during the pre

and post rainy season the crop become susceptible to biotic agent e.g.

Tomato, cauliflower, chilli, and okra. It has been found that the high

altitude of hills affected with extreme cold –5 to –30 degree centigrade

consequently difficult to grow vegetable during November to March.

Protected agriculture, which includes polyhouse, shade net, poly-

tunnel, polymulch, etc., protects the agricultural cropsfrom sudden changes

in weather and regulates the environment inside these structures.

Greenhouse/poly house/net house are suitable technology under this

diverse climate for year round and off season vegetable production. The

protected vegetables cultivation technology can be utilized production of

high value, low volume vegetables, crops production of virus free quality

seedlings, quality hybrid seed production and as a tool for disease

resistance breeding programs.

The need of protected cultivation since last 10 years has been

dramatically increased. The various cause are reduced weed pressure,

moisture conservation, reduction of certain insect pests, higher crop yields,

and more efficient use of soil nutrients.

Definition

Protective cultivation practices can be defined as cropping techniques

wherein the micro climate surrounding the plant body is controlled

partially/fully, as per the requirementof the plant species grown, during

their period of growth (Mishra et al., 2010). The various types of protective

cultivation practices have been adopting based upon the prevailing climatic

condition. Among them, greenhouse/polyhouse is extremely useful for

Round-the-year vegetable cultivation in temperate condition (Mishra et al.,

2010). Protected cultivation also known as controlled environment

agriculture (CEA) is highly productive, conservative of water and land and

also protective of the environment (Jensen, 2002).

Principles of Greenhouse Cultivation

The greenhouse cultivation based upon the principle called as

greenhouse effects. Actually, greenhouse is a structure made with the


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transparent covering material (polythene, glass), that, transmit the solar

energy inside the structure. This energy absorbed by the vegetable crops

and the objects inside the house releasing light of long wave length, finally

this light does not emit out as the cladding material is non-transparent for

these light. Finally the light gets trapped inside increasing the inside

temperature. This rise in temperature in greenhouse is responsible for

growing of vegetable in cold climate. However during summer increase in

temperature can be managed by ventilation and cooling system, as in this

period temperature rose beyond the critical temperature.

Why Protected Cultivation?

The open field production of vegetable encounter with many production

constrains like heavy rain, thunderstorms, excessive solar radiation,

temperatures and humidity levels above plant growth optima (Max et al.,

2009), high insect pest infestation pressure (Nguyen et al., 2009) and fungal

diseases (Sringarm et al., 2013). Environment is the most determinate

factor in horticultural crop (Trivedi and Singh, 2015). Protected cultivation

is being used to control the effect of environment effect. Protected

cultivation is the sustainable approach toward the vegetable production

under adverse climate. Besides, from protection to adverse climatic

condition, the vegetable under protected production yield high quality

vegetable in terms of shape, size and colors. (Sringarm et al., 2013). The

micro climate can be changed inside the poly house. Certain insect require

UV light their vision purpose, the UV opaque covering material for poly

house helps to restrict the insect to enter the house. Consequently, there is

minimum use of insecticide. The production of vegetable is higher than the

open field condition due to congenial inside microclimate and that provided

better price. The protected cultivation comprises different devices and

technologies namely windbreaks, irrigation soil mulches etc. and the

structures which are greenhouse, tunnel, row covers made the production

throughout the year by modifying the natural environment (Trivedi and

Singh, 2015). It will further prolong the harvest period, increase yield,

quality improvement, and keep the availability of commodities frequently.

Conventional Production and greenhouse production

It is the conventional production system, which is based upon the

control over the nature of root media through tillage, manure, fertilizer


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application and irrigation scheduling. It is not a matter of care about light,

temperature, air quality, relative humidity affect the crop production in the

open field condition. Greenhouse production can be used as one of the

solution for above parameters.

Classification Criteria of Crops for Protected Cultivation

A high value, short duration and small size vegetable crops are being

mostly suitable under protected cultivation. In India, especially in hill the

sweet pepper, tomato and cucumber are being raised. However the leafy

vegetables are also suitable for protected cultivation (Sabir and Singh,

2013). Cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, brinjal, capsicum, beans, pea, and

coriander can be successfully grown under protected conditions at high

altitudinal region.

Production System for Vegetable Crops under Protected Cultivation

Geoponics or soil system

In this system crops are grown in natural soil under protected

cultivation. It has some demerits such as more disease and inset incidence

in soil. Flood irrigation water cause high water table which reduce aeration,

there by root growth.

Soilless cultivation

In recent decades use of the soilless cultivation method has increased

significantly due to the use of methyl bromide as a soil disinfectant between

crop cycles is or will be banned soon. New types of substrates are increasing

in the same way with the objective of increasing yield and quality with

respect to the plants grown in the soil. Several types of substrates are used

as soil less media and it protect the crops from different soil infections like

coconut fiber, perlite, vermiculite, rock wool, peanut hulls, rice hulls and

coco peat etc.

Hydroponics

In this system plants are grown in nutrient and water solution without

soil. Terrestrial may be grown with their roots in the mineral solution only


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or in an inter medium, such as perlite or gravel.

Aeroponics

Plants are grown in troughs, tubes or other type of chambers and roots

are hung in air sprayed with nutrient mist. So, it easily absorbs nutrients

and oxygen. This technique has less chance of root diseases.

Temperature maintenance

The several crops can be grown in a wide range of temperature, but for

better growth and development individual crops requires a specific range of

temperature. It is possible under protected cultivation.

Climate control system

Production of vegetable crops during unfavorable climatic conditions,

such as high temperature, flooding, and strong winds suffered from

incidence of diseases high. It needs to control for the successful crop

production. Greenhouse production system is one of the most suitable

systems, most efficient mean to obtain high quality fresh vegetables for both

domestic and export markets. It is suitable in rainy and cold climate. Inside,

the house there is gradually increased in temperature due to heating effect

of high irradiation. Actually the incidence light get trap inside the

greenhouse and not escape out leading to temperature rise. Several

methods are available for cooling greenhouses like evaporative cooling,

shading and natural ventilation.

Water management

Water is the most important factor that affect the production system of

vegetable crops. It is not possible to grow the vegetable crop during the high

rainfall, as vegetable are succulent and tender in nature, high rainfall will

drops the quality of vegetable crops. To reduce the consequences of high

rainfall and high wind, the protected cultivation are the most suitable

technique. It will produce the high quality of vegetable throughout the year.

Pest and disease control

To control the insect pest inside the house, insect-proof screens have


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been used to cover the ventilation openings. By keeping away the vector

(insect), we could control the viral disease. Singh et al. (2015) observed, that

under the poly-houses and shade net house (35%), though the peat like the

aphid and white fly were able to enter the shade-net but not caused any

serious infestation.

Higher yield

Poly-houses (PHs) and shade-net houses SNHs (35%) were found fairly

useful to create favorable microclimate for plant growth and higher yield

and also for minimization of pest infestation.

Response of Individual Crops to Protected Cultivation

Tomato

Tomato requires a relatively cool, dry climate for high yield and premium

quality (Nicola et al., 2009). When the temperature falls below the 10 C, it

causes problem with the pollen bursting, while the higher temperature

causes premature fruit drops in tomato (Singh et al., 2015). Mostly the

lower in temperature affected the crop production as there is problem with

fertilization and less fruit yield. A thigh temperatures fruits are often badly

damaged or misshaped and not marketable, while the red varieties tend to

become more orange. These problems can be overcome with the maintained

of temperature in protected cultivation. The temperature when rises above

the 30 degree C, both the pollen grain and stigma may dry out, which

causes poor fruit set. (Nicola et al., 2009, Harel et al., 2014).

Coriander

Isaac S.R. (2015) revealed that coriander establishes and grow well with

higher biomass production in naturally ventilated polyhouse.

Cucumber

Cucumber production cultivated in PE bags using perlite, sand and

volcanic scoria as substrates was better than soil production (Bas, 1991).

Singh et al. (2007) that low-cost, naturally ventilated greenhouses were the

most suitable and economical for year-round cucumber cultivation on the

northern plains of India.


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Sweet pepper

It can be successfully grown under zero energy naturally ventilated

greenhouse condition.

Capsicum

Capsicum is a most extensively grown vegetable under green houses and

gives higher returns (Chandra et al., 2000).

Brinjal

With the development of parthenocarpic hybrids in brinjal, now it is

possible to grow it under the protected conditions (Kumar and Singh, 2015).

CONCLUSION

The protected cultivation of vegetable crops is an advantageous

technology for farming community because is cost effective technique.

Vegetables grown by this method is safe to consume due to less use of

chemicals. This technique also provides congenial environment to off season

cultivation as well as high and quality production. Therefore, increasing

demand of vegetables for growing population can be fulfilled by this

technology.


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REFERENCES

Bas, T. (1991). Possibilities of Using Different Organic and Inorganic

Materials for Greenhouse cucumber production. Phd Thesis. Ege Univ.,

Izmir.

Del Amor, F.M., Ortuño, G., Gómez, M.D., Vicente, F. and García, A.J.

(2007). Yield and fruit quality response of sweet pepper plants cultivated

in environmentally friendly substrates. Acta Hort. 761: 527-531.

Gyan P. Mishra, Narendra Singh, Hitesh Kumar, and ShashiBala Singh

(2010). Protected cultivation for Food and Nutritional Security at Ladakh.

Defence Science Journal. 61(2): 219-225.

Harel D, Fadida H., Alik S., Gantzand S. and Shilo K. (2014). The effect of

mean daily temperature and relative humidityon pollen, fruit set and

yield of tomato Grown in commercial protected cultivation. Agronomy. 4:

167-177.

Isaac S.R. (2015). Performance Evaluation of Leafy Vegetables in Naturally

Ventilated Polyhouses. IJRSAS. 1(3): 1-4.

Jensen M H. (2002). Controlled environment agriculture in deserts tropics

and temperate regions – A world review. Acta Hort. 578: 19–25.

Korawan S., Johannes F.J. Max, Suchart S., Wolfram S., Siriya K. and

Joachim M. (2013). Protected Cultivation of Tomato to Enhance Plant

Productivity and Reduce Pesticide Use. Conference on International

Research on Food Security, Natural Resource Management and Rural

Development. University of Hohenheim Tropentag Stuttgart. Germany. 17-

19.

Kouser P.W., Singh P.K., Amin A, Mushtaq F. and Dar Z.A. (2011). Protected

cultivation of tomato, capsicum and cucumber under Kashmir valley

conditions. Asian Journal of Science and Technology. 1(4): 056-061.

Kumar N. and Singh G. (2015). Protected Cultivation of Parthenocarpic

Brinjal (Solanum melongena L.). IJAIR. 4 (1): 2319-1473.

Max, J.F.J., Horst, W.J., Mutwiwa, U.N., Tantau, H.-J. (2009). Effects of

greenhouse cooling method on growth, fruit yield and quality of tomato

(Solanum lycopersicum L.) in a tropical climate. Sci. Hortic. 122(2): 179-

186.

Naika, S., Van Lidt de Jeude, J., de Goffau, M., Hilmi, M. and Van Dam, B.

(2005). Cultivation of tomato.Production, processing and marketing. In: B.

Van Dam (ed.), Digigrafi, Wageningen, The Netherlands.


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Naved S. and Singh B. (2013). Protected cultivation of vegetables in global

arena: A review. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 83 (2)

Nguyen, T.H.N., Borgemeister, C., Max, J., Poehling, H.M. (2009).

Manipulation of ultraviolet light affects immigration behaviour of

Ceratothripoidesclaratris (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). J. Econ. Entomol.

102(4): 1559-1566.

Singh J., Nangare D.D., Meena V.S., Bhushan Bharat, Bhatnagar P.R. and

Sabir Naved. (2015). Growth, quality and pest infestation in tomato under

protected cultivationin semi-arid region of Punjab. Indian J. Hort. 72(4):

518-522.

S. Nicola, G. Tibaldi and E. Fontana (2009). Tomato Production Systems

and Their Application to theTropics. Acta Horticulturae. 27-33.

Singh B., Kumar M. and Sirohi N.P.S. (2007). Protected cultivation of

cucurbits under low-cost protected structure: a sustainable technology

for peri-urban areas of northern India. Acta Horticulturae. 731: 267–272.

Trivedi, A.K. and Singh, V.K. (2015). Potential for improving quality

production of temperate horticulture crops under protected cultivational

national workshop cum seminar on emerging prospects of protected

cultivation in horticultrural crops under changing climate. Precision

farming development center. Lucknow.

Tyagi S., Nanher. A.H., Nishad S.K., Nandan B., Kumar V., Bhamini K. and

Shamim S.A. (2015). Protected cultivation for peri-urban areas: An

investment for 21st century. Rashtriya Krishi. 10 (1):75-76.


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Impacts of Climate Change/Variability on

Phenology of Vegetable Crops: Adaptation and

Mitigation Strategy

Satish Kumar Bhardwaj

Department of Environmental Science

Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry,

Nauni- 173230 Solan (HP)

Climate change has come upon us in relatively short space of time and is

accelerating with alarming speed. It is perhaps the most serious problem that

the civilized world has had to face. The earth‟s climate is in a continuous state

of change. It has always changed in response to changes in the cryosphere,

hydrosphere, biosphere, and other atmosphere and interacting factors. It is

widely accepted that human activities are now increasingly influencing changes

in the global climate. Changes in the basic components that influence the state

of the Earth‟s climatic system can occur externally (from extra-terrestrial

system) or internally (from oceans, atmosphere, and land systems). For

example, an external change may involve a variation in the sun‟s output which

would externally vary the amount of solar radiation received by the Earth‟s

atmosphere and surface. Internal variations in the Earth‟s climatic system may

be caused by changes in the concentrations of atmospheric gases, mountain

building, volcanic activity, and changes in surface of atmospheric albedo.

These forces will continue to have a major influence on our future climate.

Climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean

state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period

typically decades or longer whereas climate variability is the change in the

average state and other aspects of the climate over space and time beyond that

of the individual weather events.

Changes in climate have already started affecting biological systems

worldwide (Walther et al., 2002). Significant upward shift of plant species have

already been reported from many parts of the globe due to warming (Cannone

et al., 2007; Kelly and Goulden 2008). Several studies have detected effects of

climate change on changes in species distribution, the storage of carbon in

plants and soils, and the timing of life history or phenological events. All these

factors are known to play a role, alone or in combination in triggering

phenological, and a plethora of other changes such as fluctuations in pollinator


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population, seed dispersal agents, predators and competitors. The flowering

and fruiting at the wrong time, in advance or after the appropriate seasons,

may lead to failure in finding mates, failure to match demands of growing

offspring with temporal peaks in food resources, or failure by a pollinator to

find pollen and nectar, or a flower to be pollinated. Scientists believe that even

with global warming of 1-2˚ C, most ecosystems and landscapes will be

impacted through changes in species composition, productivity and

biodiversity.

Study of phenology has thus expanded beyond its practical origin- from

documenting nature‟s patterns, to most recently for understanding the

ecological consequence of climate change. Moreover, the phenological

responses of plants, particularly the early flowering ones, are considered

among the prominent biological indicators of climate change. The ability of

organism to match their phenology to the changes in climate strongly

influences individual fitness, species distributions, interspecific interactions,

species invasions and ecosystem functions.

Extent of Climate Change

The IPCC has been publishing periodic assessment reports on

atmospheric carbon concentration and its likely impact on the environment.

According to this International scientific body the CO2 concentration has

increased from a value of about 280 ppm during pre-industrial era to 405.0

ppm in 2017. Similarly, the global atmospheric concentration of methane and

nitrous oxides and other important GHGs, has also increased considerably.

Global average sea level rose by, 0.19m at an average rate of 1.7mm/year over

the period 1901 to 2010. The IPCC has projected a temperature increase by

0.85°C over the period 1880 to 2012. The increase of global mean surface

temperature by the end of the 21st century (2081–2100) relative to 1986–2005

is likely to be 0.3°C to 1.7°C (IPCC 2014). Climate change is projected to

increase the global temperatures, cause variations in rainfall, increase the

frequency of extreme events such as heat, cold waves, frost days, droughts,

floods, etc with immense impact on agriculture sector. Climate change is

threatening food security globally. However, countries like India are more

vulnerable in view of the tropical climate and poor coping capacity of the small

and marginal farmers. Climate change is projected to have significant impacts

on agriculture through direct and indirect effects on crops, soils, livestock and

pests.


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Plant Responses to Rising CO2

In climate change impact studies CO2 concentration is important as it is

the principal driver of climate change but at the same time it also enhances the

plant growth. Plants with C3 photosynthetic metabolism benefit due to

increase in atmospheric CO2 concentrations and will be able to accumulate

more biomass. Increases in atmospheric CO2 concentration affect how plants

photosynthesise, resulting in increases in plant water use efficiency, enhanced

photosynthetic capacity and increased growth. Increased CO2 has been

implicated in „vegetation thickening‟ which affects plant community structure

and function. Controlled environment studies indicated that elevated CO2 at

550 ppm improved the bulb size and yield of onion. Tomato plants grown at

550 ppm CO2 environment produced 24% more fruits. Elevated CO2 is

reported not only to improve the yield but also alters the quality of the produce.

The quality (carotene, starch and glucose content) and tuber yield of sweet

potatoes increased in elevated CO2 conditions. Increased CO2 can also lead to

increased Carbon: Nitrogen ratios in the leaves of plants or in other aspects of

leaf chemistry, possibly changing herbivore nutrition.

Long term exposure to elevated CO2 leads to a variety of accumulation effects,

which include changes in the photosynthetic biochemistry, stomatal physiology

and alterations in the morphology, anatomy, branching, tillering, biomass and

timing of developments events as well life cycle completion. A greater number of

mesophyll cells and chloroplasts have been reported for plants grown under

elevated CO2. With respect to leaf photosynthetic physiology and biochemistry,

accumulation occurs ranging from species specific changes in the

accumulation rate vs. intercellular CO2 curves to alterations in dark respiration

and biochemical components with Rubisco playing the leading role

Effects of Temperature

Increases in temperature raise the rate of many physiological processes

such as photosynthesis in plants, to an upper limit. Extreme temperatures can

be harmful when beyond the physiological limits of a plant. Even though

elevated CO2 will cause positive impacts, these may be nullified by increased

temperature and less water availability resulting decreased production under

the current level of management.


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Weather conditions during flowering and pollination and subsequent

fruit growth determine the production quantity and quality. It has been

reported that the increased temperature beyond optimum range caused

delayed curd initiation in cauliflower. Temperature above 300C induced

maximum flower and fruit drop and high temperatures after pollen release

decreased fruit set and fruit yield in tomato. Temperature above 400C reduced

the bulb size in onion.

The limiting effect of high temperatures on crop production takes two

principal forms; limitation of vegetative growth and adverse effects on fruit

settings. Vegetable crops subject to very high transpiration losses are obviously

limited by the excessive transpiration concurrent with exposure to extremely

high temperatures. The obvious limitation imposed by low temperature is

killing of plant tissues by freezing. Most plant tissues can be destroyed by

freezing temperatures suddenly imposed during a period of rapid growth. Some

plants, given sufficient time under suitable conditions, can adapt themselves to

freezing temperature, and some cannot.

Effects of Water

In some areas rainfall has increased in the last century, while some

areas have dried. As water supply is critical for plant growth, it plays a key role

in determining the distribution of plants. Changes in precipitation are

predicted to be less consistent than for temperature and more variable between

regions, with predictions for some areas to become much wetter, and some

much drier. Unprecedented changes in the rainfall pattern leading to drought

like situation in some areas could have serious implications on crop production

in general and in small and marginal farms in particular.

Impact of Climate Change on Phenological Responses of Vegetable crops

Phenology is broadly defined as the timing of annually recurrent

biological events The phenological responses of plants, particularly the early

flowering ones, are considered among the prominent biological indicators of

climate change. In this respect, various studies from different parts of the

world have provided convincing evidences. The resilience of species and

ecosystems to climate change will depend on the capacity of organisms to shift

their phenology to track changes in climate. For example, in many temperate

regions crops will need to initiate growth earlier in the year to match their


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periods of growth and favourable climatic conditions as the reduction of frost

risk, onset of warm temperatures and depletion of soil moisture all occur

earlier. But how well trees will track these changes in climate remains an open

question. Studies of responses to recent climate change have found that growth

initiation is occurring earlier in the year on average, but there are many

examples of species not responding or even initiating growth later.

Furthermore, phenological responses to the relatively small changes in climate

over the past several decades might differ from responses to the larger changes

expected for the future, due to nonlinear relationship between climate and

phenology. Predicting phenological responses to climate change is complicated

by the contrasting effects of warming on the timing of growth initiation in trees

and other plants. The courses of phenological phases play an important role in

the shaping of yield quantity and quality. The length of the development stages

is important for the proper formation of both vegetative and reproductive

organs.

The main meteorological factor affecting the rate of plant development is

air temperature. Since the mid-20th century significant changes in temperature

values have been observed in the growing season of crop plants. The

relationship between temperature change and changes in the phenology of crop

plants has been researched. The studies on the field cultivation of vegetable

plants, however, are relatively rare. The optimum growth temperature is within

a range of 22-27˚C during the day and 16-18˚C at night, and is below 10-12 ˚C

constitute the so-called development maximum and minimum. Reduction in

yield is already observed when the temperature exceeds 25 ˚C. Tomato is

sensitive to the cold (0-5 ˚C) and frost. When temperature drop below 0 ˚C, the

plants freeze and die. For this crop at least a 4-months frost-free duration

period is needed.The study conducted in Europe indicated that an increase, by

0.3 ˚C/10 years, in average air temperature in the growing season of tomato

(May- October), contributed to the changes of not only the dates of phenological

phases and development stages but also to the agro technical dates of the

plants. An increase, by 1 ˚C, in the average air temperature during the periods

which significantly affect the dates of tomato caused acceleration of: the

beginning of flowering by 1.8 days, the beginning of fruit-setting by 2.2 days,

the beginning of harvesting by 3.1 days and delay of the end of harvesting by

2.1 days.

Phenological changes have been observed in many groups of wild and

ornamental plants (herbs, grasses, tree) as well as in agricultural crops, and


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have been reported from different latitudinal and climatic zones. It is well

known that responses of individual organisms to changes in ambient

temperature will affect interactions with other organisms in the same or

different trophic levels which in turn can impact the ecology and (co-) evolution

of pests and their host plants. However, to understand interactions between

herbivorous insects and plants, detailed knowledge from long-term series are

necessary and is crucial to successful management of farming systems against

pests under future climatic changes. Increasing temperatures have been

associated recently with a shorter development period, a higher numbers of

generations, and a faster reproduction rate in many herbivorous pests. While

studying phenology of potato and associated pests noticed that the planting,

leafing, flowering and harvest dates were advanced after controlling for different

cultivars, by 2.00,3.04, 3.80 and 3.42 days, respectively, for every 10C increase

in temperature. In contrast, first treatment against Colorado potato beetle

advanced by 4.66 days for every 10C increase in temperature. The study

inferred that the beetle responds faster to increasing temperature than the

plant does, but both parts of system may be modified by farming practices.

Management of potato cultivation should therefore consider changing growing

conditions, temperature and rainfall. Management can be improved, for

example through proper selection of cultivars, irrigation and modifying the

planting dates. Cultivars with a shorter period of development can be less

vulnerable to Colorado potato beetle because the pest‟s appearance and activity

are strongly correlated with photoperiod and temperature.

The study conducted in mid-hills of HP iindicated that the date of sowing

played a very important role in determining the arrival of different phenological

stages as well as pod and grain yield in different pea cultivars. The timely sown

crop took higher number of days and thermal times as compared to delayed

sown for attaining different phenophases and physiological maturity. Timely

sown crop gave better yield both in respect of pod and grain. The study

suggested that the pea crop must be sown before 1st December for getting crop

growth and yields and better utilization of thermal times. The accumulated

number of days and growing degree day (GDD) taken for three pea cultivar for

attaining five major phenophases (Table 1). The highest number of days and

GDD were taken to attain the growth stage from first node to flowering by

commonly grown cultivars of pea. In mid hills, the cultivar Azad P-1 required

113 days and 869.55 GDD, cultivar PB-89 required 115 days & 895 GDD and

ESP-111 required 121 days & 978.8 GDD, respectively for maturity.


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Table1: Accumulated days and GDD taken to attain different phenological

stages of pea cultivars

Phenophases Crop Cultivars

Azad P-1 PB-89 ESP-11

Days AGDD Days AGDD Days AGDD

Emergence 12 90.80 12 90.80 14 103.75

First Node 25 191.70 26 198.25 27 205.45

Flowering 76 491.20 77 499.65 80 523.70

Pod

Formation

94 660.64 96 678.50 103 758.50

Maturity 113 869.55 115 895.05 121 978.80

Growing Degree Day Model for Predicting Crop Phenology:

Growing degree days (GDD) can be useful agro climatic indicator,

because the model can translate complex climatic trend and projections into

meaningful agricultural indicator for producers.

A growing degree day model is a mathematical model to accumulate daily

heat units with variations and combination of base and upper temperature cut

off limits to predict growth stages for crop. These base and cutoff temperature

limits, as well as methods to calculate daily GDD, vary considerable with

respect to different crops. The GDD models have been based worldwide for

predicting phonological stages of crops. It can provide helpful prediction of time

to maturity and length of total growing seasons. The ability to predict maturity

and identifying trends over the future could assist in many important strategic

management decisions such as labor management and long-term water

management based on the length of the growing season trend and GDD

accumulations.

Growing degree days for different phonological stages are generally

calculated by summation of daily mean temperature above base temperature

(5oC) for a corresponding period from emergence to maturity.

Where,

Tmax = Daily maximum temperature (°C)

Tmin = Daily minimum temperature (°C)

Tbase = Minimum threshold/base temperature taken as 5oC

for pea crop


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Helio-thermal unit (HTU)

Helio-thermal unit at different phenological stages is calculated by using

the formula

HTU = GDD × BSS (o C day hr)

Where, BSS are Bright Sunshine hours

Photothermal unit (PTU)

Photo-thermal unit at different phenological stages is calculated by using

the formula

PTU = GDD × DL (°C day hr)

Where, DL is the maximum possible day length hours at the experimental site

Hydrothermal unit (HYTU)

Hydro-thermal unit at different phenological stages is calculated by using

the formula

HYTU = GDD × RH (0C day)

Where, RH is the daily mean relative humidity (%)

Pheno-thermal index (PTI)

PTI =

(0C day day-1)

General Effects of Climate Change

Variables of the environment do not act in isolation, but also in

combination with one other, and with other pressures such as habitat

degradation and loss or the introduction of exotic species. It is suggested that

these other drivers of biodiversity change will act in synergy with climate

change to increase the pressure on native species to survive.

Changes in Distributions of Plants

If climatic factors such as precipitation and temperature change in a

region beyond the tolerance of a species phenotypic plasticity, then distribution

changes of the species may be inevitable (Lynch and Lande 1993). There is

already strong evidence that plant species are shifting their ranges in altitude

and latitude as a response to changing regional climates (Walther et al. 2002).

When compared to the reported past migration rates of plant species, the rapid

pace of current change has the potential to not only alter species distributions,

but also render many species as unable to follow the climate to which they are

adapted. The environmental conditions required by some species, such as


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those in alpine regions may disappear altogether. The result of these changes is

likely to be a rapid increase in extinction risk (Thomas et al. 2004). Changes in

the suitability of a habitat for a species drive distributional changes by not only

changing the area that a species can physiologically tolerate, but how

effectively it can compete with other plants within this area. Changes in

community composition are therefore also an expected product of climate

change.

Indirect Impacts of Climate Change

All species are likely to be not only directly impacted by the changes in

environmental conditions, but also indirectly through their interactions with

other species. While direct impacts may be easier to predict and conceptualise,

it is likely that indirect impacts are be equally important in determining the

response of plants to climate change. A species whose distribution changes as

a direct result of climate change may „invade‟ the range of another species for

example, introducing a new competitive relationship. The range of symbiotic

fungi associated with plant roots may directly change as a result of altered

climate, resulting a change in the plants distribution. Species respond in very

different ways to climate change. Variation in the distribution, phenology and

abundance of species will lead to inevitable changes in the relative abundance

of species and their interactions. These changes will flow on to affect the

structure and function of ecosystems (Walther et al. 2002).

A pathogen or parasite may change its interactions with a plant, such as

a pathogenic fungus becoming more common in an area where rainfall

increases. Under the changing climate situations existing fungal pathogen,

bacteria, viruses may cause more damage. Some of the minor pests may

become major pests in future. Advancement in appearance of aphids by two

weeks with increase in 10C temperature reduced growing period for seed potato

crop. There are innumerable examples of how climate change could indirectly

affect plant species, most of which will be extremely difficult to predict.

Impact of Climate Change on Horticultural crops

In India horticulture is the major component of agriculture and is no

exemption from the threat of climate change impacts. Indian horticulture is

highly diverse and contributes about 30% to national agricultural GDP. This

sector contributes substantially to the earning from total agricultural exports.

It plays an important role in providing sustainable farm income, nutritional


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security, diversification and import revenues. Horticultural crops also play

important role in ecologically sensitive hilly, rainfed and dry land areas.

Increased purchasing power is causing demand for quality food products

mainly from horticultural crops.

Vegetables are an important component of human diet as they are the

only source of nutrients, vitamins and minerals. They are also good

remunerative to the farmer as they fetch higher price in the market. Likewise,

other crops, they are also being hit by the consequences of climate change

such as global warming, changes in seasonal and monsoon pattern and biotic

and abiotic factors. Under changing climatic situations crop failures, shortage

of yields, reduction in quality and increasing pest and disease problems are

common and they render the vegetable cultivation unprofitable. As many

physiological processes and enzymatic activities are temperature dependent,

they are going to be largely effected. Drought and salinity are the two important

consequences of increase in temperature worsening vegetable cultivation. The

effects of climate change also influence the pest and disease occurrences, host-

pathogen interactions, distribution and ecology of insects, time of appearance,

migration to new places and their overwintering capacity, there by becoming

major setback to vegetable cultivation. Potato, among the all vegetables, is

most vulnerable to climate change due to its exact climatic requirement for

various physiological processes.

Adaptation to Climate Change

There have been several technologies which are already available and can

be useful for reducing the impact of climate change. Development of adverse

climate tolerant varieties may take more time but already known agronomic

adaptations, crop management and input management practices can be used

to reduce the climate related negative impacts on crop growth and production.

Some of simple but effective adaptations strategies include change in the

sowing date, use of efficient technologies like drip irrigation, soil and moisture

conservations measures, fertilizers management through fertigation, change of

crop/alternate crop, increase in input efficiency, pre and post harvest

management of economic produce can not only minimize the losses but also

increase the positive impacts of climate change. There is a lot of a scope to

improve the institutional support systems such as weather based agro-

advisory. Input delivery system, development of new land use patterns,

community storage facilities for perishable produce of vegetable crops,


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community based natural resource conservation, training farmer for adopting

appropriate technology to reduce the climate related stress on crops etc. All

these measures can make the horticultural farmer more resilient to climate

change.

Research Thrusts

There is a need to conduct focused research to generate information on

impacts of climate change and derive adaptation and mitigation options. Some

of the researchable issues include:

• Sensitive stages of crops to weather aberrations

• Biotechnological approaches for multiple stress tolerance

• Monitoring the phenology of crops to changing climates

• Quantification of impacts of elevated temperature and CO2 on growth,

development, yield and quality of horticultural crops

• Development of suitable agronomic adaptation measures for reducing the

adverse climate related production losses

• Development of crop simulation models for crops for enabling regional

impact, adaptation and vulnerability analysis

• Identification and refinement of indigenous technological knowledge to

meet the challenges of weather related aberrations

• Quantification of carbon sequestration potential of perennial

horticultural systems

• Development of eco-friendly and water use efficient irrigation systems

• Development of eco-friendly and efficient fertilizer application systems

• Development of pre and post harvest produce storage systems which can

meet the challenges of climate related risks

• Recycling/usage of vegetable/horticultural biomass should be

emphasized

Capacity Building

There is an urgent need to train the researchers, extension personnel,

gardeners and farmers on climate change issues. Infrastructural development

also needs to be taken to make the Indian agriculture resilient to climate

change. More storage structures and training on making of value added

products can augment the farm income to make farmer more resilient to


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adverse situations. Training also needs to be provided on eco- friendly

adaptation technologies.

Conclusions

The climate change affects different aspects of crop plants such as

morphological and phenological as well as yield because plant growth and

development depend on species specific temperature ranges. The phenological

responses of plants, particularly the early flowering ones, are considered

among the prominent biological indicators of climate change. Currently, the

world agriculture especially the vegetable production is passing through a

difficult situation and faced with the challenge of food/nutritional security to

meet the requirement for ever growing population. We have to produce more

and more food from less and less land. The problem gets aggravated because of

the growing biotic and abiotic stresses and decline in the quality of

environment and along with the menace of increasing global warming. There is

an urgent need to focus attention on studying the impacts of climate change on

growth, development, yield and quality of crops. Therefore, development of

strategies to build up resilience against climate change affects have become

priority on national and international agencies. The focus should also be on

development of adaptation technologies and quantify the mitigation potential of

agricultural crops. Hi-tech horticulture is to be adopted in an intensive way.

