Indicators to assess a local environmental education program

Proceedings of the

5th Best of Both Worlds International Conference:

Environmental Education and Education for Sustainable Development

- Milestones in the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development

held from 16-20 April 2012 in Bela Bela, South Africa.

(a) EDITORS:

JM DREYER, CS LE ROUX, CP LOUBSER,

N MADIKIZELA-MADIYA

A College of Education publication

Best of Both Worlds

The idea of a Best of Both Worlds Conference was

born in 1998 when the first conference was organized

by me at Dikhololo, Brits with the assistance of a few

lecturers from Unisa. A partnership was then formed

with the Forest Research Institute of Malaysia in

Kuala Lumpur to jointly present conferences. Four

more conferences were subsequently held (two in

Malaysia and two in South Africa). During these

conferences issues pertaining to environmental

education and education for sustainability in different

‘worlds’ were addressed. Delegates from all

continents in the world have attended these

conferences and some of them attend so regularly

that they have become a “family”. Brazil has also now

joined the partnership and will present conferences in

future. A strong South-South relationship seems to

be emerging from the initial Best of Both Worlds idea,

but it does not exclude any of the ‘worlds’. Our hope

is that it will keep expanding to include more ‘worlds’

that will enrich all of us in our ‘worlds’.

PROF CALLIE LOUBSER

Centre for Continuous Professional Teacher and Community Education and Training

i

PROCEEDINGS OF THE

5TH BEST OF BOTH WORLDS

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE



Bela Bela, South Africa

16-20 April 2012

BOB

ii

Proceedings of the

5th Best of Both Worlds International Conference:



Hosted by the University of South Africa

Published by the College of Education, Unisa

Leyds street, Muckleneuk

Pretoria, South Africa

2012

ISBN 978-0-620-55047-5

BOB

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Editorial Board would like to thank the following people who contributed towards this publication:

All the authors who submitted their papers and prepared them for publishing

All peer –reviewers who reviewed the papers to ensure their quality

The Dean of the College of Education, Prof KP Dzvimbo for his support

The College of Education at Unisa for sponsoring the conference and

this publication

The Centre for Continuous Professional Teacher and Community

Education and Training at Unisa for co-sponsoring the conference

PEER REVIEW PROCESS

It is hereby confirmed that all papers in this publication were subjected to

double-blind peer review by experts in the field of Environmental Education

and Education for Sustainability who did not necessarily attend the conference.

Of the 46 papers presented 18 were approved for publication. Seven of the

reviewers were from international countries.

THE EDITORS

Prof Johann Dreyer

Professor Cheryl le Roux

Prof Callie Loubser

Dr Noma Madikizela-Madiya

BOB

iv

Foreword

The 5th International Best of Both Worlds Conference hosted by the University of South Africa was held on 16-20 April 2012 at Klein Kariba in Bela-Bela. The idea for such a conference series originated from Prof Callie Loubser from Unisa who has also been the driving force behind this throughout the years. Delegates came to attend from countries across the world such as Brazil, the Philippines, Malaysia, The UK, Uganda and South Africa.

The conference was very successful especially in terms of networking and the establishment of partnerships. Strong links were developed with prof Wellington Deliti and some of his faculty members from Universidade Sao Paulo in Brazil. A visiting scholar from them will soon come and do some collaborative research at Unisa for a few months. They also indicated that they will be presenting the 6th BOBW conference in 2014.

Longstanding collaboration with the Forest Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM) which resulted from previous BOBW conferences, was strenghtened and proffs Callie Loubser and Johann Dreyer were invited to atted their Urban Forestry Conference in Sarawak on the island Borneo (prof Loubser as keynote speaker and prof Dreyer as an invited speaker). They were also asked to assist with research training of their researchers (specifically regarding interviews and coding of results) and to collaborate on further research projects. The conference was also a mentoring opportunity used to initiate recently appointed staff members at Unisa into conference organising.

In these proceedings there is an array of carefully reviewed and selected full papers based on the

presentations done at the conference. This will of course result in several research outputs for higher

education institutions but more importantly they highlight the wonderful work being done in the field of

environmental education and education for sustainability. We are confident that the proceedings

constitute an important contribution to knowledge and information in these fields.

The College of Education at the Uniiversity of South Africa is proud of its involvement in this conference

and of the proceedings resulting from it.

Prof JM Dreyer

CONFERENCE COORDINATOR

BOB

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

01

Enhancing Sustainability In Higher Education Through A Global Universities Partnership: Perspectives From UNEP’s Environmental Education And Training Unit (EETU). Gregory J.E. Odeke

1

02

Environmental education as a means of promoting eco-positive behaviour in support of subsistence farming in a desertified area: a case study from Sefiane, Algeria

T Bouazid & CS le Roux

23

03

Indicators to assess a local environmental education program

Valéria Ghisloti Iared, Mayla Willik Valenti, Mariângela Spadoto & Haydée Torres de Oliveira

39

04

The process of greening of Universities – the University of South Africa as a case study CP Loubser & JM Dreyer

49

05

Environmental education for sustainable development: the case of urban and peri-urban agriculture - benefits and health risks NM Cadiz

63

06

Looking back to see forward: a review of postgraduate environmental education

research from a decade before the DESD.

N Madikizela-Madiya

71

07

Guidelines for facilitating a community driven community group

GC Caws 87

08

The role of religion in education for sustainable development: a case study

JM Dreyer 97

09

Opening up minds for EE, ESD, Ecotourism and Technology

N de Crom 113

10

The role of the Christian Church in promoting environmental stewardship: a case study of the Uniting Reformed Church in Southern Africa

RD Tshenye & CS le Roux

129

vi

11

Working with environmental education and environmental law to protect wildlife in Brazil and for the improvement of public policies in the country

I A Morimoto & M Sorrentino 145

12

Butterfly agriculture as a means of counteracting human-induced habitat destruction: solution or complication?

CS le Roux

159

13

The Narrative: An Info-Entertaining Way to Educate About the Environment

K Kezabu 175

14

From the horse’s mouth: Successful environmental education programmes. A provider perspective

JM Dreyer & CP Loubser

187

15

Addressing shortcomings in environmental education: Assessing a Malaysian Wetland Programme

CP Loubser, JM Dreyer, Y Noor Azlin, AK Azyyati & CL Naimah

201

16

Addressing education for sustainable development of an underprivileged community through remedial classes

R Maimane & IB Phage

211

17

The influence of particular teaching methods in Environmental Education programmes for promoting sustainability and enhancing knowledge retention at uShaka Sea World

H Killian

225

18

Inter-college cooperation as a tool for campus environmentalization: strengthening the cooperation project between Universidadede São Paulo, Brazil, and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain

Patricia C. Silva Leme, Maria Jose Díaz, Marisa Sartori Vieira, Welington Braz Carvalho Deliti, Javier Benayas del Alamo, David Alba, Marta Casado, Marcos Sorrentino, Miguel Cooper, Daniela Cassia Sudan, Ana Maria de Meira Renata Castiglioni Amaral, Cintia G. Rissato & Pedro Luiz Cortês

241

BOB

1

Environmental Education and Education for

Sustainable Development - Milestones in the

Decade of Education for Sustainable Development

1

Enhancing Sustainability In Higher Education Through A Global Universities

Partnership: Perspectives From UNEP’s Environmental Education And Training

Unit (EETU)

Gregory J.E. Odeke

Environmental Education and Training Unit, UNEP, Nairobi

Abstract

This paper/keynote address highlights the approach taken by the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP)’s Environmental Education and Training Unit (EETU) to enhance Higher Education

for Sustainable Development within the broader context of the United Nations Decade of Education for

Sustainable Development (UNDESD:2005-2014). The Environmental Education and Training Unit

(EETU) works with and through universities to enhance Environmental and Sustainability Education with

a focus on three key pillars: Education, Training and Networking.

The paper draws on EETU’s flagship initiative: The Global Universities Partnership on Environment and

Sustainability, and the attendant regional higher education networks to demonstrate the potential and

value of global networking in environmental and sustainability education using the current achievements,

outcomes/outputs and impact as benchmarks.

BOB

2

INTRODUCTION

This paper uses the UNEP-led Global Universities Partnership for Environment and Sustainability

(GUPES) as context for interrogating the potential for enhancing sustainability in higher education using

international networking and cooperation as a strategy. Specifically, it focuses on the regional dimensions

of GUPES and by drawing parallels with the ‘best of both worlds’ conference, provides the emergent

principles for effective networking for sustainable development through higher education.

THEORETICAL AND CONTEXTUAL FRAMEWORK

In an era of globalization, networks and partnerships have a lot of potential to positively influence all

spheres of sustainable development. International networking and partnerships in higher education are

particularly useful in shaping the future and sustainability of the planet given their three missions, namely:

teaching, research and community service (Clugston, 2000).

The current state of affairs in most universities around the world is such that universities predominantly

still serve the interests of the elite upper social strata (Kuhnen, 1978) – in the typical traditional sense.

However, given that research now demonstrates that the continued functioning of the Earth system as it

has supported the well-being of human civilization in recent centuries is at risk; there is need for the

modern universities to embrace varied strategies so as to collectively contribute to the sustainability of the

planet. Kuhnen (1978) argued that modern universities can only be valuable if they are linked to the

whole society (i.e. are involved in community service) and confront existing developmental problems in

their contexts. In this regard, international networking would be a useful strategy.

The recent State of the Planet Declaration (March 26-29, 2012), warns that ‘Without urgent action, we

could face threats to water, food, biodiversity and other critical resources: these threats risk intensifying

economic, ecological and social crises, creating the potential for a humanitarian emergency on a global

scale’. By inference, this statement implies that the entire globe is at risk, therefore requiring concerted

efforts and exchange of ideas, solutions, information, expertise and perspectives from all parts of the

world to address the imminent crises and the potential for humanitarian emergency. The declaration

further states that:

In one lifetime our increasingly interconnected and interdependent economic, social, cultural and political systems have come to place pressures on the environment that may cause fundamental changes in the Earth system and move us beyond safe natural boundaries. But the same interconnectedness provides the potential for solutions: new ideas can form and spread quickly, creating the momentum for the major transformation required for a truly sustainable planet (Para 2).

The above statement, coming only a few weeks before the ‘Best of Both Worlds’ Conference, inspires the

need for enhanced networking and international cooperation in finding solutions to the myriad problems

3

facing the world today. The fact that Paragraph 9 of the same declaration mentions that: Interconnected

issues require interconnected solutions... further builds an even stronger case for global University (and

other) networks and partnerships in pursuit of solutions to the current sustainability challenges facing the

earth.

Additionally, paragraph (100) of the zero draft of the Rio+20 Outcome document reiterated the value of

international education networking. This was later adopted in the final Rio+20 Outcome Document that

was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 24 July 2012. Thus:

We emphasize the importance of greater international cooperation to improve access to education, including through building and strengthening education infrastructure and increasing investment in education, particularly investment to improve the quality of education for all in developing countries. We encourage international educational exchanges and partnerships, including the creation of fellowships and scholarships to help achieve global education goals (para 232).

From a more practical perspective, international networking and partnerships in Environmental Education

can be instrumental to building a global community of practice in Environmental Education for sustainable

development. Wenger (1998) defined the ‘concept of community of practice’ as a group of people who

have a common interest in achieving something and they share ideas on the best way of achieving their

common goal. In the context of the ‘Best of Both Worlds’ conference community, addressing the

environmental issues, risks and the associated sustainable development challenges in ‘both worlds’

passes for the common goal.

Wenger (1998) further observed that a community of practice is a unique combination of three

fundamental elements: Domain - a sense of joint enterprise, Community – a community is only a

community of practice if members interact on regular basis and learn from each other on the best way to

achieve their enterprise, and Practice - members of a community develop a shared repertoire. Wenger

(1998: 79) summarised repertoire as “routines, tools, ways of doing things, stories, words, gestures,

symbols, genres, action or concepts that the community has produced or adopted in the course of its

existence, and which have become part of its Practice”. Having read about the history of this conference,

this 5th “Best of Both Worlds” conference comfortably fits within Wenger’s (1998) description of a

community of practice as outlined above. Most interesting is the consistency with which the ‘best of both

worlds’ conference community has been interacting on regular basis through conferences to learn from

each other on the best way to achieve their enterprise.

Before presenting perspectives from UNEP’s Environmental Education and Training Unit, it may be useful

to first provide some background of UNEP’s Environmental Education and Training Work.

4

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING WORK OF UNEP

UNEP is the voice for the environment within the United Nations system. UNEP’s Mission is: To provide

leadership & encourage partnerships in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling

nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations.

In line with UNEP’s mission, and with the understanding that environmental education (EE), awareness

raising and training – are fundamental to the achievement of the goal of sustainable development and to

UNEP fulfilling its mission; the Environmental Education and Training Unit (EETU), in the Division of

Environmental Policy Implementation of UNEP, is mandated to work with/through higher education

institutions (universities) in support of UNEP’s priority thematic areas1 under the Medium Term

Strategy(2010–2013). This is achieved by promoting innovative, action oriented, and value-based

environmental education for sustainable development by ensuring that environmental considerations -

current and emerging - are taken into account. With this mandate, UNEP’s EETU is obliged to explore

means and ways of mainstreaming environment and sustainability thinking, knowledge and principles into

University policies, programmes, curricula, practices and operations. EETU Promotes attitudes and value

systems that influence environmentally ethical behavior by developing understanding, skills and values

that will enable people to participate as active and informed citizens in the development of an ecologically

sustainable, economically viable and socially just society. EETU also serves as UNEP focal point for the

UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development, 2005-14 (UNESCO, 2005).

To operationalize and deliver on its mandate, EETU has adopted a partnership approach that also

involves working with/through other divisions, branches, and units in UNEP, UNEP’s Regional Offices2, as

well as other UN agencies, and major groups. EETU has also adopted three pillars/core areas of work

namely: Education, Training and Networking.

The three pillars/core areas of EETU

1. Education

Focuses on inspiring, informing, facilitating and enabling universities to undertake curriculum innovations

for sustainability and greening of universities.

1 Climate Change; Disasters and conflicts; Ecosystem Management; Environmental governance; Harmful substances; and Resource efficiency. 2 Africa: Nairobi, Kenya; Asia and the Pacific: Bangkok, Thailand; Europe: Geneva, Switzerland; Latin America and the Caribbean: Panama City, Panama; North America: Washington DC, USA; and West Asia: Manama, Bahrain.

http://unep.org/roa

http://www.roap.unep.org/

http://www.unep.ch/roe/

http://www.pnuma.org/


http://www.rona.unep.org/

http://www.unep.org.bh/

5

Curriculum innovation work entails the following initiatives:

Reorienting higher education curricula towards sustainable development through curriculum

reviews, innovations and projects

Developing eenvironmental and sustainability knowledge and information resources for higher

education’s curriculum reorientation towards sustainable development

Training of curriculum developers on curriculum reorientation towards sustainable development

and; on integration of environment and sustainability themes and concerns into curricula across

disciplines

Guidance and support to Universities on mainstreaming UNEP’s priority thematic areas into higher

education curricula and into the curriculum of short professional development courses offered by

universities.

Greening universities entails the following:

Disseminating UNEP’s (EETU) concept/approach to Greening Universities in conferences and to

particular universities with a view to inspiring and encouraging universities to go green for

sustainability. This initiative recently (2012) received a major boost following the initiation of a UN-

wide Higher Education Sustainability Initiative (HESI), which seeks the commitment of Higher

Education Institutions to Sustainable Practices by signing a commitment declaration online.

Developing a criteria for ‘Green/Sustainable Universities’

Developing resources that guide universities to transform into ‘green/sustainable’ universities in-

line with the established criteria.

2. Training

Focuses on developing applied competence by enhancing knowledge and awareness on UNEP’s priority

thematic areas as well as equipping target audience (mainly mid-level managers and policy makers) with

relevant skills, values and attitudes on key environmental and sustainability themes, issues and emerging

concepts such as ‘Green economy’ through scheduled training courses in partner universities.

Some of the current training initiatives include the following:

UNEP/UNESCO/BMU International Post-graduate Training Programme on Environmental

Management (Dresden Course) - with focus on Environmental Management

Course on International Environmental Law Making and Diplomacy (Joensuu Course) with focus on

Negotiations in environmental law and diplomacy

Course on Sustainable Communities (Helsinki Course) with focus on Sustainable urban planning &

development

UNEP-IESD Training Courses at Tongji University with focus on Environmental Governance,

Ecosystems and Disasters

YES-ACTIS Youth Encounter on Sustainability (YES) Africa Training Programme with focus on

topical issues on ESD

SIDA/UNEP International Training Programme (ITP) on ESD with focus on Professionals involved

in ESD in higher education

UNEP/WATSON International Scholars of the Environment (Brown University) with focus on

Environmental science, tech. and policy

6

UNEP/GPA – UNESCO- IHE – UN/DOALOS TRAIN-SEA-COAST Training Course on Improving

Municipal Wastewater Management in Coastal Cities with focus on Wastewater management in

coastal cities

Environmental journalism training with focus on Curricula for journalism schools-Environmental

media training workshop.

3 Networking

Aims at encouraging and strengthening regional and sub-regional higher education networks on

environment and Sustainability modeled around continents, UNEP regions as well as North-South and

South- south frameworks all feeding into the Global Universities Partnership for Environment and

Sustainability (GUPES) network. It also aims to further establish linkages with other higher education

initiatives for sustainability around the world and recognize programmes of excellence. The regional

networking initiatives include: the Mainstreaming Environment and Sustainability in African Universities

(MESA) partnership; Mainstreaming Environment and Sustainability in Caribbean Universities (MESCA)

partnership; and the Asia Pacific Regional University Consortium on Environment for Sustainable

Development (RUC-AP). All the above now constitute chapters of the recently launched Global

Universities Partnership on Environment and Sustainability (GUPES).

In the context of the 5th ‘best of both worlds’ conference, the Networking pillar makes the perfect

connection with the work of the ‘best of both worlds’ community.

‘BEST OF BOTH WORLDS’…?

For the sake of remaining relevant to the objectives of this conference, and without the benefit of having

attended previous ‘best of both worlds’ conferences, I sought to reflect on the idea of ‘best of both worlds’

by asking myself the following rhetorical questions:

Which are the ‘both worlds’?

What is the context of ‘both worlds’?

What is best in ‘both worlds’?

In the process of reflection, I further found myself writing down the following bullet points/questions, which

I hereby reproduce exactly:

Sustainability is a concern for both worlds…What can we do with the best of both worlds? –

Perspectives for the future…?

Motivation: the need to correct the multiple dangerous wrongs of human development,

environmental degradation and resource exploitation- both worlds are implicated!

Applied/socially critical EE/ESD processes for problem solving

Sense of community, agency and social ability – for transformation

Complementing rather than competing

7

Consulting, sharing, and learning from both worlds

Handprint/Footprint – Depending on context

Explore the rich learning and professional development opportunities in both worlds

Technology-supported/enhanced networking: e-networking and learning: for resource efficiency,

reduced emissions, reduced expenditure?

These bullet points (above) later formed the main premise and approach to my keynote address.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND NETWORKING AS A STRATEGY FOR ENHANCING

SUSTAINABILITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION; THE CASE OF A GLOBAL UNIVERSITIES

PARTNERSHIP BY UNEP’S EETU

Given the potential and value of international cooperation and networking, the Environmental Education

and Training Unit (EETU) of UNEP, conceptualized a Global Universities Partnership for Environment and

Sustainability (GUPES). Using various strategic approaches, GUPES, has since realized remarkable

achievements, some of which are described herein.

GUPES as context for interrogating international cooperation and networking in higher education

for sustainable development

GUPES, is one of the flagship programmes of UNEP’s Environmental Education and Training Unit

(EETU). The motivation behind the formation of GUPES was the need for dynamic learning networks

locally, nationally and regionally – that connect on a global scale leading to creation and facilitation of

communities of practice around Environmental education (EE), Education for Sustainable Development

(ESD) and Sustainable Development (SD). GUPES resulted from a consultative forum organized by

UNEP and its partners in Nairobi, on November 19, 2010 to deliberate on ways of escalating UNEP’s

successful engagement with universities. It builds on the successes of the Mainstreaming Environment

and Sustainability in African Universities (MESA), the nascent Mainstreaming Environment and

Sustainability in the Caribbean Universities (MESCA) and the Asia-Pacific Regional University

Consortium (RUC).

Overall, GUPES aims to promote the integration of environment and sustainability concerns into teaching,

research, community engagement, the management of universities, greening of university

infrastructure/facilities/operations, as well as to enhance student engagement and participation in

sustainability activities both within and beyond universities. The programmes, projects, activities and

initiatives of GUPES are guided by the pillars of the Environmental Education and Training Unit (EETU)


8

The Developmental objective of GUPES is to: Enhance the quality, policy, practice and relevance of

university education globally in the context of sustainable development, taking into account the emerging

paradigm of Green Economy. The objectives of GUPES include:

To provide a strategic platform for the mainstreaming of environment and sustainability concerns

into university systems across the world, and to facilitate inter-university networking on

sustainability issues with emphasis on South-South and North-South tertiary partnerships

To build, through university education systems, a professional capacity and leadership needed for

the prevention of and responses to environmental issues, risks and associated sustainable

development challenges

To contribute to revitalizing the global higher education system and enabling it to address current

sustainable development challenges with emphasis on UNEP’s six thematic priorities

To contribute to the knowledge generation within UNEP’s six priority thematic areas and other

contemporary environmental and sustainability issues, risks and challenges

To optimize development opportunities provided by ecosystem services in a sustainable manner in

line with the principles of “Green Economy” and in the context of sustainable development

To help prepare the world for the projected impacts of global climate change, disasters and

conflicts, harmful substances and hazardous wastes, as well as to assist in reversing and

mitigating these and other negative environmental and sustainability trends.

GUPES strategic approach in regions

Considering that environmental and sustainability issues are complex, diverse and arise in a range of

contexts, GUPES has chosen to be conscious of regional needs and differences so as to appropriately

respond to changing contexts and needs. In this regard, GUPES has adopted regional dimensions in

implementing programmes, projects and initiatives. The choice of regional dimensions was inspired and

informed by a number of philosophical orientations, key among them being relational philosophy. Guided

by the relational philosophy, Emirbayer (1997) explains that there are two ontological positions of the

world. The first is that the world consists of substances (static elements) and the second is that the world

is made of dynamic and unfolding relations. He calls these substantialist and relational (transactional)

perspectives respectively. A relational perspective emphasizes mutuality and reciprocity as the underlying

principles of existence. This is a shift from a dominant rationality paradigm (which is inherent in the

substantialist perspective), where dualism is an essential feature of the thought process. Substantialists

view the world as a collection of objects to be analysed, compartmentalized, classified, and controlled

(Kumar, 2004). Kumar (2004:76) notes that the dualistic world-view gives the illusion that “…I exist

independent of the other. This attitude is founded on the belief that there is a substantial, separate,

individual self, which can act of its own accord, irrespective of the other.”

Applied to the context of international cooperation and networking in higher education for sustainable

development, - with a particular focus on the regional dimensions; it suffices to say that the relational

9

(transactional) perspective is preferable. This is mainly because the relational philosophy appeals to the

relational nature of networking processes and international cooperation in higher education for

sustainable development. From an African perspective, this relational philosophy also seems to be

congruent with some dominant African worldview 3 as manifested in some classical examples of African

philosophy and literature. One such example can be drawn from Okri’s (1991) post- colonial novel – The

Famished Road, in which Okri shares a vision of the world as one of infinite possibility woven in a string

of relations. The novel’s main character Azaro, the spirit-child enables the reader to see the

interconnectedness of life.

From the perspective of GUPES, the regional dimensions are multifaceted and can be looked at through

the lenses of the individual UNEP regions (Africa, Europe, Asia and Pacific, North America, Latin

America, and West Asia), North-South, South-South, as well as North-South-South. This approach was

informed by a number of factors some of which are discussed later in this paper under the section:

Towards successful international cooperation in higher education: principles and strategies by GUPES.

Approaches, strategies and methods adopted by GUPES to enhance international cooperation

and networking in higher education for sustainable development

GUPES seeks to build on and partner with other existing regional higher education networks in pursuit of

its objectives. In this regard, it recognizes the existing regional networks in each of the UNEP regions as

well as other inter-regional networks modeled around North-South, South – South, and North-South-

South frameworks.

UNEP’s role in supporting GUPES is encouraged by UNEP’s Medium-Term Strategy (MTS) 2010-2013

and inspired by the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (UN-DESD) 2005-

2014. The MTS 2010-2013, that guides UNEP’s activities, has identified six cross-cutting thematic

priorities which GUPES takes into account with due regard to regional contexts and issues.

The vision of UNEP for the medium-term future is to be:

“The leading global environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda that promotes the coherent implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within the United Nations system and that serves as an authoritative advocate for the global environment.”

3 African worldview as used here does not refer to a common agreed philosophy. Rather, the use of the tem is meant to explain the

way of life in most African traditional societies thrives on a relational orientation that is shaped by ongoing contact and interactions

among individuals as well as with nature, as exhibited for example, in the extended family value system. This worldview however, is

not unique to Africa, as it can also be traced in various Eurasia philosophies (Louw, 1998)

10

Figure 1 below gives a snapshot of the Environmental Education and Training Unit in UNEP’s Medium

Term Strategy (2011-2013) with an outline of some key planned activities under each thematic priority.

Figure 1: Environmental Education and Training Unit in UNEP’s medium term strategy

In regard to the UNDESD: 2005-2014 (UNESCO, 2005), and in line with UNEP’s mandate, GUPES seeks

to champion the mainstreaming of environmental and sustainability considerations into higher education

so as to contribute to the attainment of the goal of the UNDESD - to integrate the principles, values and

practices of sustainable development into all aspects of education and learning.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING UNIT IN UNEP’S MEDIUM TERM STRATEGY The six cross-cutting thematic priorities

Some key activities

Ecosystem Management - Development of an expanded network of universities on North/South and South/South modalities that

integrate ecosystem management into their research, teaching and community engagement activities; - Development of a web-based knowledge management platform based at UNEP, including both IT and

content components, to enable access to ecosystem management-related information and tools, and to share experiences;

- Development of a comprehensive set of ecosystem management training materials distributed to relevant country, university, UNEP and other inter-governmental actors;

- Development of a training course on Ecosystems management for Gender. Conflicts and Disasters

- Development of Education modules on best practices in Risk Reduction from natural and human-made disasters.

Resource Efficiency - Train-the-Trainers programmes targeting universities offering education programmes as well as teachers’

training colleges developed and rolled out; - Relevant publications and educational materials on resource consumption issues and greener lifestyles

targeting curricula change in schools, universities and teacher training colleges developed and distributed to target institutions;

- Environmental Education Learning Pack on resource consumption issues and greener lifestyles developed and disseminated to target institutions.

Environmental Governance - Mainstreaming Environment and sustainability in universities; - Training module and digital toolkits development; - Training courses and workshops for policy makers, academia and leaders in civil society, including ongoing

annual training courses, i.e. Dresden course, Joensuu course, Helsinki course and Brown university. Climate Change

- Establishment of grants to fund research and fellowships on climate change; - In collaboration with UNICEF, jointly pilot teacher development course on quality climate change and

environmental education; - Climate leadership programme for students; - Adaptation of UNEP's wealth of resource materials on climate change into innovative and practical learning

tools as well as promoting the use of these resources in the universities; - Mainstreaming climate change education in university and school curriculum. - In collaboration with UNICEF, jointly pilot teacher development course on quality climate change and

environmental education;

- Climate leadership programme for students; - Adaptation of UNEP's wealth of resource materials on climate change into innovative and practical learning

tools as well as promoting the use of these resources in the universities; - Mainstreaming climate change education in university and school curriculum.

11

For purposes of sharing and learning from the experiences of GUPES, some perspectives are shared

below:

APPROACH/STRATEGY 1 – GUPES in the UNEP regions - Regional Networks

GUPES evolved from the successful Mainstreaming Environment and Sustainability in African

Universities (MESA) partnership. This was essentially an African higher education partnership.

GUPES in Africa

Having evolved from MESA, the face of GUPES in Africa still remains the MESA partnership. In 2004,

UNEP initiated the Mainstreaming Environment and Sustainability into African Universities (MESA)

partnership in close collaboration with its partners and African universities.

UNEP successfully rolled out the MESA initiative with universities to support the United Nations Decade

on Education for Sustainable Development (UNDESD). MESA was developed to support the

mainstreaming of environment and sustainability concerns into teaching, research, community

engagement and management of universities in Africa. Mainstreaming environment and sustainability

concerns, which underpins MESA, involves a transformative learning process and new ways of thinking

about teaching, research and community engagement. It cannot be achieved through a prescriptive

approach, but instead requires a participatory process of co-defining what can/ought to be mainstreamed

and how this might best be done in different contexts.

The overall development objective of MESA is to enhance the quality and policy relevance of university

education in Africa in the context of sustainable development and achievement of the Millennium

Development Goals (MDGs). Specifically, MESA works to enhance and build capacities and networks for

the systemic integration of environment and sustainability concerns into a range of disciplines, faculties,

programmes and courses, policies, management practices and student activities in universities. Currently,

MESA involves about 90 universities across 42 countries representing 30% of African universities. Some

of these universities have transformed their curricula to reflect environment and sustainability concerns.

Several others are following suit. The partnership thus far has resulted in the initiation of a number of

change initiatives in participating universities and has introduced a stronger systems-focused approach to

change in universities. A dynamic network of African Universities has also been established with active

participation from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the

United Nations University (UNU) and the Association of African Universities (AAU). By 2014, the goal is to

expand MESA to 60% of African universities.

12

GUPES in Latin America and the Caribbean

The Mainstreaming Environment and Sustainability in Caribbean Universities (MESCA) partnership is the

face of GUPES in Latin America and the Caribbean region.The MESCA partnership programme was

started in 2009 with the assistance of UNEP and inspiration from MESA. Similar to MESA, MESCA aims

to mainstream environment and sustainability concerns into the teaching, research, community

engagement and management of universities in the Caribbean. MESCA is also helping to address the

ecological bias of sustainable development programmes in universities across the Caribbean by

encouraging use of multi-disciplinary and cross-curricular approaches. Currently, MESCA involves 11

universities in the Caribbean region, with the University of West Indies (UWI) serving as the focal point.

Soon after inception in 2009, MESCA adopted international cooperation in higher education for

sustainable development by reaching out to Africa for inspiration and guidance. To this end, MESCA’s

first activities involved using a tool developed by Rhodes University (under the MESA partnership

programme) to audit environment and sustainability within Caribbean universities. With support from

UNESCO, MESCA has also been able to realize three additional activities: an ESD monitoring and

evaluation workshop, which took place in October 2010; an online ESD course, in which many MESCA

universities are participating; and a workshop in ESD for teacher educators. This far, the MESCA

partnership can be termed as an example of good partnerships that the GUPES initiative will work with

and build on.

GUPES in the Asia Pacific Region

In the Asia Pacific region, GUPES is represented by the Asia Pacific Regional University Consortium on

Environment for Sustainable Development (RUC-AP) at network level as well as by the UNEP-Tongji

Institute of Environment for Sustainable Development, at the institutional level. The latter being

recognized more for its international outreach and partnership programmes. The objectives of the RUC –

AP are:

1. To foster multi-disciplinary academic and research development through joint activities in the

domain of environment, sustainable development and allied fields.

2. To serve as a resource base of expertise for the activities and programme of UNEP in the Asia-

Pacific region, including the UNEP-Tongji Institute of Environment for Sustainable Development

(IESD)

The current members of the RUC include: the Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand; Griffith University,

Australia, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore; Tongji University, China; University of New

South Wales, Australia; University of Wollongong, Australia; as well as Yale University, U.S.A. The

collaborating UN agencies include the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the United

13

Nations University – Institute of Advanced Studies (UNU - IAS). Other partners include: Venice

International University, Italy; and University of Paris-Dauphine, France. To ensure regional presence for

easier coordination, efficiency and effectiveness, GUPES further seeks partnerships with other regional

and global higher education movements which have concern for environment and sustainability in all the

UNEP regions.

APPROACH/STRATEGY 2 – North-South Cooperation in higher education

The north–south divide is a socio-economic and political division that exists between the wealthy

developed countries, known collectively as "the north", and the poorer developing countries (least

developed countries), or "the south. Although most nations comprising the "North" are in fact located in

the Northern Hemisphere (with the notable exceptions of Australia and New Zealand), the divide is not

wholly defined by geography. The North is home to four of the five permanent members of the United

Nations Security Council and all members of the G8. "The North" mostly covers the West and the First

World, with much of the Second World. The expression "north–south divide" is still in common use, but

the terms "North" and "South" are already somewhat outdated. As nations become economically

developed, they may become part of the "North", regardless of geographical location, while any other

nations which do not qualify for "developed" status are in effect deemed to be part of the "South."

In the context of international cooperation and networking in higher education for sustainable

development, the North-South divide is used as context for interrogation the existing international

cooperation and partnerships between the universities in the North and those in the South. North-South

cooperation in higher education takes various forms as designed by the concerned universities as well as

donor priorities and conditionalities. However, more often, it tends to promote exchange of knowledge

and intercultural mutual learning between universities and research institutes in the South and those in

the North. It is also more common for universities from the North to provide funding support for such

collaborative programmes, projects, activities and initiatives.

3. Successful examples of this model of international cooperation in higher education can be seen in

the North-South Cooperation initiative of the University of Zurich (UZH)

(http://www.int.uzh.ch/northsouth/links_en.html), and the North-South research cooperation of the

University of Bergen (http://www.uib.no/administrasjonstema/en/collaborating_organisations).

4. From a GUPES perspective, the case story of the evolving IGERT program on Coasts and

Communities: Natural-Human Systems in Urbanizing Environments which is a collaboration between

the University of Massachusetts Boston (UMass Boston) - USA, the University of Addis Ababa,

Ethiopia and other universities in Africa is briefly discussed below.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioeconomics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_country

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_countries

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_developed_countries


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_World

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_World


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World

http://www.uib.no/administrasjonstema/en/collaborating_organisations

14

Case Story 1 – The evolving IGERT program on Coasts and Communities: Natural-Human Systems

in Urbanizing Environments (an international cooperation programme between the University of

Massachusetts Boston (UMass Boston) - USA, the University of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and other

universities in Africa).

The Coasts and Communities IGERT program will be based at the University of Massachusetts Boston

(UMass Boston), a public research university with a dynamic culture of teaching and learning, and a

special focus on urban and global engagement. It will collaborate with the University of Addis – Ababa in

Ethiopia and other yet to be identified Universities in Africa.

The goals of the proposed IGERT program on Coasts and Communities: Natural-Human Systems in

Urbanizing Environments are to:

1. Train a new generation of scientists and policymakers skilled in understanding the interactions

between natural and human systems, in developing appropriate policy solutions for urbanized

environments, and in communicating with stakeholders.

2. Foster a culture of transdisciplinary collaboration and communication among natural scientists,

social scientists, governance scholars, and business scholars.

3. Create enabling conditions and provide the necessary experience that would empower the IGERT

scholars to apply their innovative solutions across scales, geographies, and political and economic

contexts.

APPROACH/STRATEGY 3 – South – South Cooperation in higher education

South-South Cooperation is a term historically used by policymakers and academics to describe the

exchange of resources, technology, and knowledge between developing countries, also known as

countries of the global South. From a UNEP perspective, The Bali Strategic Plan (BSP) establishes

South-South Cooperation as a key mechanism for the implementation of capacity building and technical

support activities in response to well defined country priorities and needs. Specifically, the Bali Strategic

Plan underscores the importance of South-South cooperation and stresses the need to intensify efforts

directed towards institutional capacity-building, including through the exchange of expertise, experiences,

information and documentation between the institutions of the South in order to develop human resources

and strengthen the institutions of the South”.

Additionally, the UNEP Medium Term Strategy also emphasizes the need to ensure that capacity building

and technology support run through the implementation of all priority areas and constitute an integral part

of UNEP programmes of work. Specifically, the Medium Term Strategy calls for the enhanced

implementation to be pursued through a number of processes and partnerships, including, inter alia,

facilitating South-South cooperation as one of the key mechanisms for implementing capacity-building


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_South

15

and technology support projects on the ground, which will entail engaging with a wide range of partners

and organizations. This forms a sound basis for South – South cooperation in higher education for

sustainable development. Further, in keeping with these policy provisions, UNEP Governing Council

decisions (UNEP/GC/24/12 and UNEP/GC/25/9), relevant General Assembly resolutions as well as

commitments made under various global and multilateral frameworks, UNEP is committed to promoting

South-South Cooperation as a means of supporting capacity building efforts in developing countries and

countries with economies in transition through systematic partnership-building and the exchange of

expertise, experiences, best practices and knowledge among experts and institutions of the South.

The broader framework of South – South cooperation, has inspired several higher education for

sustainable development initiatives. Some of these are briefly described below:

Case Story 1 - The UNEP – Tongji Institute of Environment for Sustainable Development (IESD) –

China and Africa (MESA) collaboration

China’s UNEP-Tongji Institute of Environment for Sustainable Development (IESD) is currently engaged

in international higher education collaboration with select African universities under the auspices of the

Mainstreaming Environment and Sustainability into African Universities (MESA) partnership. To ensure

enhanced re-orientation in Africa and Asia towards a more sustainable model of development through

education and training, the UNEP – Tongji IESD and UNEP MESA programmes partnered to organize a

consultative forum at the United Nations Complex in Nairobi, Kenya on 17 November 2010, to share

experiences and develop a mechanism for collaboration in order to catalyze accelerated achievement of

sustainable development goals in the two continents.

The more specific objectives of the Forum included: share experiences and best practices between Tongji

IESD and the MESA Programme; jointly identify pressing areas of environmental policy and research in

Africa and Asia and develop modalities of jointly addressing them; brainstorm on a common approach to

promote UNEP’s thematic areas while mainstreaming environment and sustainability in Africa and Asia.

During the Nairobi Tongi – MESA forum, the Tongji IESD expressed willingness to assist its MESA

partners tap into the 10,000 scholarships programme announced by the Chinese President for the benefit

of nationals of developing countries. Consequently hundreds of African applicants were considered for

these scholarships and are currently pursuing their master’s and doctoral studies at Tongji University.

A successful initiative under the South-South collaboration was the joint research conducted by Tongji

IESD and some MESA universities on the water situation in selected African cities. This research

culminated in the publication of a Rapid Response Assessment: Green Hills; Blue cities; An ecosystems

16

approach to water resources management for African cities (2011) that was launched in Cape Town

South Africa during the World Water Day Celebrations of 2011. So far, the success of IESD programmes

demonstrates good progress towards wider access to environmental education and training. Specifically,

cooperation with African Universities is a good example of South-South cooperation in higher education

for sustainable development in Africa.

APPROACH/STRATEGY 4 – Triangular cooperation in higher education (North-South-South)

Triangular cooperation features is often mentioned in Triangular development cooperation. However,

Triangular development cooperation still doesn’t feature prominently in the global development

cooperation architecture. The rationale underlying triangulation is that Southern contributors, which are

still themselves developing, are felt to be better placed and have the relevant experience to respond to

the needs and problems of programme countries. In particular, many Southern contributors have come up

with successful models or practices, which can be more appropriately transferred to other developing

countries than those of Northern donors.

The same philosophy and framework has also increasingly been adopted in international cooperation for

higher education for sustainable development in Africa. Good examples include:

North-South-South cooperation in curricula development: The Case of Dortmund, Kumasi and Dar

es Salaam.

The Swedish supported International Training Programme on Education for Sustainable

Development in higher education (ITP – ESD).

The case story of the Swedish supported International Training Programme on Education for Sustainable

Development in higher education (ITP – ESD) is briefly described below.

Case Story 1: The Swedish supported International Training in Higher Education for Sustainable

Development (ITP)

This training programme seeks to support the GUPES initiative. It is fully sponsored by the Swedish

International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) and is implemented in partnership with the UNEP-

Tongji Institute of Environment for Sustainable Development (IESD) in China and Rhodes University in

South Africa. ITP was designed against the background that: ESD is recognized internationally as an

important contributor to a more equitable and sustainable society. Based on the Plan of Implementation

agreed on at the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg 2002 the United

Nations has declared the period 2005–2014 as the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development.

This training and exchange programme provides a meeting place for professionals involved in ESD in the

higher education sector in Africa, Asia and Sweden. The main objective of the ITP programme is to

17

provide an opportunity to exchange knowledge and experiences in ESD in the higher education sector.

The programme will deepen understanding of the environmental, social-cultural and economic dynamics

of sustainable development. It also enhances the teaching, learning, research, community involvement

and management of higher education institutions with regard to ESD. Additionally, ITP involves a change

project component aimed at enabling participants to link the learning from the programme to their own

work context and institutional priorities. The programme includes five phases over a period of 9-12

months and involves two weeks of scheduled programme in Sweden and two weeks of scheduled

programme in South Africa/China. For the 2011 year programme the focus countries were as follows:

Africa – Botswana, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda and

Zambia; Asia – Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Nepal, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and

Vietnam.

RESULTS AND OUTCOMES/OUTPUTS FROM USING INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND

NETWORKING AS A STRATEGY

Besides the results and outcomes briefly described in the above case stories, UNEP’s Environmental

Education and Training Unit (EETU) has also been able to realize several other results in each of the

three pillar areas of work through international cooperation and networking. The diversity of expertise and

resources in the GUPES network has been particularly useful in this regard. Some of the tangible

outcomes/outputs that have been a result of the network capital within GUPES include the following.

Results and outcomes/outputs in the Education Pillar

1. Environmental and sustainability knowledge and information resources

Several resources have been developed. These include the following, among others:

Graduate Curriculum Development Sourcebook for Green Economy

Graduate Curriculum Development Sourcebook for Ecosystem Management

Greening Universities Toolkit; An Implementers Guide for Transforming Universities into green,

low-carbon and sustainable campuses

Higher Education Guidelines for Curriculum Review and Re-orientation towards Sustainable

Development.

Innovations and Best practices on Education for Sustainable Development and Sustainability in

Universities; Success stories from around the world.

Unit-based Sustainability Assessment Tool (USAT); A resource book to complement the UNEP

Mainstreaming Environment and Sustainability in African Universities Partnership.

Education for Sustainable Development Innovations ; Programmes for Universities in Africa Toolkit.

Green Hills; Blue cities; An ecosystems approach to water resources management for African cities

(2011) - launched in Cape Town -during the World Water Day Celebrations of 2011.

18

2. Development of Interdisciplinary & inter-university masters level curriculum on Education

for Sustainable Development - Sustainable Urban Development (ESDA-SUD)

Using international cooperation and networking as a strategy, EETU has been able to collaborate and

work with the United Nations University (UNU), UN-Habitat, UNESCO and several partner universities

namely: University of Nairobi, Kenyatta University, University of Tokyo, Karlstard University, Agder

University, and the Tokyo National University, to develop an interdisciplinary & inter-university masters

level curriculum on Education for Sustainable Development - Sustainable Urban Development (ESDA-

SUD). Two other programmes have also been developed within the same framework. These include:

Integrated Environmental, Economic & Social development in rural Africa (IRD) and Management of

Mineral Resources for Sustainable Development in Africa (MMR) – SA.

3. Successfully influenced the global education agenda through inputs into the Rio+20

outcome document

The GUPES network successfully provided submissions for the Rio+20 outcome document. Most of the

recommendations therein were adopted in the final Rio+20 outcome document. Consequently, GUPES

has been able to positively influence the global education agenda.

Results and outcomes/outputs in the Training Pillar

Thousands of people have received training through scheduled training courses in partner universities.

Some of the training courses that have benefited people include the following:


Management (Dresden Course) - with focus on Environmental Management;


Negotiations in environmental law and diplomacy;


development;


Ecosystems and Disasters;


topical issues on ESD;


in ESD in higher education;


Environmental science, tech. and policy;



coastal cities;



19

Results and outcomes/outputs in the Networking Pillar

Several global and regional higher education networks with interest in environment and

sustainability have been established. These include the following: Global Universities Partnership

on Environment and Sustainable Development (GUPES); Mainstreaming Environment and

Sustainability in African Universities (MESA) partnership; Mainstreaming Environment and

Sustainability in Caribbean Universities (MESCA) partnership; Asia Pacific Regional University

Consortium on Environment for Sustainable Development (RUC-AP).

As of March 2012, GUPES had a network of nearly 120 universities and several partners

distributed across the various UNEP regions of Africa , Asia – Pacific , West Asia, Europe , Latin

America and the Caribbean, and North America

Besides the establishment and strengthening of the various regional higher education networks,

working agreements have been established with several other existing networks such as The

Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education (AASHE).

Meetings and conferences: EETU and GUPES have been able to convene several meetings and

conferences. These include: The first consultative meeting- Nairobi, Kenya - Nov 18– 19 November

2010; High level planning, sharing and learning meeting - Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago,

Chile from 5-6 September 2011; 2 Green Room Events in 2011 and 2012 on the margins of the UN

Governing Council Sessions; The formal launch conference for GUPES in 5-6 June 2012, at Tongji

University, Shanghai, China.

RESULTANT/EMERGENT LESSONS, PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES FOR NETWORKING FROM

THE GUPES EXPERIENCE

Generally, the experiences from GUPES reveal that for an effective network…; It is not the size of the net

(number of people/breadth of the net) that matters, but rather the quality, amount and diversity of the work

in the net. Additionally, the international cooperation and networking experiences, lessons learned and

reflections from GUPES lead to the following suggested principles, which could apply to any other

network including the ‘Best of Both Worlds’ community.

Towards successful international cooperation and networking in higher education: principles and

strategies from the GUPES experience

Drawing on the learning and experience gained in the running and overseeing of higher education

networks such as MESA and GUPES, EETU considers a number of guiding principles as necessary in

informing and guiding future networking and international cooperation in higher education initiatives.

These include:

Responsiveness;

Recognition of diverse contexts;

Regionalization;

Building on existing structures and research experience;

Flexibility and structure;

20

Participation and partnership;

Transparency and accountability;

Process and product

Monitoring, evaluation, research and flexibility

Responsiveness

Considering that environmental issues are complex, diverse and arise in a range of contexts in different

regions of the world, EETU is considering to be conscious of regional needs and differences so as to

actively and effectively respond to changing contexts and needs. The issue of responsiveness is also

useful in any meaningful international cooperation contexts. In any networking and cooperation projects,

activities and other initiatives it is encouraged that due cognizance is taken of ‘prior knowledge, work,

programmes, projects, and activities, as well as the needs of the participating institutions of higher

learning and other stakeholders.

Recognition of diverse contexts

Since GUPES is an evolving global network that functions in diverse contexts, it recognizes that

appropriate environmental education and training processes, programmes, projects, activities and

initiatives can only be identified within the contexts within which they will be implemented. As such, EETU

has come to the realization that no single approach to international cooperation and networking for

education for sustainable development will be suitable for all regions and continents. Because of the rich

diversity (in terms of ecosystems, systems of governance, educational systems, environmental policies,

languages, etc. of each country in the various regions and continents, stakeholders and other participants

in the international cooperation and networking in the higher education arena in the various regions

should feel free to develop, adapt and implement education for sustainable development in higher

education processes, programmes, projects, activities and initiatives that take into account their

contextual situations and needs. It is also essential to bear in mind the commonalities that unite

institutions of higher education in the GUPES network.

Regionalization

Besides supporting and strengthening the education for sustainable development capacity of individual

universities, GUPES and EETU believes regionalization also entails increasing and strengthening

regional interactions, links, partnerships and opportunities. The regional focus on regionalization by

supporting capacity development and encouraging ESD processes within GUPES member universities is

thought ideal. At the same time it builds on existing structures to enhance sustainability, facilitate regional

networking, and enhance co-operative and collaborative work at both regional and national levels.

21

Building on existing structures and research experience

The development of GUPES was informed by experiences from MESA and considerable consultation and

reflections. Hence, many features of the GUPES built on experience gained and developed at MESA in

the African region. Through GUPES, it has become apparent that building on initiatives that have a track-

record or experience base provide productive starting points for initiatives and enhance sustainability.

This ensures sustainability rather than perpetuating the notion that once-off initiatives are desirable.

Flexibility and Structure

While structure provides a certain level of confidence (and control), GUPES recognizes that structure may

be limiting to responding to the diverse, contested and emergent nature of environmental and

sustainability issues and ESD processes globally and in the regions. As such, GUPES aims to balance

structure and flexibility. By its nature, flexibility requires a high degree of trust among partners and a

reduction in central control.

Participation and partnerships

Participation and partnerships are pre-requisites for democratization, decentralization and regionalization.

Partnerships encourage collaborative approaches to addressing environmental, sustainability and

educational issues. Participation and partnerships call for flexibility in programme/project/activities

planning and implementation, and adaptive management approaches with an ability to learn from

experience.

Transparency and accountability

GUPES strives to be transparent by ensuring that all those who have legitimate interest can see how

decisions are made and who makes them. It also needs to be accountable to ensure that actors and

decision makers in GUPES partnership are procedurally and periodically answerable to those they work

with, to those they represent and to those who will be providing funds for activities within the GUPES

network.

Process and product

The temptation to focus on tangible and easily measurable products needs to be balanced with the

recognition that underlying processes are often more important. Thus, in the development of

programmes, projects, policy, resource materials, courses and research, the sharing and building of

capacity and the building of meaningful sustained partnerships are often as important than the actual

contents of the project documents, resource, course or research reports. This is not to imply that process

22

and product are mutually exclusive but rather emphasize processes that enable the sharing and building

of capacity among ESD in higher education practitioners in the GUPES network globally.


Monitoring, evaluation and research have a range of purposes including control, understanding, critique

and change. Within the GUPES network, there is emerging some recognition that all these are important.

A reflective approach helps to build in ways of continuously reviewing past actions and learning in order

to enable the GUPES partnership to ‘do’ better. Reflexivity is understood as a process of critical and

contextual review and action through which participants in the GUPES partnership and other stakeholders

work together to understand the partnership.

CONCLUSION

International cooperation and networking in Education for sustainable development in higher education

for sustainable development can provide a support structure for social transformation and change in

Environmental Education (EE) and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) practices for

sustainable development globally as well as in specific regions of the world. Additionally, capacity

development for meaningful and effective international cooperation and networking in higher education for

sustainable development ought to be a mutual learning process, where international and national

professionals and experts plan and work together, while sharing a joint accountability for results and a

common pride in their achievements.

REFERENCES

Clugston, R. M. (2000). Introduction. In W. Leal Filho (Ed.), Sustainability and university life

(2nd ed.) (pp 11-18). Frankfurt: Peter Lang.

Co-Chairs of the Planet Under Pressure conference, Dr Lidia Brito and Dr Mark Stafford Smith,

supported by the conference Scientific Organizing Committee (2012). New Knowledge

Towards Solutions; State of the Planet Declaration, London.

Emirbayer, M.(1997). Manifesto for a relational sociology. American Journal of Sociology, 103, 281-

317.

Kuhnen, F. (1978). The role of agricultural colleges in modern society: The University as an

instrument in social and economic development. Zeitschrift für ausländische Landwirtschaft, 2, 77-88.

Kumar, S. (2004). You are therefore I am: A declaration of dependence. Foxhole: Green Books.

Okri, B. (1991). The Famished Road. London: Vintage.

UNEP (2011). Keeping Track of Our Changing Environment: From Rio to Rio+20 (1992-2012). Division

of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),

Nairobi.

UNESCO (2005). United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development 2005-2014.

Draft consolidated international implementation scheme. ww.unesco.org/education/desd.

Wenger, E. (1998) Communities of practice. Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

23




2

Environmental education as a means of promoting eco-positive behaviour in

support of subsistence farming in a desertified area: a case study from Sefiane,

Algeria

T Bouazid University Mohamed Boudiaf, Msila, Algeria

CS le Roux University of South Africa

Abstract

The inhabitants of the Sefiane community, a semi-desert region in Algeria, are typically nomadic agro-

pastoralists who depend on their natural environment for subsistence. In this study, the community’s

experiences of how desertification and land degradation affect their natural environment and way of life

and how their activities contribute to land degradation were explored. The purpose for determining how

their farming activities impact on the environment was to attempt to find ways to address the issues which

threaten the community’s survival. A second purpose of the study was to attempt to establish general

guidelines that could help to curb desertification which could possibly be applicable in similar contexts

elsewhere. Desertification reflects and contributes towards fundamental ills such as poverty,

underdevelopment and lack of food security. For mere survival purposes, many people feel they have no

option but to engage in environmentally unsustainable activities which further contribute to desertification

and perpetuation of the cycle. The result of the study indicated the need for guidelines for community

based environmental education (EE) initiatives that would enable the Sefiane community to deal with

desertification and land degradation that would support sustainability. The paper presents a guiding

framework for a programme for use in the Sefiane community as well as in other communities where

similar challenges are faced.

BOB

24

INTRODUCTION

In the Executive Secretary’s address to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in 2011

(2011: 2), Luc Gnacadja made the following serious statement:

“Our most significant non-renewable geo resource is fertile land and soil. Nevertheless each year, an

estimated 24 billion tons of fertile soil are lost. Arable land loss is estimated at 30 to 35 times the historical

rate. In the dry lands, due to drought and desertification 12 million ha are transformed in new man-made

deserts. That is an area with the potential to produce 20 million tons of grain each year. When poverty is

assessed in terms of infant mortality rate, 42% of the very poor live in degraded lands.”

Algeria, the second largest country after the Sudan on the African continent is an arid to semi-arid country

of which some 80% is desert. Only 3% of the land is arable, 13% constitutes meadows and pastures and

2% is under forests and woodlands. The climatic and environmental conditions are influenced by the

presence of the deserts in the south and east; by human activity (urbanisation and the creation of

industrial infrastructures) and by harsh natural conditions that include drought, flooding, forest fires,

strong winds and freezing conditions which may even include snow. Furthermore, a prominent feature of

the Algerian climate is the sirocco – a dusty, chocking south wind blowing off the desert (Coutsoukis

2004). Current critical environmental issues in Algeria include soil erosion, rangeland destruction and land

degradation caused by overgrazing, unsound farming practices, indiscriminate collection of fuel wood,

uncontrolled fires, inadequate supplies of potable water, and the pollution of rivers and coastal waters by

the dumping of raw sewage, petroleum refining wastes and other industrial effluents. Global warming is

contributing to changing climate patterns and plays a role in the desertification of vulnerable areas (UNEP

2000).

Abdelgawad (1997) had estimated 82.74% of Algeria’s country area has already been desertified and

about 9.66% is at risk of desertification. Civil unrest and the resulting regional conflicts as well as the lack

of environmental awareness, sensitivity and concern among the population have jointly contributed to the

destruction of human settlements, infrastructures and environmental resources (Phillips 2007).

Abahussain, Abdu, Al-Zubari, El-Deen & Abdul-Raheem (2002: 541-542) point out that despite

continuous efforts to combat desertification, little has been achieved to halt its spread and reverse the

process. Among other constraints identified in their research is thelack of adequate and validated

information on the different aspects of the phenomenon in individual areas, sustainable development

plans for desertified areas, active awareness campaigns, appropriate training on assessment and

mitigation of desertification, and the neglect of local stakeholder involvement in addressing land

degradation and desertification.

25

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND KEY CONCEPTS UNDERLYING THE STUDY

The theoretical framework of this study rests on the understanding of certain key concepts. The basis of

the understanding and interpretation of these concepts is derived from United Nations (UN) declarations

and the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) that is an international institution rather than

an agency of the UN that coordinates UN environmental activities, assisting developing countries in

implementing environmentally sound policies and practices and was founded as a result of the United

Nations Conference on the Human Environment in June 1972. The perspectives of these concepts are

ascribed to internationally.

ENVIRONMENTAL AAAWWWAAARRREEENNNEEESSSSSS LITERACY

Man-made

EEENNNVVVIIIRRROOONNNMMMEEENNNTTT

AAACCCTTTIIIVVVEEE IIINNNVVVOOOVVVEEEMMMEEENNNTTT KKKNNNOOOWWWLLLEEEDDDGGGEEE Establishment underpinned by prevailing

socio-cultural, socio-political and socio-economic ideologies that

contribute to environmental risks and issues SSSKKKIIILLLLLLSSS AAATTTTTTIIITTTUUUDDDEEE

Biophysical EEENNNVVVIIIRRROOONNNMMMEEENNNTTT

ENVIRONMENTAL LITERACY

Figure 1: Components of the environment surrounded by the goals of environmental education which when understood and practiced are the foundations of environmental literacy

The concepts that apply to this particular study and which will be briefly outlined include the terms

desertification, the role of environmental education (EE) in addressing environmental issues,

environmental literacy and education for sustainable development.

Desertification

Although the concept of desertification was being discussed and referred to by the French scientist and

explorer Louis Lavauden in 1927 already, the term was only officially defined at the United Nations

Conference on Desertification held in Nairobi in 1977. The definition of desertification was formulated as:

26

the diminution or destruction of the biological potential of land, that can lead ultimately to desert-like conditions. It is an aspect of the widespread deterioration of ecosystems, and has diminished or destroyed the biological potential, i.e. plant and animal production, for multiple use purposes at a time when increased productivity is needed to support growing populations in the quest of development

(UN Secretariat of the Conference on Desertification, 1977).

The practical causes of desertification are the deterioration and degradation of pastoral rangelands due to

overgrazing. The consequences include a reduction in the proportion between the amount of edible

perennial plants in relation to the increase of inedible species; death of vegetation in dry seasons due to

greater exposure of the land due to overgrazing and trampling; deterioration in surface conditions to

sustain plant growth, an increase of runoff and erosion, wind erosion and ultimately the loss of formerly

productive lands (Glantz & Orlovsky 1983, Perez & Thompson 1996). Similarly, according to UNEP

(1992) unsound agricultural processes sap the soil of nutrients, overload it with salts, dry it out and

compact or seal the surface which, apart from then contributing to erosion, results in waterlogging the

prevents air circulation in the soil, impoverishing it and allowing for toxic build-up.

Apart from the unsustainable activities outlined above as causes of desertification, other socially induced

causes include inappropriate decision-making of policy-makers, inept management of arable lands and

pastures, the lack of awareness of environmental resource management by land users and managers,

and poor knowledge of ecological and hydrological systems and cycles in arid regions. The role that EE

can play in relation to the preceding cannot be overlooked.

The place and role of environmental education in averting desertification

Since the principal reference to EE as a pivotal method to ameliorate environmental issues at the United

Nations Conference on Environment and Development (1972), greater clarification of the underlying

principles, objectives and purpose of EE has evolved. The assumption is that EE is an indispensable

means of dealing with environmental issues and risks and finding solutions to environmental problems.

The underpinning conviction is that EE strengthens people’s capacity to acquire and develop knowledge,

values, attitudes, skills, decision-making abilities and ethical behaviors that contribute towards and are

beneficial for the environment. Put differently, to raise the level of environmental literacy (EL) within the

individual and society at large. It has become common practice for environmental and development risks

and issues to be addressed through EE initiatives. At the World Summit on Sustainable Development

(2002) the critical linkages of EE with sustainable development (SD) and social justice issues, poverty

alleviation and the judicious use of natural resources was foremost (Rose & Bridgewater, 2003: 264).

Though EL is primarily seen as constituting a better understanding of the functioning of the physical and

the natural environment, it also addresses human interaction with the environment and how humans are

27

affected by the environment but also how humanity affects the environment. Consequently EL

presupposes the ability to perceive, decode, analyse and use information to use, conserve, maintain and

co-exist with the environment in a sustainable way (Hares, Eskonheimo, Myllyntaus & Luukkanen

2006:129). Several recent studies (Annorbah-Sarpei, et al 1993; Bethune & Schachtsneider, 2004;

Darkoh, 2000; Hidayat, N.d.; Stern, 2000; Winslow et al, 2004; Van Rooyen, 1997; Warren, 1995)

indicate that raising the EL of communities through EE has been successful in dealing with desertification

and related issues.

Education for sustainability

The concept of SD is rooted in a systems thinking paradigm. Key to sustainability issues is the need to

recognize that its achievement is dependent on understanding the interaction between the various

dimensions of the environment – the natural, social, cultural, economic, political and ethical. In short, SD

as defined in the Brundtland Report (UNWCED, 1987:43) has four main implications:

a concern about the relationship between the use of resources, population growth and

technological development and advancement

a concern about the production and distribution of resources of food, energy and industry among

the developed, developing and underdeveloped nations of the world

a concern about uneven development such as the gross imbalances between the rich and the poor

nations, and about economic dominance and ideological differences

a concern about environmental degradation and ecological disaster

The central role of education and training for SD is to increase people’s ability to understand, adapt to

and appropriately transform the environment for the satisfaction of their own and their community’s

needs, remembering that the underlying principle of SD is to ensure that the way the environment is

currently used does not compromise the ability of further generations to meet their needs too.

In the context of this study it was necessary to develop a system of sustainable agriculture that was

economically viable, socially acceptable (to ensure community commitment or buy-in to the project),

environmentally friendly and technically appropriate (Milton & Ochieng n.d.). Ideally, local SD initiatives

should engender learning processes, the benefits of which go well beyond the projects themselves

pointing the way and building capacity to find solutions of other problems in a variety of contexts.

Research context

One of the regions adversely affected by land degradation, rangeland destruction and desertification in

Algeria is the Sefiane rural community (population: 11,700) in Batna province (Statoids, 2002). The region

falls within the Algerian Steppe which encompasses more than 20 million hectares. Batna province is

28

made up of 22 districts and 61 municipalities of which Sefiane is one. Batna City is the fourth largest in

Algeria with close on 1 000 000 residents. The economy in the province’s capital is based on heavy

industry with chemical and textile industries being prominent. However, unemployment in the villages and

rural areas is high and the communities live in relative isolation from modern services and follow a rural,

subsistence livelihood. The local people are known as Chaoui and are of Berber and not Arab extraction.

In Berber ‘Chaoui’ means ‘free men’ – a name which has its roots in their history of their ability to avert

invasion or subjugation by local and foreign powers – and possibly also refers to their choice of following

a nomadic existence.

Batna province 12,192 km2

Population 1,128,030

Density 93/km2

Population growth 1,1%

Agriculture contribution to GDP 8%

Figure 1: Map of Algeria and the Sefiane community

Source https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ag.html (2012)

Figure 2: Researcher at the turn-off to the Sefiane community and typical topography of the

Sefiane community

Research motivation, question and aim

Abahussain Abdu, Al-Zubari, El-Deen and Abdul-Raheem (2002) have suggested that the constraints in

addressing land degradation and desertification has been due to the lack of validated information on the

specific aspects of desertification in specific areas – but put more bluntly, they have arisen due to a lack

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ag.html

29

of understanding the problem, its causes and consequences. They further suggested that the lack of

training and local involvement in addressing the causes of desertification and land degradation were

specific factors which constrained finding solutions to and improving the situation.

Taking the above-mentioned criticisms to heart, the question which motivated the research was

consequently to establish in the Sefiane community which is seriously affected by land degradation and

deforestation guidelines for a community generated EE programme to address the above issues which

could lead to a more sustainable lifestyle and use of the environment. To answer this question, it would

be necessary to establish

prevailing living conditions and the extent to which farmers’ farming practices influenced land

degradation and desertification

farmers’ level of understanding and perceptions of land degradation and desertification and the

extent to which farmers perceive their farming practices to influence land degradation and

desertification

Establishing the aforementioned would enable the researcher to identify how current practices affect the

community’s way of life and means of survival. The aim of the research – based on the International

Union for the Conservation of nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) (1971) and the United Nations

Conference on Environment and Development (1972) stance that EE is a tested strategy that can be

used with success to address environmental problems – was to use the research findings to propose a

framework for a training programme for the community (with their input) which would empower them to

adopt more sustainable farming practices.

Methodology

The methodological paradigm selected for the study was qualitative (descriptive and interpretative), and

data collection methods which enabled the researcher to observe, describe and interpret the experiences

and perceptions of Sefiane agro-pastoralists and pastoralists were used. Since the Sefiane farming

community is widely dispersed a non-probability snowball sampling technique (Galloway 1997) was used

to establish a research sample of information-rich respondents. The researcher first identified and met

with an agro-pastoralist who is well known in the region and discussed the purpose of the research with

him. This person then suggested another two likely respondents and so it continued. Of the total of 50

pastoralists and 30 agro-pastoralists in the community, a group of 30 pastoralists and 18 agro-pastoralists

was selected on the basis of accessibility and relative permanency of residence to represent the research

sample.

Characteristic Agro-pastoralists Pastoralists

Age Between 25-49 years of age Between 22-55 years of age

Income Inconsistent, based on sale of local products – Inconsistent, reproduction rate of herds,

30


mainly dairy products and farming subsidies sale of produce in the towns and farming subsidies

Social status Subsistence, independent farmers, members of cooperatives

Herders, livestock breeders

Gender Male and female Male and female

Table 1: Biographical details of the research population

Data collection was done over a period of one year through

field research comprising observations and dialogue with respondents at work,

survey questionnaire,

individual interviews with representatives from both groups of respondents; and

focus group interview with representatives from the local authority.

Field work comprised a series of visits at regular intervals to pastoralists and ago-pastoralists that focused

on monitoring individuals’ interaction with other farmers or farming assistants, and the environment. Field

notes were recorded and descriptive narratives were written up immediately after the visits. Photographs

were also taken with individuals’ consent to support observations.

The analysis of the observation and interaction data was used as the basis for the design of the survey

questionnaire. The completion of the questionnaires was guided by the researcher in instances where

literacy levels were low. The data arising from the survey was used to draft the interview schedules.

Individual non-structured interviews were selected as a data collection tool because of the adaptability of

interviews to enquire into arising issues while yet staying within the bounds of the design protocol. A

focus group interview was conducted towards the end of the research period with representatives from

the local authority.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Following Tesch’s (1990:142-145) method of qualitative data analysis, these topics were clustered and

reduced to categories or themes that were coded for analysis. To facilitate the organisation of the

identified themes, comparison tables were drawn up.

Prevailing living conditions and farmers’ impact on the environment

Farmers in Sefiane lead a harsh lifestyle where mere survival demands great physical effort. Agriculture

predominates and the residents depend on small-scale subsistence oriented cultivation of crops to feed

their families. Any excess produce is sold to generate income for other necessities. Nomadic pastoralism

is also practiced by a significant proportion of rural farmers and many combine agriculture and animal

31

husbandry in order to subsist. Each member of the family plays an active part in the farming. The youth

tend to follow in their parents’ footsteps since few have had the opportunity to attend school and find

other means of employment.

Pastoralists’ impact

The area is grossly overstocked that leads to gross overgrazing. The potential stocking rate is about 8 ha

per sheep while the actual stocking rate is 0.78 ha per sheep. The natural vegetation cannot sustain the

number of stock and subsequently farmers need to provide stock with supplementary feeding. The impact

of the livestock on the natural vegetation is considerable. Owing to overstocking the best grazing and

areas around water points are badly trampled and the soil is compacted which leads to loss of soil quality,

lower water permeability, increased run-off and soil degradation.

As a result of overgrazing, the best grazing plant species are grazed off before they have time to set seed

or form re-growth for the coming season and in many instances the root system of the plants are killed

off. Unpalatable species such as Atractylis serratuloides and Peganum harmala, both of which are

characteristic indicators of pasture degradation, are notably predominant (URBT 1978). Vegetative

diversity is compromised due to overgrazing which also leads to a decrease in the cover of perennials

and of the biomass. Ultimately this leads to the degradation of soil quality since vegetative cover and

replenishment of nutrients through decomposition is restricted.

Agro-pastoralists’ impact

Agro-pastoralists’ actions which significantly contribute to land degradation and vulnerability to

desertification include devegetation and deforestation to clear land for cropping; deforestation of natural

vegetation to build windbreaks for crop enclosures; cultivation of marginal lands and fragile ecosystems;

reduction or non-observance of fallow time; inappropriate use of fertilizers; improper tillage and drainage

practices which lead to soil compaction; unsustainable use of water (eg flood irrigation) which is a scarce

resource; disregard for following sustainable farming practices due to pressure to produce an adequate

amount of products to meet family needs.

Practices that lead to land degradation and desertification evidenced among agro-pastoralists whose

farming practice – like those of the pastoralists – includes stock herding, include gross overgrazing,

failure to reestablish or restore grazing; uncontrolled livestock movement – for example, to keep them off

areas where vegetation is in the process of being reestablished; concentrating for long periods of time

their livestock around watering points and consequently denuding the area of vegetation; compacting the

32

soil which leads to excessive water run-off when it rains and erosion and deforestation of already sparsely

vegetated areas to create shelters and enclosures for herds.

Farmers’ level of understanding and perceptions of their contribution to land degradation and

desertification

Farmers are aware that the environment is becoming increasingly degraded and that the threat of

desertification is very real. In their comparison of the current state of the environment to that of a decade

previously, significant changes such as denuding of grazing lands, increased scarcity of water, extinction

of woodlots that indicate serious deterioration of the environment were mentioned. Several of the farmers

acknowledged that their actions contribute to land degradation and that they are thus contributing to

desertification. However, they can see no alternative: they have to produce food for their families and for

their livestock in order to survive.

Perceptions of representatives from the local authority in relation to the desertification of the area

The local authorities are aware of the extreme vulnerability of the area to desertification and are cognisant

of the damage caused to the environment by pastoralists and agro-pastoralists. As a means to deal with

the issue they have attempted to organise joint partnerships and small-scale associations and

cooperatives among themselves and the farmers to enable them to form a forum where experiences are

exchanged, ideas are shared, daily problems and difficulties related to environmental and sustainable

living issues are discussed and solutions sought. Issues which cannot be resolved within these

partnerships should be submitted to the local authorities in order to meet with them and find ways at a

higher level to solve these problems. Furthermore, they acknowledge that to help communities cope with

the effects of drought and the impacts of desertification, there is a need for both short and long-term

solutions. If the entire community is motivated and mobilised to deal with desertification, it is anticipated

that truly sustainable solutions could be found for example by negotiating and committing to a particular

system of land management and use. It is important to recognise that any policy taken to combat

desertification should take into account the way of life of to farmers in the areas affected, and try to

incorporate their knowledge into an overall action plan. However, as yet, little has been done to test these

measures or put them into practice to deal with the issues experienced in the community.

RESEARCH DEDUCTIONS

Although it is obvious that the natural resources upon which their families’ and their livestock’s survival

depend are under stress, survival remains the foremost issue – not necessarily the standard of survival,

neither the sustainable utilization of the environment. Inability and powerlessness to take action to avert

the process of land degradation due to their survival need to exploit the environment to the maximum was

33

consistently mentioned. Subsistence living and practising eco-positive behaviour are in this sense

diametrically opposed.

Despite not having suggestions on how the current situation should be ameliorated, farmers generally

realise that there is a pressing need to find ways to improve their situation. They acknowledge that their

role has to change from consumer and exploiter to contributor, problem solver and initiator to remedy the

economic, farming and survival problems that are escalating and threatening their lifestyle and livelihood.

This observation hints not at a lack of will, but at a lack of impetus and knowledge to initiate restorative

change.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Since desertification is a man-made phenomenon its control requires modifications to the way in which

man uses the environment (Grainger 1986). EE that enhances EL and provides the required knowledge,

skills and ability to make informed decisions and take action in dealing with environmental issues and

risks has been substantially documented as a tried and tested way of ensuring ways to address serious

environmental problems. Various researchers have indicated the success of EE in specifically addressing

land degradation and desertification issues (cf Annorbah-Sarpei, et al 1993; Bethune & Schachtsneider,

2004; Darkoh, 2000; Hidayat, N.d.; Stern, 2000; Winslow et al, 2004; Van Rooyen, 1997; Warren, 1995)

and it was with this substantial research backing that the researchers of the Sefiane community proposed

intervention of an educational nature.

Programme approach

The problems experienced in the community are common to both pastoralists and agro-pastoralists, and

consequently the approach to any intervention programme aimed at empowering the local community to

better utilise and protect their environment should be communal, democratic and participatory.

Individuals’ commitment to and involvement in such an intervention programme is dependent on their

taking ownership of proposed interventions. They need to be involved in the design and delivery of the

programme which should provide adequate opportunity for recognizing and building on existing expertise

(local knowledge) and good practice. The programme should provide opportunities to experiment with

proposed ideas, take on responsibilities, interact, develop knowledge and skills, and learn to work

together and to practice democratic negotiation and decision-making as a means of dealing with

environmental and sustainable development issues.

The ultimate aim of the programme should be to support participants to become self-sufficient in

combating desertification and following sustainable development principles and to monitor their progress

in this regard.

34

It was proposed that presentations made by local farmers and also external experts should be

descriptive, informative, explanatory, practical and interactive. Although a firm theoretical basis is

essential for all learning, learning should be activity-based and stimulating explanatory presentations.

Displays, practical demonstration and participatory activities should be given preference. The literacy

level of participants should be accommodated. Field trips to different farming enterprises where various

farming approaches, methods and techniques are successfully used should be organised.

Programme framework

The intent of the intervention strategy would be to enhance rural farmers’ environmental awareness, skills

and knowledge and to enable them to take steps to combat land degradation and desertification. The

programme should focus on both pastoralists and agro-pastoralists since their needs, as identified from

the research, have marked similarities.

A systematic framework for programme design generally highlights 5 steps that include a situation

analysis or audit of current circumstances, selecting programme aims, choosing content and appropriate

teaching methods and relevant teaching and learning resources and finally evaluating the success of the

interventions to ensure that the identified aims have been achieved.

Figure 2: Steps followed in cyclical programme design

Specific areas which should be included in the programme would include:

1. Situation analysis

Doing an audit of prevailing practices that contribute to land degradation and desertification through

examining local farming practices and their impact on the environment and the impact on

sustainable living

35

2. Programme aims

Enhancing environmental resilience through acknowledging, incorporating and building on local

skills and knowledge regarding animal husbandry practices and agriculture while simultaneously

developing a comprehensive understanding of the holistic nature of the environment, ecological

cycles and human/environmental interactions; the need for living within the carrying capacity of the

environment and how these affect human survival and quality of life

3. Programme content

In a programme of this nature, it would be very difficult to separate programme content, teaching

methods and resources since they are interdependent. Primarily, the programme content would be

elected to identify ways in which the environment can be managed sensibly and to suggest to

participants strategies to strengthen pro-environmental practices. These could include but not be

limited to:

establishing which cultivars are best suited to the prevailing environmental conditions, have

a high-nutrient content and are palatable for livestock, are drought tolerant and are short

cycle

finding and using natural remedies for treating ailments and disease while ensuring that such

material is harvested sustainably

establishing nurseries for seedlings that can be transplanted to revegetate denuded areas

and using windbreaks that can be deterrents against soil erosion

establishing woodlots to serve as sources for building materials and fuel while at the same

time exploring alternative materials for heating and cooking such as gas so that vegetation

can be used as a source of food for livestock. In this case, the intervention from government

would need to be negotiated since the community is not in a position to fund this suggestion

themselves

constructing of rock barriers to prevent erosion, excessive trampling by animals and for

windbreaks

protection of water sources so that they are not degraded by animal or human activity and

also applying water conservations strategies, sustainable methods of irrigation and rain

water harvesting facilities

4. Methods and teaching and learning resources

facilitate strategies to set up and manage grazing or crop rotation schemes to reduce

negative impact on the environment

increase local self-reliance and cooperative support and interaction.

5. Evaluation

Reflect on and evaluate own farming practices to weigh their impact on the environment and to

identify and diagnose problems through dialogue

36

The general purpose of the proposed framework is to ensure a better quality of life for the community and

to enable them to practice their farming activities in such a way that the human and livestock needs for

food, water and shelter are met in a way that is not detrimental to the environment.

CONCLUSION

Desertification reflects and contributes towards fundamental ills, such as poverty, underdevelopment and

lack of food security which implies that fighting desertification is integral to warding off poverty and

ensuring sustainable living (Annan 2003). The research attempted to identify specific farming trends and

practices in the Sefiane community that contribute to land degradation and desertification. Farmers are

aware that their current activities are causing serious harm to the environment yet survival in the most

basic form overrides all other concerns. The research has indicated that these farmers are not averse to

following sustainable living practices, but seem to lack the encouragement or impetus to initiate this

process of their own accord. It would appear that outside intervention and support is required to initiate

environmental programmes and to offer the necessary resources and access to information and support

structures that could help the community identify and implement alternative farming practices which are

more environmentally sustainable. Farmers should be given the forum to share and practise their own

knowledge of sustainable environmental practices and make a livelihood from their environment while

following a conscious philosophy to build up a sustainable co-existence with the environment to help the

next generation to live harmoniously and with stability.

The recommendations which emanated from this study are an attempt to set up and maintain such a

system, which would be part of the solution to the problem of desertification which faces the Sefiane rural

community in Algeria and several others in vulnerable semi-arid regions globally.

The importance of research of which this is an example, is perhaps best captured by Lee Don-koo, the

Korean Minister of Forest Service’s comments at the UN meeting on Desertification held in 2011:

"Land and soil are the property not only of the present generation but also of the future generations. We

have the responsibility of using them in a sustainable way so as to enable our descendants to enjoy benefits

from healthy and productive ecosystems."

REFERENCES

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Annorbah-Sarpei, AJ., Dube, N., Rugumayo, E., Schearer, SB. & Tomlinson, J. 1993. The importance of participatory approaches for dry land management and anti-desertification programs. Based on case studies from Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya and Zimbabwe. New York: Synergos Institute.

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Bethune, S. & Schachtsneider, K. 2004. How community action, science and common sense can work together to develop an alternative way to combat desertification. Environmental monitoring and assessment. 99:161-168.

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Perez, E. & Thompson, P. 1996. Natural hazards: Causes and effects. Lesson 8: Desertification. Prehospital & Disaster Medicine 11:147–159.

Phillips, J. 2007. Effects of desertification on Arab-Berber relations. ICE case studies (10).

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Tesch, R 1990. Qualitative research, New York: Falmer Press.

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Van Rooyen, AF. 1998. Combating desertification in the southern Kalahari: connecting science with community action in South Africa. Journal of arid environments 39:285-297.

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Winslow, M., Shapiro, BI., Thomas, R. & Shetty, SVR. 2004. Desertification, drought, poverty and agriculture: research lessons and opportunities. International Centre for Agriculture Research in the Dry Areas. Available online http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Assessment/files/Synthesis/Land%20Degradation/DDPAARLO_text.pdf Accessed 18 February 2009.

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3


Valéria Ghisloti Iared

Mayla Willik Valenti

Mariângela Spadoto

Haydée Torres de Oliveira

São Carlos Federal University, São Carlos, Brazil

Abstract

The literature lacks studies on the development of indicators to evaluate public policies in environmental

education in Brazil. The purpose of this paper is to describe and analyze the first stage of the construction

of indicators, in a participatory manner, for the Municipal Environmental Education Program of São

Carlos, a city in the Southeast of Brazil. Two workshops were conducted for the collective development of

the indicators. We believe that this construction process was extremely valuable as it boosted the use of

indicators to assess public policies in environmental education in the municipality and form people who

participated in the workshops. However, some challenges must be overcome in the next steps which will

be conducted.

BOB

40

INTRODUCTION

The incorporation of new ways of being and thinking is one of the challenges of environmental education

(EE). The critic EE involves an educational process to uncover and deconstruct the paradigms of modern

society contributing to the construction of new values (Carvalho 2004; Guimarães 2006). One of the

possibilities of educational activities is to foster democratic processes, creating opportunities to engage all

people in the decision-making process of society (Freire 2005). Accordingly to Paulo Freire, we believe

that education alone cannot solve the world's problems, however we also know that without it, it is not

possible to change society.

According to Meadows (1999), although paradigm shift is an action that exerts a great influence on

complex systems, such as corporations, cities and ecosystems, it is the most difficult to promote changes.

In the formulation of sustainability indicators several aspects of reality should be considered. These

aspects are called leverage points and are sorted by Meadows (1999) into nine types, in an ascending

order of influence on the systems: 1) parameters, constants, numbers, rates, 2) negative feedback

regulation 3) driving of positive feedback; 4) material flows and nodes of intersection, 5) flows of

information; 6) rules of the system (punishments, incentives, constraints); 7) distribution of power over the

rules of the system ; 8) goals of the system; 9) paradigm shift of the system.

Indicators are variables that add or simplify relevant information, disclose phenomena of interest and

quantify, measure and communicate relevant information (Gallopin 1997). According to the documents of

the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD 1994), they are part of a political

cycle and contribute to the formulation, implementation and evaluation of policies. Other authors, such as

Gallopin (1997) and Esteban et al. (2000) also point out that the construction of indicators should be

closely linked to decision makers for effective changes:

Thus, indicators become a benchmark that can serve as a warning signal to alert the manager or

politician if the undertaken development plan is obtaining the expected results or, conversely, going to the

opposite direction. (Esteban, Benayas, Gutiérrez et al. 2000: 62, our translation).

Hardi and Zdan (1997) describe the process which culminated in a relevant document to the assessment

of Sustainable Development. In 1996 the International Institute for Sustainable Development

(International Institute for Sustainable Development - IISD) held experts, researchers and practitioners of

world measurement at the Educational Foundation and Rockefeller Conference Centre in Bellagio (Italy).

This meeting aimed to summarize the general perception on the main aspects related to the assessment

of sustainability and ten principles that would guide the evaluation of progress toward sustainable

41

development were described. According to Hardi and Zdan (1997), the aim was not to discuss indicators,

but basic issues, ie, principles that would guide the construction of these indicators: 1) visions and goals,

2) holistic perspective; 3) elements; 4) appropriate scope; 5) practical focus, 6) openness and

transparency; 7) effective communication, 8) broad participation; 9) ongoing assessment and 10)

institutional capacity.

Bossel (1999) points out that the broad participation is extremely important for the construction of

indicators of regions, cities and systems, following the principles of the eighth meeting of Bellagio. Bossel

(1999) and Hardi and Zdan (1997) use the case of Seattle (Washington) as an example to argue that

when indicators are constructed by various social sectors (government, NGOs, citizens, universities,

companies), the possibility of success is great. The indicators for Sustainable Development in Seattle

Workshops were developed in succession and invitations were made to the entire population.

A participatory process for the selection of indicators is not a new idea, once more and more communities

have been using it. It is necessary to define a set of indicators that can provide a complete picture of a

problem situation or the viability of a system. In the search for a set of Indicators for Sustainable

Development, it is possible to gather citizens, administrators, entrepreneurs and experts in a participatory

process that strengthens the supervising planning for sustainability and decision -making. (BOSSEL

1999: 54-55).

Interestingly, several principles considered important for the development of sustainability indicators, such

as systemic and holistic approaches, involvement of all sectors of society, dialogue and effective

communication are also EE principles. This fact shows that although they are different fields, they are

closely related. However, few studies have addressed the development of indicators for EE. In a survey

of the subject, we have found the following: Esteban et al. (2000), Krobo et al. (2009) and Mayer (1989).

According to Mayer (1989) three groups of quality indicators are necessary to assess any environmental

education project school. The most important is based on the students changes of values, attitudes,

habits and beliefs. The second group reports the educational strategy of the project from a cognitive point

of view (local relevance of the project, a multidisciplinary approach) while the third describes the

educational strategy of the project from an affective point of view, indicating the interactions between the

subjects of the project, including students, teachers, family, community and authorities.

Esteban et al. (2000) adopt the pressure-state-response model in the construction of EE indicators. The

authors chose this model as it structures the causal relationship between economy and environment in a

simple way. They built three dimensions of analysis: 1) indicators of means and resources (how much is

42

invested in environmental education, for example, financial investment, number of environmental

education centers, number of theses and dissertations published) 2 ) indicators of pro-environmental

behavior (positive and negative actions, such as percentage of area burned, percentage of recyclables

being collected, number of members of environmental NGOs 3) indicators of environmental attitudes and

motivation (predisposition to the caring of the environment, percentage of people seeking courses and

percentage of people who claim for a more efficient environmental education).

Krob, Bohrer, Zank, Witt, Viero (2009) developed a set of indicators and verifiers to monitor a project

implemented by an NGO that acts actions on the northern coast of Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil). The

authors built six dimensions to evaluate the EE project (children's behavior, teachers engagement,

meaning of environment at school, children's symbolic production, environmental thinking in the family

and impact on the environment), and each indicator is composed of a set of checkers.

Although these studies address the development of indicators for environmental education, none of them

focus on the evaluation of public policies. In Brazil, public policies in EE are relatively recent. The National

Environmental Education Policy was created in 1999 (Brazil 1999), but its regulatory decree was made

official only in 2002 (Brazil 2002). Since then, some states and municipalities have initiated their process

of construction of public policies based on the national law.

In São Carlos, a city in the Southeast of Brazil, this process began in 2004 on the initiative of the São

Carlos Environmental Education Network (REA-SC), which prepared the Municipal Environmental

Education Program - ProMEA-SC (São Carlos 2008b) and, subsequently, the Municipal Environmental

Education Policy - PMEA (São Carlos 2008a). In 2011, the indicators to assess ProMEA started to be

elaborated. The aim of this paper is to describe and analyze the first stage of the construction of

indicators to assess the implementation of the Municipal Environmental Education Program of São

Carlos, SP (Brazil). We hope to contribute to the approximation of fields of study of sustainability

indicators and environmental education, encouraging the development of indicators for public policies in

environmental education and other local institutions on different scales.

DEVELOPMENT

The process of construction of indicators for the Municipal Program of São Carlos emerged from a

municipal demand to assess the projects carried out from this policy. Therefore, we organized workshops

43

in partnership with the Project São Carlos creates the Green Room and the São Carlos Environmental

Education Network4.

In line with the eighth principle of Bellagio (Hardi & Zdan 1997) and the assumptions of critical

environmental education, we have focused on building indicators in a participatory manner. To do so, we

chose a space which holds monthly meetings with people interested in environmental education in the

municipality - the “Chat in the Green Room”. This activity is within the Green Room Project, which is the

result of a partnership between the City Hall, NGOs and universities. In this project a collection of

materials such as books, games, CDs, are get together and are allocated in the Municipal Library.

In this context, we organized two workshops on 19 May and 16 June, 2011. To broaden participation, we

sent invitations to all virtual mailing lists related to environmental education and environment of the city.

We also invited municipal teachers who participated in an environmental education project.

Twenty one people, including teachers of municipal schools, NGO participants, people in positions of

decision makers, students and a university professor attended the first workshop. Although all the

participants had already had contact with the area of environmental education, they had little knowledge

of sustainability indicators; therefore we started the meeting by addressing some aspects of this area of

study.

Subsequently, we presented a model previously organized as a basis for the development of indicators of

environmental education in the municipality. This model consists of six dimensions that summarize the

ProMEAS’s guidelines: 1) mainstreaming, inter-and transdisciplinarity, 2) participation, dialogue and

collaboration; 3) communication and dissemination of environmental education, 4) support of actions of

environmental education; 5) decentralization and integration between groups, 6) formation in

environmental education. For each dimension, we provided some examples of indicators. The next step

was to divide the participants into three groups. Each group was responsible for developing indicators for

two dimensions. In each group, there was a mediator to assist the process.

4 An important milestone in the municipal history was the creation of the São Carlos Environmental Education

Network (REA-SC) in 1996. It aims to gather people, groups and institutions interested in discussing the possibilities

of action in EE, by increasing the individual capacity to work and encouraging new partnerships and mutual support,

enhance the EE practice and facilitate its development and promote the association of people respecting the concept

of a network. It involves decentralization, horizontal distribution of power, cooperation, solidarity, and sharing of

available information, which may allow the construction of a common horizon for a heterogeneous group of

participants; promoting local events (SÃO CARLOS 2008b).

44

To guide the participants, we also introduced the criteria for constructing good indicators suggested by

Gallopin (1997): indicators with measurable values, available or easily obtained data, clearly and

standardized collect and processing of data, low cost in all stages of the process, ease of access to the

media to disseminate the indicators, participation and public support to the construction and use of

indicators and acceptance by decision -makers. We showed an example of how these criteria are

organized in the form of a methodological guide for the construction of environmental and sustainable

indicators developed by Quiroga Martinez (2009). At the end of the meeting, we collected the

contributions of each group and discussed the next workshop. We also systematized the indicators

suggested by the three groups.

Two concerns arose after the systematization of the first workshop and were discussed in the subsequent

workshop: a-) among the groups listed in the ProMEA, which are the ones contemplated by the

indicators? b-) How is it possible to obtain the data for the indicators suggested? As stated by Bossel

(1999), Gallopin (1997) and Quiroga Martinez (2009), in the early process, resources are scarce and it is

important to work with indicators that are already available.

In the second workshop, 19 people divided into three groups of activities participated. The first group was

responsible for analyzing the public contemplated by the indicators constructed at the first meeting, based

on the potential participants listed in the ProMEA. The second group examined the feasibility of such

indicators, considering the sources and forms of data collection for each indicator. The third group

proposed indicators for the dimension of the support of actions of environmental education, since this

aspect was not discussed in the first workshop. This group also analyzed the public contemplated by the

proposed indicators. All groups could suggest changes, additions or deletions regarding the indicators

proposed in the first workshop. After each workshop, we systematized the information, forwarded the

results by email with guidelines and solicited further contributions.

FIRST STEPS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF EE INDICATORS

The first workshop for the construction of indicators to assess the ProMEA was marked by an active

participation of the present people, but also a certain difficulty in developing the indicators due to the

people’s lack of familiarity with the theme. The construction of the first indicators served as a brainstorm,

and 29 indicators were listed for the dimensions of the model we had proposed. From the analysis of the

proposed indicators, we noted that several groups listed in the ProMEA had not been addressed. We also

observed that the data sources for some indicators were not readily available, and financial investment

and a considerable amount of time (months) would be necessary to obtain them. This issue was

discussed in the second workshop. From this discussion, some adjustments to the system of indicators

45

were suggested, resulting in 34 indicators, each one related to the public attended and source of data

collection (Table 1). Regarding the dimension of the support of actions, due to time constraints, we could

not collect only the suggestion of indicators and the groups contemplated.

