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For Secondary I to V

REFERENCE TOOL

SPEECHACQUISITION

WORDS

COMMUNICATIONMESSAGE

SENTENCE

CORRECTION

ARGUMENTATION

SUMMARY

OPINION

INFORMATION

RESEARCH

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This work contains the principal notions of grammar needed for the successful completion of both 1st and 2nd cycles of Secondary studies.

• The presentation of the rules and principles of grammar takes different types of learners into account.

• The content is organized by grammar notion, using tables, graphics and written examples.

• With clear explanations and examples, this reference provides an excellent overview of English grammar.

Whether to refresh your knowledge

or to fi nd essential information

on grammar, this work is

a must-have.

THE INDISPENSABLES FOR ENGLISH

ARE PERFECT FOR INDEPENDENT STUDY.

A practical tool outlining the strategies to use for improved writing, reading, listening,and speaking skills.

All the essential grammar knowledge you need.

ANNOTATE

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SUMMARIZEREADING

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ORAL COMMUNICATION

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STRATEGIESINDISPENSABLEFor Secondary I to V

REFERENCE TOOL


REFERENCE TOOL

SPEECHACQUISITION

WORDS


SENTENCE

CORRECTION

ARGUMENTATION

SUMMARY

OPINION

INFORMATION

RESEARCH

INDI

SPEN

SABL

EEN

GLIS

H G

RA

MM

AR

For S

econ

dary

I to

V

INDISPENSABLEENGLISH GRAMMAR

CODE DE PRODUIT : 5124-05

ISBN : 978-2-89798-174-7

APPENDICES

• Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers• Telling Time• Days, Months, and Seasons• Common False Cognates

• Homophones• Common Phrasal Verbs• Irregular Verbs

Part I Major Linguistic Categories, such as adjectives,adverbs, nouns, prepositions, etc.

Part II Other Linguistic Elements, such as phonology, semantics, sentence structure, etc.

Part III Textual Cohesion, including agreement and transitional expressions.

CONTENTS

THIS REFERENCE TOOL IS THE IDEAL COMPLEMENT FOR ALL ENGLISH LEARNERS.

INDI

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REFERENCE TOOL



Project ManagerMélanie D’Amours

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(Essential Knowledge Reference Booklet)

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© SOFAD (Société de formation à distance des commissions scolaires du Québec) All rights for translation and adaptation, in whole or in part, reserved for all countries. Any reproduction by mechanical or electronic means is forbidden without the express written consent of a duly authorized representative of SOFAD.

This work is funded in part by the Ministère de l’Éducation et de l’Enseignement supérieur and by the Canada-Québec Agreement on Minority Language Education and Second Language Instruction.

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ISBN: 978-2-89798-174-7 (print)ISBN: 978-2-89798-175-4 (PDF) May 2018

INDISPENSABLE ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR SECONDARY I TO Vwas produced by SOFAD (Société de formation à distance des commissions scolaires du Québec).

The INDISPENSABLE ENGLISH

GRAMMAR is based largely on the Essential Knowledge Reference Booklet published by SOFAD.


Table of ContentsINTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ XI

PART I MAJOR LINGUISTIC CATEGORIES ........................................................... 1

SECTION 1

Adjectives ........................................................................................................ 21.1 Placement of Adjectives ......................................................................................21.2 Adjectives Ending in ing and ed ...........................................................................31.3 Proper Adjectives ................................................................................................41.4 Possessive Adjectives .........................................................................................41.5 Demonstrative Adjectives ....................................................................................51.6 Adjectives Followed by an Infi nitive .....................................................................61.7 Compound Adjectives, and Nouns as Modifi ers ...................................................7

– Nouns as Modifi ers ..........................................................................................71.8 Order of Adjectives ..............................................................................................7

SECTION 2

Adverbs ............................................................................................................ 92.1 Adverbs of Frequency ..........................................................................................92.2 Adverbs of Degree .............................................................................................102.3 Adverbs of Time ................................................................................................112.4 Adverbs of Place ...............................................................................................122.5 Adverbs of Manner ............................................................................................122.6 Placement of Adverbs .......................................................................................13

– Adverbs Modifying an Adjective or Another Adverb ........................................13 – Adverbs Modifying a Verb .............................................................................13

SECTION 3

Articles and Quantifi ers ................................................................................. 143.1 The Defi nite Article ...........................................................................................143.2 Indefi nite Articles ..............................................................................................153.3 Article Omission ................................................................................................153.4 Indefi nite Quantifi ers ........................................................................................16

– Many and Much .............................................................................................16 – A Few and A Little ..........................................................................................16 – Several ..........................................................................................................16 – Some ............................................................................................................17 – Any ................................................................................................................17 – Other Quantifi ers ...........................................................................................17

III


SECTION 4

Conjunctions .................................................................................................. 184.1 Coordinating Conjunctions .................................................................................184.2 Correlative Conjunctions ....................................................................................194.3 Subordinating Conjunctions ...............................................................................20

– Cause and Effect ...........................................................................................21 – Condition .......................................................................................................21 – Contrast ........................................................................................................21 – Place .............................................................................................................21 – Time ..............................................................................................................21

SECTION 5

Gerunds .......................................................................................................... 225.1 Gerunds as Subjects .........................................................................................235.2 Gerunds as Objects ...........................................................................................235.3 Gerunds versus Infi nitives .................................................................................24

SECTION 6

Modal Auxiliaries ........................................................................................... 256.1 Ability: Can and Could .......................................................................................26

– Be Able To .....................................................................................................276.2 Permission: Can and May ..................................................................................276.3 Possibility: May, Might, Could ............................................................................286.4 Polite Requests: Could and Would .....................................................................296.5 Obligation and Prohibition: Must and Have To ....................................................306.6 Advice: Should ..................................................................................................316.7 Modal Auxiliaries Summary ...............................................................................32

IV


SECTION 7

Nouns ............................................................................................................. 337.1 Proper Nouns ....................................................................................................33

7.2 Common Nouns ................................................................................................34 7.3 Singular versus Plural Nouns .............................................................................34

– Regular Plurals ..............................................................................................34 – Irregular Plurals ............................................................................................35

7.4 Count versus Non-Count Nouns.........................................................................36 7.5 Collective Nouns ...............................................................................................37 7.6 Compound Nouns ..............................................................................................37 7.7 Possessive Nouns .............................................................................................38

– How to Form Possessives ..............................................................................38

SECTION 8

Prepositions ................................................................................................... 408.1 Prepositions of Time ..........................................................................................40

8.2 Prepositions of Place .........................................................................................41 8.3 Prepositions of Movement .................................................................................42 8.4 Other Prepositions .............................................................................................43

SECTION 9

Pronouns ........................................................................................................ 459.1 Personal Pronouns ............................................................................................46

– Subject Pronouns ..........................................................................................46 – Object Pronouns ............................................................................................47

9.2 Possessive Pronouns .........................................................................................48 9.3 Demonstrative Pronouns ...................................................................................49 9.4 Relative Pronouns .............................................................................................49 9.5 Indefi nite Pronouns ...........................................................................................50 9.6 Refl exive Pronouns ............................................................................................50 9.7 Reciprocal Pronouns .........................................................................................51

V


SECTION 10

Verbs .............................................................................................................. 5210.1 Verb Endings .....................................................................................................5210.2 The Verb To Be: Present and Past ......................................................................53

– To Be: Negative and Question Forms .............................................................5410.3 Verb Tenses and Moods ....................................................................................55

– Auxiliary Verbs ...............................................................................................5610.4 Simple Present Tense ........................................................................................5710.5 Present Progressive Tense ................................................................................5910.6 Present Perfect Tense .......................................................................................6010.7 Present Perfect Progressive Tense ....................................................................6110.8 Present Perfect versus Present Perfect Progressive ...........................................62

– Since .............................................................................................................62 – For ................................................................................................................62