Selection of plant species/cultivars is to be considered keeping in view the

effects of climate change. Development of new cultivars of crops tolerant to

high temperature, resistant to pests and diseases, short duration and

producing good yield under stress conditions, should be the main strategies to

meet this challenge.


137

References

Cannone N, Sgorbati S, Guglielmin M (2007). Unexpected impacts of climate

change on alpine vegetation. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment

5:360-364.

Kelly AE, Goulden ML (2008). Rapid shifts in plant distribution with recent

climate change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

105:11823-11826.

IPCC. 2014. Climate change 2014: Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and

Vulnerability. Summary for Policymakers. Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change.

Lynch M and Lande R. 1993. Evolution and extinction in response to

environmental change. In Huey, Raymond B.; Kareiva, Peter M.; Kingsolver,

Joel G. Biotic Interactions and Global Change. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer

Associates. pp. 234–250.

Parmesan C and Yohe G. 2003. A globally coherent fingerprint of climate

change impacts across natural systems. Nature 421 (6918): 37–42.

Thomas CD, Cameron A and Green RE. 2004. Extinction risk from climate

change. Nature 427 (6970): 145–148.

Walther GR, Post E and Convey P. 2002. Ecological responses to recent climate

change. Nature 416 (6879): 389–95.


138

Sustainable Solanaceous Vegetable Production under

Extreme Conditions

H Dev Sharma and Vipin Sharma



Nauni, Solan-173 230 (HP)

India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world

ranking next to China and accounts for about 15% of the world‟s vegetable

production. Vegetable being an effective alternate to protective food, have

become an essential component of human diet. Although there has been

spectacular increase in the vegetable production from 15 million tonnes during

1950 to 170 million tonnes during the current year, but we still need to

produce more vegetables to meet the minimum requirement of at least

providing 300 g of vegetables/day/captia. Developing countries like India

whose geographical parts comprises of mountainous regions like Himalayas,

central plateau region, northern plains, coastal regions, deltas etc. are

particularly vulnerable for climate change as little change in the climate

disturbs the whole ecology and in-turn the traditional pattern of vegetables

being grown in these regions. More erratic rainfall patterns and unpredictable

high temperature spells consequently reduce crop productivity. Vegetables are

generally sensitive to environmental extremes, and thus high temperatures and

limited soil moisture are the major causes of low yields and are further

magnified by climate change. Amongst the solanaceous vegetables are the most

remunerative crops which have ameliorated the economic conditions of the

farmers of Himachal Pradesh. tomato, capsicum, chilli and brinjal are the

most important vegetable crops of this family and their production technology

is discussed as under:

TOMATO

Tomato is one of the most popular vegetables grown in north western

Himalayas. In the mid hills of north western Himalayas it is usually grown

during the summer months when in the rest of the tropical parts of the country

the temperature shoots up very high making tomato cultivation difficult.

During this period tomato grown in the mid hills of north western Himalayas

fetches good price due to the offseason advantage in the adjoining plains where

this crop is in shortage during this period. Tomato thrives best between 10-


139

30°C and is neither tolerant to frost, nor to waterlogged condition. The

optimum range of temperature is 20-24°C, mean temperatures below 16°C and

above 27°C are not desirable. Soil which is well drained, fairly fertile, rich in

organic matter with a fair water holding capacity is ideal. The crop performs

well in soil having pH 6.0-7.0 and is moderately tolerant to acid soil (pH 5.5).

The changing climate due to global warming is effecting the offseason tomato

production in the hills. The temperature in the mid hills is increasing which in-

turn affecting the quality as well as the yield of tomato thereby putting a lot of

impact on the socio-economic life of the farmers living here, as majority of

farmers in mid hills of western Himalayas rely on tomato and fetch

remunerative returns from this crop.

Impact of changing climate on tomato production: Changing climate has, to

some extent changed the summer temperature in mid hills and it has increased

slightly in comparison to past decades, which has greatly affected the fruit

setting and flowering in tomato. The various factors like temperature (both day

and night), humidity, rainfall, light intensity etc greatly reduce the tomato yield

if they are not in normal range during the crop growing season (Abdulla and

Verkert, 1968). At higher temperature, the probability of floral abscission is

high after anthesis (Iwahori, 1967). High day and night temperatures above

32°C and 21°C, respectively, are reported as limiting factors for fruit-set due to

an impaired complex of physiological process in the pistil, which results in

floral or fruit abscission (Picken, 1984). High temperature associated with high

night temperature during summer affects fruit-set of tomatoes in the country.

Most of the regions in mid hills rely on monsoon for irrigation and only limited

areas have some irrigation facilities as a result due to erratic behaviour of the

climate the crop gets exposed to water logged and drought stress conditions.

The water logged conditions makes the crop more susceptible to various fungal

pathogens and insect pests whereas the drought conditions lead to impaired

plant growth and reduced yields. Thus due to changing climate and drift in

average temperature to higher side have made many areas at low altitude

marginal for successful off-season tomato cultivation during summer months.

Strategies for mitigating the effects of climate change for tomato

production

Development of improvised cultural practices: Climate change creates lot of

strain on natural resources like water by making the availability of water

uneven during the growing period as a result sometimes it is in plenty, while


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there are occasions when there is water drought conditions. The western

Himalayan region is also experiencing the erratic rains due to global climate

change as a result there is a need to employ improvised irrigation methods like

sprinkler and drip irrigation etc. which minimize the use of water and increase

the water use efficiency. The technology of growing tomatoes on raised beds

and use of improvised training system comprising of angle irons and iron wires

can help the crop to perform better during the rainy season as the off-season

crop is greatly affected by the water logging conditions during this particular

time of the year.

Development of climate resilient tomato varieties/ Hybrids: Climate

change leads to depression in yield of the various crops due to unfavourable

environmental conditions posed by it; tomato is no exception to the climate

change and its off-season cultivation is becoming difficult due to erratic

climatic conditions being faced during its growth period in the hills. Thus there

is need to develop new technologies and climate-resilient varieties/ hybrids of

tomato which are tolerant to heat, cold stress and resistant to water logged

conditions.

Use of plant growth regulators: Use of plant growth regulators in tomato has

been found beneficial for yield, quality, earliness, fruit setting under low and

high temperatures and to develop resistance to diseases like TLCV etc. Growth

regulators activate the root growth, increase fruit set and yield. They also effect

the physiological process, hasten maturity and help in getting better quality

fruits. Foliar application of GA at 10 ppm, NAA 1000 ppm, PCPA (Parachloro-

phenoxy acetic-acid) at 50 ppm, 2,4-D at 0.5 ppm or cytozyme at 1.25% is

reported to increase the fruit yield. Spraying of PCPA at 50 ppm, IAA 50 ppm or

Borax 1% gave better fruit set in higher temperature. The foliar application of

PCPA 50-100 ppm at the flowering stage increases the fruit set at low and high

temperatures.

Protected cultivation: Protected cultivation though costly can be adapted to

mitigate the climate change. Growing tomato in naturally ventilated polyhouse

with fan pad system and shading net is widely being used in mid hills of

Western Himalayas. Farmers are also getting subsidy for building of the

polyhouse for successful tomato cultivation. The climate inside polyhouse can

be regulated by cooling the polyhouse with fan pad system and by obstructing

the sun light with the help of shading nets for specific time during day. The

additional advantage of the polyhouse grown tomato is that the produce is of


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high quality and free from excessive pesticides as limited sprays are done in

polyhouse grown vegetables. Though fully climate controlled polyhouses can be

made which will make the year round cultivation of tomato feasible but the

cost of the construction and operation of such polyhouses is very high which

makes them un-economical therefore more emphasis is given only on the

cultivation of tomato in partial climate controlled naturally ventilated

polyhouses.

Use of grafting techniques: Grafting tomato on flood and disease-resistant

rootstock is a potential technology to overcome the abiotic and biotic problems.

This technology can be used for successful cultivation of tomato in adverse

climatic conditions. High yielding and heat-resistant tomato scions like Apollo

and CL-5915 and flood and bacterial wilt-resistant rootstocks like H-7996

(tomato) have been found to be superior. Provision of rain shelter to grafted

tomato increased the yield by 340% over grafted plants grown in open field.

Grafting and rain shelter significantly improved the yields of CL-5915 and

Apollo (Claritap et al., 2004).

CAPSICUM

Sweet pepper is botanically known as Capsicum annuum L. It belongs to

family Solanaceae. South America, especially Brazil is thought to be the

original home. It is grown in Central and South America, Peru, Bolivia, Costa

Rica, Mexico and in almost all European countries. In India, it is cultivated

commercially in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh and in some parts

of Uttar Pradesh. In Northern India it is also known as 'Simla Mirch' and is an

important crop grown expensively in mid hills of Himachal Pradesh for supply

to plains. Sweet pepper is rich in vitamin A and C. Fruits may be eaten cooked

or raw, sliced in salads.

Impact of changing climate on Capsicum production: Climate change will

impact capsicum in such a way that there is increase in pollination failures

under higher temperature during flowering. Floral abortion will occur under

higher temperature. Increased heat stress will adversely affect fruit size and

quality. Cultivars are currently not as adaptable to higher or more variable

temperatures as they were before. Increased incidence of physiological

disorders like blossom end rot and sun scald. Increase in incidence of insect

pests under higher temperature. Increased risk of spread and proliferation of

soil borne diseases like leaf blight and fruit rot, as a result of more intense

rainfall events coupled with warmer temperatures. An increasing incidence of


142

out of season and extreme rainfall events will affect the timing of cultural

practices and negative effects on yield and quality. Increasing temperatures will

impact greenhouse crop production, especially production in sub-tropical

regions, where summer temperature is high and restrict production to the

cooler months of the year. In temperate areas there will be less effect and

sowing time can be adjusted accordingly. More irrigational water will be

required because of higher evaporative demand.

Strategies for mitigating the effects of climate change for Capsicum

production: To cope up with the effects of climate change and also to increase

the yield and quality improvised production technology has to be followed.

Sowing dates of the crop can be adjusted according to changing temperature.

Selection of the cultivars which are more adaptable to a changing and variable

climate should be done. Crop should be grown under polyhouses to avoid

losses due to unfavourable climatic conditions like high temperature, heavy

rains, strong winds and hailstones etc. Integrated Pest and Disease

Management will be an important tool to be adapted. Mulching with different

materials will help in reducing the incidence of soil born diseases like leaf

blight and fruit rot. Suitable cultivars should be selected for growing under

changing temperature, resistant to insect-pests and diseases.

Climate: Sweet pepper is a warm season crop. It requires 250C day and 180C

night temperature for higher yield, fruit weight, length, girth, number of fruits

per plant and pericarp thickness. Fruit development is found to be adversely

affected at temperature of 37.80C or above. High temperature and low humidity

at the time of flowering increase the transpiration resulting in abscission of

buds, flowers and small fruits (Cochran, 1936). High night temperature has

found to be responsible for the higher capsaicin content (Ohta, 1962).

Soil: Sweet pepper can grow in almost all types of soil, but well drained clay

loam soil is considered as ideal. It can withstand acidic soils to some extent,

produced best when soil pH was 6-6.5. For commercial cultivation, leveled and

raised beds are found more suitable than sunken beds. On sandy loam soil,

crop can successfully be grown provided manuring is done heavily and the crop

is irrigated properly and timely.

Cultivars: The important cultivars are California Wonder, Solan Bharpur, Yolo

Wonder, King of North, Early Giant, World Beater, Chinese Giant, Arka Gaurav


143

and Arka Mohini. Important hybrids are Bharat, Indira, Hira, Solan Hybrid-1

and Solan Hybrid-2 etc.

Raising of seedlings and transplanting: Seedlings are first raised in the

nursery beds and then transplanted in the main fields. Raised nursery beds of

300 x 100 x 15-20 cm are prepared. Seeds should be sown in rows to get

healthy seedlings. Seed rate of 750-900 g/ha (OP varieties) and 200-250 g/ha

(hybrids) is required. The seeds should be covered with a layer of FYM or soil

manure mixture and irrigate everyday to maintain optimum soil moisture. In

hills the sowing time is March-April and in southern states October-November.

The seedlings having 4-5 leaves should be transplanted. The nursery beds

should be irrigated before lifting of seedlings. Transplanting is done in evening

hours followed by irrigation. The seedlings are transplanted in the field at 60 x

45 cm spacing.

Manures and fertilizers: Application of balanced dose of fertilizers is

necessary for proper growth and development of the plants. FYM 200-250

q/ha, CAN 400 kg , SSP 475 kg, MOP 90 kg per hectare is applied in capsicum

crop. Full dose of FYM, SSP, MOP and half dose of CAN should incorporated at

the time of field preparation and remaining dose of CAN is applied in two split

doses at one month interval after transplanting.

Irrigation: The first irrigation should be given just after transplanting. Later,

the field should be irrigated as and when required. Optimum soil moisture

should be maintained in the soil at the time of flowering, fruit set and fruit

development.

Weed control: Weeds can be removed manually by hand. Two weedings 30 and

60 days after planting are sufficient. Pre-plant incorporation of weedicides like

Fluchloralin @ 0.5-1.0 kg/ha and Alachlor @ 2.5 kg/ha can also be done to

control the weeds.

Harvesting and yield: The sweet pepper fruits are usually picked while they

are still green in colour, firm and crispy. Yield varies from 300-400 q/ha.

Capsicum production under greenhouse: Growing capsicum under

greenhouses is proving a very remunerative venture to growers as it fetches

maximum returns in the market. Coloured varieties of sweet pepper like red

and yellow are being grown by the farmers and sold in the markets at distant


144

places. In mid hills of Himachal Pradesh, two crops of capsicum can be taken,

one spring summer crop (January to June) and another autumn winter crop

(July to December). In capsicum generally those varieties and hybrids are

grown which give maximum productivity with good shape and size of fruits and

suits to year round production. These cultivars should have longer harvest

duration. Indira (green), Orebelle (yellow), Bomby (red) are suitable varieties for

cultivation under polyhouse. To raise nursery, seeds are sown in well prepared

nursery beds or plastic trays having uniform growing media comprising of soil

and compost/ FYM. The seedlings are ready after 4-5 weeks for transplanting

depending upon the season of growing. The transplanting of seedlings after

their hardening is done in an existing greenhouse in the evenings for the better

establishment of plants in a growing media comprising of soil, FYM/ compost

and sand (2:1:1). Closer spacing of 45 x 30 cm is kept in polyhouse. Training

and pruning is an essential operation in greenhouse crops for better

management and providing uniform light to the plants. It also helps in efficient

utilization of resources and greenhouse environment by the crop. In capsicum,

two stem and four stem training systems are followed. Temperature between

18-270C and relative humidity ranging from 60-80 % with more CO2 (900-1200

ppm) is considered ideal for good quality fruit production. Irrigation is done

every day in summers and every third day in winters by drip irrigation. Before

transplanting, NP&K are incorporated in soil @ 50 kg/ha. Fertigation is done

using water soluble fertilizers like polyfeed @ 150 kg/ha (19:19:19) twice in a

week and is started from third week after transplanting up to 15 days before

last harvest. When fruits start attaining proper colour, firm and crispy may be

harvested. For long distance markets the fruits should be packed in good

containers to avoid any damage in transit and storage. Generally, harvesting

starts 55 days after transplanting in most of the varieties. A well managed crop

of bell pepper under greenhouse conditions is expected to give a yield of 10-13

kg/m2.

CHILLI

It is very important and indispensable item in every kitchen for its

pungency, spicy taste and appealing colour which it adds to the food. Its

demand in the pharmaceutical industries is increasing day by day on account

of its medicinal values. Pungent due to crystalline volatile alkaloid capsaicin,

located mainly in the placenta of fruit. It is a potential foreign exchange earning

crop, and rich source of vitamin A and C. Red colour of chilli fruit is due to

capsanthin which is used as natural colourant. Oleoresin extracted from chilli

is used in cosmetic products indicating its industrial importance.


145

Climate: Chilli requires a warm humid climate and can tolerate extreme

climate better than tomato, capsicum and brinjal. It is highly sensitive to frost.

The most ideal temperature for its better growth and development is 20-25oC.

Temperature 16-32oC is the most congenial for fruit set but maximum fruit set

occurs at 16-21oC. It is mostly grown as a rainfed crop in areas having

moderate rainfall having a range of 60-120 cm. Excessive rainfall results in

poor fruit set, rotting of fruits and defoliation of plant.

Soil: Chilli can be grown practically on all type of soils except on saline soils

provided the soil is well drained and well aerated. Sandy and sandy loam soils

are generally preferred for an early crop or where season is short. The soil

should be deep, fertile and well drained. It is not very sensitive to acidic soil. It

can be raised on the soil with a pH range of 5.8-6.5 for its better growth and

development.

Varieties: G-3, Pusa Jwala, Pusa Sadabahar, Bhagya Lakshmi (G-4), HC-28,

HC-44, Andhra Jyoti, Punjab Lal, Punjab Surkha, Punjab Guchhedar, NP-46A,

Pant-C-1, Sindhur, Pant-C-2, X-235 and Hybrids CH-1, CH-3, Arka Meghana,

Arka Harita, Arka Sweta, CCH-2, CCH-3.

Planting time:

In frost-free areas: 3 crops- i. Autumn-winter (Oct-Nov)

ii. Spring-summer (Jan-Feb)

iii Rainy season (June-July)

In South India: Mainly as Kharif season crop (June to October)

In HP: Nursery sowing &

transplanting time

Nursery

Sowing

Transplanting

Time

Low Hills 1. November (Poly-house)

2. February

3. May- June (rainfed areas)

1. Jan end or

Feb

2. March

3. June-July

Mid Hills March- May April- June

High Hills April April- May


146

Seedlings are ready for transplanting when they attain a height of 15 cm

with 4 leaves in 4-6 weeks. Transplanting is done on flat or raised (rainfall

prone areas) beds.

Soil preparation and transplanting: Soil should be thoroughly prepared by

ploughing 4-5 times before planting the seedlings. Farmyard manure or

compost should be applied and incorporated well in the soil. Transplanting

should be done during late afternoon.

Seed Rate: 500-1000 g/ha. Spacing: 45 × 45 cm or 60 × 45 cm

Manures and fertilizers: Apply FYM @ 250 q/ha, Nitrogen @ 75 kg/ha,

Phosphorus @ 60-75 kg/ha and Potassium @ 50 kg/ha. Full dose of farmyard

manure, phosphorus and potassium and half of N should be applied at the

time of transplanting. Remaining N should be top dressed in two equal parts at

an interval of one month each.

Interculture and weed control: It is a space planted crop, hence scope of

weeds is more in initial stages. Two hand weedings at 20 and 40 days after

transplanting are essential. Among herbicides, application of Alachlor (Lasso) @

2 kg a.i./ha (4 litres/ha in 750 litres of water) or Pendimethalin (Stomp) @ 1.2

kg a.i./ha (4 litres/ha) can be used 24-48 hours before transplanting. These

herbicides can be used to control weeds in initial stages of plant growth while

hand weeding should be done in the later stages of plant growth alongwith top

dressing of fertilizers.

Irrigation: Chillies are grown mostly as rainfed crop though crop should be

irrigated when there is insufficient rainfall. A light irrigation is given during the

third day of transplanting and thereafter at weekly interval. Gap filling is done

during second irrigation after 10 days of transplanting. The most critical stages

for irrigation are blooming (flowering), fruit setting and development.

Use of growth hormones: Foliar application of NAA (50 ppm) at full bloom

stage can effectively control flower drop with an increase in yield. Treatment

with NAA at 20 ppm at first flower opening followed by two sprays at an

interval of 30 days is the most effective in increasing the yield, number of fruits

per plant, fruit size and contents of capsaicin, ascorbic acid, carbohydrate,

protein and fat of chilli. Planofix (10-20 ppm) as foliar spray at flowering stage

can reduce flower and fruit drop in chilli.


147

Harvesting and yield: The fully ripe fruits are picked at an interval of 1-2

weeks and harvesting continues for a period of about three months. Yield of

Green Chilli 200-300 q/ha and Dry 15-25 q/ha under irrigated conditions

whereas, Green Chilli 50-60 q/ha and Dry 5-10 q/ha under rainfed conditions.

Post harvest management: As soon as peppers are harvested they should be

hydro-cooled to remove field heat quickly. Due to the higher respiratory and

metabolic rates of immature fruits, a shorter shelf life can be expected. Peppers

should not be stored with ethylene releasing commodities. Waxing peppers

before shipping is a very common practice to reduce moisture loss and resist

bruising while in transit. The ripe chillies are dried under sun for 8-15 days,

while commercially it is dried at about 54.4oC in 2-3 days.

BRINJAL

Brinjal or eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is an important solanaceous

crop of sub tropics and tropics. The name brinjal is popular in Indian sub-

continents and is derived from Arabic and Sanskrit whereas the name eggplant

has been derived from the shape of the fruit of some varieties, which are white

and resemble in shape to chicken eggs. It is also called aubergine (French

word) in Europe. It is also popular in Egypt, France, Italy and United States. It

is grown extensively in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, China and Philippines. In

India, it is one of the most common, popular and principal vegetable crops

grown throughout the country except higher altitudes. It is a versatile crop

adapted to different agro-climatic regions and can be grown throughout the

year. It is perennial but grown commercially as an annual crop. A number of

cultivars are grown in India, consumer preference being dependent upon fruit

colour, size and shape.

Climate: It is a warm season crop, therefore susceptible to severe frost. Low

temperature during the cool season causes deformation of fruits. A long and

warm growing season is desirable for its successful production. Cool nights

and short summers are unsuited for satisfactory yield. A daily mean

temperature of 13-210C is most favourable for optimum growth and yield. Its

seed germinate well at 250C.

Soil and field preparation: It can be grown in all types of soils varying from

light sandy to heavy clay. Light soils are good for an early yield, while clay-loam

and silt-loam are well suited for higher yield. Loam and sandy loam soils are

best suited its cultivation. The soil should be fertile and well drained. Brinjal is


148

very hardy crop and can be grown even under adverse conditions like soil

having high pH. It has great adaptability, since the crop remain in the field for

a number of months. The soil should be thoroughly prepared by ploughing 4-5

times before transplanting the seedlings. Bulky organic manures like well

rotten cow dung or compost should be incorporated evenly in the soil.

Varieties: Brinjal varieties display a wide range of fruit shapes and colours,

ranging from oval or egg-shaped to long club-shaped; and from white, yellow,

green through degrees of purple pigmentation to almost black. Most of the

commercially important varieties have been selected from the long established

types of the tropical India and China. Long Vareities- Pusa Purple Long, Pusa

Purple Cluster, Azad Kranti, Arka Keshev, Arka Shirish, Pusa Hybrid-5;

Round Verities- Pusa Purple Round, Pant Rituraj, Punjab Bahar, Arka

Kusumaker, T-3 and Oval Varieties- Arka Navneet (F1), Pusa

Uttam, Dudhia, BH-2(F1).

Manure and fertilizers: Brinjal is a heavy feeder crop. Therefore a balance

application of manure and fertilizers is very important for its successful

production. Further being a long duration crop it requires a good amount of

manure and fertilizers. Well rotten farmyard manure or compost (200-250

q/ha) should be incorporated at the time of field preparation. The crop should

be supplemented with 100-120 kg nitrogen and 50-60 kg each of phosphorus

and potash. Hybrids require more amount of fertilizers. Full dose of

phosphorus and potash and half of N is applied at the time of final field

preparation before transplanting and the remaining quantity of N is applied in

2-3 splits after 30, 45 and 60 days after transplanting as top dressing.

Sowing time: The time of sowing and transplanting of seedlings vary according

to the agro-climatic regions. In the plains of Northern India, there are generally

two sowing seasons viz. June-July for autumn crop and November for the

spring-summer cropl. In South India, brinjal can be grown round the year, the

main sowing being done during July-August. In the hills, the seeds are sown in

March-April and seedlings are transplanted in May.

Seed rate: Pure line varieties 500-750 g/ha and hybrids 250 g/ha

Raising of nursery: Raised beds of 3 m length, 1 m wide and 0.15 m raised are

prepared. Add 10 kg/m2 well rotten FYM and 10 g/m2 of each NPK. Sow the

seeds 1 cm deep in rows 5 cm apart. Cover the seeds with the mixture of well


149

rotten manure and fine soil and press it well. Cover the beds with wheat husk

or clean dry grass. Do watering with fine rose-can in morning and evening.

Water stagnation in beds causes damping-off. Remove the wheat husk or dry

grass after the seeds have germinated. Germination of seeds and growth of

plants in nursery is slow because of low temperature during November-

January. The seedlings should be protected from cold winds and frost by

proper covering. The small low cost polyhouses may be used to raise the

seedling in the winters.

Transplanting: The seedlings are ready in 4-5 weeks for transplanting, when

they attained a height of 12-15 cm with 3-4 leaves. Harden the seedlings by

withholding irrigation. Uproot the seedlings carefully without injury to the

roots. Transplanting should be done during evening hours followed by

irrigation. Firmly press the soil around the seedlings. Spacing depends upon

the fertility status of soil, type of varieties and suitability of the season. In

general 60×60 cm spacing is kept for non-spreading type varieties and 75-

90×60-75 cm for spreading type varieties.

Irrigation: Irrigate the field as per the need of the crop. Timely irrigation is

quite essential for good growth, flowering, fruit setting and development of

fruits. Higher yield may be obtained at optimum moisture level and soil fertility

conditions. In plains irrigation should be applied every third to fourth day

during hot weather and every 7-12 days during winter. Irrigation is given before

top dressing if there is no rain. Brinjal field should be regularly irrigated to

keep the soil moist during frosty days.

Interculture and weed control: The weeds should be controlled as soon as

they seen, either by traditional method of hand weeding and hoeing or by

application of herbicides. Frequent shallow cultivation should be done at

regular intervals so as to keep the field free from weeds and to facilitate soil

aeration and proper root development. Gap filling should be done wherever

needed during evening hours followed by irrigation. Pre-plant soil incorporation

of Fluchloralin (1-1.5 kg/ha) and pre-planting surface spraying of Alachlor (1-

1.5 kg/ha) control the weeds of brinjal successfully.

Harvesting and yield: Brinjal fruits are harvested when they attain full size

and colour but before start of ripening. Tenderness, bright colour and glossy

appearance of fruit is the optimum stage of harvesting the fruits. When the


150

fruits look dull, it is an indication of maturity and loss of quality. The yield

varies from season to season, variety to variety and location to location.

However, in general 250-500 q/ha of healthy fruits can be obtained.

Reference

Abdulla AA and Verkerk K. 1968. Growth flowering and fruit-set of the tomato

at higher temperature. Neth. J. Agric. Sci. 16: 71-76.

Bose TK, Som MG and Kabir J. 1985. Vegetable Crops. Naya Prokash Calcutta.

Claritap Aganon, Lun G Mateo, Dennis Cacho, Anacleto Bala JR and Teotimom

Aganon. 2004. Philippine Journal of Crop Science. 27: 3-9.

Iwahori, 1967. Auxin of tomato fruit set at different stages of its development

with a special reference to high temperature injuries. Plant and Cell

Physiol. 8: 15-22.

Picken AJF. 1984. A Review of pollination and fruit set in the tomato

(Lycopersicon esculentum Mill). Journal of Horticultural Science. 55: 1-13.


151

Development of Climate Resilient Cucurbitaceous

Vegetables

Ramesh Kumar and Reena Kumari



Nauni-173 230 Solan (HP)

Importance of cucurbits:

Cucurbits are largest group of summer season vegetables. All the members

of this group belong to family Cucurbitaceae.

There is tremendous genetic diversity present within the family and consists

of 118 genera and 825 species and comprises of important vegetable crops

viz., cucumber, melons, squashes, pumpkins, Asiatic gourds etc.

They are an important component of human diet and rich source of

nutrients, vitamins and minerals. For poor farmers these crops are

important source of livelihood securities as they fetch higher price in the

market and provide good remunerative returns to them and can be grown in

varied agro climates ranged from temperate, tropical sub-tropical and arid

dessert conditions.

They are consumed in various forms i.e., salad (cucumber, gherkins, long

melon), sweet (ash gourd, pointed gourd), pickles (gherkins) and deserts

(melons). Cucurbits have been originated in old & new world and at least

seven genera in both the hemispheres.

Most of them are monoecious in nature and a few are dioecious. A number

of hermaphrodite and andromonoecious cultivars are also available in some

crops. The cultural requirements of all crops in this group are more or less

similar.

They are unique group of crop plants having special botanical features, their

production technologies recording the highest productivity under

sophisticated protected cultivation systems and their utilization includes

some significant nutritional and nutraceutical constituents, used in native

and traditional systems of Indian medicine and also of other Asiatic and

African countries, for human welfare.

Most of the members of family Cucurbitaceae contain cucurbitacin a bitter

glucoside. Though, this bitter principle is not poisonous but even its slight

presence affect the taste and quality.


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Impact of Climate Change on Cucurbits:

Likewise other crops, cucurbits are also being hit by the consequences of

climate change such as global warming, changes in seasonal and monsoon

pattern and biotic and abiotic factors. Climate change may be a change in the

mean of the various climatic parameters such as temperature, precipitation,

relative humidity and atmospheric gases composition etc. and in properties

over a longer period of time and a larger geographical area. It can also be

referred as any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability

or as a result of human activity. High temperature is due to the increased

amount of green house gases like CO2 and CH4 in atmosphere, which is

commonly known as global warming or green house effect. This temperature

increase will alter the timing and amount of rainfall, availability of water, wind

patterns and causes incidence of weather extremes, such as droughts, heat

waves, floods or storms, changes in ocean currents, acidification, forest fires

and hastens rate of ozone depletion. Increase in temperature will cause the

melting of polar ice, which in turn causes increase in sea level and protruding

of sea water into the coastal areas resulting in water logging and increased

salinity levels.

Recently, in the country production and quality of crops including cucurbits

is confronted with various biotic and abiotic stresses caused by the change

in global climatic conditions. The pressure of biotic stress is also likely to

increase due to climate change.

Wild relatives of cucurbits are also equally influenced by the rise in

temperature. It is feared that important species of many crops possessing

valuable gene pool will be on the verge of extinction in the near future.

The temperature in the hilly as well as in the plain regions of the country is

increasing rapidly due to global warming, which has resulted in poor yield

and reduced quality of cucurbits.

In general, the cucurbits those require hot temperatures to grow have faster

growth and better quality as the temperatures rise until it reaches the

growth inhibition limit (35°C).

Germination of cucumber and melon seeds is greatly suppressed at 42 and

45 °C, respectively besides germination will not occur at 42 °C in

watermelon, summer squash, winter squash and pumpkin seeds.

Low temperature (10-17 °C) delay seed germination and seedling emergence

and cause decrease in plant growth. Exposure of plant to low temperature

just prior to anthesis or during the may cause shift in sex expression.


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Pollination is a crucial stage in the reproduction of most flowering plants

including cucurbits crops and change in the climate (increase in

temperature) may be a vast threat to pollination services due to reduced

activity of pollinating agents.

Rise in the temperature during summer months has affected the sex

expression, flowering, and fruit setting can even cause early flower drop in

cucurbits. Moreover, exposure of cucumber plants to heat stress during

fruit development stage causes bitterness of fruits.

Long day length along with high temperature promotes maleness and

reduces the productivity by reducing female: male sex ratio.

Under continuous low light intensity plants become tall, thin and light green

in color. Excessive sunlight may result in negative net photosynthesis.

The temperature fluctuations delay the ripening of fruits and reduce the

sweetness in melons.

Blossom end rot: a physiological disorder of watermelon cause by high

temperature especially if combined with drought and high transpiration.

Activity and population of sucking pests such as aphids, white flies and

thrips increases with increase in temperature. These pests are the vectors of

various viral diseases of vegetable crops mainly cucurbits etc. causing

severe loss in yield of these crops.

Various other climatic factors like humidity, rainfall, light intensity etc. also

affect the normal growth and development in cucurbits if they are not

provided in optimum range during the growing season. Low moisture

content in the soil effects fruit quality and development in melons and

gourds.

High salt concentration causes a reduction in fresh and dry weight of all

cucurbits. These changes are associated with a decrease in relative water

content and total chlorophyll content.