Dimension Number of

indicators developed

Example of an indicator related to the public contemplated, the source data and observations made by the participants

Mainstreaming, inter-and transdisciplinarity

6 Indicator: number and name of subjects that address the issue / Public:

teachers and students of all levels of education / Data Collection:

should be performed by people who have EE formation and are used to

the daily school routine/ Remarks: sometimes researchers are not

accepted in schools; participants must give feedback to school; data

collection would take considerable time (weeks or months)

Participation, dialogue and collaboration

7 Indicator: number of spaces where society and government can talk about the issue / Public: depends on who is invited for dialogue / Source of data: mapping of EE initiatives of the municipality or mailing lists that publicize events in the area

Formation 6 Indicator: number of EE dissertations and theses presented per year / Public: students in higher education / Data Source: Web sites of universities

Decentralization and integration among groups

3 Indicator: location of institutions that promote environmental education /

public: depends on who participates in the action / Data source:

mapping of EE initiatives of the municipality or mailing lists that

publicize events in the area.

Dissemination and reporting of actions

4 Indicator: Number of sites, blogs, radio, television and newspapers that address local environmental issues / Public: general population (depends on who has access to the media) / Data source: EE mailing lists / Note: environmentally vulnerable groups may not have access to the media

Support of actions 8 Indicator: EE investments in the municipality / Public: everyone, even indirectly

TOTAL 34

Table 1: Results of the first stage of construction of indicators to assess the Municipal

Environmental Education Program of São Carlos (Brazil). Many documents produced in the area of sustainability indicators (Gallopin 1997; Hardi & Zdan 1997,

among others) recommend the same conceptual framework to guide all discussions on the construction

and monitoring of indicators. According to the principles of Bellagio, the prospect of team members must

be the same and should be taken into consideration in the first stage of the process (Hardi & Zdan 1997).

In the development of our work, this perspective was not discussed explicitly as we took ProMEA as a

basis document. It has been widely analysed and revised and is now a reference in environmental

education in the city. In addition, the ProMEA is inspired by the same principles of the Treaty on

Environmental Education for Sustainable Societies and Global Responsibility (Global Forum 1992), which

is the basis for Brazilian environmental educators.

46

However, we observed that it was difficult for those who participated of the workshops to think of

environmental education on the municipal level or as a crosscutting theme in all sectors of society. They

reflected on the theme only from their own daily routines. In this sense, Quiroga Martinez (2009)

highlights the importance of an inter-institutional team for the construction and monitoring of indicators.

According to the author, that team must comprehend people with complementary formation and

professional experience. In the process we promoted, there was a predominance of teachers participating

in the workshops, which explains the fact that the indicators constructed were more directed to the school

environment and did not consider other ProMEA’s groups. We found difficulty in expanding the diversity

of the workshop participants, despite all publication. In addition, there was a turnover of participants in the

two workshops promoted, making it difficult to continue the process. One of our next challenges will be to

organize workshops involving people from different sectors in an equal proportion.

Considering that the indicators should contribute to decision-making (Hodge, Hardy, Bell, 1999), a key

aspect is the feasibility of their implementation. The reflection we made on this theme in the second

workshop allowed the participants to better understand the purpose of developing indicators for ProMEA.

This reflection also contributed to the mapping of available data sources and possible partnerships for the

collection of new data. On this subject, Quiroga Martinez (2009) recalls that the challenges for the

monitoring of environmental indicators are big and diverse in Latin America countries. One of them is the

financial investment necessary for the formation of a technical team capable of collecting and tracking

data. On the other hand, São Carlos has the potential for inter-institutional consistently articulated work.

Universities, NGOs and municipal, state and federal governments can contribute in different ways to the

construction of indicators, collection and monitoring of such data. In this perspective, Quiroga Martinez

(2009) stresses the importance of collaborative and inclusive inter-institutional work and that the

complexity of environmental processes and mainstreaming require a new form of institutional

organization.

In the process of elaboration of a set sustainability indicators, aggregated indicators are commonly used

to provide simpler and easy- to- interpret information, as the ecological footprint (Bossel 1999). The

aggregated indicators are a key strategy for the communication with the general public, media and

educational activities (Bossel 1999; Gallopin 1997). In the first workshop, regarding the dimension of

participation, dialogue and collaboration, the participants developed an indicator that signalized a change

in the attitude of each school. The group suggested that this indicator would encompass the consumption

of water, energy, and disposal of waste oil, correlating the results with the number of environmental

educational projects developed in school. In agreement with the arguments of the authors mentioned, we

47

consider this indicator an aggregate one and easy to report. It transmits the school situation and the

changes in its environmental attitude.

The constitution of the team that guides the process of developing indicators is another important issue.

Quiroga Martinez (2009) states that this process should be led by a team trained in the subject. This team

can and should be assisted by another punctual team who has specific and updated knowledge of the

relevance and feasibility of the indicators to be proposed. In São Carlos, we have a consistent articulation

among environmental educators operating in different social sectors. Thus, the team that would

coordinate the construction of the indicators could count on the help of this punctual team to continue this

work. Conferences and documents have recommended the development of indicators for the evaluation

of environmental policies (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development - UNCED, 1992,

meeting in Bellagio in 1996, among others). Based on National Policy on Environmental Education

(BRAZIL 1999) we could formalize goals and basic principles of environmental education, with additional

tools and methods, as well as the monitoring and evaluation during the process. In this context, the use of

indicators can be a tool for monitoring the environmental education policies implemented (Esteban et al.

2000).

This paper has promoted and reviewed the first phase of construction of indicators for the Environmental

Education Program of São Carlos. We believe that the process reported is extremely valuable to boost

the use of indicators to assess public policies in environmental education in the municipality and to form

those who participated in the workshops. However, we have also identified some challenges to be

overcome in the next steps.

The first survey of indicators conducted was equivalent to a wish list, consisting of a set of ideas and wills

of the participants, who tried to embrace the complexity of the issue. In a next step, our aim is to select

the most representative indicators for each sector involved in environmental education in the city. As

stated by some authors (Bossel 1999; Gallopin 1997; Quiroga Martinez, 2009), the formulation and

monitoring of indicators involve costs in the data collection. Therefore, they should be selected to respond

promptly to the demand of those who will use them. Moreover, the data must be comparable over time or

among different territories. In the next steps, we will try to list the variables of the indicators and assign

them an evaluative parameter to qualitatively characterize the data to be collected, as suggested by

Quiroga Martinez (2009).

48

REFERENCES Bossel,H. 1999 Indicators for Sustainable Development: Theory, Method, Applications. A report to the Balaton Group.

IISD(International Institute for Sustainable Development, Institut International du Développement Durable) [Online] Available at url: http://www.ulb.ac.be/ceese/STAFF/Tom/bossel.pdf

Brasil. Decreto nº 4.281, de 25 de junho de 2002. Regulamenta a Lei nº 9.795, de 27 de abril de 1999, que institui a Política Nacional de Educação Ambiental, e dá outras providências. [Online] Available at url: www.senado.gov.br

______. Lei Federal 9.795 de 27 de abril de 1999. Dispõe sobre a educação ambiental, institui a Política Nacional de Educação Ambiental e dá outras providências. [Online] Available at url:www.senado.gov.br

Carvalho, I. C. M. 2004 Educação ambiental: a formação do sujeito ecológico.São Paulo: Cortez.

Esteban, G.; Benayas, J. & Gutiérrez, J. 2000 La utilización de indicadores de desarrollo de la educación ambiental como instrumentos para la evaluación de políticas de educación ambiental. Tópicos en Educación Ambiental, 2 (4): 61-67.

Fórum Global, Tratados das ONGs. Rio de Janeiro: Instituto de Ecologia e Desenvolvimento, 1992. [Online] Available

at url: http://portal.mec.gov.br/secad/arquivos/pdf/educacaoambiental/tratado.pdf

Freire, P. 2005 A educação na cidade. 6a. ed. São Paulo: Cortez.

Gallopin, G. C. 1997 Indicators and Their Use: Information for Decision Making. Introduction. In: Moldan, B & Billharz, S. Sustainability Indicators. Report on the project on Indicators of Sustainable Development. Wiley: Chichester 1997, pp 13-27.

Guimarães, M. 2000 Educação Ambiental. Duque de Caxias: UNIGRANRIO Editora.

Hardi, P. & Zdan, T. Assessing sustainable development: principles in practice. Winnipeg: IISD, 1997.

Hodge, R.A.; Hardi, P. & Bell, D.V.J. 1999 Seeing change through the lens of sustainability. Background paper for the Workshop “Beyond Delusion: Science and Policy Dialogue on Designing Effective Indicators of Sustainable Development”, The International Institute for Sustainable Development, Costa Rica. [Online] Available at url: http://www.iisd.org/pdf/background.pdf

Krob, A.J.D.; Bohrer, P.V.; Zank, S.; Witt, J.R. & Viero, R.C. 2009 O monitoramento de resultados da educação ambiental como estratégia para sua inclusão em políticas públicas e ações institucionais. In: Congresso Iberoamericano de Educação Ambiental, 6., 2009, San Clemente del Tuyu . Anais...l.

Mayer, M. 1989 Evaluation the outcomes of environment and schools initiatives. Centro Europeo Dell Educazione.

Meadows, D. 1999. Fonte: Sustainability Institute. [Online] Available at url: http://www.sustainabilityinstitute.org/pubs/Leverage_Points.pdf

OCDE – Organização para a Cooperação e Desenvolvimento Econômico 1994. Environmental indicators. Paris: Publications Service.

Quiroga Martínez, R. Guía metodológica para desarrollar indicadores ambientales y de desarrollo sostenible en países de América Latina y el Caribe. Serie Manuales 66, CEPAL, Santiago do Chile. [Online] Available at url: http://www.eclac.org/publicaciones/xml/1/37231/LCL3021e.pdf

REA-SC. 2008 Programa Municipal de Educação Ambiental de São Carlos. São Carlos: SMEC/Sala Verde/UFSCar.

São Carlos 2008a.Câmara Municipal. Lei Municipal n° 14.795 de 28 de novembro de 2008. Política Municipal de Educação Ambiental (PMEA).

São Carlos 2008b Conselho Municipal de Meio Ambiente. Resolução nº 001/08. Programa Municipal de Educação Ambiental (ProMEA).

http://www.ulb.ac.be/ceese/STAFF/Tom/bossel.pdf

http://portal.mec.gov.br/secad/arquivos/pdf/educacaoambiental/tratado.pdf

http://www.sustainabilityinstitute.org/pubs/Leverage_Points.pdf

http://www.eclac.org/publicaciones/xml/1/37231/LCL3021e.pdf

49




4

The process of greening of Universities – the University of South Africa as a case

study

CP Loubser & JM Dreyer

University of South Africa

Abstract

Campus “greening” initiatives are catching on at colleges and universities across the globe. The purpose

of this paper is to find out in what sense the University of South Africa followed international guidelines to

green itself and to what extent it has succeeded in being successful in greening itself. It will also seek

ways to accelerate progress towards institutionalizing a commitment to campus environmental

sustainability throughout the university sector. This paper seeks to utilize progress made to date, in the

field of ``greening’’ universities, looking deeply into these experiences, to learn from them and to start

revealing how they may inform us to move into the realm of wide-spread institutional transformation. A set

of indicators shows whether a university has committed itself to greening processes and sustainability

was identified and the University of South Africa (Unisa) `measured’ against these indicators. Although

Unisa was found on par with most of the indicators some suggestions to improve could be pointed out.

BOB

50

INTRODUCTION

Campus “greening” initiatives are catching on at colleges and universities across the globe (Dahle and

Neumayer E. 2001; Sharp 2002; Chou, El-Mogazi and Hawley 2010). Though the concept of

sustainability has only recently entered the public psyche, a handful of forward-thinking universities have

had sustainability on the mind for decades (Faghihimani 2010:14). As a vital part of a country’s growth, it

only makes sense that universities should play a key role in ensuring the sustainability of important

resources like energy and water. The force of change now acting upon the university sector, with

increasing pressure, is a global environmental crisis of profound significance to both current and future

generations. The nature of this crisis is complex and wide reaching. Climate disturbance, acid rain,

deforestation, species extinction, fisheries depletion, soil erosion, toxic buildup in ecosystems, water, land

and air pollution and ozone depletion are amongst the menu of environmental problems that are forming

a web of destruction around the world (Miller 2004). In short, every natural life support system is in long

term systemic decline and every human contributes directly or indirectly to the escalation of this decline.

If universities are going to survive into the next century, they must not only respond to the environmental

crises force, but they must also provide leadership for broader society (Badat 2009). Universities also are

widely expected to reflect the values and assumptions of the society it operates in (Lawson 1975:7). The

environmental and sustainability focus of society and the demands to develop societal values and

assumptions currently demands that universities address these issues. There are two key aspects (Sharp

2002:2) of the environmental imperative that reveal the nature of the challenge ahead for universities. The

first aspect is that an effective solution to address the environmental imperative will change all areas of

university campus operations. The second aspect is that an effective solution will be a moving target, in

that new information will continuously become available that will reveal new environmental requirements

and opportunities. Given everything said so far, the challenge for the university sector is to become skillful

at the process of changing itself. This requires the university sector to expand its core mission of teaching

and research to include learning (Sharp 2002). Universities must become learning organizations, as well

as teaching and research institutions.

The purpose of this paper is to find out in what sense the University of South Africa followed international

guidelines to green itself and to what extent it has succeeded in being successful in greening itself. It will

also seek ways to accelerate progress towards institutionalizing a commitment to campus environmental



revealing how they may inform us to move into the realm of wide-spread institutional transformation.

51

RESPONSE TO THE ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS

Some universities have responded to the pressures of students, alumni, government, administration or

faculty, to make some attempt at addressing the environmental imperative in the way campuses are

operated. The common response of universities has been to establish an environment committee to

undertake a series of decision-making tasks, or to employing one individual to implement and control

chosen solution programs. The complexity of Universities themselves, compounded with the complexity of

the environmental imperative thwart most attempts to gain organizational agreement on goals,

alternatives and solution programs. Organizations are therefore severely limited in their capacity to

behave rationally due to inherent characteristics such as: complexity, limited capacities to calculate all

parameters, the tendency towards ``satisfying’’, fragmentation of problem and solution elements, limited

organizational repertoires, shifting coalitions, shortages of time and attention, quasi resolutions to conflict

and uncertainty avoidance (Weiss 2001).

All of these traits exist within universities. As a result of these rationality limiting characteristics of

universities, environmental committees and staff are usually quickly forced to shift their focus from broad

reaching systemic transformation to well-bounded projects with lower levels of participation, losing

significant momentum and breadth in their organizational impact. Consequently, in a small percentage of

universities across the world we now have many examples of how the different initiatives such as

recycling, energy efficient lighting, water conserving fittings, composting toilets, passive solar design,

green building design, car pooling programs, public transportation initiatives, environmental procurement

programs etc. may work. Sharp (2002) alleges that we have very few examples of universities that have

actually institutionalized a systemic commitment to environmentally sustainable campus operations,

realizing the enormous efficiencies and opportunities that can be gained in adopting systems based

integrated design of new resource flows and infrastructure developments. However, a literature research

reveals that there are quite a number of universities employing greening activities successfully. Kilbert

(2006) for instance mentions 275 universities participating in The Tailloires Declaration and 322

universities participating in The Copernicus Declaration. Duke University and Vermont University (2012)

for instance report very successful greening activities on the internet.

The fact is that universities have to change if they want to ensure the survival and expansion of campus

environmental initiatives.

WHY DO UNIVERSITIES NEED TO CHANGE?

Kibert (2006) identifies the following five reasons why universities should change towards sound

environmental policies:

52

Universities have an ethical responsibility to promote and teach about a just, fair society.

Universities generally do not understand the vision how their research affects humans live within

the global ecosystem.

Different specialties collide, for instance economics, natural science, social sciences.

Potential damage to the natural and social environment by research and its results is not

systematically investigated.

Students are not trained in interdisciplinary systems thinking.

Kilbert adds his environmental vision for a university:

The existence of environmentally knowledgeable faculty and staff

Graduates with highly developed knowledge of the natural and social systems and their

contributions to human well-being

A university with a small ecological footprint that is healthy and resource efficient.

Research that develops clean, resource efficient technologies with low environmental and social

impacts.

These points could also be seen as indicators of a university being green.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Unisa was chosen as case study because of the potential impact it can have on the public. With its 300

000 student population and 3 000 staff component it makes out a large portion of the university population

in South Africa and has an enormous potential of a cascading effect in the many professions people will

be in after their studies at Unisa. The research started with a document analysis, which is an invaluable

part of most schemes of triangulation (http://www.drcath.net/toolkit/document.html.). It involved the

reading of available written material and internet searches. The documents were read to grasp some

aspects of the social world pertaining to sustainability. Official documents were read to gain insight into

objective statements of fact. Semi-structured interviews were held with individuals who were instrumental

in the initial process of `greening’ the University of South Africa. These individuals were selected on the

grounds of their involvement in Unisa’s greening initiatives and their initial drive in the process. The

indicators identified above were used as questions for these interviews and to benchmark the position of

the University of South Africa.

MEASURING SUCCESSFUL APPROACHES TO GREEN CAMPUS INITIATIVES

It is no secret that some green campus initiatives have been more successful in surviving and expanding

their effectiveness than others. In analyzing why this is the case, it appears that regardless of the

organizational structure or the political positioning of any green campus initiative there are a number of

approaches that evidently maximize the survival and expansion of pioneering initiatives (Sharp 2002).

http://www.drcath.net/toolkit/document.html

53

UNEP has been quite active in suggesting measurement techniques to measure the sustainability status

of universities. With an approach of: `What gets measured gets managed’ they have set ways of

measurement of progress against agreed performance indicators to enable a university to benchmark

against others, but more importantly, against the sustainability targets it sets for itself (Shriberg 2002).

Indicators provide the mileposts on the journey to sustainability. As such, they need to fulfil certain

criteria. The World Health Organisation (Von Schirnding 2002) points out that the criteria used to select a

particular indicator depend on the purpose of that indicator. Indicator selection is thus both a technical

and a normative decision; linking the two provides an opportunity to facilitate dialogue and learning, which

“provides the foundation for developing shared meanings of sustainability, the role of indicators, and how

they will function” (McCool & Stankey 2004).

Indicators may be grouped and weighted to form indices of environment or sustainability performance.

Ecological footprint analysis (the amount of land necessary to provide the necessary resources and

assimilate the wastes and pollutants generated by a population Wackernagel and Rees, 1996) is a well-

known index which has been extended from its original role in comparing national and regional impacts to

include application to public and private sector organisations, households and the comparison of

consumer products. It has also been adapted to focus on specific criteria of environmental concern, for

More detail on the process of indicator selection, which as suggested above, should involve a

participatory dialogue with the university community.

From UNEP (2012) and Sharp (2002) the following indicators were selected for this research: The

biophysical aspects of university sustainability can be condensed into four key themes UNEP (2012):

1. Energy use

2. Water use

3. Land use

4. Material flows.

In addition to these biophysical metrics, the following management indicators are recommended as a

basic core on which individual universities can build. These are adapted from the University Leaders for a

Sustainable Future Sustainability Assessment Questionnaire for Colleges and Universities (USLF: 2009).

1. Existence of a university Sustainability Policy

2. Existence of a Sustainability Management Plan

3. Existence of a Sustainability Steering Committee or equivalent institution-wide strategic body

4. Responsibility for oversight of sustainability matters allocated to member of senior management

5. Appointment of a Sustainability Manager or equivalent position

54

6. Orientation programs on sustainability for academic and operational staff

7. Existence of socially responsible purchasing and investment practices and policies

8. Regularly conducted environmental audits

In addition the following indicators were identified by Sharp (2002):

9. Effective coordination

10. Student and other partnerships

The University of South Africa will subsequently be measured against these indicators:

A MEASUREMENT OF SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

ACCORDING TO IDENTIFIED INDICATORS

A document by Anderson (2011) and interviews with important role players in the greening process was

used to find out what Unisas’ position was in the greening process. Since Unisa has addressed most of

the first four indicators indicated below (and more) a discussion will follow on all the activities included in

Unisa’s physical environment.

1. Energy use

2. Water use

3. Land use

4. Material flows

Greener buildings

One of the central role-players in promoting green thinking and doing at Unisa is the University Estates.

University Estates comprises five directorates: Property Management, Project Management,

Maintenance, Support Services, and Florida Campus with each of these playing a specific role in

promoting a green Unisa.

Both Property Management and Project Planning help to ensure that new buildings and renovations at

Unisa promote principles of greening. Both units, together with the Florida Campus Directorate, are

currently working on an exciting building project on the Florida Campus. The project includes a new

reception area, entrance, engineering building, horticulture greenhouse and science laboratories. An

energy efficient design for these facilities was developed by HMZ Architects, a firm with Green Star SA

accreditation. In an effort to limit unnecessary waste, the building team at Florida received training in

building efficiently. In addition, various fixtures installed in the buildings are geared towards energy

saving, water wise principles and the limitation of unnecessary use of gases that impact negatively on the

ozone layer. The buildings are showing good progress and should be completed by the end of 2012.

55

Green buildings also require green thinking when it comes to maintenance - it is no longer a case of

simply maintaining spaces. The maintenance team is looking at energy-saving initiatives, such as lights

that switch off automatically when not in use, and they will be replacing geysers with heat pumps as a

further energy-saving measure. They are integrating green building principles into their operations and

often change the specifications for building materials in favour of greener options.

Waste management

The Directorate: Support Services is one of the most important contact points in promoting green

environments, attending as it does to cleaning, catering, waste management, gardens and grounds,

transport and logistical matters on the campus.

A committee of various stakeholders is investigating the most effective ways of managing the university’s

waste streams and of promoting a healthier environment for the university community. Although waste

paper has been collected and recycled for a number of years, this effort received an additional boost with

the implementation of various recycling points on the campus and the provision of recycling bins within

office spaces at the end of 2011.

Grounds and gardens

The Garden and Grounds division has also made a valuable contribution towards greener environments

in 2011. It is responsible for the planning, layout and maintenance of various Unisa campus gardens with

the purpose of enhancing the university’s image and of promoting education, research and the

conservation of plants in their natural habitat. In a major eradication programme, the unit removed invader

plant species and weeds at the Muckleneuk and Sunnyside South campuses very quicklt, as well as in

the well-known garden of the Principal and vice-Chancellor’s residence, Cloghereen. Invasive alien

species are thirsty, exotic plants that out-compete indigenous species for water, thereby limiting the

growth and development of natural indigenous species and compromising water resources.

Cloghereen also is a green site, boasting one of the finest collections of indigenous trees in the country.

In August 2011, the Garden and Grounds division, in consultation with respected tree expert Andrew

Hankey of the South African National biodiversity Institute, started to identify and label the trees. In

September 2011, International Arbor Week was celebrated in a most appropriate manner when Professor

Makhanya planted a Jacket Plum – the 2011 Tree of the year – and engaged with Sunnyside Primary

learners in the identification of some of the trees at Cloghereen.

56

To the Garden and Grounds division, acting in an environmentally responsible manner has become

second nature. For example, when planting new trees, the division uses a simple formula to calculate the

minimum distance specific species should be planted from infrastructure such as buildings, pipelines,

walkways and pavements, so as to ensure that these are not damaged. Less money is now spent on

repairing and replacing infrastructure, as well as less water wastage and fewer environmental spills due

to damaged infrastructure. The implementation of sustainable green practices such as green

procurement, water harvesting, the installation of water efficient irrigation systems, the eradication of

invader species and weeds and the use of untreated wood shavings and bark to conserve water are all

efforts towards ‘living greener’.

Several other projects are under way, such as the rehabilitation of the nature trail on Muckleneuk Ridge

where certain indigenous plant species have survived virtually untouched and where they may be

admired and scientifically studied in their natural habitat. The idea is to develop the Muckleneuk Campus

into a place of botanical interest, with the vegetation serving as the tools of an active educational

programme.

Next on the list is the rehabilitation and upgrading of the Unisa cycad garden. Most cycads occurring in

South Africa (28 described species) may be found in this unique garden which lies sheltered amongst the

buildings and which needs to be taken care of. These species are of great botanical and scientific value

and the Garden and Grounds staff have already started with the identification, measuring, labelling and

positioning of all cycads as part of the process of obtaining permits from the Department of Nature

Conservation for this valuable private collection. The greening of campus environments through the

planting of indigenous trees is also on the list for 2012.

OTHER GREEN INITIATIVES

Although not all university departments find their day-today activities as closely linked to green issues as

University Estates does, a host of green activities has been initiated by the various colleges and

departments and implemented across the university.

Joining the global Going Green movement, the College of Economic and Management Sciences (CEMS)

is raising awareness and implementing sustainable green practices through its CEMS Going Green

initiative. The initiative concentrates on introducing sustainability into daily living, tuition, research and

community engagement endeavours. For the past few years, the College of Agriculture and

Environmental Sciences (CAES) has been managing the e-waste project. An e-waste container has been

placed on the Muckleneuk Campus and both staff and members of the public may place here for

57

recycling anything that once used a power source. The university as a whole is more than committed to

making a difference.

Last year, an energy savings campaign assisted in creating awareness among staff on how to save

energy – and this year it was followed-up with initiatives such as the office automation project. In 2010,

Unisa staff had approximately 4 500 desktop printers. As part of the office automation project desktop

printers are being phased out. Soon, every staff member will have access to an environmentally friendly,

high quality, high-speed, colour printer and fax machine using biodegradable toner cartridges. Making

intelligent use of technology can be beneficial in more than one way. For the past two years, Unisa

students have been able to register online, an option that is more convenient for them, and that saves

paper. Similarly, the submission of online assignments via the myUnisa portal, the availability of university

brochures online, the facility for staff to submit electronic leave applications, and a library e-book project,

all add up to save resources.


Unisa does have a Sustainable policy, but it is still in draft form, available for persusal but not yet for

citation. Policies on sustainability are important because they encourage and help codify ideas and ideals

that are essential for the success of any institution or society.


Management overlaps with leadership (Bush 2007:2). The challenge of modern organizations requires

the objective perspective of the manager as well as the flashes of vision and commitment wise leadership

provides” (Bolman & Deal, 1997:xiii-xiv). In the University context universities will therefore require that

management take the lead with greening activities at the University. Successful greening projects at

universities all report effective organizational co-ordination, although this not always possible since there

are many role players (Wals and Corcoran 2004:224). The University of Minnesota (Newman and

Robbins 2011:407) for instance relies on six guiding principles (leadership, modelling, operational

improvements, energy efficiency, research, education and outreach) to coordinate their greening

activities.

In his inaugural address in February 2012, University of South Africa Principal and Vice-Chancellor

Professor Mandla Makhanya, identified “anthropocentric research and innovations which neglect global

economic injustices and ecological degradation” as one of the central challenges facing Unisa if it is to

meet its vision to be the African university in the service of humanity in the 21st century. “You can’t have

research that only concentrates on human beings and neglects the environment and ecological

58

wellbeing”, he said. In these comments, Makhanya made explicit the finely-tuned interdependence

between humankind and the environment. He referred to Unisa’s vision – towards the African university in

the service of humanity – and said it would be important to also include “creation”, next to humanity,

particularly because he believed creation or the environment was inextricably intertwined with human

flourishing.

3. Existence of a Sustainability Steering Committee or equivalent institution-wide strategic

body

Unisa has opted for a strategy where active leadership is not taken but it is left to individuals, groups,

departments, Colleges, etc to design their own environmental activities.

4. Responsibility for oversight of sustainability matters allocated to member of senior

management

As explained in 7 above Unisa has no person directly appointed to drive greening activities except for the

support given by the vice-chancellor. A number of individuals are however taking the lead in their specific

contexts.


The same as above.


Unisa has numerous programmes, curricula and research outputs that attest its commitment to

sustainability. The institution has inculcated the King III code and United Nations Global Compact

principles into all relevant university activities and a workshop on sustainability reporting was held in

February 2010 to develop an integrated strategy for corporate social responsibility in respect of economic,

social and environmental issues.

Unisa colleges and faculties have begun to audit their contribution to discourses on sustainability and

thus are recommending that students across all disciplines explore and research environmental or

sustainability issues in Unisa’s diverse institutes and centres which promote learning.


59

Some of the activities have already been described but the Department of Finance is cutting paper work

by making some applications only available on internet.


This is a relatively neglected practise at Unisa.


Once again co-ordination is not managed by the University but left to individuals, departments, colleges,

divisions, etc to provide their own contribution to greening activities.


Unisa is active in national, regional and international networks and projects on sustainability. The

university also participated in the recent 17th Conference of the Parties (CoP 17) United Nations Climate

Change Conference in Durban where Unisa’s EXXARo Chair in business and Climate Change launched

a book entitled, Green economy and climate mitigation: Topics of relevance to Africa. Whereas the CoP

17 is the most recent global event which has brought issues of environment and climate to the public

domain, Unisa staff members have been consistently involved in national and international

intergovernmental events such as the World Summit on Sustainable Development. Unisa’s support for

sustainability is firmly rooted in its vision and in 2015 Strategy Revisited, its strategic plan incorporating

the principles of the King Code on Governance for South Africa (King III). In addition, the university has,

since 2007, been a voluntary signatory to the United Nations Global Compact – the foundation from which

many green initiatives are launched.

With a student population of more than 300 000, Unisa delivers thousands of graduates every year. This

presents the university with the unique opportunity, and challenge, to educate students to become well-

rounded graduates with the potential to make positive changes to the world. Imagine the significant role

such a cohort of graduates could play in promoting sustainable development, currently one of the most

pressing issues the world has ever faced. but, says Professor Pierre Joubert from Unisa’s bureau for

Market Research, this will require a rethinking of the curriculum. “Despite considerable advances in

education for sustainable development, there has been little curriculum mainstreaming of sustainability.

The International Association of Universities has also acknowledged that universities have not been

producing graduates with the skills, motivation and knowledge necessary to promote sustainability”. Unisa

will have to consider a number of challenges if it wants to prepare its graduates to advocate responsible

and sustainable environmental practices, says Dr Paul Prinsloo, Acting Head: Institute of open and

60

Distance Learning. The first challenge is how to engage with the often highly technical and scientific

terminology in the literature and with debates on climate change. Another challenge is whether

environmental literacy should infuse the whole curriculum, or whether specific courses should be included

in already existing degree programmes. And when will students be considered “climate change literate”,

he asks.

“While climate change literacy may have agreed-upon parameters in science or geography curricula, how

does it look and function in general bachelor’s and business curricula?” The curricula of most

qualifications and degrees are already full, and more and more stakeholders are arguing that new topics

should be added for the sake of “graduateness” or the shaping of rounded graduates. Would addressing

climate change be served best at first- or second-year level, or should climate change be addressed

towards the end of a programme or qualification as part of a capstone

project?”

Prinsloo says the answers to these questions will probably depend on whether the university wants to

impart information about climate change, or to develop critical citizens committed to engaging in civil,

governmental and political interventions to ensure more sustainable practices. “What impact do we

envisage in teaching about climate change?” he asks.

CONCLUSION

The University of South Africa seems to be on par with most of the measurement indicators needed to

assess the sustainability/greening of universities. This has also been done in a very short time – less than

2 years. However, improvement is possible in two categories:

1. It seems as if more structured organisation can be done. This implies the appointment of a

committee and a designated person/chairman to take responsibility for the sustainability and

greening issues at the universities. Part of the task of this committee will be to undertake

environmental audits at the university.

2. Some of the activities undertaken at the university is promising but not the results of properly

performed audits (such as the office automisation project).

Thinking green and doing green – has become part of the new Unisa culture. The university is

contributing towards sustainable development in a variety of ways, including through relevant research

projects and considering adjustments to its curricula that will assist in delivering graduates who are

socially and environmentally responsible citizens. Unisa remains ever mindful that reducing its carbon

footprint, using water and energy wisely, and embracing recycling efforts are practicalways to invest in a

sustainable future.

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Badat, S. 2009. The role of higher education in society: valuing higher education. HERS‐SA Academy 2009.

University of Cape Town Graduate School of Business, Waterfront, Cape Town. 14 September 2009

Bolman, LG & Deal, TE. 1997. Reframing Organizations: artistry, choice and leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey

Ba ss.

Bush, T. 2007. Educational leadership and management: theory, policy, and practice. South African Journal of

Education, Vol 27(3): 391–406.

Chou, W; El-Mogazi, D and Hawley, D. 2010. A Climate Action Plan for Bucknell University. As specified under the

American College and University Presidents Climate Commitment.

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to Environmental Sustainability in the various functions of Universities. Oslo”University of Osl.

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Kibert, J. 2006. Greening universities,. Lecture 9. Centre for Construction and Environment. Univesrity of Florida

(www.dcp.ufl.edu/ckibert/.../Lecture9-GreeningUniversities-2006.ppt assessed on 6 June 2012).

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Policy. Environmental Management 2004. 3(3): p. 294-305.

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Brooks/Cole-Thompson Learning.

Newman, J & Robbins, P. Green Education. An A-Z guide. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.

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Sharp, Leith. 2002. Green campuses: the road from little victories to systemic transformation International Journal of

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Von Schirnding, Y., Health in sustainable development planning: The role of indicators. 2002, World Health

Organization: Geneva.

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Greening_unis_toolkit%20120326.pdf accessed on 30 July 2012.

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5 Environmental education for sustainable development: the case of urban and peri-urban agriculture - benefits and health risks Nina M. Cadiz University of the Philippines Los Baños Abstract The present paper reports the benefits and health risks of practicing urban and peri-urban agriculture

(UPA). It also touches on the environmental quality which relies on the everyday actions of individuals,

and touches the aspect of environmental consciousness. Results from primary and secondary data show

that UPA may bring us more harm than good. Although UPA promises food security and sustainability

and employment in the cities and vicinities, various agricultural practices could pose risks to public health

and environment. One particular concern is the heavy metal contamination in the soil caused by

agricultural production systems. A number of studies for specific regions worldwide have tested soils and

crops for heavy metal contamination. The entry of lead and other heavy metals into the food chain

imposes health hazard to urban dwellers and informal settlers. Results of survey and analysis of crops

planted to some urban and peri-urban areas showed high levels of heavy metals such as lead and

cadmium. In the communities around mining areas, the concentration of these heavy metals was even

higher. Concerted efforts, both from the government and private sectors, therefore, should be done in

finding ways and means of reducing, if not totally eliminating, these risks.

Acknowledgement:

The author wishes to thank the University of the Philippines Center for Integrative and Development

Studies (UP-CIDS) for funding part of this study.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

UPA stands for urban and peri-urban agriculture. It occurs within and surrounding the boundaries of

cities. These areas are utilized for crop and livestock production, fisheries and forestry, as well as the

ecological service. It is estimated to involve 800 million urban residents worldwide in income-earning

and/or food-producing activities. The findings of national censuses, household surveys and research

projects suggest that up to two-thirds of urban and peri-urban households are involved in agriculture.

Much of the food produced is for own consumption, with occasional surpluses sold to local markets.

Urban Agriculture covers small areas within cities that are used for growing crops and raising small

livestock or milk cows for own-consumption or sale in local markets. These include areas such as: vacant

lots, gardens, verges (boundaries), balconies, containers and roof tops. Farming is done in city core

areas, wedge areas and corridors out of the city, and on the periphery. On the other hand, peri-urban

agriculture covers farm units close to town that operate intensive semi - or fully commercial farms to grow

vegetables and other horticulture, raise livestock, and produce milk and eggs. According to Duldulao

(2001), container farming (i.e. growing vegetable crops in recycled tin or plastic containers placed in the

yard, on windowsills, and on rooftops) is popular in Metro Manila (e.g Quezon and Makati Cities), and

flood-prone areas such as Malabon and Valenzuela. One study of urban agriculture in Nairobi showed the

land used for farming was 32% private residential land, 29% roadside land, 16% along river banks, and

16% in other publicly-owned areas. In the Philippines, UAP, vis a vis the transfer and promotion of urban

agricultural technologies, has been promoted to strengthen the capabilities of local government units,

state colleges and universities, and NGOs in the (De Guzman and Banatlao, 1999).

The mandate of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) to its member countries is to provide adequate

access to nutritious food for the growing urban populations of the developing world; efficiently integrate

urban and peri-urban agriculture with rural agriculture (in general they are not substitutes for each other),

develop land and water policies that account for agricultural production in urban and peri-urban areas;

and guide dynamic agricultural practices within and outside cities towards sustainability goals (economic,

social, and environmental). UPA can contribute to food security in several ways. It increases the amount

of food available and enhances the freshness of perishable foods reaching urban consumers. Case

studies have shown great improvements in nutrition, especially among children, when poor urban families

engage in urban agriculture. With UPA, there is less need for packaging, storage and transportation of

food because of its proximity to the road. Fresh, perishable food is consequently readily available to

consumers. It can also generate potential agricultural jobs and incomes. . The cultural management of

UPA is made more efficient in terms of terms of proximity to services, including waste treatment facilities

and waste recycling and re-use possibilities. Part of the reason for the growth in UPA is its adaptability

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and mobility compared with rural agriculture. As cities expand physically, the frontiers between urban,

peri-urban and rural activity are becoming indistinct and merging, creating opportunities as well as risks.

PROBLEM

The soils in UPA are prone to contamination because they are located in areas where industrial factories

and technological institutions are present. Heavy metal toxicity is a major concern particularly for

cadmium uptake because of the large number of sources emitting this metal into the environment. These

heavy metals may come from polluted air, heavy application of inorganic and organic fertilizers, industrial

effluents, and soil characteristics. The entry of cadmium and other heavy metals in the food chain

imposes health hazard to urban dwellers and informal settlers. The inappropriate agricultural and aqua-

cultural practices of use of inappropriate or excessive agricultural inputs like pesticides, nitrogen, and raw

organic matter containing heavy metal residues, etc.; increased competition for land, water, energy, and

labor, use of untreated human and animal waste, reuse of urban waste, reuse of wastewater, reduced

environmental capacity for pollution absorption. Agricultural practices in UPA, therefore, pose risks to

both public health and the environment. The present paper focuses on some observations in the practice

of UPA in the Philippines.

Heavy Metals and the Food Chain

Heavy metals are natural components of the Earth's crust and they are undegradable. Their non-

biodegradable nature, long biological half lives and their potential to accumulate in different parts of the

body make them dangerous. Most of the heavy metals are extremely toxic because of their solubility in

water. Even low concentrations of heavy metals have damaging effects to all living organisms. In

humans, there is no good mechanism for their elimination from the body. Heavy metals are persistent

environmental contaminants which may be deposited on the surfaces and then adsorbed into the tissues

of vegetables. Plants take up heavy metals by absorbing them from deposits on the parts of the plants

exposed to the air from polluted environment as well as from contaminated soil. They can enter our

bodies via food, drinking water and air. As trace elements, some heavy metals, like copper, selenium and

zinc, are essential to maintain the metabolism of the human body. However, at higher concentrations they

can lead to poisoning. Heavy metal poisoning could result, for instance, from drinking-water

contamination (e.g. lead pipes), high ambient air concentrations near emission sources, or intake via the

food chain. On the other hand, heavy metals such as cadmium, copper, lead, chromium and mercury are

important environmental pollutants mostly as by-products of man-made activities. Their presence in the

environment and entry in the food chain impose health hazard to urban dwellers and informal settlers.

A number of reports worldwide had indicated heavy metal intake by children and adults acquired through

the food chain. In the Philippines, for instance, De la Cruz (2003) reported the presence of lead (Pb) and

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cadmium (Cd) in kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica), saluyot (Corchorus acutangulus) and pechay (Brassica

chinensis) in small commercial scale vegetable farms in Diliman QuezonCity and North Fairview. He also

observed higher levels of Cd and Pb in vegetables and soils in Diliman farms than in North Fairview. The

Diliman vegetable farms were located in three major city roads, while the North Fairview vegetable farms

were inside a residential area.

Approach

A survey of some UPA was done in Metro Manila. The practices of some informal settlers and low-income

family in planting in open spaces were noted. Studies from secondary sources on these areas were

gathered and evaluated. Our primary data were from the chemical analyses of some vegetables,

collected from some vegetable plantations of communities near abandoned and active mine areas in the

country.

Observation and Assessment

The birth of urban agriculture (UA) program in the Department of Agriculture (DA) commenced in 1998.

This encouraged people, especially the low income families and informal settlers, to make use of

available land in the metropolis. There are also middleclass businessmen who adopt UPA, because there

is less need for packaging, storage and transportation of food, thus the constant availability of fresh,

perishable food.. It can also generate potential agricultural jobs and incomes to less privileged individuals.

The cultural management of UPA is made more efficient in terms of proximity to services, including waste

treatment facilities and waste recycling and re-use possibilities.

During the survey of UA around Metro Manila, one problem observed is the absence of source for clean

water. Open spaces near polluted rivers (like Pasig River) and canals generally serve as the source of

water to irrigate/water the vegetables. These polluted waters are potential sources of toxic metal ions

since both domestic and industrial wastes are dump here. The analysis of soils done by the Bureau of

Soils and Water Management is summarized in Table 1. Among the heavy metals listed, cadmium is the

most toxic (Page et al., 1987).

Heavy Metals Detected Level (ppm) Areas

Lead (Pb) Zinc (Zn)

>50 UP Diliman Quezon City Circle

Cadmium (Cd) 3 Economic Garden, Los Baños

Nickel (Ni) & Zn > 50 Hagonoy & Calumpit, Bulacan Santolan, Pasig Sto Niño & River Bank, Marikina

Copper (Cu) & Zn > 100 Macabiling & Balibago, Sta Rosa, Looc, Calamba, Lalaan, Silang & Tanza, Cavite, San Francisco, Fairview West

67


Quiasao, Pililia, Rizal, Biñan

Chromium (Cr) 98 93

Iba Estate, Calumpit Hagonoy

Table 1: Some areas with heavy metal pollutants (Bureau of Soils and Water Management).

Plants Heavy Metals

Spinach lead & nickel

Pechay, mustard, guava lead

Water melon cadmium

Tomato cadmium & chromium

Sambong copper

Stringbeans nickel

Table 2: Some plants detected to contain heavy metals (Bureau of Soils and Water Management).

Table 3: Some plants around abandoned mine and active mine areas detected to contain heavy

metals (Cadiz, 2005).

Table 4: Some vegetables observed to accumulate certain heavy metals (Grifal et al., 1997)

The levels of heavy metals in the vegetables above (Table 4) ranged from 0.6 ppm – 48 ppm which were

above the allowable limits for heavy metals; i.e. cadmium (0.1ppm); copper (5.0ppm); lead (0.5ppm)

Plants Heavy Metals

eggplant, okra lead, cadmium

ampalaya (bitter gourd) lead, cadmium

gabi leaves (taro) lead, cadmium

Lead Cadmium Nickel Copper

Spinach Pechay Sambong

Spinach Pechay Tomato

Spinach String beans

Tomato Sambong Kangkong

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(Harmanescu, et all., 2011) ; and nickel (41-44ppm) (Cempel and Nikel, 2006). This is a major concern

because these toxic metal ions find their way in the food chain. We do not metabolize heavy metals; they

are simply deposited in various organs of our body, thus posing risks to human health. Most of these are

potential carcinogens at high concentrations and could even cause death under prolonged exposure

(Martin and Griswold, 2009).

ROLE OF EDUCATION TO ADDRESS THE PROBLEMS

We recognize four key concepts in environmental education – interdependence, sustainability,

biodiversity; and personal and social responsibility for action. The concept of interdependence

emphasizes the links between cultural, social, economic, and biophysical concerns. The Tbilisi

Declaration in 1977, which was the first intergovernmental conference on environmental education (EE),

described environmental education as a learning process that increases people's knowledge and

awareness about the environment. It also mentioned the role of education in addressing environmental

problems and the challenge of creating and integrating environmental education in different countries

(UNESCO, 1978). Ten years after the Tbilisi Declaration, the Philippines in December 12, 2008 had

finally put into law through Republic Act No. 9512, the National Environmental Awareness and Education

Act of 2008 signed by our former President, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. The law requires that

environmental education be integrated in the school curricula at all levels, public or private. Environmental

education, therefore, encompass environmental concepts and principles, environmental laws, the state of

international and local environment, local environmental best practices, the threats of environmental

degradation and its impact on human well-being, the responsibility of the citizenry to the environment and

the value of conservation, protection and rehabilitation of natural resources and the environment in the

context of sustainable development. With this in place, the citizens of our country are now better

equipped with knowledge and awareness of the various consequences of environmental stresses.

However, this knowledge must be translated to actions in order for environmental education to progress

and succeed.

CONCLUSION

Urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) are good agricultural practices (GAP) that make use of any

available land and space to grow crops and raise livestock, for food security and sustainable

development. However, the where these crops and farm animals are grown and raised, respectively, what

are applied and fed to them, etc. need to assessed because of the possible risks to both human health

and environment. There is a need to bridge the gap between learning institutions and producers, farmers,

gardeners, or households that carry out UPA. Good agricultural practices could be directed toward the

primary sources of contamination; i.e. soil, air, water, hands, and surfaces. For instance, proper waste

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disposal and treatment (both domestic and industrial) must be taught. The UPA practitioners should learn

the ways and means that will reduce the risk of their product becoming contaminated to ensure the safety

of their produce for human consumption. These GAPs should be tailored to any production system in the

UPA. While most consumers associate health risks to food-borne diseases with improperly stored or

poorly cooked animal products, it must be emphasized that contamination is not only bacterial or

pathological, but also chemical; thus, heavy metal-contaminated fruits and vegetables can also present

health risks. Concerted efforts, both from the government and private sectors, therefore, should be done

in finding ways and means in reducing, if not totally eliminating, these risks. Because of our need to

maximize land use through the practice of UPA, it is in this premise that the author advocates that farmer

education on good agricultural practices (GAP) be established and propagated through extension

services.

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Final/Terminal Report Submitted to CIDS, UP Diliman

Cadiz, Nina M. 2008. Environmental Concepts in Action without Education is a Futile Exercise: Where we plant our

crops may hurt us. PSSN Scientific meeting on the Environment: Trends, Issues and Challenges. SESEAM, UP Los Baños Feb, 1, 2008

De Guzman, C.C. and P.P. Banatlao. 1999. The Urban Agricultural Project of the Agro-Industrial Development

Program of UPLB-CA: Promoting agriculture in urban communities. Paper presented at the AID-PITAS Lecture Series 8 January 1999, UPLB (unpublished)

De la Cruz, M.E. 2003. Cadmium and lead contents of vegetables and soils in urban farms utilizing subdivision

wastewater and creek water for irrigation. B.S. thesis. Institute of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines. 64p (13,15)

Duldulao, V.A. 2001. Gulayan at Bulaklakan: A component of the government’s urban agriculture program. Paper

presented at the National Conference on Urban Agricultural Systems in the Philippines, 15-17 January 2001, Quezon City. (unpublished)

Food Safety Begins on the Farm: A Grower’s Guide to Good Agricultural Practices for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables

(Cornell University) [Online] Available at url: http://www.wcmorris.com/gap/files/cornell_guide.pdf Grifal, R.B.; E.D. Ayo and R.P. Ulibas. 1997. Status of heavy metal concentrations in soils and plants of Metro Manila

and neighboring provinces. Paper presented at the 9th National Research Symposium. Bureau of Soils and Water Management, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines. April 6-7. 42p (3)

Martin, Sabine and P.G. Wendy Griswold. 2009. Human health effects of heavy metals. Environmental Science and

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Hossack, I., Hursthouse, A.S., Kralj, T., Ljung, K., Otabbong, E., Rodrigues, S., Urquhart, G.J., Ajmone-Marsan, F., 2006. Variability in concentrations of potentially toxic elements in urban parks from six European cities. Journal of Environmental Monitoring 8, 1158-1165.

McGuinness, Amanda; John Mahfood and Richard Hof. 2010. Sustainable Benefits of Urban Farming as a Potential

Brownfields Remedy. [Online] Available at url: http://www.eswp.com/brownfields/Present/Hoff%205A.pdf Cempel M. and G. Nikel. 2006. Nickel: A Review of Its Sources and Environmental Toxicology. Polish J. of Environ.

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and Health [Online] Available at url: http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/pubs/2020/focus/focus13/focus13_13.pdf UNESCO/UNEP Environmental Education News Letter. Vol III No.1, January, 1978. . [Online] Available at url:

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6 Looking back to see forward: a review of postgraduate environmental education


Ms N Madikizela-Madiya


Abstract

Environmental Education (EE) research by postgraduate students may produce significant knowledge

that could be useful for Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). This article argues that unless

such knowledge is reviewed and/or disseminated, its possible value and the gaps it revealed towards

addressing current environmental concerns may not be known. The article aims to contribute towards the

achievement of the goals of ESD by presenting the results of a review of postgraduate EE research that

was produced at two South African higher education institutions. The purpose of the article is to trigger

reflections on what similar research has done differently or similarly during the Decade of Education for

Sustainable Development (DESD) and, therefore, what the way forward should be in favour of ESD.

Following document analysis as a method of data collection, O’Donoghue’s (1995) model, which views

the environment as multidimensional, was used as a frame of analysis. Findings revealed that during the

period concerned, the tendency for postgraduate EE research was to prioritize school-related topics at

both institutions and there was not a lot of focus on other environmental dimensions. Different

methodologies were used by researchers, some of which were not engaging enough to empower the

participants to address the problems identified.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

As an element of higher education institutional research, postgraduate research is a foundation of every

country’s knowledge base. Often the quality of such research is assured through different quality control

measures applied in the different institutions. One of the major concerns when postgraduate research is

assessed is its relevance to the social, economic and political contexts (Madiya, Bengesai & Karlsson

2011; Williams & Vogt 2011). Some postgraduate researchers produce knowledge on issues that are

relevant to these different contexts. At the same time, it is also noteworthy that a large amount of

postgraduate educational research is never published. This may be due to a variety of reasons that need

more detailed discussion than the space allows for in this article (see Griffiths 2011 and Ahern 2012 for

some current observations). This article, however, argues that unless the knowledge produced by

postgraduate researchers is reviewed, its content, methodology and contextual relevance will not be

known and, as such, the problems that were identified by these researchers may persist. At the same

time, through this research knowledge may have been produced that could address such problems.

Similarly, there may be gaps in the produced knowledge which, if not addressed, may aggravate

problems. Focusing on Environmental Education (EE), this article presents findings from a study that

reviewed postgraduate research that was produced at two universities in South Africa a decade before

the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (UNDESD). The article is premised

on the notion that looking back at what was done during the decade spanning from 1995 to 2004 might

inform what would happen in the decade 2005 to 2014. It is hoped that this article will motivate reflections

on what it is that postgraduate researchers have done so far within the DESD that is different from or

similar to what was done a decade before and, therefore, what the way forward should be towards

research informed EE in South Africa and other contexts.

The article is composed of seven sections. This introduction is followed by a brief background about

where the data for this article was drawn from. Next, a historical overview of environmental problems in

South Africa is presented, as a way of looking back and justifying the need for relevant research

applicable to the South African environmental context. Then there is a section on methodology, followed

by a presentation of findings. Thereafter there is a discussion of the findings, followed by the conclusion.

BACKGROUND

EE is one of the areas that have been fore-grounded by the UNDESD as contributing to sustainable

development. In the report on the workshop held in Windhoek, Namibia, in 2006, Towards the

implementation of the Decade for Sustainable Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, UNESCO indicates

that a rich array of EE and other required practices for ESD are practiced in Southern Africa. The

challenge identified was to resolve how such practices could be synergized and mainstreamed in order to

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achieve the goals of the DESD. This article is a way of responding to a related question posed by

UNESCO (2007:57) in one of the documents on the DESD 2005-2014:

And what about you, what will be your next action in favour of Education for Sustainable Development?

Here I intend to present one way in which an answer to this question could be ascertained: Looking back

to see forward. I regard research as one of the strategies through which EE can be carried out for

sustainable development. Through research, knowledge can be generated on what kind of EE is needed

in a particular context and time. Depending on the methodologies used in research projects, participants

may acquire the necessary knowledge and skills regarding sustainable development. For example, one of

the issues that were revealed by research in the past was a need for a broader focus in relation to EE

rather than the narrow focus on conservation education that it used to be. From research it was realized

that little attention was paid to “the needs and rights of human population associated with [the] same

environments [that were conserved], as an integral part of the ecosystem” (Sauvé 1996:8; Tidball &

Krasny 2010). Such attention to broader environmental dimensions became one of the concerns of ESD,

which coincided with a number of other global initiatives coordinated by UNESCO, such as Education for

All (EFA) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Although there are some differences, all these

initiatives have similar intentions, that is, global sustainable development of both natural and human

resources. Particularly the DESD emphasizes education beyond the formal sector, and in this regard,

research that involves communities and/or participation in the research projects may be more relevant.

In relation to this expectation about research, a Project on Postgraduate Education Research (PPER)

was initiated in 2007 at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. Among the PPER’s objectives was “to

understand the panorama of education research in South Africa, and to ascertain whether there were

links (causal or other) between institutions, regions, and the type of research … generated by students

and academics” (Balfour, Moletsane & Karlsson 2011). It is as a result of this project that I saw an

opportunity to zoom in on EE research with the same objective. The PPER focused on the decade 1995-

2004 which was characterized by transformation, restructuring and change in different sectors of South

Africa’s economy. For alignment purposes the next section discusses the contextual background for the

rationale of the study from which this article draws.

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS IN SOUTH AFRICA

As indicated above context-informed research is important for the relevance of the knowledge produced.

This section, therefore, looks at the historical background to some of the environmental problems in

South Africa which may have influenced choices of research topics by postgraduate researchers in EE

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during the first decade of democracy and which may, therefore, provide a way forward for EE. The

problems highlighted in the discussion below are categorized into rural, urban and educational.

Rural problems

Environmental issues in South Africa were historically shaped by discriminatory practices and laws such

as the forceful removals of blacks from ancestral land in order to create space for game parks or the

preservation and protection of fauna and flora (McDonald 2002). Under the Native Land Act, Act 27 of

1913, about 87% of South Africa's land was allocated to the white population group, while blacks were

relegated to the reserves, later called homelands, under the apartheid government (Feinberg 1993;

Whyte 1995). These reserves constituted only 7% of the country’s land and were the least fertile in the

country (Durning 1990; Feinberg 1993; Whyte 1995). The removal of blacks from squatter settlements

and other “black spots” in the urban areas between 1960 and 1980 led to a dramatic increase in the

population density in the homelands (Percival & Homer-Dixon 1998). What this meant was that the

proportionately limited land reserved for the blacks was over-cultivated and overgrazed. This led to

severe soil and gully erosion, lower food production per capita and poverty in the homelands (Whyte

1995).

In addition to exclusions related to environmental conservation, the majority of the population that was

discriminated against stayed without the basic needs such as clean water, adequate shelter and proper

sanitation facilities. These limitations compelled them to use, excessively, those resources that were free

and easily accessible, such as land and forests, which then aggravated environmental problems in the

areas concerned. Such exclusions may have created the impression that conservation and taking care of

the environment were only for the selected few.

Urban problems

Due to the difficult living conditions in the rural areas many people, especially men, decided to move to

the cities in pursuit of job opportunities. This migration led to urban environmental problems such as a

shortage of housing, unemployment, and other socio-economic problems. For the most part, those who

found employment lived in hostels or in the backyard of their employers and relatives (Seekings &

Nattrass 2006), but the majority lived in shacks or squatter settlements where there were limited or no

sanitation or waste removal services. In other words, the rural problems discussed above extended to the

urban areas. Some black townships were located close to the industrial areas, where industrial pollution

and exposure to other toxins led to illnesses related to chest problems. These unhealthy living conditions

would sometimes affect and incapacitate the breadwinners of the poor families which, in turn, increased

poverty levels.

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Problems with education in South Africa

The Bantu Education Act, Act 47 of 1953, also had an impact on environmental behaviour “since the

resultant widespread illiteracy and semi-literacy presented a major obstacle to the development of an

aware, informed public, able and willing to participate in environmental decision-making” (Pelzer 1966, in

McDonald 2002:18). Together with the restriction on the freedom of movement within the country, the

Bantu Education system weakened the ability of black people to explore and be familiar with the broader

environment. Such restrictions implied a lack of exposure to the range of environmental experiences to

reflect on.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCEPTIONS

The discussion above alludes to the fact that, although “environment” was understood as pertaining to

“nature”, environmental problems in South Africa has in the past always been intertwined with social,

biophysical, political and economic issues. The discriminatory laws, however, could be associated more

with a concern about nature conservation, which addressed only one aspect of the environment, the

biophysical (ecology or natural environment). Since the 1990s, people in South Africa, like in other parts

of the world, increasingly became involved in environmental debates that focused on the demand for

clean water, lower levels of industrial pollution, worker safety, and land for housing and subsistence

farming (Carruthers 2006; Mappin & Johnson 2005). New environmental discourses, such as

environmental justice, which focuses on poverty as a fundamental cause of environmental degradation

and capacity building, were adopted. These challenged the practices and policies of the past (Cock & Fig

2001; Cock & Koch 1991; Ramphele & McDowell 1991). After a divided political past, the expectation now

was that all South Africans, regardless of race, class or age, would care for the physical environment

because, unlike the situation under authoritarian apartheid, environmentalism became a grassroots

mobilization effort for "our future and for our children", in a united democratic nation (Carruthers, 2006: 1;

Whyte 1995). This mobilization implied a need for non-discriminatory EE practices towards sustainable

development. Environmental conceptions, which would formerly be interpreted as meaning that the

“environment is for white people”, needed to be changed. One of the ways in which this can be done, I

argue, is by involving people of all races, ages and/or classes in research activities that empower. In this

way EE can be research informed. In the next section I present some of the research priorities in EE as

identified from literature.

INTERNATIONAL AND LOCAL RESEARCH IN EE

Some trends in EE research were identified by researchers throughout the world during the period before

the DESD. One such trend was the broadening of research methods and methodologies (Meyers et al

2007). For example, Gough and Gough (2004) identified the dominance of quantitative survey research

and participatory action research in the Southern African region, with other approaches, such as case

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studies, grounded theory, actor network theory, narrative research, critical realism and critical discourse

analysis also getting more attention in some institutions. The content of the research also changed from

being only nature oriented to include social and political concerns. An example of this is Schreuder’s

(1995) “Delusions of Progress”, where he highlights some perspectives on the root and common causes

of educational and environmental crises in South Africa. Other EE researchers, according to Gough and

Gough (2004), focused their research on issues of accountability, where there would be an assessment

of the successes of EE programs. Notably, there were contradictory reports with regard to who the

participants in EE research were. For example, Rickinson (2003) noted claims that research ignored

children, who happen to be major role players in education. Braus (1995:48), on the other hand, noted EE

programs (which might include research) as selectively targeting younger learners in some countries,

ignoring other segments of the population, such as “business leaders, the urban poor, senior citizens, the

general public, policy makers, and parents”. This narrow focus was attributed to the lack of materials,

organizational support, training in how to reach new audiences and training on how to take cultural,

ethnic, and economic diversity into account (Braus 1995).

Based on this background and identified research priorities and the associated gaps that were revealed,

the purpose of the study was to review postgraduate research in environmental education at two

universities in South Africa in order to understand what issues they focused on and identify the

methodologies that were used to conduct such research. Below is a summary of the methodology I used

during the review.

METHODOLOGY

An unobtrusive documentary, descriptive case study design was followed to review the doctoral and

master’s theses produced at the two universities from 1995 to 2004. The guiding question for the study

was: What has been the trend in postgraduate Environmental Education research during the period 1995

to 2004 in terms of focus and methodology? The objective was to identify the education sectors that were

researched, who the participants were, what the purpose of the studies were, the environmental

dimensions that were being prioritized and the methodologies that were used by postgraduate

researchers at the two institutions. To address these questions I used qualitative and quantitative

approaches.

Sampling

The sample for this particular study was drawn from the initial PPER sample of eleven institutions in

South Africa and which was based on institutional research output in education over the first decade of

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democracy as well as the regional location of the institutions. The initial PPER sample5 was composed of

three institutions from the Eastern Cape; three from the Western Cape; two from Gauteng; one from

KwaZulu-Natal; one from the Free State and one from Limpopo. I purposively selected two institutions

from that initial sample. From the PPER database I selected all those titles that were on EE or ESD.

When I noticed that most institutions had produced very little or no EE research in their faculties of

education during the period 1995 to 2004, I decided to focus only on the two that had the highest

numbers of theses produced: one from the Gauteng province and one from the Eastern Cape. I regarded

these as information-rich and, therefore, suitable for my research design.

Data analyses

I quantitatively determined frequencies and percentages of themes identified from data during analysis.

Although quantification helped to foreground the trends in both the contents and methodologies that were

used during the study period, I regarded it as limited in answering the questions, especially because data

was collected only through documents. I, therefore, followed this up with thick qualitative description of

research patterns in postgraduate EE research. Qualitative description allowed me to use categories and

concepts that were used by researchers themselves as an attempt to stay true to the meanings they gave

to those concepts and categories (Babbie & Mouton 2007).

I started by reading through all the sampled theses and then identified the sector of education that was

researched. The education sectors were initially identified by the PPER and I adopted these for my study.

These included: schooling (from primary to secondary education sector); higher education (universities,

colleges and technikons); civil society education (including community or people that are not in formal

education sectors); service provider (the organizations that are involved in EE initiatives and activities);

government (governance generally, including education department); mixed (where a combination of two

or more of the above sectors is evident) and documents (all forms of documentary research). I identified

these sectors through words or phrases in the titles of theses (such as “teachers’ views” or “community

participation”, to mention but two). In cases where the title was not informative enough, I also read

through the abstracts and identified the participants in the study. For example “learners in Grade Four”

and “biology educators” indicated the schooling sector. I then counted the frequency of each of these

sectors.

The next step was to identify the research purposes, research methodologies that were used in each

study, and who the participants/informants were. I identified these from the abstracts and/or introduction,

5 As per the requirement of the PPER’s funder, NRF, eventually all universities of South Africa (except one that

declined participation) were researched.

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methodology or concluding chapters of theses. Categories and themes were identified, organized in

graphs and tables and were then qualitatively interpreted and discussed. The same procedure was

followed to identify the environmental dimensions that were researched, using O’Donoghue’s (1995)

model of the environment as an analytical lens. Below is a summary of findings from the review.

FINDINGS

Out of a total of 707 theses in education from University X in Gauteng, 23 (3%) were on EE (4 doctoral

and 19 master’s). Out of a total of 133 from University Y in the Eastern Cape, 23 (15%) were on EE (3

doctoral and 20 master’s).

Education sectors researched on

Table 1 below presents the number of theses in the different education sectors at the two universities.

Sector of education researched on Number of topics/university Total

X Y

Schooling 9 8 17

Higher education 2 4 6

Service provider/NGO 1 4 5

Civil society 7 3 10

Government 1 0 1

Continuing education 1 1 2

Mixed 2 3 5

Total number of theses 23 23 46

Table 1: Frequency of EE topics per sector at universities X and Y: 1995 to 2004

This table indicates that at both institutions postgraduate research focused more on the schooling sector

during the period 1995-2004. This was followed by the civil society sector, though with comparatively

different proportions at the two institutions, with very limited focus on other sectors such as government

and continuing education.

Population involved in research

The next area of interest in my research study was who the participants were in each of these education

sectors per study and what their role was in the studies. These are presented in table 2 below. In the

schooling sector the teachers were most often chosen as participants or informants (depending on their

role in the studies and the way they were referred to by the researcher concerned) and in a few cases

learners (four at X and one at Y) and parents (0 at X and one at Y) were also informants in the studies.

Generally, the participants in all these sectors were mainly adults. Considering that these participants

represented different sectors – principals, teachers, education officers, parents, lecturers and labourers –

that were all be categorized as adults, there were comparatively few students (two at X and 4 at Y) and

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youth or children (0 at X and one at Y). The category of people labeled as adults in the civil society and

mixed sectors includes various groups of adult people such as taxi drivers, labourers and commuters. I

decided to put them in a different category, to distinguish them from the parents’ category (in the

schooling sector). The reason for this decision is that parents’ role in the schooling sector is different from

the role of adults in the other education sectors in relation to EE.

Sector of education researched Participants/informants category

No. of studies in which the category was part

University X

University Y

Schooling Teachers 8 8

Learners/students 4 1

Principals 1 0

District officials 1 1

Parents 0 1

Higher education Students 2 4

Lecturers 0 3

Service provider EE Officials 1 1

Documents 0 1

Labourers 0 1

Civil society Adults 7 3

Youth 0 1

Government Local municipal authorities 1 0

Continuing education Teachers 1 0

Mixed Lecturers 1 1

Teachers 1 1

Students 0 1

Table 2: Research participants in education sectors

The common and most dominant trend in the category of adults was that they mainly belonged to the low

income or “poor” sector of the South African population, this is evidenced by descriptors (from theses)

such as “people from informal settlements”; “poor, black citizens from the village”; “hawkers”; “cleaners”;

and, “uneducated, poorly paid labourers”. Only a few studies involved people such as businessmen,

contractors and a doctor. These low income groups of people were sometimes referred to as participants,

a concept which, according to Cains (2008), gives an impression that they were involved more

extensively than simply providing data. However, in some studies they were merely interviewed to

determine their views, experiences or perceptions of phenomena, as in the following title examples:

“Concerns and perceptions of taxi drivers and hawkers regarding littering at Mabopane station”

“Community knowledge, cohesion and environmental sustainability: An educational

case study in Clarkson”

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There are studies, however, where participants were practically involved in many parts of the decision-

making process that would affect them and in which they could learn or contribute to the knowledge. This

was the case, especially with those studies where action research was used as a methodology, which

was mainly in the schooling sector. The following is an example of topics in this category.

“Teaching the principles of ecology in the urban environment: an investigation into the

development of resource materials”

In this study the researcher and the participants were all involved in fieldtrips and workshops where they

“explored the potential of various sites in urban environment for the teaching of ecology” (page 32 of the

thesis). Participants developed worksheets to be completed at various sites. This involvement would

clearly have left these participants with skills and they would have gained necessary knowledge from the

process of the study.

Environmental dimensions

While still looking at the trends in EE postgraduate research, my other concern was to identify the

environmental dimensions that the researcher focused on. Table 3 below presents the frequency of

studies in each of the dimensions from O’Donoghue’s (1995) model of the environment.

Institution Social Biophysical Economic Political Total

X 2 1 0 0 3

Y 3 2 0 1 6

Total 5 (11%) 3 (7%) 0 1 (2%) 9 (20%)

Table 3: Environmental dimensions researched

These figures suggest that limited studies focused directly on each of O’Donoghue’s environmental

dimensions, with none on the economic dimension, and one on the political dimension. Instead some

studies could be seen as focusing on more than one dimension as in the following title examples:

“The relationship between environmental literacy and perceptions with regard to Eco-

tourism by Vhavendas in the Eastern Soutpansberg Region” (social and economic)

“Environmental literacy of workers as a factor in sustainable forest management” (social

and biophysical)

“Implementation of Local Agenda 21 planning process in urban settings: A case study in

greater Johannesburg Metropolitan council” (social? and political)

It also appeared that EE research cannot be confined to the four dimensions in O’Donoghue’s model

only, since other dimensions could also be identified even where they involved the original four. The

following examples were identified from the review:

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Social and curriculum dimension: “Community participation in social environmental

issues in a core-plus curriculum”

Biophysical and curriculum dimension: “An investigation into the use of nature reserve

as a cross-curricular teaching resource”

The four environmental dimensions can also be analysed in terms of “green” and “brown” problems

(McDonald 2002; Carruthers 2006). “Brown” problems are those related to sanitation, public health,

pollution, etc. which are mainly associated with urban areas and can affect mainly the social, economic

and political dimensions of the environment. “Green” problems are those related to the depletion of

natural vegetation and animals, which can mainly be associated with rural areas and are mainly the

biophysical dimension. Analysis and categorization of EE research topics revealed that in this decade the

focus was more on green issues than brown issues. At University X 4 (17%) of the 23 studies focused on

green issues, with the following title an example:

“Concerns and attitudes of the southern neighbours of the Kruger National Park towards

the park: Working towards an EE model”

Two (9%) focused on brown issues, with the following title an example:

“Teachers’ and students’ views on sanitation and water supply at Ngwaritsane High

School in Bushbuckridge”

At University Y 11 (48%) of the 23 studies focused directly on green issues, with the following example:

“An investigation into the use of nature reserve as a cross-curricular teaching resource”

One (4%) focused on brown issues as in the following title example:

“An exploration of environmental understanding among primary health care providers in

an Eastern Cape community”

Three (13%) focused were on mixed issues:

“Environmental perceptions and knowledge among political leaders in the Eastern Cape

province and some implications for environmental policy”

It was also evident that many researchers during the period of review were more concerned with EE

curriculum issues – teaching resource development and professional training of environmental educators.

From each of the two institutions 13 (56%) of the 23 studies were on curriculum issues.

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Research purposes

My other concern during the review was to determine the purpose of each study. My analysis revealed six

themes on the study purposes (table 4). These were not pre-determined, but were deductively identified

as stated or implied by researchers.

Theme Number of topics/themes

University X University Y

To determine environmental (education) perceptions, concerns, attitudes, views or opinions

7 4

To determine the level of environmental (education) awareness, literacy, understanding or knowledge

2 4

Environmental education curriculum, program or resource development or evaluation

7 7

To explore the feasibility, possibility or potential for environmental education

0 7

To identify the cause for environmental problems or challenges 5 0

To encourage the improvement and involvement on environmental issues

2 1

Table 4: Themes on research purpose

From the table it is clear that both institutions focused more on curriculum issues as well as on people’s

perceptions, attitudes, views and opinions.

Methodologies used

Although there were similarities with regard to the methodologies used at the different institutions, there

were notable differences. As shown in table 5 below, there are designs that happened to be used only in

one and not in the other institution. Similarly with approaches, the two institutions had some differences.

Research design Number per institution


Case studies 9 13

Surveys 12 2

Quasi-experimental 2 0

Action research 0 8

Table 5: Research designs

There was no action research study at University X and no quasi-experimental research at University Y.

More researchers conducted surveys at University X, while the majority at University Y conducted case

studies. As shown in table 6 below, the majority of the theses at both institutions used the qualitative

approach. However, at University X some were quantitative, while at University Y none were mentioned

nor implied to be quantitative. It would be interesting to know why different institutions prefer some

methodologies over others. This is an area that future researchers may explore.

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University Approach No. of theses %

X Qualitative 14 61

Quantitative 1 4

Mixed 8 35

Y Qualitative 19 83

Mixed 1 4

Not mentioned 3 13

Table 6: Research approach

TRENDS IN POSTGRADUATE EE RESEARCH AT THE TWO INSTITUTIONS: DISCUSSION OF THE

FINDINGS

Due to the design that I used to conduct my research, the findings presented above are not transferable

to other contexts. However, they are intended to trigger thoughts towards similar research in different

contexts. As indicated in the introductory section of this article, these findings purpose to open

opportunities for reflections and discussions on what it is that has been done similarly or differently in

other contexts by postgraduate researchers in EE during the DESD and what the way forward can be.

The abovementioned findings reveal five issues that warrant attention in relation to ESD. These include

selective research foci on the part of the two institutions with regard to the education sector; participants;

environmental dimensions; research purposes and methodologies. I briefly discuss each of them in this

section.

Selective research foci on education sectors

As indicated in the historical background above, during the period 1995 to 2004 South Africa was

undergoing political transformation, which affected different economic sectors in the country. More focus

on the schooling sector at both institutions reviewed is an indication of the changes that were taking place

in education as well. The question may be asked, however, as to whether such focus changed or

extended to other sectors during the DESD. Another issue to be considered is whether more focus on

one current issue does not reveal gaps with regard to other issues that are temporarily or fully ignored by

researchers. For example, while the focus was more on schooling issues, such as the development of

study materials for EE in schools, there was limited research on similar issues in relation to education of

adults and out-of-school youth. Yet, as indicated in the section on the historical overview of environmental

problems in South Africa, EE was and/or is necessary for these groups as well. Continuing education also

received little attention from EE researchers. This was a problem, because EE during the decade under

review was a relatively new concept in South Africa, and practicing teachers had very little or no

knowledge at all about how to integrate it into their curricula. What the trend is currently during this

decade of the DESD, in similar and different contexts, is a matter to be explored.

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Participation or information provision and methodologies

Findings from this study reveal that EE research focused on low income/poor people. The race of the

informants and/or participants was hardly mentioned, but it was implied in many studies. This is

understandable because the period in question warranted sensitivity with regard to racial issues.

However, as indicated in the historical overview section, environmental issues had a racial history

(McDonald 2002). It would, therefore, have been interesting to see who, in terms of race, the participants

were and how research acknowledged the need for all races to be environmentally aware, even if it is at

different dimensions. For example, even those that were previously advantaged could be part of the new

discourses, referred to by Carruthers (2006) and Whyte (1995) above, through participation in research

activities. With the changing trends in EE research, as mentioned by Gough and Gough (2004) and

Rickinson (2003), research methodologies could be more participatory, by including all population groups,

regardless of class, age or race. However, as indicated above, one of these institutions did produce a

number of action research studies during the period, while one still preferred surveys. The advantages of

utilizing both action research and surveys are known (see, for example, Goba, Balfour & Nkambule, 2011;

Davey & Balfour 2011) but, based on the history of environmental problems presented above; it could be

assumed that more participatory, qualitative research during the period concerned would have been more

preferable in South Africa.

Environmental dimensions and research purposes

It became evident from the review that the four dimensions of the environment identified by O’Donoghue

were not necessarily directly researched on. This was surprising considering the manner in which

environmental conceptions had been so highly biophysical in the past (McDonald 2002). It was, however,

interesting to notice that researchers understood the environment as multidimensional, as demonstrated

by the research done on issues that combined two or more of the dimensions in O’Donoghue’s model.

Even though more focus was still on the “green” environmental issues, “brown” problems (McDonald

2002; Carruthers 2006) were not completely ignored. However, what was worrying was the

marginalization of the political dimension in almost all studies. This is worrying because this is a

dimension where decisions are made that either favour the environment or works against it. Even the

inclusion or exclusion of EE in school curricula is decided upon in the political dimension. Many studies,

as indicated in the findings above, were on curriculum issues, mainly with the purpose of evaluating EE

programmes and developing resources, but they did not involve governance or the political dimension of

the environment.

CONCLUSION

The purpose of this article was to look back at what the trends in postgraduate EE research were at

selected institutions in South-Africa during the period 1995 to 2004. This was done with the intention of

85

encouraging similar reflections on what has taken place so far in the DESD with regard to postgraduate

EE research and what the way forward should be if environmental concerns in the country are to be

addressed. A number of strengths and gaps, in both content and procedures of such research, were

discussed. The identified trends in the studies that were reviewed in my study may have changed since

2004, in similar and/or in other contexts. They may also have remained the same. That is exactly what

this article intended to establish. As the DESD nears its end, the question asked by UNESCO on what

your next action will be in favour of the ESD may now be rephrased. This article proposes that the

question should now be: What has postgraduate EE research done in favour of ESD during the DESD

and what should the way forward be towards a research informed EE in South Africa and in other

contexts?

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7 Guidelines for facilitating a community driven community group

Guy C. Caws

Durban Solid Waste Education Section, KZN

Abstract

As an environmental education officer, the author has been involved in facilitating community groups in

developing a sound waste ethic in the community. In a recent study of community groups facilitated by

the author the need for such programmes to be community driven was a recurring theme. This notion is

supported by the Keep America Beautiful organisation and, in the environmental education context, is in

keeping with Principle 9 of the Tbilisi Conference.

In this paper the author will justify the value of a community driven project in which the Education Officer

plays the role of facilitator. The author will draw on current community development theories and

demonstrate how they have manifested themselves in practice. He will offer practical suggestions from

the experience he gained through working with several community groups.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

The eThekwini Municipality’s Cleansing & Solid Waste Department (Branded as DSW) has a section

dedicated to Waste Management Education called DSW Education. The purpose of the DSW Education

Section is to develop a sound waste management ethic in the community through education. It attempts

to reach the entire spectrum of the community by offering waste education programmes to such diverse

sectors as schools, tertiary education, business and industries and individual community initiatives.

The core method used by the section is the Clean Community System (CCS). It was devised by the Keep

America Beautiful organisation as a method of taking waste management education to the community.

The CCS was introduced to Durban by the then Keep Durban Beautiful Association after it had affiliated

to the Keep America Beautiful organisation. The key to the success of the CCS is that the responsibility

for standards of waste management in a community is devolved to grass roots level. In this way the

initiative is driven by the particular community group itself. The CCS has proved to be an effective method

of waste management education. One indicator of this is the Photometric Index Litter survey. The survey

has been undertaken every six months in Durban (eThekwini Municipality) since December 1983. The

results indicate that there has been a reduction of street litter of 75.2% during this period.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF THE CLEAN COMMUNITY SYSTEM

The Clean Community System is based on a clearly defined definition and goals.

Definition and Goal

The Clean Community System is a behaviourally-based systems approach to changing attitudes and

practices relating to waste handling. (Keep America Beautiful: 1980). The goal of the Clean Community

System is to create a sustained litter reduction (Keep America Beautiful: 1980). Since the writing of this

definition litter is now seen as part of the issue of waste management.

The Clean Community System is referred to as a normative system change process. A norm is an

accepted pattern of behaviour which is a result of a particular attitude to an issue. It is an unwritten rule

which is supported and reinforced by general public behaviour. The purpose of the system is to change

community norms in such a way as to make effective waste management an accepted norm. The most

visible norms in poor waste management are littering and the illegal dumping of solid waste.

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Essential Components for Achieving Effective Waste Management

In order for effective waste management to take place, the Clean Community System advocates that four

components should be in place. These components have proved to be effective guidelines for developing

a waste education programme. The components are (Keep America Beautiful: 1980):

Standards

Standards and rules regarding effective waste management must be set. These are usually in the form of

laws, ordinances and by-laws at national, provincial and local government levels. They can, however,

also take the form of informal agreements between parties. The standards, however, would be in the form

of a waste policy for an institution, a business or even a household. Thus standards should be available

at all levels of society.

Infrastructure

In order for effective waste management to take place, the correct facilities and technologies for waste

must be in place. These facilities and technologies cover a wide range of activities such as a collection

and a disposal system. From the collection point of view the facilities would include properly equipped

and staffed vehicles and an efficient street sweeping system. The disposal system would include not only

the management of landfill sites but a network of garden refuse sites and transfer stations. Recycling

facilities can be added to this component as well.

Education

An ongoing education programme must ensure that the community is aware of correct waste

management practice. The education programme is a strategic initiative to ensure that, in the long term,

the need for waste collection and disposal services is reduced. Broadly speaking, an education

programme should follow three stages:

Making the public aware of the issues.

Persuading people that it is in their personal interest to prevent littering, dumping etc

Finally, causing behavioural change with respect waste management.

Enforcement

Standards and rules must be enforceable and appropriate action must be taken. An important aspect is

that enforcement must be regular and consistent. In South Africa, the South African Police Services,

Metro Police and various government officials have the power to enforce waste management laws,

ordinances and by-laws. Enforcement of sound waste management policies should also take place within

institutions, businesses and homes. It must be pointed out that enforcement as method of waste

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management education does not tend change attitudes and create new norms. It is rather an effective

short term measure to ensure cleanliness. The long term change of norms comes through education.

Why the Clean Community System

The key to the success of the Clean Community System is that it addresses the root of the problem which

lies in people’s behaviour. It is people centred rather than problem centred. It is a planned approach

which focuses on long term results.

The Clean Community System focuses on changing the norms and attitudes of a community towards

waste management as opposed to focussing on the waste. This implies that the facilitator of the Clean

Community System (usually the Education Officer) must work with the community in order to achieve the

required goals.

What is a Community?

The first consideration when working with communities leads to the central question “What is a

community?” Collins Gem English Dictionary (1998:105) defines a community as “all the people living in

one district; group with shared origins or interests; the public society.” With the dictionary definition in

mind and reviewing the various projects of the DSW Education Section, it can be viewed that community

groups can be categorised into two broad groupings:

Communities of Place

Communities of Interest.

The rationale behind the identification of these groupings follows.


Communities of Place occur when members of a community are in close geographical proximity and

share a common interest in an issue and work together to address the issue. The members of the

community may be residents, business owners or anyone who has an interest in that community. The

important factor is that they are in close physical proximity and the concerns of a local community (in

geographical terms) are paramount. The size of the community is determined by the members of the

community themselves. The size is decided upon by the interests of the community members and their

capacity to deal with the issues in the area. The examples of DSW Education’s community groups show

that the group could be made up of members of a single street, a suburb or a political ward or a

constituency. This is a very important point to consider. It is very easy for a facilitator to look at a map and

arrange perceived communities according to suburbs or boundaries such as rivers or roads, whilst in

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reality these demarcated areas may not reveal the true community spirit. A successful community group

needs to determine all the parameters of the community themselves.

Communities of Place are the most obvious types of community and are usually the most frequently

applied understanding of the term community.

Communities of Interest

Communities of interest occur when the key ‘bonding agent’ of a group is not geographical proximity but

rather their membership of an organisation or of individuals subscribing to an ideal. The members may be

spread geographically but consider themselves part of a group. Examples of communities of interest can

come from religious groups, political parties and youth movements. These groups are powerful tools in

environmental education as their influence can spread over a large area.

The writer has personal experience of a Community of Interest. As a long standing member of the Scout

Movement he has a close network of friendship that spreads over the whole of KwaZulu Natal with

contacts spreading even wider. This has been used to advantage in his environmental work as the Scout

Movement promotes environmental education. Through networking and the channels offered by the

Scout Movement a great deal of effective environmental education has occurred. With careful

management Communities of Interest can be turned into a ‘win-win’ situation for both the environmental

educator and the other organisation as the mandates of both organisations can be fulfilled. Care,

however, must be taken by the environmental education facilitator not to ‘hijack’ another organisation for

one’s own benefit.

The understanding of the distinction between Communities of Place and Communities of Interest is a

powerful tool in creating a significant impact in working with communities. The facilitator needs to employ

different strategies when working with each type of community but should bear in mind that they are not

mutually exclusive. They can be integrated into one community programme at a local level.

INTEGRATING COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT THEORIES INTO WASTE EDUCATION PROJECTS

In a recent study, the author explored various community development theories and applied them to the

principles of the Clean Community System.

A number of sources and writings on community development were considered and the work of David

Korten (Korten & Klaus:1984. Chapter 18) in particular showed potential in applying them to developing

environmental groups. Broadly, Korten distinguishes between two approaches to community development

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ie The Blueprint Approach and the Learning Process Approach. A third approach, Asset based

Community Development, as championed by the North West University is also explained in this paper.

The Blueprint Approach

Korten contends that this approach reflects the textbook way of how development is supposed to work.

This approach is based on the notion that researchers will, after pilot studies and data gathering, provide

the most cost effective designs for achieving given outcomes. The outcomes are well defined and the

intended project is carefully planned and implementation is strictly according to design. The notion is that

these programmes will be given wide application and effectively address the issue at hand.

Korten believes that the Blueprint Approach has severe limitations and that the ultimate impact of such

programmes is usually incidental. The Blueprint Approach fails to take heed of the diversity of local

conditions and thus the impact of such a programme is affected. This does not mean, however, that the

Blueprint Approach has no value. Generic waste education programmes such as Adopt a Spot, Tag a

Motorist and the Doorstep Environment Programme are of value. They may form minor components of an

initiative but not the over-arching programme. The critical point is that the overall programme must not be

too rigid and that consideration of local conditions should be allowed. The initiatives offered by the

Blueprint Approach are imposed from another group and are not necessarily subscribed to by the

community at hand. Hence programmes prescribed by the Blueprint Approach are not community driven.

The Learning Process Approach.

As a result of his case studies, Korten contends that the Blueprint Approach never played more than an

incidental role in development. His studies reveal that the most successful programmes adopted a trial

and error approach. The problem is identified by the members of a community itself. The appropriate

interventions are developed and implemented by the community themselves. This gives the participating

community members ‘buy-in’ to the project. At the same time the community members’ knowledge of local

conditions will add nuances to the interventions which should make them more effective. Thus the project

is community driven and the role of the Education Officer is that of facilitator and technical advisor. Korten

points out that it very often appears to be ‘a very disorderly and intuitive process’. Despite this, Korten

believes that this is the more successful approach. Another benefit that became apparent is that Korten

often found that there was a significant continuity of personnel and that the problems that arose were

handled in a better way. With the project being community driven the tendency is for the community

members to take ownership of the project rather than be seen as the receivers of handouts. This

ultimately led to the interventions being more effective.

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Asset Based Community Development (ABCD)

The concept of Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD) is another concept that can enhance

waste management education projects. ABCD is championed by Northwestern University in the USA. The

key work on the issue is ‘Community Development from the Inside Out’ by Kretzmann and McKnight.

Essentially the strategy of ABCD is to focus on the assets of a community and the identified assets are

used as a platform to develop an appropriate intervention for developing a community project. Another

ABCD advocate, Bergdall (Bergdall:2003) states ‘ABCD focuses on the strengths and capacities of local

communities. It rests on the conviction that sustainable development emerges from within a community,

not from outside, by mobilizing and building upon local resources’.

The key to ABCD is that community development is based on the assets of the community rather than on

the needs of the community. The rationale being that, by focussing on the strengths and capacities of the

community, the members of the community are empowered to build up the community, whilst those

projects focussing on the needs of a community tend to emphasise the negative and the community

becomes the recipient of handouts. The negativity becomes repetitive and ultimately little is achieved in

the long term.ABCD advocates that the facilitator adopts what Bergdall describes as a ‘minimum stimulus’

and only intervenes in terms of guidance and technical expertise. This thinking is entirely in keeping with

the principles of the Clean Community System and emphasises that the project should be community

driven.

Community Projects as Environmental Education Initiatives

The value of community driven projects is supported by various writers in the community development

field. This is particularly noted in Korten’s ‘Learning Process Approach’ and the concept of ‘Asset Based

Community Development. The work of the writers adds credence to the validity of the Clean Community

System, the basic tenets of which encourage community driven projects in the waste management

education field. This also supports the importance of exploring the potential of the relatively unexplored

field of linking community development theory to environmental education projects.

SPECIFIC GUIDELINES IN WORKING WITH COMMUNITY DRIVEN PROJECTS

When providing guidelines for working with community driven projects the evidence suggests that it is

necessary to focus on two areas. The first is to provide guidelines for the facilitator/ education officer

when working with community groups. The identified guidelines will empower the education officer/

facilitator to more effectively work with a community driven group.

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The second area to address is that of how members of the community group should be dealing with an

environmental issue themselves. This approach should ensure that appropriate care should be taken so

that the activities of the group employed in such a way so as to achieve maximum effectiveness.

The Education Officer as Facilitator

The professional officials of organisations working in the community development field and environmental

education usually have the designation of Education Officer. It is easy for an official working in the field to

dominate the proceedings as he/ she is likely to have superior project management skills and a sound

understanding of the issues at hand. In order to address this tendency, it is important that, if a project is to

be community driven, the Education Officer should be trained in facilitation skills. The facilitation skills will

empower the Education Officer to ensure that the community group drives the project themselves.

In order to achieve a high level of facilitation skills the following recommendations should be borne in

mind:

A high level of facilitation competence by a facilitator is necessary to ensure a successful project

driven by the community. This can be achieved by the facilitator at all times playing a supportive

and not a dominant role in his dealings with the community. This is the method whereby questions

are asked indirectly with a view to getting the participants to think through the process and get

them to work out the answers themselves. Bergdall(2003) describes this as ‘leading by stepping

back’. The key role for the facilitator is to create a climate that is conducive for the community to

operate a programme effectively. The facilitator and the facilitating agency should provide minimum

support and intervene only when particular guidance and expertise is needed by the community.

At the inception of his/ her involvement with the group, the facilitator must be upfront as to the

agenda of the agency he/ she represents. In the case of the DSW Education Section, the primary

agenda is waste management education especially in terms of litter abatement, dumping, recycling

and community beautification. Any other support given in other fields is a ‘voluntary extra’ and

should be viewed as such. This approach is honourable and, by the facilitator being upfront in the

beginning, the possibility of problems develop. The possibility of a development agency to ‘hijack’ a

community group to achieve its own aims should be avoided at all costs. This view is supported by

Korten (1984:Ch3).

The role of the facilitator should be supportive rather than dominant. Bergdall (2003) refers to the

facilitator’s role as being one of providing ‘minimum stimulus’. This does not detract in any way

from the importance of the facilitator’s role but rather defines its function. The term ‘minimum

stimulus’ does not mean that the facilitator abdicates responsibility. It rather advocates a ‘watch

dog role’ where the facilitator observes and intervenes only where and when it is necessary. This

non-directive approach requires a particular mindset for the facilitator who at times will have to

restrain the urge to intervene unnecessarily.

The role of facilitator is not an easy one for the Education officer. From experience the author realises

that it takes considerable will power on the part of the facilitator to step back and allow the community

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driven process to flow. The facilitation role will, in the long term, be more effective in achieving the aims

and objectives of the group.

Guidelines for Working with a Community Group

The following are guidelines for the facilitator when developing projects with community groups.

The specific issues that need addressing should be identified by the members of the community.

The role of the facilitator at this stage is to provide minimum input in terms of expertise only. It is,

however, advisable that the facilitator familiarise himself with the community before a formal

meeting take place. This will assist in providing appropriate guidance. The issues that are under

discussion should not be confined to the problems of a community. The assets of a community

should be identified as advocated by the concept of Asset Based Community Development. A

successful program should be built around projects that enhance the assets of the community

whilst at the same time addressing the needs of the community.

The programme of activities should be developed from the identified needs and expectations of the

community. The activities are actually interventions designed to address the needs of the

community. These interventions should be clearly defined and prioritised.

The number and nature of the projects/ activities chosen for action should be determined by the

capacity of the group to deliver. There is often a tendency in community groups to try to tackle too

many projects at once or to choose projects that are beyond the capacity of the group. The result is

usually that expectations are not met, motivation dwindles and ultimately little is achieved.

When deciding upon the projects that are to be undertaken, it is important for the community group to

assess the resources available to them. The resources to be taken into account should include finance

and materials such as litter bags and tools. The second type of resource is that of human resources. This

involves the capacity of the community members to carry out the project. The skills of the members and

the time that they have available to carry out the project is a critical consideration.

Once the resources are assessed the community group should choose the projects they plan to

undertake. It is recommended that the first project should be relatively easy to undertake and of short

duration. The early success will motivate members and provide the group with a track record from which

to build future interventions. The group should on an ongoing basis have a mix of projects that are quick

to undertake and other low profile projects that take time to complete but are effective. This ‘mix’ will

ensure the sustainability of the group. At all times records should be kept so that the success or otherwise

of the projects can be measured and assessed.