10.9 Simple Past Tense .............................................................................................6310.10 Present Perfect versus Simple Past ...................................................................6510.11 Past Progressive Tense .....................................................................................6510.12 Past Perfect Tense ............................................................................................6710.13 Past Perfect Progressive Tense .........................................................................6810.14 Simple Future Tense ..........................................................................................6910.15 Future with Will versus Be Going To ...................................................................6910.16 Future Progressive Tense ..................................................................................7010.17 Future Perfect Tense .........................................................................................7110.18 Future Perfect Progressive Tense ......................................................................7210.19 Conditional Sentences .......................................................................................73

– First, Second, and Third Conditionals .............................................................7410.20 Imperative Mood ...............................................................................................7510.21 Subjunctive Mood..............................................................................................7610.22 Voice .................................................................................................................77

– Active Voice ...................................................................................................77 – Passive Voice ................................................................................................77

10.23 Verbs Followed by Infi nitives or Gerunds ............................................................79

VI


PART II OTHER LINGUISTIC ELEMENTS ............................................................. 81

SECTION 11

Comparative and Superlative Forms ............................................................. 8211.1 Comparative Adjectives .....................................................................................82

11.2 Comparative Adverbs ........................................................................................84 11.3 Superlative Adjectives .......................................................................................86 11.4 Superlative Adverbs ..........................................................................................87 11.5 Irregular Comparatives and Superlatives ............................................................87 11.6 Comparisons of Quantities.................................................................................88

SECTION 12

Orthography (Spelling and Punctuation) ...................................................... 8912.1 Basic Spelling Rules ..........................................................................................89

– I Before E ......................................................................................................89 – Removing a Final E Before ING .......................................................................89 – Doubling a Final Consonant ...........................................................................89 – Changing Y to IE ............................................................................................90 – Hyphen after Certain Prefi xes ........................................................................90 – Adding LY to Form an Adverb .........................................................................90

12.2 Canadian, British, and American Spelling ...........................................................91 12.3 Capitalization ....................................................................................................92 12.4 Punctuation .......................................................................................................93

– Period ............................................................................................................93 – Question Mark ...............................................................................................94 – Exclamation Mark ..........................................................................................94 – Comma .........................................................................................................94 – Semicolon .....................................................................................................94 – Colon .............................................................................................................95 – Parentheses ..................................................................................................95 – Quotation Marks and Ellipses .........................................................................95

SECTION 13

Phonology (Pronunciation and Stress) ......................................................... 96 13.1 Contractions .....................................................................................................96

– Contractions of Other Auxiliaries ...................................................................98 13.2 Pronunciation of the Past Tense of Regular Verbs ..............................................99 13.3 Relaxed Pronunciation .......................................................................................99 13.4 Silent Letters...................................................................................................100 13.5 Syllable Stress ................................................................................................101

– Syllable Stress in Compound Words .............................................................101 13.6 Intonation in Questions ....................................................................................102 13.7 Intonation for Emphasis ...................................................................................102

VII


SECTION 14

Semantics .................................................................................................... 10314.1 Prefi xes and Suffi xes ......................................................................................103

– Prefi xes .......................................................................................................103 – Suffi xes .......................................................................................................104

14.2 Abbreviations ..................................................................................................105 – Abbreviated Words ......................................................................................105 – Abbreviations with Initial Letters ..................................................................105 – Acronyms ....................................................................................................106 – Common Abbreviations ................................................................................106

14.3 Antonyms and Synonyms ................................................................................10714.4 Cognates and False Cognates .........................................................................10714.5 Heteronyms.....................................................................................................10814.6 Homonyms ......................................................................................................109

– Homophones ...............................................................................................11014.7 Commonly Confused Words ............................................................................111

– Good versus Well .........................................................................................111 – Make versus Do ...........................................................................................111

14.8 Phrasal Verbs ..................................................................................................112 – Inseparable Phrasal Verbs............................................................................113 – Separable Phrasal Verbs ..............................................................................113 – Phrasal Verbs That Can Be Separable or Inseparable ...................................114

14.9 Similes and Metaphors ....................................................................................114

SECTION 15

Sentence Structure ...................................................................................... 11515.1 Spelling and Punctuation .................................................................................11515.2 Types of Sentences .........................................................................................116

– Simple Sentences ........................................................................................116 – Compound Sentences ..................................................................................117 – Complex Sentences .....................................................................................118

15.3 Relative Clauses ..............................................................................................119 – Subject and Object Relative Pronouns ..........................................................119 – Comma Use with Relative Clauses ...............................................................120

15.4 There Is and There Are ....................................................................................120 – Questions and Negative Sentences ..............................................................121

15.5 Parallel Structure ............................................................................................12115.6 Question Structure ..........................................................................................122

– Open-Ended Questions ................................................................................123 – Closed-Ended Questions ..............................................................................124 – Tag Questions ..............................................................................................125

15.7 Reported Speech.............................................................................................126 – Direct Quotation ..........................................................................................126 – Reported (Indirect) Speech ..........................................................................126 – Changing Direct Quotation to Reported Speech ............................................126

VIII


PART III TEXTUAL COHESION ........................................................................... 129

SECTION 16

Agreement .................................................................................................... 13016.1 Subject-Verb Agreement ..................................................................................131

16.2 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement ......................................................................132

SECTION 17

Transitional Expressions ............................................................................. 13317.1 Transitions of Time and Place ..........................................................................133

17.2 Transitions of Comparison and Contrast ..........................................................134 17.3 Transitions of Addition and Example ................................................................135 17.4 Transitions of Summary and Concession .........................................................136 17.5 Transitions of Emphasis ...................................................................................136

IX


APPENDICES ...................................................................................... 1371 Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers ......................................................................... 1382 Telling Time ..................................................................................................... 1423 Days, Months, and Seasons ............................................................................1444 Common False Cognates .................................................................................1455 Homophones ................................................................................................... 1476 Common Phrasal Verbs ................................................................................... 1497 Irregular Verbs ................................................................................................ 153

INDEX .................................................................................................. 156

ICONOGRAPHIC SOURCES ................................................................... 162

X


IntroductionThe learning of the grammar of a language is dif� cult and takes time. The present reference manual is a simple tool adapted for high school students in both the youth and adult sectors. This reference manual is for all ages and for anyone who wants to improve their English grammar.

The INDISPENSABLE ENGLISH GRAMMAR covers, in one reference manual, all the grammar you will need to succeed in your high school studies. The reference manual uses examples, models, and explanations that will help you to understand the different parts of the English language and how they are put together to create sentences and paragraphs.

The INDISPENSABLE ENGLISH GRAMMAR is divided into three main parts: Major Linguistic Categories, Other Linguistic Elements, and Textual Cohesion. The Major Linguistic Categories part is divided alphabetically into sections that correspond to the different parts of speech, such as adjectives, adverbs, and nouns. The Other Linguistic Elements part contains sections such as semantics, sentence structure, orthography, and phonology. The Textual Cohesion part contains a section on agreement and a section on transitional expressions.

The reference manual also includes cross-references to speci� c pages to give you quick and easy directions to content.

XIINTRODUCTION

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Table of ContentsINTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ XI

PART I MAJOR LINGUISTIC CATEGORIES ........................................................... 1

SECTION 1

Adjectives ........................................................................................................ 21.1 Placement of Adjectives ......................................................................................21.2 Adjectives Ending in ing and ed ...........................................................................31.3 Proper Adjectives ................................................................................................41.4 Possessive Adjectives .........................................................................................41.5 Demonstrative Adjectives ....................................................................................51.6 Adjectives Followed by an Infinitive .....................................................................61.7 Compound Adjectives, and Nouns as Modifiers ...................................................7

– Nouns as Modifiers ..........................................................................................71.8 Order of Adjectives ..............................................................................................7

SECTION 2

Adverbs ............................................................................................................ 92.1 Adverbs of Frequency ..........................................................................................92.2 Adverbs of Degree .............................................................................................102.3 Adverbs of Time ................................................................................................112.4 Adverbs of Place ...............................................................................................122.5 Adverbs of Manner ............................................................................................122.6 Placement of Adverbs .......................................................................................13

– Adverbs Modifying an Adjective or Another Adverb ........................................13 – Adverbs Modifying a Verb .............................................................................13