Strategies for Adaptation to Climate Resilient Cucurbits

The adverse effects off future climatic alteration on cucurbits vegetable are

well known yet negligible attention has been paid to develop strategies for

overcoming this scenario. Available evidences indicate that inverse correlation

between yield of different cucurbits and climate is much more than that of

important field crops. The various strategies/techniques developed to overcome

the adverse effects of climate change on cucumber production have been given

here under:


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Breeding strategies for development of improved climate resilient

varieties/hybrids:

Due to changing climatic conditions, existing varieties of cucurbits are

becoming susceptible to various biotic and abiotic stresses. Hence, there is

an immense need to develop new varieties/hybrids of cucurbits which are

resistant/tolerant to high and low temperatures, water logging, soil salinity

etc. The main goal of research on cucurbits is to improve productivity on

sustainable basis through developing biotic and abiotic resistant

varieties/hybrids coupled with quality attributes. Improved germplasm is

the most cost-effective option for the farmers to meet the challenges of a

changing climate. Hence, in India, several research institutes and

universities have utilized a number of cultivated and wild species of

cucurbits to develop improved varieties/hybrids. While breeding for high

yields, we have been counter selecting genotypes that are fertilizer and

water responsive. Superior varieties adapted to a wider range of climatic

conditions could result from the discovery of novel genetic variation for

tolerance to different biotic and abiotic stresses. Genotypes with improved

attributes conditioned by superior combinations of alleles at multiple loci

could be identified and advanced. Improved selection techniques are need to

identify these superior genotypes and associated traits, especially from wild

and related species that grow in environments which do not support the

growth of improved high yielding varieties. Plant native to climates with

marked seasonality are able to acclimatize more easily to variable

environment conditions and provide opportunities to identify genes or gene

combination which confer such resilience.

Development of genotypes tolerant /resistant to diseases and insect-

pests:

Large gene pool is available in Cucurbitaceae family which can be

utilized for the development of pest tolerant/resistant varieties or elite breeding

lines in cucumber, musk melon, water melon, and other important

cucurbitaceous vegetable are given below


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Cucurbits genotypes resistance to various diseases

Crop Diseases Resistance source

Cucumber Powdery Mildew Poinsette, Cucumis ficifolia, C. anguria, Sparton

Salad, PI 197087

Cucumber Downy Mildew Chinese Long, Poinsette

Cucumber Anthracnose PI 197087, PI 175111

Muskemlon Powdery Mildew Edisto, PMR-45, PMR-450 , Arka Rajhans

Musk

melon

Gummy stem

blight

Line PI 140471

Watermelon PM, DM &

Anthracnose

Arka Manik

Development of genotypes tolerant/resistant to drought:

Plant resists water or drought stresses in many ways. In slowly

developing water deficit, plants may escape drought stress by shortening their

life cycle. However the oxidative stress of rapid dehydration is very damaging to

the photosynthetic process and the capacity for energy dissipation and

metabolic protection against reactive oxygen species is the key to survival

under drought conditions. Some Cucurbita species possess some xerophtyic

characters essential to adapt under water scarcity conditions. The gene pool

should be thoroughly studied to isolate drought tolerant lines in pumpkin and

squash. Drought stress is a major environmental factor influencing plant

growth and development. Citrullus colocynthis is highly drought tolerant

cucurbit species with a deep tap root system. Differences in gene expression

during drought were studied using cDNA-AFLP. Two gene, CcrbohD and

CcrbohF, encoding respiratory burst oxidase proteins were cloned using RACE.

RT-PCR analysis showed that expression of CcrbohD was rapidly and strongly

induced by abiotic stress imposed by PEG, ABA, SA and JA treatment.

Drought tolerant genotypes in different cucurbits

Crop Drought tolerant genotypes

Water melon Citrullus colocynthis (L.)

Cucumber INGR-98018 (AHC-13)

Winter

Squash

Cucurbita maxima

Cucumis spp Cucumis melo var. momordica VRSM- 58, INGR-98015 (AHS-10), INGR-

98016 (AHS-82), CU 159, CU 196, Cucumis pubescens, INGR-98013

(AHK-119), Cucumis melo var. callosus, AHK- 200, SKY/DR/RS-101,

Cucumis melo var. chat, Arya, Cucumis melo, SC- 15


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Development of genotypes tolerant/resistant to salinity:

Attempts to improve salt tolerance of crops through conventional breeding

program have very limited success due to the genetic and physiologic

complexity of this trait. In addition, a tolerance to saline conditions is a

developmentally regulated, stage specific phenomenon, tolerance at one stage

of development does not always co-relate with tolerance at other stages.

Success in breeding for salt tolerance requires effective screening methods,

existence of genetic variability and ability to transfer the genes to the species of

interest. Screening for salt tolerance in the field is not recommended practice

because of the variable levels of salinity in field soils. Screening should be done

in soil less culture with nutrient solution of known salt concentration.

1. Climate resilient management practices for enhancing cucurbits

production:

Various management practices have the potential to raise the yield of

cucurbits grown under hot and wet conditions. Several technologies have also

been developed to alleviate production challenges.

a. Agronomical adaptation:

Improved agronomic practices that reduce net GHG emissions, increase

yields and generate higher inputs of carbon residue leading to increased soil

carbon storage include using improved crop varieties, extending crop rotations,

notably those with perennial crops that allocate more carbon below ground,

avoiding or reducing use of bare fallow, adding more nutrients when deficit,

adopting cropping systems with reduced reliance on fertilizers, pesticides and

other inputs e.g., rotation with legumes, providing temporary vegetative cover

(catch/cover crops) between successive agricultural crops or between rows of

tree or vine crops which add carbon to soils and may also extract plant

available nitrogen unused by the preceding crop and hence reduce N2O

emission. Improved agronomic practices that increase yields and generate

higher inputs of carbon residue can lead to increased soil carbon storage.

i). Nutrient management: Practices that improve N use efficiency include:

adjusting application rates based on precise estimation of crop needs (e.g.,

precision farming); using slow or controlled release fertilizer forms or

nitrification inhibitors (which slow the microbial processes leading to N2O

formation); applying N when least susceptible to loss, often just prior to plant

uptake (improved timing); placing the N more precisely into the soil to make it


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more accessible to crops roots; or avoiding N applications in excess of

immediate plant requirements

ii). Tillage/residue management: Soil disturbances usually done for sowing,

planting, weed control, etc., tend to stimulate soil carbon losses through

enhanced decomposition and erosion. Advances in weed control methods and

farm machinery now allow crop production with minimal/zero tillage which,

most often, results into reduced CO2 and N2O emissions. Systems that retain

crop residues also tend to increase soil carbon because these residues are the

precursors for soil organic matter (main source of carbon store in soil).

Avoiding burning ofresidues also avoids emissions of aerosols and GHGs

generated from fire.

iii). Organic agriculture: mitigation of climate change: Organic agriculture

has a greater potentialfor mitigating climate change, largely due toits greater

ability in reducing emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) including

carbondioxide, nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4). It also increases carbon

sequestrationin soils compared with that of conventional agriculture. In

addition, many farming practices commonly adopted in organic agriculture

such as rotation with leguminous crops, minimum or no tillage and the return

of crop residues favour the reduction of GHGs and the enhancement of soil

carbon sequestration. Furthermore, organic agriculture is highly adaptable to

climate change compared with conventional agriculture.

iv). Strategy for water management: Since cucurbits contain a very high

amount of water and many cucurbits like cucumber, muskmelon, water melon

etc., are eaten raw, therefore use of quality water remains amajor concern. The

quality and efficiency of water management determine the yield and quality of

cucurbits products. The optimum frequency and amount of applied water is a

function of climatic and weather conditions, crop species, variety, stage of

growth and rooting characteristic, soil water retention capacity and texture,

irrigation system and management factors. Too much or too little water causes

abnormal plant growth, predisposes plants to infection by pathogens, and

causes nutritional disorders. If water is scarce and supplies are erratic or

variable, then timely irrigation and conservation of soil moisture reserves are

the most important agronomic interventions to maintain yields during drought

stress. There are several methods of applying irrigation water and the choice

depends on the crop, water supply, soil characteristics and topography.

Surface irrigation methods are utilized in more than 80 per cent of the worlds

irrigated lands, yet its field level application efficiency is often 40-50 per cent.


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To generate income and alleviate poverty of the small farmers, promotion of

affordable, small-scale drip irrigation technologies are essential.

iv). Mulching: Use of various crop management practices such as mulching

and the use of shelters and raised beds help to conserve soil moisture, prevent

soil degradation, and protect vegetables from heavy rains, high temperatures

and flooding. The use of organic and inorganic mulches is common in high-

value vegetable production systems. These protective coverings help reduce

evaporation, moderate the soil temperature and reduce soil run-off and

erosion. Protect fruits from direct contact with soil and minimize weed growth.

It can save 20-25 per cent of irrigation water. Use of organic materials as

mulch can help enhance soil fertility, structure and other soil properties.

Mulching improved the growth of bottle gourd, round melon, ridge gourd and

sponge gourd compared to the non-mulched controls under diverse climatic

conditions of India. In the low land tropics where temperatures are high, dark-

colored plasticmulch is recommended in combination with rice straw. Dark

plastic mulch prevents sunlight from reaching the soil surface and the rice

straw insulates the plastic from direct sunlight thereby preventing the soil

temperature rising too high during the day. Another form of shelter using

shade cloth can be used to reduce temperature stress. Shade shelters also

prevent damage from direct rain impact and intense sunlight. Planting

vegetables on raised beds can ameliorate the effects of flooding during the rainy

season. Additive effects on yield have also been observed when in addition to

raised beds, rain shelters were also used.

2. Protected cultivation:

Commercial production of cucurbits in cold desert of India is now possible

through protected cultivation. Sarda melon imported in large quantity in the

country can be produced easily in dry temperate regions of the country.

Production of off season (August and September) muskmelon, watermelon etc

in open fields has also become possible. An early crop of cucurbits like squash

and long melon can also be taken in poly houses. Keeping in view the abiotic

stresses in changing climate under open field, production technology of

cucumber has been developed and standardized for cultivation under two types

of protected structures namely, naturally ventilated greenhouse and insect-

proof net house. Protected structures can play important role to minimize the

impact of temperature fluctuation, over/under precipitation, fluctuating sun

shine hour and infestation of diseases and pest. Protected structures can play

important role to minimize the impact of climatic change effect. Farmers are


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gradually adopting different protected structures to combat the climatic

vagaries and emerging challenges in vegetable production. The yield of

cucumber in protected structures can be increased manifold as compared to

their open field cultivation. Moreover, production of cucumber in greenhouse or

net house has led to the minimum use of pesticides, which is not possible

under open field cultivation. The demand of fresh salad varieties of cucumber

is also increasing day by day and growing this crop under protected conditions

is becoming profitable proposition. Vegetable growers, for getting higher prices

from their off-season produce, often try to send their produce to the market

early in the season and also try to extend the growing season for selected

vegetable crops for the purpose of obtaining marketing advantage of their off-

season produce. Use of parthenocarpic varieties of cucurbits and cucumber in

particular has been developed and standardized for its cultivation under

naturally ventilated greenhouse conditions. Three crops of parthenocarpic

cucumber can be grown over duration of 10-11 months under naturally

ventilated greenhouse conditions with productivity ranging between 120-130

t/ha with very high quality fruits. This technology eliminates stresses due to

biotic and abiotic factors and the use of pesticides can be minimized. The

technology is highly remunerative for the growers of Jammu and Kashmir (up

to Jammu region), Himachal Pradesh (low hills and Plains), Punjab, Haryana,

Delhi, UP, Uttrakhand (low hills and Tarai region), NE states, West Bengal,

Maharashtra and Karnataka.

Besides this, plastic low tunnel technology provides a cheap and better way

for i) off-season cultivation of cucurbit production. Low tunnels also offer

several advantages like protection of the crop from adverse climate along with

crop advancement from 20-30 days over their normal season of cultivation. ii)

Healthy and early nursery raising can be obtained under low tunnels. Poly-

tunnel was the most used structure utilized for raising vegetable seedling

during rainy season. Seedling raising in pro-trays and crop production inside

agro-shade net also gaining popularity among the farmers. Although poly-

tunnel was the most adopted structure but the performance of poly-house was

emerged as best structure in field condition. iii) Plastic low tunnels provide the

best way for off- season cultivation of cucumber during winter season by

modifying the micro climate around the plants. Low tunnels also offer several

advantages like protection of the crop from frost, hails, and crop advancement

from 30-40 days over their normal season of cultivation. This low cost

technology for off season cultivation of cucumber is highly suitable and may be

quite cost effective for the growers in northern parts of the country, where the


160

night temperature during winter season goes below 8oC for a period of 30-40

days. This technology has been developed for off-season cultivation of

cucumber for taking full advantage of the prevailing high market prices of the

offseason produce.

3. Improved pest management

Changes in temperature and variability in rainfall would affect incidence

of pests and disease and virulence of major crops. It is because climate change

will potentially affect the pest/weed-host relationship by affecting the

pest/weed population, the host population and the pest/weed-host

interactions. Some of the potential adaptation strategies could be: i) develop

cultivars resistant to pests and diseases. ii) Adoption of integrated pest

management with more emphasis on biological control a changes in cultural

practices. iii) Use of pest forecasting recent tools such as simulation modeling.

iv) To develop alternative production techniques and crops, as well as

locations, that is resistant to infestations and other risks. v) Management of

pests and diseases with use of resistant varieties and breeds, alternative

natural pesticides, bacterial and viral pesticides, pheromones for disrupting

pest reproduction, etc. could be adopted for sustainability of agricultural

production process. vi)Bio agents have a crucial role in pest management,

hence practices to promote natural enemies like release of predators and

parasites; improving the habitat for naturalenemies; facilitating beetle banks

andflowering strips; crop rotation and multiple cropping should be integrated

in pest management practices. Reduction in use of pesticides will also help in

reducing carbon emissions.

4. Use of grafting techniques for stress management

Grafting is the uniting of two living plant parts so that they grow as a

single plant. Grafting of susceptible plant (scion) on tolerant plant (rootstock)

helps to grow plant successfully under stress conditions, especially under salt

and drought stress conditions. Grafting has been used primarily to control soil-

borne diseases affecting the production of vegetables such as tomato, eggplant,

and cucurbits. In addition, grafted plants may have higher yields, improved

tolerance to environmental stresses such as high boron, soil salinity, and low

soil temperatures under changing climatic scenario. Cucumber can be grafted

on inter-specific squash and fig leaf gourd rootstocks. In Japan, cucumber

rootstock is often selected based on its influence on fruit quality, as certain


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rootstocks reduce the deposition of silicon over the fruit epidermis or bloom

and therefore improve the fruit quality. Rootstock efficacies are influenced by

compatibility to the selected scion, existing disease pressure, and climate

conditions. Hence, it is very important to test the selected candidate rootstocks

at a small scale before introducing the rootstock for larger scale. Some workers

reported that melons grafted onto hybrid squash rootstocks were more salt-

tolerant than the non-grafted melons. However, tolerance to salt by rootstocks

varies greatly among species, such that rootstocks from Cucurbita spp. are

more tolerant of salt than rootstocks from Lagenaria ciceraria and are also able

to tolerate low soil temperatures.

5. Use of biotechnological tools in stress management:

Use of molecular technologies has revolutionized the process of

traditional plant breeding. Combining of new knowledge from genomic research

with traditional breeding methods has enhanced our ability to improve crop

plants. The use of molecular markers as a selection tool provides the potential

for increasing the efficiency of breeding programmes by reducing environmental

variability, facilitating earlier selection, and reducing subsequent population

sizes for field testing. Molecular markers facilitate efficient introgression of

superior alleles from wild species into the breeding programmes and enable the

pyramiding of genes controlling quantitative traits; thus, enhancing and

accelerating the development of stress tolerant and higher-yielding cultivars for

farmers in developing countries. Only a few major QTLs account for the

majority of phenotypic variation, indicating the potential for marker-assisted

selection (MAS) for salt tolerance. Integration of QTL analysis with gene

discovery and modeling of genetic networks will facilitate a comprehensive

understanding of stress tolerance, permit the development of useful and

effective markers for marker-assisted selection, and identify candidate genes

for genetic engineering.

Conclusion

A holistic approach is required to over stress tolerance rather than a

single method. A systems approach, where all available options are considered

in an integrated manner, will be the most effective and ultimately the most

sustainable measure under a variable climate. For this to succeed, adequate

and long-term funding is necessary, scientific results have to be delivered, best

approaches utilized and effective methods sustained to deliver global public


162

goods for impact involving public and private sector together. To mitigate the

adverse impact of climatic change on productivity and quality of vegetable

crops there is need to develop sound adaptation strategies. The emphasis

should be on development of production systems for improved water use

efficiency adoptable to the hot and dry condition. The crop management

practices like mulching with crop residues and plastic mulches help in

conserving soil moisture. Excessive soil moisture due to heavy rain becomes

major problem which can be overcome by growing crops on raised beds.

Vegetable germplasm with tolerance to drought, high temperatures and other

environmental stresses, and ability to maintain yield in marginal soils must be

identified to serve as sources of these traits for both public and private

vegetable breeding programmes. Genetic populations are being developed to

introgress and identify genes conferring tolerance to stresses and at the same

time generate tools for gene isolation, characterization, and genetic

engineering. Finally, capacity building and education are the key components

of a sustainable adaptation strategy to climate change.

Suggested readings:

AVRDC (Asian Vegetable Research and Training Centre), 1990. Vegetable production

training manual. Shanhua, Taiwan, 447 Pp.

Spaldon S, Samnotra RK and Chopra Sandeep. 2015. Climate resilient technologies to

meet the challenges in vegetable production. International Journal of Current

Research and Academic Review 3(2): 28-47.

Prakash Shamrao Naik, Singh Major and Karmakar Pradip. 2013. Adaptation options

for sustainable production of Cucurbitaceous vegetable under climate change

situation In: Climate-Resilient Horticulture: Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies

pp137-146.

Kondinya Ayyogari, Palash Sidhya and Pandit MK. 2014. Impact of climate change on

vegetable cultivation - A Review. International Journal of Agriculture, Environment &

Biotechnology 7(1): 145-155.

Abewoy D. 2018 Review on impacts of climate change on vegetable production and its

management practices. Adv. Crop Sci. Tech. 6: 330. doi:10.4172/2329-

8863.1000330

Jasti Srivarsha, Jahagirdar JE, Dalvi VV. 2018. Vegetable breeding- A climate

resilience perspective. International Journal of Advanced Biological Research 8(3):

296-302.

Edelstein M. 2004. Grafting vegetable-crop plants: pros and cons. Acta Horticulturae

659 (1): 235-238.

Fageria MS, Chaudhary BR and Dhaka RS. 2003. Vegetable Crops Production

Technology, Vol. II. Kalyani Publishers: New Delhi. 283p.


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Climate Change: Vegetable Seed Production and


Devinder Kumar Mehta and Nair Sunil Appukuttan




Email: [email protected]

Introduction :

UNFCC defined climate change as a change of climate which is attributed

directly or indirectly to human activity or due to natural variability. Climate

change is seen in form of global warming through increase in earth‟s air

temperature, abrupt changes in precipitation and hydrological cycles. Since the

pre-industrial period (1850-1900) the observed mean land surface air

temperature has raised considerably more than the global mean surface (land

and ocean) temperature (fig 1). The climatic changes in form of heat waves,

melting of polar ice and other extreme events such as volcanic eruptions are

likely to influence agricultural production. Furthermore, compounded climate

factors may decrease plant productivity, resulting in price aggravation for many

important agricultural crops. The Paris agreement of the United Nations

Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) with 195 Signatories was

enacted on December 2015 and is to become fully effective by 2020. One of the

goals of the agreement is to stabilize the increase of the global average

temperature to a level below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and pursuing

efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels,

with an aim to significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change

(UNFCCC 2019). Besides temperature, climate change is expected to increase

the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, which will trigger crises

that threaten the immediate food security of large populations. At biotic levels,

the abrupt climatic changes may interfere with the soil fertility status, insect-

pest occurrence, host-pathogen interactions, soil microbial population and

behaviour of the pollinators. Climate change may reduce production and

productivity due to genetic erosion thus leading to chaos as result of

diminishing food reserve for the future generations. Besides cereals and pulses,

horticultural crops including vegetable crops contribute to the food security of

our country.



164

Cultivation of vegetable crops is imminent as they are source of protective

food through supply of vitamins and minerals. India is the 2nd largest

producer of vegetables after China in the world. It produces 178.38 million

tonnes of vegetables from an area of 10.38 million hectares. However vegetable

crop production is temperature sensitive as the aberrations in the daily mean

maximum and minimum temperature plays a key role in it as many plant

physiological, bio-chemical and metabolic activities are temperature dependent

(Ayyogari et al., 2014). Moreover irregular precipitation has been reported to

decrease vegetable yield by affecting the vegetative and reproductive growth

stages (Afroza et al., 2010). To encounter the challenges in the domestic market

as well as to compete in the international market, there is a need for evolving

strategies for the development and breeding of suitable varieties/ hybrids and

quality planting material to be provided to the growers. According to one of the

investigations, use of high quality seeds increases crop yield by 15 – 20% if

other factors remain constant (Aggrawal, 2011). In India, substantial increase

in crop production is due to high quality seed and expansion of seed industry

has occurred in parallel with agricultural commodity growth. It has grown @

12% compared to <5% growth of global market. The organized seed sector in

the country is only 50 years old and about 25% of the seed required for

planting comes from the organized sector and remaining 75% comes from the

farmers as saved seed. If contribution of organized sector in seed is doubled to

50%, India would become number one in the world so far seed industry is

concerned.

The global seed market is currently valued around US$ 11.92 billion out

of which the largest seed exporter is Netherlands (US$ 2.04 billion) followed

by France (US$1.80) and USA (US$ 1.71). The total vegetable seed exports

was valued at US$ 4.22 billion for seed quantity of 128'179 metric tonnes.

India exported seed worth US$ 0.10 billion and imports around seed worth

US$ 0.12 billion; out of which vegetable seeds account for US$ 0.07 billion for

quantity of 29'456 metric tonnes (International Seed Federation 2017). Seed

worth US$ 11.28 billion was imported by 125 countries in 2017. The

international seed market is dominated by multinational seed companies with

the increased availability of F1 hybrids, protection of intellectual property, an

increasing use of counter-season production, and the development of

genetically engineered crops (Le Buanec 2007; Hampton 2009). In US dollar


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values, international seed exports as well as imports are dominated by three

countries: The Netherlands, France and USA.

Although the seed yield over the past fifty years has shown marginal seed

yield increase to the tune of 1-3 % (Bruins 2009) as a result of efforts of plant

breeders (Le Buanec, 2009; Ceccarelli, 2010 and Singh et al., 2013), better

agronomical practices and inputs, there are differences of opinion regarding

the continued seed yield increments due to climate change aspects. The

impact of climate change has been negatively perceived by various co-workers

(Nelson et al., 2009; Challinor et al., 2014) while some co-workers have

reported positive impact by way of increased global crop production to the

tune of 50% by 2050 without extra land through release of new cultivars

adapted to cope with a changing environment (Ainsworth et al., 2008;

Ceccarelli et al., 2010).

In this chapter the effects of climate change on vegetable seed production

are discussed and review of various options available for adaptation of seed

production in response to climate change are described.

Fig 1:

Source :UNFCCC 2019

Vegetable Seed Production

The two important contributors of climate change affecting yield

adversely are temperature and carbon dioxide. However, temperature affects

seed production more than carbon dioxide. Many crops show positive


166

responses to elevated carbon dioxide and low levels of warming, but higher

levels of warming negatively affect growth and yield. Heavy rainfall and

droughts are likely to reduce seed yields and quality because of excess or

deficiency in water. Weeds, diseases and insect pests benefit from warming and

weeds also benefit from a higher carbon dioxide concentration increasing stress

on crop plants.

Effect of Temperature on vegetable seed production

One of the important factors playing a key role during various stages of

vegetable seed development is temperature. Farmers, public seed agencies and

commercial seed producers are to be vigilant about the crop and location

specific minimum and maximum temperatures as well as the time of

occurrence. High temperature conditions during pollination and seed set can

affect both pollen viability and the receptivity of plant stigmas. Prevailing high

temperature conditions during vegetative stages may cause early transition of

crops to flowering stages. Extreme cold and freezing temperatures can cause

irreparable damage during both spring growth and overwintering. The extent

and duration of cold control the ability of many crop species to transition from

vegetative to reproductive growth. It is important that producers are familiar

with how these growth stages are affected by temperature requirements of seed

crops to achieve a high yield of quality seed. Lal et al. (2018) concluded that

climate change negatively affected the seed production of onion in mid hills of

H.P. and suggested standardization of agro techniques such as planting dates,

planting geometries, mulches etc. A weather based forecast model and

regression equation was used to predict the onion seed yield for 26 years. The

predicted seed yield based on the model and actual yield showed nearly

similar trends which have been depicted in the figure 2. The onion seed

productivity over the last 26 years showed a fluctuating pattern with an overall

decreasing trend at the rate of 2.58 kg ha-1 per year. Whereas, overall decrease

in onion seed productivity in 26 years observed was 67.08 kg ha-1 (fig 2). By

developing yield forecast model equation crop yield was predicted with an

accuracy of 69 %. The reduction in the seed yield of onion was attributed to

increase in the monthly average temperature during the seed production

months (October to May) and reduction in rainfall especially during

vegetative and reproductive growth of the onion crop. Similar trend was

observed by (Chand, 2016) wherein reduction in seed yield of cabbage var.

Golden Acre was recorded between the period of 1981- 2004. Kumar et al.


167

(2009) conducted an analysis of the impact of climatic changes during 1981 to

2004 on the seed yield of cabbage var. Golden Acre. They observed that seed

yield of Cabbage var. Golden Acre has been declining over the years with a

sharp decline in seed yields between the years 1991-1995. Decline in Cabbage

(Brassica oleracea L.) seed yield was associated with increasing temperature

during pod setting (Kumar et al., 2009). (Fig 3) They further noted that seeds of

Golden Acre were easily produced in Kullu valley (HP) during eighties, however

it failed to produce seed of the same variety at Bajaura (HP) in 2007. The

reasons were that even though bolting was observed, no viable seed was

produced owing to rapid rise of temperature at the time of pollination leading to

pollen abortion. The co-workers suggested that potential cabbage seed

production area should be shifted northwards with rise in temperature.

Cauliflower requires optimum temperature in the range between 10 to 150C

and optimum humidity conditions for seed production range (Din et al., 2007).

Lavanya et al. (2014) recommended that optimum temperature is suitable

treatment combination for higher seed yield. Sharma et al. (2018) investigated

the relationship of long-term changes in weather parameters with seed

productivity of cauliflower in Saproon valley H.P. The data represented in table

1 and fig 4 revealed that, with the increase in minimum and maximum

temperatures; a steady decrease in cauliflower seed production was observed in

an area otherwise known as potential site for quality seed production. The

reduction in cauliflower seed yield was attributed to fluctuating temperature

and humidity conditions. The mean minimum and maximum temperatures of

6.60C and 18.2 0C, respectively during 1990-91 were observed to be increased

to 11.6 0C and 22.1 0C, respectively, during 2015-16. The corresponding

reductions in seed yield from 380.2 kg/ha to 216.0 kg/ ha were observed. In

pepper, high temperature exposure at the pre-anthesis stage did not affect

pistil or stamen viability but high post-pollination temperatures inhibited fruit

setting suggesting that fertilization is sensitive to high temperature stress

(Erickson and Markhart, 2002). Swarup (2012) observed that sprouting of

potato is best at 22-34°C. The normal temperature for tuberization is at

temperatures between 17°C-21°C but it is adversely affected at temperatures

above 21°C and there is no tuberization at 29°C and above temperature. In

tomato, high temperature after pollen release decreased fruit setting yield and

seed set even when pollen was produced under optimal condition (Peet et al.,

1997). When temperature was increased from 20 0C day/10 0C night to 30 0 C

day/20 0 C night, a 13%–20% reduction in mean carrot seed mass was found

(Gray et al., 1988), which was associated with a reduction in seed filling time

rather than any difference in seed relative growth rate. Daytime temperatures


168

of 20 to 30 0C caused de-vernalization in radish (Sheen et al., 2000), and a

similar response has been recorded in vegetable brassicas (Weibe et al., 1992;

Zenkteler et al., 2012). Pumphrey and Ramig (1990) reported that temperatures

above 25.6°C depressed seed yield in peas, while exposure to heat stress

(>30°C) at flowering and pod development significantly reduced seed yield.

Ridge and Pye (1985) reported yield reductions in some Pea cultivars of 0.6 t

ha−1 for every 1°C increase at flowering time. Deactivation of the RUBISCO

enzyme in pea has been reported at temperatures above 38°C (Haldimann &

Feller, 2005). Soybean seed yield components are also influenced by

temperature. Soybean seed yield increased as temperature increased from

18/12 (day/night) to 26/20°C, but decreased when plants were grown at

temperatures greater than 26/20°C (Thuzar et al., 2010). Dornbos and Mullen,

1991 observed that yield in soybean was highly affected by drought stress,

particularly when the stress occurred during flowering and early pod

expansion). Tripathi et al., 2015 conducted a study on climatic variation and

its effect on vegetable type soybean in Midhills of Khumaltar, Nepal. The

studies revealed that among the genotypes, AGS377, AGS-378, AGS-379 and

Tarkari Bhattmas-1 were more sensitive to climatic variation (fig 5 ). High

temperature and low rainfall depreciated seed yield. Further reduction in seed

yield was due to cool night temperatures and high moisture eventually

increasing disease incidence in soybean which, eventually reduced seed yield.

Source : Lal et al., 2018

Fig.2 Predicted and trends of actual onion seed yield over the period 26 years


169

Source: (Kumar, et al., 2009).

Fig: 3 Decreasing trend of seed yield of Cabbage var. Golden Acre in Kullu

valley

Source : Sharma et al., 2018

Fig 4: Cauliflower seed yield recorded for 25 years in Saproon valley of

Himachal Pradesh


170

Table 1: Seed yield of cauliflower and mean weather parameters during last 25

years in Solan district of Himachal Pradesh

Source : Sharma et al., 2018

Effect of elevated CO2 on vegetable seed production

Elevated levels of greenhouse gases such as CO2 and CH4 is observed

due to increased anthropogenic activities such as industrialization and

mechanization. They are not only responsible for global warming but also

cause their own direct effect on growth and development of plants. In Carrot

(Daucus carota L.) vegetative growth increased by elevated CO2 (Idso, 1989;

Mortensen, 1994 ; Wheeler et al. (1994) although the effect is temperature


171

dependent. At 11–12 0C, elevated CO2 had no effect on carrot growth, but at

mean air temperatures of >25 0C, vegetative biomass was nearly doubled (Idso

and Kimball, 1989). However, there have been no reports on the effects of

elevated CO2 on carrot reproductive growth. Elevated CO2 more than doubled

radish (Raphanus sativus L.) vegetative dry matter (Usuda and Shimogawara

1998) but the response was temperature dependent, increasing as air

temperature increased (Idso and Kimball, 1989). In wild radish (R.

raphanistrum), elevated CO2 increased flower and seed production (Curtis, et

al., 1994) , but another co-worker reported that in the same species, elevated

CO2 reduced flower and seed numbers (Case et al., 1998) . Although B. napus

L. (canola) is not a vegetable brassica, the negative effects of a 50C temperature

increase on seed yield could not be compensated by elevated CO2 (Frenck et al.,

2011). It is likely that this response would also occur in vegetable brassicas.

Thinh et al., 2017 investigated the effects of elevated carbon dioxide

concentration (CO2) and air temperature on the germination of seed bulbils and

the seedling vigour of two Chinese yam lines. The plants were grown under two

CO2 levels, ambient and elevated (ambient + 200 μmol mol−1), and two mean

air temperature regimes, 22.2 °C (ambient + 1.4 °C) and 25.6 °C

(ambient + 5.2 °C). The studies indicated that during the early growth stage,

the dry weight (DW) of belowground parts (roots + tubers) and whole plants

were higher under elevated CO2 than ambient CO2 for both lines under the

low and high-temperature regimes. Hussain et al., 2018 predicted that if levels

of ambient CO2 were increased from 348 to 551 µmol mol-1 the root dry weight

would increase by 12 %. Allen and Prasad (2004) observed that Crops with C3

photosynthesis crops viz., root and tuber crops (potato, cassava, sweet potato,

sugar beet, yams will respond markedly to increasing CO2 concentrations as

compared to plants with C4 photosynthesis with little response. They

concluded that Seed yields of the C3 plants were increased by elevated CO2

under optimal temperature. However, at supra-optimal temperature, seed

yields are decreased under both ambient and elevated CO2.