A point to note is that the facilitator should ensure that all participants in the project have an input

into the proposed activity. On the one hand the facilitator must ensure that his/ her role must be not

be dominant, but on the other hand the facilitator must ensure that other parties do not exert undue

influence on a group in order to achieve their own agenda. The other party may come from another

interest group or it may be a dominant person in a group who overrides the will of other

participants. The facilitator’s intervention in such cases will ensure that a project is truly community

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driven. This is supported by Meyer (2004: 24) who advocates that ground rules should be set

before at the start of the meetings. He believes that ground rules play an important part in

achieving maximum delivery in a limited time. One point he makes is that ‘All opinions are

important’. This should be born in mind by the facilitator.

At all times the participants should refer back to the original aims and mission of the group. This will

ensure that the initiative remains faithful to its original mandate. A deviation from this guideline

should be agreed upon by the group as a whole and only in special circumstances. A useful

technique is for the aims of the group to be included in its standard letterhead. This will serve the

function of being a continual reminder to readers of the correspondence.

It is important that a community group maintains an identity and creates a niche in the community by

defining what it stands for. It is also necessary for a group to define boundaries as what it does or does

not do. Frequently a group will be approached to address an issue which is outside its mandate. This may

be in terms of the issue at hand or outside of its geographical boundaries. It is recommended that the

group resists the temptation to become involved. Such situations lead to the group losing its original focus

and its effectiveness becomes watered down. The more a group remains faithful to its original mandate

the more likely it is to succeed.

CONCLUSIONS

There is sound evidence that successful environmental education programmes can take place through

working with community groups. The Keep America Beautiful organisation pioneered this concept through

its Clean Community System strategy. The Clean Community System has been successfully

implemented in South Africa by the DSW Education Section and its predecessors. It is evident from the

evidence available that community groups are most successful when driven by the community

themselves with the environmental agency playing facilitating role. This view is supported by various

writers on Community Development Theory.

REFERENCES Bergdall, T. 2003. Reflections on the Catalytic Role of an Outsider in ‘Asset Based Community Development’.

Available from: http://www.sesp.northwestern.edu/abcd. [Accessed 8January 2009] Caws, G.C. 2011 Guidelines for the Training of Particpants in the Clean Community System. MEd Dissertation.

Pretoria. University of South Africa. Collins English Gem Dictionary. New Edition. 1998.London: Harper Collins. Keep America Beautiful inc 1980. PRE-CERTIFICATION MANUAL. New York

Keep Durban Beautiful Association. Undated. Handout on the Clean Community System. Durban Korten, David C & Klaus, Rudi ed 1984. People Centred Development. Hartford, Connecticut. Kumarian Press.

Chapter 3 and Chapter 18 Meyer, M. 2004. Effective Facilitation. Claremont, Cape Town. New Africa Books.

http://www.sesp.northwestern.edu/abcd

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8 The role of religion in education for sustainable development: a case study

Prof JM Dreyer


Abstract

This article is a report on a case study of one Christian congregation in South Africa and on the role the

congregation’s religion plays in members’ beliefs and actions concerning environmental matters. Data

were obtained using documentary analysis, observations and interviews. The findings refer to the

members of the congregation’s understanding of their role as stewards of the environment (the earth),

their attitudes towards and ethics concerning the environment, their level of participation in environmental

activities, and their achievements to date. This case study shows that religion can indeed influence

people’s environmental attitudes and behaviours; it also shows that a small group of people can make a

big difference in the effort to live more sustainably.

The conclusion emphasises the need to involve religious groups and/or individual churches and/or

members of congregations in environmental initiatives.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

The awareness that religion has a role to play in ensuring sustainability of life on earth is not something

new. In 2007, I analysed some of the major religions and found that all provide ample guidelines for their

followers concerning what their attitudes and behaviour should be on environmental matters. I also made

the observation that it looked as if very little attention was given to this issue in sermons and that it was

obvious from what was happening to the world that the followers of these religions were paying scant

attention to what was expected of them ecologically (Dreyer 2007).

There were even examples of religions such as Christianity that, for a long time, actively supported the

view that the earth should be subjugated by human beings and that its resources could be used without

any consideration being given to sustainability. Indeed, under the guise of converting the people of other

countries to Christianity, the colonial powers stripped these peoples’ countries of their resources (e.g.

minerals, wood and products) and, in the process, did irreparable damage. The view held was that "God

planned all [of creation] explicitly for man's benefit and rule: no item in the physical creation had any

purpose save to serve man's purposes" (White 1967:1204). This view, fortunately, seems to have

changed somewhat over time and environmentalist Christians now view peoples’ role as being the

stewards of the earth (Goffman 2005).

Recently, all religions seem to have woken up to their responsibility to actively mobilise their followers, by

which I mean religions are now encouraging their followers to start following their religion’s guidelines;

their followers should start acting as stewards of the earth rather than as just users of its bounty. In this

article, I will take a fresh look at what is happening in this regard in order to get a general overview of

recent changes in people’s attitudes and behaviour.

At a more local level, I shall investigate the efforts and actions of a single congregation of the Reformed

Churches of South Africa to live more sustainably. The research was undertaken as a case study where

the researcher was a participant observer.

The research question that had to be answered was: how does this congregation interpret their religiously

guided obligation towards sustainability and how do they go about putting this into practice?

LITERATURE STUDY

The literature study is devoted to a short overview of some of the major world religions and how they

interpret their environmental responsibilities. The purpose of this section is to determine whether a

common environmental ethic exists among the major world religions or whether certain religions regard

environmental issues as less important.

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World religions and the underlying environmental ethic

The foremost religions chosen for examination include Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam and Christianity.

Buddhism

Fossey et al (2003) describe Buddhism as an ecological religion or a religious ecology, since Buddhists

regard nature as a teacher, as a spiritual force and as a way of life. In the words of Ghosananda in

Fossey et al (2003:1):

When we respect the environment, then nature will be good to us. When our hearts are good, then the

sky will be good to us. The trees are like our mother and father, they feed us, nourish us, and provide us

with everything; the fruit, leaves, the branches, the trunk. They give us food and satisfy many of our

needs. According to Buddhism, not only should there be a respect for life, but there should also be a

respect for nature itself: this can be achieved by frugality and simple living, where nothing is wasted

(Fossey et al 2003).

Swearer (1998) puts the blame for the ecological crisis squarely on the shoulders of humans and is of the

opinion that Buddhists should take action to rectify this situation. According to him, Buddhist

environmentalists believe that there is mutual interdependence between all life-forms and that

environmental degradation should be “more forcefully” addressed. It is not clear how strongly lay

followers of this faith feel about this.

Nash (1987:39) quotes H. H. the Dalai Lama who expresses it thus:

The world grows smaller and smaller, more and more interdependent . . . today more than ever before life must be characterized by a sense of universal responsibility . . . human to human but also human to other forms of life.

The issue of how Buddhists should take action is debated regularly, especially in the Journal of Buddhist

Ethics, which often publishes articles on ecology and the environment.

Hinduism

According to Hinduism, because human beings are intelligent they, of all creatures, should contribute the

most in terms of preserving an ecological balance – so that all creatures are conserved and none are

destroyed. This can be accomplished by living a simple life (Chapple 2003). It is not clear whether

Hinduism’s many followers actively support this approach. The earth does not belong to people (Dwivedi

1996: 154) and if people live in harmony with nature they will be happy and prosperous (Prime 1992: 35).

In Hinduism, the earth is seen as humankind’s mother; it is the earth that supplies us with food, shelter,

and whatever we need. People who destroy the earth are ignorant and should unlearn this behaviour –

mother earth must be treated with respect (Prime 2003).

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Islam

Islam teaches that the earth is subservient to humankind, but that human beings hold the earth in trust:

this means that the earth should be utilised responsibly. Earth is a beautiful garden that should be cared

for lovingly as preparation for the afterlife (Denny 1998). People are not allowed to destroy anything or to

waste anything (Al-Hafiz & Masri 1992:12-15). If you disrespect nature, you disrespect God (Negus

1992:38-39).

Christianity

According to Christian ecological ethics, people should live frugally and, in the spirit of stewardship, care

should be taken in intervening in natural processes so that future generations will also be able to use

earth’s resources (Hessel 1998).

Since there are many different Christian denominations, and many different interpretations of

environmental ethics, I will specifically discuss the view of the Reformed Churches of South Africa (i.e. the

case study).

Finding from the literature study

From the literature it is clear that there is a common understanding among the religions mentioned above

that the environment should be respected and treated with care. All the religions mentioned above

acknowledge the importance of the environment and the fact that humanity has a responsibility to use it

judiciously. The problem, therefore, does not lie in the interpretation of religion’s responsibility towards the

environment and nor does it lie in the fact that religion does not accept a positive environmental ethic.

The problem lies in the fact that this is not translated into action.

Although it is heartening to see (according to the Worldwatch Institute [2006]) that religions are making

some progress in contributing to efforts in ensuring sustainability, it is also clear that, as yet, not enough

is being done in practice. And probably not enough is being done at the level of individual congregations

to ensure that members of the different religions will start taking action in their own communities and

contexts.

The purpose of this research was therefore to determine if the members of a congregation of one

Christian church group in South Africa do have the above understanding of the importance of the

environment and if they are active in pursuing a sustainable lifestyle.

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THE CASE STUDY

When any case study is undertaken, it is important to give a description of its context (Babbie & Mouton

2011: 283).

General context

The church group involved consists of protestant churches within a Christian tradition. The group uses the

Christian Bible as its religious text and believe that the Bible is the Word of God which they choose to

obey. The churches in this group are unique to southern Africa (although there are now a few of these

churches found in countries to which followers have emigrated).

This church group recently had a meeting of church representatives (called a synod) where a formalised

stance was adopted regarding the environment. The document that was drawn up is entitled: Public

witness regarding the ecological crisis (GKSA 2012). An analysis of the document showed that there are

four themes. Theme one describes what the group believes or professes about nature and the earth

(based on the Christian Bible). This part of the document professes that everything belongs to God

because He created everything, including human beings, who are given the responsibility “ … to work it

and take care of it” (Genesis 2:15). It is also professed that it is people who are responsible for the chaos

and degradation of the environment (mainly because of greed) and that it is time that people start working

at repairing this damaged relationship with God’s creation.

In theme two, there is a description of certain aspects of the ecological crisis about which the group is

particularly concerned. Among others, there is concern about unchecked population growth (putting

pressure on resources), non-sustainable use of resources, pollution of resources, destruction of the

environment by governments for their own selfish purposes, and the uneven distribution of wealth

(leading to poverty and famine).

Theme three refers to concerns specific to South Africa, such as our large carbon footprint, the non-

sustainable utilisation of marine resources (also by outsiders), the deteriorating water quality, and soil

pollution by the dumping of mining, medical, industrial and household waste. In theme four there is an

appeal to people, business, industries, governments and religious groups to change their attitude and

behaviour and to stop polluting the planet and misusing its resources; specific mention is made of the

need to re-use and recycle. Religious groups are specifically called upon to meet their obligations towards

the environment, to lead a simpler lifestyle (requiring fewer resources), and to continually pray that

humankind starts behaving in a way that is ecologically responsible.

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Specific context of the case study

The specific congregation studied were members of a city suburb church of about 600 communicants and

150 children. The parishioners are distributed over a large area that includes several suburbs and

smallholdings, as well as a few smaller farms. The congregation consists of a large percentage of older,

retired people and one reverend.

The congregation is active on many fronts (e.g. care of the poor), but only about one third of the

congregants regularly participate in these actions. The specific stance adopted as far as environmental

matters are concerned (against the background of that of the larger church group) can be found in a

sermon that specifically focused on the subject (Nel 2012).

The title of the sermon was “To work it and take care of it” (Genesis 2:15), and the sermon was directly

aligned with the church group’s understanding of what God expects people to do on earth.

An analysis of the sermon revealed the following main points:

God created everything;

God makes himself known through His creation;

Because God is good, He created a living space that was perfect for humans;

God provided people with everything they need to survive;

In return, God expects people to work the land and to take care of it;

Things went wrong when people disobeyed God, which is why there is now an ecological crisis;

Christ made it possible for people to restore their broken relationship with God;

We have a calling to stop abusing God’s creation and to take action to ensure its survival.

From this it is clear that this congregation is called to action and that they must do what they can to stop

the degradation of the environment and the waste of the earth’s resources.

In the beginning of 2012 the activities in the church were reorganised into a number of what is called

“service groups”. One of these service groups is the Recycling and Conservation Service Group, whose

responsibility it is to heed this call to action and to coordinate environmental activities. Service groups

each have a number of members who are all volunteers.

The Recycling and Conservation Service Group has eight permanent members, but a number of other

congregants also support the group’s recycling and conservation activities. Permanent members of the

group are the coordinators of the activities and each has a specific responsibility (e.g. glass recycling).

In what one could call the group’s Constitution (Anon 2012:1), they state that their purpose is to “…

honour God by looking after His creation”. Their functions are broadly stated as recycling and the

conservation of resources.

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In this research, actions taken by this group were observed and a number of interviews were held with

some of the members (see “Findings”).

Findings from the analysis of documents referred to above which forms part of the context

discussed above

It is clear that the larger church group and the specific congregation understand their role as:

derived from God (through His Word, the Bible);

an obligation that must be fulfilled;

stewards of the earth who have an obligation to look after the earth.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

There is a strong association between religion and ethics (Weaver and Agle 2002), because both require

certain ethical behaviours (Fararo and Skvoretz 1986). Religion can influence values (Saroglou et al.,

2004) which, in turn, can influence people's attitudes and behaviour (Schwartz, 1992). This can explain

the influence religions (and their associated guidelines for ethical behaviour) have on how people view

the environment and what they understand as their responsibility towards it.

Religion is not just a belief in God, but also includes the belief that there should be a commitment to

follow guidelines believed to be mandated by God (McDaniel & Burnett, 1990). These beliefs can

influence (ethical) attitudes and behaviour (Weaver & Agle, 2002).

In other words, religions can have an influence on people’s ethical behaviour as far as the environment is

concerned and can be a powerful way of:

making people aware of their responsibilities towards the environment;

spelling out the required actions to achieve this;

inspiring them to change their behaviour accordingly.

Translated into religious learning, one could say that the theory is as follows: if people believe strongly

enough (through the teachings of their religion) that a certain ethic and behaviour is required from them,

they will adapt their behaviour and act accordingly. The converse is also the case: if a required ethic and

behaviour is not taught and lived by a certain religion, people may well not practise this behaviour.

It is therefore of the utmost importance for religions to indicate very clearly to their followers that the

required ethic and behaviour is a prescribed requirement included in their religious texts and therefore

expected of them (otherwise action cannot be expected). This is particularly true regarding a more recent

religious insight such as ethical environmental behaviour which, traditionally, has been neglected. In other

words, it is not enough for a religion to declare that “our religion is environmentally friendly”; it has to

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teach people what is expected of them, what should be done about the problem, and even how it should

be done.

Given that religious teaching usually comes from sermons, activities such as the study of religious texts

and actively teaching children the catechism (as preparation for becoming communicants) one would

expect the required beliefs and actions to be included in these teachings.

The theoretical framework of the study thus looks as follows:

.

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METHODOLOGY

The methodology chosen is constructivist in nature and is therefore qualitative, because I was interested

in the perspectives of a specific group of people on how they make sense of their religious guidelines

regarding sustainable living in a rather unique reality – and how they act upon this interpretation. Because

only a single social group (one congregation) was studied, I chose a case study as the research design.

As is usual in case studies, multiple sources of data were used to collect data to ensure that one obtains

a thick description that is rich in information. The following research methods were used to collect data:

Preferred

environmental

behaviour/ action

Wrong or no

environmental

behaviour/ action

Religious teaching and guidelines on

environmental behaviour/ action

Studying of texts

Sermons

Catechism

Actual activities/involvement

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Literature study

The literature study was undertaken to find out what the world’s major religions teach about the

environment.

Documentary analysis

Documentary analysis was undertaken to find out what people involved in the case study understand

about what they can and should do regarding the environment.

Observations

Because the research had a very strong focus on people’s actions/ behaviours, observation was a very

important data-collection tool. Observations were carried out for several Sundays (multiple observations

on multiple occasions), because this is the day that the congregation comes to church and when they are

actively involved in recycling activities. I took field notes and photographs to record the observations.

Interviews

Given that my observations indicated that some members of the congregations were active in the

recycling and conservation efforts while others were not, I wanted to find out why this is the case. I

interviewed several church members who were active in the drive for conservation and recycling to try

and find why they participated, and I also conducted some interviews with non-participants to get their

perspective about why they did not participate.

The interviewees who were selected from the active members were the appointed coordinators for

different activities associated with the recycling and conservation efforts, and people who congregants

considered to be particularly active. The sampling was therefore purposive and also based on practical

considerations.

The non-active members were selected through random sampling from the total population of the

congregation’s non-active members.

FINDINGS

Findings from the literature study

These findings are discussed under section 2.

Findings from documentary analysis

The findings from the documentary analysis are discussed under section 3, because the documentary

analysis forms part of the background and context of the case study.

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Findings from observations

Two themes could be distinguished in a thematic qualitative analysis of the data: in-church activities and

out-of-church activities. The themes were derived from process coding, because the coding depended on

observable actions. Codes were clustered into categories of actions and two themes emerged.

In-church activities

On several occasions, members of the congregation were urged to become involved in the church’s

conservation and recycling activities. On every occasion, examples of environmentally friendly activities

are given in the weekly church newsletter. These are simple, practical things everybody can do at their

homes and include activities such as putting something in the toilet cistern to reduce water usage. The

weekly church newsletter also includes ideas for young children, with a view to involving children in these

activities.

On one occasion, sermon was devoted specifically to the subject of congregants’ environmental

responsibilities, on the basis that members of the congregation are all stewards of the environment. (The

background here being the views of the church group and the guidelines contained in the Bible.)

In one of the catechism sessions, a specially developed lesson was presented to preschoolers to explain

to them why it is important to look after the environment (not to litter or waste water, etc.). On another

occasion a meeting of the Conservation and Recycling service group was held to discuss ongoing

projects and the inclusion of new ones. On yet another occasion, the Conservation and Recycling service

group did a PowerPoint presentation on the ecological crisis in order to motivate other congregants to

participate in their activities.

Out-of-church activities

These consisted of actual recycling activities, such as those for white paper, non-white paper, glass, egg

cartons, plastic bottle tops and other plastic products. The categories of observations included the age of

participants, how often the same people participated and how many people participated per observation.

The following observations were made:

Most people that brought items for recycling to church were 50 years of age and older (some were

as old as 90).

No children brought items for recycling.

The majority of people participating in recycling did so multiple times during the observation period.

A small percentage of the total members of the congregation participated in the recycling activities

during the observation period.

Most people brought small amounts of items, but did so regularly.

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A person who only contributed once brought a whole bakkie full of items, including several boxes of

glass bottles and paper.

The highest number of people who contributed (on one occasion) was nine.

There was no occasion when nobody contributed.

From the observations it is clear that there is active participation in out-of-church activities. Certain trends

emerged, such as the fact that it is mostly older people who participate, and it would be worthwhile to find

out why in a follow-up study. The fact that only a small percentage of the members of the congregation

participated is also worth noting and following up. This might be an indication that a great deal of work still

needs to be done to involve more of them.

Findings from the interviews

Interview data were analysed by using in vivo coding, because I wanted to reflect on and give examples

of exactly what the interviewees said. Codes were clustered into three categories of reasons for

participation and two categories for non-participation. Reasons for being involved in recycling and

conservation included the following:

Economic benefit

Economic benefit is derived from the three recycling activities and several participants commented on this

fact:

“We got the orange drum (for recycling of non-white paper) because we constantly need funds to

assist the poor in our congregation.”

“Some of the parents cannot buy the catechism booklets for their children….(we) use the money

from white paper recycling to pay for them as we cannot allow a situation where children do not

have books because their parents are poor.”

Extension of home behaviour

Some participants indicated that they have been recycling at home for some time because they felt

compelled to do it for a variety of reasons (e.g. they were influenced by the media, they started doing it

because their children did it at school, they became involved in a group or society where it was advocated

[such as the Honorary Rangers of SA National Parks]).

“The school had a competition for the family that collected and submitted the most cool drink and beer

cans. We won a time-share week because we had the most. After that we just kept going. When the

church started with all the other things (paper, glass, etc.), we were already used to doing it so we

regularly take a lot of stuff to church.”

“I did some recycling from time to time …. it is now easier as I can just take everything to one place (church).”

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Because the church/God expects/requires/mandates it

Participants indicated that they felt it was their duty or calling to participate in the recycling and

conservation efforts of the congregation.

“It says in the Bible that we must do it (act as stewards of the earth).”

“The importance of this (recycling and conservation) was explained in the sermon and we believe we, as

Christians, must do something about it.”

Reasons for non-participation

When interviewed, several participants gave reasons why they do not participate in the church initiative

regarding conservation and recycling. Reasons fell into two categories:

Too busy/time

“We do not have time to sort things (that can be recycled) out. We both work long hours … maybe in the future

we will do so (participate in recycling and conservation).”

“I don’t litter …. at least I am doing something but I just do not have the time for more.”

Forgot/can’t be bothered to do it

“We want to bring things, but usually we only remember when we get to church and see the

recycling drums.”

“Maybe sometime in the future I will participate but not now.” (In the case of this participant, when

prompted, no reason was given.)

It was interesting to note that people who did not participate were fully aware of the activities going on,

and that they were almost apologetic for failing to take part.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

There seems to be a theory that religion can influence people to acquire a positive environmental ethic

which, in turn, can lead them into taking action to reduce environmental degradation. The first question

one can ask is: do religions take their responsibility in this regard seriously and are they actively doing

something to change attitudes and behaviour to the extent that people take action?

From the literature study and documentary analysis, it is evident that the congregation that formed the

subject of this case study research is doing exactly that (i.e. taking action). They clearly understand their

role and responsibility in making people aware of why and how they should change their behaviour and

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they are involved in a number of activities that enable congregants to take action. One has to conclude

that, at least for this case study, members of this religious group do understand their responsibilities

towards the environment and are taking action as expected, which facts seem to confirm the theory

referred to above.

The case study observations, however, indicated that only about one-third of the members of the

congregation were taking action while two out of every three were apathetic. Among those that were

active, some did not start taking action because of the congregation’s initiatives (i.e. for religious

reasons), but for financial reasons or because they were already doing it anyway. Should one therefore

conclude that religions cannot influence people to be more environmentally active?

Interviews showed that the opposite is true. Even those who, for a variety of reasons, were not yet

participating were at least aware of the fact that something needs to be done and that, as members of a

certain religion, they were expected to take action. One interviewee actually said “I know that I should be

doing this, but I have so many other things on my plate ….” while another indicated that he is expected to

recycle his used paper at work. While non-participants at church are obviously not taking action there

(yet) they are not necessarily negative or wasteful and might still start participating (or are still doing

something elsewhere).

When interviewees were asked why more people do not participate, they indicated that this is a trend that

is true of all other activities at church. About one-third of the people regularly attended sermons, one-third

participated in fund-raising and so on, even though they were all well aware that they should all be doing

all these things. One can only deduce that there is no guarantee that people will change their behaviour,

even though they are aware that this is expected and actually required of them.

One therefore has to conclude that, although not everyone will be motivated to take action, religions can

play a role in changing the behaviour of (some) people. When one looks at how much has already been

accomplished by a relatively small number of people, it is obvious that millions of people can possibly be

motivated to act by their religions and can accomplish a million times more - even if everyone does not

join in.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The study is limited to findings based on observations of one congregation of one church group (of one

religion, obviously). Although there is a possibility that this research can be replicated in many more

settings, it is obviously not possible to generalise the findings. A much bigger study will certainly give

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more insights and, if studies are also undertaken among other religions, it may be possible to make

generalisations which, in turn, could lead to the establishment of new theories.

CONCLUSION

This case study research confirmed that, in this one congregation, it is possible to influence the attitudes

and behaviour of congregants regarding their role and responsibilities towards the environment. The

literature study showed that many studies have confirmed that religion can indeed play a role in this

regard. Documentary analysis indicated that this church group and, in particular, this congregation

understands what its responsibility is and that success has been achieved in changing people’s attitude

and behaviour as far as environmental issues are concerned. Observations and interviews confirmed the

success of their efforts in this regard. In the words of the sociologist, Margaret Read, “Never doubt that a

small group of thoughtful, committed people can change the world.”

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9 Opening up minds for EE, ESD, Ecotourism and Technology

N de Crom

Tshwane University of Technology

Abstract

Ecotourism means nature-based tourism with an educational, economical and spiritual dimension. To

provide well-trained practitioners, students in Ecotourism at the Tshwane University of Technology (TUT)

receive extensive training in nature-based subjects. The objective of this study was to determine how

mobile devices (technology) could be used to support students in Ecotourism during compulsory field

trips. PDAs (personal digital assistant) were introduced as (1) an aid to clarify certain phenomena in the

natural environment and for data gathering (EE - Environmental Education), (2) to provide tasks,

assignments and information electronically to replace the conventional paper-based workbook (ESD -

education for sustainable development), and (3) to apply these devices as a tool in simulated real-life

career situations (ESD). Research methods involved a mixed methodology approach using surveys,

observations, and in-depth interviews with students. Results indicate interest and captivated attention as

well as increased motivation and sustainable and appropriate opportunities during field trips. Learning

experiences increased and students become cognitively occupied. The availability of multimedia

programmes for PDAs proves to be highly effective for identification and hands-on information retrieval.

However, evaluation methods need to be adapted as the learners’ approach to addressing problems,

answering questions and debating issues with regards to the environment on mobile devices differs from

the traditional pen-and-paper based methods.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

Looking around these days from homes to offices, coffee shops to cars, trains and airports, primary

schools to university class rooms and mobile gadgets are everywhere. Just scratching the surface reveals

the past few years have seen an explosion of mobile technology in the form of iPods, iPads, Blackberrys,

Smartphones and other mobile devices with PDA functionalities such as browsers, email, facebook,

camera and video and light weight laptops, connectivity at "hot spots" and much more. The question is:

Why not use the emerging gadgets (technology) as the powerful tool it can be in teaching and learning?

Students are already familiar with the mentioned functionalities and research suggests that mobile

technologies can make a significant impact in supporting teaching and learning (Perry, 2003; Zurita &

Nussbaum, 2004; Sharples, Taylor & Vavoula, 2007).

This paper reports on the implementation of the personal digital assistant (PDA) to support first year

Ecotourism students at the Tshwane University of Technology (TUT) during field trips. The PDA is a

hand-held computer approximately one-eighth the size of a laptop. Some models receive user input from

a scaled-down keyboard, while others rely on touch screens or an electronic stylus and incorporate

handwriting recognition. Some are equipped with a camera and most have sound facilities for recording

and playback.

Compulsory outdoor training trips form part of the curriculum of the Diploma in Ecotourism Management

in the Department of Nature Conservation. Students need to participate and understand these hands-on

aspects in nature in order to understand and apply the theoretical subject matter offered in class.

Students of any nature related course are usually attracted to the discipline because of the opportunities it

offers to leave the lecture room to explore, experience and learn in the natural environment.

No technological alternative can replace field learning. However, technology can be taken into the field to

support and enhance the learning experience. As it is cumbersome and impractical to take desktop

computer technology into the field, mobile devices are the ideal alternative. Powerful new hardware and

software, capable of supporting mobile computing, offer new options in field education (eco-learn or

environmental education).

Ecotourism and Environmental Education

Before explaining training in ecotourism, it is important to realise what is meant by “ecotourism”. It is

generally agreed that ecotourism is nature-based tourism. In their descriptions of ecotourism, writers

generally refer to nature as the basis, but have placed different emphases on responsibility, local culture,

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sustainability, education, local economic benefits and spiritual and psychological benefits (e.g. Bolton,

1997; Page & Dowling, 2002; ResourceAfrica, 2004; De Crom, 2005).

In all countries of the world, both rich and poor, ecotourism has the potential to play an outstanding role in

educating people about the importance of an environmental ethic. This ethic must include recognition of

the complexity and sensitivity of nature and a rejection of the belief that we can understand nature

scientifically and manipulate it with technology. Participation in sound ecotourism can contribute to the

development of a deep environmental ethic among people who travel internationally to visit wildlife

settings, especially those in developing countries (Fredrickson, 2002).

Education and interpretation are important elements of the ecotourism experience. Tour guides are key

front-line players in the tourism industry. Through their knowledge and interpretation they have the ability

to transform the tourists’ visit from a tour into an experience (Ap & Wong, 2001:551). Therefore, there is a

need for trained guides and interpreters who can set examples by their behaviour and insights. It will not

only enhance the reconnecting experience of the ecotourist, but should also help to ensure better

management for conservation purposes and development objectives. If ecotourism seeks to promote

responsible travel, then its foundation must be education.

Ecotourism students at TUT undergo extensive training in nature based subjects as part of the

Ecotourism Management diploma. The delivered product (the person who will eventually work in the

environment) should be the required well-informed, trained and educated ecotourism practitioner.

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Ecotourism students must attend compulsory field trips of at least one week each semester in order to

gain practical experience and apply the theory of the indoor class. During these field trips students are

transported to various destinations in South Africa.

The conventional programme involves the following: Prior to departure each student receives a workbook

(project book) with a list of questions and assignments and spaces to write for completion during the field

trip. The completed workbook must be submitted before the end of the last day of the trip. This implies

that students have to obtain information from textbooks, brochures, interviews, lectures and other

resources and write this summarised information in the workbooks. They also need to do this while being

transported to the destination, walking or listening to lecturers and guides in the field - a difficult and

inconvenient way of taking notes. Students also have to carry textbooks, field identification guides, note

books and stationary for note taking, a clipboard, binoculars, etc. with them while studying the outdoors.

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Conditions in the field are often not suitable for note-taking or the use of books as they visit places such

as caves, rocky shores, mountains and hiking routes where a certain amount of physical and mental

activity and awareness is required. Students often complain that they “missed what was said” because

they could not keep up with the walking pace and listening and writing at the same time. These and other

external barriers inhibit the concentration, enjoyment and ultimately the learning experience of the

students. The quality of submitted handwritten work is, understandably, also not good and is subject to

the conditions under which the students have to complete the workbook. These workbooks are evaluated

and a mark is allocated which contributes to the semester mark, allowing the student to write a final

exam.

The use of mobile technology, which includes PDAs, and to a lesser extent, laptop computers and cell

phones, was evaluated to address these problems.

The research problem for this study is located in questions raised in terms of the sustainability of

experiences and learning that take place during these field trips, e.g. What do the students do?, What do

they learn?, How do they learn? Are the conventional tests, projects or workbooks sufficient to evaluate

the students?

The main research question was therefore to determine how mobile devices could be used in an

integrated manner as a tool to support and enhance the teaching and learning of students in a

sustainable manner.

RESEARCH QUESTION

Based on the research problem and existing literature the following question was formulated: How can

the use of mobile technology (PDAs specifically) support and enhance field learning for ecotourism

learners?

Sub-questions resulting from the research question are:

1. How can specific field experiences be enhanced by the use of mobile technology?

2. How does mobile technology motivate students to become involved in field learning?

3. To what extent do students make use of multimedia programmes?

4. Are traditional evaluation methods appropriate for mobile learning?

5. What are the general advantages of using PDAs in the long term?

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Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in this study. Qualitative measuring instruments

included interviews, observations, video-recordings, photographs and open-ended questionnaires and

surveys, while instruments for quantitative measuring involved questionnaires.

What we have done

In the first instance some valuable capabilities and features were identified to be available for educational

purposes on the PDA. These include:

Windows operating system which makes it compatible with other devices

Internet

Pocket Word

Pocket Excel

PDF Viewer

Presentations (PowerPoint Viewer)

Real-time player (Video recordings)

Audio recordings and player

Graphics display (if camera is available)

Multimedia

The use of PDAs was introduced over three field trips with the same group of students (N=50). Each

student received a device (with specific information from the lecturer already on the PDA) prior to the field

trip, which he/she should take ownership of for the duration of the field trip.

Prior to each field trip the lecturer gathered information on a laptop and transferred this to each PDA. The

information consisted of:

A route map

Tasks in the form of questions that required completion each day (Fig. 1)

Figure 1: Tasks provided on the PDA

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Information on features, sites and destinations to be visited

Problem statements or questions on specific current environmental issues

PowerPoint slide shows of natural phenomena, historical sites, and aspects covered during the trip

(Fig. 2)

Southern cross

Figure 2: Example of information concerning natural phenomena provided on the PDA

Discussion questions

Information copied from Internet sources and references to books, field guides, places and people to

be consulted for further information gathering.

Surveys to evaluate the experiences of each day

Multimedia programmes for PDAs (eBirds, eWildlife, eTrees, eGrasses, eMammals and eSnakes)

Prior to the trip each student was also asked to prepare him/herself for a real-life simulation to be an

ecotourist guide for the rest of the group for a specified section of the route to be covered during the trip.

No information was made available on the PDA in this regard and students had to collect the information

required for the section of the route for which he/she was responsible. It was the prerogative of the

student to use the PDA in whatever way he/she thought it could be of value in guiding. This part of the

process also included active participation by the assessors. Two assessors (lecturers) used PDAs to

assess each student (‘guide’) according to set criteria. Students were also peer-assessed by each other

(on an Excel sheet on the PDA - Fig. 3). This was done to not only encourage students to pay attention to

what was being interpreted, but also kept them aware of things they do wrong (or right) as a guide

(metacognition).

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Figure 3: Example of the Excel sheet used on the PDA to do peer-assessment during a guiding

activity

During the fieldtrip, students needed to take notes during field interpretation, information sessions and

discussions. They also had to compile extensive species lists of birds, mammals, trees and grasses which

each individual had identified him/herself. In addition they had to compile a list of tourist attractions along

the route. At the end of each day students had to individually complete a survey on the day’s

experiences. Activities of students with the devices were monitored and notes were taken by the

researcher. Interviews were conducted with students during the day and evening whenever the

opportunity arose.


The objective of this study was to determine how mobile devices (technology) could be used to support

students in Ecotourism during compulsory field trips in a sustainable manner. This means that it should

not be the mobile device as such that will make the difference, but rather the application of the features of

the device that can be transferred to any situation in lifelong learning. The following illustrates the

outcomes of this objective:

Use of standard features of the PDA

Students used the standard programmes on the PDA as follows:

All the documents created by the lecturer prior to the fieldtrip (on MSWord, MSExcel, PDF and

PowerPoint), were extensively used as a reference for information gathering.

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As expected Pocket Word was mainly used by most students (85%) for note-taking during lectures,

discussions and informal conversations. All questions, tasks and surveys were completed as Word

documents. The majority of students (65%) also used Word to create species lists. This came as a

surprise as it was expected that Excel would have been used to a greater extent for this purpose.

Only 35% of the students used Excel for species lists. However, numerical data capturing e.g.

number of animal encounters, game counts and repetitive animal behaviour patterns, was done on

Excel sheets by a number of students (25%).

PowerPoint was used for the provided graphics and text for information display.

The multimedia programmes were used for information searches and species identification. eBirds

was extensively used in bird identification, and students especially made use of the sound option in

this regard. Students reported that they had never been able to identify as many birds as they did

or became so interested in birds than what they had ever been during these field trips using PDAs.

Some also used the option in this programme to create personal bird lists.

Some students (18%) also took notes on paper and transferred some of these handwritten notes to

their PDAs when they had more time available (during free time in evenings). The reason for this

was that they could not type as fast as they needed to with the stylus in order to capture necessary

information during sessions. However, they still preferred to transfer the written notes to a readable

electronic format for final submission and evaluation.

On own initiative, almost 60% of the students, took photographs of interesting observations with

their camera-equipped cell phones or digital cameras during the day's fieldwork. These

photographs were transferred to a laptop and viewed by the whole group as PowerPoint slide

shows during discussion sessions in the evenings. Students also used the recording feature to

record sounds (especially birds, as well as music from traditional instruments during a cultural

performance). These notes, photographs and sound recordings were also used to clarify

uncertainties encountered during the day's fieldwork, back at base camp where these could be

compared with illustrations in text books and discussion sessions (Fig. 4).

PDA as a tool in simulated real-life career situations

Results indicate that students are very comfortable in the use and application of PDAs in real life

situations, such as guiding. They find it especially helpful in their preparation prior to the field trip.

Students downloaded the necessary information for their part of the guiding exercise from Internet sites to

the PDA. They also managed to summarise the most important data from the Internet sites, textbooks

and other sources and transferred this to the PDA as keywords and reminders for clues during the

guiding exercise. Some students also used the PDA to illustrate certain features of animals, birds, trees

or other phenomena to their ‘tourists’ by circulating the PDA in the bus so that all interested could have a

closer look at what was being interpreted.

Engagement with the tool and learning content

Much has been written about the value of teaching and learning in natural and biological sciences in ways

that are authentic and engaging to students as they enquire and collaborate with others (Vogel, et al.

2010). According to Soloway (1996) today’s students are not mastering concepts or applying their

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classroom knowledge. He is of the opinion that a disconnection exists between what goes on in the

lecture room and what goes on outside. Soloway (1996:270) proposes helping students to make sense of

their studies by providing tools that “can extend and amplify learners’ cognitive processes”. The

implementation of mobile technology such as PDAs as done in this study, may be one of the tools

implicated by Soloway.

The interest and captivated attention of students in all groups were clearly noticeable from the first

exposure to the PDA. During previous field trips students used to sleep, eat, have loud irrelevant

conversations, etc. while being transported to the destinations. They always found it “impossible” to write

and take notes while on the move in a bus. Therefore, much of what was being said in the bus by the

lecturer was lost during these trips. Students usually also tended to lose interest in the environment and

quickly fell asleep in the bus.

This study indicated that students used the PDAs almost constantly on the way to the destinations. They

took notes of what was said and interpreted by the lecturer or guides, asked for statements to be

repeated if they had missed something, used the existing information on the PDA to get answers to tasks

and discussion questions and participated in meaningful discussions with each other on topics provided

on the PDA. Students mostly concentrated on what was going on in the environment as colourful and

interesting illustrations and questions on the PDA drew their attention to noticeable features along the

route. This was especially true where students had to pay attention in order to be able to assess each

other during the guiding exercise.

One of the biggest advantages of the PDA mentioned by all the students was the comfortability of its

capacity of information - both for storage and for software. When engaged in practical fieldwork, students

used to have to carry along all the required textbooks, field guides, notepaper, clipboards, etc. With the

use of the PDAs, this was no longer necessary and expensive books could be left at the base camp. Most

of what was immediately needed was available on the PDA in the form of e-books/software programmes.

During field work students could pay attention to what was going on around them and not with the heavy

pack on their backs. Back at the base camp textbooks, field guides and collected samples were used to

add to or verify information gathered throughout the day (Fig. 4). Data were consolidated and compared

and students consulted each other for additional information or verification. This complies with Solomon's

(1991, in Rieger & Gay, 1997) suggestion that helping students solve ambiguous and complex problems

by giving access to data, and by offering opportunities “to collaborate, investigate and create”.

Suggestions from these and other researchers (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989; Newman, Griffin & Cole,

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1989; Resnick, 1987; Rogers & Price, 2010) are that biological science teaching (including Environmental

Education) should engage students in real life problems and promote collaboration. During this study it

was clear that students collaborated in gathering more data on or by means of the PDA than the paper-

based alternative, solving problems by comparing data and maintaining attention to various aspects of

field learning by comparing information on the PDA with that found in nature (real life). In addition,

students had the opportunity to improve the final product and general presentation format of their

documents prior to final submission. Some changed Word documents to visually more attractive

PowerPoint presentations with added information and graphics.

Figure 4: Students verifying notes, photographs and collected samples taken during the day's

fieldwork with textbook illustrations at base camp

Educational researchers (Resnick, 1987; Soloway, 1996; Ally, 2009) argue that students learn best when

given the opportunity to learn skills and theories in the context in which they are used, then construct their

interpretations of a subject and communicate those understandings to others. Mobile computer-mediated

learning environments (such as PDAs and cell phones) may support this process. This is of great

significance in ecotourism and environmental education, as it is essential for students to be able to find,

organise, understand and interpret information, and communicate those understandings in an interesting

and understandable manner to ecotourists or other role-players in the industry.

PDAs (part of mobile technology) also supports “just-in-time” learning. This is an adoption by educators of

a successful industry technique that involves delivery of parts and finished products at precisely the time

in which they are needed (Schorr, 1995). Transferred to education, students may receive context-related

information or complete a skill-building task, at the most appropriate teachable moment. In this study

students had the opportunity to consult applicable information when it was needed. For example, when

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walking in the bush and hearing the call of a bird, access to information to identify the bird by the sound it

makes, was immediately available. During these teachable moments (listening to the bird call in the

natural environment), “just-in-time” learning is an essential part of the field experience of students in any

environmental educational subject or topic. In few, if any, other circumstances can a person learn and

understand the interactions in nature at these specific times. The PDA is an excellent instrument in this

learning environment. This was also evident in the 'real-life' scenarios. When “just-in-time” information

was needed to answer a question of an enthusiastic ‘tourist’, the well-prepared student had the answer

available on the PDA. Some students even located Wi-Fi hotspots at stop-over towns and searched for

answers to questions they had no information on.

While there is a wealth of literature describing technology’s potential for supporting education, little has

been written from an education or communication perspective specifically about the value of mobile

computing. Many projects concentrate on technical rather than learning concerns (Concord Consortium,

1997; Foster, 1995; Schnase, Cunnius & Dowton, 1995). According to Deviney and Von Koschembahr

(2004) mobile learning, as part of a growth trend in the e-learning market, is evolving into a dynamic,

interactive and personalised experience for both students and lecturers. These aspects may contribute to

the pedagogical experiences of the student in the field and enhance the learning experience with

technology at hand (Cochrane, 2005).

The data gathered from this study indicates a variety of possibilities in the use of mobile technology to

support and enhance the field learning experience of the student, as well as the teaching experience of

the lecturer. Although the lecturer and the students were unaware of the full potential of the PDA before

and even after the pilot study, it quickly became clear that information display and information gathering

(note-taking) as well as multi-media applications are some of the major advantages for this new method

of teaching and learning (see also Herrington et al. 2008).

From the abovementioned results, the following summarised answers are provided for the research

questions:


Information should be organised in ‘consumable’ quantities and time units ensuring that students do

not perceive an information overload in the beginning of day one.

Brief lecture notes or keywords should be available on the PDA during fieldwork, ensuring that

students do not “miss out on what is said”.

By using a PDA in fieldwork, a calculator, dictionary, notebook, keyword reference and graphical

representations are always available on one single hand-held unit and reference books need not to be

carried along during all field projects.

Sound and picture identification of a variety of natural features are available “just-in-time” in one unit.

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The PDA has the ability to store a significant amount of information.

Stored information can be revised prior to submission for evaluation, adding to the field learning by

doing additional research and organising information.

Some PDAs and mobile phones are equipped with a digital camera that can be used to take

photographs of features or sightings for clarification, discussion or identification at a later stage.

Reference material is always available (“just in time”).

By synchronising PDAs and desktop systems, data can be revisited, revised and improved where

needed.

Paper-based workbooks with illegible handwriting, limited space for creativity and answers copied from

fellow students are replaced by individualised electronic documents that are revised, readable and

illustrated.

These aspects may contribute to the pedagogical experiences of the student in the field and enhance the

learning experience with technology at hand.

2 How does mobile technology motivate students to become involved in field learning?

Learning addresses the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills of the learner. According to Malone

and Lepper (1987), motivation, as an affective skill, is the central point of departure of all learning.

Intrinsic motivation makes learning fun and results in a challenge, has a fantasy factor and leads to

curiosity of the learner. This puts the student in control of his or her own learning, creates satisfaction,

improves the self-image and contributes to cognitive involvement. Concerning the abovementioned, the

following quotes are representative of the majority of the learners’ experiences with reference to the

motivational skills:

Fun: “It was fun to work with these tools in the field”, “I figured it would be fun and interesting to

learn something new…”

Curiosity: “I was very curious about how the multimedia programmes work and how to apply them

to identify…”.

Challenge: “…something new and challenging in life”, "…a challenging experience in the field…"

Interesting: “I was interested in improving my knowledge in a more modern and convenient way…”,

“…increasing my interest and making me work a little harder”

Satisfaction: “…technology is so advanced and things are now becoming so easy for us…”, “you

can do a lot on a small computer in the palm of your hand”, “I enjoyed everything and I am willing to

learn more”, "why couldn't we get this from the beginning? It is so much better!"

Results from the open-ended questionnaires, interviews, video-recordings and observations indicate that the

majority of students had a positive experience when using the PDA as a motivational factor. The students

accepted the challenge of the alternative technology and adapted to the new learning strategy. When asked

whether the PDA caused students to lose interest in the environment (a vital aspect for ecotourism learners),

the answer was “No, the PDA was a tool and not the experience.” The follow-up field trips proved the

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sustainability of this experience as students became more creative in the application of the different electronic

media (which is not covered in this paper).

To what extent do students make use of multimedia programmes?

The eBirds multimedia programme was emphasised in 96% of the feedbacks as a huge advantage and

assisting in (1) creating an interest in bird watching - a growing industry in ecotourism, and (2) identifying

bird species. The birdcall feature on the PDA was highlighted as extremely helpful in identifying birds.

Results from species lists and information provided during ‘guiding’ by the students proved that all the

multimedia programmes were used to a great extent to help with the identification of species of all kinds,

to gather information on specific trees, mammals, birds and snakes and to compile lists with keywords

with relevant detail on anticipated questions on key species.

Are traditional evaluation methods appropriate for mobile learning?

Evaluation methods need to be adapted as students’ approach to addressing problems, answering

questions and debating issues with and on mobile devices differs from the traditional pen-and-paper

based methods. Answers tend to be more concise in comparison with the long often irrelevant written

answers. Instead of only evaluating the reading matter submitted by the student at the end of the field trip,

the day-to-day input and understanding can be monitored and addressed when problems arise. Most of

the critical cross field outcomes of outcomes based education are also incorporated in the use of mobile

technology. Evaluation methods should be adapted to incorporate these outcomes, e.g. group work,

collaboration and problem solving.

What are the general advantages of using PDAs in the long term?

In this study mobile technologies have been applied in Ecotourism field trips to support and enhance the

learning experiences of the students and the teaching experiences of the lecturers. Although there are

some limitations, the results of this study indicate increased motivation and more outcome-based

appropriate opportunities when using PDAs. Both lecturer and students benefit from the features and

tools of the PDA. Learning experiences increased and students are cognitively occupied during teaching

sessions. They also have the opportunity to reflect by integrating text books, field guides and mobile

technologies to receive and submit discussions, summaries and assignments.

The sustainability of using mobile technologies lies in the availability of the tools. Each student owns at

least a cell phone. Very few students are not knowledgeable in the use of computers. All are very keen to

learn how to use technology and/or new features of devices. Feedback from students indicates that they

prefer this independent way of learning. In the process, they do not only gain subject knowledge, but they

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also learn the aspects of group dynamics and how to use technology in an educational setting. Students

felt empowered and gained self-confidence by using technology. All of these adhere to the pedagogical

foundation of using mobile devices as tools to support and enhance teaching and learning.

CONCLUSION

Mobile technology, in conjunction with other e-learning tools, can efficiently be used to enhance and

support the field training of ecotourism guides, interpreters, environmental educators, managers and

developers. By providing real-life problems and situations by means of mobile devices, training can be

improved to ensure environmental role-players who can set examples by their own behaviour because

they have the needed knowledge of nature.

Education and interpretation are essential elements of the ecotourism (and any other environmental)

experience. Using mobile technology in the teaching and learning process will not only enhance the

reconnecting experience of the learner, but should also help to ensure better management for

conservation purposes and development objectives due to exposure to real-life situations during field

training.

The market is moving towards the convergence of enterprise applications and wireless devices that will

open the doors to mobile learning. Cell phones, hand-held computers and PDAs now have the

capabilities, connectivity and features to support learning activities.

Mobile learning gives the front-line workforce the access to the critical information sources, learning

materials and expertise to learn what they want, where they want, when they want. The future belongs to

those who can make a real paradigm shift, open up their minds to be creative in using technology other

than just PowerPoint presentations or chalk to teach.

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10 The role of the Christian Church in promoting environmental stewardship: a case

study of the Uniting Reformed Church in Southern Africa

RD Tshenye, Doctoral student, University of South Africa

CS le Roux, University of South Africa

Abstract

Care for the environment is part of a Christian believer’s Christian stewardship (CS) duty and is Biblically

founded. Taking the Uniting Reformed Church in Southern Africa (URCSA) as one of the Christian

churches in South Africa, the research reported in this paper discusses the level of environmental literacy

(EL) of a cohort of current students, lecturers and practicing ministers as well as their perceptions of

environmental stewardship (ES) as a dimension of their CS duty. Although none of the respondents

dispute their ES responsibility, respondents’ perceptions on ES as a dimension of CS is influenced by

age; years of experience as a student or in the ministry; level of EL; location (rural or urban) and previous

exposure to environmental education (EE) training. Areas for improvement in seminary training curricula

to support ES are suggested.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

Despite the fact that the Bible, as the inspired Word of God, deals primarily with the relationship between

God and humankind and the way to salvation and eternal life, the Bible also presents tenets that entreat

the protection of the natural and biophysical world in a holistic manner (Bauckman 2002: 141; Esler

1998:223-224; Horrell, Hunt & Southgate 2008: 223-224). There are many references in the Bible to the

wonder as well as the importance of the biophysical world that we today generally refer to as the

‘environment’. These references – although written centuries ago – retain their relevance and point to the

heart of many current environmental concerns.

Page (in Esler, 1998: 223-224) and De Witt & Nash (nd.) argue that Christianity at no point gave license

to the wholesale exploitation of the natural world as was posited by White in his scathing article, The

historical roots of our ecological crisis (1967). Page (ibid) and others (Cafaro 2005; Taliaferro 2005: 162)

argue that the current state of the environment indicates that humankind has indeed ravaged the earth

through greed, covetousness, materialism, competitiveness and short-sightedness that are specific

human traits ardently opposed by Christianity. However, he further points out as does Apple (2009: 98),

that Christianity, as one of the dominant global religions, should accept some responsibility for perhaps

not trying to take in hand the actions of its followers who have contributed to the deterioration and

devastation of the natural world as we know it today.

RESEARCH CONTEXT

In South Africa (SA) Churches of various denominations collectively unite under the umbrella of

Christianity. Those who wish to enter the ministries in these Churches receive their training at theological

seminaries or universities. Cock (in Conradie & Field 2000: 1) alleges in his report entitled ‘Towards the

greening of the Christian Church in South Africa’ that training related to the environment and

environmental concerns are generally absent from the curricula of these institutions. He asserts that there

is a ‘blind spot’ and a ‘deep silence’ within the Christian Church in SA on the environment and its related

issues.

It cannot be disputed that the primary function of the Christian Church is to proclaim the Gospel and to

lead sinners to Christ (Dickmann 2008) but since the biophysical environment is a prominent feature of

God’s creation it would seem appropriate to establish and teach the Biblical perspective on the

environment and Christians’ subsequent position in relation to the biophysical environment.

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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK, KEY CONCEPTS AND UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS

Care for the environment is part of responsible Christian living through which we honour God and witness

to the world (Mat 5:16). Conradie and Field (2000: 1; Clarke 2007; James 2009) point out that the Church

has an important role to play in raising environmental awareness and responsibility among its followers

and should engage with issues that relate to the biophysical world such as the issue of environmental

justice, environmental awareness and environmentally responsible attitudes and behaviour amongst

parishioners. To do this, doctrinal material that relates to the environment and that could be used in

Christian worship should be developed. These researchers thus call the Christian Churches in SA to

commitment: to engage with issues relating to the environment as a token of their faithfulness of being

responsible stewards of God’s creation.

Stewardship

Within a secular context, stewardship is defined as the careful and responsible management of the well-

being of that of which one is a steward. Stewards are caretakers and their stewardship duties involve

deciding what should be done, and how it should be done. In other words, stewards need to collect and

use information; provide vision and direction; plan and implement strategies; put structures in place to

implement the directives and exert influence to ensure that the goals are reached. Stewards are

accountable for the degree of success of their stewardship and this success or lack thereof is assessed

by determining the wellbeing of the entity of which stewardship is provided (Travis 2002; Egger 2002;

Davies & Mechbal 2002).

In the Biblical context, a steward holds a position of trust, although in some instance this position is

abused (Gehman 1970: 906; see the parable of the unjust steward in Lk 16:1-13). Paul (1 Cor 4:2; Titus

1:7-9)) and Peter (1 Pet 4:10) outline the characteristics and requirements of stewards as individuals who

should be trustworthy, blameless, respectful, charitable, self-controlled, upright, and disciplined. They

should encourage compliance and oppose wrongdoing.

Environmental stewardship from a Biblical perspective

In Genesis 1 (26-31) and 2 (16-17) believers are acquainted with the fact that they are the appointed

stewards of God’s created physical world. God gave His people authority over nature not as owner or

exploiter, but as steward who shares the creative care of the Creator (Northcott 1996: 180). Reumann

(1992: 5) claims that Christian stewardship (CS) and environmental stewardship (ES) is a person’s

grateful and obedient response to God’s redeeming love, expressed by the judicious use and care of His

creation. As Esler (1998: 219-221) points out, an environmental steward is:

responsible for the conservation of the land, so that it will not go to waste

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responsible for its improvement, so that it becomes more productive, and

responsible for the care of fellow creatures, the non-human inhabitants.

Clearly this vision ought to stimulate Christian’s commitment to tread judiciously on the earth, to use its

resources wisely and to nurture and protect it (Birch in Habel & Wurst 2000: 11).

Environmental literacy

An environmentally literate person is one who has a broad understanding of how people and societies

relate to each other and to natural resources, and how they might do so sustainably (Elder 2003: 15).

Environmental literacy (EL) presupposes awareness and knowledge of the environment and its

interrelatedness, a pro-environmental attitude and the intellectual and pragmatic skills needed to

incorporate appropriate environmental considerations into daily decisions about consumption, lifestyle,

career, and civics, and to engage in individual and collective pro-environmental activities (Elder 2003: 16-

17). EL is thus activated by individual commitment. Environmentally literate citizens are motivated and

empowered to act on their own informed conclusions to ensure environmental quality and sustainability.

This latter disposition translates to later working in groups and communities and cultivating an

understanding of ways of benefiting the environment. The deduction is that teachers and individuals,

whether they serve and function in the secular or religious context, need to facilitate and encourage these

pro-environmental dispositions and skills in broader community contexts.

Training in environmental literacy and environmental stewardship

Gambrill (2011: 12) mentions that the Alliance for Religions and Conservation believes that faith-based

communities are excellently positioned to teach about the environment and that Christianity is a clear

example of how a religion has within it both implicit and explicit environmentally related teaching

opportunities. Christianity’s central – and primary – theme is about the condition of man, his relationship

with God and his salvation. The Church is often accused that teaching about the environment is of

secondary importance. The explicit teaching about the environment is most significantly supported in the

narrative of the creation of the first man, Adam. He is created separately to the rest of creation, and his

authority and dominion over it is most apparent. In the Genesis narration, the world is there for his use.

This secular view that is shared by other organizations points to a misinterpretation of the passage

quoted – that God gave man dominion over the earth (Gen 2.15). Dominion does not mean pillage and

plunder, but to take sensible care of the earth with all its resources and creatures. The idea that man is

free to destroy God's creation is at odds with God's obvious enjoyment of His creation as constantly

reiterated in Genesis 1 (Deem 2007).

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In Exodus a number of unambiguous principles describing God’s instructions for the utilisation of His

creation are outlined. For example, there was the introduction of the Sabbath principle that requires

setting aside the seventh day as a day of rest for people and animals (Ex 20 & Deut 5). The same

principle applies to agriculture and in Exodus 23:10-12 and Leviticus 25: 2-4 God instructs that all

cultivated lands are to be let rest and lie fallow in the seventh year (Chr 36:21). This Sabbath principle

commandment protects man, beasts and the natural environment from relentless exploitation, ensures

their sustainable use and allows for rejuvenation and restoration (DeWitt 1994; Marshall 1998). Principles

regarding sanitation and waste disposal are outlined in Leviticus (17:1-27:34). The principles clearly

stipulate God’s instructions on how creation is to be used, protected and conserved.

God warns that wretchedness will befall those who use His creation in an exploitive manner and destroy

the earth (Lev 25:23-24; Isa 5:8; Rev 11:18) and reproaches those who abuse the physical environment

(Ezek 34: 2-4, 18; Jer 2:7). God speaks to humankind through the scriptures, but also through His

creation (Ps 19:1-4; Matt 6:28-29; Rom 1:20) and we cannot claim ignorance regarding how creation

should be used, protected and conserved. God gave people dominion – but not sovereignty (Job 38:1-

39:40) – over nature. Since people are created in His image, as His representatives on earth, we need to

attach similar values to nature and its use. The instruction to have dominion over the earth is predicated

upon the fact that God is the ultimate owner of all things and that human subjugation and use of the earth

must be in accordance with God’s will and bidding. Taking custody of the earth implies an understanding

of the elements of nature or natural systems and learning about God’s created order and purpose of

nature (Bergstrom 2003). Christianity undisputedly recognizes human stewardship of the created world.

Conradie and Field (2000: 56) argue that the Church has done little about understanding and building up

the relationship that existed between God, humankind and His creation at the time of creation. God’s love

for His creation is not confined to humankind but extends also towards the entire natural world. While

man occupies an honoured place within the natural world, but creation itself glorifies God in its own right.

This theme is found through the Psalms, (explicitly Ps 19; 148), and also in Genesis 1:6,7; Romans 10:18

and in Job, where man is reminded of how small and insignificant he is compared to the power of God

and the vastness of His creation.

In our everyday existence, we are increasingly confronted with the need for frugality, social eco-justice,

and fair access to use and distribution of natural resources (UN Millennium Declaration 2000). People

need to show responsibility towards the natural world and be accountable to the common good of the

current and future generations. This notion is intrinsic to the concept of sustainable development (SD)

articulated at the UN World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED 1987). Although the

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term SD has been in circulation since 1987, it was only in 2002 that it was acknowledged that ‘education’

was an indispensable means to achieve SD (Centre for Environmental Education 2008; UNESCO 2010).

The issue of responsibility and accountability mentioned above can be nurtured through appropriate

educational interventions as envisaged through the Decade for Education for Sustainable Development

(DESD) instituted in 2005. Owing to the substantial following the Christian Church has, it is fair to assume

that the Church has the ability to reach out to and educate vast numbers of individuals. Simultaneously,

the Church is Biblically duty bound to fulfil its mandate to value and treat creation with respect. If this

assumption is valid, it would be necessary to establish the extent to which the vocational training curricula

at the theological seminaries of the Uniting Reformed Church in Southern Africa (URCSA) – the

denomination purposefully selected for the purpose of this research – provide training in EL and ES as

part of the mandate to promote a CS ethic among ministers of religion, Lecturers, Church elders and

students and ultimately the communities in which they work..

RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND AIMS

To build a premise that in the URCSA seminaries there is a distinct need to teach about the significance

of and care for the biophysical and environmental features of God’s creation as part of a CS ethic, the

following research questions were posed:

How is God’s own love and care for His creation revealed in the scriptures and how is the concept

of humanity’s stewardship of God’s creation developed and dealt with in the scriptures?

How do ministers of the URCSA perceive the issues of CS as an aspect of the Christian ethic and

how does ES fit into the CS mandate?

To what extent do ministers teach and practice CS and ES in their parishes and Communities?

To what extent do current curricula of the URCSA training institutions provide tuition in relation to

CS, ES and EL?

What is the level of understanding of the concepts of CS, ES, EE and EL among ministers,

lecturers and students of the URCSA?

This study proposed to establish a Biblical premise for CS, ES and EL and to establish the level of

understanding and stance of URCSA ministers, lecturers, Church elders and students on issues of CS,

ES, EL, and EE. The latter is by association a dimension of the study, because, according to Robinson

and Wolfson (1982) and HiItzhusen (2006) the primary goals of EE are fundamental to establishing EL.

It is beyond the scope of this article to report on the research in entirety and consequently the issues

relating to the training received in seminaries and ministers’, lecturers’, Church elders’ and students’

understanding and perception of CS, ES, EE and EL only are reported.

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RESEARCH POPULATION, DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION

Combinations of simple random and stratified sampling techniques were used to select research

respondents from practicing ministers of the URCSA, and students and lecturers from URCSA training

institutions. This study followed a mixed methods design and the data was collected through both

quantitative and qualitative methods. Data was collected from reviewing and analysing relevant literature

on the topic as well as examining curriculum documentation from various theological seminaries in order

to design a survey questionnaire to establish ministers’, lecturers’ and students’ perceptions towards and

level of understanding of CS, ES, EE and EL. The statistical analysis of the survey data indicated areas

for further exploration that was done through conducting individual and focus group interviews.

The dimension of the research reported in this article is based on the outcomes of the survey analysis

that was analysed quantitatively.

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS

The survey was used to determine the attitudes, beliefs, opinions and knowledge of a sample of the

research population in respect of CS, EL, EE and ES as they related to the context of the envisaged

research.The questionnaire comprised 124 questions that were spread over six sections.

1. Section A – respondents’ biographical and demographic information

2. Section B – respondents’ perceptions related to the Biblical foundation of CS and ES and the

relationship between the two concepts.

3. Section C – respondents’ opinions on the importance of EE in developing EL

4. Section D – respondents’ level of EL

5. Section E – respondents’ perception of the parishes’ or institution’ attitude towards CS,

environmental issues and ES

6. Section F – students’ and lecturers’ opinions on the extent to which current training programmes

address CS, ES and EL

Embedded in the complete spectrum of survey questions were questions that probed a particular aspect

of CS, ES, EL and EE. These aspects are referred to as perception-dimensions or stewardship-constructs

and included:

1. A Biblical perspective on CS and ES

2. Ministers’ (and students’) training in CS, ES, EE and EL

3. Respondents’ level of EL

4. Manifestation of CS and ES within the parish, community or training institution

5. Inclusion of CS and ES in seminary curricula

The generalisabilty of data from quantitative surveys is dependent on factors such as whether the

research sample was selected judiciously and whether the survey was administered amongst a

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representative sample of the population. If these requirements are met, then the survey results could be

used in such a way that the attitudes, beliefs and opinions of the research population as a whole could be

inferred from the responses obtained from the randomly selected research sample. In total, three hundred

and forty-five questionnaires were distributed to delegates who attended the URCSA General Synod

meeting in September 2008 in Hammanskraal. Completed questionnaires were returned on the last day

of the Synod meeting. Twenty questionnaires were sent to the URCSA Pretoria University seminary for

completion by lecturers. Sixty questionnaires in total were returned. This represents a 16,21% return rate.

The processing and analysis of the survey data was done to develop descriptive statistics and information

relating to the key research questions. Statistical Analysis System (SAS) software version 92 was used

for the analysis. The sets of data were combined to facilitate the identification of common trends and

themes. The themes and patterns that emerged from the data were then categorized and analysed. The

research findings pointed to particular trends in relation to the research questions.

The data presented by the survey was analyzed as follows:

One way frequency tables

Composite one-way tables

Scale reliability testing/ item analysis on stewardship-dimensions

Correlations between stewardship-dimension scores and biographical characteristics

The results of the analysis are presented and discussed below.

Frequency distributions: biographical characteristics

Biographical attributes of the research population was established during this phase of the analysis. This

information was used in further analyses as it was assumed that biographical characteristics were

probable influential factors that might affect respondents’ perceptions of the various stewardship-

dimensions.

The frequency distributions provided information on respondents’ age, the area where they reside,

whether they had received training in EE, the context in which EE training had been provided, the era and

type of institution where ministers had received their theological training, and the number of years’

experience. These factors were used in further investigative analysis.

Significant observations were made in relation to four variables in particular. The sampled respondents

were a mature group (75% were older than 41 years), with extensive experience (72% had been in the

ministry or teaching for more than 10 years), whose formal education was mainly completed prior to 1994

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(63%) and most had studied at University (89%). The majority of the respondents (64%) had not received

training in EE and environmental issues.

Composite tables

Each composite table that was derived from the data reflects a particular stewardship-dimension of the

research. The results of each construct was dealt with individually since the sheer amount of data

presented in each of the resultant tables obscured the evaluation of the aspect of stewardship it purported

to evaluate. The respondents’ perceptions of the various dimensions are reported individually.

Biblical perspective of Christian stewardship, environmental education and environmental literacy

Most ministers, lecturers and students concur that the concepts CS and ES are Biblically founded, that

ES is a dimension of CS and that both concepts should be actively ministered to and practiced by

professing Christians. They agree that EL should be promoted because of its link to ES.

Three survey statements were particularly strongly supported by respondents. These were that it is a

Christian’s Biblically founded responsibility to care for the creation because of God’s own love for His

creation; that practicing CS is a reflection of the Christian’s commitment to God and that ES does not

imply dominance over the environment.

Ministers’ training in Biblical environmental stewardship as a dimension of Christian stewardship

It was strongly agreed that CS and ES should be incorporated in the curriculum for aspirant ministers

(only 6,7% viewed it as unnecessary), that ES is a dimension of CS (6.7% disagreed), that both concepts

are Biblically founded and should be taught as such. However, when asked whether ES teaching

depends on active involvement in community environmental issues 14% disagreed. This slightly negative

response indicates that ministers/lecturers and seminary students question whether teaching ES

necessarily depends on their active involvement in community-based ES issues.


The concept of EL is relatively poorly understood. Five percent acknowledged they did not understand EL

means and 33.3% were uncertain of the meaning. Generally, it was agreed that ministers, students and

lecturers should be trained in ES and should be environmentally literate. This section of the survey again

examined the links between EL, ES and CS and there was unanimity about the necessity of teaching

these concepts in the Church. The only question that aroused some measure of disagreement (22%) was

that training in EE would influence their ES ministry. EE is critical to the development of EL and fostering

an understanding of ES. The unconstructive response to the question is troubling.

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Attitude towards and evidence of Christian stewardship, environmental stewardship and

environmental literacy in the parish community and seminary

This part of the survey established respondents’ perceptions of parishes’ and seminaries’ attitudes

towards the social and natural environment and as well as the extent to which CS, ES and pro-

environmental behaviour is evidenced in practice. Particular questions in this section of the survey

attempted to gauge the level of respondents’ EL and their perception of whether Christians and the

Church have an environmental responsibility and should be practitioners of CS and ES.

The responses in this section of the survey were particularly insightful and of all the sections of the survey

this section provided the most disparate responses. Particularly valuable data in respect of what is ‘done’

in reality, and not what is ‘said is done’, provides a rather accurate picture of the level of commitment to

CS, ES and pro-environmental behaviour in the Church and community. Nine questions in particular

focused on ES as a construct. If the average disagreement is taken across these 9 questions it is 21%

which points to respondents’ concern that environmental issues are not adequately addressed in the

Church or the community and that the environment is not sufficiently valued. In response to one question

in particular 41% of the respondents commented that if one neglects the environment, one exhibits an

attitude of indifference towards one’s commitment to God.

Six questions specifically addressed the issue of CS and the Church’s attitude towards and its active

involvement in CS. There is an 18% level of disagreement about whether the Church is or should be

promoting CS. With regard to whether more information on CS is required, 62% of the respondents

indicated a desire for more information. The latter need points towards a possible gap in the degree to

which respondents view CS being actively advocated or address in the Church and training curricula

currently.

The remainder of the questions addressed the level of pro-environmental behaviour and EL exhibited by

the Church and the community. Although the responses point to a significant measure of pro-

environmental behaviour, the negative responses are possibly more informative. Thirty-seven percent of

the respondents indicated that recycling was not undertaken and that the community lacked sufficient

environmental knowledge – were insufficiently environmentally literate – to produce an implementable

environmental policy. Other areas where the level of pro-environmental behaviour was challenged

included whether the Church or community used bio-friendly products and whether parish gardeners were

sensitive to the environment and the use of natural resources.

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In summary it can be deduced that although respondents generally were positive about the level of CS,

ES, EL and pro-environmental behaviour exhibited by the Church and the community, there was a

sizeable proportion that were critical of whether the Church and communities were sufficiently sensitive to

CS, ES, EL and practicing pro-environmental behaviour. It is this proportion’s concerns that raise

awareness to areas where further clarity should be sought. These issues were addressed later during the

individual and focus group interviews.

Christian and environmental stewardship in seminary curricula

The questions in this section of the survey was completed by URCSA students and lecturers and aimed

to determine respondents’ perceptions on how the current curriculum for URCSA students addresses

issues of CS and ES. Of the five questionnaire sections, respondents to this section showed the most

indecisiveness with 35% of the responses chosen from the ‘neutral’ option. What is surprising is that 50%

of students who were asked to respond to the last 27 questions seemed to not have a clear

understanding of the questions and most of the respondents preferred to remain neutral or silent. They

chose not to indicate their preferences. These findings indicate that there is a particularly grey area in

answering these questions.

The questions that aimed to gauge respondents’ perceptions of whether current training programmes

included or excluded CS and ES were inconclusively answered. With relation to each construct, two sets

of questions differently phrased but testing the same concept, was included in this section of the

questionnaire. From the disparateness of the data it can be deduced that either students did not

understand the question or were unable to make a conclusive choice. For example, 17% of the

respondents disagreed that CS was dealt with in the curriculum and 24% responded that it was excluded

in the curriculum. Thirty-six percent of the respondents agreed that students were aware of CS being a

part of the curriculum and 26% stated the students believed that CS was excluded from the curriculum.

The discrepancies between these two sets of observations which tested the same construct rendered the

questions extraneous. Likewise, 20% of the respondents disagreed that ES was included in the

curriculum and 26% disagreed that ES was excluded. Forty percent stated that ES was included in the

curriculum and 40% stated that it was not included. Again, these responses were incongruous and

consequently did not serve to test what the researcher had intended to establish.

Overall, when other questions in this section are analysed, respondents indicated that they believed CS

and ES were adequately addressed in the curriculum and the inclusion of teaching CS and ES was

relevant to their studies. Practical sessions in CS and ES were perceived to be valuable but it was not

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possible to establish from the data whether students believed the number of practical sessions was

adequate or not.

Composite tables and scale reliability testing: stewardship dimensions

Frequency tables for the subsets of questionnaire items associated with each stewardship-dimension

were also calculated. The internal consistency reliability of the items and indictors was established by

calculating the Cronbach alpha coefficient. A value in the region of, or greater than 0.7, is regarded as

indicative of internal consistency reliability. Cronbach alpha coefficients for each of the dimensions tested

were all greater than 0.7. Scale reliability is thus indicated in all cases.

Correlation between stewardship dimensions, EL and EE

The positive and significant pair-wise correlations established between pairs of stewardship aspects

(Biblical perspectives on CS and ES, Training in EE, EL and ES in practice), imply that pair-wise

relationships exist between these constructs. In particular, perceptions on the aspect of a Biblical

perspective on CS and ES are positively and significantly related to both the aspects of training in EE and

EL. The aspect of ES in practice did not show a significant relationship with the other abovementioned

aspects however.

Correlation between biographical details and perceptions of stewardship dimensions

Significance of dependencies was established with Pearson’s chi-square test and a Cochran-Armitage

trend test.

Correlation between respondents’ age and perception that CS and ES are Biblically founded

Respondent perceptions on the Biblical perspective of CS and ES are affected by age. Younger

respondents perceive the Biblical perspectives on CS and ES more positively; the age-group

between 41 and 45 seem significantly less enthusiastic, but remain positive, while the 46+ group

seem to regain a more positive attitude.

Correlation between time of completion of studies and perception of CS/ES

Respondents who completed their studies before 1994 were less in agreement of the importance of

CS and ES than students who trained after 1994.

Correlation between respondents’ experience and perception of CS/ES

Respondent perceptions on the Biblical perspective of CS and ES change with years of

experience. Respondents with less than 20 years experience were more positive in their

perceptions regarding the Biblical approach to CS and ES than the more experienced.

Correlation between respondents’ perception of EE training needs related to years’

experience

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Respondents who had received EE training were positive about the need for EE training. Those

who had not received training in EE were significantly even more positive about training. However,

respondents’ perceptions of the importance of EE training seem to be influenced by their years of

experience. As experience increases, respondents become significantly less enthusiastic about EE

training although they remain positive towards EE training.

Correlation between respondents’ training in EE and perceptions on ES in practice

Respondents’ perceptions on ES in practice are influenced by whether they attended EE training or

not. Training in EE resulted in a more positive attitude towards ES in practice.

Correlation between respondents’ location and attitude towards ES

Respondent perceptions on ES in practice differ according to location. Respondents from rural

areas are significantly less positive towards ES in practice than urban respondents.

Correlation between respondents’ training institution and inclusion of stewardship

dimensions in curricula

Respondents’ perceptions whether CS and ES should be included in seminary curricula is

influenced by the type of institution attended. Respondents who were trained at universities are

significantly less positive about CS and ES being accommodated in curricula than those that

trained at non-university linked seminaries. Another interesting observation was that the most

experienced group of respondents (21+ years experience) was significantly less inclined to think

that CS should form part of the training curricula.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Seen as a whole, the survey findings provided data that clarified aspects inherent to the study such as the

perception of, attitudes towards and status of CS and ES and the role of the Church in this regard; the

inclusion of ES and CS in the curriculum and the value of EE, EL towards supporting ES.

ES is an acknowledged dimension of CS and the Church has a significant role to play in demonstrating

and teaching about CS and ES in the congregation as well as the community. Furthermore there is

consensus that CS, ES and EL are Biblically founded and should be manifest by Christians and

addressed in the Church and the community. However, there was some measure of doubt whether the

Church and communities were sufficiently sensitive to CS, ES, EL and practicing pro-environmental

behaviour.

The data revealed some measure of indecisiveness regarding the inclusion of EE and EL in the

curriculum although there was agreement that CS and ES should be incorporated. Students and lecturers

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indicated that they believed that current curricula adequately address CS and ES and that the current

inclusion of teaching CS and ES was relevant, however correlations and construct data analysis indicated

differently. There also seems to be some doubt whether training in EE to increase EL would improve ES

ministry although it was not disputed that such training should be included in training curricula.

A recommendation that emerges from this study is that theological training institutions should critically

evaluate the curricula currently presented on the basis of these findings to ensure that the Biblical

mandate of CS and ES are adequately addressed and that graduates are sufficiently equipped to enthuse

in their congregations and communities where they will be working an environmental ethic that responds

to the Biblical mandate of environmental stewardship.

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virtue ethics, edited by R. Sandler and P. Cafaro. Lanham: Rowland & Littlefield. 135-158

Centre for Environmental Education. 2008 Available online http://www.ceeonline.org/about/about.aspx Accessed on

11.04.2012.

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77-96.

Deem R. 2007. Is Christianity anti-environmental? http://www.godandscience.org/apologetics/environment.html#n11

Accessed 21.05.2009.

Dewitt, C.B. 1994. Earth-Wise: A biblical response to environmental issues. Grand Rapids, MI: CRC Publications

Dickmann S. 2008. The Green Bible: Environmentalism gone awry. http://stand-firm.blogspot.com/2008/10/green-

bible-environmentalism-gone-awry.htmlAccessed21.05.2009.

Elder J.L. 2003. A field guide to Environmental literacy: Making strategic investments in Environmental Education.

410 Tarvin Road, Rock Spring, GA 30739, 707-764-2708, www.naaee.org

Esler P.F. 1998. Christianity for the twenty-First century. Edinburgh: T&T Clark Ltd.

Gambrill, A. 2011. Practice to policy to practice: connecting faith and conservation in Africa. ine Gehman H.S. 1970. The New Westminister Dictionary of the Bible, Philadelphia: The Westminister Press.

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Hitzhusen G. E. 2006. Religion and Environmental Education: Building on Common Ground. Canadian Journal of

Environmental Education 11(1):9-25.

Horrell D.G.; Hunt C. & Southgate C. 2008. Appeals to the Bible in ecotheology and environmental ethics: a typology

of hermeneutical stances, Studies in Christian Ethics 21:219-238.

James R. 2009. Advantages and challenges for Christian Churches and organizations for doing development work.

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Accessed on 12.10.2010.

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Northcott M.S. 1996. The environment and Christian Ethics, New York: Cambridge University Press.

Reuman J. 1992. Stewardship and the economy of God, Michigan: William B Eerdmans Publishing company

Taliaferro C. 2005. Vices and virtues in religious environmental ethics, in Environmental virtue ethics edited by R.

Sandler and P. Cafaro. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. 159-172.

Travis P.; Egger D.; Davies P. & Mechbal A. 2002. Towards better stewardship: Concepts and critical issues.

Available online at http://www.who.int/healthinfo/paper48.pdf Accessed 10.01.2010.

UNESCO. 2005. Decade for Education for Sustainable Development. 2005. Available online http://www.esd-world-

conference-

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international-agenda/education-for-all/ Accessed 12.04.2012.

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11 Working with environmental education and environmental law to protect wildlife

in Brazil and for the improvement of public policies in the country

I A Morimoto & M Sorrentino

University of Sao Paulo, Brazil

Abstract

This paper details some of the actions taken and results achieved by the Wildlife Protection Programme implemented

by the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA) in São Paulo since 2009. In the

first phase of the project environmental education activities were developed. These included the production of

posters, comic books, videos, music and articles – all centred on the importance of wildlife and the problems

associated with animal trafficking. In the second phase a training process for educators in four municipalities was

developed with the emphasis on providing subsidies for the development of local projects to be executed by the

participants. This step proved to be very effective, both because it could count on the financial support of local

governments and because it provided stimulus for the production of materials specific to each region. Considering

that the state of São Paulo has 645 municipalities spread over an area of 248,209 km2, the challenge now is to create

a strategy that will make it possible to meet new demands. The first part of the discussion presented here provides an

overview that leads to a second topic of discussion: The advent of the Popular Action (Law 4.717/65) and Civil Action

(Law 7.347/85) in Brazil meant that several lawsuits were brought against the state in pursuit of certain benefits to

meet the urgent demands of citizens, the distribution of medicines and the building of schools among them. Few

disputes, however, require the creation or improvement of public policies that could extend the benefits of decisions

made to society as a whole and – in the environmental arena – things are no different. Although many actions have

been filed by environmental groups or by the public prosecutor in order to protect one or other environmental

resource or service, little has been done to make environmental policies more effective. Implementation of the

popular participation in judicial control of public policy would mean that collective participation by demanding and

controlling governmental actions would be possible. This article reports on a study that examined the importance of –

and the difficulties associated with – the use of the judicial court system to demand public policies on environmental

protection. The discussions of these two aspects are presented individually.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

The Convention on Biological Diversity was signed by the Brazilian Government in Rio de Janeiro on 5

June 1992 and was ratified by the Congress on 2 March 1994. This was in addition to the Federal

Constitution promulgated in 1988 which provides (in its Article 225, VII) that the government and the

community must "protect the fauna and flora, prohibiting, according to the law, practices which put in

danger their ecological function, cause extinction of species or promote cruelty to animals".

Despite the Convention and the terms of the Constitution, the removal of wild animals from their natural

habitat has increased in recent years. In 2005 in the state of São Paulo alone 30,000 (thirty thousand)

wild animals were seized. By 2006 the number was in the region of 35,000 and by 2007 had risen to

40,000 seizures (IBAMA, 2009).

These practices bring very serious consequences – not only as regards maintaining the ecological

balance of many ecosystems, but also concerning the quality of life of human beings. Among these

problems, we can highlight:

loss of biodiversity (extinction of species caused by traffic)

damage to the life cycles of the affected animals (mating limitation, lack of exchange of gene flow,

privation of liberty)

impact on the maintenance of forests (decreased dispersion, pollination and preparation of seeds

for germination – the latter usually happening in the digestive tracts of animals)

disturbance of ecological functions (imbalance in natural pest control)

health risks to humans who, by living with wild animals expose themselves and their families to

accidents such as scratches and bites and thereby to serious diseases such as rabies, psittacosis,

a hantavirus, leptospirosis, salmonellosis, spotted fever, toxoplasmosis, leishmaniasis and others

In October 2008, and in response to these alarming issues, the Ministry of the Environment started the

National Campaign for the Protection of Wildlife throughout the country and in order to combat the

trafficking of wild animals. The campaign began with the dissemination of advertising material produced

by IBAMA’s Environmental Education Department in the state of Piaui6. The material distributed included

posters, banners, stickers, music and children's comics.

6 More information on the website http://www.ibama.gov.br

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Photo 1: Comics as an example of educational material.

The campaign slogan is "That's happening because you bought”. It was developed in order to sensitise

society to issues of trafficking and its consequences, and also to encourage the taking of individual

responsibility for the problem.

Photo 2: Poster as an example of educational material.

The project in São Paulo

In São Paulo in March 2009, the Administration of IBAMA7 joined the National Campaign for the

Protection of Wildlife. It commenced its activities there by presenting training lectures and seminars for

external audiences such as journalists and lawyers – as well as for the judges who decide upon the final

destinations of recovered animals.

In the same year, a group of environmental analysts from sectors of IBAMA in São Paulo (Environmental

Education, Wildlife Management, Office of Communications, Monitoring and Legal Division) formed a

technical team in order to develop an education project in the state. Their aim was to develop an ongoing

education process has and the outcome was the creation of the Permanent Programme for Wildlife

Protection in the state of São Paulo, known as P3F (“Programa Permanente de Proteção à Fauna” in

Portuguese). The general purpose of the programme is to reduce or eliminate the trafficking of wild

7 IBAMA is a federal institute related to the Ministry of the Environment.

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animals and to ensure the conservation of Brazilian biodiversity. It aims to achieve this through

educational practices as well as the prevention of illegal consumption of wildlife in the state of Sao Paulo.

Consequently, the specific objectives of the programme and the activities carried out are:

a. alerting society to the issue of the trafficking of wild animals and thereby leading to awareness and

to changes inhabits and behaviours

b. making use of the media to discuss and disseminate new models for the exhibiting of wild animals

c. promoting improvements in the knowledge and language used by all staff in the Institute and its

regional offices in their dealings with wildlife-related issues

d. conducting seminars and workshops for specific audiences, including:

media (journalists and producers)

the judiciary and prosecutors

universities

educators

owners of potential areas for the reintroduction of animals

public administration at all levels (federal or in states and municipalities)

authorities: civil guard, highway patrol, environmental guard, etcetera

companies, laboratories, veterinary clinics, etcetera

e. training teachers/trainers in various institutions and municipalities of São Paulo to enable them to

perform work of a preventive nature – such work would seek to cope with trafficking by stopping the

consumption of illegally sourced animals, and by promoting discussion with society on cultural,

ethical, environmental, legal and other matters

f. encouraging the creation of dedicated “areas for the reintroduction of animals”

g. promoting the exchange of information and strategies with other institutions working with the same

theme – such as NGOs, associations, etcetera

Results achieved

The programme in Sao Paulo began with a workshop for journalists, followed by several meetings with

producers of television programmes to talk about the consequences of displaying wildlife in that medium

– the object being to find a way to dampen the desire for consumption and illegal possession by viewers.

There were also seminars for prosecutors and judiciary powers aimed at addressing the destination of

animals seized and the importance of prioritising their reintroduction.

Posters and comic books were distributed at airports, subway stations and public squares, also with the

aim of enlightening the public as to the problems related to the trafficking of wild animals.

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Photo 3: Banner placed at airports in Sao Paulo. Photo: Isis Morimoto. January, 2010.

Photo 4: Training at the offices of the Attorney General of the Union. Photo: Vincent Lo. October,

2009.

The next step prioritised the training of educators (from four municipalities8) who were willing to

participate in the programme. They contributed towards the printing of educational materials and to

organising the logistics of the training to be given. In these municipalities, employees of municipalities,

NGOs, universities, as well as members of the general public interested in the subject, went through a

training process covering the concepts of wildlife legislation, supervision, animal trafficking, problems

arising from illegal captivity, the possibilities for reintroduction, and the importance of environmental

education and participation for the prevention of problems caused by the removal of wild animals from

nature. Participants were asked to develop local projects and to present their results six months after the

training.

8 The municipalities were Piracicaba, Barueri, Mairiporã and Guarulhos.

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Photo 5: Training in the municipalities of São Paulo. Photo: Isis Morimoto. Oct., 2010.

This step proved to be very effective because it allowed for continued financial support from local

governments and stimulated the production of materials specific to each region.

The projects submitted by participants included:

the construction of a giant cage designed to allow people to suffer the same sensations

experienced by captive animals

a voluntary campaign to destroy hunting tools

lectures and the distribution of comic books in schools

discussion groups on animal welfare

actions aimed at reducing animal road deaths in the forest reserves

integration between the Department of Education and the Department of the Environment as

regards working together to combat trafficking

ways to produce materials that surpassing the quality of those presented by IBAMA

(the latter generated much satisfaction within the technical group)

Considering that the state of São Paulo has 645 municipalities spread over an area of 248,209 km2, the

challenge now is to create a strategy that will make it possible to respond to new demands. To achieve

this, the campaign to prevent environmental offenses should be supported by the public policies of the

country. In addition, environmental education programmes should be strengthened and prioritised within

the administrations concerned at federal, state and municipal level. However, alternative approaches and

initiatives in environmental education remain desirable. Initiatives worthy of highlighting are those by the

collective educators9 and the Commissions for Environmental Education10 of the state and municipalities

9 According to the website of the Ministry of the Environment, the “collective educators” are sets of institutions working together in

permanent, participatory training processes and they involve the full diversity of inhabitants in a territory. (More information is

available on the website: www.mma.gov.br)

10 The Commissions for Environmental Education is a group of institutions that work with Environmental Education.. Their mission is

to offer general guidelines and programmes of environmental education in their territories. They are composed of representatives of

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– both of which have been able to include this issue on their training and coordination agendas for the

development of local projects.

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The establishment of a technical team composed of staff drawn from various sectors of IBAMA in the

state of São Paulo – along with the development of the Permanent Programme for the Protection of

Wildlife which seeks comprehensive and continuous training – demonstrated that the national campaign

can and should be incorporated into various organs and sectors of society in both states and

municipalities.

Initiatives such as this can provide the opportunity to various groups to reflect on the matter of respect for

all life forms and on the importance of maintaining environmental balance.

The Permanent Programme for the Protection of Wildlife, implemented by IBAMA in the state of São

Paulo, plans to consolidate its position as a strategy for preventative action. Additionally, the

Environmental Education can contribute towards avoiding occurrences of damage to wildlife and also

towards stimulating people to reflect on the need to participate in environmental projects.

This article leads to a second topic, related to all that has been discussed above. The following section

discusses environmental education as well as popular participation in judicial control of public policy. It

also looks at problems experienced regarding the environment and the environmental issues experienced

in the country.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND POPULAR PARTICIPATION IN JUDICIAL CONTROL OF

PUBLIC POLICY

INTRODUCTION

At the outset of this study, our interest lay in coming to understand the mechanisms of judicial control of

public policy – something that seemed to represent an alternative approach to furthering environmental

protection in Brazil. We were able to confirm during the study that (in an ecologically balanced

environment (Article 225 of CF/88)) the effectiveness of the fundamental rights constitutionally

established under judicial control is directly related to the positive provisions contributed by the state.

governmental and nongovernmental bodies in equal numbers and must act in accordance with the provisions of Law no 9795/1999

which establishes the National Policy on Environmental Education.

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However, the use of judicial review to guarantee these rights is surrounded by a number of matters

emphasising the complexity of the issue. These include discussions about a possible contradiction to

Montesquieu’s Theory of Separation of Powers11 (see 2.2, below). A further issue is the need to establish

a limit to the demands that may be claimed from the state, an issue labelled by several authors as the

“Minimum Existential” to ensure decent life for citizens. Matters that must also be considered in this

context are the scarcity of public administration resources for use in meeting all the rights enshrined in the

Constitution, as well as the adoption of the concepts of “the reserve of the possible” and “the

reasonableness of demands” – both of which seek a balance between the means employed and

purposes to be achieved.

The Theory of Separation of Powers

One of the most important questions as the adequacy of the judicial process to ensure the

implementation of public policies by the state is the Theory of Separation of Powers written by

Montesquieu.

As Professor Dalmo Dallari (Dallari 2007: 77) teaches us, the Theory of Separation of Powers was

consecrated at a historic moment when liberalism was aimed at weakening of the state and restriction of

their activities in the name of individual freedom. However, with the advent of the Industrial Revolution,

the working masses assumed greater importance in the social scene and were able to make various

claims. The liberal welfare state then entered a period of transition in which its posture of nonintervention

reverted to one of meeting its obligations to provide services aimed both at the common good and at the

search for material equality between the components of the social body (Grinover, 2009: 36-37). From

this emerged the concept of public policies – understood as "programmes, actions, or sets of measures

articulated/coordinates whose scope would move the machinery of government in order to achieve a goal

of public policy or, in the view of lawyers, achieving the right "(Bucci, 2006: 14).

However, over time, it was noted that those services offered by the state were not sufficient to ensure that

the needs of the citizenry were met in their entirety. The question as to what could be done to instigate

the creation or improvement of public policies in various areas then took the place of social concern.

11 Montesquieu, in your book “The Spirit of the Law” written in 1748, considered that the independence of the judicial, legislative and

executive functions of the state was essential for the maintenance of social freedom.

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In this context, judicial control of public policy would seem a natural solution in promoting the

effectiveness of policies. The claim about judicial control running contrary to the Theory of Separation of

Powers, however, brought with it a measure of disagreement. The matter was eased only after judges in

some courts showed by their judgments that judicial control of public policy did not mean an intervention

in the sphere of the administrative judiciary that would run contrary to the Theory of Separation of

Powers. Rather, they understood it to mean control over compliance with fundamental precepts forming

part of the Federal Constitution of 1988.

The existential minimum

According to Kazuo Watanabe and Ada Pellegrini Grinover (2010), the “existential minimum” is

considered the right to minimum conditions for worthy existence. Thus, the judiciary has granted

demands aimed at ensuring essential rights – including health care and the distribution of drugs,

availability of hospital beds and the construction of specialised treatment centres. Additionally, demands

for access to education and housing have been granted on the principle of human dignity. In this context,

then, the following question may arise: Is it possible to include environmental issues in this context of the

existential minimum?