SECTION 3

Articles and Quantifiers ................................................................................. 143.1 The Definite Article ...........................................................................................143.2 Indefinite Articles ..............................................................................................153.3 Article Omission ................................................................................................153.4 Indefinite Quantifiers ........................................................................................16

– Many and Much .............................................................................................16 – A Few and A Little ..........................................................................................16 – Several ..........................................................................................................16 – Some ............................................................................................................17 – Any ................................................................................................................17 – Other Quantifiers ...........................................................................................17

III

PART III

TEXTUAL COHESION

SECTION 16

Agreement ...............................................................130

SECTION 17

Transitional Expressions .........................................133PART II

OTHER LINGUISTIC ELEMENTS

SECTION 11

Comparative and Superlative Forms ........................82

SECTION 12

Orthography (Spelling and Punctuation) ..................89

SECTION 13

Phonology (Pronunciation and Stress) .....................96

SECTION 14

Semantics ................................................................103

SECTION 15

Sentence Structure ..................................................115

PART I

MAJOR LINGUISTIC CATEGORIES

SECTION 1

Adjectives ....................................................................2

SECTION 2

Adverbs ........................................................................9

SECTION 3

Articles and Quantifiers .............................................14

SECTION 4

Conjunctions ..............................................................18

SECTION 5

Gerunds ......................................................................22

SECTION 6

Modal Auxiliaries .......................................................25

SECTION 7

Nouns .........................................................................33

SECTION 8

Prepositions ...............................................................40

SECTION 9

Pronouns ....................................................................45

SECTION 10

Verbs ..........................................................................52

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Index

A

Abbreviations: 105-106Common Abbreviations: 106Vs. Acronyms: 106With Initial Letters: 105

Acronyms (see Abbreviations)

Active Voice: 77

Addition, Transitional Expressions of: 135

Adjectives: 2-7And adverbs: 90As Antonyms and Synonyms: 107As Heteronyms: 108-109As Homophones: 110Comparative forms: 82-84Compound: 7Demonstrative Adjectives: 5-6Ending in -ING and -ED: 3Followed by an in�nitive: 6In Parallel Structure: 122Irregular Comparative and Superlative forms: 87Order of: 7-8Placement of: 2Possessive Adjectives: 4Proper: 4Superlative forms: 82; 86With pre�xes and suf�xes: 103-104

Adverbs: 9-13As Antonyms and Synonyms: 107As Heteronyms: 108-109As Homophones: 110Comparative forms: 82; 84-85From an Adjective (-LY ): 90

In Parallel Structure: 122Irregular Comparative and Superlative forms: 87Of Degree: 10Of Frequency: 9Of Manner: 12Of Place: 12Of Time: 11; 60Placement of: 13Superlative forms: 82; 87With pre�xes and suf�xes: 103-104

Agreement: 130-132Pronoun-Antecedent: 132Subject-Verb Agreement: 131

Antonyms: 107

Apostrophe (see Possessive Nouns or Punctuation)

Articles and Quanti�ers: 14-17De�nite: 14Inde�nite Articles: 15Inde�nite Quanti�ers: 16-17Omission of: 15With Non-Count Nouns: 36

B

Basic Spelling Rules: 89I before E: 89Removing a Final E before ING: 89Doubling a Final Consonant: 89Changing Y to IE: 90Hyphen after Certain Pre�xes: 90Adding LY to Form an Adverb: 90

156 INDEX©

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An overview of the

The Table of Contents and the Index are two tools that allow you to � nd information easily and quickly.

The Table of Contents, reproducing the colour of each part of the book, lists its three major units.

Each part is subdivided into sections.

The INDISPENSABLE ENGLISH GRAMMAR is divided into three parts, each with a different colour.

The Index at the end of the INDISPENSABLE ENGLISH GRAMMAR provides the notions, concepts and knowledge which are all listed in alphabetical order.

PART I MAJOR LINGUISTIC CATEGORIESPART II OTHER LINGUISTIC ELEMENTSPART III TEXTUAL COHESION

Content

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INTRODUCTION


SECTION 1

AdjectivesAn adjective is a word that identi�es or describes a noun or a pronoun.

Ex.: She’s my friend.

She’s my best friend.

He has a bag.

He has a big red bag.

Use adjectives to give more information about a person, place, thing, or idea. Adjectives add detail and create a clearer, stronger image for your reader or listener.

Ex.: This is a good job for a student; it’s also interesting.

The house was old and abandoned.

He is young but very mature for his age.

The form of an adjective does not change. It does not matter whether the related noun is singular or plural, is a subject or an object, or refers to a man or a woman.

Ex.: ✓ The green pens belong to the tall girl.

The greens pens belong to the talle girl.

1.1 KNOWLEDGE PLACEMENT OF ADJECTIVES

An adjective usually comes before the noun.

Ex.: Dr. Welby is an excellent doctor. He treats patients with great respect. adjective noun

The new library will attract a lot of visitors.

An adjective can also come after the verb if the verb is to be or a linking verb, such as to look or to feel.

Ex.: Isabelle’s summer job is challenging; she’s babysitting her neighbour’s daughter.

I’m worried about Liam; he looks sick.

See Section 10, page 53, to learn more about linking verbs.

A linking verb expresses a state of being, not

an action (ex.: become or seem). It connects the

subject with the rest of the sentence.

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PART I – MAJOR LINGUISTIC CATEGORIES

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8.3 KNOWLEDGE PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT

Prepositions of movement indicate direction or movement from one place to another. They include across, around, from . . . to, through, and the opposites into / out of and up / down.

ACROSS

AROUNDFROM . . . TO

THROUGH

INTO

OUT OF

UP

DOWN

Ex.: Derek walked across the street to the market.

A large crowd gathered around a stall selling hot chestnuts.

The farmers bring their produce from the country to the market.

Customers walk through the market to compare produce and prices.

After Derek has washed all the vegetables, he puts them into containers.

He takes them out of the containers when he is ready to have lunch.

Derek goes up the front steps to enter his building and down the basement stairs to put away his bike.

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SECT

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8.4 KNOWLEDGE OTHER PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions may also indicate the purpose or origin of something, or the material it is made of.

PREPOSITION USE EXAMPLE

for To indicate a purpose This knife is for peeling vegetables.

from To indicate the origin of something or the material used to make it

The juice is squeezed from ripe fruit. My shopping bag is made from recycled bottles.

of To indicate the material used to make something

Orange juice made of water and fresh oranges is a good source of vitamin C.

out of To indicate the material used to make something

The school desks are made out of wood.

The prepositions about and on are used to introduce and de�ne a subject.


about To indicate a subject The conference is about global warming.

on To indicate a subject I bought a book on gardening for my mother.

The prepositions but and except indicate omission or exclusion.


but To exclude something or someone; to set apart

Everyone but me was invited to Joe’s party.

except To exclude something or someone; to set apart

All my friends except Sean were at my graduation.

Be careful not to confuse the preposition but with the conjunction but, which is more common.

Ex.: Everyone but me went to Joe’s party. I wanted to go, but I had to work.

CAREFUL!

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SECTION 8 – PREPOSITIONS

SECT

ION

8

The KNOWLEDGE section is easily found because of the blue strip and is also identifi ed by the

section number. In the example, this is the fi rst KNOWLEDGE item covered in Section 1.

Within each part, a coloured tab enables you to fi nd the appropriate section easily.

The CAREFUL! box helps to draw attention to specifi c grammar points that can produce frequent mistakes.

The notes in yellow background offer additional information related to the notion being studied.

The content is often illustrated with diagrams and tables, accompanied by examples and several pictures to facilitate user comprehension.

Cross references are made to various sections or to KNOWLEDGE and they provide

additional precisions on the contents.

CAREFUL!