Effect of elevated temperature and CO2 on plant reproductive processes

The various factor determining the adaptation of plants to climate

change include the reproductive capacity of a plant, timing of

flowering concurrent with the occurrence of abiotic and biotic constraints for

successful seed-set and propagation, fitness of individual species vis-a vis

competition with other species and the synchronization of flowering time with

presence of insects in ecosystems. Thus flowering time is one of the major


172

factors determining the adaptation of plants to changing climate. Temperature

is the most important climate change factor affecting flowering time, with

warmer temperatures predominantly advancing flowering. Temperature affects

flowering time by both affecting the rate of development directly and

influencing vernalization (Craufurd and Wheeler, 2009). Meenakumari et al.,

(2016) observed that there was 12.38 % decrease in days to 50 % flowering in

pea plants grown under elevated CO2 condition (550±10PPM) as compared to

ambient CO2 and temperature while 19.16 % decrease in days to 50 %

flowering in plants grown under elevated CO2 and temperature. The sexual

reproductive phase in plants may be altered by both elevated CO2 and

temperature (Singh et al., 2013). A plant grown at elevated CO2 may be able to

invest more resources in flowers (Osborne et al., 1997), but most plants can

only tolerate narrow temperature changes which, if exceeded, can reduce seed

set and therefore seed yield (Porter, 2005; Prasad et al., 2002). Guo et al.,

(2018) reported active moderation in reproductive tissue temperatures when

exposed to both high-temperature and water-deficit stress. Water loss from

detached leaves and buds of Brassica spp. indicated immediate closure of

stomata on the leaf while the bud retained stomatal activity, extending

evaporative cooling and leading to a delay in increasing bud temperature under

drought stress. In kidney bean ( P. vulgaris L.), elevated [CO2] did not influence

seed composition, emergence of seedling vigor of seeds produced at cooler

temperatures ( Thomas et al., 2009 ). However, seed produced at high

temperature (34/24 °C) had a smaller seed size, decreased glucose

concentration but significantly increased concentrations of sucrose and

raffinose compared with that produced at cooler temperatures (28/18 °C). High

temperature has caused abortion of floral buds and flowers in several species

of beans (Kigel et al., 1991). The physiological stress that results when

flowering beans are subjected to high night temperatures (20°C), and, to a

lesser degree, high day temperatures (above 30°C) results in excessive

abscission of reproductive organs and reduced crop yields (Kigel, Konsens and

Ofir, 1991; Konsens et al., 1991). Studies have indicated that the reproductive

stage is more sensitive to heat stress than the vegetative stage (Giorno et al.,

2013). Heat stress is more damaging to the male reproductive phase

(microsporogenesis) than the female reproductive phase (megasporogenesis;

Dickson & Boetteger, 1984; Monterroso & Wien, 1990); during anthesis,

megasporogenesis becomes more sensitive under heat stress (Gross & Kigel,

1994). Beans yield has a threshold temperature of 24°C (Laing, Jones, & Davis,

1984). The bell peppers which were grown under high temperature (33°C)

showed reduced fruit set (Yanez-Lopez et al., 2012), and flower malformation


173

when grown in temperatures below 18°C resulting in the formation of

parthenocarpic fruits and reduced fruit set (Aloni et al., 1999).

Effect of elevated temperature and CO2 on flower production and

nectaries

Floral nectar is one of the major attractant for pollinators and play an

important role in ecosystem functioning. The current global warming may

cause decrease in the nectar secretion in areas where sharp rise in

temperature is noted. The decreased nectar secretion and the changes in the

flowering phenology may disrupt plant–pollinator interactions and drastically

effect the pollination and seed set (Takkis 2018). Contrasting reports of effects

of elevated temperature on flower production in plant species has been

reported viz., increase/decrease or no change in the number of flowers

(Jakobsen and Kristjánsson, 1994; Liu et al.,. 2012; Scaven and Rafferty,

2013 ). Similar results have been reported by co-workers investigating the

elevated CO2 levels on flower production (Rusterholz et al., 1998; Hoover et al.,

2012). Variable responses of moderate or strongly elevated temperature for

nectar production per flower (Pacini and Nepi, 2007; Nocentini et al., 2013;

Takkis et al.,., 2015) and for nectar sugar composition and concentration have

also been reported (Osborne et al., 1997; Rusterholz et al., 1998). In one study,

elevated CO2 increased the concentration of glucose and fructose and reduced

the ratio of sucrose to hexoses (Hoover, et al., 2012). This may change the

attractiveness of the nectar to pollinators (large bees such as Bombus spp.

prefer sucrose-dominated nectars (Baker and Baker 1983) and the duration of

pollinator visits received by flowers (Hoover et al., 2012). Heat stress can

reduce the number, decrease the size, and cause deformity of floral organs

(Hall 2004). This causes increased stigma and ovule development decreasing

the duration for receptiveness to pollen and pollen tubes (Hedhly et al., 2008).

Impact of climate change on pollinating agents and pollination behaviour

Pollination is a crucial stage in the reproduction of most flowering plants,

including vegetable crops (Kearns et al., 1998). Managed honeybees (Apis

mellifera L.) are considered the most important pollinators for several crops

(Carreck and Williams, 1998), though some co-workers have reported

bumblebees to be more efficient pollinators as compared to honeybees. Bumble

bees are better adapted to the local climatic conditions, work longer and are

efficient carriers of pollen (Willmer et al., 1994, Stubbs and Drummond,


174

2001). Rader et al. (2013) investigating the role of bees in pollination of

watermelon concluded that by utilizing native bees a decline of 14.5 % in

pollination was noticed whereas by utilizing wild bees a 4.5 % increase in

pollination was predicted. Klein et al. (2007) reported that pollination plays a

major role in more than 70 % of the total crops utilized for human

consumption and bees are the important pollinators in more than 84% of the

cultivated crops (Williams, 1994). Climatic changes may threaten pollination

activities due to altered behaviour of pollinating agents (Memmott et al., 2007,

Hegland et al., 2009, Schweiger et al., 2010). Temperature or day length may

cause plant-pollinator mismatches (Hughes, 2000; Bertin, 2008; Doi et al.,.

2008), mismatches likely to occur more in spring than summer species,

because of stronger phenological shifts early in the season (Doi et al., 2008;

Wolkovich et al., 2012; Fründ et al., 2013). Among all the climatic factors, an

increase in temperature has the highest adverse effect on pollinator

interactions. Global warming may actually enhance the performance of insects

living at higher altitudes, thereby resulting in increased seed setting and yields

in the temperate crops growing in these areas. But, rise in temperature in low

lying hills adversely affects the activity of pollinating agents and hence lower

seed yield. Climatic change, including global warming and increased variability

of environmental hazards require improved analyses that can be used to assess

the risk of the existing and the newly developed pollinators management

strategies and techniques, and to define the impact of these techniques on

environment, productivity and profitability (Lee et al., 2009). Xie et al. (2016)

comparing the role of bumble bees and honey bees in pollination of squash

concluded that bumble bees visited squash flowers and depleted the nectar and

thus making it more unattractive before visit of honey bees to the same

flower. Nielson et al. (2017) reported that temperature effected honey bees

more than bumble bees. Many bee species are able to control the temperatures

in their flight muscles before, during and after the flight, by physiological and

behavioural means (Willmer & Stone, 1997). With respect to the potential

effects of future global warming, behavioural responses of pollinator to avoid

extreme temperatures have the potential effect on significant reduction of

pollination services (Corbet et al., 1993). Examples of behavioural strategies for

thermal regulation include long periods of basking in the sun to warm up and

shade seeking or nest returning to cool down, which reduces the floral visiting

time of pollinators, thereby subsequent pollination and fruit or seed set

(Willmer and Stone, 2004).


175


The UNFCCC envisages two main strategies for tackling the climate

change, mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation literarily means actions taken to

actually reduce the severity of the climate change which involves reducing

green house gas emissions by either storing or absorbing them in forest or

other carbon sinks. Adaptation includes measures taken to minimize the ill-

effects of climatic changes or to utilize new measures for countering with

climatic change taking measures to reduce the negative effects, or exploit the

positive ones, by making suitable adjustments. Both the measures are not

independant of each other but are to be pursued together in a holistic manner.

The following adaptation measures are undertaken to combat climatic change:-

Shifting areas for seed production: Environmental stress causes loss of

seed yield and quality thus necessitating to shift to new areas for seed

production through differences in latitude or elevation. Arya et al.,(1979)

while investigating the effect of temperature on cabbage seed

production at Kalpa in Kinnaur (H.P) during 1971-77 suggested seed

production to be carried out in areas where temperature fluctuations

were not wide. Similar observations were recorded by Kumar et al., 2009

wherein decline in seed yield up to 40 % of Cabbage var Golden acre

during 1981 to 2004 was noted and suggested shifting of cabbage seed

production to lower altitudes (1200-1450 m amsl) to avoid temperature

fluctuations and record better seed yield.

Adjusting sowing/planting dates: In northwest India, Kalra et al.,

2008 suggested that sowing date of wheat has to be postponed by six

days for every degree rise in temperature. Adaptation to hot and dry

periods in Europe has been done by early sowing of spring crops for

evading the dry climate during summer season (Olesen et al., 2011).

Sowing/planting dates could be modified to counter the ill-effects of high

temperature seen during flowering and during seed set ( Singh, et al.,

2013). Hu et al. (2017) suggested adjusting sowing dates in semi-arid

region of China to combat climate change. The optimal sowing date

showed higher yield by obtaining greater precipitation, which could

improve potato adaption to climate change. It was concluded that

planting of potato seed could be done from early May to early June and

optimum sowing time was between 10 May and 27 May.

Seed banks: Seed banks function as centre for collection and exchange

of seeds amongst farmers from different communities and culture and it


176

helps in preserving genetic diversity in an area. Exchange of seeds

among farmers of different communities and cultures will help to stop

the loss of crop diversity that is occurring in the area and a community

seed bank could promote and organize such exchanges, on a yearly basis

(Tjikana et al., 2016). Community seed banks are repositories of local

genetic diversity that is often adapted to prevailing climate conditions,

including biotic stresses. They may be useful to contribute to community

based strategies for adaptation to climate change. Bioversity International

has developed a novel international initiative called “Seeds for Needs” to

combat climate change. The initiative offers initiative to farmers by

access to crop diversity by strengthening their capacity to adapt to

climate change and to reduce the risks related to climate change. Seeds

for Needs an initiative, first implemented in Ethiopia, India, and Papua

New Guinea, has now spread to 11 countries, reaching more than 25,000

farmers in 2015. Seeds for Needs in India operates on same line of work

as in Uganda, uses modern geographic information system (GIS)

technologies and software (DIVA-GIS, MaxEnt, Google Earth) to identify

the most promising national-level gene bank resources for testing in

rural communities by farmers themselves. To obtain data about farmers‟

varietal preferences through crowd-sourcing trials Seeds for Needs has

introduced a number of digital innovations. Navdanya seed bank a

decentralized agricultural research centre in Uttarakhand in 1987 was

formed by Vandana Shiva a noted environmentalist. The main objective

of the centre was to protect biodiversity and the livelihoods of small

farmers. Navdanya seed bank is coordinating more than 54 community

seed banks and has conserved around 5,000 crop varieties with the

primary focus on preservation of grain species. The Svalbard Global Seed

Vault in Norway with 430,000 specimens, and additional capacity for 4.5

million seed samples, National Centre for Genetic Resources (NGCR),

Colorado, Vavilov Research Institute (VRI), Russia with 60,000 seed

varieties and 250,000 plant specimens across 12 centres in Russia are

the prominent agencies across the world with the aim of serving as the as

doomsday vaults and events related to food security and climate change

(Vernooy 2017).

Plant Breeding: Plant breeding has been playing a key role in

combating climatic change through developing varieties resistant to

various biotic and abiotic stress and ensuring increased yield. The

improved, adapted vegetable germplasm is the most cost-effective option

for farmers to meet the challenges of a changing climate (Altieri et al.,


177

2015). The various abiotic stress resistant crop varieties include drought

and temperature stress resistance, biotic stress resistance though

resistance to pests and diseases, and the ability to cope with salinity and

water logging (Ceccarell et al., 2010). This can be achieved using a

combination of conventional, molecular and transgenic approaches

(Cairns et al., 2013). Conventional breeding methodologies, particularly

phenotyping and double haploid technology, will play important roles in

accelerating the development of climate-adapted germplasm (Prasanna et

al., 2012). Molecular technologies viz., transgenic breeding, marker-trait

associations and genome-wide selection, are providing opportunities to

develop germplasm with tolerance to multiple abiotic and biotic stresses

(Ortiz 2008; Varshney et al., 2011). Plants native to climates with

marked seasonality are able to acclimatize more easily to variable

environmental conditions (Pereira and Chaves 2007) and provide

opportunities to identify genes or gene combinations that confer such

resilience. An additional important target trait for seed production in

highly heterozygous open pollinated and F1 hybrid cultivars will be more

stable alleles conferring self-incompatibility and male sterility under

elevated temperatures. Most commercial tomato cultivars are moderately

sensitive to increased salinity and only limited variation exists in

cultivated species (Foolad 2014). Genetic variation for salt tolerance

during seed germination in tomato has been identified within cultivated

and wild species. A cross between a salt-sensitive tomato line (UCT5) and

a salt-tolerant S. esculentum accession (PI174263) showed that the

ability of tomato seed to germinate rapidly under salt stress is genetically

controlled with narrow-sense heritability (h2) of 0.75 (Fooland et al.,

2011).

Grafting: Grafting is considered as slow breeding methodology aimed at

enhancing environmental-stress tolerance of vegetables crops. It is a

rapid tool as compared to the conventional breeding and is being

practiced mostly in Asian countries such as Japan, Korea and some

European countries with a aim to evolve environmental-stress tolerance

in vegetable crops (Martinez et al., 2010). Grafting is one of the

promising tools for modifying the root system of the plant for enhancing

its tolerance to various abiotic stresses (Bhatt et al., 2013). Grafted

plants are now being used to improve resistance against abiotic stresses

like low and high temperatures, drought, salinity and flooding if

appropriate tolerant rootstocks are used (Venema et al., 2008; He et al.,

2009). Because of these beneficial effects of grafting, the cultivation of


178

grafted plants in crops like tomato, eggplant and pepper and cucurbits

(melon, cucumber, watermelon and pumpkin) has increased in recent

years (Hassell et al., 2008). Root stocks show varied response to salt

among species viz., rootstocks from Cucurbita spp. are more tolerant to

salt than rootstocks from Lagenaria siceraria (Matsubara 2012).

Conclusion: Climate change is inevitable and its effect on vegetable crop

production and seed production is happening. As predicted, future temperature

rise could have a negative effect on the nectar and flower production of many

species especially the late-flowering species that coincide the summer season.

The effect of climate warming on plant species and understanding plant-

pollinator interactions could offer measures to be taken to counter the climate

change challenges. The resultant rise in temperatures has affected seed

industry worldwide and if we are to take a giant leap in seed production we

ought to have new approaches in identifying ideal areas for seed production

and use of novel techniques. The novel techniques include breeding varieties

resistant to various biotic and abiotic approaches This has assisted the seed

producers in ensuring and increasing seed production. Research conducted on

cabbage and cauliflower seed production for the past decade has shown a

steady decline with the rise in temperature and has necessitated shift in the

seed production to new areas from traditional growing areas. The concept of

seed banks is a measure to secure genetic diversity and makes exchange of

seeds possible among the low and middle end farmers. Though climate change

cannot be halted however by undertaking alternative measures for adaptation

could assist researchers and seed producers to seek assistance of agronomical

measures and plant breeding approaches including molecular approaches in

coping with climatic change.

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Breeding for Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Vegetable

Crops under Changing Climate Scenario

Amit Vikram



Nauni, Solan (H.P.) 173230

Climate change is a result of increases in greenhouse gas emissions and

its characteristics include, increasing mean temperature, frequency of extreme

temperatures, extreme rainfall events, and periods of drought (IPCC, 2013).

These changing conditions are causing increased occurrence of abiotic

stresses. These stresses severely affect plant productivity. The abiotic stress

factors include salinity, drought, high and low temperature, and heavy metals.

Abiotic stresses represent the primary cause of crop loss worldwide with

reductions of more than 50% (Alcázar et al., 2006). It is further predicted that

these stresses will become more intense and frequent with climate change.

The ever increasing world population, estimated to be 10 billion by 2050,

will witness serious food shortage by that time (Bartels and Hussain, 2008).

Increasing pressure agricultural land is causing serious land degradation, a

cultivation shift to more marginal areas and soil types and heavier

requirements for agricultural productivity per unit area (Jewell et al. 2010).

Environment as a factor in food security

By 2050 world population is likely to be between 8 billion to 10.4 billion with a

median value of 9.1 billion (http://esa.un.org/unpp)

Total food consumption will increase by 50–70% (FAO 2009)

The CO2 concentration likely to increase to 550 ppm from 380 ppm today

Crop yields likely to increase by 13% due to CO2 enrichment

Temperature likely to increase by 2-5 OC

Ozone concentration increase (60 ppb) will reduce crop yields by

approximately 5%

The success of agricultural production depends crucially on water availability.

Fresh water is only 1.5% on the planet


192

Over 80% of global cropland is rain-fed; however irrigated cropland,

constituting about 16% of the total, produces about 40% of the world‟s food.

(Gitay, H. et al., 2001)

Agriculture currently uses over 70% (86% in developing countries) of available

freshwater (Cominelli, et al., 2009)

Seven million hectare cultivated land has become saline due to irrigation in

India (Martinez-Beltran and Manzur, 2005)

Major Abiotic stresses

Drought

Salinity

Heat and Cold

Drought

Drought is an extended period when a region notes a deficiency in its

water supply whether surface or underground water. A drought can last for

months or years, or may be declared after as few as 15 days.

According to Roy et al. (2011) Drought can occur at different stages of the

plant‟s development, with different effects on plant function, and thus requires

distinct mechanisms for tolerance. A variety of additional abiotic stresses

commonly occur during drought, such as high temperatures, high

concentrations of salt and other toxic solutes and low availabilities of nutrients,

and these vary by location and time; and There is a diversity of mechanisms

and combinations of mechanisms which can be used by plants to tolerate each

of these stresses.

Vegetables are succulent products containing 90% water. Moisture greatly

influences the yield and quality of vegetables. Due to moisture stress plant

water status is disrupted, which causes imbalances in osmotic and ionic

homeostasis, loss of cell turgidity, and damage to functional and structural

cellular proteins and membranes. Consequently, water-stressed plants wilt,

lose photosynthetic capacity, and are unable to sequester assimilates into the

appropriate plant organs.

Drought Tolerance Mechanisms (Beard and Sifers 1997; Rivero et al. 2007)

1. Drought escape

Mechanism involves rapid phenological development i.e. early flowering and

maturity before the onset of drought

2. Drought avoidance


193

Drought avoidance is the ability of plants to maintain relatively high tissue

water potential despite a shortage of soil moisture. Canopy resistance and leaf

area reduction (which decrease radiation adsorption and transpiration),

stomatal closure and cuticular wax formation (which reduce water loss),

Adjustments to sink-source allocations through altering root depth and

density, root hair development, and root hydraulic conductance are some of the

adaptations in plants to avoid drought.

3. Drought tolerance

The ability of a crop to endure moisture deficits at low tissue water potential

also called dehydration tolerance (Levitt, 1972). It occurs at the cellular and

metabolic level. These mechanisms are primarily involved in turgor

maintenance, protoplasmic resistance, and dormancy (Beard and Sifers 1997).

Genetic Basis of Drought Tolerance

Drought-specific genes can be grouped into three major categories

(Vierling 1991; Ingram and Bartels 1996; Smirnoff 1998; Shinozaki and

Yamaguchi-Shinozaki 2000):

1. Genes involved in signal transduction pathways (STPs) and transcriptional

control

2. Genes with membrane and protein protection functions

3. Genes assisting with water and ion uptake and transport

Stress-Responsive Mechanisms:

1. Detoxification

2. Chaperoning

3. Late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) protein functions

4. Osmo-protection

5. Water and ion movement

1. Detoxification

To prevent stress injury, cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) need to

remain at nontoxic levels under drought stress. Antioxidants involved in plant

strategies to degrade ROS include (Wang et al. 2003):

a. Enzymes such as catalase, superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase

(APX), and glutathione reductase

b. Non-enzymes such as ascorbate, glutathione, carotenoids, and anthocyanins

2. Chaperoning

Chaperone functions involve specific stress-associated proteins:

Responsible for protein synthesis, targeting, maturation and degradation,

Function in protein and membrane stabilization, and protein renaturation


194

Heat shock Proteins (HSPs), which are induced by heat, have been implicated

in plant cell protection mechanisms under drought stress.

3. Late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) protein functions

LEA proteins are produced in response to dehydration stress (Sivamani

et al. 2000; Bartels et al. 2007). Water status stabilization, protection of

cytosolic structures, ion sequestration, protein renaturation, transport of

nuclear targeted proteins, prevention of membrane leakage, and membrane

and protein stabilization is the principal function of these proteins in plants.

LEA and LEA-type genes are found universally in plants. They accumulate in

seeds during the late stages of embryogenesis and are associated with the

acquisition of desiccation tolerance under drought, heat, cold, salt, and ABA

stress.

4. Osmoprotection

Osmoprotection involves the upregulation of compatible solutes

(osmolytes) that function primarily to maintain cell turgor, but are also involved

in antioxidation and chaperoning through direct stabilization of membranes

and/or proteins (McNeil et al. 1999; Diamant et al. 2001).

Compatible solutes are low molecular weight, highly soluble compounds that

are usually nontoxic at high cellular concentrations.

The three major groups of compatible solutes are amino acids (such as proline),

quaternary amines (glycine betaine (GlyBet), polyamines, and

dimethylsulfonioproprionate), and polyol/sugars (such as mannitol, galactinol,

and trehalose; Wang et al. 2003).

Many genes involved in the synthesis of these osmoprotectants have been

explored for their potential in engineering plant abiotic stress tolerance

(Vinocur and Altman 2005).

5. Water and ion movement

Water and ions move through plants via transcellular and intracellular

pathways.

Aquaporins (major intrinsic proteins; MIPs), which are either tonoplast- (TIP) or

plasma membrane- (PIP) localized, facilitate water, glycerol, small molecule,

and gas transfer through membranes and, therefore, have a role in water

homeostasis (Bartels et al. 2007).

Active transport of solutes into the cell and cellular organelles, particularly the

vacuole, is another means of cell turgor maintenance as increased solute

potential facilitates the passive movement of water into cells and cellular

compartments (Li et al. 2008).

Screening procedures for drought tolerance


195

Screening procedures are probably the most important step in breeding for

abiotic stresses as it is difficult to replicate exactly the field environmental

conditions. However, some screening procedures used for drought resistance

are given below (cf. Kumar et al. 2012):

Drought tolerant vegetable germplasm

Some of the drought tolerant species and genotypes identified in vegetable

crops are given below (cf. Kumar et al. 2012):

Salinity

Salinity is a soil condition characterized by a high concentration of

soluble salts. Soils are classified as saline when the ECe is 4 dS/m or more,

which is equivalent to approximately 40mM NaCl and generates an osmotic


196

pressure of approximately 0.2 MPa. NaCl is the most soluble and widespread

salt (Munn & Tester, 2008 and USDA-ARS, 2008).

Salinity imposes a variety of stresses on plant tissues:

Osmotic stress, which results from the relatively high soil solute

concentrations,

Ion cytotoxicity occurs when salt accumulates to toxic concentrations in fully

expanded leaves (which, unlike younger leaves, are unable to dilute high salt

concentrations), causing leaf death.

The decreased rate of leaf growth that occurs after an increase in soil salinity is

primarily due to the osmotic effect of the salt around the roots, which inhibits

plant water uptake and causes leaf cells to lose water

Under prolonged salinity stress, inhibition of lateral shoot development

becomes apparent within weeks and, within months, there are effects on

reproductive development, such as early flowering and reduced floret number.

Older leaves may die while the production of younger leaves continues.

Salinity Threshold Levels of Vegetable Crops (cf. Shahbaz et al, 2012)

Salinity Tolerance Mechanisms

The various salt tolerance mechanisms occurring in crop plants are

(Munns and Tester, 2008):

Tolerance to osmotic stress, which immediately reduces cell expansion in root

tips and young leaves, and causes stomatal closure;

Na+ exclusion from leaf blades, which ensures that Na+ remains at nontoxic

concentrations within leaves; and

Tissue tolerance to Na+ or Cl–, which requires compartmentalization of Na+

and Cl– at the cellular and intracellular level to avoid accumulation of toxic

concentrations within the cytoplasm.

Approaches for Salinity Resistance


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Some approaches suggested for salinity tolerance in crops plants

including vegetable crops are suggested below (Blum 1988, Ashraf et al. 2008):

Diversifying cropping systems to include crops that are known to be salt

tolerant (e.g. by crop substitution);

Exploiting wild or feral species that are adapted to saline environments (e.g. by

domestication); and/or

Genetically modifying domesticated crops by breeding and selection to develop

cultivars with enhanced salt tolerance. Breeding for salt-tolerant genotypes

that can grow more efficiently than the conventional varieties under high

salinity stress is a fundamental approach which is considered economically

feasible

Breeding for Salinity Tolerance

1. Efficient screening techniques for the selection and evaluation of specified

characters,

2. Identification of genetic variability,

3. Knowledge of the inheritance of tolerance trait(s) at specific developmental

stages,

4. Knowledge of biological mechanisms underlying tolerance,

5. Reliable direct or indirect selection criteria

6. Designing the most appropriate breeding methodologies/ strategies to transfer

the tolerance trait(s) into improved genetic backgrounds.

Heat Stress

Heat stress is defined as the rise in temperature beyond a threshold level

for a period of time sufficient to cause irreversible damage to plant growth and

development (Reynolds et al. 2010). An additional dimension to heat stress is

relative humidity (RH). In moist tropical regions, high RH further exacerbates

heat stress in two ways. Saturated air: (i) reduces the potential for evaporative

cooling of plant organs; and (ii) is accompanied by higher night temperatures.

Heat-stress tolerance mechanisms in plants (Wahid et al. 2007):

• MAPK, mitogen activated protein kinases;

• ROS, reactive oxygen species;

• HAMK, heat shock activated

• HSE, heat shock element;

• HSPs, heat shock proteins;

• CDPK, calcium dependent protein kinase;

• HSK, histidine kinase.

Cold Tolerance


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Approximately two-thirds of the world‟s landmass is annually subjected

to temperatures below freezing and half of it to temperatures below –20 0C.

Cold acclimation, also known as cold hardening, describes an increase in

tolerance over time to cold temperatures and cellular desiccation in response to

conditions such as cold temperature, short photoperiods, and mild drought

and results from changes in gene expression and physiology (Xin and Browse

2000; Kalberer et al. 2006).

Cold Stress Symptoms

Observed phenotypic symptoms in response to chilling stress include

reduced leaf expansion, wilting, chlorosis, and necrosis (Mahajan and Tuteja

2005). Chilling also severely inhibits plant reproductive development, with

species such as rice displaying sterility when exposed to chilling temperatures

during anthesis (Jiang et al. 2002). The extent of plant damage caused by

exposure to low temperature depends on factors such as the developmental

stage, the duration and severity of the frost, the rates of cooling (and

rewarming), and whether ice formation takes place intra- or extra-cellularly

(Beck et al. 2004).

Cold Stress Resistance Mechanisms

There are two main mechanisms of resistance (Sakai and Larcher 1987;

Margesin et al. 2007). An individual plant may employ both mechanisms of

frost resistance in different tissues:

Avoidance of ice formation in tissues

Tolerance of apoplastic extracellular ice

Cold Tolerance Induction Strategies

Following mechanisms are adopted by plants to survive cold conditions:

ROS Detoxifying Substances

Membrane Modifications

LEA and Chaperoning Modifications

Osmoprotectants/Compatible Solutes

Transcription Factors

Further Readings

Jewell et al. 2010. Transgenic plants for abiotic stress resistance. In Transgenic

Crop Plants by C. Kole (Ed.). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg. 67-131 pp.

Kumar et al. 2012. Breeding for drought tolerance in vegetables. Vegetable

Science. 39 (1): 1-15


199

Mullan et al. 2010. Breeding crops for tolerance to salinity, water logging and

Inundation. . In Climate Change and Crop Production by M.P. Reynolds (ED.).

CAB International, UK. 92-114 pp.

Munns, R. and Tester, M. 2008. Mechanisms of Salinity Tolerance. Annual

Reviews of Plant Biology. 59:651–81

Reynolds et al. 2010. Breeding for adaptation to heat and drought stress. In

Climate Change and Crop Production by M.P. Reynolds (ED.). CAB

International, UK. 71-91 pp.


200

Organic Farming: As a Climate Change Adaptation and

Mitigation Strategy

Kuldeep Singh Thakur and DK Dingal

Department of Vegetable Science,


Nauni, Solan-173 230 HP

Agriculture is not only affected by climate change but also contributes to

it. 10-12 % global greenhouse gas emission is due to human food production.

Intensive agriculture has led to de-forestation, overgrazing and soil

degradation.

These changes in land use contribute to global GHGs emission.

Today, agriculture faces the challenge of having to adapt and respond to

climate change and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Organic farming is

claimed to be most sustainable approach in food production and to adapt

climate change.

Organic farming is a production system that sustains the health of soils,

ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles

adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects.

Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the

shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for

all involved.

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC FARMING

Organic farming is based on four core principles:

Health: Organic agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of

soil, plant, animal, human and planet as one and indivisible.

Ecology: Organic agriculture should be based on living ecological

systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and help sustain

them.

Fairness: Organic agriculture should build on relationships that ensure

fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities.


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Care: Organic agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and

responsible manner to protect the health and well-being of current and

future generations and the environment.

Agriculture releases a significant amount of carbon dioxide (CO2),

methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) into the atmosphere amounting to

around 10-12% of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions annually,

mostly methane from livestock raising, biomass burning and wet cultivation

practices, and nitrous oxides from the use of synthetic fertilizers. If indirect

contributions (e.g., land conversion to agriculture, fertilizer production and

distribution and farm operations) are factored in, some scientists have

estimated that the contribution of agriculture could be as high as 17-32% of

global anthropogenic emissions.

ORGANIC FARMING MITIGATES CLIMATE CHANGE BECAUSE

OF reduces greenhouse gases, especially nitrous oxide, as no chemical

nitrogen fertilizers are used and nutrient losses are minimized.

OF stores carbon in soil and plant biomass by building organic matter,

encouraging agro-forestry and forbidding the clearance of primary

ecosystems.

OF minimizes energy consumption by 30-70% per unit of land by

eliminating the energy required to manufacture synthetic fertilizers, and

by using internal farm inputs, thus reducing fuel used for

transportation.

Elimination of synthetic nitrogen in organic systems decreases fossil fuel

consumption and carbon sequestration takes CO2 out of the atmosphere

by putting it in the soil in the form of organic matter which is often lost

in conventionally managed soils

Soil carbon data show that regenerative organic agricultural practices are

among the most effective strategies for mitigating CO2 emissions

ORGANIC FARMING HELPS FARMERS ADAPT TO CLIMATE CHANGE

It prevents nutrient and water loss through high organic matter content

and soil covers, thus making soils more resilient to floods, droughts and

land degradation processes.


202

It preserves seed and crop diversity, which increases crop resistance to

pests and disease. Maintenance of diversity also helps farmers evolve

new cropping systems to adapt to climatic changes.

It minimizes risk as a result of stable agro-ecosystems and yields, and

lower production costs.

Indigenous and traditional knowledge are a key source of information on

adaptive capacity, centered on the selective, experimental and resilient

capabilities of farmers.

Many farmers cope with climate change in different ways: by minimizing

crop failure through increased use of drought-tolerant local varieties,

water-harvesting, extensive planting, mixed cropping, agro-forestry,

opportunistic weeding and wild plant gathering.

Traditional knowledge, coupled with the right investments in plant

breeding, could yield new varieties with climate adaptation potential.

There are a variety of organic farming practices that can reduce

agriculture's contribution to climate change. These include crop rotations and

improved farming system design, improved cropland management, improved

nutrient and manure management, improved grazing-land and livestock

management, maintaining fertile soils and restoration of degraded land,

improved water management, fertilizer management, land use change and

agro-forestry.

BENEFITS OF ORGANIC FARMING IN WAKE OF CLIMATE CHANGE

OF have considerable potential for reducing emission of GHG

OF in general requires less fossil fuel per hectare and kg of produce due

to avoidance of synthetic fertilizers

OF aims at improving soil fertility and nitrogen supply by using

leguminous crops, green manures, crop residues and cover crop

The enhanced soil fertility leads to a stabilization of soil organic matter

and in many cases sequestration of CO2 into the soils

Improved soil quality increases the soil‟s water retention capacity, thus

contributing to better adaptation of organic farming under unpredictable

climate conditions with higher temperature and uncertain precipitation

levels

Soil erosion, an important source of CO2 losses, is effectively reduced by

organic farming


203

Organic systems are highly adaptive to climate change due to the

application of traditional skills and farmers‟ knowledge, soil fertility-

building techniques and a high degree of diversity

SUPPORTING ORGANIC FARMING MEANS SUPPORTING CLIMATE

CHANGE MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION

Governments should acknowledge organic farming as an effective

strategy to reduce greenhouse gases and sequester carbon. They should

help farmers adapt to climate change by promoting organic farming

through research and extension services.