It is common knowledge that the ecological relationships of the planet show that the various elements of

nature are interconnected and interdependent (Odum, 1986). Thus, in order to ensure the health of

present and future generations, it is essential that the environmental balance is maintained. In other

words, in order to ensure drinking water supplies, air quality, climatic comfort, diversified food, natural

remedies and the like, we must preserve the forests and water sources, treat sewage, contain global

warming and protect biodiversity. After all, human life could not continue without water, air or food.

Paulo Sergio Duarte da Rocha Jr (2009, in Grinover, 2009: 43) agrees with the idea: "it is customary to

include among others – and at least existentially – the right to basic education, the right to basic health

and sanitation, and the provision of social services, environmental protection and access to justice".

While we might have a definition of the fundamental rights and services that should be guaranteed by the

state, we also have to face the problem of limited resources and the need to establish priorities for the

use of public funds. This brings us to the “reserve of the possible”.

The reserve of the possible

Bucci (2006: 4) quotes a speech that may seem shocking. It reveals the positions of certain critics as

regards the inclusion of a large number of social rights in the Federal Constitution of Brazil – that the

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gross domestic product (GDP) of Brazil is insufficient to support the terms of the Federal Constitution. It

cannot be denied that in Brazil – a developing country – resource scarcity, poverty and unequal income

distribution are evident. One need only look at the slums, the queues in public hospitals, the homeless in

big cities, the lack of urban sanitation and other similar issues. Meanwhile, the government is not

managing to implement all the policies necessary to satisfy the most basic needs of the population.

This opens up the debate on the “reserve of the possible”, a strategy aimed at managing the conflict

between the availability of resources needed to implement a public policy and the various demands

presented to the judiciary. In this sense, Sabino (2009: 15) discusses the "logic of the short blanket" by

drawing an analogy with a popular saying concerning the courts giving benefits in response to one

demand – but, as a consequence, leaving many other people without help. The same author refers to

Professor Octavio da Motta Ferraz (2007:15), who states that, in the case of medicines and when faced

with a court order, the government provides certain drugs by "pulling the blanket" from people with other

kinds of diseases, thus leaving them without cover simply because they have no access to the judiciary.

In this context, the reserve of the possible presents itself as a necessary balance mechanism for use by a

magistrate during the decision-making process. It cannot, however, be used by the government as a

justification for not fulfilling its obligations.

Professor Ada Pellegrini Grinover analyses the situation thus:

"First of all, the claim of lack of resources by government will not be enough. This should be proved by the

Administration itself, whichever is the rule in this field the Reversing of Proof applicable by analogy, as written

in the art. 333 of the Code of Civil Procedure, to assign the burden of proof to the party that is closest to the

facts and have an easier access for proving them"(Grinover, 2009: 48).

According to Minister Celso de Mello (ADPF 45-9, RTJ 175/1212-1213), the conditions imposed by the

reserve of the possible are twofold. On one hand, these conditions presuppose the existence of a state

financially able to enforce the positive benefits claimed from someone. On the other hand, the

reasonableness of the claim deducted in the face of the government.

The precept of reasonableness

The precept of reasonableness must be present in all acts and decisions of the Government. In this

requirement, it joins another constitutional principle (that of proportionality) which ultimately seeks the

right balance between the means employed and the ends to be achieved (Grinover, 2009: 43). Likewise,

says Cortez (in press), "there is a clear relationship between the pursuit of efficiency and the principle of

reasonableness/proportionality".

155

According to research conducted by Antonio (2009: 13), some decisions have been taken on the subject:

In the decision number 181.741.5/3-0112 (page 15), Judge Mariano Siqueira points out: "We should not

talk about judicial interference with the merits of the administrative act, but the courts can intervene when

an omission on the part of the government was illegal, represented an option not allowed, or took place

beyond the limits of its discretion. Every such act should remain in line with the law and the dictates of

reason".

In Civil Appeal number 244.253-5/2-013, Judge Laerte Sampaio said: "The principle of proportionality

seeks to neutralise and inhibit the abuse of public power in the exercise of its inherent functions, notably

performance of the activity of a legislative character. A judgment on the proportionality or reasonableness

of the measure is the result of a rigorous weighing of the significance of the intervention reached and the

objectives pursued by the legislature".

Thus, we must conclude that it is necessary to apply the precept of reasonableness. This is so due to the

requirement for positive benefits arising from the state’s aim of providing all Brazilians with their

fundamental rights – and its aim of ensuring that they also have the minimum needed for a dignified

existence. (Nonetheless, these aims must be achieved without circumventing the limitations of budget

and the balance of legal relations). Only by employing such reasoning will it be possible to achieve

maximum effectiveness in the desired use of public resources in the implementation of social policies.

The Importance of Public Participation

As mentioned earlier, with the advent of popular action (created by the law 4.717/1.965) and civil action

(created by the law 7.347/1.985) in Brazil, several lawsuits were filed in order to apply for state benefits to

meet the most urgent demands of citizens and the community. (Examples of these were the distribution of

medicines, the building of schools, the provision of beds in hospitals, and the provision of ramps in public

places to ensure access to people with special needs. Nonetheless, disputes remain – calling for the

creation or improvement of public policies so as to extend the benefits of these decisions to Brazilian

society as a whole.

12 Reference number that can be used to find the specific decision of a judge in the court of São Paulo.

13 A kind of judicial decision and its reference number in the court of São Paulo.

156

Although many court actions have been filed by environmental groups (and, indeed, by the public

prosecutor) in order to protect one or other environmental resource or service (such as in the case of

pollution of a watercourse or the containment of deforestation in one area) little has been done towards

making existing environmental policies more effective.

The National Environmental Policy14 and the National Environmental Education Policy15 are cases in

point. Both were established by law, yet both prove that much more will be required of the state in order

to enable their full and proper implementation. Despite over 10 years of establishment of these laws, they

have not yet left the drawing board in some of their obligations.

According to Valla (1996: 3), we can consider popular participation, in general, as multiple actions that

develop different social forces to influence the formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of

public policies and/or basic services in the area (health, education, housing, transportation, sanitation,

etc). Thus, popular participation in judicial control of public policy would mean collective participation (by

organisations, associations and trade unions) in strongly demanding the fundamental rights and

guarantees that it is the duty of the state to ensure. In addition, similar demands should exist regarding

the monitoring of government actions by the community. This would mean that the judiciary, and the

legislative and executive power, would be motivated to ensure the implementation of public policy in an

innovative way. The implementation of National Environmental Education, for example, would be the

highest priority investment in the environmental area. Such implementation would encourage the

exercising of citizenship and, at the same time, would stimulate the adoption of preventative measures

against environmental damage, as provided for in Law 9.795/99:

"The fundamental goals of environmental education (Article 5):

1. the development of an integrated understanding of the environment in its multiple and complex

relationships, involving ecological, psychological, legal, political, social, economic, scientific,

cultural and ethical aspects;

2. to ensure the democratisation of environmental information;

3. the encouragement and strengthening of a critical awareness of environmental and social issues;

14 Established in 1981 by the Law 6.938.


157

4. encouraging – individually and collectively – permanent and responsible ways of preserving the

environmental balance and of understanding the defence of environmental quality as a value

inseparable from the exercising of citizenship".

In the process of judiciary decision making, public consultation would not be the exception, but rather the

rule – especially in actions related to the implementation of public policies by the state.

Also relevant is the creation of forums aimed at monitoring popular public events (planning, budgeting

and execution). In partnership with the judiciary, such forums could provide for better management of

tasks to be performed by those involved in public administration.

CONCLUSIONS

Judicial control of public policy in Brazil can be an important tool in the search for greater effectiveness in

the implementation of services aimed at guaranteeing the fundamental rights of the population, including

the right of environmental protection.

However, certain issues must be considered in order to enhance the adoption of this procedure. The

reservations around a possible contradiction to Montesquieu’s Theory of Separation of Powers has been

eased in the light of judgements by certain courts. In these, judges have understood that the judicial

control of public policy does not mean a judicial intervention in the administration sphere. Rather, it

constitutes a means of controlling compliance with a specific legislation or a fundamental precept

established by the Federal Constitution.

In this context, such an instrument can achieve full effectiveness only when popular participation goes

beyond the bringing of lawsuits to become a reality in the planning process and in the execution of

judgements. For these reasons, state actions aimed at stimulating and supporting popular participation in

the environmental arena should receive priority investment. This being because they are able to stimulate

the exercising of citizenship while at the same time promoting the adoption of measures to prevent

environmental damage.

Public consultation, as well as allowing for the popular monitoring of public acts, may represent a

breakthrough in dealing with present conflicts around the demands on public policy due to the limitations

of the administration in attending to such needs.

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10 de agosto de 2007. In: Sabino (no prelo). [Online] Available at url: www.folha.com.br

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Judicial Decisions. Tribunal de Justiça de São Paulo. [Online] Available at url: http://www.tjsp.jus.br/

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27, Editora Revista dos Tribunais.

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mestrado defendida na USP, orientador Rodolfo de Camargo Mancuso.

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Janeiro.

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Faculdade de Direito da USP, 1° Semestre.

http://www.folha.com.br/

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12 Butterfly agriculture as a means of counteracting human-induced habitat

destruction: solution or complication?


Abstract

In July 2012, David Attenborough indicated that owing to unfavourable climatic conditions brought on by

global warming, the 2012 butterfly census has indicated that three-quarters of Britain’s 59 species of

butterflies are in decline and a third are in danger of extinction (Barkham 2012). The first butterfly census

in Britain was undertaken in 1976 and resulted in established records of butterfly diversity, density and

locality. As early as 2006, Attenborough warned that the losses of Lepidoptera species were an indication

that a deep biodiversity crisis was being entered that required urgent attention (Weaver 2006). These

comments lead one to question why Lepidoptera populations worldwide are perceived to be threatened

and what consequences this holds for the environment and humanity. The purpose of this article is to

provide an overview of why butterflies are important and what their role in nature is; what factors

contribute to their decline; what is being done to find solutions to declining butterfly populations; and

whether these so-called solutions do not perhaps contribute to unanticipated dilemmas that further

threaten the diversity, density and general wellbeing of butterflies. The study is based on an overview of

recent literature on the topic.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

“Halting biodiversity loss is the coming decade's great challenge," Sir David [Attenborough] said. "It's on a par

with getting a man on the moon. An increase in butterfly numbers around the world could be the first indication

that we've achieved this goal. Like that first step on the moon, it would be a giant leap for mankind"

(Attenborough 2010).

At the British Butterfly Conservation symposium held in 2010, which coincided with the United Nations

Environmental Programme‘s (UNEP) Year of International Biodiversity, it was noted that there was

increasing evidence that the problem of declining numbers of butterflies was global and was a

consequence of two major contributing factors: global warming and habitat destruction – with the latter

contributing to the former. Not only are certain British butterfly species facing possible extinction, but also

species in regions as far apart as Japan and the United States (McCarthy 2010).

There are a number of initiatives afoot that propose to protect or shield sections of habitats that are

increasingly being deforested or denuded for agricultural purposes and for human settlement. These

initiatives include harvesting, ranching and farming butterflies in an attempt to simultaneously preserve,

protect and extend natural habitats and conserve butterfly populations. However, to explore the necessity

and viability of these projects, one needs to ask the following questions:

How important is the ecological role that butterflies play?

What factors contribute to the decline in the density and variety of butterfly species?

To what extent do projects that aim to protect, shield or conserve habitats achieve their purpose?

Do the proposed solutions not perhaps contribute to unanticipated problems that could lead to

further decimation of species diversity and the general wellbeing of butterfly populations?

In an attempt to find answers to these questions the research method used was to review recent literature

on the topic to contextualise and clarify the focus of the study.

THE ECOLOGICAL ROLE OF LEPIDOPTERA

Lepidoptera are possibly better appreciated for their aesthetic, scientific, educational and intrinsic value,

but butterflies have significant value for the ecosystem:

Principally as pollinators, being second only to bees as pollinators and consequently playing an

important role in plant reproduction, agriculture, food production and food security

Secondly, as constituting a vital component of the food chain as prey for birds and other

insectivorous species

And, more recently, as indicator species used to study the impact of changes to the environment

brought on by climate change, habitat loss and fragmentation because of their sensitivity to such

changes (Butterfly Conservation Europe 2008).

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Indicator species are chosen on the basis of their sensitivity to environmental changes which include

chemical, ecological or climatic changes. Furthermore, an indicator species must be sufficiently visible,

identifiable and easy to monitor or record (Carignan & Villard 2002:49). Butterflies have relatively short life

cycles and are at a low trophic level; consequently, they respond rapidly to subtle habitat and climatic

changes in their environment. Owing to their visibility, their response to environmental changes is quickly

noticed. Changes in their density and diversity are representative of the responses of other biophysical

components, such as vegetation or changes in temperature or humidity levels which might not be

immediately noticeable (Griffis, Mann & Wagner 2002).

To complete their life cycle, butterflies are reliant on three types of vegetative population. The plants

include the larval food or host plants; the nectar plants on which the butterflies feed; and taller shade

plants which provide protection during butterflies’ resting periods or when they feel threatened. Butterflies

tend to be very specific in the choice of host plants and generally the female lays her eggs only on a

single species of plant, the leaves of which are suitable as a food source for the developing larvae. Most

butterflies are not too particular about which flowers they feed on. However, there is one constraining

factor – the nectar source must be within the range of the capacity (length) of the proboscis. The third

group of plants, the shade or resting plants, must provide sufficient humidity and a temperature that is

comfortable for adult butterflies (Bashar 2010). Apart from the above factors, some butterfly species, for

example members of the Lycaenid family, have a myrmecophylic association with ants that protect their

larvae from predatory insects. Clearly, butterflies require a stable habitat for their survival and any

changes to the habitat that has an impact on one or more of the above requirements will be indicated by

changes to their diversity and density (SABCA 2007).

HUMAN-INDUCED ACTIVITIES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO A LOSS OF DIVERSITY AND DENSITY IN

LEPIDOPTERA POPULATIONS

The literature mentions a variety of factors to which the declining number of butterflies globally can be

attributed. Apart from climate change and global warming (which are not the primary focus of this article),

human activities that lead to degradation and destruction of butterfly habitats are a significant contributing

factor. Habitat destruction is mainly caused by intensified agricultural activities, urbanisation and

deforestation. Habitats are also affected by overgrazing, road-building, trampling, and elimination of

forests for firewood generally to generate a source of income for impoverished local communities (Feber,

Johnson, Firbank, Hopkins & Mcdonald 2007:34–35).

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Human impact on the natural habitats of Lepidoptera resulting from agricultural activities

Agricultural activities, such as large-scale grazing and tillage and the use of pesticides and fertilisers to

protect and sustain crops, have significant implications for wild species of flora and fauna. A national

study conducted in the Netherlands (Wallisdevries, Van Swaay & Plate 2011) found that, owing to

eutrophication resulting from the continuous use of fertilisers and the consequent build up of nitrogen and

phosphorous in the soil and water, about 47% of the natural ecosystem areas showed a significant

decline in the number of flowering plants – especially thistles. Consequently, this resulted in a decline in

diversity and density of Lepidoptera who feed on the nectar from the flowers. A study in the United States

(Morrison 2012) indicated that the decline of the Monarch butterfly is a result of the large-scale depletion

of milkweed – the host plant for the larvae – which is destroyed when undisturbed farmland is turned into

agricultural land. Milkweed is also killed by herbicides used to destroy weeds in the cultivated lands. It is

estimated that the number of milkweed plants declined by 58% between 1999 and 2010, while Monarch

egg production dropped by 81%.

Declines in the abundance and species diversity of butterfly populations in agriculturally developed areas

are generally expected. Studies relating to the practice of organic farming indicated that organic farms

attracted significantly more species of butterflies and in greater numbers overall than conventional farms.

The study concluded that increasing the extent of, or practices associated with, organic farming could

help restore biodiversity in agricultural landscapes (Feber et al. 2007:34). Interventions such as

encouraging farmers to leave tracts of land uncultivated or to withhold grazing to allow for and encourage

the continued existence or return of butterfly species endemic to the area are also suggested by

environmentally aware and concerned farmers. In France, an Alternative Rotational Stocking (ARS)

strategy has been implemented to create refuge areas where flowering plants are protected from grazing

livestock during the main flowering period (Farruggia, Bumont, Scohier, Leroy, Pradel & Garel, 2011:142).

Smallidge and Leopold (1998) indicate that human intervention in the management of land use should be

applied to provide suitable habitats to preserve the local butterfly populations. However, land and

vegetation management strategies are not as straightforward as one might expect. The strategies need to

vary with plant community type, desired vegetation composition and locality (McLauchlin & Mineau 1995).

Butterflies are particularly sensitive to habitat fragmentation and, although well intentioned, the strategies

described above are not necessarily successful for all affected species. An intensive study relating to the

response of butterfly and moth communities to changes in habitat, habitat fragmentation and connectivity

of habitats was conducted by Öckinger, Schweiger and Crist in 2010 (975). In this study, 24 independent

data sets containing 1 483 species and covering a range of landscapes in Europe and North America

were used. The butterfly characteristics examined in the study included mobility (measured by wing

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span), the larval food plants and reproductive potential established by the number of eggs produced. The

results of this study indicated that the communities that are most likely to survive in highly fragmented

landscapes are mainly species that are particularly mobile and feed off a larger range of plant species.

Species that are less mobile, have more specialised diets and less reproductive potential remain at risk

despite attempts to provide areas of natural vegetation to sustain them.

Human impact on the natural habitats of Lepidoptera resulting from urbanisation

Urban development encroaches on natural habitats by replacing countryside with dwellings and

infrastructure such as roads, paved areas, offices and shopping centres, consequently changing the

climate and humidity of the area. Moreover, waterways are rerouted and wetland areas are drained with

the water then being channelled through concrete ditches or pipes making it impossible for natural

vegetation to survive. Many of the plants introduced into urbanised areas are exotic which further

changes the natural habitats required by butterflies (Carter 2005).

Studies on the impact of urbanisation indicate that as urbanisation increases, butterfly species richness

(diversity) decreases. Furthermore, rare and specialised species, that is, those that require particular host

plants or have few broods are most affected (Clark, Reed & Chew 2007:321). Studies by Blair (2001) and

Marzluff (2001) in the United States indicate that the number of butterfly species in the urban core is

reduced to less than 50% of that found in natural, undisturbed areas. However, Blair’s study also

indicated a species richness in suburban areas that surpasses that of preserves created within urban

areas. This is explained by the argument that the initial human impact of suburban sprawl is relatively

mild. Only a few housing subdivisions are established in largely natural habitats and many homeowners

in these areas make informed choices regarding the plants they cultivate with many avoiding the

introduction of exotic species to their gardens (McKinney 2002).

A study conducted as far back as 1989 in the Brazilian city of Porto Alegre investigated butterfly diversity

in terms of urbanisation zones. The urbanised area was divided into three zones: buildings (B) higher

than four storeys with vegetative cover of less than 20%; houses and buildings (HB) no higher than four

storeys and vegetative cover between 20 and 40%; houses (H) and open areas with plant cover of more

than 40%. The distribution of butterflies correlated well with the urban zones with the lowest density on

the B area. This can be attributed to pollution, and the higher temperatures than normal resulting from

urbanisation, human density and lack of vegetation. The borders between H and HB presented a barrier

for several species much like fragmented habitats. The increase in urbanisation and pollution had a direct

impact on species diversity and density and there were definite signs of homogenisation of species in the

B and HB areas (Ruszczyk 1989:157).

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However, most of the world's butterflies, and certainly its largest and most beautiful species, are found in

tropical rain forests, which are disappearing at an alarming rate as a result of deforestation.

Human impact on Lepidoptera resulting from deforestation

The looming mass extinction of biodiversity in the humid tropics globally is a major concern. El Salvador,

which is the second most deforested country in Latin America after Haiti, lost 20.5% of its forest cover

between 1990 and 2005 and 85% in total since the 1960s. Currently, only 5% of the land area remains

forested (El Salvador 2006). In the South American tropical regions, during the past 40 years, close to

20% of the Amazon rain forest has been cut down (Wallace 2010). As one of the world's prime mega-

diverse countries, Brazil holds an immense number of terrestrial invertebrates and, according to the

current Brazilian national and regional data bases, 42% of the terrestrial invertebrate species that are

endangered are butterflies. Comprehensive knowledge of various biomes and habitats in the region is

irregular. The biodiversity of the Atlantic Forest, the Amazon and Cerrado has been relatively well

documented, but the Caatinga and the Pantanal are in need of far more study to establish an accurate

view of the current status of the biodiversity of these regions (Lewinsohn, Freitas & Prado 2005:640).

Moving on to the tropical regions of Africa, the verdant forests of the East Usambara Mountains in

Tanzania is one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, but is threatened by human development and natural

habitat destruction (Van Hartich 2012). Similarly, the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest and the Kakamega Forest in

Kenya, which are two of country’s most precious natural assets, also face human-induced habitat

destruction and the subsequent loss of the rich biodiversity (Nkube 2012). Zanzibar’s natural forests are

similarly threatened (Tutton 2012). The forests in these regions are generally cut down either for the wood

that is used to make charcoal or to establish cash crops as a form of income for the impoverished yet

expanding local populations.

The tropical regions of the East are also severely affected. Singapore reports an overall loss of

biodiversity of 28% of recorded species over a period of 183 years, as a result of large-scale

deforestation and habitat modification (Brook, Sodhi & Ng 2003:421). In India, the state of Assam is home

to more than 500 species of butterflies yet ironically, owing to a lack of awareness of butterflies, there are

no names for these creatures in the regional languages. This lack of awareness certainly contributes to

the fact that butterfly conservation is low on the biodiversity conservation agenda and the large-scale

deforestation and habitat fragmentation continues unheeded (Barua 2011). Satellite imagery shows that

Malaysia is subjected to deforestation at s rate of three times more than any of the other Asian countries

combined (Max 2011) – a country that is estimated to contain 20% of the world’s animal species many of

which are butterflies. The yellow birdwing, once known as the common birdwing, is no longer common

despite it being protected under the Malaysian Wildlife Act and CITES. This butterfly is native to the

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Malaysian lowlands but is steadily disappearing from viable locations owing to the destruction of its

natural habitat for the establishment of palm oil plantations (Penang Butterfly Farm nd). The Queen

Alexandra birdwing, which is the largest butterfly in the world and certainly not inconspicuous owing to its

size and vibrant colours, is on the verge of extinction. Previously found in Australasia there is only one

site where the butterfly can still be found: in northern Papua New Guinea at one location east of the Owen

Stanley Mountains. The butterfly’s eminent extinction has been caused by the clearing of forest for

expanding commercial palm oil, rubber and cocoa plantations, human settlement and subsistence

farming (New 2011).

BUTTERFLY AGRICULTURE The preceding discussion and references to the factors that lead to the destruction of habitats (mostly

human induced) and the consequent loss of biodiversity, including that of butterflies, that play an

indispensible role in the ecosystem, might leave the impression that ‘all is lost’. However there are various

attempts – many of them successful – to curb the impact of habitat destruction and simultaneously

address the threat to the wellbeing of butterflies. This practice is generally referred to under the umbrella

term ‘butterfly agriculture’ and takes on several forms. Each will be discussed below. However, to

contextualise the rationale for aspects of butterfly agriculture it is necessary to first mention the role of

butterfly flight houses in this process.

Butterfly flight houses

There is hardly a country that does not have at least one, but invariably several, butterfly flight or display

houses in which local and exotic species of butterflies are on display. The concept first started in

Guernsey in 1976 and the trend spread rapidly. D’Angelo’s words “all over the world butterflies soar into

the hearts of man, they sail boundless and free, speaking the universal language of beauty” probably best

capture most people’s response to the sight of a butterfly and explain why butterfly flight houses have

become so popular.

Because the species on display are not just endemic, pupae of exotic species need to be purchased from

all over the world and hatched for butterfly livestock for display. Most countries that import and those that

export butterfly pupae have to comply with strict regulations and be in possession of the required permits.

In most cases these permits do not allow species to be bred in captivity and plants within the display

house may provide nectar only. Larval host plants may not be cultivated. Since butterflies are generally

short-lived, regular shipments of new pupae are required. Once the butterfly emerges from the chrysalis it

is released into the exhibit. Strict measures to prevent escapes are taken (Hadley 2012). Some butterfly

houses in tropical and subtropical regions have breeding facilities for self-need and outside market

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demand. Nevertheless, the primary concern of butterfly display houses is not conservation, but to raise

interest and awareness of butterflies among visitors.

Farming and/or exhibiting of tropical butterflies is a worldwide business. However, although most of the

butterflies on display originate from tropical countries, most of the flight houses are located in temperate

regions.

Butterfly harvesting, ranching and farming

The rationale for butterfly agriculture is to protect or improve the habitats where butterflies occur naturally.

The areas which are generally most prone to habitat destruction – aside from the habitats destroyed for

large-scale agricultural purposes or logging for economic reasons – are mostly found in regions where

poverty is rife, population growth is rapid and survival is primary. Communities tend to destroy the areas –

mostly forested areas – to harvest firewood, log wood to produce charcoal or to clear land for subsistence

agriculture. For butterfly agriculture to succeed, local farmers and villagers need to be convinced that it

makes more economic sense to make money from butterflies which are a renewable resources than

continue with the non-sustainable exploitation of the forests. The promotion of butterfly harvesting,

farming and ranching can offer locals an alternative income that does not require the destruction of their

natural habitats, but instead preserves and protects the existing natural habitats.

Butterfly harvesting entails a passive process of habitat conservation. Harvesting can be described as

‘hunting’ for butterfly pupae in their natural habitats and collecting dead-stock for the manufacturing of

items sold to tourists. The pupae are sold to buyers who, with the required permits, export the harvested

pupae to butterfly display houses worldwide. Because butterflies have a high reproduction rate,

overharvesting is not generally a concern. The spin-off is that the local people find out how important it is

to preserve the natural environment to ensure a continuous source of host and nectar plants if their larvae

harvesting activities are to be successful. Consequently, the habitat is preserved and communities make

a viable income from the butterfly pupae they collect. From an environmental education perspective,

interest in, and awareness and knowledge of, butterfly habits and habitats are enhanced.

Butterfly ranching is more intensive than butterfly harvesting. The basic principle of butterfly ranching is

that traditional cultivated crop gardening is diversified to include butterfly host plants to attract oviposting

females. Because people are generally unaware which host plants are required by an egg-laying female

butterfly, farmers need to identify – through careful observation – which host plants are required and need

to be cultivated in their gardens to attract butterflies. Since butterflies are mobile, they congregate in

areas where the larval food plants grow (Le Roux 2000:40).This system has a dual benefit: the visiting

butterflies serve as pollinators for the cultivated crops and also provide larvae that can later on be

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harvested. Butterfly ranching thus involves artificial manipulation of the natural density of larval host

plants. Mature larvae are harvested and removed to cages for pupation to ensure that they are not lost to

natural predators. Farmers realise the importance of protecting the natural habitat and forested areas to

ensure that they have a constant supply of this renewable resource. Environmentally destructive

agricultural practices like logging, slash and burn cropping and ranching bush meat is significantly

curtailed (Weintraub 1995).

Farming butterflies – the most intensive intervention of the three measures – requires the building of

enclosures – usually with fine netting to protect the butterflies from their natural enemies during all stages

of their life cycle. Butterfly farming is more labour-intensive, but results in the large-scale production of

pupae for export. Nurseries of host plants are established to replenish food plants in the enclosure and

good nectar source flowering plants are cultivated to nourish the adult butterfly. New males are regularly

harvested from the surrounding habitat and introduced into the enclosures to ensure genetic diversity.

Larvae are removed from the enclosure to special cages at pupation stage and are then sold to buyers.

EXAMPLES OF CASE STUDIES OF SUCCESSFUL HARVESTING, RANCHING AND FARMING

PRACTICES

There are a number of successful projects involving butterfly agriculture. In general, the chief benefit is

that people in rural villages are able to make a viable income through farming butterflies by the sale of

pupae and dried specimens (Dunn 2006; Le Roux 2000). At the same time, natural habitats are

conserved and degraded and destructed habitats are rehabilitated by reintroducing indigenous host

species (Le Roux 2000). Furthermore, local awareness of nature and environmental sustainability is

promoted. Without the alternative of farming butterflies, villagers would clear the forests to plant cash

crops and log and burn wood for charcoal.

Successful projects include those of the Penang Butterfly Farm established in Malaysia in 1986, in which

some 100 native species are on display. The farm is a top tourist attraction with breeding stations.

Extensive habitat studies had to be done to identify host plants and to establish the macro-climatic

conditions required by the butterflies and their host plants. The farm releases a significant percentage of

the captive bred stock into the wild (Butterfly conservation 2010). In Papua New Guinea, butterflies are

classified as renewable natural resources and insect conservation as a national objective is specified in

the country’s constitution. The government established Insect Farming & Trading Agency helps villagers

establish programmes to raise and sell pupae. The goliath birdwing – the second largest butterfly in the

world – is but one of the species that is specifically ranched (Bayliss-Smith 2011).

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Success stories from Africa include those such as the KEEP project in Kenya where butterflies are farmed

in the Kakamega Forest on the border with Uganda. The local Shikami group (essentially comprised of

women) makes a lucrative business from butterfly farming. The director of the project maintains that the

farmers are able to earn a monthly income of about $950 per month – much more than they could from

making charcoal or from chicken or egg selling businesses. Farmers need to obtain a licence from the

Kenya Wildlife Services to trade butterfly pupae, which places a restriction on exploitation of the process

(Ncube 2012). In Tanzania, the Amani Butterfly Project works with rural villages in forested, mountainous

areas. The main aim is to provide villagers with an alternative income that will reduce their negative

impact on the environment through deforestation and slash and burn clearance to cultivate crops.

Participating farmers receive about 65% of the income generated; of the remaining funds, 30% covers the

project’s staff salaries and operating costs and 5% of the profits is set aside for community development

projects that benefit the community as a whole, such as building schools and hospitals (Den Hartigh

2012).

Suriname and Guyana are two of the smallest countries in South America but both have established

butterfly farms which contribute to nature education and the breeding of tropical butterflies. In Suriname, a

successful breeding programme for neotropical insects has been established close to Lelydorp. This

project produces and exports several indigenous butterfly pupae internationally. Guyana, to the west of

Suriname, started its butterfly farming project Kawê Amazonica Butterfly Farm – “Kawê” means “butterfly”

in the local Makushi dialect and “Amazonica” is an allusion to the butterflies of the Amazon region – in

2007. The farming sites consist of a host plant garden, a caterpillar rearing facility and a butterfly house

(Sambhu & Van der Heyden 2010:452–453). Iwokrama is another productive butterfly farm in the heart of

Guyana's rainforest. While preserving tropical rainforests, sustainable livelihoods for local communities

are generated by farming butterflies (Hance 2008).

However, the discussion on butterflies in the South American tropical region would be incomplete without

mention of Brazil. The country has in excess of 3 300 species – without doubt the greatest diversity in the

world. As mentioned before, certain regions of the country have been relatively well surveyed. For

example, the state of Rondonia apparently has an estimated 1 500 to 1 600 species within several square

kilometres. Unfortunately, the tropical rain forest in this area is being rapidly cleared. Another example of

a richly populated region is the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. This is a heterogeneous and endangered biome

of which only 10% remains. More than 2 100 species are found in the region. Logically, if regions like the

sites mentioned are being destroyed, the habitats of large numbers of butterflies will be destroyed and

consequently butterflies – their diversity and density – will be decimated (Emmel & Austin 1990:1;

Francini, Duarte, Mielke, Caldas, Freitas 2011: 31).

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Unfortunately, tropical butterfly conservation efforts are constrained by a lack of substantiated ecological

knowledge owing to the expanse and relative impenetrability of the area. Generally, conservation

research on butterflies in the tropics has focused on the relationship between habitat quality and butterfly

diversity. However, the increasing threat caused by habitat destruction, fragmentation and climate change

in Brazil makes it necessary to move beyond the habitat–diversity relationship if estimations of how

habitat destruction impacts on diversity are to be made. Tropical butterflies represent some of the most

spectacular and visually appealing organisms in the world and surely play – probably undocumented as

yet – vital roles in tropical ecosystems (Bonebrake, Ponisio, Boggs, & Erlich 2010:1831).

COUNTER-ARGUMENTS RELATED TO BUTTERFLY AGRICULTURE

Butterfly harvesting, ranching and farming as conservation efforts also have their critics. The main

arguments raised include contentions that the probability of disease can arise when butterflies are housed

in crowded situations and that hybridisation resulting from- the lack of genetic regeneration can take place

(LepSoc 2012:1). It is also argued that the release of butterflies bred under controlled conditions into a

different locality could result in the introduction of diseases to the native population which is unable to

contend with the disease. Apart from introducing disease to an area, the shipping or release of live

butterflies carries the possibility of spreading and generating diseases in health communities (Pavulaan

2009).

Populations that are localised are generally genetically distinct from geographically removed populations

of the same species. They may be adapted to prevailing local conditions that include climate, soil and

vegetation. The introduction of non-native genes into the localised populations could be detrimental and

disruptive to the primary population (Pavulaan 2009).

Transportation of species outside their native habitat for deliberate introduction into a new region can

have detrimental effects on the environment and the survival of the butterfly population itself. In addition,

the reintroduction of a species to a region should only be considered after the habitat requirements of the

species and the reasons for its decline (or causes for its extinction) have been understood or removed.

Any subsequent reintroduction should be monitored, recorded and evaluated (LepSoc 2012).

Assisted introductions are generally forbidden and when it is done as part of a biological weed eradication

programme, the introduction needs to be well considered and monitored for any detrimental effects. The

release of alien species should never be allowed (Pavulaan 2009) since they pose a risk of uncontrolled

expansion owing to a lack of local predators which threaten local Lepidoptera populations (LepSoc 2012).

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Another claim is that conservation efforts might inadvertently conserve a common species at the expense

of conserving a threatened species if advice from local or international experts is not first sought. Those

who challenge live butterfly farming argue that ranching of dead stock seems to be the most sustainable

method of conservation (Johnson 1998:12). Although not challenging the sale of livestock to flight

houses, the Lepidopterist Society of South Africa (2012) contends that the sale of dead stock can be

scientifically supported. An additional issue raised is that areas where host plants are removed and

transferred for ranching or farming purposes are at risk of encroachment by invasive plants.

CONCLUDING COMMENTS

The precarious state in which butterflies find themselves globally cannot be ignored, especially since this

state is human induced. Humanity is obliged to take responsibility for its actions and at least attempt to

make solid contributions to the preservation and conservation of butterflies globally. The indispensable

role that Lepidoptera play in nature is an accepted fact. That Lepidoptera find themselves globally in a

tenuous situation as a result of the consequences of global warming, including climate change and

ongoing human-induced habitat destruction cannot be denied. This article has provided a rationale for the

preservation of butterflies; has mentioned attempts to preserve and conserve butterflies that can be

supported by local communities since the benefit derived is of immediate financial benefit to them as well;

and it has also raised the counter-arguments and concerns related to these attempts.

The counter-arguments are valid and should be heeded to ensure that further destruction to butterfly

habitats and wellbeing does not occur. The cautionary comments raised need to be seriously considered.

However, the positive results achieved through butterfly agriculture need to be commended, as do the

spin-offs of habitat conservation, raising environmental awareness, appreciation and knowledge, as well

as providing impoverished communities with a sustainable financial income. The literature on this topic

overwhelmingly indicates that the conservation and preservation of butterflies and their habitats can no

longer be ignored. Measures such as butterfly agriculture provide a viable option for achieving this goal,

although it is imperative to equally consider the advice advanced by the critics – advice that is offered

from a well-informed and expert position.

William Wordsworth (1770–1850), in one of his poems entitled “To a Butterfly”, written many years ago

with some foresight it might seem, was concerned about the environmentally responsible individual’s

experience

Stay near me – do not take thy flight! A little longer stay in sight!

Much converse do I find in thee, Historian of my infancy!

Float near me; do not yet depart!

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13 The Narrative: An Info-Entertaining Way to Educate About the Environment

K Kezabu

Uganda

Abstract

Narratives were traditionally effective educational tools. Today, they have been effective in educating

about social issues. Forms of the narrative range from novels and short stories to plays and movies. In

Uganda, environmental issues are mainly taught at school. But how about those people that did not go to

school? How about those that went to school but lack the awareness of the current environmental threat?

Ugandans are involved in environmentally degrading activities in spite of efforts by organizations like

National Environmental Management Authority and National Forest Authority. In recent years, there is a

remarkable boom in the entertainment industry. However, there has been a gap in the exploitation of the

narrative as a tool of education on environmental issues. Using narrative theories, this paper intends to

show the extent to which the narrative has been used in educating the masses about their environment.

This paper also demonstrates the effectiveness of the narrative as an educational tool.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

Narratives are stories. These stories are presented in many forms and genres. They can be written or oral

like in the case of novels, short stories, folktales, myths and legends; they may be sung or recited as in

the case of songs, narrative poems or epic poetry; they may be viewed in motion or still pictures like the

movies, T.V soaps, or paintings; or, they can just be acted on stage or mimed for an audience like plays.

(Barthes 1995: 238). Narratives are universal. They are part of us, all the time, everywhere in the world.

About the universality of the narrative, Barthes (ibid, 239) says, “…indeed narrative starts with the very

history of mankind; there is not, there has never been anywhere, any people without narrative; all classes,

all human groups, have their stories…like life itself, it is there, international, transhistorical, transcultural.”

Scholars contend that our identity is built on the narrative. The phenomenon of experience itself is usually

approached in the structure of the narrative. When, for instance, a people want to record their life

experiences, goals and accomplishments they write them in the form of a story with the same narrative

structure as narrative fiction. It has a beginning, when for instance he is young; and middle when he is an

adult, energetic and full of life; and the end, when he is old and retired from active service. Rimmon-

Kenan (2002: 11) says, “… that we lead our lives as stories, and our identity is constructed both by

stories we tell our selves and others about ourselves and the master narratives that consciously serve as

models to us.”

Studies in personal psychology reveal that the narrative is a vehicle of appreciation and examination of

the self and society. We need to know the people we work with and also live with. Lack of that knowledge

will make us fail to live in harmony and therefore development will be hampered. When we understand

the people around us and what affects them, our personalities are developed. McAdams (2006: 14)

emphasizes the importance of narrative approaches in the study of difficult life events, and major life

decisions. The same narrative approaches help reveal the way people make sense of adversity and

change and how that sense-making influences the development of personality.

On the issue of fictionality, Punday (2003: 18) expounds on how we live in a fiction surrounded world. He

explains that our career moves are based on imagining likely futures and our judgment of our actions and

the actions of others is based more often on models provided by narratives like films and novels. Without

the use of one’s imagination, life would not only be boring but also impossible. Kennedy (1991: Preface

xi) wisely points at the consequences of a lack of imagination when he attributes people’s failure to their

failure to view the world from other people’s point of view. According to him, most people’s failure is not

as a result of an inability to understand their jobs but the failure to understand the people they work with,

their clients, or customers.

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Van Dijk (1994: 293) defines a story as any discourse which has a narrative structure. Aristotle speaks of

“a unified plot with a beginning, middle and an end,” in his description of the structure of a play which is

also a form of the narrative. (Dorsch 1965: 41) The structure of a narrative is emphasized by many literary

scholars. A structuralist understanding of the narrative will emphasize the same traditional order.

Ferguson (1994: 218-219) clarifies that all stories short or long have certain required properties of

narrativity – characters, places, events, “a beginning, middle and an end”, and coherence among the

parts. Narratives are distinguished from other forms and genres by their special structure.


The researcher employed the structuralist narrative theory because the paper emphasizes the use of the

unified structure of the narrative (beginning, middle and end) in the exposition of ideas and in this case,

about the environment. The researcher employed the cognitive model which examines stories as a

means of discourse processing. In this paper, stories or narratives are considered as a medium through

which information can be dispensed.

STATEMENT OF THE OBJECTIVE

This research was intended to establish the extent to which the narrative has been used in environmental

education in Uganda. The research also reveals the main educational tools that are employed in teaching

the masses about the environment in Uganda. The paper also aims to show how the narrative can be an

effective educational tool.

THE UGANDAN ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION

At 3.3 % per annum, Uganda’s population growth rate is considered one of the highest in the world. As

per population census of 2007, Uganda’s population was estimated at 28 million people and growing by 1

million people per year (Uganda National Commission for UNESCO 2010: 31). This large population has

implications for the environment. Many of the livelihood requirements of most Ugandans are directly

derived from the environment. An imbalance is likely to be created when the rate at which the rapidly

growing population utilizing the nature resources exceeds the natural growth and renewal of these

resources. Such a stressed environment cannot be sustainable for long. When the resources become

scarce in the face of a rapidly growing population, poverty intensifies. With increasing poverty, people

start engaging in environmentally degrading activities like deforestation, charcoal burning, encroaching on

wildlife areas and wetlands, overharvesting of fish, water pollution etc. This further depletes the

environment and makes people more vulnerable to environmental hazards like droughts, mudslides,

storms, and diseases, all of which are common phenomena in Uganda today.

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Environmental education was introduced through “The school environmental education program”,

launched in 1996, and was later revised in 2005. (National Environment Management Authority 2008).

Although this program was integrated in the curriculum at primary, secondary and tertiary levels, it has

been criticized for being too theoretical and exam-oriented. (Uganda National Commission for UNESCO

2010:19). Outside the classroom, the students are totally unaware of the environmental issues and

therefore lack practical skills, values and ethics to survive and manage resources in a challenging world.

Even though the government launched a strategy through “The non-formal environmental education and

community training strategy” (National Environment Management Authority 1994: 2) to educate the

masses about sustainable development in 1994, there is still a lot of ignorance among the people. People

are still burning charcoal uncontrollably, destroying wetlands, destroying forests for timber and even

recently, the President has twice tried to sell the largest natural forest reserve, Mabira forest, to a sugar

manufacturing company for sugarcane growing, hence, threatening to destroy its human and wildlife

reliance.

In her dissertation entitled “Environmental Degradation and Food Insecurity in Bukwo District, Eastern

Uganda,” (Cheptoris 2011: 61) 34.5% of her respondents failed to associate environmental degradation

(charcoal burning, wet land encroachment, deforestation etc) to food insecurity in their region. This

implies that a good number of Ugandans are ignorant of the effects of their degrading activities on their

own wellbeing.

THE NARRATIVE AS AN EDUCATIONAL TOOL

In many cultures, narratives have been limited to the field of entertainment. Hyvarinen (2006: 22)

comments on the fact that the narrative has been neglected and marginalized in society. Also due to their

fictional nature, narratives have often been dismissed as lies. Long ago, Plato had the same view when

he banned them from his ideal republic because according to him, they were simply imitations of reality.

(Plato 2005:24). However, Aristotle, his student, thought otherwise and argued that the basis of learning

is imitation. He clarifies that man is the most imitative of all animals and that his earliest lessons are learnt

through imitation. (Dorsch 1965: 35) Modern scholars warn that children should be introduced to stories

early in life: MacIntyre (1984: 216) stresses that children deprived of stories become unscripted, anxious,

stutterers in their actions as in their words.

Teachers are aware that the main reason for a teacher to be innovative is to hold the attention of the

learner for as long as the lesson lasts and even more. A generally inattentive class is a result of boring

traditional teaching methods. Traditionally, the teacher’s was the active role and the student was the

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passive receiver. Narratives as teaching aids involve the students emotionally (and in many cases

practically) in a way that the students are usually carried away by the anxiety of ‘what happened next?’

and ‘so what?’ of the story. This applies to all levels of learners, from pre-primary to university; and all

fields, ranging from Languages and Literature to Medical Science.

In a class of environmental science, students can be bombarded with very farfetched abstract concepts.

The use of narratives helps to make the abstract concepts realistic. The information that would otherwise

be hard to decode and remember can, by the use of stories, be brought closer to the level of the students’

understanding. As narratives are educative, they are also entertaining. Scholars have written that human

beings naturally enjoy stories. Aristotle elucidates that it is actually an in born instinct in man to enjoy

works of imitation. (Dorsch 1965: 35) Evidence of this enjoyment is the current flourishing entertainment

industry. There are a lot of films, movies, soaps etc produced all the time. The use of characters that, like

us, are stupid, tragic, ambitious and sometimes indecisive, make stories entertaining and allows us to

relate to them as we often see our personal characteristics portrayed in the narrative.

Narratives are hard to forget. This makes them better teaching aids compared to other teaching methods.

The narrative structure and unified plot function in such a way that whoever is listening, reading or

watching a story easily commits to memory what is being taught. In the other teaching methods, issues

are disjointed fragments that are usually hard to piece together by the learners. The narrative with its

unified plot easily sticks to the learners’ memory. The other thing that makes these stories good

educational tools is that the stories break up the content of the data into smaller manageable bits that can

be easily taken in by the learners. For example using the story “Will I ever go back home?” (UWEC 2011:

6-7), a teacher may step-by-step teach the dangers of poaching and the importance of forest

conservation. In education all teachers worldwide are trained to teach from the known to the unknown.

This philosophy works better if the teacher uses stories as a teaching aid. Stories reflect human

experience and they are about human beings. This simplifies the information so that the learner’s ability

to comprehend the information at hand is made easier.

Stories also perform the illustrative function. They show what the problem actually looks like. (Stewart,

121) Because of the artful selection of the language used in telling the story, the vivid description of the

people, places and incidents, the story acts as an illustration that stimulates the learner’s interest in the

subject being taught. Because stories present life situations, they help replicate real world problems. The

student is asked to deal with the reality of life and not the unreal. They portray human problems and in

using wretched people like us or like the people we live with, learners experience real human feelings

thereby identifying with the problem. From the characters in the stories, learners may learn how to

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overcome or solve certain life challenges like poverty or drought.

The case study which is widely used in management studies is also a form of the narrative. The case

study is a sort of short story, which presents the problem at hand, in story format. Usually it leads to a

discussion which in most cases results in critical thinking and problem solving. On the effectiveness of the

case study, Lawrence (1953: 215) clarifies that it not only keeps the class discussion grounded upon

some of the stubborn facts that must be faced in real life situations but also it is “the anchor on academic

flights of fancy”.

METHOD

This research employed the qualitative approach. The overall strategy was mainly descriptive for both the

data derived from the live sources (interviews and focus-groups discussion) and documentary sources.

The sampling was both purposive and random. Reason being that the researcher selected two most

respected and responsible environmental organizations in the country: The National Environmental

Management Authority (NEMA) which is the principal agency in Uganda responsible for the coordination,

monitoring and supervision of all environmental management issues in the country; and Uganda Wildlife

Educational Centre (UWEC), formally Uganda zoo, an educational arm of Uganda Wildlife Authority in

charge of wildlife in the country.

The researcher also purposively chose to interview the heads and three other members of the education

departments in both organizations because the information required was on public awareness or the way

the organizations educate the public on matters pertaining to the environment. The sampling was also

random because members of the public were randomly selected to discuss their views about how they

got their information about the environment.

Documentary sources in form of text books, newspapers, and journals were selected using the purposive

sampling method and these were used to get more information on the environment in general and on the

narrative as both an instrument of exposition and research.

National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA)

The national environmental act mandates NEMA in article 86(4) to publish such publications as it

considers necessary for public education on the environment and other environmental issues. Article 87

also mandates the authority, in collaboration with the minister responsible for education, to take all

measures necessary for the integration into the school curriculum of education on the environment. (The

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National Environmental Act 1995: 71). NEMA’s mission is to ensure Sustainable socio-economic

development for Uganda. One of the specific objectives is to promote awareness programs and increase

public knowledge about environmental issues.

The people interviewed revealed that the National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) has a

fully fledged department in charge of education. This department is in charge of designing education

programs and materials for environmental education for both the public and for schools. For

environmental education for schools, among other materials, NEMA has published a booklet entitled

Promoting Environmental Education in Schools which explains to school children what the environment

is, its benefits and how to form environmental clubs at school. It also elaborates some of the activities that

can be done by the environmental clubs in schools.

Some other materials for environmental education at tertiary and university levels developed by NEMA

are the modules (Module 1 and 2). These are step-by-step guides to the instructors on how to teach

university students about the environment. Other materials are posters, and bound booklets of the

numerous workshops done in the past. The interviewees also showed that workshops are mainly carried

out for target groups (especially policy makers and implementers). For the public and libraries, a quarterly

newsletter, NEMA News, about environmental issues in Uganda is published. In this newsletter, there are

creative stories (fiction) written about the environment.

The National Environmental Management Authority publishes, every two years, a report entitled the State

of Environment Report for Uganda. This report gives factual information on the achievements and

challenges of the Ugandan environment for the last two years. National Environmental Management

Authority (NEMA) all together showed eight (8) ways of educating about the environment.

S/N Educational Tool Mode of Rhetoric 1 Booklet: Promoting Environmental Education in Schools Expository, Descriptive

2 State of Environment Report for Uganda (Every two years) Expository

3 Newsletter: NEMA NEWS Expository, Narrative

4 Modules (1 and 2) for tertiary environmental education Expository, Descriptive

5 Workshops Expository

6 Bound previous workshop reports and papers at NEMA Available only in NEMA House Kampala

Expository

7 A library at NEMA House Kampala: open to the public Expository

8 Posters Descriptive

Table 1: The rhetoric mode of the NEMA environment educational tools

Uganda Wildlife Educational Center (UWEC)

The center is home to several endangered species of plants, animals, reptiles and birds. On average, it

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receives about 100 children from one school per day to tour the premises. The children observe the

animals and the guides explain many scientific facts about the animals. The centre also has facilities for

camping and at night, they hold campfires where stories about the animals are narrated. The stories are

mainly folk-tales and myths surrounding the particular animals, birds and reptiles at the center. On

average, the center receives about one tourist family in two months and very rarely the Ugandan families

for camping. Out of these stories, a publication entitled Animal Stories is underway.

The center also has recently published a booklet entitled Bush Meat to discourage poaching and to

educate the public about the dangers of wild animal meat to humans. In this booklet (UWEC:6-7), there is

a fiction story, Will I Ever Go Back Home?, used to show the plight of monkeys like Sarah who end up in

Zoos after the loss of her parents to bush meat hunters. The Uganda Wildlife Educational Centre (UWEC)

showed three ways of educating about the environment; and one collection of stories Animal Stories is

yet to be published.

S/N Educational Tool Mode of Rhetoric 1 Tours Expository

2 Campfire Stories Narrative

3 A Booklet: Bush Meat Expository, Narrative

Table 2: The rhetoric mode of UWEC environmental educational tools

Other Tools of Environmental Education

Some of the interviewees, who were working class and literate, said that they get their environmental

enlightenment from the national papers. These mainly were The New Vision and The Monitor. Leading

stories like the Mabira Forest give-away scandal and related public protests; and the National Forest

Authority (NFA) corrupt boss scandal were mentioned. Also mentioned from the papers are the Buduuda

mudslide disasters and Teso floods. All these stories were obtained from the news papers.

The television was another mentioned educational tool about the environment. News about environmental

disasters, scandals and threats are aired on most television stations. There was a mention of the eco-talk

on National Television (NTV) Uganda that was praised to be very informative. Uganda Broadcasting

Service (UBC) television was praised for airing, once every week, foreign documentaries about different

environmental related situations in the world. The radio was yet another educational tool about the

environment. Environmental news about disasters, challenges and current environmental issues are

usually aired on the different radio stations.

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These sources showed the following ways of educating about the environment:

S/N Educational Tool Mode of Rhetoric

1 News papers Expository, Descriptive

2 Television Expository, Descriptive

3 Radio Expository, Descriptive

Table 3: The rhetoric mode of other environmental educational tools

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

The environmental educational tools used by the National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA)

are eight and out of the eight, only one, NEMA NEWS, employs the narrative rhetorical mode. The

Uganda Wildlife Education Center (UWEC) shows only three environmental education tools and of those,

two are in the narrative mode. The other environmental education tools are mainly the media

(Newspapers, Television and Radio) and none of them use the narrative rhetoric mode to educate about

the environment. All together, there are fourteen main environmental education tools that are used to

educate Ugandans about their environment and of those; twelve, use the expository rhetoric mode, and

six use the descriptive rhetoric mode and only three employ the narrative rhetoric mode in educating

about the environment.

Venn diagram showing the rhetoric modes of the different environmental education

tools used in Uganda

Expository = 12

4

2

Descriptive = 6 Narrative = 3

6 1

CONCLUSIONS

The strategies that the government has used to inform the public about sustainable development and the

dangers of abusing the environment are not effective. The evidence is that today, the degrading activities

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are even worse than they were ten years ago. Daryl Khunle (2007: 56), a public information and

education specialist, says “it is not just about giving people the scientific facts, rather one should identify

the emotional or practical reasons why stake holders act the way they do”. He further advises,

“…translate the scientific facts into stimulating concepts and messages that appeal to the stakeholders,

are relevant to them and connect with their emotions and personal benefits.”

In Uganda today, with the boost of technology, the media industry has tremendously grown and so has

the entertainment industry. Before 1990, Uganda had one radio station, Radio Uganda; one television

station, Uganda television; and one newspaper The New Vision and all were state owned. Today,

Uganda boasts of over 10 newspapers, about 19 television stations, and about 150 radio stations. Most of

them are privately owned and provide info-taining programs even in the local languages to attract the

public. The youth and the elite have unlimited internet access and spend a lot of time on various social

networks. (http://www.ucc.co.ug)

One would think that this kind of boost in the information access would be the best for the concerned

ministry and the environmental bodies to make known their campaign against environmental degradation.

The data from the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) showed that the eight

environmental educational tools mostly used are in the expository rhetoric mode. This mode of

communication is in the form of scientific facts. It is noteworthy that Uganda is a country where most of

the adult natural resources exploiting populace are illiterate, and yet the education methods used by

NEMA are not only in written form but also in English. The people in offices are not the only ones that

need to know about the repercussions of burning charcoal to the forests, but also the poor uneducated

peasants who have made charcoal burning their major source of income.

The data from the Uganda Wildlife Education Center which is located only in Entebbe, showed that two of

the three environmental education tools are in the narrative rhetoric mode. These, however, target only

the children in urban schools and the people that come for campfire, who are mainly tourists. A collection

of the same stories about to be published under the title, Animal Stories, will again target the literate and

only those who understand English – again marginalizing those for whom the information is intended and

required. The media has also devised programs to educate the public about the environment.

Newspapers, television stations and radio stations, have a wider coverage but are also disadvantaged in

some ways. UBC documentaries focus on different aspects of the environment i.e. global warming and

the polar bears, the lions, the seals, the chimpanzees etc. Such programs are very informative but they

mainly tackle subjects that are not directly related to the Ugandan situation and when they do, they are

aired only in English like in the case of Eco Talk on NTV.

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RECOMMENDATIONS

In a situation when people are bombarded with a lot of information, we need to know that people will only

listen to what appeals to them. As a creative way of effectively educating about the environment, the

narrative in all its forms should be employed through entertainment to inform the public about their

relationship and responsibility towards the environment.

On top of the different teaching methods, the Ugandan environmental organs and the Ministry of Water

and Environment should budget for support of artists to compose songs, plays, stories, and other

narrative forms to educate the public about the environment.

The government should consider developing programs and materials in the different local languages

bearing in mind that not all Ugandans understand English and also reach out to the communities where

knowledge about the environment and its sustainable use is most required.

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REFERENCES Aristotle, 1965: On the art of poetry. Dorsch T.S (ed.) Classical Literary Criticism. London: Penguin. Barthes R & Duisit L 1975. An introduction to the structural analysis of narrative: New Literary History. 6 (6): 235-272.

Cheptoris R 2011. Environmental degradation and food insecurity in Bukwo district. MDs dissertation. Mukono:

Uganda Christian University. Dijk V 1994. Story comprehension: an introduction. May C (ed.) The New Short Story Theories. Ohio: Ohio University

Press. Ferguson, S.C. 1994. Defining the short story: impressionism and form. May C (ed.) The New Short Story Theories.

Ohio: Ohio University Press. Hyvärinen M. 2006. Towards a conceptual history of narrative. University of Helsinki.

http://www.helsinki.fi/collegium/e-series/volumes/volume_1/001_04_hyvarinen.pdf Kennedy X.J 1991. An introduction to fiction. New York: Harper Collins. Khunle D 2007. Public information and education action plan. A Toolkit for National Focal Points. Montreal:

Communication Education and Public Awareness (CEPA). Lawrence P. R 1953. The preparation of case material. Andrews K. P (ed.) In the Case Method of Teaching Human

Relations and Administration. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. MacIntyre A 1984. After virtue: a study in moral theory. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. McAdams D. P 2006. The role of narrative in personality psychology. North Western University: John Benjamins

Publishing Company. Plato 2005. The republic. Adams H (ed.) Critical theory since Plato. Boston: Thomson & Wadsworth. Punday D 2003. Narrative bodies. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Rimmon-Kenan S 2002. Narrative fiction: contemporary poetics. London & New York: Routledge. Stewart, A. H The role of the narrative structure in the transfer of ideas.

http://wac.colostate.edu/books/textual_dynamics/chapter5.pdf National Environment Management Authority 1994. Non formal environmental education strategy. National Environment Management Authority 2008. State of the National Environmental Report for Uganda 2008. National Environment Management Authority 2009. Promoting Environmental Education in Schools. Uganda National Commission for UNESCO 2010: Education for Sustainable Development Uganda Implementation

Strategy. Uganda Wildlife Education Center 2011. Will I ever go back home? Bush Meat.

http://www.helsinki.fi/collegium/e-series/volumes/volume_1/001_04_hyvarinen.pdf

http://wac.colostate.edu/books/textual_dynamics/chapter5.pdf

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14 From the horse’s mouth: Successful environmental education programmes. A

provider perspective

JM Dreyer

CP Loubser


Abstract

There is a perception that environmental education is failing to accomplish its goals (globally and in South

Africa). To find out if this perception is based on fact, we decided to do research to determine what the

position is in South Africa. As we could not find research done in South Africa about providers’ self-

evaluation of their environmental education programmes, we decided to focus our research on a

provider’s perspective of these programmes. Amongst others, structured interviews were held with 23

individuals from institutions providing environmental education in the formal and non-formal education

sector to determine their views on the success of, as well as examples of good practices in,

environmental education at their institutions. The participants were selected to be representative of

different types of environmental education providers situated in different provinces. This research showed

that there are a number of "success stories" all over the country. Several elements of the programmes

contributing to success and indicators of success were identified by the providers themselves and are

reported in this paper.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

Environmental education is at a critical point in South Africa. It is not a new concept in South Africa and

grew from a modest "official" start in 1982 (Irwin 2005) to include an active family of participators

(including universities, government and NGOs) in the current era. Despite a relatively sharp growth in the

activities of the above-mentioned institutions pertaining to environmental learning, there is very little proof

in the literature that environmental education has contributed much to an improvement in the state of the

environment. This could perhaps (at least partly) be ascribed to a loss in impetus in many projects aimed

at improving environmental awareness and action. For example, the environment lost its status as a

phase organiser in the school curriculum in 2005 (Irwin 2005:53) and the costly National Environmental

Education Programme (NEEP 2003) seems to have contributed very little to increase the integration of

environmental learning in the school curriculum.

It would seem that an analysis is necessary to determine whether environmental education is achieving

its goals. A number of authors have expressed concern about the success of environmental education

(Van Matre 1990; Bak 1994-1995, Bak 1995; Jickling & Wals 2008). These authors have shown concern

about issues such as the lack of a clear definition of environmental education, implementation in the

formal school curriculum, application in general, focus on the affective domain, et cetera. To provide

direction for this paper, we may, rather simplistically, accept that a main goal of environmental education

is to create an environment-literate society (Loubser, Swanepoel & Chacko 2001; Swanepoel, Loubser &

Chacko 2002). Ideally, an environment-literate society will assist in establishing a healthy environment.

As a healthy environment is enshrined in the South African constitution, citizens have the right to know

whether all the efforts of environmental education lead to successes in establishing a healthy

environment (Loubser & Dreyer 2002).

There are two possible ways of looking at the success of environmental education efforts: either

holistically or individually. A holistic view implies that we look at the state of the environment and one can

ask if the environment is better off or more degraded because of or despite environmental education

efforts. The answer is of course that the environment is worse off than it was before (De Beer, Dreyer &

Loubser 2005), but there are so many factors that have an impact on this that it is impossible to link this

specifically and exclusively to environmental education efforts (or the lack or the failure of such efforts).

If we, however, look at individual environmental education efforts, it is much easier to determine what

their effects are on affected people and their immediate environments. It is also easier to ascribe an

improvement of people’s environmental attitudes and actions towards the environment more directly to

specific individual environmental education interventions.

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From own experiences and involvement with environmental education interventions and efforts over a

combined 60 years, we are aware that some of these can be considered successful. In a Best of Both

Worlds International Conference held in 2009, role players in environmental education shared what they

considered to be success stories. From their experiences it seemed as if there are providers of

environmental education programmes that are achieving success. The question is, however, why some

are perceived as successful while others are not.

Because the answer to this question is not obvious, it was decided to undertake research on successful

individual environmental education efforts in South Africa, and try to determine the reasons for these

successes. The research question for this study is therefore: “How do successful environmental

education providers perceive or explain their apparent success?”

THEORETICAL FOUNDATION AND RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

The theory underlying this research is derived from the work of Hines, Hungerford, and Tomera (1986–

87), Hungerford and Volk (1990), and Knapp, Volk, and Hungerford (1997), who developed a behaviour

change theory of responsible environmental behaviour that is dependent on three variable levels, namely:

entry-level variables such as environmental sensitivity and knowledge about ecology (the level at

which most environmental education programmes function)

ownership variables such as an in-depth understanding of environmental education issues and a

personal investment in and identification with them (which only a few environmental education

programmes are successful in establishing)

empowerment variables such as a perceived skill in using environmental action strategies and

skills, knowledge of action strategies, an internal locus of control, and the intention to act (which is

usually only obtained in the long term through multiple efforts and multiple avenues)

While one cannot expect miracles after a single intervention, providers can still claim success even at

level one above, as they laid a foundation for possible change of behaviour through the transmission of

knowledge about the environment.

In this research, one of the things we wanted providers or programme managers of environmental

education programmes to tell us was at which level they think they are operating and whether they are

successful in achieving that.

All except four providers of programmes indicated that they are successful at level one as their

interventions were limited and usually once off. They also indicated that they had some indications or

even evidence that individuals or individual groups had gone beyond knowledge and had even taken

action. This was, however, not the norm or they just did not know whether groups went beyond the

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knowledge level and took action. The other four believed that they were successful at level three, and in

three cases had evidence of this gained through comprehensive evaluations of their programmes. The

fourth case had actual evidence from experiences in working with schools.

During the research, it was accepted that success at any of the levels would be considered in the

determination of success indicators. The research framework is represented in the following diagram:


The methodology was qualitative in nature and falls within the socio-constructivist paradigm.

Research methods

Because we were interested in the perceptions and personal views of individuals (in other words their

context-specific lived experiences) we decided to use individual interviews to gather data.

A literature study was undertaken but not presented as a separate section in this paper. The findings

were interpreted in relation to relevant topics identified by existing research and integrated in the research

findings as discussed later in this paper.

In addition, qualitative documentary analysis of some of the environmental education programmes was

undertaken to determine their contribution to the success of the providers. In four cases, observation of

programmes in action was done to gain further insight into the reasons for their success.

What do the interviewed providers say make them successful?

Interviews with successful providers (to find out

what they think makes them successful)

Documentary analysis of successful

programmes

(to find how they contribute to the success)

Observations of programmes in action

(to find out how they contribute to the success)

D

A

T

A

This makes the interviewed providers

successful

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Sampling

We used non-probabilistic sampling as the population of all successful institutions providing

environmental education in South Africa is not known. We started off with convenience sampling as we

were aware of a number of successful institutions through experience and involvement with these

providers (for instance, by providing training and assisting with programme development). Some were

identified from the success stories that were presented at the Best of Both Worlds International

Conference held in 2009. We also used snowball sampling as participants we had identified directed us to

other possible participants they thought were successful.

From this sampling frame (the possible known population), participants were selected through stratified

purposeful sampling to be representative of different types of environmental education providers situated

in different provinces.

Research instrument

Because interviews were unstructured, no formal interview schedule was used. The research question

was the only guideline used during the interviews.

Data gathering

Interviews were held with 23 individuals from institutions involved in environmental education in the formal

and non-formal education sectors in five of the provinces in South Africa. These were held to determine

environmental education providers’ views on the success of, as well as examples of good practices in,

environmental education at their institutions. Among the providers and programmes were:

Privately-run environmental education centres

Provincially-sponsored environmental education centres (Department of Education)

Environmental education programmes from metropolitan areas

Environmental education programmes from botanical gardens

The Eco-schools programme (managers and individual schools’ representatives)

Non-Eco-schools running independent environmental education programmes

Environmental education programmes from national parks

Environmental education programmes from zoos

Environmental education programmes from wildlife areas

Environmental education programmes from the Department of Agriculture

Furthermore, most of the chosen participants were managers and/or drivers of environmental education

programmes and were therefore in a position to give an informed opinion on the success of their

programmes based on actual involvement and experience. In this way, valid and valuable data could be

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collected. Interviews were recorded and transcribed. Two researchers did the interviews and the data

analyses together to further ensure the validity of the data.

Data analysis

A thematic qualitative data analysis of the interviews was undertaken. Responses were analysed by using

an open coding procedure that included labelling, identifying categories, naming of categories and

developing patterns or themes.

Documentary analysis and observation notes were also coded and resulted in six categories which will be

discussed under one theme, namely elements of the actual programme that ensure success.


Findings from interviews

Eleven categories were identified and the following patterns or themes emerged:

Indicators of success based on own assessment by providers

Elements regarding the presentation and management of the programmes that ensure success


As the researchers could not do a comprehensive assessment of each environmental education (EE)

provider, the research participants (numbered from N1 to N23) were asked to give an opinion on the

success of their programmes. They identified indicators of such successes in the following categories:

Numbers of people reached – this is one indicator used by most providers but usually in tandem

with a range of other indicators.

“We are fully booked for the next six months and wish we can accommodate more … there is definitely a

need for our programmes out there.” (N12)

“According to our records for the past five years our numbers have grown every year – even though

economic times are difficult.” (N7)

Comebacks – providers feel that if the same institutions (like schools) come back to them

repeatedly it must indicate that they are successful (at least in the eyes of those institutions).

“Some schools have been coming to the berg (mountain) for our workshops for fifteen years.” (N10)

“We have a lot of repeat business.” (N3)

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Evaluations at the end of a programme presentation – most providers use some sort of feedback

evaluation to find out if participants found their programmes useful and use the feedback to adjust

and improve their programmes.

“We have a 90% plus satisfaction rating from students who completed our week-long programme.” (N1)

“Everyone fills in a satisfaction questionnaire at the end, the teachers and the children. Our average

rating is over 4 out of 5 on the activities we offer. Recently we still changed an activity; actually we

improved it, because of a recommendation …” (N12)

Networking – very strong EE networks exist in regions in South Africa where providers share

information, facilities and resources with a range of role players and feel that they are in a better

position to present programmes successfully because of this association.

“In … we have a good EE network and everyone alerts all the others when they have events like when on

environmental days we clean the beach … resources are shared.” (N2)

Letters of appreciation – some providers indicated that they receive unsolicited feedback in the

form of letters or notes of appreciation.

“Look at this file – it is full of letters from children to say thank you. This is the one I like best – she wrote a

poem about our place and how we opened her eyes for the environment.” (N7)

“This is our ‘wall of fame’ where we put up recent letters from schools thanking us. This school wrote that

they are now going flat out to become an eco-school.” (N21)

Volunteers involved – providers that make use of volunteers use the number of volunteers, the

number of hours they volunteer and repeat volunteering as indicators of the success of their

programmes.

“All the [EE programmes] in the country make use of volunteers, but we have so many that we can get up

to five volunteers on a specific day when we have a very big group.” (N20)

“We have one volunteer that missed only four Saturdays the whole year when he went on leave. He is

more experienced than most of our permanent staff. He is over 70 [years of age] and says that here he

gets to make a difference to people’s behaviour towards the environment before he dies.” (N9)

Behaviours – very few providers are in a position to do what some call aftercare or can visit their

clients to observe if the behaviour of participants changed because of the EE programmes they

were involved in. The four that did so report positive behavioural changes.

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“Most of the schools where the gardens of trees were planted and the learners were shown how to take

care of them, did a good job of keeping them alive and thriving.” When pushed to put a number on it the

participant said between 70% and 80%. (N19)

"The number of schools participating is increasing and the number that drops out after the first year is

decreasing. So most are keeping up their efforts” (N17)

Environmental impact – Is the environment better off or not because of the environmental

education efforts? Once again, the providers that do monitor what workshop participants do as a

result of the environmental education programme report positive behavioural changes.

“The communities with volunteer action committees are visibly cleaner and have regular campaigns and

activities to clean up their areas.” (N2)

“Some schools extended the gardens we planted and planted their own additional trees and other plants.

When we go to the schools we find learners sitting around in the garden during breaks.” (N19)


A champion in charge of the programme.

Every person in charge of a successful programme was passionate, enthusiastic and committed to EE. In

interviews the following was said:

“This is my life and if I could have it over I would do nothing different.” (N8)

“I love what I do and would not change it for anything. Before this I was a teacher but I found the

curriculum too limiting to do quality Environmental Education.” (N14)

Sound management

This aspect was stressed by numerous participants and was considered to be very important in ensuring

success. More than one mentioned that they work with very tight budgets and have to ensure that every

aspect of their programmes is managed meticulously if they want to survive. They also believe that their

repeat business is dependent on sound management.

“I have a wonderful team working for me. Some days we work up to 12 hours because we also have

evening activities and no one wants to leave.” (N14)

“I always participate in the presentation of the programme and monitor the rest through frequent visits –

not to spy or anything, but to make sure our quality is always good.” (N23)

Well trained and experienced presenters/facilitators

According to participants, this aspect seemed to be very important to users of the programmes and was

therefore considered to be of equal importance by the providers. Good facilitation ensured enjoyment and

in turn ensured a positive experience by users.

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“I get guys who study nature conservation-related courses and they come to do their practicals with me.

When they finish they really know their stuff.” (N10)

“Our facilitators all did EE training of some kind – quite a few have Unisa certificates and all have lots of

experience”.

We could not find any other studies that focused specifically on the perspective of environmental

education programme providers regarding their success and can therefore not interpret these findings

against the background of existing research in the literature. If we, however, combine these findings with

those in the next section it provides a more comprehensive picture of what may be considered successful

in providing environmental education.

Findings from documentary analysis and observations of programmes

Through documentary analysis of the programmes and observation of the presentation of some of the

programmes, it was possible to identify elements of programmes making them successful.

Elements of the actual programme that ensure success

Good quality programmes.

Overall programmes were well designed as they had specific outcomes, a curriculum

(environmental issues), relevant methodologies (outdoor learning, practical work) and some form of

assessment (feedback, product, demonstration by learners). Many had booklets that participants

could use and were linked to several subjects in the school curriculum. One even had an activity on

trees that linked to all eight learning areas to demonstrate how integrated environmental issues

are.

The practical nature of programmes.

Programmes mostly consisted of practical activities and not lectures. Much was done in teams

where they collectively had to identify the best way to overcome a problem/hazard or find a solution

for a puzzle/problem/treasure hunt, etc.

The active nature of programmes.

Participants were actively involved in activities (physical and otherwise such as debates) to

emphasise the fact that they had become active in their own schools and/or communities.

The “fun” element of programmes.

Activities were much like playing games. There was a lot of cheering, shouting and laughter.

Capacity-building of programmes.

Many programmes not only imparted knowledge but learners practised skills they could use to take

action in their schools and communities. Some programmes had websites with resources, news or

updates (one even had a blog) where environmental issues and/or good practices and/or

challenges with action-taking could be shared.

Context-specific programmes.

A few programmes had different options depending on the grade/age, the subject and the

curriculum theme from which participants could choose. One programme had an open option

template where groups could build their own programme according to their requirements from a

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menu. According to the provider, this was a very popular option as learners and teachers

participated in shaping the programme to their needs.

These findings on elements of programmes that contribute to success are very similar to what has been

recorded elsewhere in relevant literature. A good example is the Canadian Green Street Initiative (2005)

that identified the following elements according to which excellent environmental education programmes

are credible, reputable, based on solid facts, traditional knowledge, or science, and that values,

biases, and assumptions are made explicit;

create knowledge and understanding about ecological, social, economic, and political concepts,

and demonstrate the interdependence between a healthy environment, human well-being, and a

sound economy;

involve a cycle of continual improvement that includes the processes of design, delivery,

evaluation, and redesign;

are grounded in a real-world context that is specific to age, curriculum, and place, and encourage a

personal affinity with the earth through practical experiences out-of-doors and through the practice

of an ethic of care;

transcend curricular boundaries, like the environment itself does, striving to integrate traditional

subject areas and disciplines;

provide creative learning experiences that are hands-on and learner-centred, where students teach

each other and educators are mentors and facilitators. These experiences promote higher-order

thinking and provide a cooperative context for learning and evaluation;

create exciting and enjoyable learning situations that teach to all learning styles, promote life-long

learning, and celebrate the beauty of nature;

examine environmental problems and issues in an all-inclusive manner that includes social, moral,

and ethical dimensions, promotes values clarification, and is respectful of the diversity of values

that exist in our society;

motivate and empower students through the provision of specific action skills, allowing students to

develop strategies for responsible citizenship through the application of their knowledge and skills

as they work cooperatively toward the resolution of an environmental problem or issue;

engage the learner in a long-term mentoring relationship, transforming them as they examine their

personal values, attitudes, feelings and behaviours;

promote an understanding of the past, a sense of the present, and a positive vision for the future,

developing a sense of commitment in the learner to help create a healthier environment and a

sustainable home, community, and planet.

All the above elements are also present in some way or another in one or more of the programmes we

analysed and observed. There is also a good alignment between what we found and most of the six “key

characteristics” of “high quality” environmental education programmes published by the North American

Association for Environmental Education (NAAEE 2002):

support their parent organisation’s mission, purpose, and goals

designed to fill specific needs and produce tangible benefits

function within a well-defined scope and structure

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require careful planning and well-trained staff

built on a foundation of quality instructional materials and thorough planning

define and measure results in order to improve current programmes, ensure accountability, and

maximise the success of future efforts

Furthermore, South African literature indicates that successful individual environmental education efforts

in the informal education sector seem to be alive:

the City of Cape Town achieves many successes in their metropole as shown by an independent

evaluation (Nair & Janisch 2009)

Durban Waste Section achieved a cleaner environment through ongoing and comprehensive

environmental education programmes – the surface litter of the city has reduced by 75,3 % over a

period of 25 years (Caws 2010)

Eco-schools are achieving growing success because of the “winning concept (sustained school

environmental projects with awards), resources to draw on, from the broader environmental

education community; highly motivated participants (teachers and staff) and mix of ingredients that

are relevant to funders, teachers and other partners” (Rosenberg 2008:6)

The fact that our findings correspond with what others have found and also contribute some new

knowledge regarding the perspective of providers offering successful environmental education

programmes, brings hope that others can try to emulate their efforts to also become successful in their

environmental education efforts. It also broadens the aspects one can consider when trying to identify

what makes environmental education efforts and initiatives successful.

Unanticipated findings

One participant told us that he thinks part of their success can be ascribed to the fact that most schools

are not doing environmental education at all or are failing in what they do, so that schools have to come

to them for environmental education. Although not our original intention, we thereafter decided to include

a question on the providers’ thoughts or perceptions on the success of environmental education in the

public school system when we interviewed the rest of the participants.

In general, it is the opinion of the participants (which included some educators) that environmental

education is not successful in public education. Reasons for this seem to be:

The few islands of excellence regarding environmental education are too isolated.

“In the school district I was in, there was only one school that did environmental education – they

had a green flag” (were an Eco-school). (N14)

The Revised National Curriculum made it less explicit that environmental education must be

included and integrated in Learning Areas (as was the case in C2005).

“When teachers had environment as organiser they had to give attention to it.” (N15)

Environmental education aspects are rarely examined in credit-bearing formal examinations.

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“In five years of high school my son never learned about looking after the environment. They did

things like pollution or biodiversity, but it stopped there. You can ask him yourself, he is now one of

my facilitators.” (N18)

Teachers are not trained in environmental education and are not required to do it.

“In discussions around the campfire in the evenings after the day’s activities teachers have told us

that they cannot do what we do because they do not know how, no one expects them to do it and

in any case they do not have the facilities.” (N18)

There are not enough experts or dedicated officials to drive the inclusion or integration of

environmental education in public educational institutions.

“I know of the NEEP initiative but there was no real political will from provincial departments to

ensure that it (environmental education) happened”. (N21)

The apparent failure of NEEP (or at least its sustained introduction) was cited by a few participants as an

example of the lack of success that has been achieved in attempts to include environmental education in

public education.


Because this is a qualitative study with limited participants, there is no intention to generalise the findings.

We are, however, convinced that the findings are significant especially in that a provider perspective

could be added to the research possibilities in this field to gain an additional perspective. The success

indicators of environmental programmes identified from a provider perspective could be especially

significant.

CONCLUSION

The continued degradation of the environment on a global scale or even countrywide in South Africa, may

make one despondent about people’s attitudes and actions towards the environment. It may also lead to

the assumption that environmental education has failed and that all the money and efforts to influence the

attitudes and actions towards the environment have been spent in vain. The study reported on in this

paper shows that when one observes contributions made by environmental education institutions at a

local scale, a different picture emerges. There still seem to be many capable and enthusiastic people and

institutions that are achieving success with their respective environmental education contributions and are

making a real difference. When analysing the activities and programmes of such people and/or

institutions it becomes clear that they achieve success because they are well organised and have good,

meaningful programmes run by environmental champions, who are committed, visionary and inspired

leaders that dedicate their considerable knowledge and skills towards achieving success in environmental

education. They gave us their perspective of the success they are having with environmental education.

We can all learn from that.

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REFERENCES

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environmental education. Environmental Education Research 1(3):345–352.

Canadian Green Street Initiative. 2005. Ten principles of excellent environmental education. http://www.green-

street.ca/files/TenPrinciplesofExcellentEnvironmentalEducation.pdf. Accessed on 02 August 2012. Caws, G. 2010. Reduction of waste through Environmental Education Programmes in Durban. Unpublished report,

City of Durban. De Beer, J, Dreyer, JM., & Loubser, CP. 2005. Environmental issues and risks, in Environmental education: some

South African perspectives, edited by CP Loubser. Pretoria: Van Schaick. Hines, JM, Hungerford, HR & Tomera, AN. 1986–87. Analysis and synthesis of research on responsible

environmental behavior: a meta-analysis. Journal of Environmental Education 18(2):1–8. Hungerford, HR & Volk, TL. 1990. Changing learner behavior through environmental education. Journal of

Environmental Education 21(3):8–21. Irwin, P. 2005. The history of environmental education, in Environmental education: some South African perspectives,

edited by CP Loubser. Pretoria: Van Schaik. Jickling, B & Wals, AEJ. 2008. Globalization and environmental education: looking beyond sustainable development.

Journal of Curriculum Studies 40(1):1–21. Knapp, D, Volk, TL & Hungerford, HR. 1997. The identification of empirically derived goals for program development

in environmental interpretation. Journal of Environmental Education 28(3):24–34. Loubser, CP & Dreyer, JM. 2002. Ensuring the right to a healthy environment through school involvement in rural

areas: the case study of a higher education institution. South African Journal of Higher Education 16(2):150-157.

Loubser, CP, Swanepoel, CH & Chacko, CPC. 2001. Concept formulation for environmental literacy. South African

Journal of Education 21(4):317–323.

NAAEE. 2002. Guidelines for Excellence in Nonformal Environmental Education Program Development and

Implementation. Washington, DC: NAAEE. Nair, N & Janisch, C. 2009. Evaluation of the City of Cape Town Environmental Education & Training Programmes.

City of Cape Town Final Summary Report, Cape Town. NEEP. 2003. Launch of National Environmental Education Programme. Department of Education: Pretoria. Rosenberg, E. 2008. Evaluation of the Eco-schools South Africa programme. www.wessa.org.za/documents/EcoSchools_Evaluation_Report08.pdf. Accessed on 02 August 2012. Swanepoel, CH, Loubser, CP & Chacko, CPC. 2002. Measuring the environmental literacy of teachers. South African

Journal of Education 22(4):282–285. Van Matre, S. 1990. Earth education: a new beginning. Greenville, WV: The Institute of Earth Education.

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15

Addressing shortcomings in environmental education: Assessing a Malaysian

Wetland Programme

CP Loubser & JM Dreyer University of South Africa, South Africa

Y Noor Azlin, AK Azyyati & CL Naimah Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Malaysia

Abstract

The implementation of environmental education programmes in Malaysia is faced with the common

problems of lack of time, financial support and technical expertise on conducting outdoor learning

activities. To be effective, programmes that relate specifically to local situations need to be designed and

teachers should be trained to inspire students towards environmental conservation actions. Nature

education activities designed to support environmental education programmes are conducted by many

government and non-government agencies. Some concerns are raised about the lack of coordination

between the multiple players. Overlaps of similar activities could be reduced but, more importantly, topics

that are school curriculum related should not be left out when designing any programmes. Most Nature

Education Centres in Malaysia are located near forest areas, thus many activities organized by these

centres are focused on forest habitats and nature conservation of such areas. A specific programme on

water appreciation is perceived to be non-existent, although aspects related to water conservation are

some of the most important issues that need to be addressed. The Forest Research Institute Malaysia

(FRIM) has forest areas and suitable wetlands for outdoor learning to support environmental education. A

wetland education programme was therefore established to train school teachers in conducting activities

related to wetland habitats and their useful functions for the environment. Suitability of the programme for

the primary school curriculum was tested and an activity kit was developed to aid facilitators. The

programme can easily be duplicated in any wetland in the residential areas and training time is reduced

because of the available tool. This paper discusses the process of developing the wetland programme

and some preliminary achievements.

BOB

202

INTRODUCTION

Environmental education (EE) promotes sustainable development and improves the capacity to address

environmental and developmental issues. Article 13 of the convention on biodiversity recognised the need

for education and public awareness to secure active involvement of all sectors and various stakeholders.

(UNESCO1992).

Adhering to the UNESCO’s 1975 Belgrade Charter and the Tbilisi Declaration of 1978, Malaysia

introduced its first formal EE programme, called `Man and the Environment’ for the Malaysian fifth year

primary school curriculum in 1982 (Arbaat 2006). The subject has since been replaced as it did not

address the lower primary and secondary schools. At the beginning of 1998, the Ministry of Education

infused EE across the curriculum as reported in its 112th Education Planning Committee meeting (Ministry

of Education 2005). The infusion was carried out as part of the daily teaching and learning processes in

the classroom as well as through co-curriculum activities such as Nature Clubs.

Hopkins and McKeown (2002) is of the opinion that the non-formal sector should work in tandem with the

formal education sector to educate people from all generations and from all walks of life. It was recently

found in China (where Environmental education has been compulsory in primary and secondary schools

since 2003) that it did not work well in formal education and that greater success is achieved by non-

formal providers (Efird 2012). Kola‐Olusanya (2005) made similar findings regarding what he calls free-

choice environmental education’ in all sorts of non-formal learning situations. He goes as far as calling it

`powerful learning’ that is taking place in these settings. Similarly, the Forest Research Institute of

Malaysia (FRIM) embarked on a project that was meant to solve some environmental education problems

in Malaysia because it realised the importance to support environmental education (EE) programmes in

the Malaysian formal education system.

A common problem with the implementation of EE in many countries is the tendency to focus on abstract

knowledge of general global environmental problems (Hopkins and McKeown 2002). Malaysia considers

it a significant problem that EE programmes are often not connected to its local situation, thus failing to

provoke direct actions in learners. The importance of environmental issues is often better understood

when it impacts on one’s livelihood. In this regard, Bekalo & Bangay (2002) found that when the link

between environmental degradation and failing crops was explained to local farmers they realised the

importance of looking after the land. In China they have a successful non-formal environmental education

programme for children called “learning the land beneath our feet” where there is “a sensitive

engagement with the specifics of local culture and ecology” (Efird 2012:569).

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Further validation for the use of non-formal programmes for EE can be found in the general problems

faced by Malaysian teachers when conducting EE that include time limitations due to the heavy laden and

examination oriented school curriculum, financial resources to transport students for outdoor learning and

the lack of technical expertise to conduct effective outdoor learning activities that could capture students’

interest and encourage actions (Salih and Yahya 2009:219). The importance of environmental

interpretation as implemented during the project reported cannot be underestimated as defined by Tilden

1976:

“…an educational activity, which aims to reveal meanings and relationship through the use of original objects,

by firsthand experience and by illustrative media, rather than simply to communicate factual information”.


In Environmental Education there are many theoretical frameworks which explain how to go about

inducing pro-environmental behaviour. In the case of this study a combination of approaches (or parts

thereof) is used, as a variety of factors are evident.

The theoretical framework, therefore, comprises of the following:

Knowledge transfer

As all behaviour change starts with knowledge there should be some sort of intervention that will ensure

that children gain this knowledge. The first important contribution which is applicable to the theoretical

framework of this study (regarding knowledge acquisition) is that of Hines, Hungerford, & Tomera (1986–

87) and Hungerford & Volk (1990) who developed a Model of Responsible Environmental Behaviour. The

two important aspects of this model applicable here are:

knowledge of issues: children need to acquire knowledge of an environmental problem and its

causes.

knowledge of action strategies: children need to know which actions can be taken to assist in

alleviating the environmental problem.

Transfer of knowledge in a natural environment

The next contribution to the theoretical framework pertains to where this knowledge should be

gained. Here the relevant ideas come from Chawla (2006) regarding formative life experiences that

predispose people towards gaining knowledge about the environment, but more importantly feeling

concern for the natural environment and acting to conserve it, According to her the most influential life

experiences during childhood are experiences of natural areas.

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Transfer of knowledge by a non-formal provider in a natural environment

The third important aspect of the theoretical framework concerns the provider of the knowledge and the

above-mentioned experience. The afore-mentioned non-formal organizations can play a very important

role in imparting knowledge about and providing experiences in the natural environment (Hopkins and

McKeown 2002; Kola‐Olusanya 2005 and Efird 2012).

Transfer of knowledge regarding a local environmental issue by a non formal provider in a natural

environment

The fourth contribution to the theoretical framework is also explained in the introduction and revolves

around the belief that it is easier to convince people to take action if the environmental issue is local and

they are in a position to do something about it (Bekalo & Bangai 2002; Hopkins and McKeown 2002 and

Efird 2012).

If all the afore-mentioned factors are combined, the theoretical framework can be illustrated as follows:

Figure 1: Diagram to depict the theoretical framework of this study.

THERE IS A REASONABLE CHANCE

OF ENSURING ENVIRONMENTAL

EDUCATION AMONGST CHILDREN

IF

The environmental issue is local

(wetland

degradation)

The knowledge is provided by a

non-formal organisation

(FRIM)

The knowledge is about the

issue and about ways to take

action (FRIM wetlands

programme)

The knowledge is provided in a

natural environment

(wetland habitat at

FRIM)

INACTION

ACTION

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ISSUES ABOUT THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA

Problems in implementing EE were discussed at length during the Best of Both Worlds Conference on

Environmental Education for Sustainable Development in Kuala Lumpur (Noor Azlin et al. 2006). A

summary of these discussions follows:

Accessible sites for outdoor learning

More accessible sites for educational activities should be established; the local municipal agencies could

provide such sites as not all students can afford to travel to the forests in view of the time and financial

support needed. There are many programmes conducted by government, private and non-government

agencies that emphasize the forest activities (Table 1) and experience in natural environment. As

learners would benefit more when they understand their own impacts, the immediate environment would

contain more suitable areas to conduct EE than the remote ones. Everyday surroundings and behaviours

that promote actions contribute to more effective EE programmes.

Government Agencies Environmental Education Programme

Department of Environment (DoE)

Environmental Awareness Camps (KeKAS)

The Environmental Awareness Camps were organised in collaboration with the Ministry of Education and the State Education Departments. The modules which were implemented were based on the Marine, Forest, Highland, Organic farming, Urbanization and Oil Palm Plantation Ecosystems. These camps had been held regularly for school children in different parts of the country. (http://www.doe.gov.my, 2009)

Department of Wildlife and National Park (PERHILITAN)

Jungle River Ecology (JRE)

The Jungle River Ecology Activity is a train-the-trainers course designed by the PERHILITAN for the purpose of training the teachers. The objective of this course is to train the teachers in conducting environmental education using the resources of river biodiversity in the National Park in their teaching approach. The activity is conducted over a period of 6 days - 5 nights with 30 to 40 participants for each session. (http://www.perhilitan.gov.my, 2009)

Forestry Department, Peninsular Malaysia (FDPM)

The Forestry Department of Peninsular Malaysia established a Community Forestry Programme that initiated consisting of various EE programmes

such as Forest Camp, Forestry Talk, Forestry Day, Tree Planting and Forest Tour. The FDPM conducts several EE programmes every year across the country in the many recreation forests under its management which mostly involves camping activities for schools and university students (Forestry Dept. Peninsular Malaysia, pers comm.)

Table 1: Environmental Education Programmes by Government Agencies

Environmental education programme implementation and the school curriculum

Environmental education should link to the school curriculum. The subjects of science, geography,

religion and others should be referred to when designing EE programmes. In Malaysia, there is no

specific subject addressing environmental education, but EE is supposed to be taught across the

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curriculum. As the Malaysian education system is highly exam orientated, there is a tendency to lose the

importance of EE within the main subjects because examinations are not written. Referring to the

curriculum would also make it easier for learners as they can relate to what they learn at school and it

could be useful in the examinations of the subjects referred.

Capacity building

The development of human resource development programmes in EE for key target groups such as

teachers, community leaders, religious leaders, NGO’s, the media, and others are important role players

is of utmost importance. As a lack of technical skill was often quoted as the reason not to conduct EE

activities, it should be the Malaysian aim to encourage academic programmes for trainers and facilitators.

Meanwhile, EE programmes should be supported by making it easy to deliver an effective message about

environmental conservation. Properly tailored activity kits can help to reduce the time spent on time

consuming training programmes which especially teachers cannot afford due to the afore-mentioned

relevant school curriculum.