1.1 KNOWLEDGE

XIII

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INTRODUCTION


APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1

Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers ................................138

APPENDIX 2

Telling Time ..............................................................142

APPENDIX 3

Days, Months, and Seasons ....................................144

APPENDIX 4

Common False Cognates .........................................145

APPENDIX 5

Homophones ............................................................147

APPENDIX 6

Common Phrasal Verbs ...........................................149

APPENDIX 7

Irregular Verbs .........................................................153

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APPENDIX 6

Common Phrasal VerbsSeparable Phrasal Verbs

PHRASAL VERB MEANING EXAMPLE

blow up Explode It would have taken the workers too long to drill through the rock, so they blew it up.

bring up Mention something; raise (children)

Her divorce is a sensitive subject; please don’t bring it up.

call off Cancel We didn’t sell enough tickets to our fundraiser, so we had to call it off.

cheer up Make (someone) feel better

Mary is disappointed with her marks; let’s try to cheer her up.

do over Repeat I failed my exam, so I have to do it over.

drop off Leave (someone, something) somewhere

Just drop me off at the corner, please.

figure out Understand Don’t worry: we’ll figure something out.

fill in/out Complete a form There are three forms, and you have to fill them all out.

give away Give for free I don’t want this table any more, so I’m giving it away.

hand in Submit The project is due on Tuesday. You can hand it in when you go to class.

hold up Delay; rob The lineup isn’t moving. What’s holding things up?

leave out Omit The paper published the article but left the mayor’s name out.

look up Find information If you don’t know what the word means, look it up in the dictionary.

make out Understand My dad’s writing is so messy, I can never make the words out.

make up Invent Jay’s excuse was so lame we were sure he made it up.

mix up Confuse They’re identical twins, so I often mix them up.

put away Put in the right place Put your clothes away in the closet!

put off Delay Our teacher put the exam off until next week.

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When counting 1 to 29 minutes after the hour, use past (or after). For 1 to 29 minutes before the next hour, use to. For 15 minutes before or after the hour, use a quarter to and a quarter past. At 30 minutes after the hour, use half past; “half to” is incorrect.

O’Clock

The word o’clock is used on the hour.

Ex.: It’s two o’clock in the morning!

He will call me tonight at 10 o’clock.

When the time is 12:00, three different expressions are possible: 12 o’clock, noon (for the middle of the day), and midnight.

Ex.: He came home after midnight.

We always have lunch at noon.

It’s 12 o’clock: time to go to bed.

. . . o’clock

Half past . . .

(A) quarter past . . .(A) quarter to . . .

Five past . . . Five to . . .

Twenty past . . . Twenty to . . .

Ten past . . .Ten to . . .

Twenty-five past . . . Twenty-five to . . .

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16.2 KNOWLEDGE PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT

A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun (a person, place, or thing) that was referred to previously. Its antecedent is the word or phrase that the pronoun replaces. Pronoun-antecedent agreement is achieved when a pronoun matches its antecedent in number and gender.

See Section 9, page 45, to learn more about pronouns.

Ex.: ✓ Jacob is a waiter in a Vietnamese restaurant. He likes his job very much.

Jacob is a waiter in a Vietnamese restaurant. She likes his job very much.

✓ Monica is very messy. Her roommates are angry with her.

Monica is very messy. Their roommates are angry with him.

In the �rst example above, the subject pronoun he agrees with its antecedent from the preceding sentence, Jacob. Since the pronoun refers to one man, it requires a masculine third-person singular form. In the incorrect example, the subject pronoun she refers to one woman, so it agrees with Jacob in number, but not in gender.

In the second example, the object pronounher agrees with its antecedent, Monica, in number and gender: it is the feminine third-person singular form. The possessive adjective her before roommates is also the feminine third-person singular form becauseit refers to Monica, not the roommates.

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PART III – TEXTUAL COHESION

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This pictogram indicates the correct usage of the notion being studied.

This pictogram indicates an incorrect usage.

In the Appendices, summary tables and diagrams present a consolidated overall view of certain knowledge items.

The content is illustrated with many specifi c examples that take into account particular diffi culties related to learning languages.

✓

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INTRODUCTION


PART I

MAJOR LINGUISTIC CATEGORIES

SECTION 1

Adjectives ....................................................................2

SECTION 2

Adverbs ........................................................................9

SECTION 3

Articles and Quantifi ers .............................................14

SECTION 4

Conjunctions ..............................................................18

SECTION 5

Gerunds ......................................................................22

SECTION 6

Modal Auxiliaries .......................................................25

SECTION 7

Nouns .........................................................................33

SECTION 8

Prepositions ...............................................................40

SECTION 9

Pronouns ....................................................................45

SECTION 10

Verbs ..........................................................................52

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SECTION 1

AdjectivesAn adjective is a word that identi� es or describes a noun or a pronoun.

Ex.: She’s my friend.

She’s my best friend.

He has a bag.

He has a big red bag.

Use adjectives to give more information about a person, place, thing, or idea.Adjectives add detail and create a clearer, stronger image for your reader or listener.

Ex.: This is a good job for a student; it’s also interesting.

The house was old and abandoned.

He is young but very mature for his age.

The form of an adjective does not change. It does not matter whether the related noun is singular or plural, is a subject or an object, or refers to a man or a woman.

Ex.: ✓ The green pens belong to the tall girl.

The greens pens belong to the talle girl.

1.1 KNOWLEDGE PLACEMENT OF ADJECTIVES

An adjective usually comes before the noun.

Ex.: Dr. Welby is an excellent doctor. He treats patients with great respect.adjective noun

The new library will attract a lot of visitors.

An adjective can also come after the verb if the verb is to be or a linking verb, such as to look or to feel.

Ex.: Isabelle’s summer job is challenging; she’s babysitting her neighbour’s daughter.

I’m worried about Liam; he looks sick.

See Section 10, page 53, to learn more about linking verbs.

A linking verb expresses a state of being, not

an action (ex.: become or seem). It connects the

subject with the rest of the sentence.

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1.2 KNOWLEDGE ADJECTIVES ENDING IN ING AND ED

Adjectives of feeling or emotion are often formed by adding ing or ed to a verb. These forms are called participles of the verb: the ing form is the present participle, and the ed form is the past participle.

See Section 10, page 52, to learn more about participles.

Adjectives ending in ing often describe the source or cause of a feeling.

Ex.: The article about income tax was boring.

We watched a fascinating documentary about Antarctica.

In the examples above, the adjectives are derived from the verbs to bore and to fascinate. They each describe the source of the speaker’s reactions: an article and a documentary.

Adjectives ending in ed often describe how people feel as a result of an event or experience.

Ex.: Nadine was so excited to � nd an apartment in her neighbourhood.She was surprised to � nd out the rent was reasonable.

Peter felt prepared for his job interview. He wasn’t worried.

In the examples above, the adjectives are derived from the verbs to excite, to surprise, to prepare, and to worry. They describe how Nadine felt after � nding an apartment and how Peter felt after preparing for his interview.

See Section 12, page 89, to learn more basic spelling rules.

To bore someone means to

make them tired of listening or

impatient for something to end.

wasn’t worried.

Remember to drop the e from bore and fascinate

before adding ing to form the adjectives boring

and fascinating. And remember to change the

y to i before adding ed to worry when forming

the adjective worried.

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The important rules to remember are that adjectives that express an opinion come before other descriptive adjectives, and that size and shape come before colour. Adjectives that describe materials and purposes are often noun modi� ers; they come immediately before the noun. It is rare to have more than three adjectives in a series, but the following table shows the correct order in such cases.

ORDER OF ADJECTIVES

DETE

RMIN

ER

OPIN

ION

SIZE

AGE

SHAP

E

COLO

UR

NATI

ONAL

ITY

MAT

ERIA

L

PURP

OSE

NOUN

these big red apples

several delicious French pastries

that pretty pink silk blouse

my comfortable new black Italian wool sweater

the thick square writing pad

Separate a series of adjectives with commas only when the adjectives belong to the same category.

Ex.: Jeremy got a new red Italian car for his 18th birthday.

He bought himself a pair of trendy, overpriced sneakers.

In the � rst example above, no commas separate new, red, and Italian because these adjectives all belong to different categories. In the second example, however, a comma separates trendy and overpriced because they are both adjectives of opinion.

Determiners (the fi rst column in

the chart) include articles (a, an,

the), possessive adjectives, and

demonstrative adjectives.