Developing country governments should include initiatives based on

the principles of organic agriculture among their Nationally Appropriate

Mitigation Actions.

Donor and development agencies, such as the FAO, UNEP, IFAD, GEF,

the World Bank and particularly the Green Climate Fund should develop

organic agriculture programs based on outreach, awareness and best

practices, especially in regions sensitive to climate change. Organic

farming should be adequately rewarded for climate and other ecosystem

services using various approaches, including opportunities for using

markets ; new market-based mechanisms ; and nonmarket-based

approaches.

Researchers should study and quantify the role of organic agriculture in

mitigating and adapting to climate change in order to improve farming

techniques and disseminate findings. CGIAR should develop a special

work program focusing on research in organic agriculture.

Farmers should grow organically to increase their farm‟s resilience to

the effects of climate change.

Consumers should choose locally grown, organic products to reduce the

climate change impact.


204

REFERENCES

Aguilera, E, Lassaletta, L, Gattinger, A and Gimeno, BS. 2013 a. Managing soil

carbon for climate change mitigation and adaptation in Mediterranean

cropping systems: A meta-analysis. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment,

168, 25-36.

Aguilera, E, Lassaletta, L, Sanz-Cobena, A, Garnier, J and Vallejo, A. 2013 b.

The potential of organic fertilizers and water management to reduce N2O

emissions in Mediterranean climate cropping systems: A review. Agriculture,

Ecosystems & Environment, 164, 32-52.

Bellarby, J, Foereid, B, Hastings, A and Smith, P. 2008. Cool farming: Climate

impacts of agriculture and mitigation potential. Greenpeace International,

Amsterdam.

Badgley, C, Moghtader, J, Quintero, E, Zakem, E, Chappell, M J, Aviles-

Vazquez, K, Amulon, A and Perfecto, I. 2007. Organic agriculture and the

global food supply. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 22, 86-108.

Crowder, DW and Reganold, JP .2015. Financial competitiveness of organic

agriculture on a global scale. Proceedings of the National Academy of

Sciences, 112, 7611-7616.

FAO 2016. The Agriculture Sectors in the Intended Nationally Determined

Contributions: Analysis. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations, Rome.

IPES-FOOD 2016. From uniformity to diversity: A paradigm shift from

industrial agriculture to diversified agro-ecological systems. International

Panel of Experts on Sustainable Food systems (IPES-Food).

Mondelaers, K, Aertsens, J and Huylenbroeck, GV. 2009. A meta-analysis of

the differences in environmental impacts between organic and conventional

farming. British Food Journal, 111, 1098-1119.

Reganold, JP and Wachter, JM. 2016. Organic agriculture in the twenty-first

century. Nature Plants, 2, 1-8.

Scialabba, NE-H and Muller-Lindenlauf, M. 2010. Organic agriculture and

climate change. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 25, 158.


205

Impact of Climate Change on Pathogens and

Plant Diseases

Sandeep Kansal


Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry

Nauni, Solan – 173230 (HP) India

A plant disease is the result of interaction between a susceptible host

plant, virulent pathogen, and the environment. Human activities (i.e.,

agronomic practices, fungicide treatments, movement of plant material in the

global market, etc.) and the presence of microbial antagonists to the pathogen

may also play roles in the development of a disease. Because the environment

significantly, directly or indirectly, influences plants, pathogens, and their

antagonists, changes in environmental conditions are strongly associated with

differences in the level of losses caused by a disease, and environmental

changes are often implicated in the emergence of new diseases. For these

reasons, the changes associated with global warming (i.e., increased

temperatures, changes in the quantity and pattern of precipitation, increased

CO2 and ozone levels, drought, etc.) may affect the incidence and severity of

plant disease and influence the further coevolution of plants and their

pathogens. Despite the threat posed by climate change to plant protection in

the near future, there are few reports about this subject. The present lecture

aims to report and discuss the impacts of climate change on the spatial and

temporal distribution of plant diseases, the effects of increased concentration of

atmospheric CO2 and the consequences for disease control.

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON PATHOGENS

It has been predicted that as temperatures increase many pathogens will

spread into new geographic areas, where they will come into contact with new

potential hosts. Several aspects of the biology of a pathogen can be directly

influenced by environmental factors. Production and germination of propagules

and pathogen growth rates are strongly dependent on temperature, relative

humidity (RH), and, in the case of foliar pathogens, often leaf wetness plays a

significant role. Temperature requirements for infection vary widely among

pathogen species. In general, prolonged periods of environmental conditions

(temperature, precipitation, and humidity) that are close to the optimal for the

development of a pathogen lead to more damaging epidemics. Pathogen


206

survival in the absence of a host (e.g., overwintering and over summering) can

be affected by temperature and RH. Although the increase in temperatures

predicted in the tropics will be relatively small compared with that predicted for

temperate climates, the strongest consequences of global warming are expected

to be observed in the tropics, because tropical species have a narrow

temperature growth range and are therefore relatively sensitive to changes in

temperature. These species are also currently living very close to their optimal

temperature conditions. Pathogens that have evolved at higher latitudes may

be able to tolerate a wider range of temperatures. These pathogens usually live

in climates cooler than their physiological optima; therefore, warming is

expected to enhance their fitness and the risk of epidemics of the diseases with

which they are associated. Moisture and temperature cannot be considered

separately. Decreased levels of rainfall may lead to decreased incidence of

downy mildew infections of grape. However, in a warming scenario, the

increase in temperature more than compensates for the reduction in duration

of leaf wetness, in part because infections that start earlier in the growing

season allow more time for epidemics to develop. Although increased

temperatures are generally associated with an increased risk of disease

development for most pathosystems, in some cases decreased precipitation

results in a decreased risk of disease. Environmental changes can also

indirectly influence the biology of a pathogen by changing the plant

architecture, thereby altering the microenvironment. For example, canopy

density and structure can affect the temperature, moisture, and availability of

ultraviolet (UV) light at an infection site. Increased plant and leaf densities tend

to increase leaf wetness, thus promoting the development of pathogens that

prefer humid conditions. A general distinction should be made between

necrotrophic and biotrophic pathogens. Necrotrophs obtain nutrients from

dead tissues and are only limitedly affected by the active meta-bolism of host

plant cells. In contrast, biotrophs derive their nutrition from living cells and

have deep and prolonged physiological interactions with their hosts. Therefore,

environmental factors that cause or accelerate tissue death, such as high

temperatures or ozone levels, may favor infection by necrotrophs. On the other

hand, factors that affect plant growth, such as elevated levels of CO2 or

increased temperature or drought, may cause changes in the physiology of a

host species that will deeply alter the colonization of host tissues by biotrophic

pathogens. Pathogen fecundity has been shown to increase in the presence of

elevated levels of CO2, thereby accelerating evolution in response to climate

change. Epidemics involving polycyclic pathogens are strongly influenced by

the number of generations of the pathogens within a particular time period.


207

Temperature and moisture govern the rate of reproduction of many pathogens.

The longer growing seasons that will result from global warming will extend the

amount of time available for pathogen reproduction and dissemination. Climate

change may also influence the sexual reproduction of pathogens, thereby

increasing the evolutionary potential of individual populations. As far as

migration and adaptation to climate change are concerned, most pathogens will

have an advantage over plants because of their shorter generation periods and,

in many cases, their ability to be quickly dispersed by the wind.

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON PLANT DISEASES

Effect of temperature

Certain minimum temperature is required by both plants and pathogens

to grow. Temperature affects the chain of events in disease cycles such as

survival, dispersal, penetration, development and also reproduction rate for

many pathogens. With increasing temperature spore germination of rust

fungus Puccinia substriata increases. In southern Germany, a northward shift

of Cercospora beticola, leaf spot of sugar beet was due to increasing annual

mean temperature by 0.8-1°C. Altered temperatures favour over wintering of

sexual propagules which increased the evolutionary potential of a population.

Generally high moisture and temperature favours and initiate disease

development, as well as germination and proliferation of fungal spores of

diverse pathogens. Conidia of powdery mildew have the ability to germinate

even at 0% relative humidity (RH). Conidia of Erisiphe cichoracearum germinate

at temperature from 7 to 32°C with a RH of 60 to 80% and spores of Erysiphe

necator germinate at temperatures from 6 to 23°C with a RH from 33 to 90 %.

Cereal crops become more susceptible to rust diseases because of

temperature influence. Oat stem rust resistance genes Pg3 and Pg4 fail at

temperature above 20°C. Likewise, wheat leaf rust resistance genes viz., Lr2a,

Lr210 and Lr217 are temperature sensitive. Only Lr2a gene shows resistance

at temperature beyond 25°C. In contrast, lignification in forage crops increases

with higher temperature. Moderate temperature is the best for fungal growth

that cause plant disease. Phytophthora infestans, late blight of potato and

tomato, infects and reproduces most successfully at high moisture when

temperatures are between 7.2°C and 26.8°C. Infection of Eucalyptus sp. by

Phytophthora cinnamomi due to increased soil temperature of 12-30°C.

Temperature also plays a vital role for the occurrence of bacterial diseases such

as Ralstonia solanacearum, Acidovorax avenae and Burkholderia glumea and

bacteria also proliferate in the areas where temperature dependent diseases


208

have not been previously observed. Even the incidence of virus and other vector

borne diseases also alter. Mild and warmer winters make aphids easy to

survive thus spreading Barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV) and also increase

viruses of potato and sugar beet.

Effect of moisture

With increased temperature various models on climate change predict

frequent and extreme rainfall events and higher atmospheric water vapour

concentrations. These encourage the crops to produce healthier and larger

canopies that retain moisture as leaf wetness and RH for longer periods and

results in condition conducive for pathogens and diseases such as late blights

and vegetable root diseases including powdery mildews. High moisture favours

foliar diseases and some soil borne pathogens such Phytophthora, Pythium, R.

solani and Sclerotium rolfsii. Drought stress affect the incidence and severity of

viruses such as Maize dwarf mosaic virus (MDMV) and Beet yellows virus

(BYV).

Effect of CO2

Both the host and the pathogen are influenced by increased CO2 levels in

various ways. Increased size of plant organs, leaf area, leaf thickness, more

numbers of leaves, higher total leaf area/plant, stems and branches with

greater diameter are resulted from increased CO2 levels. Dense canopy favours

the incidence of rust, powdery mildew, Alternaria blight, Stemphylium blight

and anthacnose diseases. Higher CO2 concentrations induce greater fungal

spore production. Increased CO2 also enhances photosynthesis, increased

water use efficiency and reduced damage from ozone and leaf area, plant height

and crop yield are increased at higher doses of CO2. The physiological changes

on the host plant due to increased CO2 can conversely result in increase host

resistance to pathogens.

Under elevated CO2 conditions, potential of dual mechanism i.e., reduced

stomata opening and altered leaf chemistry results in reduced disease

incidence and severity in many plant pathosystems where the pathogen targets

the stomata. In soybean, elevated concentration of CO2 and O3 altered the

expression of 3 soybean diseases, downy mildew (Perenospora manshurica),

brown spots (Septoria glycines) and sudden death syndrome (Fusarium

virguliforme) and response to the diseases varied considerably. Elevated CO2

also leads to production of papillae and accumulation of silicon by barley

plants at the site of appressorial penetration of Erysiphe graminis and changed

leaf chemistry that decrease susceptibility to the powdery mildew pathogen. In


209

general, the effects of elevated CO2 concentration on plant diseases can be

positive or negative, but majority of the cases disease severity increased.

Besides all that mentioned above, change in temperature and other climatic

factors make the plants vulnerable to pathogens are currently not important

owing to unfavourable climate. For example, drought condition favours

infection by Armilaria sp. which is normally not very pathogenic.

Effect of climate change on vector-borne diseases

Plant viruses operate in association with their host plants and vectors.

The risk of vector-borne disease at the local and regional level is limited by the

climatic requirements of disease vectors. Both host plant and insect vector

populations are affected by climate change and spread the plant viruses.

Global warming also influences the primary infection of the host, the spread of

the infection within the host and/or the horizontal transmission of the virus to

new hosts by the vector. Phenology and physiology of the host also affected by

climate change, thereby affect its virus susceptibility and virus ability to infect.

In turn, effects on host physiology may affect the attractiveness of the host to

vectors and/or viral transmissibility. Climate change has various effects on

vectors like modification of vector phenology, vector‟s over-wintering, density,

migration and its stability. There is a little effect by elevated CO2 levels on

natural enemies of insect herbivores. This elevated CO2 have indirect effect on

third trophic level, by changing the size and composition of insects prey

populations. Any changes either in host plant or insect vector population due

to climate change could spread plant viruses.

Climate change and microbial interactions

Increased CO2 levels in the atmosphere have major consequences on

carbon cycling and the functioning of various ecosystems. Nitrogen deposition

level, CO2 concentration and temperature are important factors affecting soil

microbial communities. Short-term and long-term changes in the abiotic

conditions not only affect plant growth and productivity but also the

populations of microorganisms living on plant surfaces. Any change in

phyllosphere microflora, affects plant growth and plants‟ ability to withstand

aggressive attack of pathogens.

Fungal endophytes of aboveground organs of grass species are

widespread; this type of symbiotic relationship can be found in 20%–30% of

grasses worldwide. The interactions between the grass and the endophyte can

range from parasitic to mutualistic. The symbiosis may affect how a plant host

responds to climate change, as fungal endophytes have been shown to confer


210

tolerance to water stress, heat stress, and low nutrient availability. The

frequency of endophyte infection of tall fescue was higher under elevated CO2

conditions than under ambient CO2 conditions but was not affected by

temperature or precipitation treatments. These results suggest that elevated

CO2 levels may promote this grass–fungus symbiosis more than changes in

temperature or precipitation, leading to higher rates of infection of tall fescue in

old-field communities. About two-thirds of plants have symbiotic relationships

with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. The fungi involved in arbuscular

mycorrhizae are members of the order Glomales, all of which are obligate

symbionts. Because the arbuscular mycorrhizal association functions on the

basis of fixed carbon moving from plant to fungus, it is logical to assume that

increasing levels of atmospheric CO2 affect these relationships. Various

workers have observed arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi as a major conduit for the

transfer of carbon between plants and soil and found elevated levels of

atmospheric CO2 to modulate the belowground translocation of plant-fixed

carbon. They observed shifts in populations of active arbuscular mycorrhizae

species under elevated atmospheric CO2 conditions. These changes were

followed by changes in other bacterial and fungal communities in the

rhizosphere. Thus, it was suggested that elevated levels of atmospheric CO2

promote the emergence of distinct opportunistic plant-associated microbial

communities. They presented evidence to support the theory that plant-

assimilated carbon is rapidly transferred to mycorrhizae fungi and then slowly

released from these fungi to bacterial and fungal populations that are well

adapted to the conditions prevailing in the rhizosphere. They also concluded

that during periods of increasing atmospheric CO2 levels, changes in the

carbon-flow pathways in soils are generally reflected in changes in terrestrial

ecosystems. Climate change is likely to alter the distribution and population

levels of soil microflora, affecting both intensive and low-input agricultural

production systems. Naturally occurring disease-suppressive soils have been

documented in a variety of cropping systems and, in many of these cases, the

biological factors contributing to the observed disease suppression have been

identified. Emphasis has been placed on the manipulation of the cropping

system to manage resident beneficial rhizosphere microorganisms as a means

to suppress soilborne plant pathogens. It is likely that changes in temperature,

soil moisture, salinity, and watering cycles will affect soil microflora, including

microorganisms involved in suppressing disease.


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EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON PLANT DISEASE MANAGEMENT

Climate change adds an extra layer of complexity to plant protection.

Unfortunately, there are almost no studies on how climate change may affect

chemical control. However, because of changes in the relative importance and

distribution of different pathogens, the fungicide market will certainly change.

Under worst-case scenarios, several crops may require more fungicide

spray treatments or higher application rates, thus increasing costs for farmers,

prices for consumers, and the likelihood of development of fungicide resistance.

Some agricultural systems may be more flexible than others in the adoption of

new cultivars and cultural practices to cope with the increased risk of certain

diseases. Annual crops will have an advantage over perennials, as they provide

more flexibility when it comes to adopting new cultivars and cultural practices.

Potential adaptation strategies must be accompanied by cost–benefit analyses.

Evaluating the efficacy of current physical, chemical, and biological control

methods under changing climatic conditions and research concerning new

tools and strategies (including plant breeding) for coping with the predicted

changes will be of great strategic importance.

Agronomic practices, such as crop rotation, tillage, fertilization,

irrigation, selection of the production site, use of resistant/tolerant varieties,

and sanitation to reduce the amount of overwintering inoculum, can be used to

prevent or reduce the increased disease risks associated with the predicted

climate change. Fungicides are an effective method of controlling plant

diseases, despite negative public perceptions. Fungicides may continue to serve

as common disease suppression agents, although alternative measures, such

as cultural methods and biological control, should be developed. The

persistence of plant protection chemicals in the phyllosphere is highly

dependent on weather conditions. Changes in duration, intensity, and

frequency of precipitation events will affect the efficacy of chemical pesticides

and how quickly the active molecules are washed away. Temperature can

directly influence the degradation of chemicals and alter plant physiology and

morphology, indirectly affecting the penetration, translocation, persistence, and

modes of action of many systemic fungicides.

There is almost no information on the effects of climate change on

biological control of plant disease. Some microorganisms have been developed

for use as biocontrol agents of plant diseases. Biocontrol agents can serve as

alternatives to chemical fungicides when applied alone or in combination with

other control methods. Because they are living organisms, these biocontrol


212

agents are also affected by the abiotic environment. For example, the biocontrol

of the fungal foliar disease gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) in greenhouse cucumber

crops is affected by climate. Suppression of gray mold by the biocontrol agent

Trichoderma harzianum T39 is more pronounced at higher temperatures and

lower RH levels. More recent research into the effects of climate change on

pathogens and their biocontrol is reported here. The efficacy of biocontrol

treatments can vary under different environmental conditions. Late blight

(Phytophthora infestans) development depends on the presence of water on the

surface of the plant, temperature, and RH, and the management of this disease

is facilitated by suitable climate management practices. In growth chambers,

the duration of the wet period also increased the severity of late blight. In a

biocontrol trial involving tomato plants inoculated with P. infestans sporangia,

we observed a control efficacy of 24% among plants subjected to a 24-hour wet

period and 39% efficacy among plants subjected to an 8-hour wet period,

which is the minimum period for infection. Among the plants incubated at low

temperatures (10◦C–15◦C), which delayed the appearance of symptoms and

slowed disease development, only T39 significantly decreased disease severity

relative to the untreated control. Among the plants incubated at temperatures

of 20◦C or 25◦C, most of the examined biocontrol treatments (various bacterium

and yeast isolates) decreased disease severity by 30%–60%. Thus, when

environmental conditions are favorable for late blight development, the

examined biocontrol agents are less effective.

Need for adoption of novel approaches

Changing disease scenario due to climate change has highlighted

the need for better agricultural practices and use of eco-friendly methods in

disease management for sustainable crop production. In the changing climate

and shift in seasons, choice of crop management practices based on the

prevailing situation is important. In such scenarios, weather-based disease

monitoring, inoculums monitoring, especially for soil-borne diseases and rapid

diagnostics would play a significant role. There is need to adopt novel

approaches to counter the resurgence of diseases under changed climatic

scenario. Integrated disease management strategies should be developed to

decrease dependence on fungicides. Other multipronged approaches include

healthy seeds with innate forms of broad and durable disease resistance, and

intercropping systems that foster refuges for natural biocontrol organisms. In

addition, monitoring and early warning systems for forecasting disease

epidemics should be developed for important host-pathogens which have a

direct bearing on the earnings of the farmers and food security at large. Such


213

as diversified crop protection strategy has been highlighted in a comprehensive

study on an integrated approach to control all foliar diseases in barley. Use of

botanical pesticides and plant-derived soil amendments such as neem oil,

neem cake and karanja seed extract also help in mitigation of climate change

because it helps in the reduction of nitrous oxide emission by nitrification

inhibitors such as nitrapyrin and dicyandiamide.

Conclusions

Understanding the potential effects of climate change on agriculture in

terms of its impacts on severity and incidence of pests and diseases is an

important issue. Climate changes will affect diseases, yield and quality of

crops. Our knowledge is limited on how multifactor climate changes may affect

plant health. The prediction is that climate change may alter rates of pathogen

development, modify host resistance and lead to changes in the physiology of

host - pathogen interactions, which again may influence the severity of plant

diseases. Therefore, emphasis must shift from impact assessment to developing

adaptation and mitigation strategies and options. First, there is need to

evaluate under climate change the efficacy of current physical, chemical and

biological control tactics, including disease-resistant cultivars, and secondly, to

include future climate scenarios in all research aimed at developing new tools

and tactics. Disease risk analyses based on host–pathogen interactions should

be performed, and research on host response and adaptation should be

conducted to understand how an imminent change in the climate could affect

plant diseases.


214

Suggestive readings :

Agrios G N. 2005. Plant Pathology. 5th ed. London, UK: Elsevier Academic

Press.

Brosi G B, McCulley R L, Bush L P, Nelson J A, Classen A T, and Norby R J.

2011. Effects of multiple climate change factors on the tall fescue–fungal

endophyte symbiosis: Infection frequency and tissue chemistry. New Phytol.

189:797–805.

Chakraborty S. and Datta S. 2003. How will plant pathogens adapt to host

plant resistance at elevated CO2 under a changing climate? New Phytol.

159:733–742.

Coakley S M, Scherm H and Chakraborty S. 1999. Climate change and plant

disease management. Annual Review of Phytopathology 37: 399-426

Das T. Hajong M. Majumdar D. Tombisana Devi R K. Rajesh T. 2016. Climate

change impacts on plant diseases. SAARC J Agri. 14(2): 200-209

Elad, Y. and Pertot I. 2014. Climate change impacts on plant pathogens and

plant diseases. Journal of Crop Improvement 28(1): 99-139.

Ghini R W. Bettiol and Hamada E. 2011. Diseases in tropical and plantation

crops as affected by climate changes: Current knowledge and perspectives.

Plant Pathol. 60:122–132.

Juroszek P. and von Tiedemann A. 2011. Potential strategies and future

requirements for plant disease management under a changing climate. Plant

Pathol. 60:100–112.

Von Tiedemann A. and Firsching K. H. 2000. Interactive effects of elevated

ozone and carbon dioxide on growth and yield of leaf rust-infected versus

non-infected wheat. Environmental Pollution 108: 357-363


215

Management of Diseases of Solanaceous and

Cucurbitaceous Vegetables under Changing Climate

Meenu Gupta and Arunesh Kumar*


*Department of Plant Pathology,


Nauni, Solan HP-173230

Climate is changing naturally since the beginning of the evolution of

earth, 4–5 billion years ago, at its own pace but presently it has gained

momentum due to inadvertent anthropogenic disturbances. These changes

may culminate in adverse impact on human health and the biosphere on which

we depend. The multi-faceted interactions among the humans, microbes and

the rest of the biosphere, have started reflecting an increase in the

concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) i.e. CO2, CH4 and N2O, causing

warming across the globe along with other cascading consequences in the form

of shift in rainfall pattern, melting of ice, rise in sea level etc.

Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical

distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions

of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions, or in the

distribution of weather around the average conditions. Climate change may be

a change in the mean of the various climatic parameters such as temperature,

precipitation, relative humidity and composition of atmospheric gases etc. and

in properties over a longer period of time and a larger geographical area. It can

also be referred to as any change in climate over time, whether due to natural

variability or as a result of human activity. According to Schneider et al. (2007)

vulnerability of any system to climate change is the degree to which these

systems are susceptible and unable to survive with the adverse impacts of

climate change. At present due to anthropogenic activities like

industrialization, deforestation and automobiles etc. Changes in the climate are

being taken place, which will again turn detrimental to life (Rakshit et al.,

2009).

World is currently facing problem of feeding ever-increasing population

under the climate change scenario. IPCC projected minimum 1.8°C increase in

temperature by 2100 above 1990 masl and confirmed that the global average


216

temperature increased by 0.74°C over the last century, which is likely to pose a

potential threat to agricultural production and productivity and affects the crop

yields due to incidence of plant diseases and pests as well. There is very good

chances of decrease in yield up to 5 per cent for every 1°C rise in temperature

above 32°C (IPCC, 2007).

The changes in climate may include fluctuations in temperature,

increase in soil salinity, water logging, high atmospheric CO2 concentration

and UV radiation. High temperature is due to the increased amount of green

house gases like CO2 and CH4 in atmosphere, which is commonly known as

global warming or green house effect. The mean annual temperature of India is

increased by 0.46oC over a period of last 111 years since 1901 (24.23oC) to

2012 (24.69oC) (Data Portal India, 2013). Global combined surface

temperatures over land and sea have been increased from 13.68oC in 1881-90

to 14.47oC in 2001-10 (WMO, 2013). Globally, averaged surface temperature is

expected to rise by between 1.1°C up to 6.4°C by the last decade of the 21st

century (Minaxi et al., 2011). This temperature increase will alter the timing

and amount of rainfall, availability of water, wind patterns and causes

incidence of weather extremes, such as droughts, heat waves, floods or storms,

changes in ocean currents, acidification, forest fires and hastens rate of ozone

depletion (Minaxi et al., 2011; Kumar, 2012). Higher average temperatures will

also stimulate the emergence and re-emergence of pests and diseases and

increase the vectors that carry disease. Increase in temperature will cause the

melting of polar ice, which in turn causes increase in sea level and protruding

of sea water into the coastal areas resulting in water logging and increased

salinity levels.

Under changing climatic situations crop failures, shortage of yields,

reduction in quality and increasing pest and disease problems are common and

they render the vegetable cultivation unprofitable. South Asian summer

monsoon will be delayed and become less certain and the temperature

increases will be most intense during the winter season (Lal et al., 2001). The

failure of the monsoons results in water shortages, resulting in below-average

crop yields. This is particularly true of major drought-prone regions such as

southern and eastern Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,

Orissa, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. High temperatures and inadequate rainfall at

the time of sowing and heavy rainfall at the time of harvesting may cause

severe crop losses in many states of India.


217

Climate change and plant diseases

Plant diseases have always been a threat to food production. Two frequently

cited examples of large-scale human impacts of plant diseases are the Irish

Potato Famine in the 1840s caused by Phytophthora infestans, whereby over 2

million persons died of starvation or were displaced; and the Great Bengal

Famine of 1943 caused by drought and an epidemic by the fungus Cochliobolus

miyabeanus on rice, when an estimated 2 million people died (Agrios, 2005;

Strange and Scott, 2005). Currently, plant diseases cause annual losses of

approximately 10 per cent to global food and fibre supplies; this figure would

be much higher without the use of pesticides commonly employed for their

control (Strange and Scott, 2005). The impacts of plant diseases are greatest in

those regions of the developing world where approximately 1 billion of the

poorest people live and even seemingly small chronic losses of 5-10 per cent

due to plant diseases can impact human populations, particularly when

coupled with other environmental stresses such as drought or flooding. With

predicted future population growth and the technological challenges in meeting

the predicted food demands, the situation is likely to become even more

critical.

Crops are expected to benefit from warmer temperatures and elevated levels

of CO2 in the atmosphere, but might be stressed by drier soils and weather

extremes. Stressed plants are often more susceptible to diseases. In addition,

pathogens that cause crop diseases will be influenced directly by changes in

climate, positively or negatively, depending on the environmental conditions

that they require to cause disease. Typically, the two most important

environmental factors in the development of plant disease epidemics are

temperature and moisture (Agrios, 2005). Some diseases are favoured by cool

temperatures, while others are favoured by moderate or hot conditions. Disease

often occurs when temperatures are more stressful for the plant than for the

pathogen. Moisture, in the form of free water or high humidity, is necessary for

infection, reproduction, and spread in many plant pathogens, although some

pathogens cause disease in dryer conditions.

Harvell et al. (2002) have predicted that climate warming will affect the

incidence and severity of plant, animal and human diseases by: 1. Increasing

pathogen development rates, transmission and number of generations per

year due to extended and warmer growing seasons; 2. Reducing


218

overwintering-related limitations on pathogen life cycle; and

3. Modifying host susceptibility to infection.

Climate change influences the disease incidence, host-pathogen

interactions, distribution and ecology of pathogens, time of appearance,

migration to new places and their overwintering capacity. Development of plant

diseases depends largely on environment prevailing around the host and

pathogen, and a change in the constituents may influence host susceptibility

and consequently host-parasite relationship (Khan, 2012). In general, climate

change has the potential to modify host physiology and resistance and to alter

stages and rates of development of the pathogen (Coakley et al., 1999).

Neumeister (2010) reported that temperature, rainfall, humidity, radiation or

dew can affect the growth and spread of fungi and bacteria. Other important

factors influencing plant diseases are air pollution, particularly ozone and UV-

B radiation as well as nutrient availability.

Boonekamp (2012) summarized the effects of climate change on plant-

disease interactions as follows:

1. Higher temperatures will hasten the life cycle of many pathogenic fungi,

multiplying rate and consequently increasing the infection pressure.

2. Prolonged generations of diseases will be able to infect crops at a later

growth stage then at present.

3. The expression of resistance genes in the host plant and the efficacy may

decrease dramatically with climate change. Due to increase in number of

generations or multiplication rates of pathogen, selection for more

aggressive race or strain occur within pathogen population and when such

selected race or strain find a host with compromised resistance, become

virulent and eventually it will lead to unprecedented opportunities for

disease epidemics.

4. When over a large cropping area, the genetic variation of the crop is low

and a new or adapted strain is becoming dominant in the pathogen

population, the effects can be dramatic.

The effects of climate change on plant pathogens and the diseases they

cause have been examined in some pathosystems. Predicted climatic changes

are expected to affect pathogen development and survival rates and modify host

susceptibility, resulting in changes in the impact of diseases on crops. The

effects of these climatic changes will differ by pathosystem and geographical

region. These changes may affect not only the optimal conditions for infection


219

but also host specificity and mechanisms of plant infection (Elad and Pertot,

2014). Climate change combined with globalization, increased human mobility

and pathogen and vector evolution has increased the spread of invasive plant

pathogens and other species with high fertility and dispersal, thus threatening

vegetable production systems (Ebert, 2017).

Climate change and its effect on diseases of solanaceous and

cucurbitaceous vegetables

Vegetables play a major role in Indian agriculture as they ensure the food

and nutritional security of the country apart from enhancing per capita income

of the farmers. Amongst the vegetable crops, solanaceous and cucurbitaceous

vegetables are the most remunerative crops which have ameliorated the

economic conditions of the farmers. Solanaceae is an economically important

family including tomato, sweet pepper, eggplant, potato and chillies.

Cucurbitaceous vegetables belong to the family cucurbitaceae and include

salad crop (cucumber and long melon), dessert fruit (water melon and

muskmelon), cook crop (pumpkin, bottle gourd, bitter gourd etc.).

Understanding what alterations climate change is likely to cause to the

prevalence of diseases of cultivated and wild plants, and the damage they

cause in different parts of the world, is of great importance. This is because of

the need for food security as the world‟s population increases at a time when

its capacity to increase production in many populous middle- and lower-

latitude regions is projected to decline and climate insecurity challenges man‟s

ability to manage plant diseases effectively. It is also because of the increasing

threat plant diseases pose to plant biodiversity and the likelihood of mass

species extinctions arising from the combined influences of climate change and

man‟s activities. Severe outbreaks of Phytophthora diseases such as late blight

on potato and tomato (P. infestans), fruit rot on brinjal (P. parasitica), wilts in

chilli and capsicum (P. capsici), blights in cucurbits (P. capsici), fruit rot in okra

(P. parasitica) and root rot in cabbage and cauli fl ower (P. megasperma/P.

drechsleri) have been noticed since 2008 (Chowdappa, 2010). Similarly, the

potato-growing regions of the world is expected to be warmer and wetter, the

potato pathogens, especially late blight pathogen, would become more

important because the pathogen is strongly dependent on climatic factors for

infection and sporulation.


220

Earlier onset of warm temperatures could result in an early appearance

of late blight disease in temperate regions with the potential for more severe

epidemics and increased number of fungicide applications needed for its

control. Studies carried out in Finland predicted that for each 1°C warming,

late blight would occur four to seven days earlier, and the susceptibility period

extended by 10–20 days (Kaukoranta, 1996). This would result in 1–4

additional fungicide applications, increasing both cost of cultivation and

environmental risk.