Variations in environmental education activities

Although there is an increase in the variation with which EE programmes are implemented by NGOs and

government agencies, a gap still exists in learning approaches, especially in day-to-day examples of

programmes for EE for sustainability. Lessons in consumption behaviours, for example, should be

intensified. Learners should understand that they affect the environment and the environment, in turn

affects them. Giving a relevant example can provoke actions that benefit the environment. As there are

many players involved in environmental education programmes including government and non-

government agencies, some co-ordination is needed. An examination of the types of activities and

whether they address the critical environmental issues in Malaysia need to be done. The above-

mentioned can be utilsed as indicators of a successful programme such as the FRIM Wetland Education

Programme. A study was conducted in an attempt to establish whether the wetland programme was

successful. The evaluation of the initial phases of this programme is reported in this paper.

FRIM's Wetland Education Programme

The Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) is a semi-government research organisation with its main

office located on almost 487 ha of plantation and rehabilitated forests. FRIM is situated 20 km away from

the centre of Kuala Lumpur City, thus it is very accessible to the urban residential populations. Due to the

increasing awareness of forestry and interest in environmental issues, a project on assessing existing

environmental education programmes in Malaysia was initiated in 2006. Many issues in the

implementation of school environmental education which had been discussed at Best of Both Worlds

Conference in 2005, were addressed. Subsequently, a wetland conservation programme was initiated

207

since the afore-mentioned discussions found specific programmes on water appreciation lacking in

Malaysia. Addressing problems related to water conservation is one of the most important issues that

needs to be addressed in Malaysia (Borneo Post Online 2012).

Besides the above-mentioned factors, the rationale behind the project was that training needs to be

extended to teacher in order to motivate them to take students outdoors, either within the school

compound or to parks and other accessible natural sites. Facilities such as simple modules and activity

sheets need to be provided to aid teachers in their EE activities. The freshwater wetland education

programme was developed specifically to facilitate school teachers in conducting activities related to

wetland habitats and their useful functions for the environment. As was mentioned the teachers at

government schools have limited time, skills and financial capabilities to conduct outdoor activities for

environmental education.

The project aimed to assist teachers so that they would find it easier to conduct educational activities.

Some of the outcomes expected would be that teachers incorporate outdoor activities during their

teaching and conduct outdoor activities more often. As a long term impact; the students would benefit

through greater environmental awareness and knowledge and an improved change in attitude towards

the environment that would support Malaysia in its conservation management.

The development of a tool kit

An interpretation kit which included activities that can be conducted by students was designed and

produced (Ong, et al. 2008). It was printed in black and white to make it to be easily copied when

teachers conduct the activities with the students. Wetlands as natural filters and pollution issues, plants

and their adaptation to the wet environment and wetlands as the living support system for wildlife were

the main lessons that were included into the education kits. The kits also included identification guides for

common fresh water aquatic plants, birds and insects. Traditional games and crafts were also included.

The suitability of the programme for the primary school curriculum was tested twice before the activity

books were published to ensure user friendliness of subjects and logistics. The programme was designed

to be easily duplicated in any wetland in the residential areas and training time for future users of the

activity kit is reduced because of the available tool.

The way forward with the project

The project is still ongoing, in the sense that it is being monitored by FRIM staff to assess the

effectiveness of the programme especially in the use of the education kit. After the initial evaluation

reported in this paper, a questionnaire is being designed and will be distributed among the teachers who

208

attended the training course. Some of the questions will relate to teachers, implementation of EE activities

at school as well as out-of-school nature areas. Basically the questionnaire aims to assess whether

teachers are motivated to bring students outdoors and utilise the education kit. The kit was also meant to

be improved from the teachers’ feedbacks.

FINDINGS OF THE INVESTIGATION

In general, the wetland education programme aims at providing environmental learning and to relate the

benefits and functions of fresh water wetland habitats. The programme also teaches learners about native

and introduced plants as well as about wildlife that indicate the healthiness of this precious ecosystem in

terms of biodiversity. If measured against the indicators identified earlier the project can currently be

assessed as follows:


Fresh water wetland ecosystems can be found everywhere in the rural and the urban residential areas.

Parks, abundant tin mines and garden ponds are areas where this activity can be conducted. The

Wetlands programme was designed to be conducted in any of these areas. Therefore, not much financial

support is needed for field trips.


The topic of freshwater wetlands can be linked to the Science curriculum of Year 5 primary schools. An

activity book was developed by FRIM as a guide for teachers to conduct wetland education at FRIM. The

content was tested by teachers who bring their students to FRIM and was tested twice before the activity

book was printed and distributed for use.

Capacity building

Teachers are often well-trained, but the unavailability of teaching resources can be a limiting factor during

their teaching. The Wetlands project activity kits make the programme easily duplicated by teachers and

could save time on lengthy training programmes for teachers. It also addresses the lack of technical skills

teachers might have when conducting EE programmes.


The choice of the programme’s topic was based on the examination of existing programmes conducted

by various government and non-government agencies. The readily available fresh water wetlands all over

Malaysia are very suitable to stimulate outdoor learning. Although some educational activities about fresh

water wetlands in Malaysia exist, most are based on the forest ecosystems including lowland,

mangroves, and heath forests. Education in urban areas includes botanical gardens and animals in zoos

209

(Noor Azlin et al. 2006). Developing a new programme that addresses as many of the issues discussed is

a challenge and developing a duplicable programme for other sites is also an important factor to consider

when choosing this topic.

CONCLUSION

According to Ham (1992), Environmental interpretation is the translation of the technical language of the

environment for the laymen without loss of accuracy; interpretation creates in the listener sensitivity,

awareness, understanding, enthusiasm and commitment. This project has managed to start the

development of a wetlands environmental education programme. One of the success stories so far was

the design of a wetland education kit with environmental interpretation in mind. Its strong points are that it

is easy to utilize and it is beautifully printed, while not losing its technical message. Involving teachers and

utilising local areas as suggested in this project, would give rise to involvement in conservation projects;

inspiring awareness and appreciation towards nature conservation through the sense of ownership.

REFERENCES

Arba’at, H 2006. An analysis of school teachers’ attitudes on the importance of environmental education goals. Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences, 10(2): 303-312.

Bekalo, S and Bangay, C. 2002 Towards effective environmental education in Ethiopia: problems and prospects in responding to the environment - poverty challenge. International Journal of Educational Development. Volume 22, Issue 1, January 2002: 35–46.

Borneo Post Online 2012. http://www.theborneopost.com/2012/07/04/calls-for-water-conservation-in-malaysia-grow-louder/, accessed on 30/07/2012.

Chawla, L 2006. Learning to Love the Natural World Enough to Protect It. Barn nr. 2, 2006:57-78

Efird, R 2012. Learning the Land Beneath Our Feet: NGO ‘local learning materials’ and environmental education in Yunnan Province. Journal of Contemporary China, Vol 21, Issue 76: 569-583.

Ham, SH 1992. Environmental Interpretation: A practical guide for people with Big Ideas and Small Budgets. Golden, Colorado: North American Press.

Hines, JM, Hungerford, HR & Tomera, AN 1986–87. Analysis and synthesis of research on responsible pro-environmental behavior: a meta-analysis. The Journal of Environmental Education, 18(2):1–8.

Hopkins, C and McKeown, R 2002. Education for sustainable development: an international perspective. In: Tilbury, D; Stevenson, RB; Fien, J & Schreuder, D (Eds). Education and Sustainability Responding to the Global Challenge. IUCN commission on education and Communication CEC. Gland:IUCN.

Hungerford, HR. & Volk, TL 1990. Changing learner behavior through environmental education. The Journal of Environmental Education, 21(3): 8–21.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/07380593

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/07380593/22/1


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Kola‐Olusanya, A. 2005 Free‐choice environmental education: understanding where children learn outside of school. Environmental Education Research. Volume 11, Issue 3: 297-307.

Ministry of Education, Malaysia 2004. National report of Malaysia. The development of education. Accessed on 15/4/2008 from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/international/ICE47/English/Natreps/Malaysia.pdf.

Noor Azlin, Y; Ong, T. Shanmugaraj I. S. , & Chong, M. I. 2006. Guidelines for Establishing A Nature Education Centre for Urban Areas. Kuala Lumpur: FRIM, Kepong.

Noor Azlin, Y.; Philip, E; & Ong, T (Eds.) 2006. Proceeding of the Conference on Best of Both Worlds: Environmental

Education for Sustainable Development. Kuala Lumpur: FRIM, Kepong.

Ong, T; Chong, MI & Noor Azlin, Y. 2008. Activities in Wetlands. Siri Alam Rimba No. 11. Kuala Lumpur: Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM).

Maria S. & Noor Azlin, Y. 2009. Environmental education in Malaysia: Current Practice and Future Possibilities. In: Environmental Education in Context. An International Perspective on the Development of Environmental Education. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.

Stevenson, B 2002. Education and sustainable development: Perspectives and Possibilities. In: Tilbury, D., R. B. Stevenson, J. Fien, D. Schreuder (Eds). Education and Sustainability Responding to the Global Challenge. IUCN Commission on Education and Communication. Gland: IUCN.

Tilden, F 1967. Interpreting Our Heritage. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.

UNESCO. 1992. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development: Agenda 21. UNESCO, Switzerland.

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16


R Maimane

IB Phage

Central University of Technology

Abstract:

Education is essential for sustainable development of any society. Without it the society will cease to exist

and as such will be left behind by other developing societies. This paper argues that knowledge gained

through formal education with the involvement of communities could lead to socio-economic upliftment

and sustainable development. The paper focuses on the impact of a skills training project through

remedial classes undertaken by the Ikhwezi Mangaung Trust, a non-governmental organisation servicing

the Thaba-Nchu and Mangaung region of Motheo District in the Free State Province, South Africa.

Learners are identified according to the community needs and their financial background, i.e.,

underprivileged communities and learners are the target group. Learners are helped to identify their

talents and skills that lead to sustainable development. Such learners are exposed to lifelong learning and

sustainable development through motivational classes and different career paths/skills in the form of

remedial classes. They get helped to acquire learning skills associated with subjects done in high schools

and that are required for formal training of literacy and vocational skills. The impact of the project is

assessed using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Results have indicated that education for

sustainable development can be achieved by all stakeholders including non-governmental organisations.

BOB

212

INTRODUCTION

This is an Enrichment Programme targeting learners from high school, that is, Grade Ten to Grade

12.The classes are conducted mostly on Saturdays and during school-holidays to ensure that they do not

interfere with normal schools hours and do not meant to deviate from school curriculum.

Ikhwezi Mangaung Trust is a non-governmental organization (NGO) run with the sole purpose of

community engagement and enrichment through a learner enrichment programme. The programme

focuses on life-long skills development in an integrated approach to preparing learners to make healthy

life skills choices. As such, education plays significant role as a vehicle through which learners will be

able to sustain themselves. According to Van Eijck and Roth, (2007: 2768) learners can also help to

guide their communities toward a sustainable future. By all measures, students did not only learn science

but also learnt more than they would have in normal science lessons. They also helped guide their

community toward a sustainable future. The program has several main approaches to educating learners

such as study methods, preparation for exams, stress management, social pressure resistance skills,

human rights and responsibilities, heightened health awareness, empowerment, and social skills

development.

This programme is the prototype to help develop a new generation of champions. The program is

designed, created and developed to inspire, motivate and educate learners to set and reach their goals

and enjoy the quest to success. This programme goes further by providing a platform for learners to

share stories, personal experiences and actively learn.

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE PROJECT APPROACH

Koichiro Matsuura, the Director-General of UNESCO, in the foreword of the International Conference

book highlighted that in 2004, the United Nation General Assembly recognised education to be a key

parameter for a sustainable future when it declared the period 2005-2014 as the Decade of Education for

Sustainable Development and designated UNESCO as the lead agency for its international coordination

and promotion. He advocated the purpose of Decade as that of highlighting the central role of education

and learning in the common pursuit of sustainable development. As a framework for mobilising

collaborative action at international, regional, national and local level, the Decade seeks to generate

practical results through partnership and joint endeavours. The Decade is a vehicle of educational change

and mobilization aimed at making sustainable development a concrete reality for all of us – individuals,

organizations and governments (Matsuura 2006:19).

213

The group signatories of the Ubuntu Declaration (the Ubuntu Alliance) are working towards:

Strengthening the role of educators in the CSD process as one of the major stakeholders;

Promoting communication and collaboration among scientific technological and educational

organizations by the frequent exchange of information and views on their activities (van Ginkel

2006:25) “Education for Sustainable Development” means what it says: it is not just environmental

education or even sustainable development education, but education for sustainable development.

Education serves as a powerful tool for moving nations, communities and households towards a more

sustainable future (van Ginkel 2006: 20). During the learning process, new options are tried out and

choices are continuously made. Two of the most important factors in the process are the learner and the

learning environment. For the learner, the learning process contributes to the formation of a social identity

in which the individual can recognize him or herself as a valuable individual with respect to others. The

format of the learning environment depends on age, prior knowledge and social activity. It will therefore

change throughout the life-long process (Van Dam-Miers (2006: 83). Creating a learning environment that

facilitate learning for sustainable development requires reflection on the characteristic of the world we are

living in. This is based on the meaning of the concept of sustainable development and on the way we

have organized learning process in our communities (Van Dam-Mieras 2006:85).

ESD is all about learning – learning for success, learning from failures and learning to sustain for the

future (Razak 2006: 89). It is also an abstract and conceptual principle that is in dire need of examples of

practices that transform conceptual values into real contribution towards sustainable development (Razak

2006: 87). Theories about the way human beings, specifically children and adolescents, grow, learn and

behave provide the foundation of a life skills and behaviour modification approach. These theories are not

mutually exclusive and all contribute to the development of a life skills approach used in the development

of the program. These theories are: child and adolescent development, social learning, problem behavior,

social influence, cognitive problem solving, multiple intelligences, occupational performance and risk and

resilience theories. They also highlight key links in development of life skills in youth.

In summary, each of these theories provides a piece of the foundation for justifying skills development

and differing perspectives as to why these skills are important. Some focus more on behavioral outcomes

and justifying skills development. This will move adolescents towards the behaviours required for

sustainable developmental expectations, cultural context and social norms. Others focus more on the

acquisition of skills as the goal for future sustainable development. As a result competency in problem-

solving, interpersonal communication and resolving conflicts can be seen as crucial elements of healthy

human development of the learners.

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Finally by teaching young people how to think critically and creatively, rather than what to think provide

them with the tools for problem solving, decision making and managing emotions. They will be engaged

through participative methodologies, skills development and behavioural modification that could become

a means of sustainable development. According to Saez (1999: 567), the concept of Sustainable

Development is the bridge between the integrated knowledge used by students in every day thinking and

the contents used for various subjects to solve the given problem.

OBJECTIVES OF THE PROGRAMME

To promote the development of life skills by offering an integrated educational and developmental

program for learners.

To assist learners to reach their full potential in a positive approach in life skill development.

To provide a comprehensive interactive life skills programme (role-plays, open discussion, skills

rehearsal and small group activities) that aim to improve the quality of life of learner.

To implement an activity-based programme that will promote reinforcement and active participation

in learning based on the social and health tasks of adolescence within the specific culture of youth.

Strategies to achieving the Aims and Objectives

Ikhwezi hopes to achieve its aims and objectives by:

Developing a sound academic attitude, passion for the environment and intellectual problem-

solving skills.

To enable learners to adopt an integrated approach to their academic careers by encouraging them

to take any subject related to lifelong skills and sustainable development.

To provide learners from underprivileged communities with bursaries to pursue higher education at

any tertiary institution of their choice.

To help teachers who show commitment in helping deserving learners with financial assistance as

well as helping to improve their teaching skills.

Beneficiaries of the Project

The learners from the respective schools are from grade 10 to 11 and receive an intensive programme on

Saturdays from 7h45 to 11h45. The Students come from: Comm. Tech School; Brebner School; Ikaelelo

School; Atlehang Secondary School; Kaelang Secondary School; Louis Botha School; and Bloemfontein

South to mention a few. This year, according to the presenters, it has been a very active and exciting

year. The learner enrichment programme has recruited more learners. The programme has also been

very intensive and responsive to the individual needs of the learners.

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RESEARCH COMPONENT

Self-assessment is a very crucial part for the development of any organization as this highlights its strong

and weak points and assists the organisation in assessing its performance. This is also critical, as funders

would like to know the impact made by the project they are sponsoring. The organization also needs

research in order to be able to prepare itself for future undertakings that it would need to embark on.

Ikhwezi being on the same mission as the other non-governmental organizations, found it imperative to

look into its activities through the involvement of research in order to determine the impact it has on its

beneficiaries. Thus, the purpose of this research component is to determine the impact of the project on

the learners it serves. One hundred and thirty eight learners were randomly selected to participate in the

research. The results from the quantitative-qualitative methods were employed, indicating that learners

benefit from the project.

The evaluation of the project was structured around the following questions:

What impact does the project have on learners concepts and attitude towards Ikhwezi Saturday

classes?

What impact does the project have on learners themselves?

To what extent have the goals of the project been achieved?

Are Ikhwezi educators’ performance of higher standard?

Research Design

A questionnaire was administerd to Grades 11 and 12 (N=138) who were randomly sampled from a

population of four-hundred and forty-two (N=442) learners. The questionnaire was characterised by

closed questions dealing with the profile of the learners and the open-ended questions were based on the

impact of the project on them. They were told that their participation in the research was to be anonymous

and that they would not to be penalised for the way they responded to the questions. Teachers were also

given questionnaires to respond to with the same ethical considerations as that of the learners. The

management of Ikhwezi were pleased that the sample would be representative enough and suggested

that the research continue.

Data Analysis

Both quantitative data (through closed-form items) and qualitative data (through open ended questions)

were obtained by means of a questionnaire. The first group of questions (See Table 1) determined the

demographic aspect of the participants. Data was collected and triangulated from a variety of sources,

which included evaluation questionnaire responses, learners’ and teachers’ transcripts and the

discussions held with management.

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Participants Demographics

Figure 1: Gender variables of learners

Figure 2: Age range

Figure 3: Home language

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Figure 4: Person responsible for education

Figure 5: Subjects that are done at Ikhwezi

A selection of the learners’ responses to the questions:

What is happening in the classroom is very important for teaching and learning to take place. Learners

are to be given the opportunity to present their views about their teaching and the teacher on the other

hand must also assist them in understanding the subject matter. Learners are to be active in the

classroom, be given time to take notes, ask questions and to work in groups. According to the results,

one hundred and thirty eight (100%) learners indicated that they are active in class, one hundred and

twenty four learners (90%) affirm that they are given time to take notes as compared to the twenty-four

(10%) that say otherwise. The teacher is involving learners in the classroom which is an indication that

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are doing their work and perform to their maximum potential as far as teaching and learning is concerned.

This is indicated in Figure 6 and Figure 7 respectively.

Figure 6: The teacher gives us homework

According to Figure 6, Seventy percent (70%) of the learners indicate that teachers give them homework,

20% say that teachers do not give homework, while 10% state that they are sometimes given homework.

It is clear from this graph that teachers keep learners occupied by giving them work to do at home so that

they could practice what was done at school.

Figure 7: The teacher checks our homework

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According to Figure 7, majority of learners (40%) indicate in affirmation that teachers do check on their

homework, 20% contradict this, while 20% say that the teachers do sometimes check their homework and

20% say teachers never do this.

The harmonious relationship formed between learners, educators and the learning content plays a vital

role for teaching and learning to take place. This also helps in the creation of the conducive atmosphere

for learning to take place as educators are able to manage their classrooms. The results indicated this

through the voices of the respondents:

Question: What measures do teachers give you when you do not cope in class?

Learner A: They give us attention and make us to try to listen to them, sometimes they even make some

jokes in order for us to cope.

Learner B: The teacher tries to talk to you privately after class to try to understand why you ain’t copying

and find solution on how to help you.

Learner C: Group us in a group of four people to make sure we understand what he/she saying.

Question: What are your views about Ikhwezi Saturday Classes?

Learners responded to the above question by stating:

Learner D: My views about the classes is that it helps a lot because what is being taught here we can

apply at home when we doing self study and also at school.

Learner E: We get benefited by Ikhwezi classes because we gain knowledge and receive better or quality

education as we don’t have teachers who can give us quality education at our school so here we get

taught by professional teachers who knows what they are doing.

Learner A: They really help us a lot because if you didn’t understand something during the week at our

school we are able to get some different opinions from different teachers.

Learner F: Ikhwezi Saturday classes helps us very much because we are taught things that we hardly

taught at school and we learn new things every Saturday in every subject. The teachers are very

understanding and they teach without the book they know what they are doing they provide use with

useful study materials and once they are applied they benefit very much. I wrote my term exam with the

information I accumulated from Ikhwezi Saturday classes.

From the above responses it is crystal clear that learners do appreciate and value what the Ikhwezi

educators are doing. The knowledge they acquired from these educators is beneficial to them as they are

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able to use during examinations. Learners are aware of the contrast in teaching styles of their teachers at

their respective schools and those of Ikhwezi. The feeling is that they gain from Saturday classes. Their

attitude towards their studies and Ikhwezi educators seems to be positive as these educator’s

performance is higher than that of their own educators at their schools.

Some of the educators’ response to the questions:

Teaching and learning demands that teachers and learners should be fully committed to their wok in

order that the goals for which they strive for should be attained. Educators were asked when they do their

assessment. Here are some of their responses:

Educator A: Usually informal tests are written every weekend but formal tests are written once per term.

Educator B: Every after a lesson and test every month

Educator C: During the third week and sometimes same time.

It is clear that educators do differ in giving learners assessment task which might be done as an informal

tests done during their next meeting on a weekend or formal test at the end of the month.

Asked about the impact assessment results has on the learners’ performance the educators responded

by saying that it:

Educator D: Improves understanding and knowledge of the content.

Educator B: It improves their confidence and knowledge and understanding of the content.

Educator A: It differs; some are motivated to do better next time while others remain the same.

The above responses indicate that although there seems to be a slight difference on the impact of the

results on performance of the learners, the understanding and improvement in confidence on the part of

the learners is unmistakable. Teachers take a personal interest in every learner’s work and motivate

learners by developing their confidence in their ability to understand content presented.

Question: What is your perception of Ikhwezi Saturday classes?

Educator D: We have a crisis of improved education. And therefore the project is playing a major role in

the delivery.

Educator A: It helps multitudes to better their performance in various subjects they do at their schools.

Educator E: It plays an important role towards results in this province and country at large by preparing

learners very well for assessment.

Educators indicate that Ikhwezi has a role to play in the development of the learners and the upliftment of

the province and the country at large.

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Question: Why do you commit and sacrifice your Saturdays for Ikhwezi?

Educator E: Teaching is close to my heart and helping South African children become better South

African.

Educator A: I think I am a philanthropist by nature. Helping the less fortunate gives me pleasure as big as

Mount Everest.

Educator D: I am motivated in assisting and giving time to learners who are in need of good and quality

education and also want to do well in school.

The above comments by the educators’ project the feeling that they are prepared to spend their hours

and free time to help learners. They are committed to their work and have passion to doing it always

doing self-reflection and analysis of their work. They continually research on their own effectiveness as

teachers and are willing to admit mistakes or lack of knowledge.

CONCLUSIONS


classes?

Learners have a significantly positive attitude about Ikhwezi Saturday classes.

Learners participating in the project are more positive about Ikhwezi educators.

From what they say, learners are more happier at Ikhwezi than at their schools.


They are more confident and use the knowledge they gained at Ikhwezi in tests and examinations.

Working in groups has helped them to compete with other learners from other schools.

Educators at Ikhwezi are more sympathetic and helpful to them in terms of helping them to solve

problems.


To help learners with their studies irrespective of whether they do well or not at their schools

The project Encourages those who are not doing well by providing intervention mechanisms.

Educators are doing all they can to help learners by demonstrating, giving notes, extra information

and using available resources.

More and more learners and their parents request to be admitted at the Ikhwezi.


The educator’s performance is of high standard most of them have post-graduate qualifications.

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Ikwezi provides new information and knowledge to the learners. They show commitment to helping

them.

The educators Interact with learners in a friendly way and encourage them to ask questions and to

come up with new infromation themselve that they could share with the class.

They constantly give learners work to do in class or at home thereafter see to it that they mark it

and promptly give learners feeback.

Assessment of the work of learners is on regular basis and reports are to management during

meetings.

DISCUSSIONS

Learners who attend Ikhwezi Saturday Classes Project come from different background as indicated in

Figure 4. As the findings of the project indicates, it is important that there are areas that need to be

investigated as to have a clear picture of the impact exerted by Ikhwezi on the overall project as expected

by learners- who wants to catch-up on parts they did not do at school, parents who wish to see their

children performing well at the end of the year and the donors who are committed to enriching the

communities they serve. With the help of the ongoing research, we will be able to get answers to inherent

questions.

Challenges

A huge number of learners wanting to participate and more parents wanting to enrol their learners.

Lack of capacity to accommodate all learners who wish to attend.

Lack of enough human resources to deal with the demands of the project

Sponsors and donors who want constant detailed reports on the progress of the project.

Parents who want to see their children perform exceptionally well in their examinations.

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REFERENCES

Matsuura, K 2006. Foreword (in Wong, L. (ed.) 2006. Globalization and education for Sustainable Development: Sustaining the future. Paris: UNESCO. International Conference Proceedings held in Nagoya, Japan from 28- 29 June2005

.

Razak, DA 2006. Initiatives on Education for Sustainable Development. (in Wong, L. (ed.) 2006. Globalization and education for Sustainable Development: Sustaining the future. Paris: UNESCO. International Conference Proceedings held in Nagoya, Japan from 28- 29 June2005.

Saez, MJ Riquarts 1999. Sustainable Development as a topic for integration the Science Curriculum. (in the 9th Syposium of the International Organization For Science and Technology Education Proceedings- Volume 2 held in Durban, South Africa

Van Dam-Mieras, R. 2006. Lifelong learning and Education for Sustainable Development. (in Wong, L. (ed.) 2006. Globalization and education for Sustainable Development: Sustaining the future. Paris: UNESCO. International Conference held Proceedings in Nagoya, Japan from 28- 29 June2005.

Van Eijck M & Roth W 2007. Improving Science Education for Sustainable Development, PLoS Biology, 5(12: 2763 – 2769.

Van Ginkel, H. 2006. Mobilizing for Sustainable Development. (in Wong, L. (ed.) 2006. Globalization and education for Sustainable Development: Sustaining the future. Paris: UNESCO. International Conference Proceedings held in Nagoya, Japan from 28- 29 June2005.

World Bank (1998). Organizing Knowledge for Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development. Washington: World Bank.

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17

The influence of particular teaching methods in Environmental Education

programmes for promoting sustainability and enhancing knowledge retention at

uShaka Sea World

H Killian

uShaka Sea World, Durban

Abstract

Environmental Education (EE) is a process described as one that involves teachers and learners in

promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of people to address environmental

issues. Zoos and aquaria have the opportunity to achieve this through hands-on experience, but which

teaching method would be more successful in imparting knowledge – active participation or a more

passive approach? A study was conducted to compare two teaching methods to ascertain which is more l

suited to promoting sustainability and knowledge retention amongst learners when conducting an EE

programme at the uShaka Sea World Education Centre. The aim of the study was to compare the

'traditional' lecture style method with co-operative learning to determine their influence on learners’

knowledge retention with regards to sustainability and marine conservation. Both methods are effective at

increasing knowledge retention. However, this study suggests that the teaching method used in a

particular school could influence the learning outcomes of the EE programme because of pre-existing

abilities, skills and context of the learners. In conclusion, for an EE programme to be successful one

would need to determine which method of teaching is practiced within schools and then ensure that the

same method is used when conducting the EE programme.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

The goals of any EE programme should be to increase environmental knowledge, encourage positive

attitudes towards the environment and create environmentally friendly behaviour by making connections

between learners and their natural environment (Kuhar, Bettinger, and Lehnhardt, 2007:161). The

challenge is to translate these ideas into practical experiences in such a way that will allow learners to

make up their own minds about what is appropriate action (O’Riordan, 1981:13).

During the development of an EE programme it is important to consider the theme of that particular

programme, as learners need to be made aware of the impacts on the environment and to develop skills

that can promote sustainable development. Langen and Welsh (2006:600) state that EE should inform

and influence one’s opinion about the impact of human activities on the environment and that through

problem-solving one can appreciate the relevance of content to the real world. A person’s understanding

of natural processes and human activities has an effect on his/her surroundings (Yeung, 2004:101) and

consequently EE should include aims to understand why people act in environmentally sustainable or

unsustainable ways, and further use these aims to understand and promote sustainable behaviour

(Clayton and Brook, 2005:88).

Sustainability has been defined as development that meets the needs of the present generation without

compromising those of future generations (Bak, 1995:57), but unless one’s basic needs are met

emotionally and physically there can be little consideration for ecological issues (Roth, 2008:211).

People need to see themselves as part of the natural world and that every action has a consequence.

They therefore need to learn how to think about those consequences before they take any action (Roth,

2008:212). EE programmes are vital for encouraging youth to protect resources now and in the future

(Kruse and Card, 2004:34).

At uShaka Sea World, there is the opportunity to teach through hands-on experience. By incorporating

EE programmes that are hands-on, learners can develop skills that will enable them to identify problems,

learn how to think, provide skills to collect and analyse information and then make informed decisions

(Athman and Monroe, 2001:41). Habitats and species cannot be valued if they are not known, or the

damaging practices affecting particular species cannot be altered if those practices are not perceived as a

threat (Evans, 1997:239). The lack of awareness for the marine environment creates a challenge, as not

many people visit aquaria. So when they do, it is vital that a lasting impression is made on them. Through

sensitization one can hope that learners will then make more environmentally positive choices that will

lead to improved care and protection of the environment.

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But which method of teaching would be more successful in imparting knowledge about sustainability –

active participation or a more passive approach?

Teaching, an action to facilitate learning, can take the form of many strategies. These strategies, along

with their methods promote the acquisition and retention of knowledge. A study was conducted to

compare two teaching and learning methods to ascertain which is more suited to knowledge retention

amongst learners when conducting an EE programme about sustainability at the uShaka Sea World

Education Centre.

Two teaching strategies (McCown, Driscoll and Roop, 1996:293) that were considered are the following:

a) Teacher-centred instruction

b) Learner- centred instruction

Teacher- centred instruction focuses on the teacher presenting key concepts of the subject matter in the

form of a lecture. If learners need any elaboration or need to ask questions, they ask the teacher directly.

Learner-centred instruction focuses on the teacher organizing the learners into groups and then providing

them with resource material. This strategy spreads the responsibility for learning between the teacher and

the learners (McCown et al, 1996:393). A learner- centred approach is also consistent with a constructive

view of learning (McCown et al, 1996:405), with learning best done in real life environments, where

learning concepts and ideas should be learned in diverse ways.

There are, however, a variety of teaching methods that can be associated with each of the teaching

strategies. This study specifically focused on the lecture method, which is associated with a teacher-

centred strategy, and cooperative learning, which is associated with the learner- centred strategy.

This paper discusses which teaching method would be more successful in increasing knowledge

retention and integrating sustainability when conducting EE programmes for younger primary school

learners in the context of the marine environment at the uShaka Sea World Education Centre.

THE STUDY

Sample selection focused on the target population from the eThekwini Municipal area in Durban, South

Africa, and a simple random sampling technique was used to select the schools from the Sea World’s

Natal Portland Cement (NPC) Outreach Programme. The area was divided into five regions namely: a

central, northern, southern, inland and a coastal area.

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One school from each area was chosen, and each of the 5 schools had an average of 100 grade 7

learners, ranging from 10-15 years of age. These learners were from similar socio-economic backgrounds

but from different geographical areas.

Data was collected over 5 days with each school being brought into uShaka Sea World on a different day.

The selected sample of 100 learners was divided randomly into two groups. Each group received a pre-

lesson questionnaire in English, which covered specific environmental topics relating to the lesson given.

This gave an indication of the baseline knowledge of the learners, as well as an assessment of their

understanding of their environment before the lesson.

The questionnaire was completed in the presence of a Sea World Educator. Each learner responded

individually, although the questions were read aloud to guide the learners. This was designed to eliminate

the possible problem of poor reading ability.

The questionnaire had 3 sections:

Section A focused on determining the demographics of the group

Section B consisted of 10 multiple choice questions that determined knowledge

Section C consisted of two open-ended questions to determine the learners’ perceptions about

environmental problems.

The questions were intended to establish the learners’ knowledge and understanding about the

environment as well as providing background information about the learners themselves.

Each group received a lesson on how we rely on the environment in order to survive, the role the marine

environment plays and why sustainability is important. Group A was exposed to a teacher- centred

strategy using the lecture style method. A PowerPoint presentation was given during the lecture and

followed the theme of resources that are used by humans. The presentation portrayed the idea that

people need these resources in order to survive, and that the choices they make have an impact on these

resources and the environment. The presentation also looked at steps individuals can take to help solve

any problem at hand. Group B was exposed to a learner-centred strategy participating in co-operative

learning. The co-operative learning lesson was based on the same topic as the lecture; however, the

presentation of material differed. This lesson used picture cards to determine what resources are

essential in order to survive; a globe with coffee mug and saucer containing boiling water to describe the

water cycle; live animals and pictures to discuss food webs; the ‘who dirtied the water’ game to look at

human impact on nature; and ‘match the cards’ to teach about positive environmental choices. Group B

conducted their lesson within groups of 10.

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After the learners had completed their lesson and had taken a guided tour through the aquarium, they

were given a post-test questionnaire containing the same questions. Three months after their visit to the

uShaka Sea World Education Centre, the learners were re-visited and given a second post-test

questionnaire. The design of the three questionnaires would provide an indication of prior knowledge,

knowledge directly after the lesson and long term (3 months) knowledge retention

DATA ANALYSIS

The data from Section A was used to give an outline of the demographics of the sample population as

well as the ratio of males to females, in order to determine if there would be any bias. The information

collected from the question pertaining to the tap location provided an understanding of what was the

learners’ value of water, while the question about food acquisition served to provide information about the

emphasis learners placed on where food was sourced. Asking learners if they are taught about

environmental education at school would have given some background to their understanding of what

constituted environmental education, as environmental education is included in the National Curriculum.

These interpretations could then provide insight into results from Sections B and C.

The multiple choice questions from Section B had four possible answers but only one correct answer, and

were designed to cover the full scope of the lesson. A learner would obtain a single knowledge score on

the basis of the number of questions answered correctly with a minimum score of 0 and a maximum score

of 10.

Section C contained 2 open ended questions which were scored according to pre-coded answers in

terms of being a local problem (1), a national problem (2) or a social problem (3). This was done by the

researcher for uniformity, and each answer was categorised as being either a problem that related to

social issues like violence or theft; a local environmental problem like litter; or a national or global problem

such as climate change or energy crisis.

Microsoft Excel and Statistica were used to perform parametric statistical analysis on the data collected.

The pre-test and post-test questions and the coded open-ended question responses were typed into an

Excel worksheet and then transformed into a Statistica worksheet and variables named.

Analysis included the measurement of the raw data to determine the average, distribution and spread of

the data sets. A normality test was done to determine if the frequency distribution of values from the

different ranges of the variables were symmetrical, therefore indicating a normal distribution of data. A

Levene’s test was then done to determine the absolute deviations of values from the respective group

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means, therefore indicating that the variances in the different groups are equal. If this is the case in both

instances, the assumption can be made that the data is normally distributed and parametric tests can be

applied.

A paired t-test (Tuckman, 1999:300) was performed to compare the differences in the means between the

pre- and post-test scores of learners as well as the pre- and delayed post-test scores of the learners for

both groups. An analysis of variance using ANOVA was then used to compare the results of the two

methods.

The tests were done collectively for all data and then individually for each participating school.

RESULTS

Demography and general information (Questionnaire Section A)

The results from this section showed that most learners had access to running water either in their home

or on their household property. Very few learners needed to travel from home to collect water. This

information may be important in understanding the learners’ value of water. Learners who have easy

access to running water may be less likely to appreciate the resource compared to learners who need to

travel long distances to collect water for home usage. While conducting the lessons, water was

highlighted as a very important resource. Learners were shown how human activities may have

detrimental effects on water as a resource and therefore ultimately on human beings. The more

‘privileged’ learners may never have been exposed to such impacts as they have access to water from a

tap, and therefore may be less concerned about environmental impacts on water bodies.

The majority of the learners and their families obtained food from supermarkets, with only a small

percentage either growing their own food or receiving goods from family and friends. This may indicate

that learners are accustomed to packaged food and may not always be aware of where food originates.

This further suggests that learners may be unaware of the impact human beings have on the environment

and therefore on food stocks. Learners are less likely to be aware of over-fishing and the impact of bad

fishing practices on both the environment and food stocks in general.

Of the learners surveyed, 90% (n=454) indicated that they were taught about environmental matters in

the classroom, while 10% (n=50) indicated that they were not. This ascertained that learners are being

exposed to environmental education at school. These results indicate that learners are being taught

environmentally related topics, and that they should have some basic knowledge about the environment.

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The information from these three questions may be able to provide some answer to the interpretation of

the results from the knowledge questions, as the questions from these sections were related to water and

food as resources and how a range of environmental impacts may affect these resources.

Knowledge (Questionnaire Section B)

The learners’ knowledge of the environment and environmental issues was tested with ten multiple choice

questions relating to the topics covered in the lessons.

Table 1 shows the comparison of the means of the pre- and post-test scores for method one, and the

result shows a significant difference (p=0.00000) between the pre-test and post-test score for the total

group. This indicates that the learners’ knowledge did increase after the lesson using method one. A

similar trend was indicated by each individual school, with the exception of school 4, where knowledge

levels did not change significantly between the pre- and post-testing. This may be due to the fact that

school 4 already had a strong understanding of the concepts presented during the lesson, and therefore

the amount of new knowledge gained after the lesson would be limited.

Pre-Test Post-Test

Group n Mean Standard deviation

Mean Standard deviation

t (1) P

Total 251 5.29 1.98 6.37 1.58 -7.24 0.00000**

School 1 36 4.28 1.91 6.19 1.28 -4.71 0.00003**

School 2 50 5.56 1.59 6.68 1.56 -3.54 0.00080**

School 3 52 4.87 1.58 6.19 1.22 -4.42 0.00005**

School 4 54 7.09 1.78 7.35 1.51 -0.77 0.44180

School 5 59 4.41 1.66 5.46 1.56 -3.52 0.00080**

Mean: Possible knowledge score range from 0-10 *p<0.05 **p<0.001

Table 1: Comparison of the learners’ knowledge scores from the paired sample t-test for pre-test

and post-test for method one.

Method one therefore, appears to be successful in enabling learners to retain knowledge after the lesson

had been conducted. When comparing the scores for method one, there was an overall significant

difference (p=0.00011) between the pre-test and delayed test scores.

Pre-Test Delayed-Test

Group n Mean Standard

deviation

Mean Standard

deviation

t (1) P

Total 251 5.29 1.98 5.84 1.86 -3.93 0.00011**

School 1 36 4.28 1.91 5.28 1.72 -2.45 0.01950*

School 2 50 5.56 1.59 6.24 1.51 -2.53 0.01460*

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School 3 52 4.87 1.58 5.75 1.66 -2.87 0.00590*

School 4 54 7.09 1.78 7.29 1.28 -0.67 0.50590

School 5 59 4.41 1.66 4.61 1.85 -0.67 0.50430



and delayed test scores for method one.

This indicates that the level of knowledge retained three months after the study was still significantly

higher than the pre-test knowledge for method one. When considering the schools individually, schools 1,

2, and 3 showed a significant difference when comparing the pre-test scores with the delayed test scores,

while schools 4 and 5 showed no significant differences between the two test scores. This may indicate

that the lesson had no long term effects on schools 4 and 5. School 4 showed no significant difference

between pre- and post testing either. Therefore, it is possible that the method was not successful in this

instance or that the topic had been covered by the teacher at the school. School 5 showed a significant

difference between pre- and post testing, but not between pre- and delayed testing, suggesting that this

method was not successful in creating long term knowledge retention in learners from school 5. It could

therefore be deduced that overall, method one is an effective method for knowledge retention in learners

for both short term and long term (three month) periods.

Pre-Test Post-Test


deviation

Mean Standard

deviation

t (1) p

Total 253 5.07 2.04 5.87 1.99 -5.25 0.00000**

School 1 47 4.11 1.48 5.24 1.76 -3.06 0.00370*

School 2 53 4.89 1.49 5.91 1.55 -3.46 0.00110*

School 3 55 4.93 1.82 5.56 1.87 -1.76 0.08420

School 4 47 7.59 1.36 8.06 1.09 -1.74 0.08800

School 5 51 3.96 1.75 4.73 1.89 -1.94 0.05830


Table 3: Comparison of the learners’ knowledge scores from the paired sample t-test for pre- and

post-test for method two.

When comparing the means of the pre- and post-test scores for method two, it was found that overall the

total group showed a significant difference (p=0.00000) between the two scores. This indicated that

learners’ knowledge had increased between the pre- and post-tests after the lesson had been conducted.

A similar trend was shown by schools 1 and 2, who have a relatively small number of learners within the

entire school, compared to schools 3, 4 and 5 who showed no significant difference between scores.

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Schools 3, 4 and 5 all have very large numbers of learners per grade and therefore per class within the

entire school, and are therefore much larger schools. Schools 3 and 5 are schools that do not have

access to many resources and when combined with large numbers per class, group work may be an

unfamiliar method for these learners. Consequently, they may find it difficult to participate in group work

because they are not used to it. Therefore, being taught using a method with which the learners are

unfamiliar may have impacted on their knowledge retention. School 4 may be more familiar with this

method of teaching as their educator indicated that this method is practised in their school. However,

similar to the situation of method one, the learners may already have had a good background knowledge

of the subject material and therefore their knowledge may not have increased significantly.

Method two appears to be successful in facilitating knowledge retention in learners, as their knowledge

had increased significantly between the pre- and post-tests although only for two of the schools. When

one looks at the pre-test and delayed test scores a similar significant difference is found. Therefore

although method two also allows for short term and especially long term (three months) knowledge

retention, it would not appear to be as effective as method one.

Table 4 shows the comparison of learners’ knowledge scores from the paired t-test for pre- test and

delayed test scores for method two, the cooperative learning method. The following results were

obtained: The means for the pre- and delayed test scores showed a significant difference (p=0.00000) for

the total group, and similarly for schools 1, 2 and 5 individually, while schools 3 and 4 showed no

significant differences. This suggests that the total groups’ knowledge, for both methods, increased from

the time of taking the pre-test to the time of completing the post-test and that knowledge had increased

from the time of the pre-test to the time of completing the delayed post-test.



deviation

Mean Standard

deviation

t (1) p

Total 253 5.07 2.04 5.72 1.82 -4.59 0.00000**

School 1 47 4.11 1.48 5.19 1.59 -3.44 0.00130*

School 2 53 4.89 1.49 6.30 1.45 -5.19 0.00000**

School 3 55 4.93 1.82 4.91 1.76 0.05 0.95860

School 4 47 7.59 1.36 7.49 1.12 0.41 0.68050

School 5 51 3.96 1.75 4.66 1.67 -2.70 0.00943*



and delayed test scores for method two.

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Where individual schools have shown no significant differences between the pre- and post-tests and pre-

and delayed tests, it may indicate strong pre-knowledge. Learners may already have had a strong

understanding of the concepts that were taught in the lessons and, as no new information was presented,

there may not have been any room for improvement in knowledge gained. Alternatively, the learners may

not have had any background knowledge or basic understanding of the subject matter and therefore the

questions or concepts discussed were foreign to the learners. Even after the lesson they still had no real

understanding of what they had been taught.

Thus, in comparing the two methods on the basis of long-term knowledge retention, it would appear that

both methods are equally l (Fig. 1). suitable.

Figure 1: Box and whisker plots for a comparison between the two methods for knowledge scores

for pre-, post- and delayed post-test.

Figure 1 shows a comparison between method one and method two for the pre-test, post-test and

delayed test knowledge scores. All learners had the same knowledge base when they started the

programme, which is shown in no significant differences in the pre-test values. The post-test scores show

a significant difference, which indicates that there was a significant difference between method one and

method two when comparing the post-test knowledge scores, and that method one may be a more

effective method than method two for the overall group. For the delayed test, neither method was more

effective than the other as there were no significant differences for the overall group.

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Table 5 shows a comparison of p values between method one and method two for the post-test

knowledge scores as well as the means for group A and group B. The post-test scores show a significant

difference (p=0.002) for the total group, as well as for each school individually, indicating that there was a

significant difference between method one and method two when comparing the post-test knowledge

scores. Overall, method one had a higher mean than method two. Similar results were found when

comparing post-test scores for schools 1, 2, 3 and 5. This indicated that, overall, method one was a more

successful method for knowledge retention in the short term, with the exception of school 4 who showed

a significant difference in favour of method two. This may suggest that the learners from school 4 gained

more knowledge in the short-term period when participating in an interactive lesson as compared to a

lecture style lesson. This may be due to the fact that out of the five schools, school 4 is the only school

that practises cooperative learning on a consistent basis in the classroom. It is also possible that as

learners are taught using this method, they are more familiar with it and therefore this may allow for

greater knowledge retention.

Group Post-test score Mean Group A Mean Group B

Total 0.002* 6.366 5.869

School 1 0.007* 6.194 5.234

School 2 0.013* 6.680 5.905

School 3 0.044* 6.192 5.564

School 4 0.008* 7.352 8.064

School 5 0.028* 5.458 4.725


Table 5: Comparison of p value and means for the learners’ knowledge scores from the paired

sample t-test for post-test scores between the two methods.

Environmental perceptions (Questionnaire Section C)

Section C of the questionnaire asked open-ended questions related to what the learners may consider as

environmental problems and how they would solve them. The responses were coded according to

problems that may be at a national or local level or be of a social nature.

Figure 2 shows the responses to perceptions about environmental problems. The pre-test results showed

that what learners considered as environmental problems were in fact social problems, and this included

issues such as abuse, drunkenness in the community and drugs. The post-test results pointed to a

greater understanding of environmental problems with a focus on local issues such as litter, water

pollution and damaged and dripping local taps.

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The delayed test indicated an increase in awareness of national environmental problems such as climate

change and energy use, as well as an increase in social problems compared to the post-test. In general,

the learners became more aware of local and environmental issues after the lessons were conducted,

and gave positive and realistic methods for solving the problems.

Figure 2: Responses to perceptions of environmental problems for pre-, post- and delayed post-

test.

DISCUSSION

Method one, the lecture method, showed an overall increase in knowledge retention for both pre- and

post-tests and for pre- and delayed test. This would suggest that method one is effective in promoting

both short-term and long-term knowledge retention. However, if learners in a particular school had a

strong prior knowledge of the subject material, the pre- and post- and the pre- and delayed tests results

may be influenced by showing no significant difference, as was possibly the case with school 4.

Method two, the cooperative learning method, also showed an overall increase in knowledge retention for

both pre- and post-, and the pre- and delayed tests. Method two might also be considered as a successful

method in promoting knowledge retention, as overall there appeared to be a significant increase in

knowledge retention between pre- and post- and the pre- and delayed tests. However, individual school

groups from larger schools with greater numbers of learners within each class and who lack resources did

indicate no significant difference between pre- and post- and pre- and delayed tests results. This was the

case with schools 3, 4 and 5.

237

When a comparison was made between the two methods to ascertain which method may be more

effective for short-term knowledge retention, method one showed an overall significant difference

compared with method two. This may imply that method one enhanced knowledge retention over the

short-term period (before and after the lesson). However, method one showed no long-term (three

months later) significant difference compared with method two. This could suggest that neither method is

more successful than the other regarding long-term knowledge retention. When comparing the two

methods within each individual school, school 4 showed that method two was more effective in short-term

knowledge retention when compared with method one.

Both methods one and two can be considered effective teaching methods to increase knowledge

retention. However, this study suggests that the teaching method used in a particular school could affect

the knowledge retention because pre-existing abilities, skills and context may influence the way a person

learns and this may influence the learning outcome (Akhtar, 2007:268).

As seen from this study learners from schools 1, 2, 3 and 5 (who participated in method one’s lesson)

appeared to achieve better results, having a greater increase in knowledge retention, compared to the

learners from the same schools who participated in method two’s lesson. The learners from school 4, who

participated in the method two lesson, showed a greater increase for knowledge retention compared to

learners from the same school who participated in method one.

While the literature may show preference towards method two in terms of the effectiveness of this

teaching method, Athman and Monroe (2001:43) describe how learners cannot learn if they do not

understand what is being asked of them, and that real knowledge can only occur when the task is useful

to learners. When learners are presented with an unfamiliar teaching method this may influence their

perceptions and understanding (Ormrod, 1990:192). Learners therefore need to be able to connect with

the concepts and methods presented to them. Anderson (1995:202) suggests how the material is studied

impacts on how much of that material is retained. In this study the educators from each school indicated

that schools 1, 2, 3 and 5 use the same methods of teaching as method one (lecture method) while the

teaching method used in school 4 more closely resembles that of method two. This may therefore

indicate that in order to acquire knowledge one needs to consider the teaching method that learners are

familiar with and that is used in the classroom.

One also needs to take into account the background and life context of the learners for the programme to

be a success. Learning is a process of relating new information to previously learned information (Omrod,

1990:151), and learners understand better when concepts relate to other concepts that they know

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(Taylor, 2002:154). It is therefore important that the learners are familiar with the materials used in the

programme, as learners need to find personal relevance to what they learn to be able to connect with the

concepts presented to them. Athman and Monroe (2001:39) describe how content is more effective if

conveyed when embedded in a local context, giving learners a chance to explore what is around them.

Learners who participated in this programme had access to running water and packaged food, so they

may not have been fully aware of where their food comes from and the impacts food production has on

the environment. Their social environment also played an important role in how they viewed

environmental problems, where initially in the pre-test questionnaire issues such as drugs and violence

were seen as the most important environmental problems. The most powerful experiences in our lives are

not those designed to educate, but rather life experiences (Newhouse, 1990: 27). If this is true, then it is

very important to consider the learners in their life context, and that resources and materials used during

a lesson should be related to the location and understanding of those learners.

The key conclusions drawn from this study for implementing a successful EE programme would be to

determine which method of teaching (method one or method two) is practised in the classroom of the

visiting school, and then ensure that the same method is used when offering the programme. It is also

important, when designing the programme, to relate any new information to existing concepts with which

the learners may be familiar. Marine education and marine species are often foreign to learners who visit

the uShaka Sea World Education Centre, so when designing a programme for these learners it would be

important to link or relate new information to knowledge or species with which the learners are familiar.

IMPLICATIONS

As either method could be effective, and the background context of the learners and their current method

of teaching in the classroom are important, a number of implications may arise when designing and

presenting EE programmes.

One would need to determine the background and teaching methods used at each school that

plans to visit to the Education Centre.

While one could have a general outlined lesson for both methods (method one and method two), in

order for the lesson to be effective and achieve maximum results one would still need to relate the

lesson to suit the individual school in terms of the learners’ background knowledge and life context.

The resources used need to be familiar to a range of learners, or at least related to those that the

learners can comprehend and recognise.

RECOMMENDATIONS

To get a more detailed understanding of the role played in the classroom teaching methods and how they

might influence the choice of method used for an EE programme, it is recommended that further studies

be undertaken to include a range of schools, both rural and urban, which employ either or both of the two

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methods within their own classrooms. The results of such a study could provide a better understanding of

how the present classroom teaching methods relate to the effectiveness of the method chosen for an EE

programme.

REFERENCES

Akhtar M 2007. A comparative study of student attitudes, learning and teaching practices in Pakistan and Britain. Educational studies, 33(3):267-283.

Anderson JR 1995. Learning and memory: An integrated approach. Second edition. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Athman JA and Monroe MC 2001. Elements of Effective Environmental Education Program. Available at: http://www.rbff.org/educational/BPE3.pdf. Accessed 3 September 2009.

Bak N 1995. The unsustainablility of ‘sustainable development’ in a South African Context. Southern African Journal for Environmental Education, 12: 57-63.

Clayton S and Brook A 2005. Can Psychology Help Save the World? A Model for Conservation Psychology. Analyses of Social Issues & Public Policy, 5(1):87 - 102.

Evans KL 1997. Aquaria and marine environmental education. Aquarium Sciences and Conservation, 1:239–250.

Kuhar CW, Bettinger TL, Lehnhardt K, Townsend S and Cox D 2007. Into the Forest: The Evolution of a Conservation Education Program at Kalinzu Forest Reserve, Uganda. Applied Environmental Education & Communications, 6:159–166.

Langen TA and Welsh R 2006. Effects of a Problem-Based Learning Approach on Attitude Change and Science and Political Content Knowledge. Conservation Biology, 20(3):604-607.

McCown R, Driscoll M and Roop PG 1996. Educational Psychology – A Learning Centered Approach to Classroom Practice. Second Edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Newhouse N 1990. Implications of Attitude and Behaviour Research for Environmental Conservation. Journal of Environmental education, 22(1):26-32.

O’Riordan T 1981. Environmentalism and Education. Journal of Geography in Higher education, 5(1):3-17.

Ormrod JE 1990. Human Learning – Principles, Theories and Educational Applications. New York, Merrill: Macmillan International Publishing Group.

Roth CE 2008. Paul F-Brandwein Lecture 2006: Conservation Education for the 21st Century and beyond. Journal of Science Education & Technology, 17(3):211-216.

Taylor GR 2002. Using Human Learning Strategies in the Classroom. Lanham, Maryland & London: The Scarecrow Press, Incorporated.

Tuckman BW 1999. Conducting Educational Research, Fifth Edition. Orlando: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Yeung SP 2004. Teaching Approaches in Geography and Students' Environmental Attitudes. The Environmentalist,

24:101-117.

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18 Inter-college cooperation as a tool for campus environmentalization:

strengthening the cooperation project between Universidadede São Paulo, Brazil,

and Universidad Autónoma De Madrid, Spain Patricia C. Silva Leme – Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Brazil Maria Jose Díaz - Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Spain Marisa Sartori Vieira – Consultant to USP/ UAM, Brazil Welington Braz Carvalho Delitti - Institute of Biosciences; Superintendent of Environmental Management/ USP,

Brazil Javier Benayas del Alamo – Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Spain David Alba – Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Spain Marta Casado –Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Spain Marcos Sorrentino –Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil Miguel Cooper –Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil Daniela Cassia Sudan –Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Brazil Ana Maria de Meira –Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Brazil Renata Castiglioni Amaral - Environmental Engineer, Consultant to the cooperation USP/ UAM, Brazil Cintia G. Rissato - Consultant to the cooperation USP/ UAM, Brazil Pedro Luiz Cortês –, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil

Abstract

For several decades, environmental variables have been introduced to universities, either in curriculum activities or campus management. Following such trend, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), in Brazil, and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), in Spain, created, throughout the 1990s, organizational structures able to coordinate environmental actions: the USP Recicla Program (at USP) and Ecocampus Office (at UAM). Since 2008, both universities have been developing a collaboration line through an international cooperation project by Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional y Desarrollo de España (AECID), which intends to strengthen the environmental action of USP and UAM, leading them to sustainability. This article presents the means used and the main opportunities and difficulties found in both universities concerning their participation, management and environmental educational processes. For so, different investigation techniques are used in the diagnosis, such as statistical surveys and interviews with institutional officers and members of each participation and environmental management organization. Diagnosis created for each university indicated differences and similarities regarding the internal issues and motivations for the administrative, political and technical characters of the environmental subject in both institutions. Therefore, this article aims at explaining the relevance of inter college cooperation as a feasible tool to strengthen institutional social environmental cases, which, on their turn, may be examples to other educational institutions.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

For several decades, universities have been invited to adopt more sustainable guidelines in terms of

teaching, research, extension and management within university campuses. The responsibility of

universities concerning a sustainable future has been highlighted as of the appearance of the first official

documents in the environmental education area, like the publication of the First Intergovernmental

Conference on Environmental Education (Tibilisi, 1977).

A preliminary analysis on how universities have been implementing sustainability and the environmental

education enables the identification of two complementary poles: the management of impacts caused by

the activities of the university and the education of the university community (Sterling, S., & Scott, W.;

2008, Wals, A., 2007; Alba, 2006). In the first group, there are management actions, understood as a set

of activities to prevent, reduce and correct negative impacts caused by human activities in universities. In

the second group there are actions that try to incorporate the dimension of sustainability in all its senses

(ecological, social, political and economical) to the education of the university community. The last group

is endowed with a complex environmental vision concerned with the building of critical willing to act and

transform socio-environmental relations. This means that the university is considered a "public good

closely linked to the national project" (SANTOS, 2005 apud and SORRENTINO BIRTH, 2010 p. 18)

For the last two decades, several university associations and networks were created in order to stimulate

actions concerning university sustainability. In the case of Brazil, was sanctioned in 1999 the National

Policy on EE and now (2012) we have the National Curriculum guidelines for EA, which brings progress

in implementing the environmental issue in higher education institutions.

The network “Rede Universitária de Programas de Educação Ambiental (RUPEA)” [University Network for

Environmental Education Programs] was created in 2001 and was established as from agreements

entered among three Brazilian higher education institutes (Pavesi, 2007). In Spain, the Conferencia de

Rectores de Universidades Españolas (CRUE) [Conference of Deans of Spanish Universities] was

created in 1994, a non-profit and state association formed by Spanish universities. In 2002, this institution

formed a Commission for the Environmental Quality and Sustainable Development with the purpose of

stimulating the curricular environmentalization and sustainability of university studies, promoting best

practices in the environmental management of universities and sensitizing the university community on

the principles of sustainability. However, despite its relevance, sustainability in higher education is

relatively recent and requires scientific systematization on how the processes to incorporate sustainability

in the university life have been playing out (Shriberg, 2007).

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Universidade de São Paulo (USP), in Brazil, and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), in Spain,

institutionalized their actions for the university sustainability in the 1990s, promoting two environmental

programs in their campuses, according to the explanations in the following paragraph.

Despite of the different organizational, infrastructural, geographical, cultural and financial contexts, both

universities tried the dialogue to improve their environmental engagement, moving towards the socio-

environmental sustainability in their campuses. The alternative chosen has been the shared

systematization of their experiences, which facilitate the joint deliberation on the improvement of their

action strategy. As of 2007, there have been different meetings and discussions among educators,

researchers and technicians from the environmental management of both universities, which built up

cooperation links among the team of Communication research, Education and Environmental

Participation of Departament of Ecology, and Ecocampus, both from UAM, and also USP Recicla and the

collaborative research teams in their programs. Such cooperation was formalized in December 2008 with

the approval, by the Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional paral el Desarrollo (AECID) of a

project named "Strengthening and Consolidation of Cooperation between Ecocampus Office (UAM) and

USP Recicla Office (USP)” (D/020589/08) and later renewed until 2010 (D/026504/09). The main purpose

of this project is to strengthen the environmental structures of both universities in the environmental

management, participation & education areas and to guide them towards the incorporation of sustainable

measures in their processes.

This article will describe the chosen paths, the main difficulties found and the opportunities of

environmental management, participation and education activities of both universities that have occurred

up to this moment through this cooperation process associated to the Project that was financed by the

abovementioned AECID. This way we can see the importance and relevance of inter-university

cooperation as a strengthening tool for institutional actions with socio-environmental characteristics and

its spread in other universities, as well as future projects among universities aiming at working together

for the improvement of the university sustainability.

INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL DEPARTMENTS AT USP AND UAM

Universidade de São Paulo (USP, 2011), founded in 1934, currently has 11 university campuses, located

in 7 cities of the State. Its academic community has over 110 thousand people among undergraduate and

graduate students (88,962), teachers (5,800) and technical administrative servers (16,187).

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Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM, 2009) was founded in 1968 and has two campuses. Nowadays,

the total number of people at the university is over 36,000: teachers and research personnel (2,454),

administration and service personnel (1,050) besides first, second and third cycle students (32,326).

At USP, USP Recicla Program is one of the main departments that institutionally work the environmental

issue. It was created in 1993 and aims at “contributing to the development of sustainable societies

through actions towards the reduction of waste generation, environmental preservation and improvement

of quality of life". It is based on the concept of work seeking for coordinated autonomy and for the setting

of a network, as well as the horizontal construction of planning and decision-making. Its focus is solid

waste, using the 3 Rs principle: reduce consumption and waste, reuse materials and recycle by

promoting selective waste collection. The waste topic is only a motivation to pursue socio-environmental

sustainability within the university. In order to encourage the active participation of several actors of the

university community (undergraduate and graduate students, administration and services personnel and

teachers) the Program is governed by rules that organize its structure and organizational operation

comprising the different properties of the university community.

In 2012 USP created an Environmental Management Office (EMO) which incluides all the environmental

programs of the university, such as USP Recicla.

In 1997, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid consolidated its environmental engagement upon the creation

of the Ecocampus Program and an office in charge of its coordination. Thanks to the implementation of

this program, the commitment with Agenda 21 has been formalized, improving the environmental

situation of its different campuses and teams and sensitizing the university community in order to

encourage the participation and intervention in the debate and the quest for solutions to the global and

local environmental conflicts (Benayas et al, 2009).

Aiming at combining the environmental management technical activities with the education, awareness

and participation processes of the university community, four strategic lines were developed (Proyecto

Ecocampus, 2009):

1. environmental management integrating water consumption, transport & mobility, construction,

interior design & quality, biodiversity & gardening, waste management, energy efficiency, and

atmospheric & acoustic contamination areas;

2. awareness and involvement of the university community in practices focused on the support to

environmental education, participation and curricular environmentalization;

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3. research for sustainability with the development of final essay projects by students, upgrading the

relationship with research teams whose projects are related to sustainability;

4. involvement with society setting relationships with other university level institutions and

By considering different contexts and trying to value different experiences, USP and UAM decided to

promote a collaboration that could strengthen the departments that already institutionally work the

environmental issue. The proposed challenge arise from the teams involved and spreads towards the

general context of both universities, involving researchers, students, technicians and other members of

their university communities.

This article presents the means used and the main opportunities and difficulties found in both universities

concerning their participation, management and environmental educational processes.

METHODOLOGY

The case study was used as a methodological strategy in which the universities involved are the object of

analysis. In this kind of study, the results obtained cannot be generalized, even when valid for the studied

reality and similar situations (Triviños, 1987). The methodological path of the project research is oriented

by a qualitative approach. According to Lüdke and André (1986), this type of approach tries to answer

particular questions and the concern is in the subjectivity, in understanding and explaining the dynamics

of social relationships, wisdom, experience, quotidian, as well as the understanding of structures and

institutions as results of human activity (Minayo, 1996).

With the purpose to develop the research and exchange good practices focused on sustainability in

university campuses, different USP and UAM’s activities and experiences were analyzed. Given the

different physical and institutional characteristics of each university, certain research tools have been

adapted to each reality, and it was grouped in diagnostic, sharing and disclosure tools. To carry out

research universities in both simultaneously, different work places have been developed and consolidated

with videoconferences, seminars, technical meetings and the creation of departments. Due to these

actions, integration among teams was encouraged, the exchange of experiences was eased, and the

adjustments and definition of the action methodology, as well as the adequacy of the schedule to execute

the project, were more efficiently carried out.

The departments of both universities have provided all necessary support data collection, development of

activities to share experiences, organize meetings and seminars.

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Diagnosis tools

In the first phase of the project, a diagnosis on the departments or environmental management,

participation and education structures was carried out for both universities.

During the second phase, its operation was better observed, identifying synergies between environmental

structures and involved actors, within the universities. By environmental structures or departments we

understand all sections, departments, commissions, groups of study and research, laboratories, projects,

sectors and councils that institutionally handle the environmental topic, either with global (in all

campuses) or local presence and belonging to the University’s organizational chart. Initiatives, projects

and non-institutional programs (student associations, external projects, among others) and actions of

curricular environmentalization, although vital for the insertion of sustainability into the university, were

excluded from this survey in regards to USP, and less considered in the case of UAM.

In both cases, it was differently traced to achieve the proposed goals and keep the parallelism of the

research at the universities (Table 1).

Diagnosis phases

First phase: diagnosis on the departments or environmental management, participation and education structures

Second phase: analysis of synergies between environmental structures and involved actors, within the universities

Sample

USP: seven campuses UAM: main campus

Synthesis of variables

USP: General perspective over environmental management, education and participation at the campus, analysis of structures that encourage these actions a) projects and programs: general and local

actuations; b) services; c) decision-making departments; d) groups of study and research), weaknesses

and strengths of the general sustainability panorama at USP.

UAM: Evolution and current situation of environmental management, education and participation deepening about aspects of solid waste generation and structures working for the environmental management, education and participation in order to learn more about its operation and relations.

Data collection

USP: a) Analysis of documents of official sources. b) Survey (n=50) was carried out with

coordinators of university campuses and people responsible for institutional environmental programs, teachers, researchers, extension units and

UAM: a) Analysis of reports, and other secondary sources. b) Semi-structured interviews (n=13) with people in

charge of the several known environmental structures.

c) Non-participant observation of different gatherings and a survey (n=82) aiming at registering

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administrative agencies. c) Semi-structured interviews (n=21) with the

relevant actors of environmental management and education.

information concerning behavior and dynamization of the participation processes in real meetings, and satisfaction level with the activity and structure of participation studied.

Data treatment

Discourse analysis was carried upon an emergent categorization of qualitative data, and descriptive analysis of quantitative data.

Table 1: Description of the technical data of both study cases as methodological strategy

Sample and main variables

Regarding the sample, for UAM, the study was focused on the main campus, and for USP, it was focused

on the seven campuses forming the university. Concerning the environment, for the case of USP, it was

intended to present a more complete view of the university sustainability in its different areas (water,

waste, energy, among others). Likewise, a general perspective of education, participation and articulation

among the different structures was intended. For the case of UAM, different areas of environmental

management were generally presented, nevertheless, the research was focused on the aspects of solid

waste generation and there were attempts to go deeper into the structures working for the environmental

management, education and participation in order to learn more about its operation and relations.

Data collection and treatment

At USP, after examining official documents of the university organization, including rules and other

organizational standards, a survey was carried out with the following actors:

1. Coordinators of university campuses who are responsible for territorial management;

2. People responsible for and participant in institutional environmental programs, acting in the whole

university;

3. People responsible for teaching, research and extension units and administrative agencies.

Out of the 80 questionnaires sent, 50 returned, from which information was systematized and its analysis

pointed out the need to go deeper into research in order to identify other environmental structures at the

campuses of USP that were not taken into consideration during the first phase. The research was

complemented by the development of 21 interviews with the relevant actors of environmental

management and education at the university.

Moreover, the study was increased by the following topics:

1. General perspective over environmental management, education and participation at the campus;

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2. Structures that encourage these actions, considering: i) projects and programs; ii) services

(laboratories, material classification sector, etc.); iii) decision-making departments (committees,

councils, commissions, etc.); iv) groups of study and research;

3. Weaknesses and strengths of the general sustainability panorama at USP.

At UAM, after reviewing existing reports and other secondary sources (access to spaces and web in the

network) regarding the evolution and current situation of environmental management, education and

participation, the interviews directed to the people in charge of the several known structures were

designed. Thirteen semi-structured interviews were carried out, comprising topics of environmental

management as well as environmental education and participation. The discourse analysis was carried

upon an emergent categorization.

In the second phase, as a data collection technique, it was applied the non-participant observation of

different gatherings comprising structures and groups, aiming at registering information concerning

behavior and dynamization of the participation processes in real meetings. With this purpose, a set of

values was designed to enable the systematization of information collection. Subsequently, a different

questionnaire was given to participants and members of some structures with the purpose to evaluate the

satisfaction level with the activity and structure of participation studied. These questionnaires were

designed and filled out by 82 people involved as participants and/or volunteers.

Sharing tools

With the purpose of achieving the cooperation between teams (USP and UAM), a space were created for

the exchange of experience and knowledge about the development of project activities at each university.

The tools used for these purposes were:

1. videoconferences: with a more direct contact as compared to e-mails, the videoconferences enable

a reciprocal information flow in real time. Seven videoconferences were carried out, integrating

teams, methodological adjustments, adequacy of the Schedule and financial resources, among

others, in addition to the conceptual deepening of Project matters;

2. six seminars, three in 2009: June (Spain), October (Brazil) and December (Spain), and three in

2010: in June and September (Spain) and the last one scheduled in Brazil to take place in

December. In these seminars the institutional cooperation was effective by means of experience

exchange, theoretical deepening of conceptual project foundations and joint production of teams,

which strengthened relations in an intense teamwork.

3. exchange of team members, by means of: meetings with the participation of institutional

representatives and experts, and of researcher-assistant departments (one UAM assistant at USP

and two USP assistants at UAM) and helping to perform the different activities of the project, such

as information collection for diagnosis (surveys, interviews, non-participant observation),

preparation of videoconferences, meetings and seminars, etc.

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Dissemination tools

As part of the research methodology and the cooperation project, the disseminations tools aimed at

making information accessible and available for the internal community of both universities, but also for

other universities. At USP a seminar driven to the whole university community was carried out at the main

campus in São Paulo, and other seminar was scheduled for December 2010. Furthermore, a temporal

project section was created on the Ecocampus Office’s webpage; an article was presented in the VI

Iberoamerican Congress of EA (September 2009, San Clemente del Tuyú, Argentina), as well as the

publication in the form of a magazine named "En el camino a la sostenibilidad [On the track of

sustainability]”: challenges and learning shared at USP and UAM”.16

RESULTS: ACTUATION OF USP AND UAM TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY

This section points out the most relevant results of the inter-university cooperation activities carried out in

2009. With different techniques, a characterization was carried out on the structures and actors involved

in the processes of environmental management, education and participation, as well as a diagnosis of its

strengths and weaknesses.

USP and its institutionalization process of environmental topics

The information provided by the 50 questionnaires replied (a sample of 62.5%), and complemented by

the development of interviews, revealed different performances in the university scope, classified as

general actuations (in all campuses of USP) and local actuations (created in accordance with the

specificities of each campus).

The several structures concerning environmental issues at USP do not exclusively handle them. In

addition, these departments are in different hierarchical levels of the USP administration, which, on the

one hand, expresses the decentralization of the university administration concerning environmental

issues, but on the other hand, might hinder their communication, causing a lack of interaction and

common work, according to what was stated by the interviewed departments. Regarding the local

presence in each campus, over 70 environmental structures were mentioned such as administrative

departments and sections, programs, projects, laboratories, decision-making agencies, study/research

groups, teaching programs, etc. This diversity of environmental structures is not evenly distributed among

16 Access at www.projetosustentabilidade.sc.usp.br

http://www.projetosustentabilidade.sc.usp.br/

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USP’s campuses, in some of them only the action of institutional structures of the entire university such

as USP Recicla, PURA and PURE could be identified. Nevertheless, other campuses presented an

integration movement of the several environmental issues and structures, comprising environmental

management, participation and education. Among them, we can mention the “Sustainable Campus”17

Work Plan of the coordination office in the State Capital of São Paulo, and the Participative Socio-

Environmental Master Plan18 (PDSP) of the Campus Luiz de Queiroz, in Piracicaba (SP).

Regarding the weaknesses or barriers that hinder the correct operation of structures identified at USP, we

can mention:

1. Reduced participation of the university community in environmental issues. The greatest difficulty is

to have the participation by the university community due to, among other things, the lack of a

formal commitment of the university towards environmental issues of an environmental policy

establishing socio-environmental guidelines for teaching, researching and managing activities in

the whole institution.

2. Lack of availability of specific financial resources and infrastructure that are only allocated based

on the decision making of the institution, which, most of the time, has other priorities for the

budgetary allocation hindering the performance of continuous activities.

3. Lack of an environmental department or structure in the organizational chart of university

administration, what interferes the introduction of the theme to the schedule of decision making of

managers and in life of the university community;

4. Lack of an institutional environmental policy to provide environmental guidelines for the

development of programs and projects in the environmental management, participation and

education areas. With regard to the facilitators for the preparation and implementation of

environmental initiatives at the university campus, we can remark: i. the role of the university as a

promoter to train people in the environmental area; ii. the need of the university to adapt to the

environmental standards and Laws in force; and iii. the existence and consequent familiarity of

different knowledge areas and their encouragement in environmental researches and their proper

application in the campuses.

UAM and its institutionalization process of environmental topics

For the case of UAM, different structures and actors are involved in the management and/or stimulate the

environmental education and participation of the university community. It was possible to carry out an

identification of the structures and actors. On the one hand, at a more institutional level, we have several

government agencies (councils, vice rectorates and commissions) located in rectorates and on which

17 Access at http://www.puspc.usp.br/

18 Access at www.esalq.usp.br/instituicao/docs/plano_diretor_socioambiental.pdf

http://www.puspc.usp.br/

http://www.esalq.usp.br/instituicao/docs/plano_diretor_socioambiental.pdf

251

other services, programs and actors rely. At a more academic and teaching level, there is a graduate

program that is focused on research-training with respect to waste.

The identification of environmental structures have been a more simple process at UAM as compared to

USP, because UAM is provided with a based structure (Vice-Dean’s Office and Environmental Quality)

that coordinates everything related to the environment at the university, except for student associations

and training programs. However, despite the existence of such structure at an institutional level facilitating

the environmental management, education and participation process and other initiatives (associations,

etc.) consolidated over time, there must be efforts to boost the relations among the studied structures.

At UAM, the items below were also identified as weaknesses that hinder the good efficiency of

environmental management and participation processes:

1. Management – waste collection: UAM is not provided with full flexibility, autonomy and knowledge

of all data concerning waste collection, because its final phase and its further treatment is carried

out by the local government. Internally, there are infrastructure difficulties regarding the

involvement of actors in waste collection and deficiencies sorting it;

2. Lack of communication among some of the several internal actors involved in environmental

management, which hinders the implementation of joint projects;

3. Lack of public policies for a consolidated and powerful waste management (and within the articles

and conditions guidelines of the agreements);

4. Lack of environmental awareness at the university: several actors interviewed pointed out the lack

of waste-sorting interiorization since the university community considers it an extra effort;

5. Lack of innovative techniques in awareness campaigns. The current propagation techniques can

saturate due to the great amount of information flowing everyday on other themes through

brochures, posters and more common means of communication. Likewise, these campaigns are

more likely driven to a certain type of audience, the students; although it should actually reach

everyone involved in the university community.

6. Problem of consolidation of environmental participation: insufficient knowledge of structures and

lack of information reflected by its action to the rest of the university community so as people know

what is being done. Additionally, there is a lack of relationship among structures for them to work

together more collaboration is required among them;

7. Instability of some structures due to the rotation of people involved with them (students in

associations, technicians in management services).

In contrast, strengths and facilitators were also identified:

1. Existence of an institutional structure that comprises and coordinates all themes related to the

environment at the university;

2. Waste management: the local government collects waste with no charges. Agreements were

created, like conventions, for the good operation of management.

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3. Awareness: importance of training activities carried out by Ecocampus that contribute to the

collaboration improvement of people involved in the management process. Campaigns are also

positively valued because they stimulate waste sorting;

4. Participative processes: decisions made within the structures tend to be consensual, not by voting.

But in some cases, voting is chosen. The participative decision-making requires efforts and time,

but it is positively valued by the ones involved because all opinions are taken into consideration;

5. Economic and material resources: the lack of budget is not perceived as a great problem.

DISCUSSION: LESSONS LEARNED

As one of the results of this research and cooperation project, we were able to extract some lessons that

will certainly help us to rethink the environmental management, participation and education in universities.

An institutional environmental structures strengthens environmental management, participation

and education

The existence of an environmental structure connected to the senior management and policy of university

facilitates the insertion of the theme to decisions and actions. At UAM there is an institutional structure

and a centralized environmental policy consolidated at a rectorate level. In this sense, USP has learned

which steps to follow in order to create an environmental structure that depends directly on a vice-

rectorate, such as the ECOCAMPUS Office. However, the efforts of Environmental Management Office

since 2012 as a driver of environmental activities inside USP must be considered from now on.

Participative processes in decision making, guarantee of sustainability

The participation in discussions and decision–making processes on how to act regarding sustainability in

both universities is a determining factor for the development of their programs. In the case of UAM, the

Commission of Users and Environmental Quality has the participation of different university sectors and

the different perceptions of users and centers are represented. Debates consolidate decisions so as they

can hardly be reversed by superior departments. The fundamental value of USP’s experience is the

motivation of agents supposed by the participation organization in USP Recicla Program. Its structure in

commissions, from units up to the university itself, passing by the different campuses, allows the

involvement of an important number of people who, with a pro-active attitude, become agents that

propagate awareness and actions for sustainability.

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The centered work on a unique environmental theme facilitates the awareness of the university

community, however, it loses interrelation with other themes.

The centralization of the work with all environmental themes at ECOCAMPUS Office (water, energy,

waste, mobility, etc.), integrating environmental education and participation, is a good design of actions

considering the environmental theme and its different dimensions as a whole. On the other hand, USP

Recicla is focused on waste (education for its reduction), and by working with a more specific theme, it

can go deeper with different actors of the university community, gathering more people and increasing the

awareness.

Educational campaigns (short-time) are to motivate the community and projects (long-time)

stimulate education of more critical people.

ECOCAMPUS Office works with specific campaigns in its actions at the university. They are short-time

campaigns that use different activities such as posters, stickers, gymkhanas and simulation games,

attractive activities that calls the attention of the university community. On the other hand, USP Recicla

Program works by means of long-term projects, in which scholarship students and volunteers participate

during a long period and that, due to this particularity, achieve a greater engagement towards the theme

from the part of the community. In addition, actions are progressively developed aiming at achieving a

gradual change in each one.

The activities developed go from the wideness of the environmental theme and sustainability and

its link to social aspects

For the development of projects, USP Recicla Program values the integration of theory and practice, the

joint perspective of “society and environment” and assumes theoretical references of education and

sociology. These principles are reflected in the communication and awareness campaigns of the

Program. UAM handles different themes, most of them environmentally based, putting up social matters

in its projects.

The lack of people makes the work difficult and furnishes extra roles to people who are involved.

The USP Recicla Program, as well as the ECOCAMPUS Office, relies on their own team of technicians in

addition to scholarship students and volunteers. On one hand, the temporal rotation of students involved

in environmental programs allows several people to become propagation agents and, on the other hand,

there is a lack of employees, which furnishes extra roles to the steady personnel. The involvement of

researchers, educators and other professionals in this project has been remarkable in the sense of

addressing sustainability into university. However, such actions remain being punctual, in the sense of

being limited in time (short or medium duration). Although the innovative character, isolated actionsbut

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never substitute public policy (Carvalho 2004 apud RUPEA, 2007). The lack of public and institutional

policies has been still a major obstacle to the implementation of EE programs in Higher Education.

FINAL REMARKS

The work developed through cooperation was an important opportunity for mutual learning in order to

strengthen socio-environmental actions. The experiences of each university were deeply studied,

comprising not only the main units of activity dynamization for university sustainability (ECOCAMPUS at

UAM, USP Recicla at USP) but also other units, spaces and people involved driven to achieve the

university contribution towards sustainability. During the last financed period, the efforts were not focused

to knowing experiences but to reflecting on its strengths and weaknesses so they can be shared by the

participant universities and by other interested institutions. For that, the design of an evaluation tool has

been developed to enable the systematic collection of information concerning the current status of the

university activity with respect to sustainability in order to improve its planning and quality. An virtual

awareness tool was also developed in order to involve more members of the university community in

sustainability issues. The main purpose will be keeping the reinforcement actions for the sustainability of

participant universities as models for other Latin American higher education institutions. This digital tool is

named “Virtual Platform of information, awareness, and evaluation for environmental management,

education and participation at universities” and can be access in this link:

www.projetosustentabilidade.sc.usp.br. The university community will have the opportunity to evaluate

the socio-environmental status of its campus and to acquire knowledge and trainings as sustainable

agents at their own university.

REFERENCES

Alba, D. 2006. Análisis de los procesos de gestión y educación para la sostenibilidad en las universidades públicas españolas. Proyecto de Investigación del Doctorado Interuniversitario em Educación Ambiental. Doctorate dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma de Madrid

Benayas, J., Alonso,I., Alba, D. 2009..¿Cómo incorporar la Educación Ambiental en La Universidad? El proyecto Ecocampus de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. Ecología y Desarrollo. Especial Treinta años de Educación Ambiental. [Online] Available at url: http://www.ecodes.org

Ludke, M.; André, M. 1986. Pesquisa em educação: abordagens qualitativas. São Paulo: EPU.

Minayo, M. C. 1996. O Desafio do conhecimento: pesquisa qualitativa em saúde. São Paulo: Hucitec-Abrasco.

Pavesi, A. 2007. A Ambientalização da formação do arquiteto: o caso do curso de arquitetura urbanismo da Escola de Engenharia de São Carlos. Doctorate dissertation. Departamento de Metodologia e Ensino. São Carlos: Universidade Federal de São Carlos.

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Proyeto Ecocampus. [Online] Available at url http://www.uam.es/ecocampus. Access in December, 2011

RUPEA - Rede Universitária de Programas de Educação Ambiental. Mapeamento da Educação Ambiental em instituições brasileiras de Educação Superior: elementos para discussão sobre políticas públicas. Documento Técnico nº 12. Brasília: Órgão Gestor da Política Nacional de Educação Ambiental, 2007

Sterling, S., & Scott, W., (eds.) 2008. Education for sustainable development in higher education. Special Issue of Environmental Education Research. Routledge Taylr & Francis Group .14(4): ISS 1350-

4622.

Sorrentino, M; Nascimento, E.P. do. Universidade e políticas públicas de educação ambiental. Revista Educação em Foco, vol. 14, n. 2, set 2009/Fev 2010

Shriberg, M. 2007. Beyond principles: implementing the Talloires Declaration. ULSF – Association of University Leaders for a Sustainable Future. [Online] Available at url http://www.ulsf.org/pdf/ShribergTallentFinal.pdf>. Access in December, 2011

The Tbilisi declaration. 1977. [Online] Available at url: http://www.gdrc.org/uem/ee/tbilisi. Access in

December, 2011

Triviños, A. N. S. 1987. Introdução à pesquisa em ciências sociais: a pesquisa qualitativa em educação.

São Paulo: Atlas

Informe UAM em cifras 2008-2009 – Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. [Online] Available at url: http://www.uam.es . Access in August, 2010.

Universidad Autónoma de Madrid; Universidade de São Paulo. En el camino a la sostenibilidad/ No camino para a sustentabilidade - 2009:1-20. [Online] Available at url: http://

www.projetosustentabilidade.sc.usp.br . Access in May, 2012.

Universidade de São Paulo. 2009. Anuário Estatístico. [Online] Available at url http://www.usp.br. Access in August, 2010.

Wals, A (Ed.) 2007. From cosmetic reform to meaningful integration: Implementing Education for Sustainable Development in Higher Education Institutes. The state of affairs in six European countries. Amsterdam: DHO.

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Enhancing Sustainability In Higher Education Through A Global Universities

Partnership: Perspectives From UNEP’s Environmental Education And Training

Unit (EETU)

Gregory J.E. Odeke

Environmental Education and Training Unit, UNEP, Nairobi

Abstract

This paper/keynote address highlights the approach taken by the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP)’s Environmental Education and Training Unit (EETU) to enhance Higher Education

for Sustainable Development within the broader context of the United Nations Decade of Education for

Sustainable Development (UNDESD:2005-2014). The Environmental Education and Training Unit

(EETU) works with and through universities to enhance Environmental and Sustainability Education with

a focus on three key pillars: Education, Training and Networking.

The paper draws on EETU’s flagship initiative: The Global Universities Partnership on Environment and

Sustainability, and the attendant regional higher education networks to demonstrate the potential and

value of global networking in environmental and sustainability education using the current achievements,

outcomes/outputs and impact as benchmarks.

BOB

INTRODUCTION

This paper uses the UNEP-led Global Universities Partnership for Environment and Sustainability

(GUPES) as context for

interrogating the potential for

enhancing sustainability in higher

education using international

networking and cooperation as a

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strategy. Specifically, it focuses on the regional dimensions of GUPES and by drawing parallels with the

‘best of both worlds’ conference, provides the emergent principles for effective networking for sustainable

development through higher education.

THEORETICAL AND CONTEXTUAL FRAMEWORK

In an era of globalization, networks and partnerships have a lot of potential to positively influence all

spheres of sustainable development. International networking and partnerships in higher education are

particularly useful in shaping the future and sustainability of the planet given their three missions, namely:

teaching, research and community service (Clugston, 2000).

The current state of affairs in most universities around the world is such that universities predominantly

still serve the interests of the elite upper social strata (Kuhnen, 1978) – in the typical traditional sense.

However, given that research now demonstrates that the continued functioning of the Earth system as it

has supported the well-being of human civilization in recent centuries is at risk; there is need for the

modern universities to embrace varied strategies so as to collectively contribute to the sustainability of the

planet. Kuhnen (1978) argued that modern universities can only be valuable if they are linked to the

whole society (i.e. are involved in community service) and confront existing developmental problems in

their contexts. In this regard, international networking would be a useful strategy.

The recent State of the Planet Declaration (March 26-29, 2012), warns that ‘Without urgent action, we

could face threats to water, food, biodiversity and other critical resources: these threats risk intensifying

economic, ecological and social crises, creating the potential for a humanitarian emergency on a global

scale’. By inference, this statement implies that the entire globe is at risk, therefore requiring concerted

efforts and exchange of ideas, solutions, information, expertise and perspectives from all parts of the

world to address the imminent crises and the potential for humanitarian emergency. The declaration

further states that:

In one lifetime our increasingly interconnected and interdependent economic, social, cultural and political systems have come to place pressures on the environment that may cause fundamental changes in the Earth system and move us beyond safe natural boundaries. But the same interconnectedness provides the potential for solutions: new ideas can form and spread quickly, creating the momentum for the major transformation required for a truly sustainable planet (Para 2).

The above statement, coming only a few weeks before the ‘Best of Both Worlds’ Conference, inspires the

need for enhanced networking and international cooperation in finding solutions to the myriad problems

facing the world today. The fact that Paragraph 9 of the same declaration mentions that: Interconnected

issues require interconnected solutions... further builds an even stronger case for global University (and

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other) networks and partnerships in pursuit of solutions to the current sustainability challenges facing the

earth.

Additionally, paragraph (100) of the zero draft of the Rio+20 Outcome document reiterated the value of

international education networking. This was later adopted in the final Rio+20 Outcome Document that

was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 24 July 2012. Thus:

We emphasize the importance of greater international cooperation to improve access to education, including through building and strengthening education infrastructure and increasing investment in education, particularly investment to improve the quality of education for all in developing countries. We encourage international educational exchanges and partnerships, including the creation of fellowships and scholarships to help achieve global education goals (para 232).

From a more practical perspective, international networking and partnerships in Environmental Education

can be instrumental to building a global community of practice in Environmental Education for sustainable

development. Wenger (1998) defined the ‘concept of community of practice’ as a group of people who

have a common interest in achieving something and they share ideas on the best way of achieving their

common goal. In the context of the ‘Best of Both Worlds’ conference community, addressing the

environmental issues, risks and the associated sustainable development challenges in ‘both worlds’

passes for the common goal.

Wenger (1998) further observed that a community of practice is a unique combination of three

fundamental elements: Domain - a sense of joint enterprise, Community – a community is only a

community of practice if members interact on regular basis and learn from each other on the best way to

achieve their enterprise, and Practice - members of a community develop a shared repertoire. Wenger

(1998: 79) summarised repertoire as “routines, tools, ways of doing things, stories, words, gestures,

symbols, genres, action or concepts that the community has produced or adopted in the course of its

existence, and which have become part of its Practice”. Having read about the history of this conference,

this 5th “Best of Both Worlds” conference comfortably fits within Wenger’s (1998) description of a

community of practice as outlined above. Most interesting is the consistency with which the ‘best of both

worlds’ conference community has been interacting on regular basis through conferences to learn from

each other on the best way to achieve their enterprise.

Before presenting perspectives from UNEP’s Environmental Education and Training Unit, it may be useful

to first provide some background of UNEP’s Environmental Education and Training Work.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING WORK OF UNEP

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UNEP is the voice for the environment within the United Nations system. UNEP’s Mission is: To provide

leadership & encourage partnerships in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling

nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations.

In line with UNEP’s mission, and with the understanding that environmental education (EE), awareness

raising and training – are fundamental to the achievement of the goal of sustainable development and to

UNEP fulfilling its mission; the Environmental Education and Training Unit (EETU), in the Division of

Environmental Policy Implementation of UNEP, is mandated to work with/through higher education

institutions (universities) in support of UNEP’s priority thematic areas19 under the Medium Term

Strategy(2010–2013). This is achieved by promoting innovative, action oriented, and value-based

environmental education for sustainable development by ensuring that environmental considerations -

current and emerging - are taken into account. With this mandate, UNEP’s EETU is obliged to explore

means and ways of mainstreaming environment and sustainability thinking, knowledge and principles into

University policies, programmes, curricula, practices and operations. EETU Promotes attitudes and value

systems that influence environmentally ethical behavior by developing understanding, skills and values

that will enable people to participate as active and informed citizens in the development of an ecologically

sustainable, economically viable and socially just society. EETU also serves as UNEP focal point for the

UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development, 2005-14 (UNESCO, 2005).

To operationalize and deliver on its mandate, EETU has adopted a partnership approach that also

involves working with/through other divisions, branches, and units in UNEP, UNEP’s Regional Offices20,

as well as other UN agencies, and major groups. EETU has also adopted three pillars/core areas of work


The three pillars/core areas of EETU

2. Education

Focuses on inspiring, informing, facilitating and enabling universities to undertake curriculum innovations

for sustainability and greening of universities.

Curriculum innovation work entails the following initiatives:

19 Climate Change; Disasters and conflicts; Ecosystem Management; Environmental governance; Harmful substances; and Resource efficiency. 20 Africa: Nairobi, Kenya; Asia and the Pacific: Bangkok, Thailand; Europe: Geneva, Switzerland; Latin America and the Caribbean: Panama City, Panama; North America: Washington DC, USA; and West Asia: Manama, Bahrain.

http://unep.org/roa

http://www.roap.unep.org/

http://www.unep.ch/roe/



http://www.rona.unep.org/

http://www.unep.org.bh/

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Reorienting higher education curricula towards sustainable development through curriculum

reviews, innovations and projects

Developing eenvironmental and sustainability knowledge and information resources for higher

education’s curriculum reorientation towards sustainable development

Training of curriculum developers on curriculum reorientation towards sustainable development

and; on integration of environment and sustainability themes and concerns into curricula across

disciplines

Guidance and support to Universities on mainstreaming UNEP’s priority thematic areas into higher

education curricula and into the curriculum of short professional development courses offered by

universities.