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SECTION 2

AdverbsAn adverb is a word that modi� es (describes) a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It gives your reader or listener extra information by answering how, when, where, or why questions about the idea you are expressing.

Ex.: Todd rarely comes to class. adverb verb

Todd is often sleepy in class.adverb adjective

Todd is not taking his class very seriously.adverb adverb

Many adverbs are formed by adding the suf� x ly to an adjective.

Ex.: Nicky reads slowly. (adjective slow + ly)

Jessica walks quietly. (adjective quiet + ly)

See Section 12, page 90, to learn more about spelling variations of adverbs ending in ly.

2.1 KNOWLEDGE ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY

An adverb of frequency answers the question “How often?”

Common adverbs of frequency are always, frequently, never, occasionally, often, rarely, regularly, seldom, sometimes, and usually.

Ex.: He never calls her in the evening.

I visit her often because she lives near my house.

My mother rarely texts me; she usually calls me.

See Section 10, page 57, to learn more about the simple present tense.

Adverbs of frequency are usually placed before the main verb they modify unless it is the verb to be.

Ex.: Nathan always eats a healthy breakfast in the morning. He never skips breakfast.

Jennifer is usually the � rst to propose an activity in her community. She is often a member of organizing committees.

Note the tense of the verbs in the

examples: they are all in the simple

present tense. Adverbs of frequency

are often used with the simple present

because it expresses habits and

repeated activities.

Other adverb forms are not formed by adding ly

to the corresponding adjective, for example, well

(adverb corresponding to the adjective good).

Most of these irregular adverbs simply have the

same form as their adjective equivalents (early,

far, fast, hard, high, late, slow).

Ex.: Our coach taught us to play hard by hitting

the ball high and running fast.

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SECTION 3

Articles and Quantifi ersArticles and quantifi ers are words used in front of nouns. They come at the beginning of noun phrases and show whether the noun is general or speci� c. They also give the reader or listener an idea of the quantity of the noun.

Ex.: A book is on the table.

The book is on the table

A few books are on the table.

There are two kinds of articles: the de� nite article (the) and inde� nite articles (a and an).

3.1 KNOWLEDGE THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

The defi nite article (the) is used before nouns that refer to people, places, and things that the reader or listener can identify. The person, place, or thing may be unique, it may already have been referred to, or the speaker may specify what he or she is talking about.

Ex.: Mr. Wilson, the new mayor, decided to renovate the of� ces used by the town hall employees.

The students in group 31 waited for the teacher for over an hour before going to the cafeteria.

In the examples above, the reader understands which people or places are being referred to because they are unique (the mayor, the teacher, the cafeteria) or because the speaker has speci� ed which of� ces, employees, or students he or she is referring to (the of� ces used by the town hall employees, the students in group 31). Note that the de� nite article is used for both singular and plural nouns: the mayor, the offi ces.

Some reference books may refer to articles and quantifi ers as determinersand include possessive and demonstrative adjectives in this category.

A phrase is a short group of words which forms a unit within a sentence.

A sentence is a complete group of words including a subject and a predicate. The predicate contains the verb and the information about the subject of the sentence.

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14 PART I – MAJOR LINGUISTIC CATEGORIES


3.2 KNOWLEDGE INDEFINITE ARTICLES

The indefi nite articles (a and an) are used for people, places, and things that are not speci� c or that have not been referred to before by the speaker. A is used before words that begin with a consonant; an is used before words that begin with a vowel sound.

Ex.: A mayor has an of� ce in a town hall.

I will meet you at the school library, and we will � nd a computer to do our research.

The � rst example above refers to any mayor, or all mayors, and their of� ces, in a general way. In the second example, note the difference between the school library—the uniquely speci� c school library—and a computer—an unspeci� ed computer in the library.

There is no plural form for the inde� nite articles. Plural nouns used in a general way appear alone, without a preceding article.

Ex.: Mayors have of� ces in town halls.

3.3 KNOWLEDGE ARTICLE OMISSION

No article is required before the following nouns:

• proper nouns, including the names of people and places (cities, provinces, countries)

• non-count nouns, including abstract ideas, languages, and sports

• days of the week, months of the year, and seasons

See Section 7, pages 33 and 36, to learn more about proper and non-count nouns.

Ex.: James plays hockey in Hudson, Québec, every week during fall and winter.

It takes time and effort to learn English as a second language.

Kiana came to Canada from the Dominican Republic.

Some countries are exceptions to

this rule: their names are preceded

by the defi nite article.

Ex.: The United States

The Czech Republic

The Dominican Republic

The Philippines

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SECTION 4

ConjunctionsA conjunction is a word that joins parts of a sentence and indicates the relationship between those parts. Conjunctions may join single words, long or short phrases, or entire clauses.

Ex.: Seth and Jasmine take the same class.

On my day off, I will go to the beach and read a book but not go swimming.

I don’t want to go swimming because the water is too cold.

See Section 15, page 116, to learn more about clauses.

There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions.

4.1 KNOWLEDGE COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

Coordinating conjunctions join words, phrases, and clauses. There are seven coordinating conjunctions in English: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (A trick for remembering them is to remember the word FANBOYS, which contains the � rst letter of each conjunction.)

Coordinating conjunctions can indicate an addition (and), an alternative (or, nor), a contrasting idea (but, yet), a result (so), or a reason (for). Note that nor is not often used in everyday English; it is usually reserved for literary contexts.

Ex.: Ethan really likes his new apartment and especially the quiet neighbourhood.

Would you like to have a job as a social worker or as a police of� cer?

Amanda wants to take cooking lessons, but she also wants to exercise.

The school for chefs was nearby, so she registered for a class.

A clause is a group of words that

contains at least a subject and a verb.

It may form a complete sentence, or

it can be part of a longer sentence.

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4.2 KNOWLEDGE CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

Correlative conjunctions are two-part conjunctions that join words or groups of words with parallel structure to avoid useless repetition. These conjunctions always appear in pairs and emphasize a relationship of inclusion/exclusion or alternatives between the words they join.

See Section 15, page 121, to learn more about parallel structure.

The correlative conjunctions are

> as . . . as > both . . . and > either . . . or

> neither . . . nor > not only . . . but also > whether . . . or

See Section 11, page 82, to learn more about making comparisons.

Ex.: Aaron wants to become a social worker. Jason wants to become a social worker.Both Aaron and Jason want to become social workers.

Aaron might become a social worker. He would also like to become a police of� cer.Aaron might become either a social worker or a police of� cer.

Aaron doesn’t want to become a social worker. Jason doesn’t want to become a social worker.Neither Aaron nor Jason wants to become a social worker.

Aaron wants to work with people. Aaron wants to help troubled teenagers.Aaron wants not only to work with people but also to help troubled teenagers.

neither . . . nor

As . . . as is used in comparisons.

The original sentences are in the negative form. Because the correlative conjunction neither . . . nor already has a negative meaning, the verb is in the affi rmative form.

SECTION 4 – CONJUNCTIONS 19

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SECTION 5

GerundsA gerund is a verb form ending in ing that is used as a noun.

Ex.: I enjoy reading the biographies of famous actors.

Eating fruits and vegetables is part of a well-balanced diet.

Note that not all ing words are gerunds. Usually, the verb form is actually functioning as a verb, for example, in the present progressive tense. In this case, it is preceded by the auxiliary verb to be.

Ex.: What are you doing? I am walking to work.

See Section 10, page 59, to learn more about verbs in the present progressive tense.

One way to distinguish a gerund from an ing form functioning as a verb is to look at the role of the ing form in the sentence. Is it acting as the subject or as an object? If the ing form is acting as an object, then it must be a noun and therefore a gerund.

Ex.: I am reading a book about whales.

I enjoy reading the biographies of famous actors.

In the � rst example above, reading is preceded by the auxiliary am (to be) and is the main verb of the sentence. In the second example, reading is the object of the verb enjoy; therefore, it is a gerund. It answers the question “What do you enjoy?” which is answered with a noun, such as sunsets, chocolate, or reading.

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5.1 KNOWLEDGE GERUNDS AS SUBJECTS

A gerund can act as the subject of a sentence. In this case, the verb following the gerund is singular.