In India also, the late blight scenario would change drastically with

climate change. Currently, late blight is not a serious problem in autumn in

the state of Punjab, Haryana, and parts of Uttar Pradesh, primarily due to

suboptimal temperature regimes during December–January. However, disease

outbreaks will become more intense with increase in ambient temperature

coupled with high RH. Such scenarios have been witnessed during warmer

years, i.e. 1997–98 and 2006–2007, when average crop losses in this region

exceeded 40 per cent. States like Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Central Uttar

Pradesh, which are comparatively free from late blight attack may witness

frequent outbreaks of the disease under the climate change scenario. Increase

in both, temperature and RH has added new dimension to late blight across

the world. Under such a situation, P. infestans attacks potato stems more often

than foliage. In fact, in recent years it is more of „stem blight‟ than the foliar

blight. This phase of the disease is more serious than the foliar stage as it

affects the very crop plant. In India, in Lahaul valley of HP, which was earlier

free from late blight because of lack of precipitation, has now experienced

attack of late blight due to occurrence of rainfall.

In Upper Great Lakes region of the USA, increase in annual precipitation

and increase in number of days with precipitation over the years is supposed to

be the reason for the increased risk of potato late blight infection and

subsequent yield and economic losses. However, hotter and drier summers

which are likely in the UK may reduce the importance of late blight, although

earlier disease onset may obviate this advantage. An empirical climate disease

model has suggested that under the climate change scenario of 1°C increase

with 30% reduction in precipitation in Germany will decrease potato late blight

to a mere 16% of its current level.

Synchytrium endobioticum causing wart and Spongospora subterranea

responsible for powdery scab are favoured by low temperature and high soil


221

moisture. Wart spores although can cause infection in the range of 10–28°C

with an optimum of 21°C, but there is hardly any infection beyond 23°C.

Therefore, warmer climates are likely to reduce wart infestation. Powdery scab

infestation is also likely to be reduced with increase in temperature and

reduction in rainfall as a consequence of global warming. Since optimum

temperature for powdery scab is 12°C, and moisture requirement is 100%, the

global warming may either lead to elimination of this disease or it will be

pushed to higher altitudes making high hills (2,500 masl) free of powdery scab.

Diseases like Sclerotium wilt, charcoal rot, and bacterial wilt are favoured

by high temperature and moisture. Sclerotium wilt in India is restricted to

plateau regions (Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra). Optimum

temperature requirement for this disease is 30–35°C. With the increase in

temperature due to global warming, the disease may enter into other areas like

mid-hills, and in long run, it may also become prevalent in eastern Indo-

Gangetic plains. Similarly, bacterial wilt may also advance to higher altitudes

in hilly regions due to global warming, making them unfit for seed production.

Charcoal rot is currently endemic in eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and

Madhya Pradesh. The global warming is likely to increase the severity of this

disease in these regions. It is also likely to expand to other parts of North

Central plains as well. Black scurf and common scab are favoured by moderate

temperatures (15–21 and 20–22°C, respectively) and are likely to remain

insulated from global warming in near future. By the end of the century when

ambient temperatures are likely to increase by 1.4–5.8°C, the severity of these

two diseases may decrease substantially.

The rate of multiplication of most of the potato viruses gets increased

with the increase in temperatures. In the subtropical plains, where majority of

the potatoes are grown, global warming may not affect potato viruses directly,

but may have a serious repercussion through the altered biology of insect

vectors. The increase in temperature will enhance vector population, thereby

increasing the number of insecticide sprays for keeping the vector population

in check. Rate of multiplication of the virus in host tissue will also increase

substantially, leading to early expression of the virus symptoms. Studies

carried out in Holland revealed that during the last 12 years (1994– 2008),

some new viral strains (PVYntn, PVYnw) have been detected indicating that

climate change may introduce new viral strains. This indicates that warming

may lead to white fly infestation in Indo-Gangetic plains. Increase in B. tabaci

population has also led to outbreak of a new viral disease known as Apical leaf


222

curl in potato which has since been identified to be caused by a Gemini virus

which is not reported to infect potato crop world over. Therefore, a new

dimension has been added to seed potato production in subtropics.

Cucurbits are cultivated in all parts of India under varied agroclimatic

conditions. Like other crops, cucurbits are also sensitive to climate change and

various diseases. Studies have indicated that under climate change conditions,

elevated carbon dioxide concentrations, altered temperature and precipitation

regimes may alter growth stages and rates of development in the life cycle and

pathogenicity of pathogens, as well as modify the physiology and resistance of

host plants. Changing climate conditions can contribute to a successful spread

of newly introduced viruses or their vectors and establishment of these

organisms in areas that were previously unfavourable. For example, tobacco

streak virus was introduced in India in 1997, and now it is adapted to chilli,

cucurbits, ornamentals and okra. The most important vectors such as aphid,

white fly, thrip and leaf-hoppers, which are associated with potyviruses,

begomoviruses, tospoviruses and phytoplasma, have emerged during the last

two decades. The number of disease epidemics has dramatically increased in

recent years and also the threat of emerging new diseases and the re-

emergence of other diseases. Some recent examples are incidence of thrips-

transmitted tospoviruses and white fly transmitted begomoviruses in chilli,

cucurbits, okra and tomato. Hence, there is a need to thoroughly understand

the potential climate change impacts on host–pathogen interactions, in order to

evaluate appropriate disease management strategies (Krishna Reddy, 2010).

To address the adverse impacts of climate change on productivity and

quality of vegetable crops, we need to develop sound adaptation strategies. The

emphasis should be on development of production systems for improved water-

use efficiency and to adapt to the hot and dry conditions. Strategies like

changing sowing or planting dates in order to combat the likely increase in

temperature and water stress periods during the crop-growing season.

Modifying fertilizer application to enhance nutrient availability and use of soil

amendments to improve soil fertility for enhancing nutrient uptake. Providing

irrigation during critical stages of the crop growth and conserving soil moisture

reserves are the most important interventions. The crop management practices

like mulching with crop residues and plastic mulches help in conserving soil

moisture. In some instances, excessive soil moisture due to heavy rain becomes

a major problem, and it could be overcome by growing crops on raised beds. In

addition to employing modified crop management practices, the challenges


223

posed by climate change could be tackled by developing tolerant varieties.

Several institutions have evolved hybrids and varieties, which are tolerant to

heat and drought stress conditions. They must be used very effectively to

combat the effect of climate change depending upon their performance in a

given agro-ecological region. Efforts should be intensified to develop new

varieties suitable to different agro-ecological regions under changing climatic

conditions. In comparison to annual crops, where the adaptation strategies can

be realized relatively fast using a wide range of cultivars and species, changing

the planting dates or season, planting and rearrangement of orchards requires

a consideration of the more long-term aspects of climate change. Therefore,

before resorting to any adaptation option, a detailed investigation on the impact

of climate change on crops is necessary.

References:

Agrios, GN. 2005. Plant Pathology. Fifth edition. Academic Press,

Massachusetts, 922p.

Boonekamp, PM. (2012). Are plant diseases too much ignored in the climate

change debate? European Journal of Plant Pathology 133: 291–294.

Chowdappa, P. 2010. Impact of Climate Change on Fungal Diseases of

Horticultural Crops. In: Singh HP, Singh, JP and Lal SS (eds.). Challenges

of Climate Change- Indian Horticulture, Westville Publishing House, New

Delhi.

Coakley, SM., Scherm, H. and Chakraborty, S. 1999. Climate change and plant

disease management. Annual Review of Phytopathology 37:399–426.

Ebert, AW. 2017. Vegetable Production, Diseases, and Climate Change. In:

World Agricultural Resources and Food Security. Published online: 18 Jul

2017; 103-124.

Elad, Y. and Pertot, I. 2014. Climate change impacts on plant pathogens and

plant diseases. Journal of Crop Improvement 28: 99–139.

Ghini, R., Hamada, E. and Bettiol, W. 2008. Climate change and plant

diseases. Scientia Agricola 65: 98-107.

Harvell, CD., Mitchell, CE., Ward, JR., Altizer, S., Dobson, AP., Ostfeld, RS and

Samuel, MD. 2002. Climate warming and disease risks for terrestrial and

marine biota. Science 296: 2158–2162.

IPCC. 2007. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis report.

www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment- eport/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdf

Kaukoranta, T. 1996. Impact of global warming on potato late blight: risk,

yield loss and control. Agricultural and Food Science Finland 5: 311–327.

http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-%20eport/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdf


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Khan, MR. 2012. Effect of elevated levels of CO2 and other gaseous pollutants

on crop productivity and plant diseases. National Seminar on Sustainable

Agriculture and Food Security: Challenges in Changing Climate, March 27-

28, 2012 pp: 197.

Krishna Reddy, M. 2010. Climate change and virus diseases of horticultural

crops. In: Singh HP, Singh JP, Lal SS (eds) Challenges of climate change-

Indian horticulture. Westville Publishing, New Delhi.

Kumar, SV. 2012. Climate change and its impact on agriculture: A review.

International Journal of Agriculture, Environment and Biotechnology 4(2):

297-302.

Lal, M., Nozawa, T., Emori, S., Harasawa, H., Takahashi, K., Kimoto, M., Abe-

Ouchi, A., Nakajima, T., Takemura, T and Numaguti, A. 2001. Future

climate change: implications for Indian summer monsoon and its

variability. Current Science 81: 1196–1207

Minaxi, RP., Acharya, KO and Nawale, S. 2011. Impact of climate change on

food security. International Journal of Agriculture, Environment and

Biotechnology 4(2):125-127.

Neumeister, L. 2010. Climate change and crop protection- anything can

happen. Pesticide Action Network Asia and the Pacific, Penang, Malaysia pp:

4-41.

Rakshit, A., Sarkar, NC., Pathak, H., Maiti, RK., Makar, AK. and Singh, PL.

2009. Agriculture: A potential source of greenhouse gases and their

mitigation strategies. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental

Science 6 (24): 20-33.

Schneider, SH., Semenov, S., Patwardhan, A., Burton, I., Magadza, CHD.,

Oppenheimer, M., Pittock, AB., Rahman, A., Smith, JB., Suarez A and

Yamin, F. 2007. Assessing key vulnerabilities and the risk from climate

change. In: ML Parry, OF Canziani, JP Palutikof, PJ van der Linden and CE

Hanson (Eds), Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and

Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment

Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge, pp. 779–810.

Strange RN and Scott PR. 2005. Plant disease: a threat to global food security.

Annual Review of Phytopathology 43: 83-116.

WMO. 2013. WMO statement on the status of the global climate in 2013.

https://library.wmo.int › pmb_ged › wmo_1130_en.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Strange%20RN%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=16078878

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Scott%20PR%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=16078878


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Insect Pest Responses to Climate Change: Implications

for Vegetable Production

Divender Gupta and Isha Sharma

Department of Entomology


Nauni (Solan)-173230 HP

Introduction:

Climate change may be referred to as the change in the mean of various

climatic parameters such as temperature, relative humidity, precipitation and

composition of the gases in the atmosphere. It may also be defined as the

change in climate over time. Various anthropogenic activities like

industrialization, deforestation and automobiles etc. have led to climate

change. The changes in climate may include fluctuations in temperature,

increase in soil salinity, water logging, high atmospheric CO2 concentration

and UV radiation. The greenhouse gases such as CO2 and CH4 are mainly

responsible for the increase in the global temperature and in leading to what is

called the greenhouse effect. Globally the average surface temperature over

land and sea have increased from 13.680 C in 1881-90 to 14.470 C in 2001-10

and the expected to increase between 1.1°C up to 6.4°C by the last decade of

the 21st century.

Climate change and insects:

Insects are poikilothermic organisms and hence are directly affected by

the environmental disturbances especially the temperature. Generally, climate

change impacts on pest population includes change in phenology, distribution,

ecosystem dynamics etc. Moisture and CO2 effects on insects can be important

considerations in a global climate change setting. The effects of climate change

can be direct with effect on insect physiology and behaviour or indirect through

the influence on host plants, natural enemies and interspecific competitions

with other insects.

Insect attack number of agricultural crops and act as pests but some also play

crucial roles as parasitoids and predators of key pest species. An insect

population‟s response to a rapidly changing climate may also be variable when

insects interact with different competitors, predators and parasitoids and


226

impose costs at different life stages. This can have a direct impact on the

overall food production systems that can be at critical risk from the impacts of

climate change.

Effect of temperature on insects

Every insect has a particular threshold temperature above which

development can occur. It has been estimated that with a 20C rise in

temperature insect might experience 1-5 additional life cycles per season. This

effect may be most notable in insects with short life cycles e.g. aphids,

diamondback moth and some mites and whiteflies. Warmer temperatures

would lead to invasion of pests earlier in the growing season and probably lead

to greater damage to crops. Insects that currently experience winter stress

increase in temperature in the range of 1-50C would increase winter survival.

Temperature increase may extend the geographical range of some insect pests

currently limited by temperatures. As the globe warms those species will

spread to the new geographical range as rapidly as their dispersal mechanism

will allow, where they can cause enormous losses. The species limited by

vegetation will be able to expand their ranges only as rapidly as the vegetation

range changes. Rising temperatures will result in more insect species attacking

more hosts in temperate climates. However, in certain conditions the rising

temperature may benefit the natural enemies and there may be changes in

tritrophic interaction. Ina study it has been shown that at higher temperatures

aphids become less responsive to aphid alarm pheromone they release when

under attack by predators and parasitoids. This resulted in potential for better

predation or parasitisation.

Period of activity of many insects may increase due to warmer winter.

This is probably an important factor in exacerbation of Pieris brassicae on cole

crops. Temperature has strong influence on the variability and incubation

period of Helicoverpa armigera eggs. Egg incubation period can be predicted

based on day degree require for egg hatching which decreases with an increase

in temperature. An increase of 30C in mean daily temperature would cause the

carrot fly Delia radicum to become active a month earlier than at present, and

temperature increases of 5 to 100C would result in completion of four

generation each year, necessitating adoption of new pest control strategies.

Effect of CO2 on insects

Insect host plant interactions will change in response to the effects of

CO2 on nutritional quality and secondary metabolites of the host plants.


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Increased levels of CO2 will enhance plant growth, but may also increase the

damage caused by some phytophagous insects. In the enriched CO2

atmosphere, many species of herbivorous insects will confront less nutritious

host plants that may induce both lengthened larval developmental times and

greater mortality.

Generally, elevated CO2 levels induce increased consumption rates in

insect herbivores. The CO2 effects on insects are usually indirect in terms of

insect damage that results from changes in the host crop. Among the probable

effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 are changes in plant nitrogen balance that

will adversely affect host plant quality for many herbivorous insects. Plants

grown in elevated CO2 typically have lower nitrogen content per unit of plant

tissues. This result in higher C/N ratio. Insects that feed on plants with lower

nitrogen per unit of plant tissue generally respond by increasing consumption,

what may still suffer longer developmental times and higher mortality. In

atmospheres experimentally enriched with CO2, the nutritional quality of leaves

declined substantially due to dilution of nitrogen by 10 to 30 per cent. Increase

in CO2 may also cause a slight decrease in N based defences (Tanins) and

increase in Carbon based defences.

Larval growth and development of Spodoptera litura on groundnut plants

subjected to elevated (550 to 750 ppm CO2) and reduced (350 ppm in chamber

and open conditions) levels of CO2 revealed that the larvae consumed

significantly higher quantity of foliage under elevated CO2 than under reduced

and ambient conditions. An increase of nearly two days in larval duration was

observed with elevated CO2 level. Rising CO2 will increase the carbon to

nitrogen balance in plants, which in turn will affect insect feeding,

concentrations of defensive chemicals in plants, compensation responses by

plant to insect herbivory and competition between pest species.

Effect of Precipitation on insects

For development in insects, moisture plays an important role and hence

changes in precipitation may affect the distribution of insects. Excessive rain

fall is harmful to many soft bodied insects like aphids, thrips, whiteflies and

also the mites. Flooding may have a negative impact on soil dwelling insects.

Climate change and pollinators: Pollinators play important role in crop

production. Climate change may decrease synchronization between flowering

and availability of pollinators in nature. Insect pollinated plants generally react

more strongly to increase warming than wind pollinated plants. The intimate


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relationships between plants and pollinators that have co-evolved over past

thousands of years will be irrevocably altered.

Pest management strategies

Microbial pesticides, host plant resistance, natural enemies synthetic

chemicals are some of the potential options for integrated pest management.

However the relative efficacy of many of these pest control measures is likely to

change as a result of influence of global warming on extension of geographical

range of insect pest, increased overwintering and rapid population growth,

changes in insect-host plant interactions, increased risk of invasion by migrant

pests, impact on arthropod diversity and extinction of species, changes in

synchrony between insect pest and their crop host, introduction of alternative

host as green bridges, reduce effectiveness of crop protection technologies.

Host Plant Resistance

Host plant resistance to insects is one of the most environment friendly

components of pest management. However, climate change may alter the

interaction between the insect pests and their host plants. Global warming may

result in the breakdown of resistance to certain insect pest. Chemical

composition of some plant species changes in direct response to biotic and

abiotic stresses; as a result, their tissues become less susceptible for growth

and survival of insect pests.

Insect host plant interactions will change in response to the effect of CO2

on nutritional quality and secondary metabolites of the host plants. Host

plants growing under enriched CO2 environment exhibited significantly larger

biomass, increase C/N ratio and decrease nitrogen concentration, as well as

increased concentrations of tannins and other phenolics.

The production of nitrogen based toxins was affected by an interaction

between CO2 and N; elevated CO2 and decreased N allocation but the reduction

was largely alleviated by the addition of N, thus indicating that future expected

elevated CO2 concentration by climate change, alter plant allocation to

defensive compounds and have enough impact on plant herbivory interactions.

Transgenic Crops

Environmental factors such as soil moisture, soil fertility and

temperature have strong influence on the expression of B. thuringiensis (Bt)

toxin protein deployed in transgenic plants. Possible cause for the failure of


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insect control in transgenic crops may be due to inadequate production of toxin

proteins, effect of environment on transgene expression, Bt resistant insect

populations and development of resistance due to in adequate management. It

is, therefore, important to understand the effect of climate change on the

efficacy of transgenic plants for pest management.

Natural Enemies

Climate change can have diverse effect on natural enemies of pest

species. The fitness of natural enemies can be altered in response to change in

herbivory quality and size induced by temperature and CO2 effect on plants.

The susceptibility of herbivores to predation and parasitism could be decreased

through the production of additional plant foliage or altered timing of herbivore

life cycle in response to plant physiological changes. The effectiveness of

natural enemies in controlling pests will decrease if pest distribution shifts into

regions outside the distribution of their natural enemies, although a new

community of natural enemies might then provide some level of control. The

abundance and activity of natural enemies will be altered through altered

management strategies adopted by farmers to cope with climate change.

Relationship between insect pest and their natural enemies will change as a

result of global warming, resulting in both increases and decreases in the

status of individual pest species.

Microbial Pesticides: Microbials are highly sensitive to environment. High

humidity is associated with high mortality of the pest infected with fungal and

viral pathogens and such effects with bacteria are variable. There is an urgent

need to the interactions with biopesticides, identify robust and adaptive

microbial strains for use in changing environmental conditions.

Challenges ahead to manage the pest problems under climate change:

Breeding Climate-Resilient Varieties:

In order to minimize the impacts of climate and other environmental

changes, it will be crucial to breed new varieties for improved resistance to

abiotic and biotic stresses. Considering late onset and/ or shorter duration of

winter, there is chance of delaying and shortening the growing seasons for

certain Rabi/ cold season crops. Hence we should concentrate on breeding

varieties suitable for late planting and those can sustain adverse climatic

conditions and pest and disease incidences.


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Rescheduling of Crop Calendars

Global temperature increase and altered rainfall patterns may result in

shrinking of crop growing seasons with intense problems of early insect

infestations. As such certain effective cultural practices like crop rotation and

planting dates will be less or no effective in controlling crop pests with changed

climate. Hence there is need to change the crop calendars according to the

changing crop environment. The growers of the crops have to change insect

management strategies in accordance with the projected changes in pest

incidence and extent of crop losses in view of the changing climate.

GIS Based Risk Mapping of Crop Pests:

Geographic Information System (GIS) is an enabling technology for

entomologists, which help in relating insect-pest outbreaks to biographic and

physiographic features of the landscape, hence can best be utilized in area

wide pest management programmes. How climatic changes will affect

development, incidence, and population dynamics of insect-pests that can be

studied through GIS by predicting and mapping trends of potential changes in

geographical distribution.

Screening of Pesticides with Novel Mode of Actions:

It has been reported by some researchers that the application of

neonicotinoid insecticides for controlling sucking pests induces salicylic acid

associated plant defense responses which enhance plant vigour and abiotic

stress tolerance, independent of their insecticidal action. This gives an insight

into investigating role of insecticides in enhancing stress tolerance in plants.

Such more compounds need to be identified for use in future crop pest

management.

Conclusion

Climate change now a day is globally acknowledged fact. It has serious

impacts on diversity, distribution, incidence, reproduction, growth,

development, voltisim and phenology of insect pests. Climate changes also

affect the activity of plant defense and resistance, biopesticides, synthetic

chemicals, invasive insect species, expression of Bt toxins in transgenic crops.

Considering such declining production efficiency due to depleting natural

resource base, serious consequences of climate change on diversity and

abundance of insect-pests and the extent of crop losses, food security for 21st

century is the major challenge for human kind in years to come. Being a


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tropical country, India is more challenged with impacts of looming climate

change. In India, pest damage varies in different agro-climatic regions across

the country mainly due to differential impacts of abiotic factors such as

temperature, humidity and rainfall. This entails the intensification of yield

losses due to potential changes in crop diversity and increased incidence of

insect-pests due to changing climate. It will have serious environmental and

socio-economic impacts on rural farmers whose livelihoods depend directly on

the agriculture and other climate sensitive sectors.

Further readings:

Dhillon MK, Sharma HC. 2009. Temperature influences the performance and

effectiveness of field and laboratory strains of the ichneumonid parasitoid,

Campoletis chlorideae. Bio Control, 54: 743-750.

Sharma HC, Ortiz, R. 2000. Transgenics, pest management, and the

environment. Current Science, 79: 421-437.

Sharma, HC. 2014. Climate Change Effects on Insects: Implications for Crop

Protection and Food Security. Journal of Crop Improvement, 28:2, 229-259,

DOI: 10.1080/15427528.2014.881205


232

Biotechnological Interventions for Sustainable Vegetable

Production under the Scenario of Climate Change

Rajnish Sharma, Bhuvnesh Kapoor and Parul Sharma

Department of Biotechnology,

Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry,

Nauni, Solan (HP) INDIA

*E-mail: [email protected]

The genetic base of any crop can be preserved and widened by an

integration of biotechnological tools in conventional breeding. Plant

biotechnology as an interdisciplinary science is able to provide impulses and

solutions to breeding programme by rapid propagation of selected cultivars,

conservation of valuable germplasm, phytosanitary and genetic improvement

and safeguarding human health, not only through nutritional, but also through

ecological aspects. Furthermore, biotechnology can supplement breeders in

evolving new plant types with desired characters in a shorter time frame.

Similarly, targeting specific genotypes to particular cropping systems may be

facilitated by understanding specific gene-environment interaction with the aid

of molecular research. However, during the last few decades in vitro techniques

have been applied successfully in the area of mass propagation, induction of

somaclonal variation, production of disease free and stress tolerant plants and

introduction of transgenic trees following molecular characterization.

Vegetables are the best resource for overcoming micronutrient

deficiencies and provide smallholder farmers with much higher income and

more jobs per hectare than staple crops (AVRDC 2006). In the last three

decades, the vegetable production doubled worldwide, and the global trade

value of vegetables is now higher than that of cereals. While, on the other

hand, World Health Organization (WHO) reveals that low fruit and vegetable

intake contributes to 16 million disability-adjusted lives and more than 1.7

million deaths worldwide due to the poor rate of consumption of fruits and

vegetables (FAOSTAT 2018). Besides the importance of vegetable crops to

human health and economics, numbers of constraints in sustainable vegetable

production are visible in the current scenario of changing climate all over the

globe. Hence, enhancing the resilience of vegetable crops to abiotic and biotic

stress factors will be increasingly important under climate change.



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A significant change in the dynamics of climate on a global scale

resulted in erratic rainfall patterns and unpredictable high-temperature

spells indicating the marginal latitudinal and altitudinal shifts in ecological

and agro-economic zones. Moreover, the proportion of agricultural land

affected by multiple stresses is expected to rise significantly under changing

climatic conditions (Ahuja et al. 2010). Unless measures are undertaken to

mitigate the effects of climate change, food security of the world especially in

the developing countries will be under threat. Therefore, it is very unlikely

that a single method to overcome the effects of environmental stresses on

vegetable crops would be possible. Hence, a systematic approach, where all

available options are considered in an integrated manner, will be the most

effective and sustainable. To do so, advanced technologies have to

complement the existing traditional methods which are often inefficient in

the prevention of yield losses imposed by abiotic and biotic factors.

Conventional research inputs have contributed to solving some of the

constraints limiting vegetable production. However, limitations such as the

complex genome, narrow genetic base, poor fertility, susceptibility to biotic

and abiotic stresses and long duration to breed elite cultivars, hinder crop

improvement programs. Biotechnological approaches such as plant tissue

culture, Marker Assisted Selection (MAS), QTLs, genetic transformation, and

recently developed genome editing tools have given better understanding of

molecular mechanisms behind the physiological changes that took place

during the different environmental stresses resulting in new useful

information of the principles of a living cell, particularly the identification of

genes and signaling pathways involved in cell differentiation and organ

development, that has brought us a broader insight into plant biological

processes. The main biotechnological strategies that are being adopted to

solve the biotic and abiotic stresses to enhance vegetable production on a

sustainable basis are;

a) Plant tissue culture

In vitro culture of plant cells/tissues are now used routinely in a wide

range of explant types from many of the important vegetable crops.

Successful technologies include culture of tissues, cells, protoplasts, organs,

embryos, ovules, anthers and microspores and regeneration from them of

complete plantlets. Direct gene transfer via protoplasts or single cells and

subsequent regeneration of plants has been successfully achieved and is

being applied commercially. Some of the publications highlights that tissue

culture have been used in development of vegetable crops proved to be

tolerant/resistant to abiotic stresses (Kripkyy et al. 2001; Elavumoottil et al


234

2003; Queirós et al. 2006; Anwar et al. 2010; Rabiei et al. 2011) and biotic

stresses (Kuanar et al. 2002; Bhardhwaj et al. 2012; Zhang et al. 2012;

Horacek et al. 2013).

b) Marker assisted selection (MAS)

MAS provides new solutions for selecting and maintaining desirable

genotype. Once molecular markers closely linked to desirable traits are

identified, MAS can be performed in early segregating population and at

early stages of plant development. Marker-assisted selection or identification

can be used to pyramid the major genes including resistance genes with the

ultimate goal of producing varieties with more desirable characters as

reported by various authors (Mutlu et al. 2008; Liu et al. 2013; Lv et al.

2014; Hyung et al. 2015). Marker assisted breeding has been very widely

used by commercial firm savings of even 1-2 generations. Most of the

important agronomic characters like yield and yield components, plant

height and days to flowering are controlled by several genes. A number of

methods for mapping quantitative trait loci (QTL) and estimating their

effects have been suggested and investigated. Many QTLs have been

identified using DNA markers various traits like drought tolerance, cold

tolerance and salinity tolerance in vegetable crops (Jenni et al. 2013; Park et

al. 2014; Javid et al. 2015; Rao et al. 2015; Mozos et al. 2017).

c) Genetic Transformation

Genetic transformation technology is now applicable to a wide range of

plants as the means to achieve breeding objectives, which are difficult to

achieve by conventional methods. In vegetables, the development of cultivars

with some novel traits is always in high demand in the commercial market.

Moreover, improvements in terms of abiotic and biotic stresses are major

concerns for sustainable production. From the last three decades, the

genetic transformation technology has shown its efficiency in crop

improvement programs besides its low social acceptance. However, genetic

transformation in current scenario of climate change could play an

important role in the development of novel traits that providing

resistance/tolerance to environmental stresses. Moreover, large numbers of

reports are suggesting the use of genetic transformation technology in

developing the vegetable crops resistant/tolerant to abiotic (Zhang et al.

2011; Cheng et al. 2013; Han et al. 2015; Bulle et al. 2016; Shivakumara et

al. 2017) and biotic stresses (Khan et al. 2008; Wally et al. 2009; Hazarika

and Rajam 2011; Narendran et al. 2013; Papolu et al. 2016).


235

d) Genome editing

In recent years, genomes of many vegetable crops have been sequenced

which led to the identification of genes and superior alleles associated with

desirable traits. Furthermore, innovative biotechnological approaches allow

taking a step forward towards the development of new improved cultivars

harbouring precise genome modifications. Sequence-based knowledge

coupled with advanced biotechnologies is supporting the widespread

application of new plant breeding techniques to enhance the success in

modification and transfer of useful alleles into target varieties. Clustered

Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-

associated protein 9 (Cas9) system, zinc-finger nucleases, and transcription

activator-like effector nucleases represent the main methods available for

plant genome engineering through targeted modifications. Such

technologies, however, require efficient transformation protocols as well as

extensive genomic resources and accurate knowledge before they can be

efficiently exploited in practical breeding programs. Recently published

reports, however, proves the efficiency and adoption of genome editing tools

in developing vegetable crops resistant/tolerant to abiotic and biotic stresses

(Butler et al. 2016; Chandrasekaran et al. 2016; Thomazella et al. 2016;

Nekrasov et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2017).

Conclusion

Although these tools require high levels of investment and expertise, at the

same time promises more rapid and potentially continual returns in terms of

the crop adaptability and sustainability under the ever-changing climatic

conditions. By these collective approaches, however, in near future an

efficient and rapid system could be developed with that sustainable

vegetable production under changing climate could be achieved.


236

References:

AVRDC (2006) Vegetables Matter. AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center.

Shanhua, Taiwan.

R de la Pena & J Hughes. 2007. Improving Vegetable Productivity in a

Variable and Changing Climate. SAT eJournal (ejournal.icrisat.org). (4)1.

M Mii, R S Khan and D P Chin.2013. Genetic transformation of ornamental

and vegetable crops. Acta horticulturae 974(974):131-137

Ahuja I, de Vos RCH, Bones AM and Hall R D (2010). Plant molecular stress

responses face climate change. Trends Plant Sci. 15, 664–674.

Koltun A, Corte LED, Mertz-Henning LM and Gonçalves LSA. 2018. Genetic

improvement of horticultural crops mediated by CRISPR/Cas: a new

horizon of possibilities. Horticultura Brasileira. 36(3)

doi.org/10.1590/s0102-053620180302

Cardi T, Agostino ND and Tripodi P: Genetic Transformation and genomic

resources for next-generation precise genome engineering in vegetable

crops. Front Plant Sci. 2017; 8: 241

Shah LR, Sharma A, Nabi J and Prasad J, Breeding approaches for abiotic

stress management in vegetable crops. J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 2018,

7, 1023–1028

Hussain B. 2015. Modernization in plant breeding approaches for improving

biotic stress resistance in crop plants. Turk J Agr For 39: 1-16.

Kumar A, Priya, Sharma S and Yadav MK. 2019. Plant Tissue Culture

Technology to Improve Crop Species – A Comprehensive Approach. Acta

Scientific Agriculture 3.2 (2019): 76-80.

Kripkyy O, Kerkeb L, Molina A, Belver A, Rodrigues Rosales P, Donaire PJ.

2001. Effects of salt-adaptation and salt-stress on extracellular

acidification and microsome phosphohydrolase activities in tomato cell

suspensions. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult 66:41–47

Elavumoottil OC, Martin JP, Moreno ML. 2003. Changes in sugars, sucrose

synthase activity and proteins in salinity tolerant callus and cell

suspension cultures of Brassica oleracea L. Biol Plant 46:7–12

Rout GR and Peter KV. 2018. Genetic Engineering of Horticultural Crops.

Academic press. 353-386. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2016-0-00404-7

https://doi.org/10.1016/C2016-0-00404-7


237

Quality of Vegetables under Climate Resilience

Vipin Sharma and H Dev Sharma



Nauni, Solan-173 230 (HP)

Vegetables are known as protective food as they supply essential

nutrients, vitamins, carbohydrates, proteins, colours and minerals to the

human body, and are the best source for overcoming micronutrient

deficiencies. The worldwide production of vegetables has doubled over the

past quarter century and the value of global trade in vegetables now exceeds

that of cereals. India is the second largest producer of vegetables after China.

The increase in population, urbanization and greater health awareness,

have contributed to a rise in domestic consumption of vegetables.