Greening universities entails the following:

Disseminating UNEP’s (EETU) concept/approach to Greening Universities in conferences and to

particular universities with a view to inspiring and encouraging universities to go green for

sustainability. This initiative recently (2012) received a major boost following the initiation of a UN-

wide Higher Education Sustainability Initiative (HESI), which seeks the commitment of Higher

Education Institutions to Sustainable Practices by signing a commitment declaration online.

Developing a criteria for ‘Green/Sustainable Universities’

Developing resources that guide universities to transform into ‘green/sustainable’ universities in-

line with the established criteria.

2. Training

Focuses on developing applied competence by enhancing knowledge and awareness on UNEP’s priority

thematic areas as well as equipping target audience (mainly mid-level managers and policy makers) with

relevant skills, values and attitudes on key environmental and sustainability themes, issues and emerging

concepts such as ‘Green economy’ through scheduled training courses in partner universities.

Some of the current training initiatives include the following:


Management (Dresden Course) - with focus on Environmental Management


Negotiations in environmental law and diplomacy


development


Ecosystems and Disasters


topical issues on ESD


in ESD in higher education


Environmental science, tech. and policy

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coastal cities



4 Networking

Aims at encouraging and strengthening regional and sub-regional higher education networks on

environment and Sustainability modeled around continents, UNEP regions as well as North-South and

South- south frameworks all feeding into the Global Universities Partnership for Environment and

Sustainability (GUPES) network. It also aims to further establish linkages with other higher education

initiatives for sustainability around the world and recognize programmes of excellence. The regional

networking initiatives include: the Mainstreaming Environment and Sustainability in African Universities

(MESA) partnership; Mainstreaming Environment and Sustainability in Caribbean Universities (MESCA)

partnership; and the Asia Pacific Regional University Consortium on Environment for Sustainable

Development (RUC-AP). All the above now constitute chapters of the recently launched Global

Universities Partnership on Environment and Sustainability (GUPES).

In the context of the 5th ‘best of both worlds’ conference, the Networking pillar makes the perfect

connection with the work of the ‘best of both worlds’ community.

‘BEST OF BOTH WORLDS’…?

For the sake of remaining relevant to the objectives of this conference, and without the benefit of having

attended previous ‘best of both worlds’ conferences, I sought to reflect on the idea of ‘best of both worlds’

by asking myself the following rhetorical questions:

Which are the ‘both worlds’?

What is the context of ‘both worlds’?

What is best in ‘both worlds’?

In the process of reflection, I further found myself writing down the following bullet points/questions, which

I hereby reproduce exactly:

Sustainability is a concern for both worlds…What can we do with the best of both worlds? –

Perspectives for the future…?

Motivation: the need to correct the multiple dangerous wrongs of human development,

environmental degradation and resource exploitation- both worlds are implicated!

Applied/socially critical EE/ESD processes for problem solving

Sense of community, agency and social ability – for transformation

Complementing rather than competing

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Consulting, sharing, and learning from both worlds

Handprint/Footprint – Depending on context

Explore the rich learning and professional development opportunities in both worlds

Technology-supported/enhanced networking: e-networking and learning: for resource efficiency,

reduced emissions, reduced expenditure?

These bullet points (above) later formed the main premise and approach to my keynote address.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND NETWORKING AS A STRATEGY FOR ENHANCING

SUSTAINABILITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION; THE CASE OF A GLOBAL UNIVERSITIES

PARTNERSHIP BY UNEP’S EETU

Given the potential and value of international cooperation and networking, the Environmental Education

and Training Unit (EETU) of UNEP, conceptualized a Global Universities Partnership for Environment and

Sustainability (GUPES). Using various strategic approaches, GUPES, has since realized remarkable

achievements, some of which are described herein.

GUPES as context for interrogating international cooperation and networking in higher education

for sustainable development

GUPES, is one of the flagship programmes of UNEP’s Environmental Education and Training Unit

(EETU). The motivation behind the formation of GUPES was the need for dynamic learning networks

locally, nationally and regionally – that connect on a global scale leading to creation and facilitation of

communities of practice around Environmental education (EE), Education for Sustainable Development

(ESD) and Sustainable Development (SD). GUPES resulted from a consultative forum organized by

UNEP and its partners in Nairobi, on November 19, 2010 to deliberate on ways of escalating UNEP’s

successful engagement with universities. It builds on the successes of the Mainstreaming Environment

and Sustainability in African Universities (MESA), the nascent Mainstreaming Environment and

Sustainability in the Caribbean Universities (MESCA) and the Asia-Pacific Regional University

Consortium (RUC).

Overall, GUPES aims to promote the integration of environment and sustainability concerns into teaching,

research, community engagement, the management of universities, greening of university

infrastructure/facilities/operations, as well as to enhance student engagement and participation in

sustainability activities both within and beyond universities. The programmes, projects, activities and

initiatives of GUPES are guided by the pillars of the Environmental Education and Training Unit (EETU)


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The Developmental objective of GUPES is to: Enhance the quality, policy, practice and relevance of

university education globally in the context of sustainable development, taking into account the emerging

paradigm of Green Economy. The objectives of GUPES include:

To provide a strategic platform for the mainstreaming of environment and sustainability concerns

into university systems across the world, and to facilitate inter-university networking on

sustainability issues with emphasis on South-South and North-South tertiary partnerships

To build, through university education systems, a professional capacity and leadership needed for

the prevention of and responses to environmental issues, risks and associated sustainable

development challenges

To contribute to revitalizing the global higher education system and enabling it to address current

sustainable development challenges with emphasis on UNEP’s six thematic priorities

To contribute to the knowledge generation within UNEP’s six priority thematic areas and other

contemporary environmental and sustainability issues, risks and challenges

To optimize development opportunities provided by ecosystem services in a sustainable manner in

line with the principles of “Green Economy” and in the context of sustainable development

To help prepare the world for the projected impacts of global climate change, disasters and

conflicts, harmful substances and hazardous wastes, as well as to assist in reversing and

mitigating these and other negative environmental and sustainability trends.

GUPES strategic approach in regions

Considering that environmental and sustainability issues are complex, diverse and arise in a range of

contexts, GUPES has chosen to be conscious of regional needs and differences so as to appropriately

respond to changing contexts and needs. In this regard, GUPES has adopted regional dimensions in

implementing programmes, projects and initiatives. The choice of regional dimensions was inspired and

informed by a number of philosophical orientations, key among them being relational philosophy. Guided

by the relational philosophy, Emirbayer (1997) explains that there are two ontological positions of the

world. The first is that the world consists of substances (static elements) and the second is that the world

is made of dynamic and unfolding relations. He calls these substantialist and relational (transactional)

perspectives respectively. A relational perspective emphasizes mutuality and reciprocity as the underlying

principles of existence. This is a shift from a dominant rationality paradigm (which is inherent in the

substantialist perspective), where dualism is an essential feature of the thought process. Substantialists

view the world as a collection of objects to be analysed, compartmentalized, classified, and controlled

(Kumar, 2004). Kumar (2004:76) notes that the dualistic world-view gives the illusion that “…I exist

independent of the other. This attitude is founded on the belief that there is a substantial, separate,

individual self, which can act of its own accord, irrespective of the other.”

Applied to the context of international cooperation and networking in higher education for sustainable

development, - with a particular focus on the regional dimensions; it suffices to say that the relational

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(transactional) perspective is preferable. This is mainly because the relational philosophy appeals to the

relational nature of networking processes and international cooperation in higher education for

sustainable development. From an African perspective, this relational philosophy also seems to be

congruent with some dominant African worldview 21 as manifested in some classical examples of African

philosophy and literature. One such example can be drawn from Okri’s (1991) post- colonial novel – The

Famished Road, in which Okri shares a vision of the world as one of infinite possibility woven in a string

of relations. The novel’s main character Azaro, the spirit-child enables the reader to see the

interconnectedness of life.

From the perspective of GUPES, the regional dimensions are multifaceted and can be looked at through

the lenses of the individual UNEP regions (Africa, Europe, Asia and Pacific, North America, Latin

America, and West Asia), North-South, South-South, as well as North-South-South. This approach was

informed by a number of factors some of which are discussed later in this paper under the section:

Towards successful international cooperation in higher education: principles and strategies by GUPES.

Approaches, strategies and methods adopted by GUPES to enhance international cooperation

and networking in higher education for sustainable development

GUPES seeks to build on and partner with other existing regional higher education networks in pursuit of

its objectives. In this regard, it recognizes the existing regional networks in each of the UNEP regions as

well as other inter-regional networks modeled around North-South, South – South, and North-South-

South frameworks.

UNEP’s role in supporting GUPES is encouraged by UNEP’s Medium-Term Strategy (MTS) 2010-2013

and inspired by the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (UN-DESD) 2005-

2014. The MTS 2010-2013, that guides UNEP’s activities, has identified six cross-cutting thematic

priorities which GUPES takes into account with due regard to regional contexts and issues.

The vision of UNEP for the medium-term future is to be:

“The leading global environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda that promotes the coherent implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within the United Nations system and that serves as an authoritative advocate for the global environment.”

21 African worldview as used here does not refer to a common agreed philosophy. Rather, the use of the tem is meant to explain the

way of life in most African traditional societies thrives on a relational orientation that is shaped by ongoing contact and interactions

among individuals as well as with nature, as exhibited for example, in the extended family value system. This worldview however, is

not unique to Africa, as it can also be traced in various Eurasia philosophies (Louw, 1998)

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Figure 1 below gives a snapshot of the Environmental Education and Training Unit in UNEP’s Medium

Term Strategy (2011-2013) with an outline of some key planned activities under each thematic priority.

Figure 1: Environmental Education and Training Unit in UNEP’s medium term strategy

In regard to the UNDESD: 2005-2014 (UNESCO, 2005), and in line with UNEP’s mandate, GUPES seeks

to champion the mainstreaming of environmental and sustainability considerations into higher education

so as to contribute to the attainment of the goal of the UNDESD - to integrate the principles, values and

practices of sustainable development into all aspects of education and learning.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING UNIT IN UNEP’S MEDIUM TERM STRATEGY The six cross-cutting thematic priorities

Some key activities

Ecosystem Management - Development of an expanded network of universities on North/South and South/South modalities that

integrate ecosystem management into their research, teaching and community engagement activities; - Development of a web-based knowledge management platform based at UNEP, including both IT and

content components, to enable access to ecosystem management-related information and tools, and to share experiences;

- Development of a comprehensive set of ecosystem management training materials distributed to relevant country, university, UNEP and other inter-governmental actors;

- Development of a training course on Ecosystems management for Gender. Conflicts and Disasters

- Development of Education modules on best practices in Risk Reduction from natural and human-made disasters.

Resource Efficiency - Train-the-Trainers programmes targeting universities offering education programmes as well as teachers’

training colleges developed and rolled out; - Relevant publications and educational materials on resource consumption issues and greener lifestyles

targeting curricula change in schools, universities and teacher training colleges developed and distributed to target institutions;

- Environmental Education Learning Pack on resource consumption issues and greener lifestyles developed and disseminated to target institutions.

Environmental Governance - Mainstreaming Environment and sustainability in universities; - Training module and digital toolkits development; - Training courses and workshops for policy makers, academia and leaders in civil society, including ongoing

annual training courses, i.e. Dresden course, Joensuu course, Helsinki course and Brown university. Climate Change

- Establishment of grants to fund research and fellowships on climate change; - In collaboration with UNICEF, jointly pilot teacher development course on quality climate change and

environmental education; - Climate leadership programme for students; - Adaptation of UNEP's wealth of resource materials on climate change into innovative and practical learning

tools as well as promoting the use of these resources in the universities; - Mainstreaming climate change education in university and school curriculum. - In collaboration with UNICEF, jointly pilot teacher development course on quality climate change and

environmental education;

- Climate leadership programme for students; - Adaptation of UNEP's wealth of resource materials on climate change into innovative and practical learning

tools as well as promoting the use of these resources in the universities; - Mainstreaming climate change education in university and school curriculum.

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For purposes of sharing and learning from the experiences of GUPES, some perspectives are shared

below:

APPROACH/STRATEGY 1 – GUPES in the UNEP regions - Regional Networks

GUPES evolved from the successful Mainstreaming Environment and Sustainability in African

Universities (MESA) partnership. This was essentially an African higher education partnership.

GUPES in Africa

Having evolved from MESA, the face of GUPES in Africa still remains the MESA partnership. In 2004,

UNEP initiated the Mainstreaming Environment and Sustainability into African Universities (MESA)

partnership in close collaboration with its partners and African universities.

UNEP successfully rolled out the MESA initiative with universities to support the United Nations Decade

on Education for Sustainable Development (UNDESD). MESA was developed to support the

mainstreaming of environment and sustainability concerns into teaching, research, community

engagement and management of universities in Africa. Mainstreaming environment and sustainability

concerns, which underpins MESA, involves a transformative learning process and new ways of thinking

about teaching, research and community engagement. It cannot be achieved through a prescriptive

approach, but instead requires a participatory process of co-defining what can/ought to be mainstreamed

and how this might best be done in different contexts.

The overall development objective of MESA is to enhance the quality and policy relevance of university

education in Africa in the context of sustainable development and achievement of the Millennium

Development Goals (MDGs). Specifically, MESA works to enhance and build capacities and networks for

the systemic integration of environment and sustainability concerns into a range of disciplines, faculties,

programmes and courses, policies, management practices and student activities in universities. Currently,

MESA involves about 90 universities across 42 countries representing 30% of African universities. Some

of these universities have transformed their curricula to reflect environment and sustainability concerns.

Several others are following suit. The partnership thus far has resulted in the initiation of a number of

change initiatives in participating universities and has introduced a stronger systems-focused approach to

change in universities. A dynamic network of African Universities has also been established with active

participation from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the

United Nations University (UNU) and the Association of African Universities (AAU). By 2014, the goal is to

expand MESA to 60% of African universities.

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GUPES in Latin America and the Caribbean

The Mainstreaming Environment and Sustainability in Caribbean Universities (MESCA) partnership is the

face of GUPES in Latin America and the Caribbean region.The MESCA partnership programme was

started in 2009 with the assistance of UNEP and inspiration from MESA. Similar to MESA, MESCA aims

to mainstream environment and sustainability concerns into the teaching, research, community

engagement and management of universities in the Caribbean. MESCA is also helping to address the

ecological bias of sustainable development programmes in universities across the Caribbean by

encouraging use of multi-disciplinary and cross-curricular approaches. Currently, MESCA involves 11

universities in the Caribbean region, with the University of West Indies (UWI) serving as the focal point.

Soon after inception in 2009, MESCA adopted international cooperation in higher education for

sustainable development by reaching out to Africa for inspiration and guidance. To this end, MESCA’s

first activities involved using a tool developed by Rhodes University (under the MESA partnership

programme) to audit environment and sustainability within Caribbean universities. With support from

UNESCO, MESCA has also been able to realize three additional activities: an ESD monitoring and

evaluation workshop, which took place in October 2010; an online ESD course, in which many MESCA

universities are participating; and a workshop in ESD for teacher educators. This far, the MESCA

partnership can be termed as an example of good partnerships that the GUPES initiative will work with

and build on.

GUPES in the Asia Pacific Region

In the Asia Pacific region, GUPES is represented by the Asia Pacific Regional University Consortium on

Environment for Sustainable Development (RUC-AP) at network level as well as by the UNEP-Tongji

Institute of Environment for Sustainable Development, at the institutional level. The latter being

recognized more for its international outreach and partnership programmes. The objectives of the RUC –

AP are:

5. To foster multi-disciplinary academic and research development through joint activities in the

domain of environment, sustainable development and allied fields.

6. To serve as a resource base of expertise for the activities and programme of UNEP in the Asia-

Pacific region, including the UNEP-Tongji Institute of Environment for Sustainable Development

(IESD)

The current members of the RUC include: the Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand; Griffith University,

Australia, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore; Tongji University, China; University of New

South Wales, Australia; University of Wollongong, Australia; as well as Yale University, U.S.A. The

collaborating UN agencies include the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the United

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Nations University – Institute of Advanced Studies (UNU - IAS). Other partners include: Venice

International University, Italy; and University of Paris-Dauphine, France. To ensure regional presence for

easier coordination, efficiency and effectiveness, GUPES further seeks partnerships with other regional

and global higher education movements which have concern for environment and sustainability in all the

UNEP regions.

APPROACH/STRATEGY 2 – North-South Cooperation in higher education

The north–south divide is a socio-economic and political division that exists between the wealthy

developed countries, known collectively as "the north", and the poorer developing countries (least

developed countries), or "the south. Although most nations comprising the "North" are in fact located in

the Northern Hemisphere (with the notable exceptions of Australia and New Zealand), the divide is not

wholly defined by geography. The North is home to four of the five permanent members of the United

Nations Security Council and all members of the G8. "The North" mostly covers the West and the First

World, with much of the Second World. The expression "north–south divide" is still in common use, but

the terms "North" and "South" are already somewhat outdated. As nations become economically

developed, they may become part of the "North", regardless of geographical location, while any other

nations which do not qualify for "developed" status are in effect deemed to be part of the "South."

In the context of international cooperation and networking in higher education for sustainable

development, the North-South divide is used as context for interrogation the existing international

cooperation and partnerships between the universities in the North and those in the South. North-South

cooperation in higher education takes various forms as designed by the concerned universities as well as

donor priorities and conditionalities. However, more often, it tends to promote exchange of knowledge

and intercultural mutual learning between universities and research institutes in the South and those in

the North. It is also more common for universities from the North to provide funding support for such

collaborative programmes, projects, activities and initiatives.

7. Successful examples of this model of international cooperation in higher education can be seen in

the North-South Cooperation initiative of the University of Zurich (UZH)

(http://www.int.uzh.ch/northsouth/links_en.html), and the North-South research cooperation of the

University of Bergen (http://www.uib.no/administrasjonstema/en/collaborating_organisations).

8. From a GUPES perspective, the case story of the evolving IGERT program on Coasts and

Communities: Natural-Human Systems in Urbanizing Environments which is a collaboration between

the University of Massachusetts Boston (UMass Boston) - USA, the University of Addis Ababa,

Ethiopia and other universities in Africa is briefly discussed below.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioeconomics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_country




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_World



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World

http://www.uib.no/administrasjonstema/en/collaborating_organisations

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Case Story 1 – The evolving IGERT program on Coasts and Communities: Natural-Human Systems

in Urbanizing Environments (an international cooperation programme between the University of

Massachusetts Boston (UMass Boston) - USA, the University of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and other

universities in Africa).

The Coasts and Communities IGERT program will be based at the University of Massachusetts Boston

(UMass Boston), a public research university with a dynamic culture of teaching and learning, and a

special focus on urban and global engagement. It will collaborate with the University of Addis – Ababa in

Ethiopia and other yet to be identified Universities in Africa.

The goals of the proposed IGERT program on Coasts and Communities: Natural-Human Systems in

Urbanizing Environments are to:

4. Train a new generation of scientists and policymakers skilled in understanding the interactions

between natural and human systems, in developing appropriate policy solutions for urbanized

environments, and in communicating with stakeholders.

5. Foster a culture of transdisciplinary collaboration and communication among natural scientists,

social scientists, governance scholars, and business scholars.

6. Create enabling conditions and provide the necessary experience that would empower the IGERT

scholars to apply their innovative solutions across scales, geographies, and political and economic

contexts.

APPROACH/STRATEGY 3 – South – South Cooperation in higher education

South-South Cooperation is a term historically used by policymakers and academics to describe the

exchange of resources, technology, and knowledge between developing countries, also known as

countries of the global South. From a UNEP perspective, The Bali Strategic Plan (BSP) establishes

South-South Cooperation as a key mechanism for the implementation of capacity building and technical

support activities in response to well defined country priorities and needs. Specifically, the Bali Strategic

Plan underscores the importance of South-South cooperation and stresses the need to intensify efforts

directed towards institutional capacity-building, including through the exchange of expertise, experiences,

information and documentation between the institutions of the South in order to develop human resources

and strengthen the institutions of the South”.

Additionally, the UNEP Medium Term Strategy also emphasizes the need to ensure that capacity building

and technology support run through the implementation of all priority areas and constitute an integral part

of UNEP programmes of work. Specifically, the Medium Term Strategy calls for the enhanced

implementation to be pursued through a number of processes and partnerships, including, inter alia,

facilitating South-South cooperation as one of the key mechanisms for implementing capacity-building


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_South

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and technology support projects on the ground, which will entail engaging with a wide range of partners

and organizations. This forms a sound basis for South – South cooperation in higher education for

sustainable development. Further, in keeping with these policy provisions, UNEP Governing Council

decisions (UNEP/GC/24/12 and UNEP/GC/25/9), relevant General Assembly resolutions as well as

commitments made under various global and multilateral frameworks, UNEP is committed to promoting

South-South Cooperation as a means of supporting capacity building efforts in developing countries and

countries with economies in transition through systematic partnership-building and the exchange of

expertise, experiences, best practices and knowledge among experts and institutions of the South.

The broader framework of South – South cooperation, has inspired several higher education for

sustainable development initiatives. Some of these are briefly described below:

Case Story 1 - The UNEP – Tongji Institute of Environment for Sustainable Development (IESD) –

China and Africa (MESA) collaboration

China’s UNEP-Tongji Institute of Environment for Sustainable Development (IESD) is currently engaged

in international higher education collaboration with select African universities under the auspices of the

Mainstreaming Environment and Sustainability into African Universities (MESA) partnership. To ensure

enhanced re-orientation in Africa and Asia towards a more sustainable model of development through

education and training, the UNEP – Tongji IESD and UNEP MESA programmes partnered to organize a

consultative forum at the United Nations Complex in Nairobi, Kenya on 17 November 2010, to share

experiences and develop a mechanism for collaboration in order to catalyze accelerated achievement of

sustainable development goals in the two continents.

The more specific objectives of the Forum included: share experiences and best practices between Tongji

IESD and the MESA Programme; jointly identify pressing areas of environmental policy and research in

Africa and Asia and develop modalities of jointly addressing them; brainstorm on a common approach to

promote UNEP’s thematic areas while mainstreaming environment and sustainability in Africa and Asia.

During the Nairobi Tongi – MESA forum, the Tongji IESD expressed willingness to assist its MESA

partners tap into the 10,000 scholarships programme announced by the Chinese President for the benefit

of nationals of developing countries. Consequently hundreds of African applicants were considered for

these scholarships and are currently pursuing their master’s and doctoral studies at Tongji University.

A successful initiative under the South-South collaboration was the joint research conducted by Tongji

IESD and some MESA universities on the water situation in selected African cities. This research

culminated in the publication of a Rapid Response Assessment: Green Hills; Blue cities; An ecosystems

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approach to water resources management for African cities (2011) that was launched in Cape Town

South Africa during the World Water Day Celebrations of 2011. So far, the success of IESD programmes

demonstrates good progress towards wider access to environmental education and training. Specifically,

cooperation with African Universities is a good example of South-South cooperation in higher education

for sustainable development in Africa.

APPROACH/STRATEGY 4 – Triangular cooperation in higher education (North-South-South)

Triangular cooperation features is often mentioned in Triangular development cooperation. However,

Triangular development cooperation still doesn’t feature prominently in the global development

cooperation architecture. The rationale underlying triangulation is that Southern contributors, which are

still themselves developing, are felt to be better placed and have the relevant experience to respond to

the needs and problems of programme countries. In particular, many Southern contributors have come up

with successful models or practices, which can be more appropriately transferred to other developing

countries than those of Northern donors.

The same philosophy and framework has also increasingly been adopted in international cooperation for

higher education for sustainable development in Africa. Good examples include:

North-South-South cooperation in curricula development: The Case of Dortmund, Kumasi and Dar

es Salaam.

The Swedish supported International Training Programme on Education for Sustainable

Development in higher education (ITP – ESD).

The case story of the Swedish supported International Training Programme on Education for Sustainable

Development in higher education (ITP – ESD) is briefly described below.

Case Story 1: The Swedish supported International Training in Higher Education for Sustainable

Development (ITP)

This training programme seeks to support the GUPES initiative. It is fully sponsored by the Swedish

International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) and is implemented in partnership with the UNEP-

Tongji Institute of Environment for Sustainable Development (IESD) in China and Rhodes University in

South Africa. ITP was designed against the background that: ESD is recognized internationally as an

important contributor to a more equitable and sustainable society. Based on the Plan of Implementation

agreed on at the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg 2002 the United

Nations has declared the period 2005–2014 as the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development.

This training and exchange programme provides a meeting place for professionals involved in ESD in the

higher education sector in Africa, Asia and Sweden. The main objective of the ITP programme is to

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provide an opportunity to exchange knowledge and experiences in ESD in the higher education sector.

The programme will deepen understanding of the environmental, social-cultural and economic dynamics

of sustainable development. It also enhances the teaching, learning, research, community involvement

and management of higher education institutions with regard to ESD. Additionally, ITP involves a change

project component aimed at enabling participants to link the learning from the programme to their own

work context and institutional priorities. The programme includes five phases over a period of 9-12

months and involves two weeks of scheduled programme in Sweden and two weeks of scheduled

programme in South Africa/China. For the 2011 year programme the focus countries were as follows:

Africa – Botswana, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda and

Zambia; Asia – Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Nepal, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and

Vietnam.

RESULTS AND OUTCOMES/OUTPUTS FROM USING INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND

NETWORKING AS A STRATEGY

Besides the results and outcomes briefly described in the above case stories, UNEP’s Environmental

Education and Training Unit (EETU) has also been able to realize several other results in each of the

three pillar areas of work through international cooperation and networking. The diversity of expertise and

resources in the GUPES network has been particularly useful in this regard. Some of the tangible

outcomes/outputs that have been a result of the network capital within GUPES include the following.

Results and outcomes/outputs in the Education Pillar

4. Environmental and sustainability knowledge and information resources

Several resources have been developed. These include the following, among others:

Graduate Curriculum Development Sourcebook for Green Economy

Graduate Curriculum Development Sourcebook for Ecosystem Management

Greening Universities Toolkit; An Implementers Guide for Transforming Universities into green,

low-carbon and sustainable campuses

Higher Education Guidelines for Curriculum Review and Re-orientation towards Sustainable

Development.

Innovations and Best practices on Education for Sustainable Development and Sustainability in

Universities; Success stories from around the world.

Unit-based Sustainability Assessment Tool (USAT); A resource book to complement the UNEP

Mainstreaming Environment and Sustainability in African Universities Partnership.

Education for Sustainable Development Innovations ; Programmes for Universities in Africa Toolkit.

Green Hills; Blue cities; An ecosystems approach to water resources management for African cities

(2011) - launched in Cape Town -during the World Water Day Celebrations of 2011.

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5. Development of Interdisciplinary & inter-university masters level curriculum on Education

for Sustainable Development - Sustainable Urban Development (ESDA-SUD)

Using international cooperation and networking as a strategy, EETU has been able to collaborate and

work with the United Nations University (UNU), UN-Habitat, UNESCO and several partner universities

namely: University of Nairobi, Kenyatta University, University of Tokyo, Karlstard University, Agder

University, and the Tokyo National University, to develop an interdisciplinary & inter-university masters

level curriculum on Education for Sustainable Development - Sustainable Urban Development (ESDA-

SUD). Two other programmes have also been developed within the same framework. These include:

Integrated Environmental, Economic & Social development in rural Africa (IRD) and Management of

Mineral Resources for Sustainable Development in Africa (MMR) – SA.

6. Successfully influenced the global education agenda through inputs into the Rio+20

outcome document

The GUPES network successfully provided submissions for the Rio+20 outcome document. Most of the

recommendations therein were adopted in the final Rio+20 outcome document. Consequently, GUPES

has been able to positively influence the global education agenda.

Results and outcomes/outputs in the Training Pillar

Thousands of people have received training through scheduled training courses in partner universities.

Some of the training courses that have benefited people include the following:


Management (Dresden Course) - with focus on Environmental Management;


Negotiations in environmental law and diplomacy;


development;


Ecosystems and Disasters;


topical issues on ESD;


in ESD in higher education;


Environmental science, tech. and policy;



coastal cities;



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Results and outcomes/outputs in the Networking Pillar

Several global and regional higher education networks with interest in environment and

sustainability have been established. These include the following: Global Universities Partnership

on Environment and Sustainable Development (GUPES); Mainstreaming Environment and

Sustainability in African Universities (MESA) partnership; Mainstreaming Environment and

Sustainability in Caribbean Universities (MESCA) partnership; Asia Pacific Regional University

Consortium on Environment for Sustainable Development (RUC-AP).

As of March 2012, GUPES had a network of nearly 120 universities and several partners

distributed across the various UNEP regions of Africa , Asia – Pacific , West Asia, Europe , Latin

America and the Caribbean, and North America

Besides the establishment and strengthening of the various regional higher education networks,

working agreements have been established with several other existing networks such as The

Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education (AASHE).

Meetings and conferences: EETU and GUPES have been able to convene several meetings and

conferences. These include: The first consultative meeting- Nairobi, Kenya - Nov 18– 19 November

2010; High level planning, sharing and learning meeting - Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago,

Chile from 5-6 September 2011; 2 Green Room Events in 2011 and 2012 on the margins of the UN

Governing Council Sessions; The formal launch conference for GUPES in 5-6 June 2012, at Tongji

University, Shanghai, China.

RESULTANT/EMERGENT LESSONS, PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES FOR NETWORKING FROM

THE GUPES EXPERIENCE

Generally, the experiences from GUPES reveal that for an effective network…; It is not the size of the net

(number of people/breadth of the net) that matters, but rather the quality, amount and diversity of the work

in the net. Additionally, the international cooperation and networking experiences, lessons learned and

reflections from GUPES lead to the following suggested principles, which could apply to any other

network including the ‘Best of Both Worlds’ community.

Towards successful international cooperation and networking in higher education: principles and

strategies from the GUPES experience

Drawing on the learning and experience gained in the running and overseeing of higher education

networks such as MESA and GUPES, EETU considers a number of guiding principles as necessary in

informing and guiding future networking and international cooperation in higher education initiatives.

These include:

Responsiveness;

Recognition of diverse contexts;

Regionalization;

Building on existing structures and research experience;

Flexibility and structure;

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Participation and partnership;

Transparency and accountability;

Process and product


Responsiveness

Considering that environmental issues are complex, diverse and arise in a range of contexts in different

regions of the world, EETU is considering to be conscious of regional needs and differences so as to

actively and effectively respond to changing contexts and needs. The issue of responsiveness is also

useful in any meaningful international cooperation contexts. In any networking and cooperation projects,

activities and other initiatives it is encouraged that due cognizance is taken of ‘prior knowledge, work,

programmes, projects, and activities, as well as the needs of the participating institutions of higher

learning and other stakeholders.

Recognition of diverse contexts

Since GUPES is an evolving global network that functions in diverse contexts, it recognizes that

appropriate environmental education and training processes, programmes, projects, activities and

initiatives can only be identified within the contexts within which they will be implemented. As such, EETU

has come to the realization that no single approach to international cooperation and networking for

education for sustainable development will be suitable for all regions and continents. Because of the rich

diversity (in terms of ecosystems, systems of governance, educational systems, environmental policies,

languages, etc. of each country in the various regions and continents, stakeholders and other participants

in the international cooperation and networking in the higher education arena in the various regions

should feel free to develop, adapt and implement education for sustainable development in higher

education processes, programmes, projects, activities and initiatives that take into account their

contextual situations and needs. It is also essential to bear in mind the commonalities that unite

institutions of higher education in the GUPES network.

Regionalization

Besides supporting and strengthening the education for sustainable development capacity of individual

universities, GUPES and EETU believes regionalization also entails increasing and strengthening

regional interactions, links, partnerships and opportunities. The regional focus on regionalization by

supporting capacity development and encouraging ESD processes within GUPES member universities is

thought ideal. At the same time it builds on existing structures to enhance sustainability, facilitate regional

networking, and enhance co-operative and collaborative work at both regional and national levels.

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Building on existing structures and research experience

The development of GUPES was informed by experiences from MESA and considerable consultation and

reflections. Hence, many features of the GUPES built on experience gained and developed at MESA in

the African region. Through GUPES, it has become apparent that building on initiatives that have a track-

record or experience base provide productive starting points for initiatives and enhance sustainability.

This ensures sustainability rather than perpetuating the notion that once-off initiatives are desirable.

Flexibility and Structure

While structure provides a certain level of confidence (and control), GUPES recognizes that structure may

be limiting to responding to the diverse, contested and emergent nature of environmental and

sustainability issues and ESD processes globally and in the regions. As such, GUPES aims to balance

structure and flexibility. By its nature, flexibility requires a high degree of trust among partners and a

reduction in central control.

Participation and partnerships

Participation and partnerships are pre-requisites for democratization, decentralization and regionalization.

Partnerships encourage collaborative approaches to addressing environmental, sustainability and

educational issues. Participation and partnerships call for flexibility in programme/project/activities

planning and implementation, and adaptive management approaches with an ability to learn from

experience.

Transparency and accountability

GUPES strives to be transparent by ensuring that all those who have legitimate interest can see how

decisions are made and who makes them. It also needs to be accountable to ensure that actors and

decision makers in GUPES partnership are procedurally and periodically answerable to those they work

with, to those they represent and to those who will be providing funds for activities within the GUPES

network.

Process and product

The temptation to focus on tangible and easily measurable products needs to be balanced with the

recognition that underlying processes are often more important. Thus, in the development of

programmes, projects, policy, resource materials, courses and research, the sharing and building of

capacity and the building of meaningful sustained partnerships are often as important than the actual

contents of the project documents, resource, course or research reports. This is not to imply that process

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and product are mutually exclusive but rather emphasize processes that enable the sharing and building

of capacity among ESD in higher education practitioners in the GUPES network globally.


Monitoring, evaluation and research have a range of purposes including control, understanding, critique

and change. Within the GUPES network, there is emerging some recognition that all these are important.

A reflective approach helps to build in ways of continuously reviewing past actions and learning in order

to enable the GUPES partnership to ‘do’ better. Reflexivity is understood as a process of critical and

contextual review and action through which participants in the GUPES partnership and other stakeholders

work together to understand the partnership.

CONCLUSION

International cooperation and networking in Education for sustainable development in higher education

for sustainable development can provide a support structure for social transformation and change in

Environmental Education (EE) and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) practices for

sustainable development globally as well as in specific regions of the world. Additionally, capacity

development for meaningful and effective international cooperation and networking in higher education for

sustainable development ought to be a mutual learning process, where international and national

professionals and experts plan and work together, while sharing a joint accountability for results and a

common pride in their achievements.

REFERENCES

Clugston, R. M. (2000). Introduction. In W. Leal Filho (Ed.), Sustainability and university life

(2nd ed.) (pp 11-18). Frankfurt: Peter Lang.

Co-Chairs of the Planet Under Pressure conference, Dr Lidia Brito and Dr Mark Stafford Smith,

supported by the conference Scientific Organizing Committee (2012). New Knowledge

Towards Solutions; State of the Planet Declaration, London.

Emirbayer, M.(1997). Manifesto for a relational sociology. American Journal of Sociology, 103, 281-

317.

Kuhnen, F. (1978). The role of agricultural colleges in modern society: The University as an

instrument in social and economic development. Zeitschrift für ausländische Landwirtschaft, 2, 77-88.

Kumar, S. (2004). You are therefore I am: A declaration of dependence. Foxhole: Green Books.

Okri, B. (1991). The Famished Road. London: Vintage.

UNEP (2011). Keeping Track of Our Changing Environment: From Rio to Rio+20 (1992-2012). Division

of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),

Nairobi.

UNESCO (2005). United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development 2005-2014.

Draft consolidated international implementation scheme. ww.unesco.org/education/desd.

Wenger, E. (1998) Communities of practice. Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

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2

Environmental education as a means of promoting eco-positive behaviour in

support of subsistence farming in a desertified area: a case study from Sefiane,

Algeria

T Bouazid University Mohamed Boudiaf, Msila, Algeria


Abstract

The inhabitants of the Sefiane community, a semi-desert region in Algeria, are typically nomadic agro-

pastoralists who depend on their natural environment for subsistence. In this study, the community’s

experiences of how desertification and land degradation affect their natural environment and way of life

and how their activities contribute to land degradation were explored. The purpose for determining how

their farming activities impact on the environment was to attempt to find ways to address the issues which

threaten the community’s survival. A second purpose of the study was to attempt to establish general

guidelines that could help to curb desertification which could possibly be applicable in similar contexts

elsewhere. Desertification reflects and contributes towards fundamental ills such as poverty,

underdevelopment and lack of food security. For mere survival purposes, many people feel they have no

option but to engage in environmentally unsustainable activities which further contribute to desertification

and perpetuation of the cycle. The result of the study indicated the need for guidelines for community

based environmental education (EE) initiatives that would enable the Sefiane community to deal with

desertification and land degradation that would support sustainability. The paper presents a guiding

framework for a programme for use in the Sefiane community as well as in other communities where

similar challenges are faced.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

In the Executive Secretary’s address to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in 2011

(2011: 2), Luc Gnacadja made the following serious statement:

“Our most significant non-renewable geo resource is fertile land and soil. Nevertheless each year, an

estimated 24 billion tons of fertile soil are lost. Arable land loss is estimated at 30 to 35 times the historical

rate. In the dry lands, due to drought and desertification 12 million ha are transformed in new man-made

deserts. That is an area with the potential to produce 20 million tons of grain each year. When poverty is

assessed in terms of infant mortality rate, 42% of the very poor live in degraded lands.”

Algeria, the second largest country after the Sudan on the African continent is an arid to semi-arid country

of which some 80% is desert. Only 3% of the land is arable, 13% constitutes meadows and pastures and

2% is under forests and woodlands. The climatic and environmental conditions are influenced by the

presence of the deserts in the south and east; by human activity (urbanisation and the creation of

industrial infrastructures) and by harsh natural conditions that include drought, flooding, forest fires,

strong winds and freezing conditions which may even include snow. Furthermore, a prominent feature of

the Algerian climate is the sirocco – a dusty, chocking south wind blowing off the desert (Coutsoukis

2004). Current critical environmental issues in Algeria include soil erosion, rangeland destruction and land

degradation caused by overgrazing, unsound farming practices, indiscriminate collection of fuel wood,

uncontrolled fires, inadequate supplies of potable water, and the pollution of rivers and coastal waters by

the dumping of raw sewage, petroleum refining wastes and other industrial effluents. Global warming is

contributing to changing climate patterns and plays a role in the desertification of vulnerable areas (UNEP

2000).

Abdelgawad (1997) had estimated 82.74% of Algeria’s country area has already been desertified and

about 9.66% is at risk of desertification. Civil unrest and the resulting regional conflicts as well as the lack

of environmental awareness, sensitivity and concern among the population have jointly contributed to the

destruction of human settlements, infrastructures and environmental resources (Phillips 2007).

Abahussain, Abdu, Al-Zubari, El-Deen & Abdul-Raheem (2002: 541-542) point out that despite

continuous efforts to combat desertification, little has been achieved to halt its spread and reverse the

process. Among other constraints identified in their research is thelack of adequate and validated

information on the different aspects of the phenomenon in individual areas, sustainable development

plans for desertified areas, active awareness campaigns, appropriate training on assessment and

mitigation of desertification, and the neglect of local stakeholder involvement in addressing land

degradation and desertification.

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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND KEY CONCEPTS UNDERLYING THE STUDY

The theoretical framework of this study rests on the understanding of certain key concepts. The basis of

the understanding and interpretation of these concepts is derived from United Nations (UN) declarations

and the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) that is an international institution rather than

an agency of the UN that coordinates UN environmental activities, assisting developing countries in

implementing environmentally sound policies and practices and was founded as a result of the United

Nations Conference on the Human Environment in June 1972. The perspectives of these concepts are

ascribed to internationally.

ENVIRONMENTAL AAAWWWAAARRREEENNNEEESSSSSS LITERACY

Man-made

EEENNNVVVIIIRRROOONNNMMMEEENNNTTT

AAACCCTTTIIIVVVEEE IIINNNVVVOOOVVVEEEMMMEEENNNTTT KKKNNNOOOWWWLLLEEEDDDGGGEEE Establishment underpinned by prevailing

socio-cultural, socio-political and socio-economic ideologies that

contribute to environmental risks and issues SSSKKKIIILLLLLLSSS AAATTTTTTIIITTTUUUDDDEEE

Biophysical EEENNNVVVIIIRRROOONNNMMMEEENNNTTT

ENVIRONMENTAL LITERACY

Figure 1: Components of the environment surrounded by the goals of environmental education which when understood and practiced are the foundations of environmental literacy

The concepts that apply to this particular study and which will be briefly outlined include the terms

desertification, the role of environmental education (EE) in addressing environmental issues,

environmental literacy and education for sustainable development.

Desertification

Although the concept of desertification was being discussed and referred to by the French scientist and

explorer Louis Lavauden in 1927 already, the term was only officially defined at the United Nations

Conference on Desertification held in Nairobi in 1977. The definition of desertification was formulated as:

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the diminution or destruction of the biological potential of land, that can lead ultimately to desert-like conditions. It is an aspect of the widespread deterioration of ecosystems, and has diminished or destroyed the biological potential, i.e. plant and animal production, for multiple use purposes at a time when increased productivity is needed to support growing populations in the quest of development

(UN Secretariat of the Conference on Desertification, 1977).

The practical causes of desertification are the deterioration and degradation of pastoral rangelands due to

overgrazing. The consequences include a reduction in the proportion between the amount of edible

perennial plants in relation to the increase of inedible species; death of vegetation in dry seasons due to

greater exposure of the land due to overgrazing and trampling; deterioration in surface conditions to

sustain plant growth, an increase of runoff and erosion, wind erosion and ultimately the loss of formerly

productive lands (Glantz & Orlovsky 1983, Perez & Thompson 1996). Similarly, according to UNEP

(1992) unsound agricultural processes sap the soil of nutrients, overload it with salts, dry it out and

compact or seal the surface which, apart from then contributing to erosion, results in waterlogging the

prevents air circulation in the soil, impoverishing it and allowing for toxic build-up.

Apart from the unsustainable activities outlined above as causes of desertification, other socially induced

causes include inappropriate decision-making of policy-makers, inept management of arable lands and

pastures, the lack of awareness of environmental resource management by land users and managers,

and poor knowledge of ecological and hydrological systems and cycles in arid regions. The role that EE

can play in relation to the preceding cannot be overlooked.

The place and role of environmental education in averting desertification

Since the principal reference to EE as a pivotal method to ameliorate environmental issues at the United

Nations Conference on Environment and Development (1972), greater clarification of the underlying

principles, objectives and purpose of EE has evolved. The assumption is that EE is an indispensable

means of dealing with environmental issues and risks and finding solutions to environmental problems.

The underpinning conviction is that EE strengthens people’s capacity to acquire and develop knowledge,

values, attitudes, skills, decision-making abilities and ethical behaviors that contribute towards and are

beneficial for the environment. Put differently, to raise the level of environmental literacy (EL) within the

individual and society at large. It has become common practice for environmental and development risks

and issues to be addressed through EE initiatives. At the World Summit on Sustainable Development

(2002) the critical linkages of EE with sustainable development (SD) and social justice issues, poverty

alleviation and the judicious use of natural resources was foremost (Rose & Bridgewater, 2003: 264).

Though EL is primarily seen as constituting a better understanding of the functioning of the physical and

the natural environment, it also addresses human interaction with the environment and how humans are

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affected by the environment but also how humanity affects the environment. Consequently EL

presupposes the ability to perceive, decode, analyse and use information to use, conserve, maintain and

co-exist with the environment in a sustainable way (Hares, Eskonheimo, Myllyntaus & Luukkanen

2006:129). Several recent studies (Annorbah-Sarpei, et al 1993; Bethune & Schachtsneider, 2004;

Darkoh, 2000; Hidayat, N.d.; Stern, 2000; Winslow et al, 2004; Van Rooyen, 1997; Warren, 1995)

indicate that raising the EL of communities through EE has been successful in dealing with desertification

and related issues.

Education for sustainability

The concept of SD is rooted in a systems thinking paradigm. Key to sustainability issues is the need to

recognize that its achievement is dependent on understanding the interaction between the various

dimensions of the environment – the natural, social, cultural, economic, political and ethical. In short, SD

as defined in the Brundtland Report (UNWCED, 1987:43) has four main implications:

a concern about the relationship between the use of resources, population growth and

technological development and advancement

a concern about the production and distribution of resources of food, energy and industry among

the developed, developing and underdeveloped nations of the world

a concern about uneven development such as the gross imbalances between the rich and the poor

nations, and about economic dominance and ideological differences

a concern about environmental degradation and ecological disaster

The central role of education and training for SD is to increase people’s ability to understand, adapt to

and appropriately transform the environment for the satisfaction of their own and their community’s

needs, remembering that the underlying principle of SD is to ensure that the way the environment is

currently used does not compromise the ability of further generations to meet their needs too.

In the context of this study it was necessary to develop a system of sustainable agriculture that was

economically viable, socially acceptable (to ensure community commitment or buy-in to the project),

environmentally friendly and technically appropriate (Milton & Ochieng n.d.). Ideally, local SD initiatives

should engender learning processes, the benefits of which go well beyond the projects themselves

pointing the way and building capacity to find solutions of other problems in a variety of contexts.

Research context

One of the regions adversely affected by land degradation, rangeland destruction and desertification in

Algeria is the Sefiane rural community (population: 11,700) in Batna province (Statoids, 2002). The region

falls within the Algerian Steppe which encompasses more than 20 million hectares. Batna province is

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made up of 22 districts and 61 municipalities of which Sefiane is one. Batna City is the fourth largest in

Algeria with close on 1 000 000 residents. The economy in the province’s capital is based on heavy

industry with chemical and textile industries being prominent. However, unemployment in the villages and

rural areas is high and the communities live in relative isolation from modern services and follow a rural,

subsistence livelihood. The local people are known as Chaoui and are of Berber and not Arab extraction.

In Berber ‘Chaoui’ means ‘free men’ – a name which has its roots in their history of their ability to avert

invasion or subjugation by local and foreign powers – and possibly also refers to their choice of following

a nomadic existence.

Batna province 12,192 km2

Population 1,128,030

Density 93/km2

Population growth 1,1%

Agriculture contribution to GDP 8%

Figure 1: Map of Algeria and the Sefiane community

Source https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ag.html (2012)

Figure 2: Researcher at the turn-off to the Sefiane community and typical topography of the

Sefiane community

Research motivation, question and aim

Abahussain Abdu, Al-Zubari, El-Deen and Abdul-Raheem (2002) have suggested that the constraints in

addressing land degradation and desertification has been due to the lack of validated information on the

specific aspects of desertification in specific areas – but put more bluntly, they have arisen due to a lack

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ag.html

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of understanding the problem, its causes and consequences. They further suggested that the lack of

training and local involvement in addressing the causes of desertification and land degradation were

specific factors which constrained finding solutions to and improving the situation.

Taking the above-mentioned criticisms to heart, the question which motivated the research was

consequently to establish in the Sefiane community which is seriously affected by land degradation and

deforestation guidelines for a community generated EE programme to address the above issues which

could lead to a more sustainable lifestyle and use of the environment. To answer this question, it would

be necessary to establish

prevailing living conditions and the extent to which farmers’ farming practices influenced land

degradation and desertification

farmers’ level of understanding and perceptions of land degradation and desertification and the

extent to which farmers perceive their farming practices to influence land degradation and

desertification

Establishing the aforementioned would enable the researcher to identify how current practices affect the

community’s way of life and means of survival. The aim of the research – based on the International

Union for the Conservation of nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) (1971) and the United Nations

Conference on Environment and Development (1972) stance that EE is a tested strategy that can be

used with success to address environmental problems – was to use the research findings to propose a

framework for a training programme for the community (with their input) which would empower them to

adopt more sustainable farming practices.

Methodology

The methodological paradigm selected for the study was qualitative (descriptive and interpretative), and

data collection methods which enabled the researcher to observe, describe and interpret the experiences

and perceptions of Sefiane agro-pastoralists and pastoralists were used. Since the Sefiane farming

community is widely dispersed a non-probability snowball sampling technique (Galloway 1997) was used

to establish a research sample of information-rich respondents. The researcher first identified and met

with an agro-pastoralist who is well known in the region and discussed the purpose of the research with

him. This person then suggested another two likely respondents and so it continued. Of the total of 50

pastoralists and 30 agro-pastoralists in the community, a group of 30 pastoralists and 18 agro-pastoralists

was selected on the basis of accessibility and relative permanency of residence to represent the research

sample.


Age Between 25-49 years of age Between 22-55 years of age

Income Inconsistent, based on sale of local products – Inconsistent, reproduction rate of herds,

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mainly dairy products and farming subsidies sale of produce in the towns and farming subsidies

Social status Subsistence, independent farmers, members of cooperatives

Herders, livestock breeders

Gender Male and female Male and female

Table 1: Biographical details of the research population

Data collection was done over a period of one year through

field research comprising observations and dialogue with respondents at work,

survey questionnaire,

individual interviews with representatives from both groups of respondents; and

focus group interview with representatives from the local authority.

Field work comprised a series of visits at regular intervals to pastoralists and ago-pastoralists that focused

on monitoring individuals’ interaction with other farmers or farming assistants, and the environment. Field

notes were recorded and descriptive narratives were written up immediately after the visits. Photographs

were also taken with individuals’ consent to support observations.

The analysis of the observation and interaction data was used as the basis for the design of the survey

questionnaire. The completion of the questionnaires was guided by the researcher in instances where

literacy levels were low. The data arising from the survey was used to draft the interview schedules.

Individual non-structured interviews were selected as a data collection tool because of the adaptability of

interviews to enquire into arising issues while yet staying within the bounds of the design protocol. A

focus group interview was conducted towards the end of the research period with representatives from

the local authority.


Following Tesch’s (1990:142-145) method of qualitative data analysis, these topics were clustered and

reduced to categories or themes that were coded for analysis. To facilitate the organisation of the

identified themes, comparison tables were drawn up.

Prevailing living conditions and farmers’ impact on the environment

Farmers in Sefiane lead a harsh lifestyle where mere survival demands great physical effort. Agriculture

predominates and the residents depend on small-scale subsistence oriented cultivation of crops to feed

their families. Any excess produce is sold to generate income for other necessities. Nomadic pastoralism

is also practiced by a significant proportion of rural farmers and many combine agriculture and animal

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husbandry in order to subsist. Each member of the family plays an active part in the farming. The youth

tend to follow in their parents’ footsteps since few have had the opportunity to attend school and find

other means of employment.

Pastoralists’ impact

The area is grossly overstocked that leads to gross overgrazing. The potential stocking rate is about 8 ha

per sheep while the actual stocking rate is 0.78 ha per sheep. The natural vegetation cannot sustain the

number of stock and subsequently farmers need to provide stock with supplementary feeding. The impact

of the livestock on the natural vegetation is considerable. Owing to overstocking the best grazing and

areas around water points are badly trampled and the soil is compacted which leads to loss of soil quality,

lower water permeability, increased run-off and soil degradation.

As a result of overgrazing, the best grazing plant species are grazed off before they have time to set seed

or form re-growth for the coming season and in many instances the root system of the plants are killed

off. Unpalatable species such as Atractylis serratuloides and Peganum harmala, both of which are

characteristic indicators of pasture degradation, are notably predominant (URBT 1978). Vegetative

diversity is compromised due to overgrazing which also leads to a decrease in the cover of perennials

and of the biomass. Ultimately this leads to the degradation of soil quality since vegetative cover and

replenishment of nutrients through decomposition is restricted.

Agro-pastoralists’ impact

Agro-pastoralists’ actions which significantly contribute to land degradation and vulnerability to

desertification include devegetation and deforestation to clear land for cropping; deforestation of natural

vegetation to build windbreaks for crop enclosures; cultivation of marginal lands and fragile ecosystems;

reduction or non-observance of fallow time; inappropriate use of fertilizers; improper tillage and drainage

practices which lead to soil compaction; unsustainable use of water (eg flood irrigation) which is a scarce

resource; disregard for following sustainable farming practices due to pressure to produce an adequate

amount of products to meet family needs.

Practices that lead to land degradation and desertification evidenced among agro-pastoralists whose

farming practice – like those of the pastoralists – includes stock herding, include gross overgrazing,

failure to reestablish or restore grazing; uncontrolled livestock movement – for example, to keep them off

areas where vegetation is in the process of being reestablished; concentrating for long periods of time

their livestock around watering points and consequently denuding the area of vegetation; compacting the

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soil which leads to excessive water run-off when it rains and erosion and deforestation of already sparsely

vegetated areas to create shelters and enclosures for herds.

Farmers’ level of understanding and perceptions of their contribution to land degradation and

desertification

Farmers are aware that the environment is becoming increasingly degraded and that the threat of

desertification is very real. In their comparison of the current state of the environment to that of a decade

previously, significant changes such as denuding of grazing lands, increased scarcity of water, extinction

of woodlots that indicate serious deterioration of the environment were mentioned. Several of the farmers

acknowledged that their actions contribute to land degradation and that they are thus contributing to

desertification. However, they can see no alternative: they have to produce food for their families and for

their livestock in order to survive.

Perceptions of representatives from the local authority in relation to the desertification of the area

The local authorities are aware of the extreme vulnerability of the area to desertification and are cognisant

of the damage caused to the environment by pastoralists and agro-pastoralists. As a means to deal with

the issue they have attempted to organise joint partnerships and small-scale associations and

cooperatives among themselves and the farmers to enable them to form a forum where experiences are

exchanged, ideas are shared, daily problems and difficulties related to environmental and sustainable

living issues are discussed and solutions sought. Issues which cannot be resolved within these

partnerships should be submitted to the local authorities in order to meet with them and find ways at a

higher level to solve these problems. Furthermore, they acknowledge that to help communities cope with

the effects of drought and the impacts of desertification, there is a need for both short and long-term

solutions. If the entire community is motivated and mobilised to deal with desertification, it is anticipated

that truly sustainable solutions could be found for example by negotiating and committing to a particular

system of land management and use. It is important to recognise that any policy taken to combat

desertification should take into account the way of life of to farmers in the areas affected, and try to

incorporate their knowledge into an overall action plan. However, as yet, little has been done to test these

measures or put them into practice to deal with the issues experienced in the community.

RESEARCH DEDUCTIONS

Although it is obvious that the natural resources upon which their families’ and their livestock’s survival

depend are under stress, survival remains the foremost issue – not necessarily the standard of survival,

neither the sustainable utilization of the environment. Inability and powerlessness to take action to avert

the process of land degradation due to their survival need to exploit the environment to the maximum was

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consistently mentioned. Subsistence living and practising eco-positive behaviour are in this sense

diametrically opposed.

Despite not having suggestions on how the current situation should be ameliorated, farmers generally

realise that there is a pressing need to find ways to improve their situation. They acknowledge that their

role has to change from consumer and exploiter to contributor, problem solver and initiator to remedy the

economic, farming and survival problems that are escalating and threatening their lifestyle and livelihood.

This observation hints not at a lack of will, but at a lack of impetus and knowledge to initiate restorative

change.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Since desertification is a man-made phenomenon its control requires modifications to the way in which

man uses the environment (Grainger 1986). EE that enhances EL and provides the required knowledge,

skills and ability to make informed decisions and take action in dealing with environmental issues and

risks has been substantially documented as a tried and tested way of ensuring ways to address serious

environmental problems. Various researchers have indicated the success of EE in specifically addressing

land degradation and desertification issues (cf Annorbah-Sarpei, et al 1993; Bethune & Schachtsneider,

2004; Darkoh, 2000; Hidayat, N.d.; Stern, 2000; Winslow et al, 2004; Van Rooyen, 1997; Warren, 1995)

and it was with this substantial research backing that the researchers of the Sefiane community proposed

intervention of an educational nature.

Programme approach

The problems experienced in the community are common to both pastoralists and agro-pastoralists, and

consequently the approach to any intervention programme aimed at empowering the local community to

better utilise and protect their environment should be communal, democratic and participatory.

Individuals’ commitment to and involvement in such an intervention programme is dependent on their

taking ownership of proposed interventions. They need to be involved in the design and delivery of the

programme which should provide adequate opportunity for recognizing and building on existing expertise

(local knowledge) and good practice. The programme should provide opportunities to experiment with

proposed ideas, take on responsibilities, interact, develop knowledge and skills, and learn to work

together and to practice democratic negotiation and decision-making as a means of dealing with

environmental and sustainable development issues.

The ultimate aim of the programme should be to support participants to become self-sufficient in

combating desertification and following sustainable development principles and to monitor their progress

in this regard.

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It was proposed that presentations made by local farmers and also external experts should be

descriptive, informative, explanatory, practical and interactive. Although a firm theoretical basis is

essential for all learning, learning should be activity-based and stimulating explanatory presentations.

Displays, practical demonstration and participatory activities should be given preference. The literacy

level of participants should be accommodated. Field trips to different farming enterprises where various

farming approaches, methods and techniques are successfully used should be organised.

Programme framework

The intent of the intervention strategy would be to enhance rural farmers’ environmental awareness, skills

and knowledge and to enable them to take steps to combat land degradation and desertification. The

programme should focus on both pastoralists and agro-pastoralists since their needs, as identified from

the research, have marked similarities.

A systematic framework for programme design generally highlights 5 steps that include a situation

analysis or audit of current circumstances, selecting programme aims, choosing content and appropriate

teaching methods and relevant teaching and learning resources and finally evaluating the success of the

interventions to ensure that the identified aims have been achieved.

Figure 2: Steps followed in cyclical programme design

Specific areas which should be included in the programme would include:

6. Situation analysis

Doing an audit of prevailing practices that contribute to land degradation and desertification through

examining local farming practices and their impact on the environment and the impact on

sustainable living

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7. Programme aims

Enhancing environmental resilience through acknowledging, incorporating and building on local

skills and knowledge regarding animal husbandry practices and agriculture while simultaneously

developing a comprehensive understanding of the holistic nature of the environment, ecological

cycles and human/environmental interactions; the need for living within the carrying capacity of the

environment and how these affect human survival and quality of life

8. Programme content

In a programme of this nature, it would be very difficult to separate programme content, teaching

methods and resources since they are interdependent. Primarily, the programme content would be

elected to identify ways in which the environment can be managed sensibly and to suggest to

participants strategies to strengthen pro-environmental practices. These could include but not be

limited to:

establishing which cultivars are best suited to the prevailing environmental conditions, have

a high-nutrient content and are palatable for livestock, are drought tolerant and are short

cycle

finding and using natural remedies for treating ailments and disease while ensuring that such

material is harvested sustainably

establishing nurseries for seedlings that can be transplanted to revegetate denuded areas

and using windbreaks that can be deterrents against soil erosion

establishing woodlots to serve as sources for building materials and fuel while at the same

time exploring alternative materials for heating and cooking such as gas so that vegetation

can be used as a source of food for livestock. In this case, the intervention from government

would need to be negotiated since the community is not in a position to fund this suggestion

themselves

constructing of rock barriers to prevent erosion, excessive trampling by animals and for

windbreaks

protection of water sources so that they are not degraded by animal or human activity and

also applying water conservations strategies, sustainable methods of irrigation and rain

water harvesting facilities

9. Methods and teaching and learning resources

facilitate strategies to set up and manage grazing or crop rotation schemes to reduce

negative impact on the environment

increase local self-reliance and cooperative support and interaction.

10. Evaluation

Reflect on and evaluate own farming practices to weigh their impact on the environment and to

identify and diagnose problems through dialogue

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The general purpose of the proposed framework is to ensure a better quality of life for the community and

to enable them to practice their farming activities in such a way that the human and livestock needs for

food, water and shelter are met in a way that is not detrimental to the environment.

CONCLUSION

Desertification reflects and contributes towards fundamental ills, such as poverty, underdevelopment and

lack of food security which implies that fighting desertification is integral to warding off poverty and

ensuring sustainable living (Annan 2003). The research attempted to identify specific farming trends and

practices in the Sefiane community that contribute to land degradation and desertification. Farmers are

aware that their current activities are causing serious harm to the environment yet survival in the most

basic form overrides all other concerns. The research has indicated that these farmers are not averse to

following sustainable living practices, but seem to lack the encouragement or impetus to initiate this

process of their own accord. It would appear that outside intervention and support is required to initiate

environmental programmes and to offer the necessary resources and access to information and support

structures that could help the community identify and implement alternative farming practices which are

more environmentally sustainable. Farmers should be given the forum to share and practise their own

knowledge of sustainable environmental practices and make a livelihood from their environment while

following a conscious philosophy to build up a sustainable co-existence with the environment to help the

next generation to live harmoniously and with stability.

The recommendations which emanated from this study are an attempt to set up and maintain such a

system, which would be part of the solution to the problem of desertification which faces the Sefiane rural

community in Algeria and several others in vulnerable semi-arid regions globally.

The importance of research of which this is an example, is perhaps best captured by Lee Don-koo, the

Korean Minister of Forest Service’s comments at the UN meeting on Desertification held in 2011:

"Land and soil are the property not only of the present generation but also of the future generations. We

have the responsibility of using them in a sustainable way so as to enable our descendants to enjoy benefits

from healthy and productive ecosystems."

REFERENCES

Abahussain, AA, Abdu, AS, Al-Zubari, WK, El-Deen, NA & Abdul-Raheem, M. 2002. Desertification in the Arab Region: analysis of current status and trends. Journal of Arid Environments 51:521-545.

Annorbah-Sarpei, AJ., Dube, N., Rugumayo, E., Schearer, SB. & Tomlinson, J. 1993. The importance of participatory approaches for dry land management and anti-desertification programs. Based on case studies from Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya and Zimbabwe. New York: Synergos Institute.

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3


Valéria Ghisloti Iared

Mayla Willik Valenti

Mariângela Spadoto

Haydée Torres de Oliveira

São Carlos Federal University, São Carlos, Brazil

Abstract

The literature lacks studies on the development of indicators to evaluate public policies in environmental

education in Brazil. The purpose of this paper is to describe and analyze the first stage of the construction

of indicators, in a participatory manner, for the Municipal Environmental Education Program of São

Carlos, a city in the Southeast of Brazil. Two workshops were conducted for the collective development of

the indicators. We believe that this construction process was extremely valuable as it boosted the use of

indicators to assess public policies in environmental education in the municipality and form people who

participated in the workshops. However, some challenges must be overcome in the next steps which will

be conducted.

BOB

295

INTRODUCTION

The incorporation of new ways of being and thinking is one of the challenges of environmental education

(EE). The critic EE involves an educational process to uncover and deconstruct the paradigms of modern

society contributing to the construction of new values (Carvalho 2004; Guimarães 2006). One of the

possibilities of educational activities is to foster democratic processes, creating opportunities to engage all

people in the decision-making process of society (Freire 2005). Accordingly to Paulo Freire, we believe

that education alone cannot solve the world's problems, however we also know that without it, it is not

possible to change society.

According to Meadows (1999), although paradigm shift is an action that exerts a great influence on

complex systems, such as corporations, cities and ecosystems, it is the most difficult to promote changes.

In the formulation of sustainability indicators several aspects of reality should be considered. These

aspects are called leverage points and are sorted by Meadows (1999) into nine types, in an ascending

order of influence on the systems: 1) parameters, constants, numbers, rates, 2) negative feedback

regulation 3) driving of positive feedback; 4) material flows and nodes of intersection, 5) flows of

information; 6) rules of the system (punishments, incentives, constraints); 7) distribution of power over the

rules of the system ; 8) goals of the system; 9) paradigm shift of the system.

Indicators are variables that add or simplify relevant information, disclose phenomena of interest and

quantify, measure and communicate relevant information (Gallopin 1997). According to the documents of

the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD 1994), they are part of a political

cycle and contribute to the formulation, implementation and evaluation of policies. Other authors, such as

Gallopin (1997) and Esteban et al. (2000) also point out that the construction of indicators should be

closely linked to decision makers for effective changes:

Thus, indicators become a benchmark that can serve as a warning signal to alert the manager or

politician if the undertaken development plan is obtaining the expected results or, conversely, going to the

opposite direction. (Esteban, Benayas, Gutiérrez et al. 2000: 62, our translation).

Hardi and Zdan (1997) describe the process which culminated in a relevant document to the assessment

of Sustainable Development. In 1996 the International Institute for Sustainable Development

(International Institute for Sustainable Development - IISD) held experts, researchers and practitioners of

world measurement at the Educational Foundation and Rockefeller Conference Centre in Bellagio (Italy).

This meeting aimed to summarize the general perception on the main aspects related to the assessment

of sustainability and ten principles that would guide the evaluation of progress toward sustainable

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development were described. According to Hardi and Zdan (1997), the aim was not to discuss indicators,

but basic issues, ie, principles that would guide the construction of these indicators: 1) visions and goals,

2) holistic perspective; 3) elements; 4) appropriate scope; 5) practical focus, 6) openness and

transparency; 7) effective communication, 8) broad participation; 9) ongoing assessment and 10)

institutional capacity.

Bossel (1999) points out that the broad participation is extremely important for the construction of

indicators of regions, cities and systems, following the principles of the eighth meeting of Bellagio. Bossel

(1999) and Hardi and Zdan (1997) use the case of Seattle (Washington) as an example to argue that

when indicators are constructed by various social sectors (government, NGOs, citizens, universities,

companies), the possibility of success is great. The indicators for Sustainable Development in Seattle

Workshops were developed in succession and invitations were made to the entire population.

A participatory process for the selection of indicators is not a new idea, once more and more communities

have been using it. It is necessary to define a set of indicators that can provide a complete picture of a

problem situation or the viability of a system. In the search for a set of Indicators for Sustainable

Development, it is possible to gather citizens, administrators, entrepreneurs and experts in a participatory

process that strengthens the supervising planning for sustainability and decision -making. (BOSSEL

1999: 54-55).

Interestingly, several principles considered important for the development of sustainability indicators, such

as systemic and holistic approaches, involvement of all sectors of society, dialogue and effective

communication are also EE principles. This fact shows that although they are different fields, they are

closely related. However, few studies have addressed the development of indicators for EE. In a survey

of the subject, we have found the following: Esteban et al. (2000), Krobo et al. (2009) and Mayer (1989).

According to Mayer (1989) three groups of quality indicators are necessary to assess any environmental

education project school. The most important is based on the students changes of values, attitudes,

habits and beliefs. The second group reports the educational strategy of the project from a cognitive point

of view (local relevance of the project, a multidisciplinary approach) while the third describes the

educational strategy of the project from an affective point of view, indicating the interactions between the

subjects of the project, including students, teachers, family, community and authorities.

Esteban et al. (2000) adopt the pressure-state-response model in the construction of EE indicators. The

authors chose this model as it structures the causal relationship between economy and environment in a

simple way. They built three dimensions of analysis: 1) indicators of means and resources (how much is

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invested in environmental education, for example, financial investment, number of environmental

education centers, number of theses and dissertations published) 2 ) indicators of pro-environmental

behavior (positive and negative actions, such as percentage of area burned, percentage of recyclables

being collected, number of members of environmental NGOs 3) indicators of environmental attitudes and

motivation (predisposition to the caring of the environment, percentage of people seeking courses and

percentage of people who claim for a more efficient environmental education).

Krob, Bohrer, Zank, Witt, Viero (2009) developed a set of indicators and verifiers to monitor a project

implemented by an NGO that acts actions on the northern coast of Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil). The

authors built six dimensions to evaluate the EE project (children's behavior, teachers engagement,

meaning of environment at school, children's symbolic production, environmental thinking in the family

and impact on the environment), and each indicator is composed of a set of checkers.

Although these studies address the development of indicators for environmental education, none of them

focus on the evaluation of public policies. In Brazil, public policies in EE are relatively recent. The National

Environmental Education Policy was created in 1999 (Brazil 1999), but its regulatory decree was made

official only in 2002 (Brazil 2002). Since then, some states and municipalities have initiated their process

of construction of public policies based on the national law.

In São Carlos, a city in the Southeast of Brazil, this process began in 2004 on the initiative of the São

Carlos Environmental Education Network (REA-SC), which prepared the Municipal Environmental

Education Program - ProMEA-SC (São Carlos 2008b) and, subsequently, the Municipal Environmental

Education Policy - PMEA (São Carlos 2008a). In 2011, the indicators to assess ProMEA started to be

elaborated. The aim of this paper is to describe and analyze the first stage of the construction of

indicators to assess the implementation of the Municipal Environmental Education Program of São

Carlos, SP (Brazil). We hope to contribute to the approximation of fields of study of sustainability

indicators and environmental education, encouraging the development of indicators for public policies in

environmental education and other local institutions on different scales.

DEVELOPMENT

The process of construction of indicators for the Municipal Program of São Carlos emerged from a

municipal demand to assess the projects carried out from this policy. Therefore, we organized workshops

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in partnership with the Project São Carlos creates the Green Room and the São Carlos Environmental

Education Network22.

In line with the eighth principle of Bellagio (Hardi & Zdan 1997) and the assumptions of critical

environmental education, we have focused on building indicators in a participatory manner. To do so, we

chose a space which holds monthly meetings with people interested in environmental education in the

municipality - the “Chat in the Green Room”. This activity is within the Green Room Project, which is the

result of a partnership between the City Hall, NGOs and universities. In this project a collection of

materials such as books, games, CDs, are get together and are allocated in the Municipal Library.

In this context, we organized two workshops on 19 May and 16 June, 2011. To broaden participation, we

sent invitations to all virtual mailing lists related to environmental education and environment of the city.

We also invited municipal teachers who participated in an environmental education project.

Twenty one people, including teachers of municipal schools, NGO participants, people in positions of

decision makers, students and a university professor attended the first workshop. Although all the

participants had already had contact with the area of environmental education, they had little knowledge

of sustainability indicators; therefore we started the meeting by addressing some aspects of this area of

study.

Subsequently, we presented a model previously organized as a basis for the development of indicators of

environmental education in the municipality. This model consists of six dimensions that summarize the

ProMEAS’s guidelines: 1) mainstreaming, inter-and transdisciplinarity, 2) participation, dialogue and

collaboration; 3) communication and dissemination of environmental education, 4) support of actions of

environmental education; 5) decentralization and integration between groups, 6) formation in

environmental education. For each dimension, we provided some examples of indicators. The next step

was to divide the participants into three groups. Each group was responsible for developing indicators for

two dimensions. In each group, there was a mediator to assist the process.

22 An important milestone in the municipal history was the creation of the São Carlos Environmental Education

Network (REA-SC) in 1996. It aims to gather people, groups and institutions interested in discussing the possibilities

of action in EE, by increasing the individual capacity to work and encouraging new partnerships and mutual support,

enhance the EE practice and facilitate its development and promote the association of people respecting the concept

of a network. It involves decentralization, horizontal distribution of power, cooperation, solidarity, and sharing of

available information, which may allow the construction of a common horizon for a heterogeneous group of

participants; promoting local events (SÃO CARLOS 2008b).

299

To guide the participants, we also introduced the criteria for constructing good indicators suggested by

Gallopin (1997): indicators with measurable values, available or easily obtained data, clearly and

standardized collect and processing of data, low cost in all stages of the process, ease of access to the

media to disseminate the indicators, participation and public support to the construction and use of

indicators and acceptance by decision -makers. We showed an example of how these criteria are

organized in the form of a methodological guide for the construction of environmental and sustainable

indicators developed by Quiroga Martinez (2009). At the end of the meeting, we collected the

contributions of each group and discussed the next workshop. We also systematized the indicators

suggested by the three groups.

Two concerns arose after the systematization of the first workshop and were discussed in the subsequent

workshop: a-) among the groups listed in the ProMEA, which are the ones contemplated by the

indicators? b-) How is it possible to obtain the data for the indicators suggested? As stated by Bossel

(1999), Gallopin (1997) and Quiroga Martinez (2009), in the early process, resources are scarce and it is

important to work with indicators that are already available.

In the second workshop, 19 people divided into three groups of activities participated. The first group was

responsible for analyzing the public contemplated by the indicators constructed at the first meeting, based

on the potential participants listed in the ProMEA. The second group examined the feasibility of such

indicators, considering the sources and forms of data collection for each indicator. The third group

proposed indicators for the dimension of the support of actions of environmental education, since this

aspect was not discussed in the first workshop. This group also analyzed the public contemplated by the

proposed indicators. All groups could suggest changes, additions or deletions regarding the indicators

proposed in the first workshop. After each workshop, we systematized the information, forwarded the

results by email with guidelines and solicited further contributions.

FIRST STEPS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF EE INDICATORS

The first workshop for the construction of indicators to assess the ProMEA was marked by an active

participation of the present people, but also a certain difficulty in developing the indicators due to the

people’s lack of familiarity with the theme. The construction of the first indicators served as a brainstorm,

and 29 indicators were listed for the dimensions of the model we had proposed. From the analysis of the

proposed indicators, we noted that several groups listed in the ProMEA had not been addressed. We also

observed that the data sources for some indicators were not readily available, and financial investment

and a considerable amount of time (months) would be necessary to obtain them. This issue was

discussed in the second workshop. From this discussion, some adjustments to the system of indicators

300

were suggested, resulting in 34 indicators, each one related to the public attended and source of data

collection (Table 1). Regarding the dimension of the support of actions, due to time constraints, we could

not collect only the suggestion of indicators and the groups contemplated.

Dimension Number of

indicators developed

Example of an indicator related to the public contemplated, the source data and observations made by the participants

Mainstreaming, inter-and transdisciplinarity

6 Indicator: number and name of subjects that address the issue / Public:

teachers and students of all levels of education / Data Collection:

should be performed by people who have EE formation and are used to

the daily school routine/ Remarks: sometimes researchers are not

accepted in schools; participants must give feedback to school; data

collection would take considerable time (weeks or months)

Participation, dialogue and collaboration

7 Indicator: number of spaces where society and government can talk about the issue / Public: depends on who is invited for dialogue / Source of data: mapping of EE initiatives of the municipality or mailing lists that publicize events in the area

Formation 6 Indicator: number of EE dissertations and theses presented per year / Public: students in higher education / Data Source: Web sites of universities

Decentralization and integration among groups

3 Indicator: location of institutions that promote environmental education /

public: depends on who participates in the action / Data source:

mapping of EE initiatives of the municipality or mailing lists that

publicize events in the area.

Dissemination and reporting of actions

4 Indicator: Number of sites, blogs, radio, television and newspapers that address local environmental issues / Public: general population (depends on who has access to the media) / Data source: EE mailing lists / Note: environmentally vulnerable groups may not have access to the media

Support of actions 8 Indicator: EE investments in the municipality / Public: everyone, even indirectly

TOTAL 34

Table 1: Results of the first stage of construction of indicators to assess the Municipal

Environmental Education Program of São Carlos (Brazil). Many documents produced in the area of sustainability indicators (Gallopin 1997; Hardi & Zdan 1997,

among others) recommend the same conceptual framework to guide all discussions on the construction

and monitoring of indicators. According to the principles of Bellagio, the prospect of team members must

be the same and should be taken into consideration in the first stage of the process (Hardi & Zdan 1997).

In the development of our work, this perspective was not discussed explicitly as we took ProMEA as a

basis document. It has been widely analysed and revised and is now a reference in environmental

education in the city. In addition, the ProMEA is inspired by the same principles of the Treaty on

Environmental Education for Sustainable Societies and Global Responsibility (Global Forum 1992), which

is the basis for Brazilian environmental educators.

301

However, we observed that it was difficult for those who participated of the workshops to think of

environmental education on the municipal level or as a crosscutting theme in all sectors of society. They

reflected on the theme only from their own daily routines. In this sense, Quiroga Martinez (2009)

highlights the importance of an inter-institutional team for the construction and monitoring of indicators.

According to the author, that team must comprehend people with complementary formation and

professional experience. In the process we promoted, there was a predominance of teachers participating

in the workshops, which explains the fact that the indicators constructed were more directed to the school

environment and did not consider other ProMEA’s groups. We found difficulty in expanding the diversity

of the workshop participants, despite all publication. In addition, there was a turnover of participants in the

two workshops promoted, making it difficult to continue the process. One of our next challenges will be to

organize workshops involving people from different sectors in an equal proportion.

Considering that the indicators should contribute to decision-making (Hodge, Hardy, Bell, 1999), a key

aspect is the feasibility of their implementation. The reflection we made on this theme in the second

workshop allowed the participants to better understand the purpose of developing indicators for ProMEA.

This reflection also contributed to the mapping of available data sources and possible partnerships for the

collection of new data. On this subject, Quiroga Martinez (2009) recalls that the challenges for the

monitoring of environmental indicators are big and diverse in Latin America countries. One of them is the

financial investment necessary for the formation of a technical team capable of collecting and tracking

data. On the other hand, São Carlos has the potential for inter-institutional consistently articulated work.

Universities, NGOs and municipal, state and federal governments can contribute in different ways to the

construction of indicators, collection and monitoring of such data. In this perspective, Quiroga Martinez

(2009) stresses the importance of collaborative and inclusive inter-institutional work and that the

complexity of environmental processes and mainstreaming require a new form of institutional

organization.

In the process of elaboration of a set sustainability indicators, aggregated indicators are commonly used

to provide simpler and easy- to- interpret information, as the ecological footprint (Bossel 1999). The

aggregated indicators are a key strategy for the communication with the general public, media and

educational activities (Bossel 1999; Gallopin 1997). In the first workshop, regarding the dimension of

participation, dialogue and collaboration, the participants developed an indicator that signalized a change

in the attitude of each school. The group suggested that this indicator would encompass the consumption

of water, energy, and disposal of waste oil, correlating the results with the number of environmental

educational projects developed in school. In agreement with the arguments of the authors mentioned, we

302

consider this indicator an aggregate one and easy to report. It transmits the school situation and the

changes in its environmental attitude.

The constitution of the team that guides the process of developing indicators is another important issue.

Quiroga Martinez (2009) states that this process should be led by a team trained in the subject. This team

can and should be assisted by another punctual team who has specific and updated knowledge of the

relevance and feasibility of the indicators to be proposed. In São Carlos, we have a consistent articulation

among environmental educators operating in different social sectors. Thus, the team that would

coordinate the construction of the indicators could count on the help of this punctual team to continue this

work. Conferences and documents have recommended the development of indicators for the evaluation

of environmental policies (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development - UNCED, 1992,

meeting in Bellagio in 1996, among others). Based on National Policy on Environmental Education

(BRAZIL 1999) we could formalize goals and basic principles of environmental education, with additional

tools and methods, as well as the monitoring and evaluation during the process. In this context, the use of

indicators can be a tool for monitoring the environmental education policies implemented (Esteban et al.

2000).

This paper has promoted and reviewed the first phase of construction of indicators for the Environmental

Education Program of São Carlos. We believe that the process reported is extremely valuable to boost

the use of indicators to assess public policies in environmental education in the municipality and to form

those who participated in the workshops. However, we have also identified some challenges to be

overcome in the next steps.

The first survey of indicators conducted was equivalent to a wish list, consisting of a set of ideas and wills

of the participants, who tried to embrace the complexity of the issue. In a next step, our aim is to select

the most representative indicators for each sector involved in environmental education in the city. As

stated by some authors (Bossel 1999; Gallopin 1997; Quiroga Martinez, 2009), the formulation and

monitoring of indicators involve costs in the data collection. Therefore, they should be selected to respond

promptly to the demand of those who will use them. Moreover, the data must be comparable over time or

among different territories. In the next steps, we will try to list the variables of the indicators and assign

them an evaluative parameter to qualitatively characterize the data to be collected, as suggested by

Quiroga Martinez (2009).

303

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Brasil. Decreto nº 4.281, de 25 de junho de 2002. Regulamenta a Lei nº 9.795, de 27 de abril de 1999, que institui a Política Nacional de Educação Ambiental, e dá outras providências. [Online] Available at url: www.senado.gov.br

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Carvalho, I. C. M. 2004 Educação ambiental: a formação do sujeito ecológico.São Paulo: Cortez.

Esteban, G.; Benayas, J. & Gutiérrez, J. 2000 La utilización de indicadores de desarrollo de la educación ambiental como instrumentos para la evaluación de políticas de educación ambiental. Tópicos en Educación Ambiental, 2 (4): 61-67.

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Freire, P. 2005 A educação na cidade. 6a. ed. São Paulo: Cortez.

Gallopin, G. C. 1997 Indicators and Their Use: Information for Decision Making. Introduction. In: Moldan, B & Billharz, S. Sustainability Indicators. Report on the project on Indicators of Sustainable Development. Wiley: Chichester 1997, pp 13-27.

Guimarães, M. 2000 Educação Ambiental. Duque de Caxias: UNIGRANRIO Editora.

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Hodge, R.A.; Hardi, P. & Bell, D.V.J. 1999 Seeing change through the lens of sustainability. Background paper for the Workshop “Beyond Delusion: Science and Policy Dialogue on Designing Effective Indicators of Sustainable Development”, The International Institute for Sustainable Development, Costa Rica. [Online] Available at url: http://www.iisd.org/pdf/background.pdf

Krob, A.J.D.; Bohrer, P.V.; Zank, S.; Witt, J.R. & Viero, R.C. 2009 O monitoramento de resultados da educação ambiental como estratégia para sua inclusão em políticas públicas e ações institucionais. In: Congresso Iberoamericano de Educação Ambiental, 6., 2009, San Clemente del Tuyu . Anais...l.

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http://www.eclac.org/publicaciones/xml/1/37231/LCL3021e.pdf

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4

The process of greening of Universities – the University of South Africa as a case

study

CP Loubser & JM Dreyer


Abstract

Campus “greening” initiatives are catching on at colleges and universities across the globe. The purpose

of this paper is to find out in what sense the University of South Africa followed international guidelines to

green itself and to what extent it has succeeded in being successful in greening itself. It will also seek

ways to accelerate progress towards institutionalizing a commitment to campus environmental



revealing how they may inform us to move into the realm of wide-spread institutional transformation. A set

of indicators shows whether a university has committed itself to greening processes and sustainability

was identified and the University of South Africa (Unisa) `measured’ against these indicators. Although

Unisa was found on par with most of the indicators some suggestions to improve could be pointed out.

BOB

305

INTRODUCTION

Campus “greening” initiatives are catching on at colleges and universities across the globe (Dahle and

Neumayer E. 2001; Sharp 2002; Chou, El-Mogazi and Hawley 2010). Though the concept of

sustainability has only recently entered the public psyche, a handful of forward-thinking universities have

had sustainability on the mind for decades (Faghihimani 2010:14). As a vital part of a country’s growth, it

only makes sense that universities should play a key role in ensuring the sustainability of important

resources like energy and water. The force of change now acting upon the university sector, with

increasing pressure, is a global environmental crisis of profound significance to both current and future

generations. The nature of this crisis is complex and wide reaching. Climate disturbance, acid rain,

deforestation, species extinction, fisheries depletion, soil erosion, toxic buildup in ecosystems, water, land

and air pollution and ozone depletion are amongst the menu of environmental problems that are forming

a web of destruction around the world (Miller 2004). In short, every natural life support system is in long

term systemic decline and every human contributes directly or indirectly to the escalation of this decline.

If universities are going to survive into the next century, they must not only respond to the environmental

crises force, but they must also provide leadership for broader society (Badat 2009). Universities also are

widely expected to reflect the values and assumptions of the society it operates in (Lawson 1975:7). The

environmental and sustainability focus of society and the demands to develop societal values and

assumptions currently demands that universities address these issues. There are two key aspects (Sharp

2002:2) of the environmental imperative that reveal the nature of the challenge ahead for universities. The

first aspect is that an effective solution to address the environmental imperative will change all areas of

university campus operations. The second aspect is that an effective solution will be a moving target, in

that new information will continuously become available that will reveal new environmental requirements

and opportunities. Given everything said so far, the challenge for the university sector is to become skillful

at the process of changing itself. This requires the university sector to expand its core mission of teaching

and research to include learning (Sharp 2002). Universities must become learning organizations, as well

as teaching and research institutions.

The purpose of this paper is to find out in what sense the University of South Africa followed international

guidelines to green itself and to what extent it has succeeded in being successful in greening itself. It will

also seek ways to accelerate progress towards institutionalizing a commitment to campus environmental



revealing how they may inform us to move into the realm of wide-spread institutional transformation.

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RESPONSE TO THE ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS

Some universities have responded to the pressures of students, alumni, government, administration or

faculty, to make some attempt at addressing the environmental imperative in the way campuses are

operated. The common response of universities has been to establish an environment committee to

undertake a series of decision-making tasks, or to employing one individual to implement and control

chosen solution programs. The complexity of Universities themselves, compounded with the complexity of

the environmental imperative thwart most attempts to gain organizational agreement on goals,

alternatives and solution programs. Organizations are therefore severely limited in their capacity to

behave rationally due to inherent characteristics such as: complexity, limited capacities to calculate all

parameters, the tendency towards ``satisfying’’, fragmentation of problem and solution elements, limited

organizational repertoires, shifting coalitions, shortages of time and attention, quasi resolutions to conflict

and uncertainty avoidance (Weiss 2001).

All of these traits exist within universities. As a result of these rationality limiting characteristics of

universities, environmental committees and staff are usually quickly forced to shift their focus from broad

reaching systemic transformation to well-bounded projects with lower levels of participation, losing

significant momentum and breadth in their organizational impact. Consequently, in a small percentage of

universities across the world we now have many examples of how the different initiatives such as

recycling, energy efficient lighting, water conserving fittings, composting toilets, passive solar design,

green building design, car pooling programs, public transportation initiatives, environmental procurement

programs etc. may work. Sharp (2002) alleges that we have very few examples of universities that have

actually institutionalized a systemic commitment to environmentally sustainable campus operations,

realizing the enormous efficiencies and opportunities that can be gained in adopting systems based

integrated design of new resource flows and infrastructure developments. However, a literature research

reveals that there are quite a number of universities employing greening activities successfully. Kilbert

(2006) for instance mentions 275 universities participating in The Tailloires Declaration and 322

universities participating in The Copernicus Declaration. Duke University and Vermont University (2012)

for instance report very successful greening activities on the internet.

The fact is that universities have to change if they want to ensure the survival and expansion of campus

environmental initiatives.

WHY DO UNIVERSITIES NEED TO CHANGE?

Kibert (2006) identifies the following five reasons why universities should change towards sound

environmental policies:

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Universities have an ethical responsibility to promote and teach about a just, fair society.

Universities generally do not understand the vision how their research affects humans live within

the global ecosystem.

Different specialties collide, for instance economics, natural science, social sciences.

Potential damage to the natural and social environment by research and its results is not

systematically investigated.

Students are not trained in interdisciplinary systems thinking.

Kilbert adds his environmental vision for a university:

The existence of environmentally knowledgeable faculty and staff

Graduates with highly developed knowledge of the natural and social systems and their

contributions to human well-being

A university with a small ecological footprint that is healthy and resource efficient.

Research that develops clean, resource efficient technologies with low environmental and social

impacts.

These points could also be seen as indicators of a university being green.


Unisa was chosen as case study because of the potential impact it can have on the public. With its 300

000 student population and 3 000 staff component it makes out a large portion of the university population

in South Africa and has an enormous potential of a cascading effect in the many professions people will

be in after their studies at Unisa. The research started with a document analysis, which is an invaluable

part of most schemes of triangulation (http://www.drcath.net/toolkit/document.html.). It involved the

reading of available written material and internet searches. The documents were read to grasp some

aspects of the social world pertaining to sustainability. Official documents were read to gain insight into

objective statements of fact. Semi-structured interviews were held with individuals who were instrumental

in the initial process of `greening’ the University of South Africa. These individuals were selected on the

grounds of their involvement in Unisa’s greening initiatives and their initial drive in the process. The

indicators identified above were used as questions for these interviews and to benchmark the position of

the University of South Africa.

MEASURING SUCCESSFUL APPROACHES TO GREEN CAMPUS INITIATIVES

It is no secret that some green campus initiatives have been more successful in surviving and expanding

their effectiveness than others. In analyzing why this is the case, it appears that regardless of the

organizational structure or the political positioning of any green campus initiative there are a number of

approaches that evidently maximize the survival and expansion of pioneering initiatives (Sharp 2002).

http://www.drcath.net/toolkit/document.html

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UNEP has been quite active in suggesting measurement techniques to measure the sustainability status

of universities. With an approach of: `What gets measured gets managed’ they have set ways of

measurement of progress against agreed performance indicators to enable a university to benchmark

against others, but more importantly, against the sustainability targets it sets for itself (Shriberg 2002).

Indicators provide the mileposts on the journey to sustainability. As such, they need to fulfil certain

criteria. The World Health Organisation (Von Schirnding 2002) points out that the criteria used to select a

particular indicator depend on the purpose of that indicator. Indicator selection is thus both a technical

and a normative decision; linking the two provides an opportunity to facilitate dialogue and learning, which

“provides the foundation for developing shared meanings of sustainability, the role of indicators, and how

they will function” (McCool & Stankey 2004).

Indicators may be grouped and weighted to form indices of environment or sustainability performance.

Ecological footprint analysis (the amount of land necessary to provide the necessary resources and

assimilate the wastes and pollutants generated by a population Wackernagel and Rees, 1996) is a well-

known index which has been extended from its original role in comparing national and regional impacts to

include application to public and private sector organisations, households and the comparison of

consumer products. It has also been adapted to focus on specific criteria of environmental concern, for

More detail on the process of indicator selection, which as suggested above, should involve a

participatory dialogue with the university community.

From UNEP (2012) and Sharp (2002) the following indicators were selected for this research: The

biophysical aspects of university sustainability can be condensed into four key themes UNEP (2012):

5. Energy use

6. Water use

7. Land use

8. Material flows.

In addition to these biophysical metrics, the following management indicators are recommended as a

basic core on which individual universities can build. These are adapted from the University Leaders for a

Sustainable Future Sustainability Assessment Questionnaire for Colleges and Universities (USLF: 2009).