Ex.: Eating fruits and vegetables is part of a well-balanced diet.

Wasting energy affects the environment and its resources.

Voting in elections is a right and a responsibility.

See Section 12, page 89, to learn more about this spelling rule.

5.2 KNOWLEDGE GERUNDS AS OBJECTS

A gerund can also act as an object in a sentence—either as the direct object of a verb or as the object of a preposition.

Ex.: Why don’t you stop daydreaming and start studying?

My mother exercises by walking 30 minutes every day.

Keith decided against leaving school.

In the � rst example, the gerund daydreaming answers the question “Stop what?” The gerund is therefore the direct object of the verb stop. Similarly, studying is the direct object of the verb start. In the second and third examples, the gerunds walking and leaving are the objects of the prepositions by and against respectively.

Note that the e in the

verbs waste and vote

is removed before

adding ing.

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6.1 KNOWLEDGE ABILITY: CAN AND COULD

The modal auxiliary can is used to express ability (or inability when used in its negative form). Can is used in the present; could is used in the past.

Can and Could

PRESENT TENSE

MODAL AUXILIARY SUBJECT MODAL

AUXILIARY VERB OBJECT MEANING

AFFIRMATIVE FORM

— Lana can drive a truck. She has the ability to do this.

NEGATIVE FORM

— Lana cannot(can’t)

drive a truck. She doesn’t have the ability to do this.

QUESTION FORM

Can Lana — drive a truck? Is she able to do this?

PAST TENSE

AFFIRMATIVE FORM

— Lana could drive a truck. She had the ability to do this.

NEGATIVE FORM

— Lana could not(couldn’t)

drive a truck. She didn’t have the ability to do this.

QUESTION FORM

Could Lana — drive a truck? Was she able to do this?

Note that the negative form

cannot is written as one word.

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Be Able To

The expression be able to is not a modal auxiliary, but it is sometimes used instead of can to express ability or inability. Although it can be conjugated in several tenses, its main use is to express a future ability, when can would be incorrect. In this case, it is preceded by the usual auxiliary for the future tense, will.

Be Able To

FUTURE TENSE

MODAL AUXILIARY SUBJECT MODAL

AUXILIARYBE

ABLE TO VERB OBJECT MEANING

AFFIRMATIVE FORM

— Brian will be able to

operate a forklift next month.

He will have the ability to do this in the future.

NEGATIVE FORM

— Brian will not (won’t)

be able to

operate a forklift next month.

He will not have the ability to do this in the future.

QUESTION FORM

Will Brian — be able to

operate a forklift next month?

Will he have the ability to do this in the future?

6.2 KNOWLEDGE PERMISSION: CAN AND MAY

Can is also used when asking permission to do something. Similarly, the modal auxiliary may is used to express permission. May is used in formal contexts, while can is used in informal exchanges (such as when you are talking with friends). Both modals are used only in the present.

Ex.: Frank wants to borrow his friend Matt’s truck: “Can I borrow your truck?” “No, you can’t.”

Then Frank asks his boss if he can borrow the company car: “May I borrow the company car?” “Yes, you may.”

If the boss said no, the negative answer would be “No, you may not.” There is no contracted form for “may not.”

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7.4 KNOWLEDGE COUNT VERSUS NON-COUNT NOUNS

A count noun identi� es things you can count. It has both singular and plural forms. It is also called a countable noun.

Ex.: Amanda is looking for a job. So far, she has had three interviews. During one interview, the manager asked her a lot of questions about her previous jobs.

A non-count noun identi� es a mass, an idea, or a concept. This kind of noun has no plural form because the thing it identi� es cannot be counted. It is also called an uncountable noun.

Ex.: Amanda had to describe the knowledge she has acquired. The manager said he would use this information to make his decision.

A non-count noun is always followed by a singular verb.

Ex.: ✓ The traffi c is heavy on the bridge.

The traffi c are heavy on the bridge.

Non-count nouns are often preceded by inde� nite quanti� ers, such as a lot of, a little, any, much, and some. However, the inde� nite articles a and an cannot be used with non-count nouns.

See Section 3, page 14, to learn more about articles and inde� nite quanti� ers.

Ex.: There is not much traffi c on the bridge today.

I have a lot of homework to do before I go out to buy some food.

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7.5 KNOWLEDGE COLLECTIVE NOUNS

A collective noun is a word that identi� es a group of people, animals, objects, or other things. Sometimes, a collective noun is a single word, such as audience, class, committee, or crowd.

Ex.: The social club plans parties and events.

My class is going to the museum next week to see the new exhibits.

Other times, a collective noun takes the form “a/the [group] of [individuals].”

Ex.: The herd of cows was standing in the middle of the road.

A large crowd of people makes a lot of noise.

A collective noun is followed by a singular verb.

Ex.: The social club plans . . . collective noun singular verb

The herd of cows was standing . . .collective noun singular verb

7.6 KNOWLEDGE COMPOUND NOUNS

A compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or more words. Compound nouns can be written as two separate words (ice rink), linked by a hyphen (well-being), or joined into one word (webpage). Use a dictionary to � nd the correct spelling.

Compound nouns may be formed by different combinations of parts of speech:

• noun + noun

Ex.: Did you � nd anything interesting on that webpage? (web + page)

• adjective + noun

Ex.: Our teacher projects many activities on the interactive whiteboard. (white + board)

• verb + noun

Ex.: Breakfast is the most important meal of the day. (break + fast)

• preposition + noun

Ex.: At hockey games, I always cheer for the underdog. (under + dog)

You probably know the word fast

as an adjective or adverb meaning

“rapid” or “rapidly,” but it is also a

noun meaning “period of not eating.”

In the next example, an “underdog”

is a competitor who has little chance

of winning.

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SECTION 8

PrepositionsA preposition creates a link between a noun or pronoun and the other words in a sentence. Prepositions are used to show various relationships, including links to a time, place, movement, origin, or purpose. The noun phrase that follows a preposition is called its object; together, they form a prepositional phrase.

Ex.: Brianna is going to Ottawa next weekend. (movement)

She will stay at a hotel. (place)

She will come back on Sunday. (time)

8.1 KNOWLEDGE PREPOSITIONS OF TIME

The most common prepositions of time are after, at, before, for, in, and on.

Prepositions of Time


after To relate an event to a later point in time

On Mondays, after work, he takes evening courses.

at To identify a specifi c time of day

Daniel starts working at 9:00 a.m. and fi nishes at 5:00 p.m. He eats lunch at noon.

before To relate an event to an earlier point in time

I never saw her before last week.

for To identify a duration of time I walked for an hour to get to the station.

in To identify a general time of day, and for months, seasons, and years

He works in the morning and golfs in the afternoon. He takes his vacation in July.She was born in 1991.

on To identify days and dates He never works on Saturdays or on Sundays.Your appointment is on May 31.

Other prepositions of time include by, during, since, and until.

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8.2 KNOWLEDGE PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE

The most common prepositions of place are above, across, at, behind, below, beside, between, from, in, in front of, on, over, and under. Some of these form pairs of opposites: above / below, behind / in front of, and over / under.

BEHIND

BESIDEBETWEEN

IN

IN FRONT OF ON OVER

UNDER

ABOVE

BELOW

Ex.: He sat at the table, in his kitchen.

She lives at 1080 First Street.

The farmer’s market is in Montréal, on Jean-Talon Street.

The vegetables are in large crates on the tables.

Derek lives on the second � oor. He has neighbours living above and below him.

Derek doesn’t have far to go to the market. It’s right across the street.

I couldn’t see the tomatoes. They were behind the crate of melons.

Two huge pumpkins sat one beside the other. Stalks of hay poked out between them.

The asparagus isn’t local. It comes from Peru.

The sign in front of the store lists the day’s specials.

You need good lighting over your kitchen counter.

The peaches were under a container in the refrigerator, so they got squashed.

Note that some prepositions appear in

more than one list. At, in, and on may

indicate relationships of time or place.

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SECTION 10

VerbsA verb is a word that describes an action or a state. It is an essential part of a sentence or clause.