On the other hand vegetables are generally sensitive to environmental

extremes, and thus high temperatures and limited soil moisture are the major

causes of low yields as well as poor quality, as they greatly affect several

physiological and biochemical processes like reduced photo-synthetic

activity, altered metabolism and enzymatic activity, thermal injury to the tissues,

reduced pollination and fruit set etc., which are further magnified by climate

change. Anthropogenic air pollutants such as CO2, CH4 and CFC‟s

contribute to the global warming and dioxides of nitrogen and sulphur are

causing depletion of ozone layer and permitting the entry of harmful UV rays,

thereby becoming a major setback to vegetable cultivation. Under changing

climatic situations crop failures, shortage of yields, reduction in quality and

increasing pest and disease problems are common and they render the

vegetable cultivation unprofitable. This ultimately questions the availability of

nutrient source in human diet.

Quality in vegetables is a complex character influenced by both

genetic and environmental factors. The quality consciousness towards

vegetables is increasing in developing countries and will demand more and

more emphasis on biochemical attributes along with more yield. This is the

need of the hour especially in our country with future plans on quality of

vegetables under climate resilience to produce more and more vegetables.


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I. QUALITY OF VEGETABLES

A. Physical Qualities

The physical quality of different vegetables is determined on visual means

such as skin colour, size, persistence of the part of style, presence of dried

outer mature leaves, drying of the plant body and fullness of fruits. Physical

means like ease of separation or abscission, firmness and specific gravity

etc. So we can say that quality grading is based on variety, dimensional,

organo-leptical and maturity stage criteria. Vegetables are graded according

to shape and colour (tomato and brinjal), size (fruit, root and bulb

vegetables), maturity (okra, cucumber, ridge gourd and smooth gourd),

ripeness (tomato) and general appearance (all vegetables).

B. Biochemical Qualities

1. Solanaceous Vegetables: i. Potato: Potato contains vitamins and

minerals as well as an assortment of phyto-chemicals, such as carotenoids

and natural phenols. Chlorogenic acid constitutes up to 90% of the potato

tuber natural phenols. Other compounds found in potatoes are 4-O-

caffeoylquinic (crypto-chlorogenic acid), 5-O-caffeoylquinic (neo-chlorogenic

acid), 3, 4-dicaffeoylquinic and 3, 5-dicaffeoylquinic acids. A potato with the

skin provides vitamin-C, potassium, vitamin-B6 and trace amounts of

thiamin, riboflavin, folate, niacin, magnesium, phosphorus, iron, and zinc.

The fiber content of a potato with skin is equivalent to that of many whole

grain breads, pastas and cereals. Nutrition-wise, potato is best known for its

carbohydrate content.

ii. Tomato: Tomato is known as productive as well as protective food having

medicinal value. The pulp and juice are digestible, mild aperients, promoter

of gastric secretions and blood purifier. It is also considered to be intestinal

antiseptic and useful in canker of mouth and sore throat.Tomato is a rich

source of minerals, vitamins, organic acids, essential amino acids and

dietary fibres. In addition to vitamin-A & C, minerals iron & phosphorus;

pigments lycopene & β-carotene; 2-isobutylthiozol, methyl-salicylate and

eugenol (flavour); pectin etc are present. Dried tomato juice retains vitamin-

C.

iii. Brinjal: On an average the oblong fruited brinjal cultivars are rich in

total water soluble sugars, whereas the long fruited cultivars contain large

amounts of free reducing sugars, anthocyanins, phenols, glycoalkaloids

(solasodine ), dry matter and amide proteins. Generally, high amount of

glycol-alkaloids produces bitter taste and off- flavour. The discoloration in

brinjal fruits is attributed to high poly-phenol oxidase activity. There is

much variation in the chemical constituents in fruits of different cultivars

and chlorophyll, true protein and total phenols are influenced by other

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_mineral

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytochemical

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotenoid

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorogenic_acid

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caffeoylquinic_acid

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caffeoylquinic_acid

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-O-caffeoylquinic_acid

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=3,4-dicaffeoylquinic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=3,5-dicaffeoylquinic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_C

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B6

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiamin

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riboflavin

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacin

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron#Nutrition_and_dietary_sources

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_metabolism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cereal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate


239

constituents of the fruit besides the effect of dry matter, especially on

anthocyanin and ortho-dihydroxy-phenols.

iv. Chilli: The fruit contains a fixed oil, red colouring matter which is non-

pungent and yield 20-25 % alcoholic extract. The chief constituent of chilli

pericarp is crystalline colourless pungent principle known as capsaicin or

capsicutin, a condensation product of 3-hydroxyl-4-methoxybenzylamine

and decylenic acid, which produces highly irritating vapours on heating. It is

secreted by the outer walls of the fruit. Green chillies are rich in vitamin-A &

C and the seed contains traces of starch.

v. Capsicum: Sweet peppers are very rich in vitamins, even more so than

tomatoes, especially in vitamin-A & C. The red bell peppers have different

types of pigments. Capsanthin accounted for about 36 % of the total

carotenoid content, β-carotene and violaxanthin for about 10 % each,

cryptoxanthin and capsorbin for about 6 % each and cryptocapsin for about

4 %. Other constituents of capsicum are niacin, thiamine, riboflavin,

quercetin, nicotinic acid etc.

2. Cucurbitaceous Vegetables: Biochemically, the cucurbits are

characterized by bitter principles called cucurbitacins. Chemically,

cucurbitacins are tetracyclic triterpenes having extensive oxidation level.

They occur in nature, free as glycosides or in complicated mixtures. Bitter-

gourd is richer in vitamin-C, pumpkin contains high carotenoid pigments,

kakrol is high in proteins and chow-chow is fairly high in calcium. Some

cultivars of squashes are relatively high in energy and carbohydrates. The

leaves and fruits of bitter-gourd contain charantin. It is a steroidal saponin

and it has blood sugar lowering activity. These fruits also contain a cathartic

principle known as momordicin. Its other constituents are carbohydrates,

mineral matter, ascorbic acid, alkaloids, glucosides, saponins and mucilage.

It finds use in stomachic, carminative, tonic, cooling agent, in the treatment

of rheumatism, gout and used for spleen and liver disorders. Fruits as well

as juice from them lower the blood sugar levels and thus used for the

treatment of diabetes, mellitus and cathartic.

3. Okra: Okra is a worldwide used versatile vegetable and besides being low

in calories it is aplenty with vitamins of the category A, thiamin, B6, C, folic

acid, riboflavin, calcium, zinc and dietary fibers. The mucilage and fiber

found in okra helps to adjust blood sugar by regulating its absorption in the

small intestine. Okra facilitates the propagation of good bacteria referred to

as probiotics. These are similar to the ones proliferated by the yoghurt in the

small intestine and helps biosynthesis of Vitamin-B complex. Okra is an

excellent laxative treats irritable bowels, heals ulcers and sooths the

gastrointestinal track. Protein and oil contained in the seeds of okra serves

as the source of first-rate vegetable protein. It is enriched with amino acids

on the likes of tryptophan, cystine and other sulfur amino acids.


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4. Leguminous Vegetables: i. Peas: Pea is highly nutritive containing high

percentage of digestible proteins, along with carbohydrates and vitamins. It

is also very rich in minerals, calcium and phosphorus. Seeds contain

tocopherols, cerebroside and an alkaloid trigonelline which is present in

fenugreek also.

ii. French Beans: It is a nutritious vegetable containing proteins, fats,

carbohydrates, fibers, minerals, thiamine, riboflavin, vitamin-C, nicotinic

acid, calcium, phosphorus, iron, potassium, sulfur, sodium, copper etc.

5. Cole Crops: Brassica vegetables are highly regarded for their nutritional

value. They provide high amounts of vitamin-C & soluble fiber and contain

multiple nutrients with potent anticancer properties: 3, 3-di-indolylmethane,

sulforaphane and selenium. Boiling reduces the level of anticancer

compounds but steaming, microwaving and stir frying do not result in

significant loss. Steaming the vegetable for three to four minutes is

recommended to maximize sulforaphane. Brassica vegetables are rich in

indole-3-carbinol, a chemical which boosts DNA repair in cells and appears

to block the growth of cancer cells. They are also a good source of

carotenoids, with broccoli having especially high levels. Almost all parts of

some species or other have been developed for food, including the root

(rutabaga), stems (kohlrabi), leaves (cabbage, kale), flowers (cauliflower,

broccoli), and seeds (mustard, rapeseed).

6. Root Vegetables: i. Radish: Radish is a good source of vitamin-C

(ascorbic acid). Trace elements in radish include aluminium, barium,

lithium, manganese, silicon, titanium, fluorine and iodine. Pink skinned

radish is generally richer in ascorbic acid than the white one. Radish

contains glucose as the major sugar and smaller quantities of fructose and

sucrose. Pectin and pentosans are also present in radish. Its characteristic

pungent flavour is due to the presence of volatile isothiocyanates (trans-4-

methyl-thio-butenyl isothiocyanate) and the colour of the pink cultivar is

due to the presence of anthocyanin pigments. The leaves of radish are a

good source for extraction of proteins on a commercial scale and the radish

seeds are a potential source of a non-drying fatty oil suitable for soap

making, illuminating and edible purposes.

ii. Carrot: Carrot is valued as food mainly because it is a rich source of α

and β-carotene. Carotenes are the most important quality attributes, in

addition to other parameters such as anthocyanins, sugar content and TSS.

In carrot roots, sucrose is most abundant with sugar contents 10 times

more than those of glucose or fructose. Carrot flavour is affected by sugar

content, volatile constituents, bitter compounds and free amino acids.

Volatile terpenoids such as terpinolene and caryophylene impart harshness

to carrots.

iii. Turnip: The turnip root contains carbohydrates, proteins, fat, thiamine,

riboflavin, ascorbic acid, calcium, phosphorus and iron.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_C

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_fiber

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3,3%27-diindolylmethane

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulforaphane

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenium

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steaming

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_oven

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stir_frying

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indole-3-carbinol

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotenoids

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broccoli

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutabaga

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohlrabi

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabbage

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kale

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauliflower

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broccoli

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustard_seed

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapeseed


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iv. Beet: Beet root is rich in protein, carbohydrates, calcium, phosphorus

and vitamin-C. The beet greens are also rich in iron, vitamin-A, thiamine

and ascorbic acid.

7. Bulb Crops: i. Onion: Onion bulb is rich in minerals like phosphorus &

calcium and carbohydrates, protein and vitamin-C. Important biochemical

quality traits include soluble solids, pungency, lachrymatory factor and

flavonoids. The pungency in onion odour is formed by enzymatic reaction

only when tissues are damaged and it is due to a volatile oil known as allyl-

propyl disulphide. The outer skin colour is due to the presence of the

flavonoid known as quercetin which has anticancer contents. Red onions

have highest value followed by yellow and trace amounts in white cultivars.

The distribution pattern of this flavonoid is from highest to lowest in

peripheral to central rings.

ii. Garlic: Garlic has long been recognized all over the world as a valuable

spice for foods and a popular remedy for various ailments and physiological

disorders. It has been considered as a rich source of carbohydrates, proteins

and phosphorus. Ascorbic acid content was reported to be very high in

green garlic. Nutritive composition of fresh peeled garlic cloves/ bulblets and

dehydrated garlic powder is very high. The uninjured bulb contains a

colourless, odourless water-soluble amino acid alliin. On crushing the garlic

bulb, the enzyme alliinase breaks down alliin to produce alliicin of which the

principle ingredient is the odoriferous diallyl disulphide. Garlic also contains

about 0.1 % volatile oil. The constituents of oil are diallyl disulphide, diallyl

trisulphide, allyl propyl disulphide, a small quantity of diethyl disulphide

and probably diallyl polysulphide. Diallyl disulphide is said to possess the

true garlic odour.

8. Leafy Vegetables: i. Spinach Beet: It is a rich and cheap source of

vitamin-A as compared to spinach and carrot. It also contains high quality

of ascorbic acid & iron and leaves supply as much as essential amino acids

as any non-vegetarian food like meat and fish. The herbaceous parts of

palak are mildly laxative.

ii. Spinach: Spinach is a rich source of vitamin-A, iron & calcium and also

contains appreciable quantity of ascorbic acid, riboflavin and small quantity

of thiamine. Though it is rich in calcium but the element is said to be

unavailable owing to the fact that it unites with oxalic acid to form calcium

oxalate.

iii. Fenugreek: Methi is rich in minerals, proteins, vitamin-A and C. The

nutritive value may differ in different cultivars. It has also high medicinal

and industrial importance. It prevents constipation, removes indigestion,

stimulates spleen & liver and is appetizing and diuretic. In industries, seeds

are used as a dye and for extraction of alkaloids or steroids.

9. Salad Crops: i. Lettuce: Lettuce is rich in vitamin-A and minerals like

calcium & iron. It also contains protein, carbohydrates and vitamin-C. Its


242

tender leaves and heads are chopped and used as salad with salt and

vinegar, however, vitamin-C is almost entirely lost if it is cooked. Lettuce is

also known to be sedative, diuretic and expectorant.

ii. Celery: Celery contains vitamin-A, proteins and calcium. Traces of

copper and arsenic are reported in the tuberous roots.

10. Spicy Vegetables: i. Ginger: Ginger owes its characteristic

organoleptic properties to two classes of constituents: the odour and the

flavour of ginger are determined by the constituents of its steam- volatile oil,

while the pungency is determined by non-steam-volatile components, known

as the gingerols. The steam-volatile oil comprises mainly of sesquiterpene

hydrocarbons, monoterpene hydrocarbons and oxygenated monoterpenes.

The monoterpene constituents are believed to be the most important

contributors to the aroma of ginger and are more abundant in the natural

oil of the fresh („green‟) rhizome than in the essential oil distilled from dried

ginger. Oxygenated sesquiterpenes are relatively minor constituents of the

volatile oil, but appear to be significant contributors to its flavour properties.

The major sesquiterpene hydrocarbon constituent of ginger oil is (-) - α-

zingiberene. Australian ginger oil has a reputation for possessing a

particular „lemony‟ aroma, due to its high content of the isomers, neral and

geranial, often collectively referred to as citral.

ii. Turmeric: The essential oil contains ar-turmerone and ar-curcumene as

major constituents. Curcumin (diferuloymethane) is responsible for the

yellow colour, and comprises curcumin I (94%), curcumin II (6%) and

curcumin III (0.3 %). Recently a number of sesqui-terpenes have been

reported from turmeric.

II. IMPACT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE RESILIENCE

A. IMPACT

1. Carbon Dioxide: Carbon dioxide has a significant impact on quality of

vegetables, by its involvement in photosynthesis. Increased CO2 has been

implicated in 'vegetation thickening' which affects plant community

structure and function. Elevated CO2 at 550 ppm improves the bulb size

and yield of onion. Tomato plants grown at 550 ppm CO2 environment

produced 24% more fruits. Elevated CO2 is reported not only to improve the

yield but also alters the quality of the produce. The qualityies like carotene,

starch and glucose content, and tuber yield of sweet potatoes increased in

elevated CO2 conditions. Increased CO2 can also lead to increased Carbon:

Nitrogen ratios in the leaves of plants or in other aspects of leaf chemistry,

possibly changing herbivore nutrition.

2. Temperature: The positive effect of elevated CO2 might be offset by the

adverse effect of associated global warming. Increase in temperature raise

the rate of many physiological processes such as photosynthesis in plants,


243

to an upper limit. Extreme temperatures can be harmful when beyond the

physiological limits of a plant. Even though elevated CO2 will cause positive

impacts, these may be nullified by increased temperature and less water

availability resulting decreased production under the current level of

management. Temperature affects vegetable crops in several ways by

influencing crop duration, flowering, fruit growth, ripening and quality as

well. Weather conditions during flowering and pollination and subsequent

fruit growth determine the production quantity as well as quality. The

increased temperature beyond optimum range causes delayed curd

initiation in cauliflower. Temperature above 400C reduced the bulb size in

onion. Low temperatures during extreme winters cause considerable damage

to tomato, brinjal and potato crops. Potato tubers with high starch content

are favoured by the processing industry. At low temperatures starch is

converted into the sugar, which causes browning due to charring of

sugar while chips making, thereby reduces their preference by the

processing industry. This ultimately results in increased post harvest losses

more than the present level, which is figured as 40-50%. This is most

common problem in areas where night temperatures fall below optimum

during winter season. Fruit colour is having significant importance in

assessing the marketable quality of tomato. The optimum temperature for

development of lycopene pigment in tomato is 25-300C. High temperature

inhibits ripening by inhibiting the accumulation of ripening related m-RNAs,

thereby inhibits continuous protein synthesis including ethylene

production, thereby resulting in degradation of lycopene which starts above

270C and is completely destroyed at 400C. Similarly high temperatures above

250C affect pollination and fruit set in tomato. I n p ep p e r , e x p o su r e t o

h i g h temperature at post-pollination stage inhibits fruit set. High

temperature affects red colour development in ripen chilli fruits. The

temperatures fluctuations delay the ripening of fruits and reduce the

sweetness in melons.

3. Water: Water supply is critical for plant growth. Unprecedented changes

in the rainfall pattern leading to drought like situation in some areas could

have serious implications on crop production in general, and in small and

marginal farms in particular. The water logged conditions make the crop

more susceptible to various fungal pathogens and insect pests whereas the

drought conditions lead to impaired plant growth and reduced yield and

quality. Small changes in temperature and rainfall have significant impact

on quality of vegetables, with resultant implications in domestic and

external trade. Low moisture content in the soil effects fruit quality

and development in melons and gourds. As succulent leaves are commercial

products in leafy vegetables like amaranthus, palak and spinach, the

drought conditions reduce their water content thereby reduce their

quality.


244

4. Salinity: High salt concentration causes a reduction in fresh and dry

weight of all cucurbits. These changes are associated with a

decrease in relative water content and total chlorophyll c o n t e n t . S a l t

s t r e s s c a u s e s suppression of growth and photosynthesis activity

and changes in stomata conductivity, number and size in bean plants.

B. MITIGATION

Most of the vegetables being annual crops do not have any carbon

sequestration potential, the scope for reducing emissions in their cultivation

is highly limited and moreover the information on these aspects is lacking.

Resource conservation techniques and organic farming are the mitigation

measures which can be followed. There have been several technologies

which are already available and can be useful for reducing the impact of

climate change. Development of adverse climate tolerant varieties may take

more time but already known agronomic adaptations, crop management and

input management practices can be used to reduce the climate related

negative impacts on crop growth and production. Some of simple but

effective adaptation strategies include change in the sowing date, use of

efficient technologies like drip irrigation, soil and moisture conservations

measures, fertilizers management through fertigation, change of crop/

alternate crop, increase in input efficiency, pre and post harvest

management of economic produce can not only minimize the losses but also

increase the positive impacts of climate change. There is a lot of scope to

improve the institutional support systems such as weather based agro-

advisory. Input delivery system, development of new land use patterns,

community storage facilities for perishable produce like vegetables,

community based natural resource conservation, training farmer for

adopting appropriate technology to reduce the climate related stress on

crops etc. All these measures can make the vegetable growers more resilient

to climate change.

CONCLUSION:

Vegetable production is passing through a difficult situation and faced

with the challenge of food/ nutritional security to meet the requirement for

ever growing population. We have to produce more and more quality food

from less and less land. The problem is aggravated because of the growing

biotic and abiotic stresses and decline in the quality of environment along

with the menace of increasing global warming caused by the greenhouse

gases. The relative importance of quality differs from buyer to buyer and

different purchasers tend to choose the quality in the light of their

requirement. Earlier the quality parameters were appearance, size, shape

and presence of extraneous matter but now the analytical parameters as


245

described above for each vegetable, biochemical constituents and quality

attributes like proteins, vitamins, minerals etc. have been added, which

depend upon the variety, agro-climatic conditions existing in the area of

production, harvest and post harvest operations. Therefore, there is an

urgent need to focus attention on studying the impacts of climate change on

growth, development, yield and quality of vegetables, and development of

mitigation technologies for the production of quality vegetables.

REFERENCES

Anonymous, 2009. Package of Practices for Vegetable Crops, Dr YS Parmar

UHF, Solan (HP).

Bose, T.K. and Som M.G. 1986. Vegetable Crops in India. Naya Prokash,

Calcutta-Six India.

Methods of Vitamin Assay. 1966. The association of Vitamin

Chemists.Interscience Publishers, New York, 3rd Edn.

Ranganna, S. 1986. Vitamins: Handbook of analyses and quality control for

fruit and vegetable products. McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd.

Sadashivam, S.and Manickam, A. 1997. Biochemical methods. New Age

International Publishers.

Anonymous 2005. Manual of Methods of Analysis of Foods (Spices and

Condiments). Directorate General of Health Services, Min. of Health and

Family Welfare, GOI, New Delhi.


246

Socio-Economic Impact of Climate Resilient

Technologies on Agriculture

Ravinder Sharma

Joint Director Research


Nauni, Solan, HP

Climate change implies long term change in the pattern of climate

variables. Climate change or global warming is an important research area.

Unless proper adaptation strategies are implemented, it will have far

reaching environmental changes that could have severe impacts on societies

throughout the world. Further, it will have multidimensional effect on

humanity in terms of several socio-economic parameters like agriculture,

human health, sea level rise, scarcity of labour, disease prevalence etc.

Hence any scientific study on climate change should take into account

vulnerabilities of the different regions and then it has to study its impacts

on several sectors. When we think about the climate change or vulnerability

main concern becomes its effect on production, and human health .This

implies that concern should not be extreme temperature but its effect on

agriculture and the people who are affected. In order to understand the

impact of climate change it is imperative to understand different concepts

associated with it.

“Vulnerability” is the propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected

(IPCC,2012). It is a dynamic concept, varying across temporal and spatial

scales and depends on economic, social, geographic, demographic, cultural,

institutional, governance and environmental factors. Measuring

vulnerability is complex as it needs to be considered across various

dimensions.

“Resilience” is the ability of a system and its component parts to

anticipate, absorb, accommodate or recover from the effects of a hazardous

event in a timely and efficient manner, including through ensuring the

preservation, restoration or improvement of its essential basic structures

and functions (IPCC, 2012)

“Adaptive capacity”, the capacity of a system to adapt in order to be less

vulnerable, is a dynamic notion. It is shaped by the interaction of

environmental, social, cultural, political and economic forces that determine

vulnerability through exposures and sensitivities, and the way the system‟s

components are internally reacting to shocks. In fact, it has two dimensions:


247

adaptive capacity to shocks (coping ability) and adaptive capacity to change.

The first dimension is related to the coping ability (absorption of the shock),

the second dimension is related to time (adaptability, management capacity).

Adaptations are manifestations of adaptive capacity (Smit and Wandel,

2006).

Vulnerability to climate change is the risk of adverse things happening

and it is a function of three factors such as Exposure, Sensitivity and

Adaptive capacity .Exposure is what is at risk from climate change, e.g.,

Population, Resources and Property. It is also the climate change that an

affected system will face, e.g., sea level, temperature, precipitation and

extreme events. Whereas, sensitivity implies biophysical effect of climate

change i.e. Change in crop yield, runoff, energy demand. It also considers

the socioeconomic context, e.g., the agriculture system. Adaptive capacity

means Capability to adapt and depends upon wealth, technology, education,

Institutions, information, infrastructure and social capital.

Vulnerability is a Function of all the three concepts. Exposure and

sensitivity are positively related to vulnerability. Greater the exposure or

sensitivity, the greater will be the vulnerability. Adaptive capacity is

negatively related to vulnerability. Greater the adaptive capacity, less will be

the vulnerability. Vulnerability can be assessed in in following forms.

a) Demographic vulnerability

There are three components involved in this index to explain the

demographic patterns of the people living in the respective region.

i. Density of population (persons per square kilometre)

ii. Literacy rate (percentage)

iii. Infant mortality rate (deaths per „000 infants)

b) Climatic vulnerability

This index tries to take into account basic climatic variability. It combines

six separate indices which are the variances of

i. Annual rainfall (mm2)

ii. South west monsoon (mm2)

iii. North east monsoon (mm2)

iv. Maximum temperature (C02)

v. Minimum temperature (C02)

vi. Diurnal temperature variation (C02)


248

c) Agricultural vulnerability

This includes the following variables to predict the vulnerability related to

agricultural activities.

i. Production of food grains (tonnes / hectare)

ii. Productivity of major crops (tonnes/ hectare)

iii. Cropping intensity (percentage)

iv. Irrigation intensity (percentage)

v. Livestock population (Number per hectare of net sown area)

vi. Forest area (percentage geographic area)

d) Occupational vulnerability

Six indicators were taken to calculate the vulnerability related to

occupational characteristics of people and all these variables are converted

into per hectare of net sown area.

i. Number of cultivators

ii. Total main workers

iii. Agricultural labourers

iv. Marginal workers

v. Industrial workers

vi. Non workers

e) Geographic vulnerability

i. Coastal length (kilometre)

ii. Geographical area (hectare)

Typically the effect of climate change for biological systems, means

change in productivity, quality, population, or range and for societal

systems, an impact can be a change in income, morbidity, mortality, or

other measure of well-being. Adaptation means adjustment in natural or

human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their

effects, which moderates harm of exploits beneficial opportunities.

Adaptation is of two types i.e. autonomous adaptation or reactive adaptation

tends to be what people and systems do as impacts of climate change

become apparent and anticipatory or proactive adaptation are measures

taken to reduce potential risks of future climate change. With this brief

introduction to climate change its impact on agriculture as envisaged by

different researchers can be discussed as under.

Agriculture plays an important role in the social and economic life of

people in India, and will continue to do so in the foreseeable future. Today


249

agriculture accounts for about 14 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product

(GDP) and 11 per cent of exports and faces many challenges. Some of the

sectoral non sectoral challenges since the last decade or so. Some of the

sectoral challenges are slowdown in growth, increased exposure to world

commodity price volatility, degradation of the natural resource base, rapid

and widespread decline in the groundwater table, land fragmentation, lack

of extension services, and the indebtedness of farmers. Similarly non-

sectoral challenges are population growth, expanding urbanisation,

demographic transition (larger sections of society becoming affluent) with

increasing incomes, improving life styles and changes in food habits,

globalisation, and the demand for bio-fuels.

Currently almost 46 per cent of India‟s geographical area is under

agriculture. A large percentage of this land falls in rain-fed regions

generating 55 per cent of the country‟s agricultural output, providing food to

40 per cent of the nation‟s population. More than 80 per cent of the farmers

are smallholder producers, with very poor capacity and resources to deal

with the vagaries of weather and changes in climate. For the farmer, climate

is the seasonal temperature and rainfall pattern expected in their area,

based on experience over decades. Weather, on the other hand, is the actual

temperature, rainfall, and other climatic conditions experienced from day to

day, for which they need adaptation or coping strategies to deal with these

variations. With approximately 60 per cent of Indian agriculture being rain

fed and dependent on the vagaries of the monsoons, the climate will be a

major determinant of agricultural production. Temperature, rainfall, and

seasonal weather variations will thus aggravate the existing agricultural

challenges. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report of

2007 predicts an increase in rainfall over the Indian subcontinent by 6–8

per cent.

Major factors and issues affecting agriculture today are reducing

resilience of small-holder farmers, Llivestock, an integral part of the

agriculture production system a dying link, Declining agro-biodiversity and

traditional knowledge and Services of agriculture universities – Krishi

Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), and the block agriculture services: a demand yet to

be adequately met.


250

Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture:

1. 1 If temperatures rise by 4°C, vast areas of dry lands will have their

growing seasons cut by more than 20 per cent.

2. Temperature and water stress affects leaf formation, flowering, and

growth.

3. Temperature increase of 3.5°C by 2050 will lead to a decline of yield in

water-intensive crops such as rice by 8–9 per cent and wheat yields by

2–6 per cent.

4. There will be negative impacts on sorghum productivity due to

reduced crop durations, if temperatures increase by 3°C.

5. As the climate becomes warmer, the response of crops to added

fertilisers will be lower.

6. Increase in temperature affects the quality of cotton, fruits,

vegetables, tea, coffee, and medicinal plants.

7. Increased temperature leads to loss of moisture from the soil and soil

organic matter which will affect soil fertility and decrease yields.

8. If rainfall reduces by 10 per cent, there will be decrease in yield of

groundnut.

9. There will be increased risk of pests and diseases due to change in the

pattern of host and pathogen interaction

Approaches towards making agriculture production systems climate

resilient:

Watershed development is crucial to build resilience in agriculture.

Current approach and the various components aimed at making agriculture

production more climate resilient, within a participatory watershed

development context are building response capacity, particularly of small-

holder producers by promoting diversified cropping and farming systems

and possibilities of income from more than one source, so as to reduce the

risk of crop loss from both market and climate variations, while providing

dietary diversity and food and nutrition security to the extent possible,

developing linkages and partnerships in collaboration with experts is

essential to address the complex issue of building resilience to climate

change, Farmer Field Schools to outreach strategy to fill the gap of

inadequate extension services, currently experienced by small-holder

producers, package of agriculture-related services that build response

capacity of farmers, Weather-based locale-specific agro advisories and

Contingent Crop planning . Conservation and promotion of indigenous

varieties and other institutional programmes such as crop insurance are

some of ways and means to make agriculture climate resilient. To make


251

agriculture climate smart it must be built on three pillars (FAO, 2010),

which focus on:

• Sustainably increasing farm productivity and income. Productivity

must increase in order to secure enough food for growing population.

• Strengthening resilience to climate change and variability. Climate

change requires adaption of food production systems for resilience both at

the livelihood level and at the ecosystem level.

• Mitigating the contribution of agricultural practices to climate

change through a reduction or removal of greenhouse gas emissions. A

reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and the agricultural carbon footprint

is essential, which calls for changes of practices, including more resource

efficiency, use of clean energy and carbon sequestration.


252

Climate change vis-a-vis pollination; affecting

vegetable production

Raj Kumar Thakur and Ankush Dhuria

Directorate of Extension Education



Introduction-

The transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma of a conspecific flower is termed as pollination.

Pollination is a crucial stage in the reproduction of most flowering plants,

and pollinating animals are essential for transferring genes within and

among populations of wild plant species (Kearns et al., 1998). Although the

scientific literature has mainly focused on pollination limitations in wild

plants, in recent years there has been an increasing recognition of the

importance of animal pollination in food production. Klein et al., (2007) has

found that fruit, vegetable or seed production from 87 of the world‟s leading

food crops depend upon animal pollination, representing 35 per cent of

global food production. Roubik (1995) provided a detailed list for 1330

tropical plant species, showing that for approximately 70 per cent of tropical

crops, at least one variety is improved by animal pollination. Losey and

Vaughan (2006) also emphasized that flower-visiting insects provide an

important ecosystem function to global crop production through their

pollination services.

The total economic value of crop pollination worldwide has been estimated

at €153 billion annually (Gallai et al., 2009). The leading pollinator-

dependent crops are vegetables and fruits, representing about €50 billion

each, followed by edible oil crops, stimulants (coffee, cocoa, etc.), nuts and

spices as shown in the table. The area covered by pollinator-dependent

crops has increased by more than 300 per cent during the past 50 years

(Aizen et al., 2008; Aizen and Harder 2009). A rapidly increasing human

population will reduce the amount of natural habitats through an increasing

demand for food-producing areas, urbanization and other land-use

practices, putting pressure on the ecosystem service delivered by wild

pollinators. At the same time, the demand for pollination in agricultural

production will increase in order to sustain food production. Thus,

pollinators are essential for diet diversity, biodiversity, and the

maintenance of natural resources.


253

Source: Gallai et al., 2009.

The principle pollinators are bees. Approximately 73% of the world‟s

cultivated crops, such as cashews, squash, mangoes, cocoa, cranberries

and blueberries, are pollinated by some variety of bees, 19% by flies, 6.5%

by bats, 5% by wasps, 5% by beetles, 4% by birds, and 4% by butterflies

and moths (Freitas et al., 2004). Of the hundred principal crops that make

up most of the world‟s food supply, only 15% are pollinated by domestic

bees (mostly honey bees, bumble bees and alfalfa leafcutter bees), while at

least 80% are pollinated by wild bees and other wild life species.

The significance of bee diversity for pollination-

The Himalayan region is one of the richest in honeybee species‟

diversity in the world. There are five species of honeybees: three wild

species that cannot be kept in hives – the giant honeybee (Apis dorsata),

the little bee (Apis florea), and the rock bee (Apis laboriosa) – and two hive-

bee species, the Asian hive bee (Apis cerana), and the introduced bee (Apis

mellifera). All honeybees are good crop pollinators, but because the wild

species cannot be kept in man-made hives they cannot be transported to

the sites where bees are needed for crop pollination. The honeybee species‟

diversity in the Himalayan region holds much potential for wider use in

managing crop pollination in ways suited to the conditions in specific

CROP

CATEGORY

AVERAGE

VALUE OF A

PRODUCTION

UNIT

TOTAL

PRODUCTION

ECONOMIC

VALUE (EV)

INSECT

POLLINATION

ECONOMIC VALUE

(IPEV)

RATE OF

VULNERABILITY

(IPEV/EV)

€ PER METRIC

TONNE 109€ 109€ %

Stimulant

crops

1 225 19 7.0 39.0

Nuts 1 269 13 4.2 31.0

Fruits 452 219 50.6 23.1

Edible oil

crops

385 240 39.0 16.3

Vegetables 468 418 50.9 12.2

Pulse 515 24 1.0 4.3

Spices 1 003 7 0.2 2.7

Cereals 139 312 0.0 0.0

Sugar crops 177 268 0.0 0.0

Roots and

tubers

137 98 0.0 0.0

All

categories

1 618 152.9 9.5


254

areas. In particular, the native hive honeybee Apis cerana offers clear

advantages as a pollinator in remote and higher altitude area (Partap and

Partap 1997, 2002; Partap et al., 2001). Partap and Partap, (2002)

suggested an area-based approach to use the existing honeybees‟ diversity

for pollination.