13. Existence of a Sustainability Steering Committee or equivalent institution-wide strategic body

14. Responsibility for oversight of sustainability matters allocated to member of senior management


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In addition the following indicators were identified by Sharp (2002):



The University of South Africa will subsequently be measured against these indicators:

A MEASUREMENT OF SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

ACCORDING TO IDENTIFIED INDICATORS

A document by Anderson (2011) and interviews with important role players in the greening process was

used to find out what Unisas’ position was in the greening process. Since Unisa has addressed most of

the first four indicators indicated below (and more) a discussion will follow on all the activities included in

Unisa’s physical environment.

5. Energy use

6. Water use

7. Land use

8. Material flows

Greener buildings

One of the central role-players in promoting green thinking and doing at Unisa is the University Estates.

University Estates comprises five directorates: Property Management, Project Management,

Maintenance, Support Services, and Florida Campus with each of these playing a specific role in

promoting a green Unisa.

Both Property Management and Project Planning help to ensure that new buildings and renovations at

Unisa promote principles of greening. Both units, together with the Florida Campus Directorate, are

currently working on an exciting building project on the Florida Campus. The project includes a new

reception area, entrance, engineering building, horticulture greenhouse and science laboratories. An

energy efficient design for these facilities was developed by HMZ Architects, a firm with Green Star SA

accreditation. In an effort to limit unnecessary waste, the building team at Florida received training in

building efficiently. In addition, various fixtures installed in the buildings are geared towards energy

saving, water wise principles and the limitation of unnecessary use of gases that impact negatively on the

ozone layer. The buildings are showing good progress and should be completed by the end of 2012.

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Green buildings also require green thinking when it comes to maintenance - it is no longer a case of

simply maintaining spaces. The maintenance team is looking at energy-saving initiatives, such as lights

that switch off automatically when not in use, and they will be replacing geysers with heat pumps as a

further energy-saving measure. They are integrating green building principles into their operations and

often change the specifications for building materials in favour of greener options.

Waste management

The Directorate: Support Services is one of the most important contact points in promoting green

environments, attending as it does to cleaning, catering, waste management, gardens and grounds,

transport and logistical matters on the campus.

A committee of various stakeholders is investigating the most effective ways of managing the university’s

waste streams and of promoting a healthier environment for the university community. Although waste

paper has been collected and recycled for a number of years, this effort received an additional boost with

the implementation of various recycling points on the campus and the provision of recycling bins within

office spaces at the end of 2011.

Grounds and gardens

The Garden and Grounds division has also made a valuable contribution towards greener environments

in 2011. It is responsible for the planning, layout and maintenance of various Unisa campus gardens with

the purpose of enhancing the university’s image and of promoting education, research and the

conservation of plants in their natural habitat. In a major eradication programme, the unit removed invader

plant species and weeds at the Muckleneuk and Sunnyside South campuses very quicklt, as well as in

the well-known garden of the Principal and vice-Chancellor’s residence, Cloghereen. Invasive alien

species are thirsty, exotic plants that out-compete indigenous species for water, thereby limiting the

growth and development of natural indigenous species and compromising water resources.

Cloghereen also is a green site, boasting one of the finest collections of indigenous trees in the country.

In August 2011, the Garden and Grounds division, in consultation with respected tree expert Andrew

Hankey of the South African National biodiversity Institute, started to identify and label the trees. In

September 2011, International Arbor Week was celebrated in a most appropriate manner when Professor

Makhanya planted a Jacket Plum – the 2011 Tree of the year – and engaged with Sunnyside Primary

learners in the identification of some of the trees at Cloghereen.

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To the Garden and Grounds division, acting in an environmentally responsible manner has become

second nature. For example, when planting new trees, the division uses a simple formula to calculate the

minimum distance specific species should be planted from infrastructure such as buildings, pipelines,

walkways and pavements, so as to ensure that these are not damaged. Less money is now spent on

repairing and replacing infrastructure, as well as less water wastage and fewer environmental spills due

to damaged infrastructure. The implementation of sustainable green practices such as green

procurement, water harvesting, the installation of water efficient irrigation systems, the eradication of

invader species and weeds and the use of untreated wood shavings and bark to conserve water are all

efforts towards ‘living greener’.

Several other projects are under way, such as the rehabilitation of the nature trail on Muckleneuk Ridge

where certain indigenous plant species have survived virtually untouched and where they may be

admired and scientifically studied in their natural habitat. The idea is to develop the Muckleneuk Campus

into a place of botanical interest, with the vegetation serving as the tools of an active educational

programme.

Next on the list is the rehabilitation and upgrading of the Unisa cycad garden. Most cycads occurring in

South Africa (28 described species) may be found in this unique garden which lies sheltered amongst the

buildings and which needs to be taken care of. These species are of great botanical and scientific value

and the Garden and Grounds staff have already started with the identification, measuring, labelling and

positioning of all cycads as part of the process of obtaining permits from the Department of Nature

Conservation for this valuable private collection. The greening of campus environments through the

planting of indigenous trees is also on the list for 2012.

OTHER GREEN INITIATIVES

Although not all university departments find their day-today activities as closely linked to green issues as

University Estates does, a host of green activities has been initiated by the various colleges and

departments and implemented across the university.

Joining the global Going Green movement, the College of Economic and Management Sciences (CEMS)

is raising awareness and implementing sustainable green practices through its CEMS Going Green

initiative. The initiative concentrates on introducing sustainability into daily living, tuition, research and

community engagement endeavours. For the past few years, the College of Agriculture and

Environmental Sciences (CAES) has been managing the e-waste project. An e-waste container has been

placed on the Muckleneuk Campus and both staff and members of the public may place here for

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recycling anything that once used a power source. The university as a whole is more than committed to

making a difference.

Last year, an energy savings campaign assisted in creating awareness among staff on how to save

energy – and this year it was followed-up with initiatives such as the office automation project. In 2010,

Unisa staff had approximately 4 500 desktop printers. As part of the office automation project desktop

printers are being phased out. Soon, every staff member will have access to an environmentally friendly,

high quality, high-speed, colour printer and fax machine using biodegradable toner cartridges. Making

intelligent use of technology can be beneficial in more than one way. For the past two years, Unisa

students have been able to register online, an option that is more convenient for them, and that saves

paper. Similarly, the submission of online assignments via the myUnisa portal, the availability of university

brochures online, the facility for staff to submit electronic leave applications, and a library e-book project,

all add up to save resources.


Unisa does have a Sustainable policy, but it is still in draft form, available for persusal but not yet for

citation. Policies on sustainability are important because they encourage and help codify ideas and ideals

that are essential for the success of any institution or society.


Management overlaps with leadership (Bush 2007:2). The challenge of modern organizations requires

the objective perspective of the manager as well as the flashes of vision and commitment wise leadership

provides” (Bolman & Deal, 1997:xiii-xiv). In the University context universities will therefore require that

management take the lead with greening activities at the University. Successful greening projects at

universities all report effective organizational co-ordination, although this not always possible since there

are many role players (Wals and Corcoran 2004:224). The University of Minnesota (Newman and

Robbins 2011:407) for instance relies on six guiding principles (leadership, modelling, operational

improvements, energy efficiency, research, education and outreach) to coordinate their greening

activities.

In his inaugural address in February 2012, University of South Africa Principal and Vice-Chancellor

Professor Mandla Makhanya, identified “anthropocentric research and innovations which neglect global

economic injustices and ecological degradation” as one of the central challenges facing Unisa if it is to

meet its vision to be the African university in the service of humanity in the 21st century. “You can’t have

research that only concentrates on human beings and neglects the environment and ecological

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wellbeing”, he said. In these comments, Makhanya made explicit the finely-tuned interdependence

between humankind and the environment. He referred to Unisa’s vision – towards the African university in

the service of humanity – and said it would be important to also include “creation”, next to humanity,

particularly because he believed creation or the environment was inextricably intertwined with human

flourishing.

13. Existence of a Sustainability Steering Committee or equivalent institution-wide strategic

body

Unisa has opted for a strategy where active leadership is not taken but it is left to individuals, groups,

departments, Colleges, etc to design their own environmental activities.

14. Responsibility for oversight of sustainability matters allocated to member of senior

management

As explained in 7 above Unisa has no person directly appointed to drive greening activities except for the

support given by the vice-chancellor. A number of individuals are however taking the lead in their specific

contexts.


The same as above.


Unisa has numerous programmes, curricula and research outputs that attest its commitment to

sustainability. The institution has inculcated the King III code and United Nations Global Compact

principles into all relevant university activities and a workshop on sustainability reporting was held in

February 2010 to develop an integrated strategy for corporate social responsibility in respect of economic,

social and environmental issues.

Unisa colleges and faculties have begun to audit their contribution to discourses on sustainability and

thus are recommending that students across all disciplines explore and research environmental or

sustainability issues in Unisa’s diverse institutes and centres which promote learning.


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Some of the activities have already been described but the Department of Finance is cutting paper work

by making some applications only available on internet.


This is a relatively neglected practise at Unisa.


Once again co-ordination is not managed by the University but left to individuals, departments, colleges,

divisions, etc to provide their own contribution to greening activities.


Unisa is active in national, regional and international networks and projects on sustainability. The

university also participated in the recent 17th Conference of the Parties (CoP 17) United Nations Climate

Change Conference in Durban where Unisa’s EXXARo Chair in business and Climate Change launched

a book entitled, Green economy and climate mitigation: Topics of relevance to Africa. Whereas the CoP

17 is the most recent global event which has brought issues of environment and climate to the public

domain, Unisa staff members have been consistently involved in national and international

intergovernmental events such as the World Summit on Sustainable Development. Unisa’s support for

sustainability is firmly rooted in its vision and in 2015 Strategy Revisited, its strategic plan incorporating

the principles of the King Code on Governance for South Africa (King III). In addition, the university has,

since 2007, been a voluntary signatory to the United Nations Global Compact – the foundation from which

many green initiatives are launched.

With a student population of more than 300 000, Unisa delivers thousands of graduates every year. This

presents the university with the unique opportunity, and challenge, to educate students to become well-

rounded graduates with the potential to make positive changes to the world. Imagine the significant role

such a cohort of graduates could play in promoting sustainable development, currently one of the most

pressing issues the world has ever faced. but, says Professor Pierre Joubert from Unisa’s bureau for

Market Research, this will require a rethinking of the curriculum. “Despite considerable advances in

education for sustainable development, there has been little curriculum mainstreaming of sustainability.

The International Association of Universities has also acknowledged that universities have not been

producing graduates with the skills, motivation and knowledge necessary to promote sustainability”. Unisa

will have to consider a number of challenges if it wants to prepare its graduates to advocate responsible

and sustainable environmental practices, says Dr Paul Prinsloo, Acting Head: Institute of open and

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Distance Learning. The first challenge is how to engage with the often highly technical and scientific

terminology in the literature and with debates on climate change. Another challenge is whether

environmental literacy should infuse the whole curriculum, or whether specific courses should be included

in already existing degree programmes. And when will students be considered “climate change literate”,

he asks.

“While climate change literacy may have agreed-upon parameters in science or geography curricula, how

does it look and function in general bachelor’s and business curricula?” The curricula of most

qualifications and degrees are already full, and more and more stakeholders are arguing that new topics

should be added for the sake of “graduateness” or the shaping of rounded graduates. Would addressing

climate change be served best at first- or second-year level, or should climate change be addressed

towards the end of a programme or qualification as part of a capstone

project?”

Prinsloo says the answers to these questions will probably depend on whether the university wants to

impart information about climate change, or to develop critical citizens committed to engaging in civil,

governmental and political interventions to ensure more sustainable practices. “What impact do we

envisage in teaching about climate change?” he asks.

CONCLUSION

The University of South Africa seems to be on par with most of the measurement indicators needed to

assess the sustainability/greening of universities. This has also been done in a very short time – less than

2 years. However, improvement is possible in two categories:

3. It seems as if more structured organisation can be done. This implies the appointment of a

committee and a designated person/chairman to take responsibility for the sustainability and

greening issues at the universities. Part of the task of this committee will be to undertake

environmental audits at the university.

4. Some of the activities undertaken at the university is promising but not the results of properly

performed audits (such as the office automisation project).

Thinking green and doing green – has become part of the new Unisa culture. The university is

contributing towards sustainable development in a variety of ways, including through relevant research

projects and considering adjustments to its curricula that will assist in delivering graduates who are

socially and environmentally responsible citizens. Unisa remains ever mindful that reducing its carbon

footprint, using water and energy wisely, and embracing recycling efforts are practicalways to invest in a

sustainable future.

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5 Environmental education for sustainable development: the case of urban and peri-urban agriculture - benefits and health risks Nina M. Cadiz University of the Philippines Los Baños Abstract The present paper reports the benefits and health risks of practicing urban and peri-urban agriculture

(UPA). It also touches on the environmental quality which relies on the everyday actions of individuals,

and touches the aspect of environmental consciousness. Results from primary and secondary data show

that UPA may bring us more harm than good. Although UPA promises food security and sustainability

and employment in the cities and vicinities, various agricultural practices could pose risks to public health

and environment. One particular concern is the heavy metal contamination in the soil caused by

agricultural production systems. A number of studies for specific regions worldwide have tested soils and

crops for heavy metal contamination. The entry of lead and other heavy metals into the food chain

imposes health hazard to urban dwellers and informal settlers. Results of survey and analysis of crops

planted to some urban and peri-urban areas showed high levels of heavy metals such as lead and

cadmium. In the communities around mining areas, the concentration of these heavy metals was even

higher. Concerted efforts, both from the government and private sectors, therefore, should be done in

finding ways and means of reducing, if not totally eliminating, these risks.

Acknowledgement:

The author wishes to thank the University of the Philippines Center for Integrative and Development

Studies (UP-CIDS) for funding part of this study.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

UPA stands for urban and peri-urban agriculture. It occurs within and surrounding the boundaries of

cities. These areas are utilized for crop and livestock production, fisheries and forestry, as well as the

ecological service. It is estimated to involve 800 million urban residents worldwide in income-earning

and/or food-producing activities. The findings of national censuses, household surveys and research

projects suggest that up to two-thirds of urban and peri-urban households are involved in agriculture.

Much of the food produced is for own consumption, with occasional surpluses sold to local markets.

Urban Agriculture covers small areas within cities that are used for growing crops and raising small

livestock or milk cows for own-consumption or sale in local markets. These include areas such as: vacant

lots, gardens, verges (boundaries), balconies, containers and roof tops. Farming is done in city core

areas, wedge areas and corridors out of the city, and on the periphery. On the other hand, peri-urban

agriculture covers farm units close to town that operate intensive semi - or fully commercial farms to grow

vegetables and other horticulture, raise livestock, and produce milk and eggs. According to Duldulao

(2001), container farming (i.e. growing vegetable crops in recycled tin or plastic containers placed in the

yard, on windowsills, and on rooftops) is popular in Metro Manila (e.g Quezon and Makati Cities), and

flood-prone areas such as Malabon and Valenzuela. One study of urban agriculture in Nairobi showed the

land used for farming was 32% private residential land, 29% roadside land, 16% along river banks, and

16% in other publicly-owned areas. In the Philippines, UAP, vis a vis the transfer and promotion of urban

agricultural technologies, has been promoted to strengthen the capabilities of local government units,

state colleges and universities, and NGOs in the (De Guzman and Banatlao, 1999).

The mandate of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) to its member countries is to provide adequate

access to nutritious food for the growing urban populations of the developing world; efficiently integrate

urban and peri-urban agriculture with rural agriculture (in general they are not substitutes for each other),

develop land and water policies that account for agricultural production in urban and peri-urban areas;

and guide dynamic agricultural practices within and outside cities towards sustainability goals (economic,

social, and environmental). UPA can contribute to food security in several ways. It increases the amount

of food available and enhances the freshness of perishable foods reaching urban consumers. Case

studies have shown great improvements in nutrition, especially among children, when poor urban families

engage in urban agriculture. With UPA, there is less need for packaging, storage and transportation of

food because of its proximity to the road. Fresh, perishable food is consequently readily available to

consumers. It can also generate potential agricultural jobs and incomes. . The cultural management of

UPA is made more efficient in terms of terms of proximity to services, including waste treatment facilities

and waste recycling and re-use possibilities. Part of the reason for the growth in UPA is its adaptability

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and mobility compared with rural agriculture. As cities expand physically, the frontiers between urban,

peri-urban and rural activity are becoming indistinct and merging, creating opportunities as well as risks.

PROBLEM

The soils in UPA are prone to contamination because they are located in areas where industrial factories

and technological institutions are present. Heavy metal toxicity is a major concern particularly for

cadmium uptake because of the large number of sources emitting this metal into the environment. These

heavy metals may come from polluted air, heavy application of inorganic and organic fertilizers, industrial

effluents, and soil characteristics. The entry of cadmium and other heavy metals in the food chain

imposes health hazard to urban dwellers and informal settlers. The inappropriate agricultural and aqua-

cultural practices of use of inappropriate or excessive agricultural inputs like pesticides, nitrogen, and raw

organic matter containing heavy metal residues, etc.; increased competition for land, water, energy, and

labor, use of untreated human and animal waste, reuse of urban waste, reuse of wastewater, reduced

environmental capacity for pollution absorption. Agricultural practices in UPA, therefore, pose risks to

both public health and the environment. The present paper focuses on some observations in the practice

of UPA in the Philippines.

Heavy Metals and the Food Chain

Heavy metals are natural components of the Earth's crust and they are undegradable. Their non-

biodegradable nature, long biological half lives and their potential to accumulate in different parts of the

body make them dangerous. Most of the heavy metals are extremely toxic because of their solubility in

water. Even low concentrations of heavy metals have damaging effects to all living organisms. In

humans, there is no good mechanism for their elimination from the body. Heavy metals are persistent

environmental contaminants which may be deposited on the surfaces and then adsorbed into the tissues

of vegetables. Plants take up heavy metals by absorbing them from deposits on the parts of the plants

exposed to the air from polluted environment as well as from contaminated soil. They can enter our

bodies via food, drinking water and air. As trace elements, some heavy metals, like copper, selenium and

zinc, are essential to maintain the metabolism of the human body. However, at higher concentrations they

can lead to poisoning. Heavy metal poisoning could result, for instance, from drinking-water

contamination (e.g. lead pipes), high ambient air concentrations near emission sources, or intake via the

food chain. On the other hand, heavy metals such as cadmium, copper, lead, chromium and mercury are

important environmental pollutants mostly as by-products of man-made activities. Their presence in the

environment and entry in the food chain impose health hazard to urban dwellers and informal settlers.

A number of reports worldwide had indicated heavy metal intake by children and adults acquired through

the food chain. In the Philippines, for instance, De la Cruz (2003) reported the presence of lead (Pb) and

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cadmium (Cd) in kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica), saluyot (Corchorus acutangulus) and pechay (Brassica

chinensis) in small commercial scale vegetable farms in Diliman QuezonCity and North Fairview. He also

observed higher levels of Cd and Pb in vegetables and soils in Diliman farms than in North Fairview. The

Diliman vegetable farms were located in three major city roads, while the North Fairview vegetable farms

were inside a residential area.

Approach

A survey of some UPA was done in Metro Manila. The practices of some informal settlers and low-income

family in planting in open spaces were noted. Studies from secondary sources on these areas were

gathered and evaluated. Our primary data were from the chemical analyses of some vegetables,

collected from some vegetable plantations of communities near abandoned and active mine areas in the

country.

Observation and Assessment

The birth of urban agriculture (UA) program in the Department of Agriculture (DA) commenced in 1998.

This encouraged people, especially the low income families and informal settlers, to make use of

available land in the metropolis. There are also middleclass businessmen who adopt UPA, because there

is less need for packaging, storage and transportation of food, thus the constant availability of fresh,

perishable food.. It can also generate potential agricultural jobs and incomes to less privileged individuals.

The cultural management of UPA is made more efficient in terms of proximity to services, including waste

treatment facilities and waste recycling and re-use possibilities.

During the survey of UA around Metro Manila, one problem observed is the absence of source for clean

water. Open spaces near polluted rivers (like Pasig River) and canals generally serve as the source of

water to irrigate/water the vegetables. These polluted waters are potential sources of toxic metal ions

since both domestic and industrial wastes are dump here. The analysis of soils done by the Bureau of

Soils and Water Management is summarized in Table 1. Among the heavy metals listed, cadmium is the

most toxic (Page et al., 1987).


Lead (Pb) Zinc (Zn)

>50 UP Diliman Quezon City Circle

Cadmium (Cd) 3 Economic Garden, Los Baños

Nickel (Ni) & Zn > 50 Hagonoy & Calumpit, Bulacan Santolan, Pasig Sto Niño & River Bank, Marikina

Copper (Cu) & Zn > 100 Macabiling & Balibago, Sta Rosa, Looc, Calamba, Lalaan, Silang & Tanza, Cavite, San Francisco, Fairview West

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Quiasao, Pililia, Rizal, Biñan

Chromium (Cr) 98 93

Iba Estate, Calumpit Hagonoy

Table 1: Some areas with heavy metal pollutants (Bureau of Soils and Water Management).

Plants Heavy Metals

Spinach lead & nickel

Pechay, mustard, guava lead

Water melon cadmium

Tomato cadmium & chromium

Sambong copper

Stringbeans nickel

Table 2: Some plants detected to contain heavy metals (Bureau of Soils and Water Management).

Table 3: Some plants around abandoned mine and active mine areas detected to contain heavy

metals (Cadiz, 2005).

Table 4: Some vegetables observed to accumulate certain heavy metals (Grifal et al., 1997)

The levels of heavy metals in the vegetables above (Table 4) ranged from 0.6 ppm – 48 ppm which were

above the allowable limits for heavy metals; i.e. cadmium (0.1ppm); copper (5.0ppm); lead (0.5ppm)

Plants Heavy Metals

eggplant, okra lead, cadmium

ampalaya (bitter gourd) lead, cadmium

gabi leaves (taro) lead, cadmium

Lead Cadmium Nickel Copper

Spinach Pechay Sambong

Spinach Pechay Tomato

Spinach String beans

Tomato Sambong Kangkong

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(Harmanescu, et all., 2011) ; and nickel (41-44ppm) (Cempel and Nikel, 2006). This is a major concern

because these toxic metal ions find their way in the food chain. We do not metabolize heavy metals; they

are simply deposited in various organs of our body, thus posing risks to human health. Most of these are

potential carcinogens at high concentrations and could even cause death under prolonged exposure

(Martin and Griswold, 2009).

ROLE OF EDUCATION TO ADDRESS THE PROBLEMS

We recognize four key concepts in environmental education – interdependence, sustainability,

biodiversity; and personal and social responsibility for action. The concept of interdependence

emphasizes the links between cultural, social, economic, and biophysical concerns. The Tbilisi

Declaration in 1977, which was the first intergovernmental conference on environmental education (EE),

described environmental education as a learning process that increases people's knowledge and

awareness about the environment. It also mentioned the role of education in addressing environmental

problems and the challenge of creating and integrating environmental education in different countries

(UNESCO, 1978). Ten years after the Tbilisi Declaration, the Philippines in December 12, 2008 had

finally put into law through Republic Act No. 9512, the National Environmental Awareness and Education

Act of 2008 signed by our former President, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. The law requires that

environmental education be integrated in the school curricula at all levels, public or private. Environmental

education, therefore, encompass environmental concepts and principles, environmental laws, the state of

international and local environment, local environmental best practices, the threats of environmental

degradation and its impact on human well-being, the responsibility of the citizenry to the environment and

the value of conservation, protection and rehabilitation of natural resources and the environment in the

context of sustainable development. With this in place, the citizens of our country are now better

equipped with knowledge and awareness of the various consequences of environmental stresses.

However, this knowledge must be translated to actions in order for environmental education to progress

and succeed.

CONCLUSION

Urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) are good agricultural practices (GAP) that make use of any

available land and space to grow crops and raise livestock, for food security and sustainable

development. However, the where these crops and farm animals are grown and raised, respectively, what

are applied and fed to them, etc. need to assessed because of the possible risks to both human health

and environment. There is a need to bridge the gap between learning institutions and producers, farmers,

gardeners, or households that carry out UPA. Good agricultural practices could be directed toward the

primary sources of contamination; i.e. soil, air, water, hands, and surfaces. For instance, proper waste

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disposal and treatment (both domestic and industrial) must be taught. The UPA practitioners should learn

the ways and means that will reduce the risk of their product becoming contaminated to ensure the safety

of their produce for human consumption. These GAPs should be tailored to any production system in the

UPA. While most consumers associate health risks to food-borne diseases with improperly stored or

poorly cooked animal products, it must be emphasized that contamination is not only bacterial or

pathological, but also chemical; thus, heavy metal-contaminated fruits and vegetables can also present

health risks. Concerted efforts, both from the government and private sectors, therefore, should be done

in finding ways and means in reducing, if not totally eliminating, these risks. Because of our need to

maximize land use through the practice of UPA, it is in this premise that the author advocates that farmer

education on good agricultural practices (GAP) be established and propagated through extension

services.

REFERENCES

Bellows, Anne C; Katherine Brown; Jac Smith. Health Benefits of Urban Agriculture Public Health and Food Security. Community Food Coalition. [Online] Available at url:http://www.foodsecurity.org/pubs.html

Cadiz, Nina M. 2005. Plant biodiversity in selected mine tailings areas: Composition and Adaptation Characteristics.

Final/Terminal Report Submitted to CIDS, UP Diliman

Cadiz, Nina M. 2008. Environmental Concepts in Action without Education is a Futile Exercise: Where we plant our

crops may hurt us. PSSN Scientific meeting on the Environment: Trends, Issues and Challenges. SESEAM, UP Los Baños Feb, 1, 2008

De Guzman, C.C. and P.P. Banatlao. 1999. The Urban Agricultural Project of the Agro-Industrial Development

Program of UPLB-CA: Promoting agriculture in urban communities. Paper presented at the AID-PITAS Lecture Series 8 January 1999, UPLB (unpublished)

De la Cruz, M.E. 2003. Cadmium and lead contents of vegetables and soils in urban farms utilizing subdivision

wastewater and creek water for irrigation. B.S. thesis. Institute of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines. 64p (13,15)

Duldulao, V.A. 2001. Gulayan at Bulaklakan: A component of the government’s urban agriculture program. Paper

presented at the National Conference on Urban Agricultural Systems in the Philippines, 15-17 January 2001, Quezon City. (unpublished)

Food Safety Begins on the Farm: A Grower’s Guide to Good Agricultural Practices for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables

(Cornell University) [Online] Available at url: http://www.wcmorris.com/gap/files/cornell_guide.pdf Grifal, R.B.; E.D. Ayo and R.P. Ulibas. 1997. Status of heavy metal concentrations in soils and plants of Metro Manila

and neighboring provinces. Paper presented at the 9th National Research Symposium. Bureau of Soils and Water Management, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines. April 6-7. 42p (3)

Martin, Sabine and P.G. Wendy Griswold. 2009. Human health effects of heavy metals. Environmental Science and

Technology Briefs for Citizens, Center for Hazardous Substance Research, Kansas State University. [Online] Available at url:


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Harmanescu Monica, Liana M. Alda, Despina M. Bordean, Ioan Gogoasa and Iosif Gergen. Heavy metals health risk

assessment for population via consumption of vegetables grown in old mining area; a case study: Banat County, Romania. 2011. Chemistry Central Journal 5:64 [online] Available at url:

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Hossack, I., Hursthouse, A.S., Kralj, T., Ljung, K., Otabbong, E., Rodrigues, S., Urquhart, G.J., Ajmone-Marsan, F., 2006. Variability in concentrations of potentially toxic elements in urban parks from six European cities. Journal of Environmental Monitoring 8, 1158-1165.

McGuinness, Amanda; John Mahfood and Richard Hof. 2010. Sustainable Benefits of Urban Farming as a Potential

Brownfields Remedy. [Online] Available at url: http://www.eswp.com/brownfields/Present/Hoff%205A.pdf Cempel M. and G. Nikel. 2006. Nickel: A Review of Its Sources and Environmental Toxicology. Polish J. of Environ.

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and Health [Online] Available at url: http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/pubs/2020/focus/focus13/focus13_13.pdf UNESCO/UNEP Environmental Education News Letter. Vol III No.1, January, 1978. . [Online] Available at url:


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6 Looking back to see forward: a review of postgraduate environmental education


Ms N Madikizela-Madiya


Abstract

Environmental Education (EE) research by postgraduate students may produce significant knowledge

that could be useful for Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). This article argues that unless

such knowledge is reviewed and/or disseminated, its possible value and the gaps it revealed towards

addressing current environmental concerns may not be known. The article aims to contribute towards the

achievement of the goals of ESD by presenting the results of a review of postgraduate EE research that

was produced at two South African higher education institutions. The purpose of the article is to trigger

reflections on what similar research has done differently or similarly during the Decade of Education for

Sustainable Development (DESD) and, therefore, what the way forward should be in favour of ESD.

Following document analysis as a method of data collection, O’Donoghue’s (1995) model, which views

the environment as multidimensional, was used as a frame of analysis. Findings revealed that during the

period concerned, the tendency for postgraduate EE research was to prioritize school-related topics at

both institutions and there was not a lot of focus on other environmental dimensions. Different

methodologies were used by researchers, some of which were not engaging enough to empower the

participants to address the problems identified.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

As an element of higher education institutional research, postgraduate research is a foundation of every

country’s knowledge base. Often the quality of such research is assured through different quality control

measures applied in the different institutions. One of the major concerns when postgraduate research is

assessed is its relevance to the social, economic and political contexts (Madiya, Bengesai & Karlsson

2011; Williams & Vogt 2011). Some postgraduate researchers produce knowledge on issues that are

relevant to these different contexts. At the same time, it is also noteworthy that a large amount of

postgraduate educational research is never published. This may be due to a variety of reasons that need

more detailed discussion than the space allows for in this article (see Griffiths 2011 and Ahern 2012 for

some current observations). This article, however, argues that unless the knowledge produced by

postgraduate researchers is reviewed, its content, methodology and contextual relevance will not be

known and, as such, the problems that were identified by these researchers may persist. At the same

time, through this research knowledge may have been produced that could address such problems.

Similarly, there may be gaps in the produced knowledge which, if not addressed, may aggravate

problems. Focusing on Environmental Education (EE), this article presents findings from a study that

reviewed postgraduate research that was produced at two universities in South Africa a decade before

the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (UNDESD). The article is premised

on the notion that looking back at what was done during the decade spanning from 1995 to 2004 might

inform what would happen in the decade 2005 to 2014. It is hoped that this article will motivate reflections

on what it is that postgraduate researchers have done so far within the DESD that is different from or

similar to what was done a decade before and, therefore, what the way forward should be towards

research informed EE in South Africa and other contexts.

The article is composed of seven sections. This introduction is followed by a brief background about

where the data for this article was drawn from. Next, a historical overview of environmental problems in

South Africa is presented, as a way of looking back and justifying the need for relevant research

applicable to the South African environmental context. Then there is a section on methodology, followed

by a presentation of findings. Thereafter there is a discussion of the findings, followed by the conclusion.

BACKGROUND

EE is one of the areas that have been fore-grounded by the UNDESD as contributing to sustainable

development. In the report on the workshop held in Windhoek, Namibia, in 2006, Towards the

implementation of the Decade for Sustainable Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, UNESCO indicates

that a rich array of EE and other required practices for ESD are practiced in Southern Africa. The

challenge identified was to resolve how such practices could be synergized and mainstreamed in order to

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achieve the goals of the DESD. This article is a way of responding to a related question posed by

UNESCO (2007:57) in one of the documents on the DESD 2005-2014:

And what about you, what will be your next action in favour of Education for Sustainable Development?

Here I intend to present one way in which an answer to this question could be ascertained: Looking back

to see forward. I regard research as one of the strategies through which EE can be carried out for

sustainable development. Through research, knowledge can be generated on what kind of EE is needed

in a particular context and time. Depending on the methodologies used in research projects, participants

may acquire the necessary knowledge and skills regarding sustainable development. For example, one of

the issues that were revealed by research in the past was a need for a broader focus in relation to EE

rather than the narrow focus on conservation education that it used to be. From research it was realized

that little attention was paid to “the needs and rights of human population associated with [the] same

environments [that were conserved], as an integral part of the ecosystem” (Sauvé 1996:8; Tidball &

Krasny 2010). Such attention to broader environmental dimensions became one of the concerns of ESD,

which coincided with a number of other global initiatives coordinated by UNESCO, such as Education for

All (EFA) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Although there are some differences, all these

initiatives have similar intentions, that is, global sustainable development of both natural and human

resources. Particularly the DESD emphasizes education beyond the formal sector, and in this regard,

research that involves communities and/or participation in the research projects may be more relevant.

In relation to this expectation about research, a Project on Postgraduate Education Research (PPER)

was initiated in 2007 at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. Among the PPER’s objectives was “to

understand the panorama of education research in South Africa, and to ascertain whether there were

links (causal or other) between institutions, regions, and the type of research … generated by students

and academics” (Balfour, Moletsane & Karlsson 2011). It is as a result of this project that I saw an

opportunity to zoom in on EE research with the same objective. The PPER focused on the decade 1995-

2004 which was characterized by transformation, restructuring and change in different sectors of South

Africa’s economy. For alignment purposes the next section discusses the contextual background for the

rationale of the study from which this article draws.

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS IN SOUTH AFRICA

As indicated above context-informed research is important for the relevance of the knowledge produced.

This section, therefore, looks at the historical background to some of the environmental problems in

South Africa which may have influenced choices of research topics by postgraduate researchers in EE

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during the first decade of democracy and which may, therefore, provide a way forward for EE. The

problems highlighted in the discussion below are categorized into rural, urban and educational.

Rural problems

Environmental issues in South Africa were historically shaped by discriminatory practices and laws such

as the forceful removals of blacks from ancestral land in order to create space for game parks or the

preservation and protection of fauna and flora (McDonald 2002). Under the Native Land Act, Act 27 of

1913, about 87% of South Africa's land was allocated to the white population group, while blacks were

relegated to the reserves, later called homelands, under the apartheid government (Feinberg 1993;

Whyte 1995). These reserves constituted only 7% of the country’s land and were the least fertile in the

country (Durning 1990; Feinberg 1993; Whyte 1995). The removal of blacks from squatter settlements

and other “black spots” in the urban areas between 1960 and 1980 led to a dramatic increase in the

population density in the homelands (Percival & Homer-Dixon 1998). What this meant was that the

proportionately limited land reserved for the blacks was over-cultivated and overgrazed. This led to

severe soil and gully erosion, lower food production per capita and poverty in the homelands (Whyte

1995).

In addition to exclusions related to environmental conservation, the majority of the population that was

discriminated against stayed without the basic needs such as clean water, adequate shelter and proper

sanitation facilities. These limitations compelled them to use, excessively, those resources that were free

and easily accessible, such as land and forests, which then aggravated environmental problems in the

areas concerned. Such exclusions may have created the impression that conservation and taking care of

the environment were only for the selected few.

Urban problems

Due to the difficult living conditions in the rural areas many people, especially men, decided to move to

the cities in pursuit of job opportunities. This migration led to urban environmental problems such as a

shortage of housing, unemployment, and other socio-economic problems. For the most part, those who

found employment lived in hostels or in the backyard of their employers and relatives (Seekings &

Nattrass 2006), but the majority lived in shacks or squatter settlements where there were limited or no

sanitation or waste removal services. In other words, the rural problems discussed above extended to the

urban areas. Some black townships were located close to the industrial areas, where industrial pollution

and exposure to other toxins led to illnesses related to chest problems. These unhealthy living conditions

would sometimes affect and incapacitate the breadwinners of the poor families which, in turn, increased

poverty levels.

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Problems with education in South Africa

The Bantu Education Act, Act 47 of 1953, also had an impact on environmental behaviour “since the

resultant widespread illiteracy and semi-literacy presented a major obstacle to the development of an

aware, informed public, able and willing to participate in environmental decision-making” (Pelzer 1966, in

McDonald 2002:18). Together with the restriction on the freedom of movement within the country, the

Bantu Education system weakened the ability of black people to explore and be familiar with the broader

environment. Such restrictions implied a lack of exposure to the range of environmental experiences to

reflect on.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCEPTIONS

The discussion above alludes to the fact that, although “environment” was understood as pertaining to

“nature”, environmental problems in South Africa has in the past always been intertwined with social,

biophysical, political and economic issues. The discriminatory laws, however, could be associated more

with a concern about nature conservation, which addressed only one aspect of the environment, the

biophysical (ecology or natural environment). Since the 1990s, people in South Africa, like in other parts

of the world, increasingly became involved in environmental debates that focused on the demand for

clean water, lower levels of industrial pollution, worker safety, and land for housing and subsistence

farming (Carruthers 2006; Mappin & Johnson 2005). New environmental discourses, such as

environmental justice, which focuses on poverty as a fundamental cause of environmental degradation

and capacity building, were adopted. These challenged the practices and policies of the past (Cock & Fig

2001; Cock & Koch 1991; Ramphele & McDowell 1991). After a divided political past, the expectation now

was that all South Africans, regardless of race, class or age, would care for the physical environment

because, unlike the situation under authoritarian apartheid, environmentalism became a grassroots

mobilization effort for "our future and for our children", in a united democratic nation (Carruthers, 2006: 1;

Whyte 1995). This mobilization implied a need for non-discriminatory EE practices towards sustainable

development. Environmental conceptions, which would formerly be interpreted as meaning that the

“environment is for white people”, needed to be changed. One of the ways in which this can be done, I

argue, is by involving people of all races, ages and/or classes in research activities that empower. In this

way EE can be research informed. In the next section I present some of the research priorities in EE as

identified from literature.

INTERNATIONAL AND LOCAL RESEARCH IN EE

Some trends in EE research were identified by researchers throughout the world during the period before

the DESD. One such trend was the broadening of research methods and methodologies (Meyers et al

2007). For example, Gough and Gough (2004) identified the dominance of quantitative survey research

and participatory action research in the Southern African region, with other approaches, such as case

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studies, grounded theory, actor network theory, narrative research, critical realism and critical discourse

analysis also getting more attention in some institutions. The content of the research also changed from

being only nature oriented to include social and political concerns. An example of this is Schreuder’s

(1995) “Delusions of Progress”, where he highlights some perspectives on the root and common causes

of educational and environmental crises in South Africa. Other EE researchers, according to Gough and

Gough (2004), focused their research on issues of accountability, where there would be an assessment

of the successes of EE programs. Notably, there were contradictory reports with regard to who the

participants in EE research were. For example, Rickinson (2003) noted claims that research ignored

children, who happen to be major role players in education. Braus (1995:48), on the other hand, noted EE

programs (which might include research) as selectively targeting younger learners in some countries,

ignoring other segments of the population, such as “business leaders, the urban poor, senior citizens, the

general public, policy makers, and parents”. This narrow focus was attributed to the lack of materials,

organizational support, training in how to reach new audiences and training on how to take cultural,

ethnic, and economic diversity into account (Braus 1995).

Based on this background and identified research priorities and the associated gaps that were revealed,

the purpose of the study was to review postgraduate research in environmental education at two

universities in South Africa in order to understand what issues they focused on and identify the

methodologies that were used to conduct such research. Below is a summary of the methodology I used

during the review.

METHODOLOGY

An unobtrusive documentary, descriptive case study design was followed to review the doctoral and

master’s theses produced at the two universities from 1995 to 2004. The guiding question for the study

was: What has been the trend in postgraduate Environmental Education research during the period 1995

to 2004 in terms of focus and methodology? The objective was to identify the education sectors that were

researched, who the participants were, what the purpose of the studies were, the environmental

dimensions that were being prioritized and the methodologies that were used by postgraduate

researchers at the two institutions. To address these questions I used qualitative and quantitative

approaches.

Sampling

The sample for this particular study was drawn from the initial PPER sample of eleven institutions in

South Africa and which was based on institutional research output in education over the first decade of

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democracy as well as the regional location of the institutions. The initial PPER sample23 was composed of

three institutions from the Eastern Cape; three from the Western Cape; two from Gauteng; one from

KwaZulu-Natal; one from the Free State and one from Limpopo. I purposively selected two institutions

from that initial sample. From the PPER database I selected all those titles that were on EE or ESD.

When I noticed that most institutions had produced very little or no EE research in their faculties of

education during the period 1995 to 2004, I decided to focus only on the two that had the highest

numbers of theses produced: one from the Gauteng province and one from the Eastern Cape. I regarded

these as information-rich and, therefore, suitable for my research design.

Data analyses

I quantitatively determined frequencies and percentages of themes identified from data during analysis.

Although quantification helped to foreground the trends in both the contents and methodologies that were

used during the study period, I regarded it as limited in answering the questions, especially because data

was collected only through documents. I, therefore, followed this up with thick qualitative description of

research patterns in postgraduate EE research. Qualitative description allowed me to use categories and

concepts that were used by researchers themselves as an attempt to stay true to the meanings they gave

to those concepts and categories (Babbie & Mouton 2007).

I started by reading through all the sampled theses and then identified the sector of education that was

researched. The education sectors were initially identified by the PPER and I adopted these for my study.

These included: schooling (from primary to secondary education sector); higher education (universities,

colleges and technikons); civil society education (including community or people that are not in formal

education sectors); service provider (the organizations that are involved in EE initiatives and activities);

government (governance generally, including education department); mixed (where a combination of two

or more of the above sectors is evident) and documents (all forms of documentary research). I identified

these sectors through words or phrases in the titles of theses (such as “teachers’ views” or “community

participation”, to mention but two). In cases where the title was not informative enough, I also read

through the abstracts and identified the participants in the study. For example “learners in Grade Four”

and “biology educators” indicated the schooling sector. I then counted the frequency of each of these

sectors.

The next step was to identify the research purposes, research methodologies that were used in each

study, and who the participants/informants were. I identified these from the abstracts and/or introduction,

23 As per the requirement of the PPER’s funder, NRF, eventually all universities of South Africa (except one that

declined participation) were researched.

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methodology or concluding chapters of theses. Categories and themes were identified, organized in

graphs and tables and were then qualitatively interpreted and discussed. The same procedure was

followed to identify the environmental dimensions that were researched, using O’Donoghue’s (1995)

model of the environment as an analytical lens. Below is a summary of findings from the review.

FINDINGS

Out of a total of 707 theses in education from University X in Gauteng, 23 (3%) were on EE (4 doctoral

and 19 master’s). Out of a total of 133 from University Y in the Eastern Cape, 23 (15%) were on EE (3

doctoral and 20 master’s).

Education sectors researched on

Table 1 below presents the number of theses in the different education sectors at the two universities.

Sector of education researched on Number of topics/university Total

X Y

Schooling 9 8 17

Higher education 2 4 6

Service provider/NGO 1 4 5

Civil society 7 3 10

Government 1 0 1

Continuing education 1 1 2

Mixed 2 3 5

Total number of theses 23 23 46

Table 1: Frequency of EE topics per sector at universities X and Y: 1995 to 2004

This table indicates that at both institutions postgraduate research focused more on the schooling sector

during the period 1995-2004. This was followed by the civil society sector, though with comparatively

different proportions at the two institutions, with very limited focus on other sectors such as government

and continuing education.

Population involved in research

The next area of interest in my research study was who the participants were in each of these education

sectors per study and what their role was in the studies. These are presented in table 2 below. In the

schooling sector the teachers were most often chosen as participants or informants (depending on their

role in the studies and the way they were referred to by the researcher concerned) and in a few cases

learners (four at X and one at Y) and parents (0 at X and one at Y) were also informants in the studies.

Generally, the participants in all these sectors were mainly adults. Considering that these participants

represented different sectors – principals, teachers, education officers, parents, lecturers and labourers –

that were all be categorized as adults, there were comparatively few students (two at X and 4 at Y) and

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youth or children (0 at X and one at Y). The category of people labeled as adults in the civil society and

mixed sectors includes various groups of adult people such as taxi drivers, labourers and commuters. I

decided to put them in a different category, to distinguish them from the parents’ category (in the

schooling sector). The reason for this decision is that parents’ role in the schooling sector is different from

the role of adults in the other education sectors in relation to EE.

Sector of education researched Participants/informants category

No. of studies in which the category was part

University X

University Y

Schooling Teachers 8 8

Learners/students 4 1

Principals 1 0

District officials 1 1

Parents 0 1

Higher education Students 2 4

Lecturers 0 3

Service provider EE Officials 1 1

Documents 0 1

Labourers 0 1

Civil society Adults 7 3

Youth 0 1

Government Local municipal authorities 1 0

Continuing education Teachers 1 0

Mixed Lecturers 1 1

Teachers 1 1

Students 0 1

Table 2: Research participants in education sectors

The common and most dominant trend in the category of adults was that they mainly belonged to the low

income or “poor” sector of the South African population, this is evidenced by descriptors (from theses)

such as “people from informal settlements”; “poor, black citizens from the village”; “hawkers”; “cleaners”;

and, “uneducated, poorly paid labourers”. Only a few studies involved people such as businessmen,

contractors and a doctor. These low income groups of people were sometimes referred to as participants,

a concept which, according to Cains (2008), gives an impression that they were involved more

extensively than simply providing data. However, in some studies they were merely interviewed to

determine their views, experiences or perceptions of phenomena, as in the following title examples:

“Concerns and perceptions of taxi drivers and hawkers regarding littering at Mabopane station”

“Community knowledge, cohesion and environmental sustainability: An educational

case study in Clarkson”

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There are studies, however, where participants were practically involved in many parts of the decision-

making process that would affect them and in which they could learn or contribute to the knowledge. This

was the case, especially with those studies where action research was used as a methodology, which

was mainly in the schooling sector. The following is an example of topics in this category.

“Teaching the principles of ecology in the urban environment: an investigation into the

development of resource materials”

In this study the researcher and the participants were all involved in fieldtrips and workshops where they

“explored the potential of various sites in urban environment for the teaching of ecology” (page 32 of the

thesis). Participants developed worksheets to be completed at various sites. This involvement would

clearly have left these participants with skills and they would have gained necessary knowledge from the

process of the study.

Environmental dimensions

While still looking at the trends in EE postgraduate research, my other concern was to identify the

environmental dimensions that the researcher focused on. Table 3 below presents the frequency of

studies in each of the dimensions from O’Donoghue’s (1995) model of the environment.

Institution Social Biophysical Economic Political Total

X 2 1 0 0 3

Y 3 2 0 1 6

Total 5 (11%) 3 (7%) 0 1 (2%) 9 (20%)

Table 3: Environmental dimensions researched

These figures suggest that limited studies focused directly on each of O’Donoghue’s environmental

dimensions, with none on the economic dimension, and one on the political dimension. Instead some

studies could be seen as focusing on more than one dimension as in the following title examples:

“The relationship between environmental literacy and perceptions with regard to Eco-

tourism by Vhavendas in the Eastern Soutpansberg Region” (social and economic)

“Environmental literacy of workers as a factor in sustainable forest management” (social

and biophysical)

“Implementation of Local Agenda 21 planning process in urban settings: A case study in

greater Johannesburg Metropolitan council” (social? and political)

It also appeared that EE research cannot be confined to the four dimensions in O’Donoghue’s model

only, since other dimensions could also be identified even where they involved the original four. The

following examples were identified from the review:

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Social and curriculum dimension: “Community participation in social environmental

issues in a core-plus curriculum”

Biophysical and curriculum dimension: “An investigation into the use of nature reserve

as a cross-curricular teaching resource”

The four environmental dimensions can also be analysed in terms of “green” and “brown” problems

(McDonald 2002; Carruthers 2006). “Brown” problems are those related to sanitation, public health,

pollution, etc. which are mainly associated with urban areas and can affect mainly the social, economic

and political dimensions of the environment. “Green” problems are those related to the depletion of

natural vegetation and animals, which can mainly be associated with rural areas and are mainly the

biophysical dimension. Analysis and categorization of EE research topics revealed that in this decade the

focus was more on green issues than brown issues. At University X 4 (17%) of the 23 studies focused on

green issues, with the following title an example:

“Concerns and attitudes of the southern neighbours of the Kruger National Park towards

the park: Working towards an EE model”

Two (9%) focused on brown issues, with the following title an example:

“Teachers’ and students’ views on sanitation and water supply at Ngwaritsane High

School in Bushbuckridge”

At University Y 11 (48%) of the 23 studies focused directly on green issues, with the following example:

“An investigation into the use of nature reserve as a cross-curricular teaching resource”

One (4%) focused on brown issues as in the following title example:

“An exploration of environmental understanding among primary health care providers in

an Eastern Cape community”

Three (13%) focused were on mixed issues:

“Environmental perceptions and knowledge among political leaders in the Eastern Cape

province and some implications for environmental policy”

It was also evident that many researchers during the period of review were more concerned with EE

curriculum issues – teaching resource development and professional training of environmental educators.

From each of the two institutions 13 (56%) of the 23 studies were on curriculum issues.

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Research purposes

My other concern during the review was to determine the purpose of each study. My analysis revealed six

themes on the study purposes (table 4). These were not pre-determined, but were deductively identified

as stated or implied by researchers.

Theme Number of topics/themes


To determine environmental (education) perceptions, concerns, attitudes, views or opinions

7 4

To determine the level of environmental (education) awareness, literacy, understanding or knowledge

2 4

Environmental education curriculum, program or resource development or evaluation

7 7

To explore the feasibility, possibility or potential for environmental education

0 7

To identify the cause for environmental problems or challenges 5 0

To encourage the improvement and involvement on environmental issues

2 1

Table 4: Themes on research purpose

From the table it is clear that both institutions focused more on curriculum issues as well as on people’s

perceptions, attitudes, views and opinions.

Methodologies used

Although there were similarities with regard to the methodologies used at the different institutions, there

were notable differences. As shown in table 5 below, there are designs that happened to be used only in

one and not in the other institution. Similarly with approaches, the two institutions had some differences.

Research design Number per institution


Case studies 9 13

Surveys 12 2

Quasi-experimental 2 0

Action research 0 8

Table 5: Research designs

There was no action research study at University X and no quasi-experimental research at University Y.

More researchers conducted surveys at University X, while the majority at University Y conducted case

studies. As shown in table 6 below, the majority of the theses at both institutions used the qualitative

approach. However, at University X some were quantitative, while at University Y none were mentioned

nor implied to be quantitative. It would be interesting to know why different institutions prefer some

methodologies over others. This is an area that future researchers may explore.

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University Approach No. of theses %

X Qualitative 14 61

Quantitative 1 4

Mixed 8 35

Y Qualitative 19 83

Mixed 1 4

Not mentioned 3 13

Table 6: Research approach

TRENDS IN POSTGRADUATE EE RESEARCH AT THE TWO INSTITUTIONS: DISCUSSION OF THE

FINDINGS

Due to the design that I used to conduct my research, the findings presented above are not transferable

to other contexts. However, they are intended to trigger thoughts towards similar research in different

contexts. As indicated in the introductory section of this article, these findings purpose to open

opportunities for reflections and discussions on what it is that has been done similarly or differently in

other contexts by postgraduate researchers in EE during the DESD and what the way forward can be.

The abovementioned findings reveal five issues that warrant attention in relation to ESD. These include

selective research foci on the part of the two institutions with regard to the education sector; participants;

environmental dimensions; research purposes and methodologies. I briefly discuss each of them in this

section.

Selective research foci on education sectors

As indicated in the historical background above, during the period 1995 to 2004 South Africa was

undergoing political transformation, which affected different economic sectors in the country. More focus

on the schooling sector at both institutions reviewed is an indication of the changes that were taking place

in education as well. The question may be asked, however, as to whether such focus changed or

extended to other sectors during the DESD. Another issue to be considered is whether more focus on

one current issue does not reveal gaps with regard to other issues that are temporarily or fully ignored by

researchers. For example, while the focus was more on schooling issues, such as the development of

study materials for EE in schools, there was limited research on similar issues in relation to education of

adults and out-of-school youth. Yet, as indicated in the section on the historical overview of environmental

problems in South Africa, EE was and/or is necessary for these groups as well. Continuing education also

received little attention from EE researchers. This was a problem, because EE during the decade under

review was a relatively new concept in South Africa, and practicing teachers had very little or no

knowledge at all about how to integrate it into their curricula. What the trend is currently during this

decade of the DESD, in similar and different contexts, is a matter to be explored.

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Participation or information provision and methodologies

Findings from this study reveal that EE research focused on low income/poor people. The race of the

informants and/or participants was hardly mentioned, but it was implied in many studies. This is

understandable because the period in question warranted sensitivity with regard to racial issues.

However, as indicated in the historical overview section, environmental issues had a racial history

(McDonald 2002). It would, therefore, have been interesting to see who, in terms of race, the participants

were and how research acknowledged the need for all races to be environmentally aware, even if it is at

different dimensions. For example, even those that were previously advantaged could be part of the new

discourses, referred to by Carruthers (2006) and Whyte (1995) above, through participation in research

activities. With the changing trends in EE research, as mentioned by Gough and Gough (2004) and

Rickinson (2003), research methodologies could be more participatory, by including all population groups,

regardless of class, age or race. However, as indicated above, one of these institutions did produce a

number of action research studies during the period, while one still preferred surveys. The advantages of

utilizing both action research and surveys are known (see, for example, Goba, Balfour & Nkambule, 2011;

Davey & Balfour 2011) but, based on the history of environmental problems presented above; it could be

assumed that more participatory, qualitative research during the period concerned would have been more

preferable in South Africa.

Environmental dimensions and research purposes

It became evident from the review that the four dimensions of the environment identified by O’Donoghue

were not necessarily directly researched on. This was surprising considering the manner in which

environmental conceptions had been so highly biophysical in the past (McDonald 2002). It was, however,

interesting to notice that researchers understood the environment as multidimensional, as demonstrated

by the research done on issues that combined two or more of the dimensions in O’Donoghue’s model.

Even though more focus was still on the “green” environmental issues, “brown” problems (McDonald

2002; Carruthers 2006) were not completely ignored. However, what was worrying was the

marginalization of the political dimension in almost all studies. This is worrying because this is a

dimension where decisions are made that either favour the environment or works against it. Even the

inclusion or exclusion of EE in school curricula is decided upon in the political dimension. Many studies,

as indicated in the findings above, were on curriculum issues, mainly with the purpose of evaluating EE

programmes and developing resources, but they did not involve governance or the political dimension of

the environment.

CONCLUSION

The purpose of this article was to look back at what the trends in postgraduate EE research were at

selected institutions in South-Africa during the period 1995 to 2004. This was done with the intention of

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encouraging similar reflections on what has taken place so far in the DESD with regard to postgraduate

EE research and what the way forward should be if environmental concerns in the country are to be

addressed. A number of strengths and gaps, in both content and procedures of such research, were

discussed. The identified trends in the studies that were reviewed in my study may have changed since

2004, in similar and/or in other contexts. They may also have remained the same. That is exactly what

this article intended to establish. As the DESD nears its end, the question asked by UNESCO on what

your next action will be in favour of the ESD may now be rephrased. This article proposes that the

question should now be: What has postgraduate EE research done in favour of ESD during the DESD

and what should the way forward be towards a research informed EE in South Africa and in other

contexts?

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7 Guidelines for facilitating a community driven community group

Guy C. Caws

Durban Solid Waste Education Section, KZN

Abstract

As an environmental education officer, the author has been involved in facilitating community groups in

developing a sound waste ethic in the community. In a recent study of community groups facilitated by

the author the need for such programmes to be community driven was a recurring theme. This notion is

supported by the Keep America Beautiful organisation and, in the environmental education context, is in

keeping with Principle 9 of the Tbilisi Conference.

In this paper the author will justify the value of a community driven project in which the Education Officer

plays the role of facilitator. The author will draw on current community development theories and

demonstrate how they have manifested themselves in practice. He will offer practical suggestions from

the experience he gained through working with several community groups.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

The eThekwini Municipality’s Cleansing & Solid Waste Department (Branded as DSW) has a section

dedicated to Waste Management Education called DSW Education. The purpose of the DSW Education

Section is to develop a sound waste management ethic in the community through education. It attempts

to reach the entire spectrum of the community by offering waste education programmes to such diverse

sectors as schools, tertiary education, business and industries and individual community initiatives.

The core method used by the section is the Clean Community System (CCS). It was devised by the Keep

America Beautiful organisation as a method of taking waste management education to the community.

The CCS was introduced to Durban by the then Keep Durban Beautiful Association after it had affiliated

to the Keep America Beautiful organisation. The key to the success of the CCS is that the responsibility

for standards of waste management in a community is devolved to grass roots level. In this way the

initiative is driven by the particular community group itself. The CCS has proved to be an effective method

of waste management education. One indicator of this is the Photometric Index Litter survey. The survey

has been undertaken every six months in Durban (eThekwini Municipality) since December 1983. The

results indicate that there has been a reduction of street litter of 75.2% during this period.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF THE CLEAN COMMUNITY SYSTEM

The Clean Community System is based on a clearly defined definition and goals.

Definition and Goal

The Clean Community System is a behaviourally-based systems approach to changing attitudes and

practices relating to waste handling. (Keep America Beautiful: 1980). The goal of the Clean Community

System is to create a sustained litter reduction (Keep America Beautiful: 1980). Since the writing of this

definition litter is now seen as part of the issue of waste management.

The Clean Community System is referred to as a normative system change process. A norm is an

accepted pattern of behaviour which is a result of a particular attitude to an issue. It is an unwritten rule

which is supported and reinforced by general public behaviour. The purpose of the system is to change

community norms in such a way as to make effective waste management an accepted norm. The most

visible norms in poor waste management are littering and the illegal dumping of solid waste.

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Essential Components for Achieving Effective Waste Management

In order for effective waste management to take place, the Clean Community System advocates that four

components should be in place. These components have proved to be effective guidelines for developing

a waste education programme. The components are (Keep America Beautiful: 1980):

Standards

Standards and rules regarding effective waste management must be set. These are usually in the form of

laws, ordinances and by-laws at national, provincial and local government levels. They can, however,

also take the form of informal agreements between parties. The standards, however, would be in the form

of a waste policy for an institution, a business or even a household. Thus standards should be available

at all levels of society.

Infrastructure

In order for effective waste management to take place, the correct facilities and technologies for waste

must be in place. These facilities and technologies cover a wide range of activities such as a collection

and a disposal system. From the collection point of view the facilities would include properly equipped

and staffed vehicles and an efficient street sweeping system. The disposal system would include not only

the management of landfill sites but a network of garden refuse sites and transfer stations. Recycling

facilities can be added to this component as well.

Education

An ongoing education programme must ensure that the community is aware of correct waste

management practice. The education programme is a strategic initiative to ensure that, in the long term,

the need for waste collection and disposal services is reduced. Broadly speaking, an education

programme should follow three stages:

Making the public aware of the issues.

Persuading people that it is in their personal interest to prevent littering, dumping etc

Finally, causing behavioural change with respect waste management.

Enforcement

Standards and rules must be enforceable and appropriate action must be taken. An important aspect is

that enforcement must be regular and consistent. In South Africa, the South African Police Services,

Metro Police and various government officials have the power to enforce waste management laws,

ordinances and by-laws. Enforcement of sound waste management policies should also take place within

institutions, businesses and homes. It must be pointed out that enforcement as method of waste

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management education does not tend change attitudes and create new norms. It is rather an effective

short term measure to ensure cleanliness. The long term change of norms comes through education.

Why the Clean Community System

The key to the success of the Clean Community System is that it addresses the root of the problem which

lies in people’s behaviour. It is people centred rather than problem centred. It is a planned approach

which focuses on long term results.

The Clean Community System focuses on changing the norms and attitudes of a community towards

waste management as opposed to focussing on the waste. This implies that the facilitator of the Clean

Community System (usually the Education Officer) must work with the community in order to achieve the

required goals.

What is a Community?

The first consideration when working with communities leads to the central question “What is a

community?” Collins Gem English Dictionary (1998:105) defines a community as “all the people living in

one district; group with shared origins or interests; the public society.” With the dictionary definition in

mind and reviewing the various projects of the DSW Education Section, it can be viewed that community

groups can be categorised into two broad groupings:


Communities of Interest.

The rationale behind the identification of these groupings follows.


Communities of Place occur when members of a community are in close geographical proximity and

share a common interest in an issue and work together to address the issue. The members of the

community may be residents, business owners or anyone who has an interest in that community. The

important factor is that they are in close physical proximity and the concerns of a local community (in

geographical terms) are paramount. The size of the community is determined by the members of the

community themselves. The size is decided upon by the interests of the community members and their

capacity to deal with the issues in the area. The examples of DSW Education’s community groups show

that the group could be made up of members of a single street, a suburb or a political ward or a

constituency. This is a very important point to consider. It is very easy for a facilitator to look at a map and

arrange perceived communities according to suburbs or boundaries such as rivers or roads, whilst in

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reality these demarcated areas may not reveal the true community spirit. A successful community group

needs to determine all the parameters of the community themselves.

Communities of Place are the most obvious types of community and are usually the most frequently

applied understanding of the term community.

Communities of Interest

Communities of interest occur when the key ‘bonding agent’ of a group is not geographical proximity but

rather their membership of an organisation or of individuals subscribing to an ideal. The members may be

spread geographically but consider themselves part of a group. Examples of communities of interest can

come from religious groups, political parties and youth movements. These groups are powerful tools in

environmental education as their influence can spread over a large area.

The writer has personal experience of a Community of Interest. As a long standing member of the Scout

Movement he has a close network of friendship that spreads over the whole of KwaZulu Natal with

contacts spreading even wider. This has been used to advantage in his environmental work as the Scout

Movement promotes environmental education. Through networking and the channels offered by the

Scout Movement a great deal of effective environmental education has occurred. With careful

management Communities of Interest can be turned into a ‘win-win’ situation for both the environmental

educator and the other organisation as the mandates of both organisations can be fulfilled. Care,

however, must be taken by the environmental education facilitator not to ‘hijack’ another organisation for

one’s own benefit.

The understanding of the distinction between Communities of Place and Communities of Interest is a

powerful tool in creating a significant impact in working with communities. The facilitator needs to employ

different strategies when working with each type of community but should bear in mind that they are not

mutually exclusive. They can be integrated into one community programme at a local level.

INTEGRATING COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT THEORIES INTO WASTE EDUCATION PROJECTS

In a recent study, the author explored various community development theories and applied them to the

principles of the Clean Community System.

A number of sources and writings on community development were considered and the work of David

Korten (Korten & Klaus:1984. Chapter 18) in particular showed potential in applying them to developing

environmental groups. Broadly, Korten distinguishes between two approaches to community development

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ie The Blueprint Approach and the Learning Process Approach. A third approach, Asset based

Community Development, as championed by the North West University is also explained in this paper.

The Blueprint Approach

Korten contends that this approach reflects the textbook way of how development is supposed to work.

This approach is based on the notion that researchers will, after pilot studies and data gathering, provide

the most cost effective designs for achieving given outcomes. The outcomes are well defined and the

intended project is carefully planned and implementation is strictly according to design. The notion is that

these programmes will be given wide application and effectively address the issue at hand.

Korten believes that the Blueprint Approach has severe limitations and that the ultimate impact of such

programmes is usually incidental. The Blueprint Approach fails to take heed of the diversity of local

conditions and thus the impact of such a programme is affected. This does not mean, however, that the

Blueprint Approach has no value. Generic waste education programmes such as Adopt a Spot, Tag a

Motorist and the Doorstep Environment Programme are of value. They may form minor components of an

initiative but not the over-arching programme. The critical point is that the overall programme must not be

too rigid and that consideration of local conditions should be allowed. The initiatives offered by the

Blueprint Approach are imposed from another group and are not necessarily subscribed to by the

community at hand. Hence programmes prescribed by the Blueprint Approach are not community driven.

The Learning Process Approach.

As a result of his case studies, Korten contends that the Blueprint Approach never played more than an

incidental role in development. His studies reveal that the most successful programmes adopted a trial

and error approach. The problem is identified by the members of a community itself. The appropriate

interventions are developed and implemented by the community themselves. This gives the participating

community members ‘buy-in’ to the project. At the same time the community members’ knowledge of local

conditions will add nuances to the interventions which should make them more effective. Thus the project

is community driven and the role of the Education Officer is that of facilitator and technical advisor. Korten

points out that it very often appears to be ‘a very disorderly and intuitive process’. Despite this, Korten

believes that this is the more successful approach. Another benefit that became apparent is that Korten

often found that there was a significant continuity of personnel and that the problems that arose were

handled in a better way. With the project being community driven the tendency is for the community

members to take ownership of the project rather than be seen as the receivers of handouts. This

ultimately led to the interventions being more effective.

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Asset Based Community Development (ABCD)

The concept of Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD) is another concept that can enhance

waste management education projects. ABCD is championed by Northwestern University in the USA. The

key work on the issue is ‘Community Development from the Inside Out’ by Kretzmann and McKnight.

Essentially the strategy of ABCD is to focus on the assets of a community and the identified assets are

used as a platform to develop an appropriate intervention for developing a community project. Another

ABCD advocate, Bergdall (Bergdall:2003) states ‘ABCD focuses on the strengths and capacities of local

communities. It rests on the conviction that sustainable development emerges from within a community,

not from outside, by mobilizing and building upon local resources’.

The key to ABCD is that community development is based on the assets of the community rather than on

the needs of the community. The rationale being that, by focussing on the strengths and capacities of the

community, the members of the community are empowered to build up the community, whilst those

projects focussing on the needs of a community tend to emphasise the negative and the community

becomes the recipient of handouts. The negativity becomes repetitive and ultimately little is achieved in

the long term.ABCD advocates that the facilitator adopts what Bergdall describes as a ‘minimum stimulus’

and only intervenes in terms of guidance and technical expertise. This thinking is entirely in keeping with

the principles of the Clean Community System and emphasises that the project should be community

driven.

Community Projects as Environmental Education Initiatives

The value of community driven projects is supported by various writers in the community development

field. This is particularly noted in Korten’s ‘Learning Process Approach’ and the concept of ‘Asset Based

Community Development. The work of the writers adds credence to the validity of the Clean Community

System, the basic tenets of which encourage community driven projects in the waste management

education field. This also supports the importance of exploring the potential of the relatively unexplored

field of linking community development theory to environmental education projects.

SPECIFIC GUIDELINES IN WORKING WITH COMMUNITY DRIVEN PROJECTS

When providing guidelines for working with community driven projects the evidence suggests that it is

necessary to focus on two areas. The first is to provide guidelines for the facilitator/ education officer

when working with community groups. The identified guidelines will empower the education officer/

facilitator to more effectively work with a community driven group.

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The second area to address is that of how members of the community group should be dealing with an

environmental issue themselves. This approach should ensure that appropriate care should be taken so

that the activities of the group employed in such a way so as to achieve maximum effectiveness.

The Education Officer as Facilitator

The professional officials of organisations working in the community development field and environmental

education usually have the designation of Education Officer. It is easy for an official working in the field to

dominate the proceedings as he/ she is likely to have superior project management skills and a sound

understanding of the issues at hand. In order to address this tendency, it is important that, if a project is to

be community driven, the Education Officer should be trained in facilitation skills. The facilitation skills will

empower the Education Officer to ensure that the community group drives the project themselves.

In order to achieve a high level of facilitation skills the following recommendations should be borne in

mind:

A high level of facilitation competence by a facilitator is necessary to ensure a successful project

driven by the community. This can be achieved by the facilitator at all times playing a supportive

and not a dominant role in his dealings with the community. This is the method whereby questions

are asked indirectly with a view to getting the participants to think through the process and get

them to work out the answers themselves. Bergdall(2003) describes this as ‘leading by stepping

back’. The key role for the facilitator is to create a climate that is conducive for the community to

operate a programme effectively. The facilitator and the facilitating agency should provide minimum

support and intervene only when particular guidance and expertise is needed by the community.

At the inception of his/ her involvement with the group, the facilitator must be upfront as to the

agenda of the agency he/ she represents. In the case of the DSW Education Section, the primary

agenda is waste management education especially in terms of litter abatement, dumping, recycling

and community beautification. Any other support given in other fields is a ‘voluntary extra’ and

should be viewed as such. This approach is honourable and, by the facilitator being upfront in the

beginning, the possibility of problems develop. The possibility of a development agency to ‘hijack’ a

community group to achieve its own aims should be avoided at all costs. This view is supported by

Korten (1984:Ch3).

The role of the facilitator should be supportive rather than dominant. Bergdall (2003) refers to the

facilitator’s role as being one of providing ‘minimum stimulus’. This does not detract in any way

from the importance of the facilitator’s role but rather defines its function. The term ‘minimum

stimulus’ does not mean that the facilitator abdicates responsibility. It rather advocates a ‘watch

dog role’ where the facilitator observes and intervenes only where and when it is necessary. This

non-directive approach requires a particular mindset for the facilitator who at times will have to

restrain the urge to intervene unnecessarily.

The role of facilitator is not an easy one for the Education officer. From experience the author realises

that it takes considerable will power on the part of the facilitator to step back and allow the community

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driven process to flow. The facilitation role will, in the long term, be more effective in achieving the aims

and objectives of the group.

Guidelines for Working with a Community Group

The following are guidelines for the facilitator when developing projects with community groups.

The specific issues that need addressing should be identified by the members of the community.

The role of the facilitator at this stage is to provide minimum input in terms of expertise only. It is,

however, advisable that the facilitator familiarise himself with the community before a formal

meeting take place. This will assist in providing appropriate guidance. The issues that are under

discussion should not be confined to the problems of a community. The assets of a community

should be identified as advocated by the concept of Asset Based Community Development. A

successful program should be built around projects that enhance the assets of the community

whilst at the same time addressing the needs of the community.

The programme of activities should be developed from the identified needs and expectations of the

community. The activities are actually interventions designed to address the needs of the

community. These interventions should be clearly defined and prioritised.

The number and nature of the projects/ activities chosen for action should be determined by the

capacity of the group to deliver. There is often a tendency in community groups to try to tackle too

many projects at once or to choose projects that are beyond the capacity of the group. The result is

usually that expectations are not met, motivation dwindles and ultimately little is achieved.

When deciding upon the projects that are to be undertaken, it is important for the community group to

assess the resources available to them. The resources to be taken into account should include finance

and materials such as litter bags and tools. The second type of resource is that of human resources. This

involves the capacity of the community members to carry out the project. The skills of the members and

the time that they have available to carry out the project is a critical consideration.

Once the resources are assessed the community group should choose the projects they plan to

undertake. It is recommended that the first project should be relatively easy to undertake and of short

duration. The early success will motivate members and provide the group with a track record from which

to build future interventions. The group should on an ongoing basis have a mix of projects that are quick

to undertake and other low profile projects that take time to complete but are effective. This ‘mix’ will

ensure the sustainability of the group. At all times records should be kept so that the success or otherwise

of the projects can be measured and assessed.

A point to note is that the facilitator should ensure that all participants in the project have an input

into the proposed activity. On the one hand the facilitator must ensure that his/ her role must be not

be dominant, but on the other hand the facilitator must ensure that other parties do not exert undue

influence on a group in order to achieve their own agenda. The other party may come from another

interest group or it may be a dominant person in a group who overrides the will of other

participants. The facilitator’s intervention in such cases will ensure that a project is truly community

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driven. This is supported by Meyer (2004: 24) who advocates that ground rules should be set

before at the start of the meetings. He believes that ground rules play an important part in

achieving maximum delivery in a limited time. One point he makes is that ‘All opinions are

important’. This should be born in mind by the facilitator.

At all times the participants should refer back to the original aims and mission of the group. This will

ensure that the initiative remains faithful to its original mandate. A deviation from this guideline

should be agreed upon by the group as a whole and only in special circumstances. A useful

technique is for the aims of the group to be included in its standard letterhead. This will serve the

function of being a continual reminder to readers of the correspondence.

It is important that a community group maintains an identity and creates a niche in the community by

defining what it stands for. It is also necessary for a group to define boundaries as what it does or does

not do. Frequently a group will be approached to address an issue which is outside its mandate. This may

be in terms of the issue at hand or outside of its geographical boundaries. It is recommended that the

group resists the temptation to become involved. Such situations lead to the group losing its original focus

and its effectiveness becomes watered down. The more a group remains faithful to its original mandate

the more likely it is to succeed.

CONCLUSIONS

There is sound evidence that successful environmental education programmes can take place through

working with community groups. The Keep America Beautiful organisation pioneered this concept through

its Clean Community System strategy. The Clean Community System has been successfully

implemented in South Africa by the DSW Education Section and its predecessors. It is evident from the

evidence available that community groups are most successful when driven by the community

themselves with the environmental agency playing facilitating role. This view is supported by various

writers on Community Development Theory.

REFERENCES Bergdall, T. 2003. Reflections on the Catalytic Role of an Outsider in ‘Asset Based Community Development’.

Available from: http://www.sesp.northwestern.edu/abcd. [Accessed 8January 2009] Caws, G.C. 2011 Guidelines for the Training of Particpants in the Clean Community System. MEd Dissertation.

Pretoria. University of South Africa. Collins English Gem Dictionary. New Edition. 1998.London: Harper Collins. Keep America Beautiful inc 1980. PRE-CERTIFICATION MANUAL. New York

Keep Durban Beautiful Association. Undated. Handout on the Clean Community System. Durban Korten, David C & Klaus, Rudi ed 1984. People Centred Development. Hartford, Connecticut. Kumarian Press.

Chapter 3 and Chapter 18 Meyer, M. 2004. Effective Facilitation. Claremont, Cape Town. New Africa Books.

http://www.sesp.northwestern.edu/abcd

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8 The role of religion in education for sustainable development: a case study

Prof JM Dreyer


Abstract

This article is a report on a case study of one Christian congregation in South Africa and on the role the

congregation’s religion plays in members’ beliefs and actions concerning environmental matters. Data

were obtained using documentary analysis, observations and interviews. The findings refer to the

members of the congregation’s understanding of their role as stewards of the environment (the earth),

their attitudes towards and ethics concerning the environment, their level of participation in environmental

activities, and their achievements to date. This case study shows that religion can indeed influence

people’s environmental attitudes and behaviours; it also shows that a small group of people can make a

big difference in the effort to live more sustainably.

The conclusion emphasises the need to involve religious groups and/or individual churches and/or

members of congregations in environmental initiatives.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

The awareness that religion has a role to play in ensuring sustainability of life on earth is not something

new. In 2007, I analysed some of the major religions and found that all provide ample guidelines for their

followers concerning what their attitudes and behaviour should be on environmental matters. I also made

the observation that it looked as if very little attention was given to this issue in sermons and that it was

obvious from what was happening to the world that the followers of these religions were paying scant

attention to what was expected of them ecologically (Dreyer 2007).

There were even examples of religions such as Christianity that, for a long time, actively supported the

view that the earth should be subjugated by human beings and that its resources could be used without

any consideration being given to sustainability. Indeed, under the guise of converting the people of other

countries to Christianity, the colonial powers stripped these peoples’ countries of their resources (e.g.

minerals, wood and products) and, in the process, did irreparable damage. The view held was that "God

planned all [of creation] explicitly for man's benefit and rule: no item in the physical creation had any

purpose save to serve man's purposes" (White 1967:1204). This view, fortunately, seems to have

changed somewhat over time and environmentalist Christians now view peoples’ role as being the

stewards of the earth (Goffman 2005).

Recently, all religions seem to have woken up to their responsibility to actively mobilise their followers, by

which I mean religions are now encouraging their followers to start following their religion’s guidelines;

their followers should start acting as stewards of the earth rather than as just users of its bounty. In this

article, I will take a fresh look at what is happening in this regard in order to get a general overview of

recent changes in people’s attitudes and behaviour.

At a more local level, I shall investigate the efforts and actions of a single congregation of the Reformed

Churches of South Africa to live more sustainably. The research was undertaken as a case study where

the researcher was a participant observer.

The research question that had to be answered was: how does this congregation interpret their religiously

guided obligation towards sustainability and how do they go about putting this into practice?

LITERATURE STUDY

The literature study is devoted to a short overview of some of the major world religions and how they

interpret their environmental responsibilities. The purpose of this section is to determine whether a

common environmental ethic exists among the major world religions or whether certain religions regard

environmental issues as less important.

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World religions and the underlying environmental ethic

The foremost religions chosen for examination include Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam and Christianity.

Buddhism

Fossey et al (2003) describe Buddhism as an ecological religion or a religious ecology, since Buddhists

regard nature as a teacher, as a spiritual force and as a way of life. In the words of Ghosananda in

Fossey et al (2003:1):

When we respect the environment, then nature will be good to us. When our hearts are good, then the

sky will be good to us. The trees are like our mother and father, they feed us, nourish us, and provide us

with everything; the fruit, leaves, the branches, the trunk. They give us food and satisfy many of our

needs. According to Buddhism, not only should there be a respect for life, but there should also be a

respect for nature itself: this can be achieved by frugality and simple living, where nothing is wasted

(Fossey et al 2003).

Swearer (1998) puts the blame for the ecological crisis squarely on the shoulders of humans and is of the

opinion that Buddhists should take action to rectify this situation. According to him, Buddhist

environmentalists believe that there is mutual interdependence between all life-forms and that

environmental degradation should be “more forcefully” addressed. It is not clear how strongly lay

followers of this faith feel about this.

Nash (1987:39) quotes H. H. the Dalai Lama who expresses it thus:

The world grows smaller and smaller, more and more interdependent . . . today more than ever before life must be characterized by a sense of universal responsibility . . . human to human but also human to other forms of life.

The issue of how Buddhists should take action is debated regularly, especially in the Journal of Buddhist

Ethics, which often publishes articles on ecology and the environment.

Hinduism

According to Hinduism, because human beings are intelligent they, of all creatures, should contribute the

most in terms of preserving an ecological balance – so that all creatures are conserved and none are

destroyed. This can be accomplished by living a simple life (Chapple 2003). It is not clear whether

Hinduism’s many followers actively support this approach. The earth does not belong to people (Dwivedi

1996: 154) and if people live in harmony with nature they will be happy and prosperous (Prime 1992: 35).

In Hinduism, the earth is seen as humankind’s mother; it is the earth that supplies us with food, shelter,

and whatever we need. People who destroy the earth are ignorant and should unlearn this behaviour –

mother earth must be treated with respect (Prime 2003).

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Islam

Islam teaches that the earth is subservient to humankind, but that human beings hold the earth in trust:

this means that the earth should be utilised responsibly. Earth is a beautiful garden that should be cared

for lovingly as preparation for the afterlife (Denny 1998). People are not allowed to destroy anything or to

waste anything (Al-Hafiz & Masri 1992:12-15). If you disrespect nature, you disrespect God (Negus

1992:38-39).

Christianity

According to Christian ecological ethics, people should live frugally and, in the spirit of stewardship, care

should be taken in intervening in natural processes so that future generations will also be able to use

earth’s resources (Hessel 1998).

Since there are many different Christian denominations, and many different interpretations of

environmental ethics, I will specifically discuss the view of the Reformed Churches of South Africa (i.e. the

case study).

Finding from the literature study

From the literature it is clear that there is a common understanding among the religions mentioned above

that the environment should be respected and treated with care. All the religions mentioned above

acknowledge the importance of the environment and the fact that humanity has a responsibility to use it

judiciously. The problem, therefore, does not lie in the interpretation of religion’s responsibility towards the

environment and nor does it lie in the fact that religion does not accept a positive environmental ethic.

The problem lies in the fact that this is not translated into action.

Although it is heartening to see (according to the Worldwatch Institute [2006]) that religions are making

some progress in contributing to efforts in ensuring sustainability, it is also clear that, as yet, not enough

is being done in practice. And probably not enough is being done at the level of individual congregations

to ensure that members of the different religions will start taking action in their own communities and

contexts.

The purpose of this research was therefore to determine if the members of a congregation of one

Christian church group in South Africa do have the above understanding of the importance of the

environment and if they are active in pursuing a sustainable lifestyle.

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THE CASE STUDY

When any case study is undertaken, it is important to give a description of its context (Babbie & Mouton

2011: 283).

General context

The church group involved consists of protestant churches within a Christian tradition. The group uses the

Christian Bible as its religious text and believe that the Bible is the Word of God which they choose to

obey. The churches in this group are unique to southern Africa (although there are now a few of these

churches found in countries to which followers have emigrated).

This church group recently had a meeting of church representatives (called a synod) where a formalised

stance was adopted regarding the environment. The document that was drawn up is entitled: Public

witness regarding the ecological crisis (GKSA 2012). An analysis of the document showed that there are

four themes. Theme one describes what the group believes or professes about nature and the earth

(based on the Christian Bible). This part of the document professes that everything belongs to God

because He created everything, including human beings, who are given the responsibility “ … to work it

and take care of it” (Genesis 2:15). It is also professed that it is people who are responsible for the chaos

and degradation of the environment (mainly because of greed) and that it is time that people start working

at repairing this damaged relationship with God’s creation.

In theme two, there is a description of certain aspects of the ecological crisis about which the group is

particularly concerned. Among others, there is concern about unchecked population growth (putting

pressure on resources), non-sustainable use of resources, pollution of resources, destruction of the

environment by governments for their own selfish purposes, and the uneven distribution of wealth

(leading to poverty and famine).

Theme three refers to concerns specific to South Africa, such as our large carbon footprint, the non-

sustainable utilisation of marine resources (also by outsiders), the deteriorating water quality, and soil

pollution by the dumping of mining, medical, industrial and household waste. In theme four there is an

appeal to people, business, industries, governments and religious groups to change their attitude and

behaviour and to stop polluting the planet and misusing its resources; specific mention is made of the

need to re-use and recycle. Religious groups are specifically called upon to meet their obligations towards

the environment, to lead a simpler lifestyle (requiring fewer resources), and to continually pray that

humankind starts behaving in a way that is ecologically responsible.

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Specific context of the case study

The specific congregation studied were members of a city suburb church of about 600 communicants and

150 children. The parishioners are distributed over a large area that includes several suburbs and

smallholdings, as well as a few smaller farms. The congregation consists of a large percentage of older,

retired people and one reverend.

The congregation is active on many fronts (e.g. care of the poor), but only about one third of the

congregants regularly participate in these actions. The specific stance adopted as far as environmental

matters are concerned (against the background of that of the larger church group) can be found in a

sermon that specifically focused on the subject (Nel 2012).

The title of the sermon was “To work it and take care of it” (Genesis 2:15), and the sermon was directly

aligned with the church group’s understanding of what God expects people to do on earth.

An analysis of the sermon revealed the following main points:

God created everything;

God makes himself known through His creation;

Because God is good, He created a living space that was perfect for humans;

God provided people with everything they need to survive;

In return, God expects people to work the land and to take care of it;

Things went wrong when people disobeyed God, which is why there is now an ecological crisis;

Christ made it possible for people to restore their broken relationship with God;

We have a calling to stop abusing God’s creation and to take action to ensure its survival.

From this it is clear that this congregation is called to action and that they must do what they can to stop

the degradation of the environment and the waste of the earth’s resources.

In the beginning of 2012 the activities in the church were reorganised into a number of what is called

“service groups”. One of these service groups is the Recycling and Conservation Service Group, whose

responsibility it is to heed this call to action and to coordinate environmental activities. Service groups

each have a number of members who are all volunteers.

The Recycling and Conservation Service Group has eight permanent members, but a number of other

congregants also support the group’s recycling and conservation activities. Permanent members of the

group are the coordinators of the activities and each has a specific responsibility (e.g. glass recycling).

In what one could call the group’s Constitution (Anon 2012:1), they state that their purpose is to “…

honour God by looking after His creation”. Their functions are broadly stated as recycling and the

conservation of resources.

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In this research, actions taken by this group were observed and a number of interviews were held with

some of the members (see “Findings”).

Findings from the analysis of documents referred to above which forms part of the context

discussed above

It is clear that the larger church group and the specific congregation understand their role as:

derived from God (through His Word, the Bible);

an obligation that must be fulfilled;

stewards of the earth who have an obligation to look after the earth.


There is a strong association between religion and ethics (Weaver and Agle 2002), because both require

certain ethical behaviours (Fararo and Skvoretz 1986). Religion can influence values (Saroglou et al.,

2004) which, in turn, can influence people's attitudes and behaviour (Schwartz, 1992). This can explain

the influence religions (and their associated guidelines for ethical behaviour) have on how people view

the environment and what they understand as their responsibility towards it.

Religion is not just a belief in God, but also includes the belief that there should be a commitment to

follow guidelines believed to be mandated by God (McDaniel & Burnett, 1990). These beliefs can

influence (ethical) attitudes and behaviour (Weaver & Agle, 2002).

In other words, religions can have an influence on people’s ethical behaviour as far as the environment is

concerned and can be a powerful way of:

making people aware of their responsibilities towards the environment;

spelling out the required actions to achieve this;

inspiring them to change their behaviour accordingly.

Translated into religious learning, one could say that the theory is as follows: if people believe strongly

enough (through the teachings of their religion) that a certain ethic and behaviour is required from them,

they will adapt their behaviour and act accordingly. The converse is also the case: if a required ethic and

behaviour is not taught and lived by a certain religion, people may well not practise this behaviour.

It is therefore of the utmost importance for religions to indicate very clearly to their followers that the

required ethic and behaviour is a prescribed requirement included in their religious texts and therefore

expected of them (otherwise action cannot be expected). This is particularly true regarding a more recent

religious insight such as ethical environmental behaviour which, traditionally, has been neglected. In other

words, it is not enough for a religion to declare that “our religion is environmentally friendly”; it has to

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teach people what is expected of them, what should be done about the problem, and even how it should

be done.

Given that religious teaching usually comes from sermons, activities such as the study of religious texts

and actively teaching children the catechism (as preparation for becoming communicants) one would

expect the required beliefs and actions to be included in these teachings.

The theoretical framework of the study thus looks as follows:

.

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METHODOLOGY

The methodology chosen is constructivist in nature and is therefore qualitative, because I was interested

in the perspectives of a specific group of people on how they make sense of their religious guidelines

regarding sustainable living in a rather unique reality – and how they act upon this interpretation. Because

only a single social group (one congregation) was studied, I chose a case study as the research design.

As is usual in case studies, multiple sources of data were used to collect data to ensure that one obtains

a thick description that is rich in information. The following research methods were used to collect data:

Preferred

environmental

behaviour/ action

Wrong or no

environmental

behaviour/ action

Religious teaching and guidelines on

environmental behaviour/ action

Studying of texts

Sermons

Catechism

Actual activities/involvement

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Literature study

The literature study was undertaken to find out what the world’s major religions teach about the

environment.

Documentary analysis

Documentary analysis was undertaken to find out what people involved in the case study understand

about what they can and should do regarding the environment.

Observations

Because the research had a very strong focus on people’s actions/ behaviours, observation was a very

important data-collection tool. Observations were carried out for several Sundays (multiple observations

on multiple occasions), because this is the day that the congregation comes to church and when they are

actively involved in recycling activities. I took field notes and photographs to record the observations.

Interviews

Given that my observations indicated that some members of the congregations were active in the

recycling and conservation efforts while others were not, I wanted to find out why this is the case. I

interviewed several church members who were active in the drive for conservation and recycling to try

and find why they participated, and I also conducted some interviews with non-participants to get their

perspective about why they did not participate.

The interviewees who were selected from the active members were the appointed coordinators for

different activities associated with the recycling and conservation efforts, and people who congregants

considered to be particularly active. The sampling was therefore purposive and also based on practical

considerations.

The non-active members were selected through random sampling from the total population of the

congregation’s non-active members.

FINDINGS

Findings from the literature study

These findings are discussed under section 2.

Findings from documentary analysis

The findings from the documentary analysis are discussed under section 3, because the documentary

analysis forms part of the background and context of the case study.

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Findings from observations

Two themes could be distinguished in a thematic qualitative analysis of the data: in-church activities and

out-of-church activities. The themes were derived from process coding, because the coding depended on

observable actions. Codes were clustered into categories of actions and two themes emerged.

In-church activities

On several occasions, members of the congregation were urged to become involved in the church’s

conservation and recycling activities. On every occasion, examples of environmentally friendly activities

are given in the weekly church newsletter. These are simple, practical things everybody can do at their

homes and include activities such as putting something in the toilet cistern to reduce water usage. The

weekly church newsletter also includes ideas for young children, with a view to involving children in these

activities.

On one occasion, sermon was devoted specifically to the subject of congregants’ environmental

responsibilities, on the basis that members of the congregation are all stewards of the environment. (The

background here being the views of the church group and the guidelines contained in the Bible.)

In one of the catechism sessions, a specially developed lesson was presented to preschoolers to explain

to them why it is important to look after the environment (not to litter or waste water, etc.). On another

occasion a meeting of the Conservation and Recycling service group was held to discuss ongoing

projects and the inclusion of new ones. On yet another occasion, the Conservation and Recycling service

group did a PowerPoint presentation on the ecological crisis in order to motivate other congregants to

participate in their activities.

Out-of-church activities

These consisted of actual recycling activities, such as those for white paper, non-white paper, glass, egg

cartons, plastic bottle tops and other plastic products. The categories of observations included the age of

participants, how often the same people participated and how many people participated per observation.

The following observations were made:

Most people that brought items for recycling to church were 50 years of age and older (some were

as old as 90).

No children brought items for recycling.

The majority of people participating in recycling did so multiple times during the observation period.

A small percentage of the total members of the congregation participated in the recycling activities

during the observation period.

Most people brought small amounts of items, but did so regularly.

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A person who only contributed once brought a whole bakkie full of items, including several boxes of

glass bottles and paper.

The highest number of people who contributed (on one occasion) was nine.

There was no occasion when nobody contributed.

From the observations it is clear that there is active participation in out-of-church activities. Certain trends

emerged, such as the fact that it is mostly older people who participate, and it would be worthwhile to find

out why in a follow-up study. The fact that only a small percentage of the members of the congregation

participated is also worth noting and following up. This might be an indication that a great deal of work still

needs to be done to involve more of them.

Findings from the interviews

Interview data were analysed by using in vivo coding, because I wanted to reflect on and give examples

of exactly what the interviewees said. Codes were clustered into three categories of reasons for

participation and two categories for non-participation. Reasons for being involved in recycling and

conservation included the following:

Economic benefit

Economic benefit is derived from the three recycling activities and several participants commented on this

fact:

“We got the orange drum (for recycling of non-white paper) because we constantly need funds to

assist the poor in our congregation.”

“Some of the parents cannot buy the catechism booklets for their children….(we) use the money

from white paper recycling to pay for them as we cannot allow a situation where children do not

have books because their parents are poor.”