Ex.: Gabriel reads the newspaper online every day. He also watches the news on television. (actions)

Gabriel is very well-informed. He seems proud of his knowledge of the world. (states)

The base form of a verb is called the infi nitive; it is usually preceded by to but has no endings that link it to a subject or tense.

Ex.: She asked Caleb to explain the problem.

10.1 KNOWLEDGE VERB ENDINGS

English verbs have relatively few endings compared to other languages. However, some endings are added to the base form of a verb to show its person and/or tense.

• An s (or es) is added to the third person singular of the simple present tense.

Ex.: Georgia eats fruit and vegetables every day.

She always washes them � rst.

• The ed ending is added to form the simple past tense of regular verbs and their pastparticiples (used in the perfect tenses).

Ex.: Heather worked for 15 hours last week. (simple past)

She has learned a lot on the job. (present perfect)

Verb endings, or infl ections are the

letters added to the verb base form to

show which person or tense is used.

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• The ing ending is added to formthe present participle, used in theprogressive tenses.

Ex.: I can’t go with you now; I’m writingan email. (present progressive)

See Section 12, page 89, for the spelling rules to apply when adding verb endings.

See Section 1, page 3, to learn more about participles as adjectives, and Section 5, page 22, to learn more about gerunds.

10.2 KNOWLEDGE THE VERB TO BE: PRESENT AND PAST

The verb to be is an irregular verb of state. It is also used as an auxiliary in various verb tenses.

Ex.: Fruit and vegetables are part of a well-balanced diet. (simple present)

I was sick last week. (simple past)

He is studying. (auxiliary in the present progressive)

To Be: Affi rmative Forms

PERSON SIMPLE PRESENT SIMPLE PAST

FIRST PERSON SINGULAR I am (I’m) I was

SECOND PERSON SINGULAR you are (you’re) you were

THIRD PERSON SINGULAR he/she/it is (he’s / she’s / it’s) he/she/it was

FIRST PERSON PLURAL we are (we’re) we were

SECOND PERSON PLURAL you are (you’re) you were

THIRD PERSON PLURAL they are (they’re) they were

Note that present and past participles can also be

used as adjectives and that present participles can

also function as nouns (gerunds).

State verbs (also called stative verbs or

non-action verbs) are used to express thoughts,

conditions, opinions, and feelings rather than

visible actions. A subgroup of state verbs (to be,

to become, to seem, etc.) are sometimes called

linking verbs because they “link” the subject to

information about it.

Ex.: I was/felt/looked sick last week.

SECTION 10

VerbsA verb is a word that describes an action or a state. It is an essential part of a sentence or clause.

Ex.: Gabriel reads the newspaper online every day. He also watches the news on television. (actions)

Gabriel is very well-informed. He seemsproud of his knowledge of the world. (states)

The base form of a verb is called the infinitive; it is usually preceded by to but has no endings that link it to a subject or tense.

Ex.: She asked Caleb to explain the problem.

10.1 KNOWLEDGE VERB ENDINGS

English verbs have relatively few endings compared to other languages. However, some endings are added to the base form of a verb to show its person and/or tense.

• An s (or es) is added to the third person singular of the simple present tense.

Ex.: Georgia eats fruit and vegetables every day.

She always washes them �rst.

• The ed ending is added to form the simple past tense of regular verbs and their past participles (used in the perfect tenses).

Ex.: Heather worked for 15 hours last week. (simple past)

She has learned a lot on the job. (present perfect)

Verb endings, or inflections are the

letters added to the verb base form to

show which person or tense is used.

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SECTION 11

Comparative and Superlative FormsA comparative adjective is used to compare two things in terms of a particular quality. A superlative adjective is used to compare three things or more and to identify the one showing the highest degree of whatever quality is being compared.

Ex.: My classroom is big. (adjective)

My classroom is bigger than yours. (comparative adjective, comparing two classrooms)

My classroom is the biggest in the school. (superlative adjective, comparing all the classrooms in the school)

Adverbs also have comparative forms. A comparative adverb is used to compare different degrees of a quality or to compare the manner in which actions are performed. A superlative adverb points to the extreme example among three or more.

Ex.: My class is closely focused on reading, so we work quietly. (adverb of degree modifying an adjective and adverb of manner modifying a verb)

My class is more closely focused on reading. (comparative adverb modifying an adjective)

My class works more quietly than yours. (comparative adverb modifying a verb)

My class works the most quietly among all the language classes. (superlative adverb)

11.1 KNOWLEDGE COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES

A comparative adjective is used to compare two people, places, or things. Comparative adjectives can be used to show superiority (often in a positive sense), inferiority (often in a negative sense), equality, or inequality. Note how two people or things being compared are separated by than.

Ex.: Christine is faster than Jason. She is more athletic than he is.

His house is bigger than mine, but mine is less expensive to heat.

To compare is to fi nd similarities;

to contrast is to fi nd differences.

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82 PART II – OTHER LINGUISTIC ELEMENTS


The following charts show how to form comparative adjectives depending on their meaning (superiority, inferiority, equality, or inequality) and the form of the base adjective.

Comparative Adjectives of Superiority

ADJECTIVE FORM COMPARATIVE FORM EXAMPLE

One-syllable adjectives and certain two-syllable adjectives

adjective+er + than This building is higher and narrower than Place Ville Marie.

One-syllable adjectives ending in vowel + consonant

Double the fi nal consonant of the adjective+er + than.

Montréal is bigger than Québec City.

One-syllable adjectives ending in e Remove the e at the end of the adjective+er + than.

The St. Lawrence River is wider than the Richelieu River.

Two-syllable adjectives ending in y Remove the y at the end of the adjective+ier + than.

English is easier to learn than Russian.

Adjectives of two or more syllables more + adjective + than A sports car is more expensive than a compact car.

Comparative Adjectives of Inferiority

ADJECTIVE FORM COMPARATIVE FORM EXAMPLE

One-syllable adjectives

less + adjective + than

During class, Angela is less quiet than Amy.

Two-syllable adjectives Cassandra is less cheerful than Vanessa.

Adjectives of three or more syllables Claire is less energetic than Courtney.

Comparative Adjectives of Equality or Inequality

MEANING COMPARATIVE FORM EXAMPLE

Two people, places, or things that are identical or equal

as + adjective + as Jason’s apartment is as big as Riley’s apartment.

Two people, places, or things that are not identical or equal, or that are different

not as + adjective + as Jason’s apartment is not as big as Riley’s apartment.

Comparisons of equality are often expressed with the construction the same + noun + as.

Ex.: Jason’s apartment is the same size as Riley’s.

Comparisons of inequality are often expressed with the construction not the same + noun + as or with the construction different from.

Ex.: Jason’s apartment is not the same size as Riley’s.

Jason’s apartment is different from Riley’s apartment.

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Changing Y to IE

Before adding an ending, remove the � nal y in words ending with a consonant + y. Replace the y with ie before adding s or d to a verb and before adding er or est to an adjective or adverb.

Ex.: I studied very hard for my test, but Mia studies hard all the time. (to study)

Hyphen after Certain Prefi xes

Insert a hyphen after the pre� xes all, ex and self.

Ex.: That vacation package is all-inclusive.

Maya saw her ex-boyfriend yesterday.

I need to � ll out a self-evaluation form after each unit of my English course.

Other pre� xes may or may not be followed by a hyphen. When in doubt, use a dictionary to check your spelling.

Adding LY to Form an Adverb

Change many adjectives into adverbs by adding the ending ly.

Ex.: He appeared suddenly, but we quickly got over our surprise. (sudden, quick)

She was extremely upset, but it was entirely her fault. (extreme, entire)

For adjectives that end in le, change the � nal e to y to form the adverb.

Ex.: Incredibly, this was simply a misunderstanding. (incredible, simple)

For adjectives that already end in y, change the y to i before adding ly.

Ex.: She was happily and crazily excited to get her diploma. (happy, crazy)

For adjectives that end in ic, ad ally to form the adverb.

Ex.: She posed dramatically for the camera. (dramatic)

Exceptions to this rule:

true > truly,

due > duly,

whole > wholly.