Around 66 genera of insect pollinators visits the mustard field

includes hymenopterans, syrphids, lepidopterans and other wild insects

from various orders. They significantly increases the yield of the crop thus

enhances its productivity (Devi et al., 2017; Kunjwal et al., 2014; Kamel et

al., 2015).

The insect pollinated plots in onion produces significantly more

seeds with heavier weights than those fields which are isolated from insect

visits (Abrol, 2010).

Honey bees also play an important role in pollination wild plants for

example: Bramble Rubus ellipticus S. (Rosaceae) act as an important wild

bee forage for honey bees and other insect pollinators like dipterans,

lepidopterans etc. (Gupta and Thakur, 1987).

It is estimated that more than 1,300 types of plants are grown

around the world for food; plants producing beverages, medicines,

condiments, spices and even fabric are pollinated by animals, mostly

insects. Indirectly, pollinators ultimately play a pivotal role in the

production of diverse food commodities. So, pollinator diversity is of

immense importance for enhancing the yield of plants either of agricultural

or industrial importance (Thakur, 2016).

Bumble bees are most efficient and natural pollinators of many

agricultural and horticultural crops like tomato, kiwifruit, strawberries,

cucumber, watermelon and other crops grown under open as well as

protected conditions. Bumble bee (B. haemorrhoidalis) pollination is proved

superior over control (crop without pollinator), open/natural pollination

and equally good (at par) to hand-pollination, with respect to all

quantitative as well as qualitative parameters. The studies indicate that

bumble bee pollination is helpful to enhance the quality and quantity of

kiwifruit and will definitely increase farmers‟ income (Nayak et al., 2019)

The increase in fruit set and fruit yield is significantly higher in the

apple orchards with sufficient pollinisers as compared to the polliniser

deficient orchards. There is significant increase in apple yield in the

orchards where bees are kept. An increase of 108.3 and 53.8 per cent in

apple yield, respectively is recorded during 2000 in the orchards having

sufficient and insufficient polliniser proportion due to placement of A.

cerana colonies. In 2001, an increase of 39.50 and 24.40 per cent is

recorded, respectively in apple orchards with sufficient and insufficient

pollinisers (Sharma et al., 2003). Fruit setting is significantly higher in


255

Apple orchard having pollination services from bees than control site where

the pollination is dependent on available natural pollinators (Sharma et al.,

2012). These studies suggested that for enhancing the productivity and

improving the quality of fruits as well as vegetables, pollination services

through bees is of significant value.

Role of pollinators in crop production-

Insects and other animal pollinators are vital to the production of

healthy crops for food, fibers, edible oils, medicines, and other products. It

is estimated that more than 1,300 types of plants are grown around the

world for food, beverages, medicines, condiments, spices and even fabric.

Of these, about 75% are pollinated by animals. More than one of every

three bites of food we eat or beverages we drink are directly because of

pollinators. In fact, pollinators such as bees, birds and bats affect 35 per

cent of the world‟s crop production, increasing outputs of 87 of the leading

food crops worldwide, as well as many plant-derived medicines (Klein et al,

2007). The commodities produced with the help of pollinators generate

significant income for producers and those who benefit from a productive

agricultural community. Pollination by bees therefore increases fruit

production by 50% over that achieved by wind (Krishnan et al., 2012).

Pollinated plants produce fruit and seeds which are a major part of the diet

of approximately 25 per cent of bird species, as well as many mammals in

US (Scardina et al., 2012). Pollinators support biodiversity, and there is a

positive correlation between plant diversity and pollinator diversity. The

pollinator population of an area is a great indicator of the overall health of

an ecosystem. Pollinator dependent plant communities help to bind the

soil, reducing erosion. With ample pollination, the grower may also be able

to set his blooms before frost can damage them, set his crop before insects

attack, and harvest ahead of inclement weather.

Animal pollination of both wild and cultivated plant species is under

threat as a result of multiple environmental pressures acting in concert

(Schweiger et al., 2010), land-use change with the consequent loss and

fragmentation of habitats (Goulson et al., 2008; Winfree et al., 2009;

Steffan-Dewenter et al., 2002; Hendrickx et al., 2007), increasing pesticide

application and environmental pollution (Kevan et al., 1997; Rortais et al.,

2005), decreased resource diversity (Biesmeijer et al., 2006), alien species

(Thomson, 2006; Stout and Moral, 2009), the spread of pathogens (Cox-

Foster et al., 2007) and climate change (Williams et al., 2007). Schweiger et

al., 2010; Hegland et al., 2009). Indeed, several authors (van der Putten et

al., 2004; Sutherst et al., 2007) have argued that including species

interactions when analysing the ecological effects of climate change is of


256

utmost importance. Empirical studies explicitly focusing on the effects of

climate change on wild plant-pollinator interactions are scarce and those on

crop pollination practically non-existent.The Fourth Assessment Report

(AR4) developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

lists many observed changes of the global climate. Most notably, the IPCC

has documented increased global temperatures, a decrease in snow and ice

cover, and changed frequency and intensity of precipitation (IPCC 2007).

The most plausible and, in our opinion with respect to plant-pollinator

interactions, the most important effect of climate change is an increase in

temperatures. Therefore, more focus is on the impacts of increased

temperatures on pollinator interactions. The fact that 11 years - out of the

12 year period from 1995 to 2006 - rank among the 12 warmest years in the

instrumental record of global surface temperature (since 1850) (IPCC 2007)

provides high confidence of recent warming, which is strongly affecting

terrestrial ecosystems. This includes changes such as earlier timing of

spring events and poleward and upward shifts in distributional ranges of

plant and animal species (IPCC 2007; Feehan et al., 2009). Estimates from

the IPCC indicate that average global surface temperatures will further

increase by between 1.1˚C (low emission scenario) and 6.4 °C (high emission

scenario) during the 21st century, and that the increases in temperature will

be greatest at higher latitudes (IPCC 2007). The biological impacts of rising

temperatures depend upon the physiological sensitivity of organisms to

temperature change. Deutsch et al., (2008) found that an expected future

temperature increase in the tropics, although relatively small in magnitude,

is likely to have more deleterious consequences than changes at higher

latitudes. The reason for this is that tropical insects are relatively sensitive

to temperature changes (with a narrow span of suitable temperature) and

that they are currently living in an environment very close to their optimal

temperature. Deutsch et al., (2008) point out that in contrast, insect species

at higher latitudes – where the temperature increase is expected to be higher

– have broader thermal tolerance and are living in cooler climates than their

physiological optima. Warming may actually enhance the performance of

insects living at these latitudes. It is therefore likely that tropical agro

ecosystems will suffer from greater population decrease and extinction of

native pollinators than agroecosystems at higher latitudes. Insect pollinators

are valuable and limited resources (Delaplane and Mayer 2000). Currently,

farmers manage only 11 of the 20 000 to 30 000 bee species worldwide

(Parker et al., 1987), with the European honey bee (Apis mellifera) being by

far the most important species. Depending on only a few pollinator species

belonging to the Apis genus has been shown to be risky. Apis-specific

parasites and pathogens have lead to massive declines in honey bee

numbers. Biotic stress accompanied with climate change may cause further

population declines and lead farmers and researchers to look for alternative


257

pollinators. Well-known pollinators to replace honey bees might include the

alfalfa leaf-cutter bee (Megachile rotundata) and alkali bee (Nomia melanderi)

in alfalfa pollination (Cane 2002), mason bees (Osmia spp.) for pollination of

orchards (Bosch and Kemp 2002; Maccagnani et al., 2003) and bumblebees

(Bombus spp.) for pollination of crops requiring buzz pollination (Velthuis

and van Doorn 2006). Stingless bees are particularly important pollinators

of tropical plants, visiting approximately 90 crop species (Heard 1999). Some

habits of stingless bees resemble those of honey bees, including their

preference for a wide range of crop species, making them attractive for

commercial management. Pollinator limitation (lack of or reduced

availability of pollinators) and pollen limitation (insufficient number or

quality of conspecific pollen grains to fertilize all available ovules) both

reduce seed and fruit production in plants. Some crop plants are more

vulnerable to reductions in pollinator availability than others. Ghazoul

(2005) defined vulnerable plant species as: having a self-incompatible

breeding system, which makes them dependent on pollinator visitation for

seed production; being pollinator-limited rather than resource-limited

plants, as is the case for most intensively grown crop plants, which are

fertilized; and being dependent on one or a few pollinator species, which

makes them particularly sensitive to decreases in the abundance of these

pollinators. Food production in industrialized countries worldwide consists

mainly of large-scale monocultures. Intensified farm management has

expanded at the cost of semi-natural non-crop habitats (Tilman et al., 2001).

In a recent review, Hegland et al., (2009) discussed the consequences of

temperature induced changes in plant-pollinator interactions. They found

that timing of both plant flowering and pollinator activity seems to be

strongly affected by temperature. Insects and plants may react differently to

changed temperatures, creating temporal (phenological) and spatial

(distributional) mismatches – with severe demographic consequences for the

species involved. Mismatches may affect plants by reduced insect visitation

and pollen deposition, while pollinators experience reduced food availability.

We have found three studies investigating how increased temperatures

might create temporal mismatches between wild plants and their

pollinators. Gordo and Sanz (2005) examined the nature of phenological

responses of both plants and pollinators to increasing temperatures on the

Iberian Peninsula, finding that variations in the slopes of the responses

indicate a potential mismatch between the mutualistic partners. Both Apis

mellifera and Pieris rapae advanced their activity period more than their

preferred forage species, resulting in a temporal mismatch with some of

their main plant resources (Hegland et al., 2009). However, Kudo et al.,

(2004) found that early-flowering plants in Japan advanced their flowering

during a warm spring whereas bumble bee queen emergence appeared

unaffected by spring temperatures. Thus, direct temperature responses and


258

the occurrence of mismatches in pollination interactions may vary among

species and regions (Hegland et al., 2009). Memmot et al., (2007) simulated

the effects of increasing temperatures on a highly resolved plant-pollinator

network. They found that shifts in phenology reduced the floral resources

available for 17 to 50 per cent of the pollinator species. A temporal

mismatch can be detrimental to both plants and pollinators. However, the

negative effects of this changed timing can be buffered by novel pollination

interactions. Intensively managed monocultures usually provide floral

resources for a limited time period. The survival rate and population size of

the main pollinators may decrease if the foraging activity period is initiated

earlier than the flowering period of the crop species. A loss of important

pollinators early in the season will reduce crop pollination services later in

the season. In such cases, introducing alternative food sources might be an

option for farmers. In more heterogeneous agroecosystems, which are

characterized by a higher diversity of crops and semi-natural habitats,

pollinators may more readily survive on other crops and wild plants while

waiting for their main food crop to flower. We find the empirical support for

temporal mismatches to be weak because of the limited number of studies

available in the literature. Spatial mismatches between plants and their

pollinators resulting from non-overlapping geographical ranges have not yet

been observed. Despite the possibility of moving crop species to areas of

suitable climate, we still believe that spatial and temporal mismatches

between important crop species and their pollinators are highly probable in

the future. Temporal mismatches and lack of synchronicity in plant and

animal phenologies are likely because crop plant phenologies probably

respond to climate variables in comparable ways to wild plants. Spatial

mismatches may also be likely because of the socio-economic costs and

consequences of moving food production to new areas, particularly in

impoverished countries with high population density and a high degree of

pollinator dependence for food production (Ashworth et al., 2009). Therefore,

it is of the utmost importance for global food production and human well

being that we understand the effects of climate change on animal-pollinated

crops in order to counteract any negative effects.

Temperature sensitivity for crop pollinators

Bees are the most important pollinators worldwide (Kearns et al.,

1998) and like other insects, they are ectothermic, requiring elevated body

temperatures for flying. The thermal properties of their environments

determine the extent of their activity (Willmer and Stone 2004). The high

surface-to-volume ratio of small bees leads to rapid absorption of heat at

high ambient temperatures and rapid cooling at low ambient temperatures.

All bees above a body mass of between 35 and 50 mg are capable of


259

endothermic heating, i.e. internal heat generation (Stone and Willmer 1989;

Stone 1993; Bishop and Armbruster 1999). Examples of bee pollinators with

a body weight above 35 mg are found in the genera Apis, Bombus, Xylocopa

and Megachile. Examples of small bee pollinators are found in the family

Halictidae, including the genus Lasioglossum. All of these groups are

important in crop pollination. In addition to endothermy, many bees are also

able to control the temperatures in their flight muscles before, during and

after flight by physiological and behavioural means (Willmer and Stone

1997). Examples of behavioural strategies for thermal regulation include

long periods of basking in the sun to warm up and shade seeking or nest

returning to cool down (Willmer and Stone 2004). With respect to the

potential effects of future global warming, pollinator behavioural responses

to avoid extreme temperatures have the potential to significantly reduce

pollination services (Corbet et al., 1993). The giant honey bee (Apis dorsata)

lives only at tropical and adjacent latitudes in Asia and occurs less widely

than the Eastern honey bee (Apis cerana), but can live at higher altitudes.

The dwarf honey bee (Apis florea) is more restricted than that of the larger A.

dorsata and A. cerana. It is also mainly found in Asia. The effect of climate

change on pollinators depends upon their thermal tolerance and plasticity to

temperature changes. Our goal was to obtain thermal tolerance data for the

most important pollinators worldwide. However, a literature review indicates

that this information is missing for most species. that this information is

missing for most species. There is an urgent need to investigate the thermal

tolerance of important crop pollinators and differences in thermal tolerance

among Apis species and sub-species. Some of these are better adapted to

warmer climates and may therefore move into new areas where they can

function as crop pollinators under future climate conditions.

Colony collapse disorder

One of the most used pollinator i.e. Apis mellifera has suffered from

colony collapse disorder due to many factors like parasites, mites,

diseases, pesticides, chemicals and other factors. In other factors effects of

shifting spring blooms and earlier nectar flow associated with broader global

climate and temperature changes, the effects of feed supplements that are

produced from transgenic or genetically modified crops, such as high-

fructose corn syrup, and also the effects of cell phone transmissions and

radiation from power lines that may be interfering with a bee‟s navigational

capabilities (Renée Johnson, 2010)


260

Vegetable production scenario

Global vegetable production has made unprecedented growth

especially on per capita basis, which has increased more than 60% over the

last 20 years. However, the projected growth in the world‟s population to 9.1

billion by 2050 adds an extra challenge for food and nutritional security

worldwide, and it has been reported that more than one billion people are

undernourished, and over one third of the burden of disease in children

below 5 years of age is mainly due to under nutrition. Variability in

atmospheric air temperature alters the amount and distribution of

precipitation; wind patterns resulting into weather extremes, viz., flooding,

drought, hailstorms, high temperature, and freezing stress; change in ocean

currents; acidification; and forest fires in addition to rate of ozone depletion

(Minaxi et al., 2011; Kumar 2012). The current fertilizer use efficiency that

ranges between 2 and 50% in India is likely to be reduced further with

increasing temperatures. Huge fertilizer uses for boosting agricultural

production will in turn lead to higher emission of greenhouse gases. Small

fluctuation in atmospheric temperature and rainfall pattern affects both the

production and quality of fruits and vegetables ultimately with resultant

implication in domestic and international trade. Similarly, a high

temperature stimulates the outbreak of new and aggressive pests and

diseases along with the weeds which altogether invade our standing crop

impeding its performance and yield. Studies focusing on climate change and

its consequence in different crops are increasingly becoming the major areas

of scientific concern. Scientist and researchers all over the world are

engaged in developing different adaptation strategies and improved variety

for answering the question of an hour. However, tackling this immense

challenge must involve both adaptation to manage the unavoidable and

mitigation to avoid the unmanageable while maintaining a focus on its social

dimensions.

Adaptation Measures

Farmers from the tropical part of world need new and innovative

technologies for adapting and mitigating the undesirable effects of changing

climatic scenario on agricultural productivity, particularly vegetable

production and quality. It is now becoming a challenging task before

farmers from developing countries of the tropics. Novel technologies

developed by scientist all over the world through plant stress physiology

research can potentially contribute to mitigate the threats from climate

change on vegetable production. However, farmers in developing countries

are usually smallholders with fewer options and must rely heavily on

resources available in their farms or within their communities. They need


261

adaptive tools to manage the adverse effects of climate change on vegetable

productivity and quality. Crop management practices, efficient water

management, cultural practices, organic farming, developing climate-

resilient genotypes/varieties, breeding for stress tolerance etc. can be done

as an adaptive measure Naik et al., 2017)

Conclusions

Now, it is well understood that factors contributing for food security

are likely to be multiplied under climate change. The limited reasons for

climate change are known today; nonetheless, as per the available

information, anthropogenic activities like industrialization and

mechanization may contribute up to some extent. The elevated temperature

resulting into two detrimental abiotic stresses, namely, drought and soil

salinity, is an important factor limiting vegetable production. Among the

major gases contributing the global warming, CO2 concentration in the

atmosphere can enhance plant growth and development as well as the pest

and disease outbreak. Under changing climatic situations, crop failures,

shortage of yield, reduction in quality, and increasing pest and disease

problems are common, and they can render the vegetable cultivation

unprofitable. Agriculture practices need to be adapted to the changing

climatic scenario along with options for mitigating its effects. Unless

measures are undertaken to adapt to the effects of climate change on

vegetable production, nutritional security in developing countries will be

under threat.

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4 R’s Nutrient stewardship

Rajesh Kaushal

Department of Soil Science & Water Management Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry


[email protected] ; 9418197516

In the today‟s scenario soils are at the heart of numerous

sustainability issues facing humanity. An integrated approach to soil and

nutrient management is required because of the many interactions of soil

with food production, the environment and economic development. Farmers

are pivotal as the direct stewards who care for a large portion of the land, as

is the fertilizer industry as a key supplier of crop nutrients for replenishing

soil nutrient reserves. Farmers and the fertilizer industry must partner with

the other stakeholders (scientists, policy makers, environmental groups,

etc.) to develop win-win solutions that improve performance and provide the

greatest benefits to all. The stakeholders are stewards of soils and they need

to work together to define and implement actions to maintain or increase

soil fertility in a sustainable manner.

Meeting the fast growing food, feed, fiber and bioenergy requirements

of the world population implies greater and more efficient use of mineral and

organic nutrient sources. At the same time, new expectations are emerging,

such as preserving the environment. Farmers also, when shifting from

subsistence to commercial farming, expect a higher quality of life. Achieving

sustainability in nutrient management is a key concern of a wide range of

stakeholders. The diverse expectations among and within stakeholder

groups may in fact be integrated and partially reconciled through the

development of best management practices (BMPs) that can, for instance,

simultaneously increase productivity and profitability, and protect the

environment, and thus meet sustainable development goals.

The sustainability concept is built around three pillars: economic,

social and environmental goals. Any sustainable option must keep a right

balance between the three pillars. In an ideal world, the focus on each of the

three pillars would be perfectly balanced. Reality is not as simple, and there

is no single ideal mix. The right mix depends largely on the issue, the

context and the stakeholders. The concept of sustainability evolves

continuously with improvements in knowledge and changes in stakeholder

expectations. It also differs widely among regions.



267

Options that best combine the economic, social and environmental

expectations of different stakeholder categories can be called “best

management practices”. They are a critical component of fertilizer product

stewardship programmes currently developed and disseminated by the

fertilizer industry and its partners in many countries.

The 4R Nutrient Stewardship concept defines the right source, rate, time,

and place for fertilizer application as those producing the economic, social

and environmental outcomes desired by all stakeholders to the plant

ecosystem. The concept is developed through a long history of cooperation

between the fertilizer industry and the scientific community. Since at least

1988, application of the right nutrient source or product at the right rate,

right time and in the right place has been closely associated with

agricultural sustainability.

Fertilizer BMPs can be aptly described as the application of the right

source (or product) at the right rate, right time and right place. Under the

Global “4R” Nutrient Stewardship Framework, the four “rights” (4R)

comprehensively convey how fertilizer applications can be managed to

achieve economic, social and environmental goals. The framework ensures

that FBMPs are developed with consideration of the appropriate focus on all

three areas of sustainable development.


268

There are many economic, social and environmental indicators of

performance that can be influenced through the “4R” framework, it is

prudent to focus efforts on a few key objectives and establish related

performance indicators. The selected indicators and objectives will vary

depending upon site-specific conditions and stakeholder input. For example,

a grower may choose FBMPs to achieve a target yield (for food supply and

income generation) and to reduce nitrous oxide emissions, while striving to

increase soil organic matter. Another grower will likely have different

objectives. It is important to note that the outcome of implementation of

fertilizer BMPs or specific combinations of source, rate, time and place is

expressed in the performance of the cropping system. Cropping system

performance can include objectives such as productivity in terms of yields

produced, profitability to the producer, maintenance of long-term soil

productivity, and minimized impact on air and water quality in the

surrounding environment. Performance indicators for the cropping system

reflect the outcome of implementing the 4Rs, but are in addition influenced

by other aspects of crop management. Performance evaluation of fertilizer

practices, therefore, cannot be independent of that of crop production

practices in general.

The FBMPs are based on scientific principles and applied research.

The application of these scientific principles may differ widely depending on


269

the specific cropping system (region and crop combination) and

socioeconomic context under consideration (e.g. equipment availability,

income levels).

Examples of elements of FBMPs

Right Product(s)/

Source(s)

Right Rate Right Time Right Place

• Balanced

fertilization (N, P, K, secondary and

micronutrients) • Nutrient form (urea, nitrate,

ammonium)

• Soil testing

• Yield goal analysis

• Crop removal balance • Plant tissue analysis

• Crop inspection • Record keeping •Variable-rate

application technology

• Application

timing • Slow- and

controlled-release fertilizers •Urease and

nitrification inhibitors

•Application

method • Incorporation of

fertilizer • Applicator maintenance

Conclusion:

4R' nutrient stewardship provides a framework to achieve cropping

system goals – increased production, increased farmer profitability,

enhanced environmental protection, and improved sustainability. To

achieve those goals the 4Rs utilize fertilizer best management practices that

address the Right Fertilizer Source, at the Right Application Rate, the Right

Time for the plant to utilize the nutrients, and in the Right Place for optimal

crop uptake. The four “rights” are necessary for sustainable plant nutrition

management. The assessment of any planned nutrient management practice

must consider the economic, social, and environmental effects to determine

whether or not it is a “right” practice for that system.


270

Faculty of Department of Vegetable Science

Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry Nauni Solan 173230 HP

[email protected]

Name and Designation Phone No. & email

Dr Ashwani K Sharma Professor & Head

+91-94184-56682

[email protected]

Dr H R Sharma

Principal Scientist

+91-94181-96013

[email protected]

Dr Yog Raj Shukla Principal Scientist

+91-94180-79149

[email protected]

Dr Happy Dev Sharma

Principal Scientist

+91-94183-21349

[email protected]

Dr Ramesh K Bhardwaj

Principal Scientist

+91-94181-68586

rameshkbhardwaj@rediffmail.

com









271

Dr Sandeep Kansal

Principal Scientist (Plant

Pathology)

+91-94183-11584

[email protected]

Dr Devinder K Mehta

Principal Scientist

+91-94184-51525

[email protected]

Dr Amit Vikram

Principal Scientist

+91-94180-48105

[email protected]

Dr Kuldeep Singh

Thakur

Principal Scientist

+91-94184-55436

[email protected]

Dr Meenu Gupta

Assistant Professor

(Plant Pathology)

+91-94180-12663

[email protected]

Dr Vipin Sharma

Assistant Professor

(Chemistry)

+91-94183-21402

[email protected]








272

Participants of CAFT “ Innovative Interventions for Sustainable Vegetable

Production under Changing Climate Scenario”

03-23 September 2019



Nauni – Solan (H.P.)

Compiled by: Dr AASHISH VIVEK VAIDYA


273

Name: Mr. Vijay Kumar D. Rathva

Designation: Assistant Professor (Horticulture)

Cell: 9712377533

e-mail: [email protected] /

[email protected]

Professional

Address:

Assistant Prof. (Hort), Seth. D.M.

Polytech. In Horti. Model Farm, AAU, Vadodara-390003

Permanent

Address:

Shantanagar Society, Alipura,

Bodeli, Chhotaudepur-391135

Name: Dr. Raghwendra Arunrao Patil


Cell: 9403924661

e-mail: [email protected]

Professional Address:

Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Osmanabad (Maharashtra) 413501

Permanent Address:

921/7, Byagehalli Road, Ulhas Nagar, Akkalkot, Dist Solapur

(Maharashtra) 413216


274

Name: Dr. Ketan N Prajapati

Designation: Assistant Professor (GPB)

Cell: 9714028168



Assistant Professor, Polytechnic in Agriculture, S.D. Agricultural

University, Khedbrahma

Permanent

Address:

Alaknanda Society, Kadi, Ta Kadi,

District: Mehsana

Name: Dr. Suhas O. Bawkar


Cell: 8275286882


Professional

Address:

Asst. Prof. (Horti.) College of

Horticulture, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Agriculture University, Krishinagar Akola (MS) - 444 104.

Permanent Address:

At Basera Colony, Near Bhande Nursing College, Malkapur Tal. Dist.

Akola, Maharashtra State - 444 001


275

Name: Pankaj Kumar A. Maheriya


Cell: 9377661805



Department of Horticulture, B.A.College of Agriculture, Anand

Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat

Permanent Address:

12/B,Panjuripark society, Behind Radheshyam party plot, Uma

bhavan,Tp-8, Anand

Name: Dr. Navjot Singh Brar

Designation:

Cell: 9466613412



Assistant Professor, Department of Vegetable Science, College of

Horticulture and Forestry, Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana(Punjab)

Permanent

Address:

House No 15, Rive Bale colony,

Barewal Road, Ludhiana 141012


276

Name: Dr. Ajay Kumar

Designation: District Extension Specialist (Vegetable)

Cell: 8968278900



University Seed Farm, Usman, Tarn Taran. Department of Vegetable

Science, College of Horticulture and Forestry, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana(Punjab)

Permanent Address:

H.No-2257/E-13, Near Khandwala, Amritsar- 143001

Name: Dr. Lal Singh

Designation: Scientist (Horticulture )

Cell: 9926315545



G3 Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Rajgarh (Biaora) M.P. 465661

Permanent Address:

Village and Post - Aron Tehsil- Ghatigaon Distt. Gwalior M.P. pin

475330


277

Name: Dr. D.S. Duhan

Designation: Assistant Scientist (Vegetable Science)

Cell: 9416397542



Department of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture, CCS

Agricultural University, Hisar-Haryana

Permanent Address:

H. No. A -2, Gali No. 12, Jawahar Nagar, Hisar

Name: Dr. Hans Raj

Designation: Assistant Scientist (Vegetable

Science)

Cell: 9812411600


Professional

Address:

Assistant Scientist, Department of

Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture, CCS Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana

Permanent Address:

VPO Dulheri, Tehsil Tosham, District Bhiwani, Haryana- 127040


278

Name: Dr. Makhan Majoka

Designation: Assistant Scientist (Vegetable Science)

Cell: 8059670846



Department of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture, CCS

Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana

Permanent Address:

H.No. 10/108, New Campus, CCSHAU- Hisar

Name: Dr. Bhavesh N Chaudhari


Cell: 8980277930



Department of Vegetable Science, ASPEE College of Horticulture and

Forestry, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari, Gujarat 396450

Permanent Address:

At Post Tiskari Talat, Heti Faliya, Taluka Dharampur,Dist- Valsad, Gujarat Pin -396450


279

Name: Mr. Dipt Anilkumar Patel

Designation: Jr. Scientist (Horticulture)

Cell: 7201879756


Professional

Address:

Scientist (Horticulture), Krishi

Vigyan Kendra, Surendranagar , Junagadh Agricultural University,

Gujrath

Permanent

Address:

25, Harikrishna Society behind

Polytechnic college bholav Bharuch Gujarat

Name: Mrs. Sumitha. N


Cell: 7588913389



Sumitha. N, Assistant Professor (Horticulture),College of Agriculture, Alani, (Gadpati),

Osmanabad-413501, Maharashtra

Permanent

Address:

#203,Sai Ashirvad Apartment,

Samarth Nagar, Osmanabad- 413501


280

Name: Dr. Chinanshuk Ghosh

Designation: SMS (Horticulture)

Cell: 9434520606



Krishi Vigyan Kendra, KalyanPO- Vivekananda Nagar, Dist.- Purulia,

PIN- 723147, West Bengal

Permanent

Address:

Vill+PO+PS- Joypur, Dist.- Bankura,

PIN- 722138, West Bengal

Name: Dr. Yogesh Dattatray Pawar


Cell: 7878019115


Professional

Address:

Krushi Vigyan Kendra, S. D.

Agricultural University, Deesa, Dist. Banaskantha 385535, Gujarat

Permanent Address:

A/p. Bembale Ta. Madha Dist. Solapur 413211, MH


281

Name: Mr. Vitthal Laxman Mangi


Cell: 9591184094

e-mail: [email protected] [email protected]

Professional

Address:

Mr. Vitthal Laxman Mangi,

Department of Horticulture, College of agriculture, Vijayapur

(Hittanalli Farm) -586101, Karnataka

Permanent Address:

s/o laxman mangi A/P- melavanki Tq- Gokak dist -belagavi - 591307 , Karnataka

Name: Dr. Yamini Sharma


Cell: 9592242449, 9418843821



Punjab Agricultural University, regional station, KVK Gurdaspur,

pincode- 143521

Permanent Address:

w/o Dr. Jitender Sharma vill -nauni, p.o - deothi, teh- kausali,

pincode - 173211




282

Name: Mrs. Priyanka N Patel


Cell: 9687094480



Horticulture Polytechnic, ACHF Navsari Agricultural

University, Navsari, Gujarat

Permanent

Address:

203, shreeji complex eroo road ,

navsari

Name: Dr. Shirin Akhtar

Designation: Asst. Prof.-cum-Jr. Scientist (Horti.- Vegetable Science)

Cell: 7980459580



Department of Horticulture (Vegetable and Floriculture),

Bihar Agricultural College, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,

Bhagalpur, Bihar - 813210

Permanent Address:

Flat no.1B, Meghna Apartment, B-8/66, Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal -

741235


283

Name: Dr. Bandaru Venkata Rajkumar


Cell: 7702209393


Professional

Address:

O/o The Programme Coordinator,

Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Rudrur (PJTSAU, HYDERABAD) Nizamabad

District, Telangana State. PIN - 503 188.

Permanent Address:

Door no 2-231, plot no 19, Phase I, SKS MEGA TOWNSHIP, GANGANAPALLY, Kakinada, East

Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh. PIN 533 006.

Name: Dr Shashank Shekhar Solankey

Designation: Asst. Prof.-cum-Jr. Scientist (Horti.- Vegetable Science)

Cell: 9453365203



Dr.Kalam Agricultural College, Kishanganj, Bihar Agricultural

University, Sabour, Bhagalpur (Bihar).

Permanent Address:

Village - Madhopatti,Post- Kajgaon, Dist.- Jaunpur, (U. P.)


284

Name: Dr. Rakesh Kumar Sharma

Designation: Assistant Professor (Vegetable

Science)

Cell: 9630010296


Professional

Address:


College of Horticulture, Mandsaur (MP) 458001

Permanent

Address:

VPO - Kishanpura, Via- Badhal,

Distt. - Jaipur ( Raj.) 303602

Name: Dr. Dinesh Sheshrao Phad

Designation: Assistant Vegetable Breeder

Cell: 9422875179



Chilli and Vegetable Research Unit, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi

Vidyapeeth, Krishi nagar, Akola 444104 (M.S.)

Permanent Address:

Sant Kripa Niwas, Audit Nagar, Near Pathri Road, Parbhani 431401 ( M.S.)


285

Name: Dr. Aashish Vivek Vaidya


cum I/C Principal

Cell: 8806318017



SDMVM‟S., College of Agriculture, Georai Tanda, Paithan Road,

Aurangabad- 431001, MH

Permanent

Address:

245 Vyankatesh Apartment, Flat No.

05, Opposite Renuka Dental Clinic, Samarth Nagar, Aurangabad- 431001, MH



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