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12.2 KNOWLEDGE CANADIAN, BRITISH, AND AMERICAN SPELLING

Some words are spelled differently in Canadian, British, and American English. Canadian spelling usually mirrors British (UK) spelling but sometimes follows American (US) spelling, most importantly in the spelling of verbs ending in ize and their derivatives. The table below contains some common examples of these variations.

BRITISH (UK) SPELLING AMERICAN (US) SPELLING CANADIAN SPELLING

behaviour behavior behaviour

cancelled canceled cancelled

centre center centre

colour color colour

favourite favorite favourite

judgement judgment judgment

humour humor humour

kilometre kilometer kilometre

litre liter litre

neighbour neighbor neighbour

organisation organization organization

paediatrician pediatrician pediatrician

realise realize realize

traveller traveler traveller

When in doubt, use

a dictionary to check

your spelling.

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The following chart presents other common homonyms with the same spelling.

bark (noun): outer surface of a tree trunk bark (verb): to make a sound like a dog

ground (noun): surface of the earth ground (verb – past participle of grind ): crushed into small pieces

kind (noun): sort or variety kind (adjective): nice, friendly, or generous

ring (noun): circle of metal ring (verb): to make a sound like a bell

tip (noun): hint or point tip (verb): to overturn or to give money for a service

Homophones

Homophones are a type of homonym, speci�cally, homonyms with different spellings. In short, they are words that:

• are pronounced the same way

• have different spellings

• have different meanings.

Homophones can be found among many parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions.

Ex.: They’re building their new sports centre over there.

In the example above, the three homophones (in bold) all sound the same. However, they’re is the contraction of “they are” (the third person plural of the verb to be), their is the possessive adjective for the third person plural, and there is an adverb of place. Homophones are a common problem area in writing: it is useful to study them so that you can avoid confusing them and misspelling words.

See Appendix 5, page 147, for a list of common homophones.

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14.7 KNOWLEDGE COMMONLY CONFUSED WORDS

Good versus Well

Good and well are often confused. Good is an adjective used to describe the nature or quality of someone or something. Well is an adverb used to describe how someone or something performs an action.

Ex.: Caitlin is a good student.

Have you read any good books lately?

The teacher said my work on the recycling project was good.

You understand the problem well.

You performed well during the race.

Good can be used with other state verbs, besides to be, such as to appear, to feel, to look, to seem, and to smell. Even if it follows the verb in these cases, good is still an adjective.

Ex.: The reaction to the new policy seemed good: most of the survey responses were favourable.

Anita is making Indian food for dinner, and it smells good!

See Section 10, page 52, to learn more about state verbs.

Note that well cannot replace good in any of the examples above.

Ex.: Anita is making Indian food for dinner, and it smells well!

However, well can be used as an adjective when referring to someone’s health.

Ex.: The children are all well; thank you for asking.

I don’t feel well today. I think I’ll take a day off.

Make versus Do

It is dif� cult to learn the difference between make and do, especially since the two verbs are used in many idiomatic expressions. Generally, however, make is used in contexts that suggest creativity or building something, while do is used for non-speci� c activities.

Ex.: The city has made a beautiful park out of what used to be wasteland.

What do you want to do this weekend?Note that the fi rst do in the second

example is the auxiliary for the question

form, and not the main verb. The second

do is the main verb.

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The distinction between subject and object pronouns is important because an object pronoun can be omitted, but a subject pronoun cannot.

Ex.: ✓ The student the teacher congratulated has �nished her program. (who(m) omitted)

✓ The student the teacher was talking to is a friend of mine. (who(m) omitted)

The student was late missed the �rst part of the exam. – Who cannot be omitted.

Comma Use with Relative Clauses

One of the main dif�culties with relative clauses is deciding whether to set them off with commas. If the clause tells the reader or listener exactly which person, place, or thing is being described, then the clause is not set off with commas. This is a restrictive (or defining) relative clause. If the clause provides information that is not essential to identifying the noun, then commas are required. This is a non-restrictive (or non-defining) relative clause.

Ex.: The woman who is wearing a red jacket is a reporter. (restrictive clause identifying the woman: no commas)

The woman , whose name is Ayesha, is writing an article about the mayor. (non-restrictive clause adding extra information about the woman: commas)

15.4 KNOWLEDGE THERE IS AND THERE ARE

The expressions there is and there are are used to describe something or to point something out. The expressions require an unusual sentence structure: the subject is placed after the verb to be. Use there is before a singular subject, and there are before a plural subject.

Ex.: There is an employee in the of�ce at the moment. (singular subject)

There are many festivals in Montréal during the summer. (plural subject)

In the past tense, use there was (singular) and there were (plural) in the same way as there is and there are in the present tense.

Ex.: There was an employee in the of�ce yesterday morning.

There were many construction sites in Montréal last summer.

With non-count nouns, use there is or there was (singular).

Ex.: There is a lot of information in this book.

There was a lot of noise during last night’s party.

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Questions and Negative Sentences

Because the verb in these expressions is to be, follow the usual rules for forming questions and negative sentences with be. In a question, reverse the subject and the verb to be; in a negative sentence, add not after the verb.

Ex.: Is there an employee in the of�ce? / Was there an employee in the of�ce?

No, there isn’t (is not). / No, there wasn’t (was not).

See Section 10, page 53, to learn more about different forms of the verb to be.

The quanti�er any is often used in questions and negative answers with there are (plural).

Ex.: Are there any employees in the of�ce? / Were there any employees in the of�ce?

Yes, there are �ve. / Yes, there were �ve.

No, there aren’t any. / No, there weren’t any.

See Section 3, page 14, to learn more about quanti�ers.

15.5 KNOWLEDGE PARALLEL STRUCTURE

Parallel structure is created by giving two or more equivalent parts of a sentence the same grammatical form. It is important to maintain parallel structure to show that certain ideas have the same degree of importance.

Ex.: ✓ Julian enjoys walking, cycling, and swimming.

✓ Julian likes to walk, cycle, and swim.

Julian enjoys walking, cycling, and to swim.

In the correct examples above, the three activities are all gerunds (example 1) or all in�nitives (example 2). However, in the incorrect example, walking and cycling are gerunds, but to swim is an in�nitive.

See Section 5, page 22, and Section 10, page 79, to learn more about gerunds and in�nitives.

Keep the following grammatical forms in mind to create well-balanced sentences:

• parallel nouns

Ex.: ✓ The interviewer wanted to know about my strengths, my weaknesses, my experience, my education, my goals, and my interests.

The interviewer wanted to know about my strengths, my weaknesses, my experience, my education, my goals, and what I do in my free time.

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REFERENCE TOOL

SPEECHACQUISITION

WORDS


SENTENCE

CORRECTION

ARGUMENTATION

SUMMARY

OPINION

INFORMATION

RESEARCH

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This work contains the principal notions of grammar needed for the successful completion of both 1st and 2nd cycles of Secondary studies.

• The presentation of the rules and principles of grammar takesdifferent types of learners into account.

• The content is organized by grammar notion, using tables, graphicsand written examples.

• With clear explanations and examples, this reference providesan excellent overview of English grammar.

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STRATEGIESINDISPENSABLEFor Secondary I to V

REFERENCE TOOL


REFERENCE TOOL

SPEECHACQUISITION

WORDS


SENTENCE

CORRECTION

ARGUMENTATION

SUMMARY

OPINION

INFORMATION

RESEARCH

INDI

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GLIS

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CODE DE PRODUIT : 5124-05

ISBN : 978-2-89798-174-7

APPENDICES

• Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers• Telling Time• Days, Months, and Seasons• Common False Cognates

• Homophones• Common Phrasal Verbs• Irregular Verbs

Part I Major Linguistic Categories, such as adjectives, adverbs, nouns, prepositions, etc.

Part II Other Linguistic Elements, such as phonology, semantics, sentence structure, etc.

Part III Textual Cohesion, including agreement and transitional expressions.

CONTENTS

THIS REFERENCE TOOL IS THE IDEAL COMPLEMENT FOR ALL ENGLISH LEARNERS.

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