Extension of home behaviour

Some participants indicated that they have been recycling at home for some time because they felt

compelled to do it for a variety of reasons (e.g. they were influenced by the media, they started doing it

because their children did it at school, they became involved in a group or society where it was advocated

[such as the Honorary Rangers of SA National Parks]).

“The school had a competition for the family that collected and submitted the most cool drink and beer

cans. We won a time-share week because we had the most. After that we just kept going. When the

church started with all the other things (paper, glass, etc.), we were already used to doing it so we

regularly take a lot of stuff to church.”

“I did some recycling from time to time …. it is now easier as I can just take everything to one place (church).”

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Because the church/God expects/requires/mandates it

Participants indicated that they felt it was their duty or calling to participate in the recycling and

conservation efforts of the congregation.

“It says in the Bible that we must do it (act as stewards of the earth).”

“The importance of this (recycling and conservation) was explained in the sermon and we believe we, as

Christians, must do something about it.”

Reasons for non-participation

When interviewed, several participants gave reasons why they do not participate in the church initiative

regarding conservation and recycling. Reasons fell into two categories:

Too busy/time

“We do not have time to sort things (that can be recycled) out. We both work long hours … maybe in the future

we will do so (participate in recycling and conservation).”

“I don’t litter …. at least I am doing something but I just do not have the time for more.”

Forgot/can’t be bothered to do it

“We want to bring things, but usually we only remember when we get to church and see the

recycling drums.”

“Maybe sometime in the future I will participate but not now.” (In the case of this participant, when

prompted, no reason was given.)

It was interesting to note that people who did not participate were fully aware of the activities going on,

and that they were almost apologetic for failing to take part.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

There seems to be a theory that religion can influence people to acquire a positive environmental ethic

which, in turn, can lead them into taking action to reduce environmental degradation. The first question

one can ask is: do religions take their responsibility in this regard seriously and are they actively doing

something to change attitudes and behaviour to the extent that people take action?

From the literature study and documentary analysis, it is evident that the congregation that formed the

subject of this case study research is doing exactly that (i.e. taking action). They clearly understand their

role and responsibility in making people aware of why and how they should change their behaviour and

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they are involved in a number of activities that enable congregants to take action. One has to conclude

that, at least for this case study, members of this religious group do understand their responsibilities

towards the environment and are taking action as expected, which facts seem to confirm the theory

referred to above.

The case study observations, however, indicated that only about one-third of the members of the

congregation were taking action while two out of every three were apathetic. Among those that were

active, some did not start taking action because of the congregation’s initiatives (i.e. for religious

reasons), but for financial reasons or because they were already doing it anyway. Should one therefore

conclude that religions cannot influence people to be more environmentally active?

Interviews showed that the opposite is true. Even those who, for a variety of reasons, were not yet

participating were at least aware of the fact that something needs to be done and that, as members of a

certain religion, they were expected to take action. One interviewee actually said “I know that I should be

doing this, but I have so many other things on my plate ….” while another indicated that he is expected to

recycle his used paper at work. While non-participants at church are obviously not taking action there

(yet) they are not necessarily negative or wasteful and might still start participating (or are still doing

something elsewhere).

When interviewees were asked why more people do not participate, they indicated that this is a trend that

is true of all other activities at church. About one-third of the people regularly attended sermons, one-third

participated in fund-raising and so on, even though they were all well aware that they should all be doing

all these things. One can only deduce that there is no guarantee that people will change their behaviour,

even though they are aware that this is expected and actually required of them.

One therefore has to conclude that, although not everyone will be motivated to take action, religions can

play a role in changing the behaviour of (some) people. When one looks at how much has already been

accomplished by a relatively small number of people, it is obvious that millions of people can possibly be

motivated to act by their religions and can accomplish a million times more - even if everyone does not

join in.


The study is limited to findings based on observations of one congregation of one church group (of one

religion, obviously). Although there is a possibility that this research can be replicated in many more

settings, it is obviously not possible to generalise the findings. A much bigger study will certainly give

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more insights and, if studies are also undertaken among other religions, it may be possible to make

generalisations which, in turn, could lead to the establishment of new theories.

CONCLUSION

This case study research confirmed that, in this one congregation, it is possible to influence the attitudes

and behaviour of congregants regarding their role and responsibilities towards the environment. The

literature study showed that many studies have confirmed that religion can indeed play a role in this

regard. Documentary analysis indicated that this church group and, in particular, this congregation

understands what its responsibility is and that success has been achieved in changing people’s attitude

and behaviour as far as environmental issues are concerned. Observations and interviews confirmed the

success of their efforts in this regard. In the words of the sociologist, Margaret Read, “Never doubt that a

small group of thoughtful, committed people can change the world.”

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GKSA 2012 Sinodale Handelinge. Accessed on 25 August 2012 at http://www.gksa.org.za/sinode-2012.html.

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Swearer DK 1998 Buddhism and Ecology: Challenge and Promise Earth Ethics 10, no.1 (Fall 1998).

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9 Opening up minds for EE, ESD, Ecotourism and Technology

N de Crom

Tshwane University of Technology

Abstract

Ecotourism means nature-based tourism with an educational, economical and spiritual dimension. To

provide well-trained practitioners, students in Ecotourism at the Tshwane University of Technology (TUT)

receive extensive training in nature-based subjects. The objective of this study was to determine how

mobile devices (technology) could be used to support students in Ecotourism during compulsory field

trips. PDAs (personal digital assistant) were introduced as (1) an aid to clarify certain phenomena in the

natural environment and for data gathering (EE - Environmental Education), (2) to provide tasks,

assignments and information electronically to replace the conventional paper-based workbook (ESD -

education for sustainable development), and (3) to apply these devices as a tool in simulated real-life

career situations (ESD). Research methods involved a mixed methodology approach using surveys,

observations, and in-depth interviews with students. Results indicate interest and captivated attention as

well as increased motivation and sustainable and appropriate opportunities during field trips. Learning

experiences increased and students become cognitively occupied. The availability of multimedia

programmes for PDAs proves to be highly effective for identification and hands-on information retrieval.

However, evaluation methods need to be adapted as the learners’ approach to addressing problems,

answering questions and debating issues with regards to the environment on mobile devices differs from

the traditional pen-and-paper based methods.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

Looking around these days from homes to offices, coffee shops to cars, trains and airports, primary

schools to university class rooms and mobile gadgets are everywhere. Just scratching the surface reveals

the past few years have seen an explosion of mobile technology in the form of iPods, iPads, Blackberrys,

Smartphones and other mobile devices with PDA functionalities such as browsers, email, facebook,

camera and video and light weight laptops, connectivity at "hot spots" and much more. The question is:

Why not use the emerging gadgets (technology) as the powerful tool it can be in teaching and learning?

Students are already familiar with the mentioned functionalities and research suggests that mobile

technologies can make a significant impact in supporting teaching and learning (Perry, 2003; Zurita &

Nussbaum, 2004; Sharples, Taylor & Vavoula, 2007).

This paper reports on the implementation of the personal digital assistant (PDA) to support first year

Ecotourism students at the Tshwane University of Technology (TUT) during field trips. The PDA is a

hand-held computer approximately one-eighth the size of a laptop. Some models receive user input from

a scaled-down keyboard, while others rely on touch screens or an electronic stylus and incorporate

handwriting recognition. Some are equipped with a camera and most have sound facilities for recording

and playback.

Compulsory outdoor training trips form part of the curriculum of the Diploma in Ecotourism Management

in the Department of Nature Conservation. Students need to participate and understand these hands-on

aspects in nature in order to understand and apply the theoretical subject matter offered in class.

Students of any nature related course are usually attracted to the discipline because of the opportunities it

offers to leave the lecture room to explore, experience and learn in the natural environment.

No technological alternative can replace field learning. However, technology can be taken into the field to

support and enhance the learning experience. As it is cumbersome and impractical to take desktop

computer technology into the field, mobile devices are the ideal alternative. Powerful new hardware and

software, capable of supporting mobile computing, offer new options in field education (eco-learn or

environmental education).

Ecotourism and Environmental Education

Before explaining training in ecotourism, it is important to realise what is meant by “ecotourism”. It is

generally agreed that ecotourism is nature-based tourism. In their descriptions of ecotourism, writers

generally refer to nature as the basis, but have placed different emphases on responsibility, local culture,

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sustainability, education, local economic benefits and spiritual and psychological benefits (e.g. Bolton,

1997; Page & Dowling, 2002; ResourceAfrica, 2004; De Crom, 2005).

In all countries of the world, both rich and poor, ecotourism has the potential to play an outstanding role in

educating people about the importance of an environmental ethic. This ethic must include recognition of

the complexity and sensitivity of nature and a rejection of the belief that we can understand nature

scientifically and manipulate it with technology. Participation in sound ecotourism can contribute to the

development of a deep environmental ethic among people who travel internationally to visit wildlife

settings, especially those in developing countries (Fredrickson, 2002).

Education and interpretation are important elements of the ecotourism experience. Tour guides are key

front-line players in the tourism industry. Through their knowledge and interpretation they have the ability

to transform the tourists’ visit from a tour into an experience (Ap & Wong, 2001:551). Therefore, there is a

need for trained guides and interpreters who can set examples by their behaviour and insights. It will not

only enhance the reconnecting experience of the ecotourist, but should also help to ensure better

management for conservation purposes and development objectives. If ecotourism seeks to promote

responsible travel, then its foundation must be education.

Ecotourism students at TUT undergo extensive training in nature based subjects as part of the

Ecotourism Management diploma. The delivered product (the person who will eventually work in the

environment) should be the required well-informed, trained and educated ecotourism practitioner.

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Ecotourism students must attend compulsory field trips of at least one week each semester in order to

gain practical experience and apply the theory of the indoor class. During these field trips students are

transported to various destinations in South Africa.

The conventional programme involves the following: Prior to departure each student receives a workbook

(project book) with a list of questions and assignments and spaces to write for completion during the field

trip. The completed workbook must be submitted before the end of the last day of the trip. This implies

that students have to obtain information from textbooks, brochures, interviews, lectures and other

resources and write this summarised information in the workbooks. They also need to do this while being

transported to the destination, walking or listening to lecturers and guides in the field - a difficult and

inconvenient way of taking notes. Students also have to carry textbooks, field identification guides, note

books and stationary for note taking, a clipboard, binoculars, etc. with them while studying the outdoors.

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Conditions in the field are often not suitable for note-taking or the use of books as they visit places such

as caves, rocky shores, mountains and hiking routes where a certain amount of physical and mental

activity and awareness is required. Students often complain that they “missed what was said” because

they could not keep up with the walking pace and listening and writing at the same time. These and other

external barriers inhibit the concentration, enjoyment and ultimately the learning experience of the

students. The quality of submitted handwritten work is, understandably, also not good and is subject to

the conditions under which the students have to complete the workbook. These workbooks are evaluated

and a mark is allocated which contributes to the semester mark, allowing the student to write a final

exam.

The use of mobile technology, which includes PDAs, and to a lesser extent, laptop computers and cell

phones, was evaluated to address these problems.

The research problem for this study is located in questions raised in terms of the sustainability of

experiences and learning that take place during these field trips, e.g. What do the students do?, What do

they learn?, How do they learn? Are the conventional tests, projects or workbooks sufficient to evaluate

the students?

The main research question was therefore to determine how mobile devices could be used in an

integrated manner as a tool to support and enhance the teaching and learning of students in a

sustainable manner.

RESEARCH QUESTION

Based on the research problem and existing literature the following question was formulated: How can

the use of mobile technology (PDAs specifically) support and enhance field learning for ecotourism

learners?

Sub-questions resulting from the research question are:


7. How does mobile technology motivate students to become involved in field learning?

8. To what extent do students make use of multimedia programmes?

9. Are traditional evaluation methods appropriate for mobile learning?

10. What are the general advantages of using PDAs in the long term?

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Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in this study. Qualitative measuring instruments

included interviews, observations, video-recordings, photographs and open-ended questionnaires and

surveys, while instruments for quantitative measuring involved questionnaires.

What we have done

In the first instance some valuable capabilities and features were identified to be available for educational

purposes on the PDA. These include:

Windows operating system which makes it compatible with other devices

Internet

Pocket Word

Pocket Excel

PDF Viewer

Presentations (PowerPoint Viewer)

Real-time player (Video recordings)

Audio recordings and player

Graphics display (if camera is available)

Multimedia

The use of PDAs was introduced over three field trips with the same group of students (N=50). Each

student received a device (with specific information from the lecturer already on the PDA) prior to the field

trip, which he/she should take ownership of for the duration of the field trip.

Prior to each field trip the lecturer gathered information on a laptop and transferred this to each PDA. The

information consisted of:

A route map

Tasks in the form of questions that required completion each day (Fig. 1)

Figure 1: Tasks provided on the PDA

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Information on features, sites and destinations to be visited

Problem statements or questions on specific current environmental issues

PowerPoint slide shows of natural phenomena, historical sites, and aspects covered during the trip

(Fig. 2)

Southern cross

Figure 2: Example of information concerning natural phenomena provided on the PDA

Discussion questions

Information copied from Internet sources and references to books, field guides, places and people to

be consulted for further information gathering.

Surveys to evaluate the experiences of each day

Multimedia programmes for PDAs (eBirds, eWildlife, eTrees, eGrasses, eMammals and eSnakes)

Prior to the trip each student was also asked to prepare him/herself for a real-life simulation to be an

ecotourist guide for the rest of the group for a specified section of the route to be covered during the trip.

No information was made available on the PDA in this regard and students had to collect the information

required for the section of the route for which he/she was responsible. It was the prerogative of the

student to use the PDA in whatever way he/she thought it could be of value in guiding. This part of the

process also included active participation by the assessors. Two assessors (lecturers) used PDAs to

assess each student (‘guide’) according to set criteria. Students were also peer-assessed by each other

(on an Excel sheet on the PDA - Fig. 3). This was done to not only encourage students to pay attention to

what was being interpreted, but also kept them aware of things they do wrong (or right) as a guide

(metacognition).

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Figure 3: Example of the Excel sheet used on the PDA to do peer-assessment during a guiding

activity

During the fieldtrip, students needed to take notes during field interpretation, information sessions and

discussions. They also had to compile extensive species lists of birds, mammals, trees and grasses which

each individual had identified him/herself. In addition they had to compile a list of tourist attractions along

the route. At the end of each day students had to individually complete a survey on the day’s

experiences. Activities of students with the devices were monitored and notes were taken by the

researcher. Interviews were conducted with students during the day and evening whenever the

opportunity arose.


The objective of this study was to determine how mobile devices (technology) could be used to support

students in Ecotourism during compulsory field trips in a sustainable manner. This means that it should

not be the mobile device as such that will make the difference, but rather the application of the features of

the device that can be transferred to any situation in lifelong learning. The following illustrates the

outcomes of this objective:

Use of standard features of the PDA

Students used the standard programmes on the PDA as follows:

All the documents created by the lecturer prior to the fieldtrip (on MSWord, MSExcel, PDF and

PowerPoint), were extensively used as a reference for information gathering.

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As expected Pocket Word was mainly used by most students (85%) for note-taking during lectures,

discussions and informal conversations. All questions, tasks and surveys were completed as Word

documents. The majority of students (65%) also used Word to create species lists. This came as a

surprise as it was expected that Excel would have been used to a greater extent for this purpose.

Only 35% of the students used Excel for species lists. However, numerical data capturing e.g.

number of animal encounters, game counts and repetitive animal behaviour patterns, was done on

Excel sheets by a number of students (25%).

PowerPoint was used for the provided graphics and text for information display.

The multimedia programmes were used for information searches and species identification. eBirds

was extensively used in bird identification, and students especially made use of the sound option in

this regard. Students reported that they had never been able to identify as many birds as they did

or became so interested in birds than what they had ever been during these field trips using PDAs.

Some also used the option in this programme to create personal bird lists.

Some students (18%) also took notes on paper and transferred some of these handwritten notes to

their PDAs when they had more time available (during free time in evenings). The reason for this

was that they could not type as fast as they needed to with the stylus in order to capture necessary

information during sessions. However, they still preferred to transfer the written notes to a readable

electronic format for final submission and evaluation.

On own initiative, almost 60% of the students, took photographs of interesting observations with

their camera-equipped cell phones or digital cameras during the day's fieldwork. These

photographs were transferred to a laptop and viewed by the whole group as PowerPoint slide

shows during discussion sessions in the evenings. Students also used the recording feature to

record sounds (especially birds, as well as music from traditional instruments during a cultural

performance). These notes, photographs and sound recordings were also used to clarify

uncertainties encountered during the day's fieldwork, back at base camp where these could be

compared with illustrations in text books and discussion sessions (Fig. 4).

PDA as a tool in simulated real-life career situations

Results indicate that students are very comfortable in the use and application of PDAs in real life

situations, such as guiding. They find it especially helpful in their preparation prior to the field trip.

Students downloaded the necessary information for their part of the guiding exercise from Internet sites to

the PDA. They also managed to summarise the most important data from the Internet sites, textbooks

and other sources and transferred this to the PDA as keywords and reminders for clues during the

guiding exercise. Some students also used the PDA to illustrate certain features of animals, birds, trees

or other phenomena to their ‘tourists’ by circulating the PDA in the bus so that all interested could have a

closer look at what was being interpreted.

Engagement with the tool and learning content

Much has been written about the value of teaching and learning in natural and biological sciences in ways

that are authentic and engaging to students as they enquire and collaborate with others (Vogel, et al.

2010). According to Soloway (1996) today’s students are not mastering concepts or applying their

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classroom knowledge. He is of the opinion that a disconnection exists between what goes on in the

lecture room and what goes on outside. Soloway (1996:270) proposes helping students to make sense of

their studies by providing tools that “can extend and amplify learners’ cognitive processes”. The

implementation of mobile technology such as PDAs as done in this study, may be one of the tools

implicated by Soloway.

The interest and captivated attention of students in all groups were clearly noticeable from the first

exposure to the PDA. During previous field trips students used to sleep, eat, have loud irrelevant

conversations, etc. while being transported to the destinations. They always found it “impossible” to write

and take notes while on the move in a bus. Therefore, much of what was being said in the bus by the

lecturer was lost during these trips. Students usually also tended to lose interest in the environment and

quickly fell asleep in the bus.

This study indicated that students used the PDAs almost constantly on the way to the destinations. They

took notes of what was said and interpreted by the lecturer or guides, asked for statements to be

repeated if they had missed something, used the existing information on the PDA to get answers to tasks

and discussion questions and participated in meaningful discussions with each other on topics provided

on the PDA. Students mostly concentrated on what was going on in the environment as colourful and

interesting illustrations and questions on the PDA drew their attention to noticeable features along the

route. This was especially true where students had to pay attention in order to be able to assess each

other during the guiding exercise.

One of the biggest advantages of the PDA mentioned by all the students was the comfortability of its

capacity of information - both for storage and for software. When engaged in practical fieldwork, students

used to have to carry along all the required textbooks, field guides, notepaper, clipboards, etc. With the

use of the PDAs, this was no longer necessary and expensive books could be left at the base camp. Most

of what was immediately needed was available on the PDA in the form of e-books/software programmes.

During field work students could pay attention to what was going on around them and not with the heavy

pack on their backs. Back at the base camp textbooks, field guides and collected samples were used to

add to or verify information gathered throughout the day (Fig. 4). Data were consolidated and compared

and students consulted each other for additional information or verification. This complies with Solomon's

(1991, in Rieger & Gay, 1997) suggestion that helping students solve ambiguous and complex problems

by giving access to data, and by offering opportunities “to collaborate, investigate and create”.

Suggestions from these and other researchers (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989; Newman, Griffin & Cole,

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1989; Resnick, 1987; Rogers & Price, 2010) are that biological science teaching (including Environmental

Education) should engage students in real life problems and promote collaboration. During this study it

was clear that students collaborated in gathering more data on or by means of the PDA than the paper-

based alternative, solving problems by comparing data and maintaining attention to various aspects of

field learning by comparing information on the PDA with that found in nature (real life). In addition,

students had the opportunity to improve the final product and general presentation format of their

documents prior to final submission. Some changed Word documents to visually more attractive

PowerPoint presentations with added information and graphics.

Figure 4: Students verifying notes, photographs and collected samples taken during the day's

fieldwork with textbook illustrations at base camp

Educational researchers (Resnick, 1987; Soloway, 1996; Ally, 2009) argue that students learn best when

given the opportunity to learn skills and theories in the context in which they are used, then construct their

interpretations of a subject and communicate those understandings to others. Mobile computer-mediated

learning environments (such as PDAs and cell phones) may support this process. This is of great

significance in ecotourism and environmental education, as it is essential for students to be able to find,

organise, understand and interpret information, and communicate those understandings in an interesting

and understandable manner to ecotourists or other role-players in the industry.

PDAs (part of mobile technology) also supports “just-in-time” learning. This is an adoption by educators of

a successful industry technique that involves delivery of parts and finished products at precisely the time

in which they are needed (Schorr, 1995). Transferred to education, students may receive context-related

information or complete a skill-building task, at the most appropriate teachable moment. In this study

students had the opportunity to consult applicable information when it was needed. For example, when

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walking in the bush and hearing the call of a bird, access to information to identify the bird by the sound it

makes, was immediately available. During these teachable moments (listening to the bird call in the

natural environment), “just-in-time” learning is an essential part of the field experience of students in any

environmental educational subject or topic. In few, if any, other circumstances can a person learn and

understand the interactions in nature at these specific times. The PDA is an excellent instrument in this

learning environment. This was also evident in the 'real-life' scenarios. When “just-in-time” information

was needed to answer a question of an enthusiastic ‘tourist’, the well-prepared student had the answer

available on the PDA. Some students even located Wi-Fi hotspots at stop-over towns and searched for

answers to questions they had no information on.

While there is a wealth of literature describing technology’s potential for supporting education, little has

been written from an education or communication perspective specifically about the value of mobile

computing. Many projects concentrate on technical rather than learning concerns (Concord Consortium,

1997; Foster, 1995; Schnase, Cunnius & Dowton, 1995). According to Deviney and Von Koschembahr

(2004) mobile learning, as part of a growth trend in the e-learning market, is evolving into a dynamic,

interactive and personalised experience for both students and lecturers. These aspects may contribute to

the pedagogical experiences of the student in the field and enhance the learning experience with

technology at hand (Cochrane, 2005).

The data gathered from this study indicates a variety of possibilities in the use of mobile technology to

support and enhance the field learning experience of the student, as well as the teaching experience of

the lecturer. Although the lecturer and the students were unaware of the full potential of the PDA before

and even after the pilot study, it quickly became clear that information display and information gathering

(note-taking) as well as multi-media applications are some of the major advantages for this new method

of teaching and learning (see also Herrington et al. 2008).

From the abovementioned results, the following summarised answers are provided for the research

questions:


Information should be organised in ‘consumable’ quantities and time units ensuring that students do

not perceive an information overload in the beginning of day one.

Brief lecture notes or keywords should be available on the PDA during fieldwork, ensuring that

students do not “miss out on what is said”.

By using a PDA in fieldwork, a calculator, dictionary, notebook, keyword reference and graphical

representations are always available on one single hand-held unit and reference books need not to be

carried along during all field projects.

Sound and picture identification of a variety of natural features are available “just-in-time” in one unit.

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The PDA has the ability to store a significant amount of information.

Stored information can be revised prior to submission for evaluation, adding to the field learning by

doing additional research and organising information.

Some PDAs and mobile phones are equipped with a digital camera that can be used to take

photographs of features or sightings for clarification, discussion or identification at a later stage.

Reference material is always available (“just in time”).

By synchronising PDAs and desktop systems, data can be revisited, revised and improved where

needed.

Paper-based workbooks with illegible handwriting, limited space for creativity and answers copied from

fellow students are replaced by individualised electronic documents that are revised, readable and

illustrated.

These aspects may contribute to the pedagogical experiences of the student in the field and enhance the

learning experience with technology at hand.

2 How does mobile technology motivate students to become involved in field learning?

Learning addresses the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills of the learner. According to Malone

and Lepper (1987), motivation, as an affective skill, is the central point of departure of all learning.

Intrinsic motivation makes learning fun and results in a challenge, has a fantasy factor and leads to

curiosity of the learner. This puts the student in control of his or her own learning, creates satisfaction,

improves the self-image and contributes to cognitive involvement. Concerning the abovementioned, the

following quotes are representative of the majority of the learners’ experiences with reference to the

motivational skills:

Fun: “It was fun to work with these tools in the field”, “I figured it would be fun and interesting to

learn something new…”

Curiosity: “I was very curious about how the multimedia programmes work and how to apply them

to identify…”.

Challenge: “…something new and challenging in life”, "…a challenging experience in the field…"

Interesting: “I was interested in improving my knowledge in a more modern and convenient way…”,

“…increasing my interest and making me work a little harder”

Satisfaction: “…technology is so advanced and things are now becoming so easy for us…”, “you

can do a lot on a small computer in the palm of your hand”, “I enjoyed everything and I am willing to

learn more”, "why couldn't we get this from the beginning? It is so much better!"

Results from the open-ended questionnaires, interviews, video-recordings and observations indicate that the

majority of students had a positive experience when using the PDA as a motivational factor. The students

accepted the challenge of the alternative technology and adapted to the new learning strategy. When asked

whether the PDA caused students to lose interest in the environment (a vital aspect for ecotourism learners),

the answer was “No, the PDA was a tool and not the experience.” The follow-up field trips proved the

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sustainability of this experience as students became more creative in the application of the different electronic

media (which is not covered in this paper).

To what extent do students make use of multimedia programmes?

The eBirds multimedia programme was emphasised in 96% of the feedbacks as a huge advantage and

assisting in (1) creating an interest in bird watching - a growing industry in ecotourism, and (2) identifying

bird species. The birdcall feature on the PDA was highlighted as extremely helpful in identifying birds.

Results from species lists and information provided during ‘guiding’ by the students proved that all the

multimedia programmes were used to a great extent to help with the identification of species of all kinds,

to gather information on specific trees, mammals, birds and snakes and to compile lists with keywords

with relevant detail on anticipated questions on key species.

Are traditional evaluation methods appropriate for mobile learning?

Evaluation methods need to be adapted as students’ approach to addressing problems, answering

questions and debating issues with and on mobile devices differs from the traditional pen-and-paper

based methods. Answers tend to be more concise in comparison with the long often irrelevant written

answers. Instead of only evaluating the reading matter submitted by the student at the end of the field trip,

the day-to-day input and understanding can be monitored and addressed when problems arise. Most of

the critical cross field outcomes of outcomes based education are also incorporated in the use of mobile

technology. Evaluation methods should be adapted to incorporate these outcomes, e.g. group work,

collaboration and problem solving.

What are the general advantages of using PDAs in the long term?

In this study mobile technologies have been applied in Ecotourism field trips to support and enhance the

learning experiences of the students and the teaching experiences of the lecturers. Although there are

some limitations, the results of this study indicate increased motivation and more outcome-based

appropriate opportunities when using PDAs. Both lecturer and students benefit from the features and

tools of the PDA. Learning experiences increased and students are cognitively occupied during teaching

sessions. They also have the opportunity to reflect by integrating text books, field guides and mobile

technologies to receive and submit discussions, summaries and assignments.

The sustainability of using mobile technologies lies in the availability of the tools. Each student owns at

least a cell phone. Very few students are not knowledgeable in the use of computers. All are very keen to

learn how to use technology and/or new features of devices. Feedback from students indicates that they

prefer this independent way of learning. In the process, they do not only gain subject knowledge, but they

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also learn the aspects of group dynamics and how to use technology in an educational setting. Students

felt empowered and gained self-confidence by using technology. All of these adhere to the pedagogical

foundation of using mobile devices as tools to support and enhance teaching and learning.

CONCLUSION

Mobile technology, in conjunction with other e-learning tools, can efficiently be used to enhance and

support the field training of ecotourism guides, interpreters, environmental educators, managers and

developers. By providing real-life problems and situations by means of mobile devices, training can be

improved to ensure environmental role-players who can set examples by their own behaviour because

they have the needed knowledge of nature.

Education and interpretation are essential elements of the ecotourism (and any other environmental)

experience. Using mobile technology in the teaching and learning process will not only enhance the

reconnecting experience of the learner, but should also help to ensure better management for

conservation purposes and development objectives due to exposure to real-life situations during field

training.

The market is moving towards the convergence of enterprise applications and wireless devices that will

open the doors to mobile learning. Cell phones, hand-held computers and PDAs now have the

capabilities, connectivity and features to support learning activities.

Mobile learning gives the front-line workforce the access to the critical information sources, learning

materials and expertise to learn what they want, where they want, when they want. The future belongs to

those who can make a real paradigm shift, open up their minds to be creative in using technology other

than just PowerPoint presentations or chalk to teach.

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10 The role of the Christian Church in promoting environmental stewardship: a case

study of the Uniting Reformed Church in Southern Africa

RD Tshenye, Doctoral student, University of South Africa

CS le Roux, University of South Africa

Abstract

Care for the environment is part of a Christian believer’s Christian stewardship (CS) duty and is Biblically

founded. Taking the Uniting Reformed Church in Southern Africa (URCSA) as one of the Christian

churches in South Africa, the research reported in this paper discusses the level of environmental literacy

(EL) of a cohort of current students, lecturers and practicing ministers as well as their perceptions of

environmental stewardship (ES) as a dimension of their CS duty. Although none of the respondents

dispute their ES responsibility, respondents’ perceptions on ES as a dimension of CS is influenced by

age; years of experience as a student or in the ministry; level of EL; location (rural or urban) and previous

exposure to environmental education (EE) training. Areas for improvement in seminary training curricula

to support ES are suggested.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

Despite the fact that the Bible, as the inspired Word of God, deals primarily with the relationship between

God and humankind and the way to salvation and eternal life, the Bible also presents tenets that entreat

the protection of the natural and biophysical world in a holistic manner (Bauckman 2002: 141; Esler

1998:223-224; Horrell, Hunt & Southgate 2008: 223-224). There are many references in the Bible to the

wonder as well as the importance of the biophysical world that we today generally refer to as the

‘environment’. These references – although written centuries ago – retain their relevance and point to the

heart of many current environmental concerns.

Page (in Esler, 1998: 223-224) and De Witt & Nash (nd.) argue that Christianity at no point gave license

to the wholesale exploitation of the natural world as was posited by White in his scathing article, The

historical roots of our ecological crisis (1967). Page (ibid) and others (Cafaro 2005; Taliaferro 2005: 162)

argue that the current state of the environment indicates that humankind has indeed ravaged the earth

through greed, covetousness, materialism, competitiveness and short-sightedness that are specific

human traits ardently opposed by Christianity. However, he further points out as does Apple (2009: 98),

that Christianity, as one of the dominant global religions, should accept some responsibility for perhaps

not trying to take in hand the actions of its followers who have contributed to the deterioration and

devastation of the natural world as we know it today.

RESEARCH CONTEXT

In South Africa (SA) Churches of various denominations collectively unite under the umbrella of

Christianity. Those who wish to enter the ministries in these Churches receive their training at theological

seminaries or universities. Cock (in Conradie & Field 2000: 1) alleges in his report entitled ‘Towards the

greening of the Christian Church in South Africa’ that training related to the environment and

environmental concerns are generally absent from the curricula of these institutions. He asserts that there

is a ‘blind spot’ and a ‘deep silence’ within the Christian Church in SA on the environment and its related

issues.

It cannot be disputed that the primary function of the Christian Church is to proclaim the Gospel and to

lead sinners to Christ (Dickmann 2008) but since the biophysical environment is a prominent feature of

God’s creation it would seem appropriate to establish and teach the Biblical perspective on the

environment and Christians’ subsequent position in relation to the biophysical environment.

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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK, KEY CONCEPTS AND UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS

Care for the environment is part of responsible Christian living through which we honour God and witness

to the world (Mat 5:16). Conradie and Field (2000: 1; Clarke 2007; James 2009) point out that the Church

has an important role to play in raising environmental awareness and responsibility among its followers

and should engage with issues that relate to the biophysical world such as the issue of environmental

justice, environmental awareness and environmentally responsible attitudes and behaviour amongst

parishioners. To do this, doctrinal material that relates to the environment and that could be used in

Christian worship should be developed. These researchers thus call the Christian Churches in SA to

commitment: to engage with issues relating to the environment as a token of their faithfulness of being

responsible stewards of God’s creation.

Stewardship

Within a secular context, stewardship is defined as the careful and responsible management of the well-

being of that of which one is a steward. Stewards are caretakers and their stewardship duties involve

deciding what should be done, and how it should be done. In other words, stewards need to collect and

use information; provide vision and direction; plan and implement strategies; put structures in place to

implement the directives and exert influence to ensure that the goals are reached. Stewards are

accountable for the degree of success of their stewardship and this success or lack thereof is assessed

by determining the wellbeing of the entity of which stewardship is provided (Travis 2002; Egger 2002;

Davies & Mechbal 2002).

In the Biblical context, a steward holds a position of trust, although in some instance this position is

abused (Gehman 1970: 906; see the parable of the unjust steward in Lk 16:1-13). Paul (1 Cor 4:2; Titus

1:7-9)) and Peter (1 Pet 4:10) outline the characteristics and requirements of stewards as individuals who

should be trustworthy, blameless, respectful, charitable, self-controlled, upright, and disciplined. They

should encourage compliance and oppose wrongdoing.

Environmental stewardship from a Biblical perspective

In Genesis 1 (26-31) and 2 (16-17) believers are acquainted with the fact that they are the appointed

stewards of God’s created physical world. God gave His people authority over nature not as owner or

exploiter, but as steward who shares the creative care of the Creator (Northcott 1996: 180). Reumann

(1992: 5) claims that Christian stewardship (CS) and environmental stewardship (ES) is a person’s

grateful and obedient response to God’s redeeming love, expressed by the judicious use and care of His

creation. As Esler (1998: 219-221) points out, an environmental steward is:

responsible for the conservation of the land, so that it will not go to waste

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responsible for its improvement, so that it becomes more productive, and

responsible for the care of fellow creatures, the non-human inhabitants.

Clearly this vision ought to stimulate Christian’s commitment to tread judiciously on the earth, to use its

resources wisely and to nurture and protect it (Birch in Habel & Wurst 2000: 11).


An environmentally literate person is one who has a broad understanding of how people and societies

relate to each other and to natural resources, and how they might do so sustainably (Elder 2003: 15).

Environmental literacy (EL) presupposes awareness and knowledge of the environment and its

interrelatedness, a pro-environmental attitude and the intellectual and pragmatic skills needed to

incorporate appropriate environmental considerations into daily decisions about consumption, lifestyle,

career, and civics, and to engage in individual and collective pro-environmental activities (Elder 2003: 16-

17). EL is thus activated by individual commitment. Environmentally literate citizens are motivated and

empowered to act on their own informed conclusions to ensure environmental quality and sustainability.

This latter disposition translates to later working in groups and communities and cultivating an

understanding of ways of benefiting the environment. The deduction is that teachers and individuals,

whether they serve and function in the secular or religious context, need to facilitate and encourage these

pro-environmental dispositions and skills in broader community contexts.

Training in environmental literacy and environmental stewardship

Gambrill (2011: 12) mentions that the Alliance for Religions and Conservation believes that faith-based

communities are excellently positioned to teach about the environment and that Christianity is a clear

example of how a religion has within it both implicit and explicit environmentally related teaching

opportunities. Christianity’s central – and primary – theme is about the condition of man, his relationship

with God and his salvation. The Church is often accused that teaching about the environment is of

secondary importance. The explicit teaching about the environment is most significantly supported in the

narrative of the creation of the first man, Adam. He is created separately to the rest of creation, and his

authority and dominion over it is most apparent. In the Genesis narration, the world is there for his use.

This secular view that is shared by other organizations points to a misinterpretation of the passage

quoted – that God gave man dominion over the earth (Gen 2.15). Dominion does not mean pillage and

plunder, but to take sensible care of the earth with all its resources and creatures. The idea that man is

free to destroy God's creation is at odds with God's obvious enjoyment of His creation as constantly

reiterated in Genesis 1 (Deem 2007).

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In Exodus a number of unambiguous principles describing God’s instructions for the utilisation of His

creation are outlined. For example, there was the introduction of the Sabbath principle that requires

setting aside the seventh day as a day of rest for people and animals (Ex 20 & Deut 5). The same

principle applies to agriculture and in Exodus 23:10-12 and Leviticus 25: 2-4 God instructs that all

cultivated lands are to be let rest and lie fallow in the seventh year (Chr 36:21). This Sabbath principle

commandment protects man, beasts and the natural environment from relentless exploitation, ensures

their sustainable use and allows for rejuvenation and restoration (DeWitt 1994; Marshall 1998). Principles

regarding sanitation and waste disposal are outlined in Leviticus (17:1-27:34). The principles clearly

stipulate God’s instructions on how creation is to be used, protected and conserved.

God warns that wretchedness will befall those who use His creation in an exploitive manner and destroy

the earth (Lev 25:23-24; Isa 5:8; Rev 11:18) and reproaches those who abuse the physical environment

(Ezek 34: 2-4, 18; Jer 2:7). God speaks to humankind through the scriptures, but also through His

creation (Ps 19:1-4; Matt 6:28-29; Rom 1:20) and we cannot claim ignorance regarding how creation

should be used, protected and conserved. God gave people dominion – but not sovereignty (Job 38:1-

39:40) – over nature. Since people are created in His image, as His representatives on earth, we need to

attach similar values to nature and its use. The instruction to have dominion over the earth is predicated

upon the fact that God is the ultimate owner of all things and that human subjugation and use of the earth

must be in accordance with God’s will and bidding. Taking custody of the earth implies an understanding

of the elements of nature or natural systems and learning about God’s created order and purpose of

nature (Bergstrom 2003). Christianity undisputedly recognizes human stewardship of the created world.

Conradie and Field (2000: 56) argue that the Church has done little about understanding and building up

the relationship that existed between God, humankind and His creation at the time of creation. God’s love

for His creation is not confined to humankind but extends also towards the entire natural world. While

man occupies an honoured place within the natural world, but creation itself glorifies God in its own right.

This theme is found through the Psalms, (explicitly Ps 19; 148), and also in Genesis 1:6,7; Romans 10:18

and in Job, where man is reminded of how small and insignificant he is compared to the power of God

and the vastness of His creation.

In our everyday existence, we are increasingly confronted with the need for frugality, social eco-justice,

and fair access to use and distribution of natural resources (UN Millennium Declaration 2000). People

need to show responsibility towards the natural world and be accountable to the common good of the

current and future generations. This notion is intrinsic to the concept of sustainable development (SD)

articulated at the UN World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED 1987). Although the

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term SD has been in circulation since 1987, it was only in 2002 that it was acknowledged that ‘education’

was an indispensable means to achieve SD (Centre for Environmental Education 2008; UNESCO 2010).

The issue of responsibility and accountability mentioned above can be nurtured through appropriate

educational interventions as envisaged through the Decade for Education for Sustainable Development

(DESD) instituted in 2005. Owing to the substantial following the Christian Church has, it is fair to assume

that the Church has the ability to reach out to and educate vast numbers of individuals. Simultaneously,

the Church is Biblically duty bound to fulfil its mandate to value and treat creation with respect. If this

assumption is valid, it would be necessary to establish the extent to which the vocational training curricula

at the theological seminaries of the Uniting Reformed Church in Southern Africa (URCSA) – the

denomination purposefully selected for the purpose of this research – provide training in EL and ES as

part of the mandate to promote a CS ethic among ministers of religion, Lecturers, Church elders and

students and ultimately the communities in which they work..

RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND AIMS

To build a premise that in the URCSA seminaries there is a distinct need to teach about the significance

of and care for the biophysical and environmental features of God’s creation as part of a CS ethic, the

following research questions were posed:

How is God’s own love and care for His creation revealed in the scriptures and how is the concept

of humanity’s stewardship of God’s creation developed and dealt with in the scriptures?

How do ministers of the URCSA perceive the issues of CS as an aspect of the Christian ethic and

how does ES fit into the CS mandate?

To what extent do ministers teach and practice CS and ES in their parishes and Communities?

To what extent do current curricula of the URCSA training institutions provide tuition in relation to

CS, ES and EL?

What is the level of understanding of the concepts of CS, ES, EE and EL among ministers,

lecturers and students of the URCSA?

This study proposed to establish a Biblical premise for CS, ES and EL and to establish the level of

understanding and stance of URCSA ministers, lecturers, Church elders and students on issues of CS,

ES, EL, and EE. The latter is by association a dimension of the study, because, according to Robinson

and Wolfson (1982) and HiItzhusen (2006) the primary goals of EE are fundamental to establishing EL.

It is beyond the scope of this article to report on the research in entirety and consequently the issues

relating to the training received in seminaries and ministers’, lecturers’, Church elders’ and students’

understanding and perception of CS, ES, EE and EL only are reported.

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RESEARCH POPULATION, DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION

Combinations of simple random and stratified sampling techniques were used to select research

respondents from practicing ministers of the URCSA, and students and lecturers from URCSA training

institutions. This study followed a mixed methods design and the data was collected through both

quantitative and qualitative methods. Data was collected from reviewing and analysing relevant literature

on the topic as well as examining curriculum documentation from various theological seminaries in order

to design a survey questionnaire to establish ministers’, lecturers’ and students’ perceptions towards and

level of understanding of CS, ES, EE and EL. The statistical analysis of the survey data indicated areas

for further exploration that was done through conducting individual and focus group interviews.

The dimension of the research reported in this article is based on the outcomes of the survey analysis

that was analysed quantitatively.

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS

The survey was used to determine the attitudes, beliefs, opinions and knowledge of a sample of the

research population in respect of CS, EL, EE and ES as they related to the context of the envisaged

research.The questionnaire comprised 124 questions that were spread over six sections.

7. Section A – respondents’ biographical and demographic information

8. Section B – respondents’ perceptions related to the Biblical foundation of CS and ES and the

relationship between the two concepts.

9. Section C – respondents’ opinions on the importance of EE in developing EL

10. Section D – respondents’ level of EL

11. Section E – respondents’ perception of the parishes’ or institution’ attitude towards CS,

environmental issues and ES

12. Section F – students’ and lecturers’ opinions on the extent to which current training programmes

address CS, ES and EL

Embedded in the complete spectrum of survey questions were questions that probed a particular aspect

of CS, ES, EL and EE. These aspects are referred to as perception-dimensions or stewardship-constructs

and included:

6. A Biblical perspective on CS and ES

7. Ministers’ (and students’) training in CS, ES, EE and EL

8. Respondents’ level of EL

9. Manifestation of CS and ES within the parish, community or training institution

10. Inclusion of CS and ES in seminary curricula

The generalisabilty of data from quantitative surveys is dependent on factors such as whether the

research sample was selected judiciously and whether the survey was administered amongst a

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representative sample of the population. If these requirements are met, then the survey results could be

used in such a way that the attitudes, beliefs and opinions of the research population as a whole could be

inferred from the responses obtained from the randomly selected research sample. In total, three hundred

and forty-five questionnaires were distributed to delegates who attended the URCSA General Synod

meeting in September 2008 in Hammanskraal. Completed questionnaires were returned on the last day

of the Synod meeting. Twenty questionnaires were sent to the URCSA Pretoria University seminary for

completion by lecturers. Sixty questionnaires in total were returned. This represents a 16,21% return rate.

The processing and analysis of the survey data was done to develop descriptive statistics and information

relating to the key research questions. Statistical Analysis System (SAS) software version 92 was used

for the analysis. The sets of data were combined to facilitate the identification of common trends and

themes. The themes and patterns that emerged from the data were then categorized and analysed. The

research findings pointed to particular trends in relation to the research questions.

The data presented by the survey was analyzed as follows:

One way frequency tables

Composite one-way tables

Scale reliability testing/ item analysis on stewardship-dimensions

Correlations between stewardship-dimension scores and biographical characteristics

The results of the analysis are presented and discussed below.

Frequency distributions: biographical characteristics

Biographical attributes of the research population was established during this phase of the analysis. This

information was used in further analyses as it was assumed that biographical characteristics were

probable influential factors that might affect respondents’ perceptions of the various stewardship-

dimensions.

The frequency distributions provided information on respondents’ age, the area where they reside,

whether they had received training in EE, the context in which EE training had been provided, the era and

type of institution where ministers had received their theological training, and the number of years’

experience. These factors were used in further investigative analysis.

Significant observations were made in relation to four variables in particular. The sampled respondents

were a mature group (75% were older than 41 years), with extensive experience (72% had been in the

ministry or teaching for more than 10 years), whose formal education was mainly completed prior to 1994

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(63%) and most had studied at University (89%). The majority of the respondents (64%) had not received

training in EE and environmental issues.

Composite tables

Each composite table that was derived from the data reflects a particular stewardship-dimension of the

research. The results of each construct was dealt with individually since the sheer amount of data

presented in each of the resultant tables obscured the evaluation of the aspect of stewardship it purported

to evaluate. The respondents’ perceptions of the various dimensions are reported individually.

Biblical perspective of Christian stewardship, environmental education and environmental literacy

Most ministers, lecturers and students concur that the concepts CS and ES are Biblically founded, that

ES is a dimension of CS and that both concepts should be actively ministered to and practiced by

professing Christians. They agree that EL should be promoted because of its link to ES.

Three survey statements were particularly strongly supported by respondents. These were that it is a

Christian’s Biblically founded responsibility to care for the creation because of God’s own love for His

creation; that practicing CS is a reflection of the Christian’s commitment to God and that ES does not

imply dominance over the environment.

Ministers’ training in Biblical environmental stewardship as a dimension of Christian stewardship

It was strongly agreed that CS and ES should be incorporated in the curriculum for aspirant ministers

(only 6,7% viewed it as unnecessary), that ES is a dimension of CS (6.7% disagreed), that both concepts

are Biblically founded and should be taught as such. However, when asked whether ES teaching

depends on active involvement in community environmental issues 14% disagreed. This slightly negative

response indicates that ministers/lecturers and seminary students question whether teaching ES

necessarily depends on their active involvement in community-based ES issues.


The concept of EL is relatively poorly understood. Five percent acknowledged they did not understand EL

means and 33.3% were uncertain of the meaning. Generally, it was agreed that ministers, students and

lecturers should be trained in ES and should be environmentally literate. This section of the survey again

examined the links between EL, ES and CS and there was unanimity about the necessity of teaching

these concepts in the Church. The only question that aroused some measure of disagreement (22%) was

that training in EE would influence their ES ministry. EE is critical to the development of EL and fostering

an understanding of ES. The unconstructive response to the question is troubling.

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Attitude towards and evidence of Christian stewardship, environmental stewardship and

environmental literacy in the parish community and seminary

This part of the survey established respondents’ perceptions of parishes’ and seminaries’ attitudes

towards the social and natural environment and as well as the extent to which CS, ES and pro-

environmental behaviour is evidenced in practice. Particular questions in this section of the survey

attempted to gauge the level of respondents’ EL and their perception of whether Christians and the

Church have an environmental responsibility and should be practitioners of CS and ES.

The responses in this section of the survey were particularly insightful and of all the sections of the survey

this section provided the most disparate responses. Particularly valuable data in respect of what is ‘done’

in reality, and not what is ‘said is done’, provides a rather accurate picture of the level of commitment to

CS, ES and pro-environmental behaviour in the Church and community. Nine questions in particular

focused on ES as a construct. If the average disagreement is taken across these 9 questions it is 21%

which points to respondents’ concern that environmental issues are not adequately addressed in the

Church or the community and that the environment is not sufficiently valued. In response to one question

in particular 41% of the respondents commented that if one neglects the environment, one exhibits an

attitude of indifference towards one’s commitment to God.

Six questions specifically addressed the issue of CS and the Church’s attitude towards and its active

involvement in CS. There is an 18% level of disagreement about whether the Church is or should be

promoting CS. With regard to whether more information on CS is required, 62% of the respondents

indicated a desire for more information. The latter need points towards a possible gap in the degree to

which respondents view CS being actively advocated or address in the Church and training curricula

currently.

The remainder of the questions addressed the level of pro-environmental behaviour and EL exhibited by

the Church and the community. Although the responses point to a significant measure of pro-

environmental behaviour, the negative responses are possibly more informative. Thirty-seven percent of

the respondents indicated that recycling was not undertaken and that the community lacked sufficient

environmental knowledge – were insufficiently environmentally literate – to produce an implementable

environmental policy. Other areas where the level of pro-environmental behaviour was challenged

included whether the Church or community used bio-friendly products and whether parish gardeners were

sensitive to the environment and the use of natural resources.

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In summary it can be deduced that although respondents generally were positive about the level of CS,

ES, EL and pro-environmental behaviour exhibited by the Church and the community, there was a

sizeable proportion that were critical of whether the Church and communities were sufficiently sensitive to

CS, ES, EL and practicing pro-environmental behaviour. It is this proportion’s concerns that raise

awareness to areas where further clarity should be sought. These issues were addressed later during the

individual and focus group interviews.

Christian and environmental stewardship in seminary curricula

The questions in this section of the survey was completed by URCSA students and lecturers and aimed

to determine respondents’ perceptions on how the current curriculum for URCSA students addresses

issues of CS and ES. Of the five questionnaire sections, respondents to this section showed the most

indecisiveness with 35% of the responses chosen from the ‘neutral’ option. What is surprising is that 50%

of students who were asked to respond to the last 27 questions seemed to not have a clear

understanding of the questions and most of the respondents preferred to remain neutral or silent. They

chose not to indicate their preferences. These findings indicate that there is a particularly grey area in

answering these questions.

The questions that aimed to gauge respondents’ perceptions of whether current training programmes

included or excluded CS and ES were inconclusively answered. With relation to each construct, two sets

of questions differently phrased but testing the same concept, was included in this section of the

questionnaire. From the disparateness of the data it can be deduced that either students did not

understand the question or were unable to make a conclusive choice. For example, 17% of the

respondents disagreed that CS was dealt with in the curriculum and 24% responded that it was excluded

in the curriculum. Thirty-six percent of the respondents agreed that students were aware of CS being a

part of the curriculum and 26% stated the students believed that CS was excluded from the curriculum.

The discrepancies between these two sets of observations which tested the same construct rendered the

questions extraneous. Likewise, 20% of the respondents disagreed that ES was included in the

curriculum and 26% disagreed that ES was excluded. Forty percent stated that ES was included in the

curriculum and 40% stated that it was not included. Again, these responses were incongruous and

consequently did not serve to test what the researcher had intended to establish.

Overall, when other questions in this section are analysed, respondents indicated that they believed CS

and ES were adequately addressed in the curriculum and the inclusion of teaching CS and ES was

relevant to their studies. Practical sessions in CS and ES were perceived to be valuable but it was not

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possible to establish from the data whether students believed the number of practical sessions was

adequate or not.

Composite tables and scale reliability testing: stewardship dimensions

Frequency tables for the subsets of questionnaire items associated with each stewardship-dimension

were also calculated. The internal consistency reliability of the items and indictors was established by

calculating the Cronbach alpha coefficient. A value in the region of, or greater than 0.7, is regarded as

indicative of internal consistency reliability. Cronbach alpha coefficients for each of the dimensions tested

were all greater than 0.7. Scale reliability is thus indicated in all cases.

Correlation between stewardship dimensions, EL and EE

The positive and significant pair-wise correlations established between pairs of stewardship aspects

(Biblical perspectives on CS and ES, Training in EE, EL and ES in practice), imply that pair-wise

relationships exist between these constructs. In particular, perceptions on the aspect of a Biblical

perspective on CS and ES are positively and significantly related to both the aspects of training in EE and

EL. The aspect of ES in practice did not show a significant relationship with the other abovementioned

aspects however.

Correlation between biographical details and perceptions of stewardship dimensions

Significance of dependencies was established with Pearson’s chi-square test and a Cochran-Armitage

trend test.

Correlation between respondents’ age and perception that CS and ES are Biblically founded

Respondent perceptions on the Biblical perspective of CS and ES are affected by age. Younger

respondents perceive the Biblical perspectives on CS and ES more positively; the age-group

between 41 and 45 seem significantly less enthusiastic, but remain positive, while the 46+ group

seem to regain a more positive attitude.

Correlation between time of completion of studies and perception of CS/ES

Respondents who completed their studies before 1994 were less in agreement of the importance of

CS and ES than students who trained after 1994.

Correlation between respondents’ experience and perception of CS/ES

Respondent perceptions on the Biblical perspective of CS and ES change with years of

experience. Respondents with less than 20 years experience were more positive in their

perceptions regarding the Biblical approach to CS and ES than the more experienced.

Correlation between respondents’ perception of EE training needs related to years’

experience

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Respondents who had received EE training were positive about the need for EE training. Those

who had not received training in EE were significantly even more positive about training. However,

respondents’ perceptions of the importance of EE training seem to be influenced by their years of

experience. As experience increases, respondents become significantly less enthusiastic about EE

training although they remain positive towards EE training.

Correlation between respondents’ training in EE and perceptions on ES in practice

Respondents’ perceptions on ES in practice are influenced by whether they attended EE training or

not. Training in EE resulted in a more positive attitude towards ES in practice.

Correlation between respondents’ location and attitude towards ES

Respondent perceptions on ES in practice differ according to location. Respondents from rural

areas are significantly less positive towards ES in practice than urban respondents.

Correlation between respondents’ training institution and inclusion of stewardship

dimensions in curricula

Respondents’ perceptions whether CS and ES should be included in seminary curricula is

influenced by the type of institution attended. Respondents who were trained at universities are

significantly less positive about CS and ES being accommodated in curricula than those that

trained at non-university linked seminaries. Another interesting observation was that the most

experienced group of respondents (21+ years experience) was significantly less inclined to think

that CS should form part of the training curricula.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Seen as a whole, the survey findings provided data that clarified aspects inherent to the study such as the

perception of, attitudes towards and status of CS and ES and the role of the Church in this regard; the

inclusion of ES and CS in the curriculum and the value of EE, EL towards supporting ES.

ES is an acknowledged dimension of CS and the Church has a significant role to play in demonstrating

and teaching about CS and ES in the congregation as well as the community. Furthermore there is

consensus that CS, ES and EL are Biblically founded and should be manifest by Christians and

addressed in the Church and the community. However, there was some measure of doubt whether the

Church and communities were sufficiently sensitive to CS, ES, EL and practicing pro-environmental

behaviour.

The data revealed some measure of indecisiveness regarding the inclusion of EE and EL in the

curriculum although there was agreement that CS and ES should be incorporated. Students and lecturers

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indicated that they believed that current curricula adequately address CS and ES and that the current

inclusion of teaching CS and ES was relevant, however correlations and construct data analysis indicated

differently. There also seems to be some doubt whether training in EE to increase EL would improve ES

ministry although it was not disputed that such training should be included in training curricula.

A recommendation that emerges from this study is that theological training institutions should critically

evaluate the curricula currently presented on the basis of these findings to ensure that the Biblical

mandate of CS and ES are adequately addressed and that graduates are sufficiently equipped to enthuse

in their congregations and communities where they will be working an environmental ethic that responds

to the Biblical mandate of environmental stewardship.

398

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virtue ethics, edited by R. Sandler and P. Cafaro. Lanham: Rowland & Littlefield. 135-158

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77-96.

Deem R. 2007. Is Christianity anti-environmental? http://www.godandscience.org/apologetics/environment.html#n11


Dewitt, C.B. 1994. Earth-Wise: A biblical response to environmental issues. Grand Rapids, MI: CRC Publications

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bible-environmentalism-gone-awry.htmlAccessed21.05.2009.

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Gambrill, A. 2011. Practice to policy to practice: connecting faith and conservation in Africa. ine Gehman H.S. 1970. The New Westminister Dictionary of the Bible, Philadelphia: The Westminister Press.

Habel N.C. & Wurst, S. 2000. The earth story in Genesis. England: Sheffield Academic Press Ltd.

Hitzhusen G. E. 2006. Religion and Environmental Education: Building on Common Ground. Canadian Journal of

Environmental Education 11(1):9-25.

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of hermeneutical stances, Studies in Christian Ethics 21:219-238.

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Reuman J. 1992. Stewardship and the economy of God, Michigan: William B Eerdmans Publishing company

Taliaferro C. 2005. Vices and virtues in religious environmental ethics, in Environmental virtue ethics edited by R.

Sandler and P. Cafaro. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. 159-172.

Travis P.; Egger D.; Davies P. & Mechbal A. 2002. Towards better stewardship: Concepts and critical issues.

Available online at http://www.who.int/healthinfo/paper48.pdf Accessed 10.01.2010.

UNESCO. 2005. Decade for Education for Sustainable Development. 2005. Available online http://www.esd-world-

conference-

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11 Working with environmental education and environmental law to protect wildlife

in Brazil and for the improvement of public policies in the country

I A Morimoto & M Sorrentino

University of Sao Paulo, Brazil

Abstract

This paper details some of the actions taken and results achieved by the Wildlife Protection Programme implemented

by the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA) in São Paulo since 2009. In the

first phase of the project environmental education activities were developed. These included the production of

posters, comic books, videos, music and articles – all centred on the importance of wildlife and the problems

associated with animal trafficking. In the second phase a training process for educators in four municipalities was

developed with the emphasis on providing subsidies for the development of local projects to be executed by the

participants. This step proved to be very effective, both because it could count on the financial support of local

governments and because it provided stimulus for the production of materials specific to each region. Considering

that the state of São Paulo has 645 municipalities spread over an area of 248,209 km2, the challenge now is to create

a strategy that will make it possible to meet new demands. The first part of the discussion presented here provides an

overview that leads to a second topic of discussion: The advent of the Popular Action (Law 4.717/65) and Civil Action

(Law 7.347/85) in Brazil meant that several lawsuits were brought against the state in pursuit of certain benefits to

meet the urgent demands of citizens, the distribution of medicines and the building of schools among them. Few

disputes, however, require the creation or improvement of public policies that could extend the benefits of decisions

made to society as a whole and – in the environmental arena – things are no different. Although many actions have

been filed by environmental groups or by the public prosecutor in order to protect one or other environmental

resource or service, little has been done to make environmental policies more effective. Implementation of the

popular participation in judicial control of public policy would mean that collective participation by demanding and

controlling governmental actions would be possible. This article reports on a study that examined the importance of –

and the difficulties associated with – the use of the judicial court system to demand public policies on environmental

protection. The discussions of these two aspects are presented individually.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

The Convention on Biological Diversity was signed by the Brazilian Government in Rio de Janeiro on 5

June 1992 and was ratified by the Congress on 2 March 1994. This was in addition to the Federal

Constitution promulgated in 1988 which provides (in its Article 225, VII) that the government and the

community must "protect the fauna and flora, prohibiting, according to the law, practices which put in

danger their ecological function, cause extinction of species or promote cruelty to animals".

Despite the Convention and the terms of the Constitution, the removal of wild animals from their natural

habitat has increased in recent years. In 2005 in the state of São Paulo alone 30,000 (thirty thousand)

wild animals were seized. By 2006 the number was in the region of 35,000 and by 2007 had risen to

40,000 seizures (IBAMA, 2009).

These practices bring very serious consequences – not only as regards maintaining the ecological

balance of many ecosystems, but also concerning the quality of life of human beings. Among these

problems, we can highlight:

loss of biodiversity (extinction of species caused by traffic)

damage to the life cycles of the affected animals (mating limitation, lack of exchange of gene flow,

privation of liberty)

impact on the maintenance of forests (decreased dispersion, pollination and preparation of seeds

for germination – the latter usually happening in the digestive tracts of animals)

disturbance of ecological functions (imbalance in natural pest control)

health risks to humans who, by living with wild animals expose themselves and their families to

accidents such as scratches and bites and thereby to serious diseases such as rabies, psittacosis,

a hantavirus, leptospirosis, salmonellosis, spotted fever, toxoplasmosis, leishmaniasis and others

In October 2008, and in response to these alarming issues, the Ministry of the Environment started the

National Campaign for the Protection of Wildlife throughout the country and in order to combat the

trafficking of wild animals. The campaign began with the dissemination of advertising material produced

by IBAMA’s Environmental Education Department in the state of Piaui24. The material distributed included

posters, banners, stickers, music and children's comics.

24 More information on the website http://www.ibama.gov.br

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Photo 1: Comics as an example of educational material.

The campaign slogan is "That's happening because you bought”. It was developed in order to sensitise

society to issues of trafficking and its consequences, and also to encourage the taking of individual

responsibility for the problem.

Photo 2: Poster as an example of educational material.

The project in São Paulo

In São Paulo in March 2009, the Administration of IBAMA25 joined the National Campaign for the

Protection of Wildlife. It commenced its activities there by presenting training lectures and seminars for

external audiences such as journalists and lawyers – as well as for the judges who decide upon the final

destinations of recovered animals.

In the same year, a group of environmental analysts from sectors of IBAMA in São Paulo (Environmental

Education, Wildlife Management, Office of Communications, Monitoring and Legal Division) formed a

technical team in order to develop an education project in the state. Their aim was to develop an ongoing

education process has and the outcome was the creation of the Permanent Programme for Wildlife

Protection in the state of São Paulo, known as P3F (“Programa Permanente de Proteção à Fauna” in

Portuguese). The general purpose of the programme is to reduce or eliminate the trafficking of wild

25 IBAMA is a federal institute related to the Ministry of the Environment.

403

animals and to ensure the conservation of Brazilian biodiversity. It aims to achieve this through

educational practices as well as the prevention of illegal consumption of wildlife in the state of Sao Paulo.

Consequently, the specific objectives of the programme and the activities carried out are:

e. alerting society to the issue of the trafficking of wild animals and thereby leading to awareness and

to changes inhabits and behaviours

f. making use of the media to discuss and disseminate new models for the exhibiting of wild animals

g. promoting improvements in the knowledge and language used by all staff in the Institute and its

regional offices in their dealings with wildlife-related issues

h. conducting seminars and workshops for specific audiences, including:

media (journalists and producers)

the judiciary and prosecutors

universities

educators

owners of potential areas for the reintroduction of animals

public administration at all levels (federal or in states and municipalities)

authorities: civil guard, highway patrol, environmental guard, etcetera

companies, laboratories, veterinary clinics, etcetera

e. training teachers/trainers in various institutions and municipalities of São Paulo to enable them to

perform work of a preventive nature – such work would seek to cope with trafficking by stopping the

consumption of illegally sourced animals, and by promoting discussion with society on cultural,

ethical, environmental, legal and other matters

f. encouraging the creation of dedicated “areas for the reintroduction of animals”

g. promoting the exchange of information and strategies with other institutions working with the same

theme – such as NGOs, associations, etcetera

Results achieved

The programme in Sao Paulo began with a workshop for journalists, followed by several meetings with

producers of television programmes to talk about the consequences of displaying wildlife in that medium

– the object being to find a way to dampen the desire for consumption and illegal possession by viewers.

There were also seminars for prosecutors and judiciary powers aimed at addressing the destination of

animals seized and the importance of prioritising their reintroduction.

Posters and comic books were distributed at airports, subway stations and public squares, also with the

aim of enlightening the public as to the problems related to the trafficking of wild animals.

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Photo 3: Banner placed at airports in Sao Paulo. Photo: Isis Morimoto. January, 2010.

Photo 4: Training at the offices of the Attorney General of the Union. Photo: Vincent Lo. October,

2009.

The next step prioritised the training of educators (from four municipalities26) who were willing to

participate in the programme. They contributed towards the printing of educational materials and to

organising the logistics of the training to be given. In these municipalities, employees of municipalities,

NGOs, universities, as well as members of the general public interested in the subject, went through a

training process covering the concepts of wildlife legislation, supervision, animal trafficking, problems

arising from illegal captivity, the possibilities for reintroduction, and the importance of environmental

education and participation for the prevention of problems caused by the removal of wild animals from

nature. Participants were asked to develop local projects and to present their results six months after the

training.

26 The municipalities were Piracicaba, Barueri, Mairiporã and Guarulhos.

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Photo 5: Training in the municipalities of São Paulo. Photo: Isis Morimoto. Oct., 2010.

This step proved to be very effective because it allowed for continued financial support from local

governments and stimulated the production of materials specific to each region.

The projects submitted by participants included:

the construction of a giant cage designed to allow people to suffer the same sensations

experienced by captive animals

a voluntary campaign to destroy hunting tools

lectures and the distribution of comic books in schools

discussion groups on animal welfare

actions aimed at reducing animal road deaths in the forest reserves

integration between the Department of Education and the Department of the Environment as

regards working together to combat trafficking

ways to produce materials that surpassing the quality of those presented by IBAMA

(the latter generated much satisfaction within the technical group)

Considering that the state of São Paulo has 645 municipalities spread over an area of 248,209 km2, the

challenge now is to create a strategy that will make it possible to respond to new demands. To achieve

this, the campaign to prevent environmental offenses should be supported by the public policies of the

country. In addition, environmental education programmes should be strengthened and prioritised within

the administrations concerned at federal, state and municipal level. However, alternative approaches and

initiatives in environmental education remain desirable. Initiatives worthy of highlighting are those by the

collective educators27 and the Commissions for Environmental Education28 of the state and municipalities

27 According to the website of the Ministry of the Environment, the “collective educators” are sets of institutions working together in

permanent, participatory training processes and they involve the full diversity of inhabitants in a territory. (More information is

available on the website: www.mma.gov.br)

28 The Commissions for Environmental Education is a group of institutions that work with Environmental Education.. Their mission is

to offer general guidelines and programmes of environmental education in their territories. They are composed of representatives of

406

– both of which have been able to include this issue on their training and coordination agendas for the

development of local projects.

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The establishment of a technical team composed of staff drawn from various sectors of IBAMA in the

state of São Paulo – along with the development of the Permanent Programme for the Protection of

Wildlife which seeks comprehensive and continuous training – demonstrated that the national campaign

can and should be incorporated into various organs and sectors of society in both states and

municipalities.

Initiatives such as this can provide the opportunity to various groups to reflect on the matter of respect for

all life forms and on the importance of maintaining environmental balance.

The Permanent Programme for the Protection of Wildlife, implemented by IBAMA in the state of São

Paulo, plans to consolidate its position as a strategy for preventative action. Additionally, the

Environmental Education can contribute towards avoiding occurrences of damage to wildlife and also

towards stimulating people to reflect on the need to participate in environmental projects.

This article leads to a second topic, related to all that has been discussed above. The following section

discusses environmental education as well as popular participation in judicial control of public policy. It

also looks at problems experienced regarding the environment and the environmental issues experienced

in the country.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND POPULAR PARTICIPATION IN JUDICIAL CONTROL OF

PUBLIC POLICY

INTRODUCTION

At the outset of this study, our interest lay in coming to understand the mechanisms of judicial control of

public policy – something that seemed to represent an alternative approach to furthering environmental

protection in Brazil. We were able to confirm during the study that (in an ecologically balanced

environment (Article 225 of CF/88)) the effectiveness of the fundamental rights constitutionally

established under judicial control is directly related to the positive provisions contributed by the state.

governmental and nongovernmental bodies in equal numbers and must act in accordance with the provisions of Law no 9795/1999

which establishes the National Policy on Environmental Education.

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However, the use of judicial review to guarantee these rights is surrounded by a number of matters

emphasising the complexity of the issue. These include discussions about a possible contradiction to

Montesquieu’s Theory of Separation of Powers29 (see 2.2, below). A further issue is the need to establish

a limit to the demands that may be claimed from the state, an issue labelled by several authors as the

“Minimum Existential” to ensure decent life for citizens. Matters that must also be considered in this

context are the scarcity of public administration resources for use in meeting all the rights enshrined in the

Constitution, as well as the adoption of the concepts of “the reserve of the possible” and “the

reasonableness of demands” – both of which seek a balance between the means employed and

purposes to be achieved.

The Theory of Separation of Powers

One of the most important questions as the adequacy of the judicial process to ensure the

implementation of public policies by the state is the Theory of Separation of Powers written by

Montesquieu.

As Professor Dalmo Dallari (Dallari 2007: 77) teaches us, the Theory of Separation of Powers was

consecrated at a historic moment when liberalism was aimed at weakening of the state and restriction of

their activities in the name of individual freedom. However, with the advent of the Industrial Revolution,

the working masses assumed greater importance in the social scene and were able to make various

claims. The liberal welfare state then entered a period of transition in which its posture of nonintervention

reverted to one of meeting its obligations to provide services aimed both at the common good and at the

search for material equality between the components of the social body (Grinover, 2009: 36-37). From

this emerged the concept of public policies – understood as "programmes, actions, or sets of measures

articulated/coordinates whose scope would move the machinery of government in order to achieve a goal

of public policy or, in the view of lawyers, achieving the right "(Bucci, 2006: 14).

However, over time, it was noted that those services offered by the state were not sufficient to ensure that

the needs of the citizenry were met in their entirety. The question as to what could be done to instigate

the creation or improvement of public policies in various areas then took the place of social concern.

29 Montesquieu, in your book “The Spirit of the Law” written in 1748, considered that the independence of the judicial, legislative and

executive functions of the state was essential for the maintenance of social freedom.

408

In this context, judicial control of public policy would seem a natural solution in promoting the

effectiveness of policies. The claim about judicial control running contrary to the Theory of Separation of

Powers, however, brought with it a measure of disagreement. The matter was eased only after judges in

some courts showed by their judgments that judicial control of public policy did not mean an intervention

in the sphere of the administrative judiciary that would run contrary to the Theory of Separation of

Powers. Rather, they understood it to mean control over compliance with fundamental precepts forming

part of the Federal Constitution of 1988.

The existential minimum

According to Kazuo Watanabe and Ada Pellegrini Grinover (2010), the “existential minimum” is

considered the right to minimum conditions for worthy existence. Thus, the judiciary has granted

demands aimed at ensuring essential rights – including health care and the distribution of drugs,

availability of hospital beds and the construction of specialised treatment centres. Additionally, demands

for access to education and housing have been granted on the principle of human dignity. In this context,

then, the following question may arise: Is it possible to include environmental issues in this context of the

existential minimum?

It is common knowledge that the ecological relationships of the planet show that the various elements of

nature are interconnected and interdependent (Odum, 1986). Thus, in order to ensure the health of

present and future generations, it is essential that the environmental balance is maintained. In other

words, in order to ensure drinking water supplies, air quality, climatic comfort, diversified food, natural

remedies and the like, we must preserve the forests and water sources, treat sewage, contain global

warming and protect biodiversity. After all, human life could not continue without water, air or food.

Paulo Sergio Duarte da Rocha Jr (2009, in Grinover, 2009: 43) agrees with the idea: "it is customary to

include among others – and at least existentially – the right to basic education, the right to basic health

and sanitation, and the provision of social services, environmental protection and access to justice".

While we might have a definition of the fundamental rights and services that should be guaranteed by the

state, we also have to face the problem of limited resources and the need to establish priorities for the

use of public funds. This brings us to the “reserve of the possible”.

The reserve of the possible

Bucci (2006: 4) quotes a speech that may seem shocking. It reveals the positions of certain critics as

regards the inclusion of a large number of social rights in the Federal Constitution of Brazil – that the

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gross domestic product (GDP) of Brazil is insufficient to support the terms of the Federal Constitution. It

cannot be denied that in Brazil – a developing country – resource scarcity, poverty and unequal income

distribution are evident. One need only look at the slums, the queues in public hospitals, the homeless in

big cities, the lack of urban sanitation and other similar issues. Meanwhile, the government is not

managing to implement all the policies necessary to satisfy the most basic needs of the population.

This opens up the debate on the “reserve of the possible”, a strategy aimed at managing the conflict

between the availability of resources needed to implement a public policy and the various demands

presented to the judiciary. In this sense, Sabino (2009: 15) discusses the "logic of the short blanket" by

drawing an analogy with a popular saying concerning the courts giving benefits in response to one

demand – but, as a consequence, leaving many other people without help. The same author refers to

Professor Octavio da Motta Ferraz (2007:15), who states that, in the case of medicines and when faced

with a court order, the government provides certain drugs by "pulling the blanket" from people with other

kinds of diseases, thus leaving them without cover simply because they have no access to the judiciary.

In this context, the reserve of the possible presents itself as a necessary balance mechanism for use by a

magistrate during the decision-making process. It cannot, however, be used by the government as a

justification for not fulfilling its obligations.

Professor Ada Pellegrini Grinover analyses the situation thus:

"First of all, the claim of lack of resources by government will not be enough. This should be proved by the

Administration itself, whichever is the rule in this field the Reversing of Proof applicable by analogy, as written

in the art. 333 of the Code of Civil Procedure, to assign the burden of proof to the party that is closest to the

facts and have an easier access for proving them"(Grinover, 2009: 48).

According to Minister Celso de Mello (ADPF 45-9, RTJ 175/1212-1213), the conditions imposed by the

reserve of the possible are twofold. On one hand, these conditions presuppose the existence of a state

financially able to enforce the positive benefits claimed from someone. On the other hand, the

reasonableness of the claim deducted in the face of the government.

The precept of reasonableness

The precept of reasonableness must be present in all acts and decisions of the Government. In this

requirement, it joins another constitutional principle (that of proportionality) which ultimately seeks the

right balance between the means employed and the ends to be achieved (Grinover, 2009: 43). Likewise,

says Cortez (in press), "there is a clear relationship between the pursuit of efficiency and the principle of

reasonableness/proportionality".

410

According to research conducted by Antonio (2009: 13), some decisions have been taken on the subject:

In the decision number 181.741.5/3-0130 (page 15), Judge Mariano Siqueira points out: "We should not

talk about judicial interference with the merits of the administrative act, but the courts can intervene when

an omission on the part of the government was illegal, represented an option not allowed, or took place

beyond the limits of its discretion. Every such act should remain in line with the law and the dictates of

reason".

In Civil Appeal number 244.253-5/2-031, Judge Laerte Sampaio said: "The principle of proportionality

seeks to neutralise and inhibit the abuse of public power in the exercise of its inherent functions, notably

performance of the activity of a legislative character. A judgment on the proportionality or reasonableness

of the measure is the result of a rigorous weighing of the significance of the intervention reached and the

objectives pursued by the legislature".

Thus, we must conclude that it is necessary to apply the precept of reasonableness. This is so due to the

requirement for positive benefits arising from the state’s aim of providing all Brazilians with their

fundamental rights – and its aim of ensuring that they also have the minimum needed for a dignified

existence. (Nonetheless, these aims must be achieved without circumventing the limitations of budget

and the balance of legal relations). Only by employing such reasoning will it be possible to achieve

maximum effectiveness in the desired use of public resources in the implementation of social policies.

The Importance of Public Participation

As mentioned earlier, with the advent of popular action (created by the law 4.717/1.965) and civil action

(created by the law 7.347/1.985) in Brazil, several lawsuits were filed in order to apply for state benefits to

meet the most urgent demands of citizens and the community. (Examples of these were the distribution of

medicines, the building of schools, the provision of beds in hospitals, and the provision of ramps in public

places to ensure access to people with special needs. Nonetheless, disputes remain – calling for the

creation or improvement of public policies so as to extend the benefits of these decisions to Brazilian

society as a whole.

30 Reference number that can be used to find the specific decision of a judge in the court of São Paulo.

31 A kind of judicial decision and its reference number in the court of São Paulo.

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Although many court actions have been filed by environmental groups (and, indeed, by the public

prosecutor) in order to protect one or other environmental resource or service (such as in the case of

pollution of a watercourse or the containment of deforestation in one area) little has been done towards

making existing environmental policies more effective.

The National Environmental Policy32 and the National Environmental Education Policy33 are cases in

point. Both were established by law, yet both prove that much more will be required of the state in order

to enable their full and proper implementation. Despite over 10 years of establishment of these laws, they

have not yet left the drawing board in some of their obligations.

According to Valla (1996: 3), we can consider popular participation, in general, as multiple actions that

develop different social forces to influence the formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of

public policies and/or basic services in the area (health, education, housing, transportation, sanitation,

etc). Thus, popular participation in judicial control of public policy would mean collective participation (by

organisations, associations and trade unions) in strongly demanding the fundamental rights and

guarantees that it is the duty of the state to ensure. In addition, similar demands should exist regarding

the monitoring of government actions by the community. This would mean that the judiciary, and the

legislative and executive power, would be motivated to ensure the implementation of public policy in an

innovative way. The implementation of National Environmental Education, for example, would be the

highest priority investment in the environmental area. Such implementation would encourage the

exercising of citizenship and, at the same time, would stimulate the adoption of preventative measures

against environmental damage, as provided for in Law 9.795/99:

"The fundamental goals of environmental education (Article 5):

5. the development of an integrated understanding of the environment in its multiple and complex

relationships, involving ecological, psychological, legal, political, social, economic, scientific,

cultural and ethical aspects;

6. to ensure the democratisation of environmental information;

7. the encouragement and strengthening of a critical awareness of environmental and social issues;



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8. encouraging – individually and collectively – permanent and responsible ways of preserving the

environmental balance and of understanding the defence of environmental quality as a value

inseparable from the exercising of citizenship".

In the process of judiciary decision making, public consultation would not be the exception, but rather the

rule – especially in actions related to the implementation of public policies by the state.

Also relevant is the creation of forums aimed at monitoring popular public events (planning, budgeting

and execution). In partnership with the judiciary, such forums could provide for better management of

tasks to be performed by those involved in public administration.

CONCLUSIONS

Judicial control of public policy in Brazil can be an important tool in the search for greater effectiveness in

the implementation of services aimed at guaranteeing the fundamental rights of the population, including

the right of environmental protection.

However, certain issues must be considered in order to enhance the adoption of this procedure. The

reservations around a possible contradiction to Montesquieu’s Theory of Separation of Powers has been

eased in the light of judgements by certain courts. In these, judges have understood that the judicial

control of public policy does not mean a judicial intervention in the administration sphere. Rather, it

constitutes a means of controlling compliance with a specific legislation or a fundamental precept

established by the Federal Constitution.

In this context, such an instrument can achieve full effectiveness only when popular participation goes

beyond the bringing of lawsuits to become a reality in the planning process and in the execution of

judgements. For these reasons, state actions aimed at stimulating and supporting popular participation in

the environmental arena should receive priority investment. This being because they are able to stimulate

the exercising of citizenship while at the same time promoting the adoption of measures to prevent

environmental damage.

Public consultation, as well as allowing for the popular monitoring of public acts, may represent a

breakthrough in dealing with present conflicts around the demands on public policy due to the limitations

of the administration in attending to such needs.

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REFERENCES

Antônio NML 2009. Os Limites do Judiciário no Controle de Políticas Públicas. Trabalho de Mestrado em Direito

Comercial pela USP. MEd dissertation. São Paulo: University of São Paulo.

Brazilian Laws. Leis Brasileiras em Português. [Online] Available at url: http://www.senado.gov.br

Bucci MPD (org.) 2006. Políticas Públicas: reflexões sobre o conceito jurídico. São Paulo: Saraiva.

Campanha Nacional de Proteção a Fauna. [Online] Available at url: http://www.ibama.gov.br

Cortez LFA. Limites ao Controle Judicial de Políticas Públicas (in press).

Dallari D de A 2007. Elementos de Teoria Geral do Estado. 26th edition, São Paulo: Saraiva.

Federal Constitution. 1988. Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil, Promulgada em 5 de outubro de 1988:

Artigo no 225, Capítulo do Meio Ambiente. Available at url: http://www.senado.gov.br

Ferraz OL da M 2007. Direito à Saúde, Escassez e o Judiciário. Artigo publicado no sítio da Folha de São Paulo em

10 de agosto de 2007. In: Sabino (no prelo). [Online] Available at url: www.folha.com.br

Grinover AP 2009. O controle de políticas públicas pelo Poder Judiciário, in: O processo – Estudos e Pareceres.

2.ed., São Paulo: Editora DPJ.

Grinover AP 2005. O Processo: Estudos e Pareceres. São Paulo: Perfil.

IBAMA 2009. Superintendência no Estado de São Paulo – SUPES/SP. Projeto do Programa Permanente de

Proteção a Fauna Silvestres. São Paulo. [Online] Available at url: http://ibama.gov.br/sp

Judicial Decisions. Tribunal de Justiça de São Paulo. [Online] Available at url: http://www.tjsp.jus.br/

Mendes GF 2009. Direitos Fundamentais: Eficácia das Garantias Constitucionais nas Relações Privadas. Análise da

Jurisprudência da Corte Constitucional Alemã, in Cadernos de Direito Constitucional e Ciências Política no

27, Editora Revista dos Tribunais.

Ministry of the Environment - Department of Environmental Education. Collective Educators and Commissions for

Environmental Education - Definitions. Ministério do Meio Ambiente – Departamento de Educação

Ambiental. Coletivos Educadores e Comissões Interinstitucionais de Educação Ambiental – Definições.

[Online] Available at url: http://www.mma.gov.br

Odum E 1986. Ecologia. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara.

Rocha júnior, Paulo Sérgio Duarte in Grinover 2009. Controle Jurisdicional de Políticas Públicas. Dissertação de

mestrado defendida na USP, orientador Rodolfo de Camargo Mancuso.

Sabino MA. Quando o Judiciário ultrapassa seus limites constitucionais e institucionais: o caso da Saúde (in press).

Valla VV 1998. Sobre participação popular: uma questão de perspectiva. Cad. Saúde Pública, 14 (Sup. 2). Rio de

Janeiro.

Watanabe K, Grinover AP 2010. Aulas expositivas da disciplina “O Controle Jurisdicional de Políticas Públicas”.

Faculdade de Direito da USP, 1° Semestre.

http://www.folha.com.br/

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12 Butterfly agriculture as a means of counteracting human-induced habitat

destruction: solution or complication?


Abstract

In July 2012, David Attenborough indicated that owing to unfavourable climatic conditions brought on by

global warming, the 2012 butterfly census has indicated that three-quarters of Britain’s 59 species of

butterflies are in decline and a third are in danger of extinction (Barkham 2012). The first butterfly census

in Britain was undertaken in 1976 and resulted in established records of butterfly diversity, density and

locality. As early as 2006, Attenborough warned that the losses of Lepidoptera species were an indication

that a deep biodiversity crisis was being entered that required urgent attention (Weaver 2006). These

comments lead one to question why Lepidoptera populations worldwide are perceived to be threatened

and what consequences this holds for the environment and humanity. The purpose of this article is to

provide an overview of why butterflies are important and what their role in nature is; what factors

contribute to their decline; what is being done to find solutions to declining butterfly populations; and

whether these so-called solutions do not perhaps contribute to unanticipated dilemmas that further

threaten the diversity, density and general wellbeing of butterflies. The study is based on an overview of

recent literature on the topic.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

“Halting biodiversity loss is the coming decade's great challenge," Sir David [Attenborough] said. "It's on a par

with getting a man on the moon. An increase in butterfly numbers around the world could be the first indication

that we've achieved this goal. Like that first step on the moon, it would be a giant leap for mankind"

(Attenborough 2010).

At the British Butterfly Conservation symposium held in 2010, which coincided with the United Nations

Environmental Programme‘s (UNEP) Year of International Biodiversity, it was noted that there was

increasing evidence that the problem of declining numbers of butterflies was global and was a

consequence of two major contributing factors: global warming and habitat destruction – with the latter

contributing to the former. Not only are certain British butterfly species facing possible extinction, but also

species in regions as far apart as Japan and the United States (McCarthy 2010).

There are a number of initiatives afoot that propose to protect or shield sections of habitats that are

increasingly being deforested or denuded for agricultural purposes and for human settlement. These

initiatives include harvesting, ranching and farming butterflies in an attempt to simultaneously preserve,

protect and extend natural habitats and conserve butterfly populations. However, to explore the necessity

and viability of these projects, one needs to ask the following questions:

How important is the ecological role that butterflies play?

What factors contribute to the decline in the density and variety of butterfly species?

To what extent do projects that aim to protect, shield or conserve habitats achieve their purpose?

Do the proposed solutions not perhaps contribute to unanticipated problems that could lead to

further decimation of species diversity and the general wellbeing of butterfly populations?

In an attempt to find answers to these questions the research method used was to review recent literature

on the topic to contextualise and clarify the focus of the study.

THE ECOLOGICAL ROLE OF LEPIDOPTERA

Lepidoptera are possibly better appreciated for their aesthetic, scientific, educational and intrinsic value,

but butterflies have significant value for the ecosystem:

Principally as pollinators, being second only to bees as pollinators and consequently playing an

important role in plant reproduction, agriculture, food production and food security

Secondly, as constituting a vital component of the food chain as prey for birds and other

insectivorous species

And, more recently, as indicator species used to study the impact of changes to the environment

brought on by climate change, habitat loss and fragmentation because of their sensitivity to such

changes (Butterfly Conservation Europe 2008).

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Indicator species are chosen on the basis of their sensitivity to environmental changes which include

chemical, ecological or climatic changes. Furthermore, an indicator species must be sufficiently visible,

identifiable and easy to monitor or record (Carignan & Villard 2002:49). Butterflies have relatively short life

cycles and are at a low trophic level; consequently, they respond rapidly to subtle habitat and climatic

changes in their environment. Owing to their visibility, their response to environmental changes is quickly

noticed. Changes in their density and diversity are representative of the responses of other biophysical

components, such as vegetation or changes in temperature or humidity levels which might not be

immediately noticeable (Griffis, Mann & Wagner 2002).

To complete their life cycle, butterflies are reliant on three types of vegetative population. The plants

include the larval food or host plants; the nectar plants on which the butterflies feed; and taller shade

plants which provide protection during butterflies’ resting periods or when they feel threatened. Butterflies

tend to be very specific in the choice of host plants and generally the female lays her eggs only on a

single species of plant, the leaves of which are suitable as a food source for the developing larvae. Most

butterflies are not too particular about which flowers they feed on. However, there is one constraining

factor – the nectar source must be within the range of the capacity (length) of the proboscis. The third

group of plants, the shade or resting plants, must provide sufficient humidity and a temperature that is

comfortable for adult butterflies (Bashar 2010). Apart from the above factors, some butterfly species, for

example members of the Lycaenid family, have a myrmecophylic association with ants that protect their

larvae from predatory insects. Clearly, butterflies require a stable habitat for their survival and any

changes to the habitat that has an impact on one or more of the above requirements will be indicated by

changes to their diversity and density (SABCA 2007).

HUMAN-INDUCED ACTIVITIES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO A LOSS OF DIVERSITY AND DENSITY IN

LEPIDOPTERA POPULATIONS

The literature mentions a variety of factors to which the declining number of butterflies globally can be

attributed. Apart from climate change and global warming (which are not the primary focus of this article),

human activities that lead to degradation and destruction of butterfly habitats are a significant contributing

factor. Habitat destruction is mainly caused by intensified agricultural activities, urbanisation and

deforestation. Habitats are also affected by overgrazing, road-building, trampling, and elimination of

forests for firewood generally to generate a source of income for impoverished local communities (Feber,

Johnson, Firbank, Hopkins & Mcdonald 2007:34–35).

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Human impact on the natural habitats of Lepidoptera resulting from agricultural activities

Agricultural activities, such as large-scale grazing and tillage and the use of pesticides and fertilisers to

protect and sustain crops, have significant implications for wild species of flora and fauna. A national

study conducted in the Netherlands (Wallisdevries, Van Swaay & Plate 2011) found that, owing to

eutrophication resulting from the continuous use of fertilisers and the consequent build up of nitrogen and

phosphorous in the soil and water, about 47% of the natural ecosystem areas showed a significant

decline in the number of flowering plants – especially thistles. Consequently, this resulted in a decline in

diversity and density of Lepidoptera who feed on the nectar from the flowers. A study in the United States

(Morrison 2012) indicated that the decline of the Monarch butterfly is a result of the large-scale depletion

of milkweed – the host plant for the larvae – which is destroyed when undisturbed farmland is turned into

agricultural land. Milkweed is also killed by herbicides used to destroy weeds in the cultivated lands. It is

estimated that the number of milkweed plants declined by 58% between 1999 and 2010, while Monarch

egg production dropped by 81%.

Declines in the abundance and species diversity of butterfly populations in agriculturally developed areas

are generally expected. Studies relating to the practice of organic farming indicated that organic farms

attracted significantly more species of butterflies and in greater numbers overall than conventional farms.

The study concluded that increasing the extent of, or practices associated with, organic farming could

help restore biodiversity in agricultural landscapes (Feber et al. 2007:34). Interventions such as

encouraging farmers to leave tracts of land uncultivated or to withhold grazing to allow for and encourage

the continued existence or return of butterfly species endemic to the area are also suggested by

environmentally aware and concerned farmers. In France, an Alternative Rotational Stocking (ARS)

strategy has been implemented to create refuge areas where flowering plants are protected from grazing

livestock during the main flowering period (Farruggia, Bumont, Scohier, Leroy, Pradel & Garel, 2011:142).

Smallidge and Leopold (1998) indicate that human intervention in the management of land use should be

applied to provide suitable habitats to preserve the local butterfly populations. However, land and

vegetation management strategies are not as straightforward as one might expect. The strategies need to

vary with plant community type, desired vegetation composition and locality (McLauchlin & Mineau 1995).

Butterflies are particularly sensitive to habitat fragmentation and, although well intentioned, the strategies

described above are not necessarily successful for all affected species. An intensive study relating to the

response of butterfly and moth communities to changes in habitat, habitat fragmentation and connectivity

of habitats was conducted by Öckinger, Schweiger and Crist in 2010 (975). In this study, 24 independent

data sets containing 1 483 species and covering a range of landscapes in Europe and North America

were used. The butterfly characteristics examined in the study included mobility (measured by wing

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span), the larval food plants and reproductive potential established by the number of eggs produced. The

results of this study indicated that the communities that are most likely to survive in highly fragmented

landscapes are mainly species that are particularly mobile and feed off a larger range of plant species.

Species that are less mobile, have more specialised diets and less reproductive potential remain at risk

despite attempts to provide areas of natural vegetation to sustain them.

Human impact on the natural habitats of Lepidoptera resulting from urbanisation

Urban development encroaches on natural habitats by replacing countryside with dwellings and

infrastructure such as roads, paved areas, offices and shopping centres, consequently changing the

climate and humidity of the area. Moreover, waterways are rerouted and wetland areas are drained with

the water then being channelled through concrete ditches or pipes making it impossible for natural

vegetation to survive. Many of the plants introduced into urbanised areas are exotic which further

changes the natural habitats required by butterflies (Carter 2005).

Studies on the impact of urbanisation indicate that as urbanisation increases, butterfly species richness

(diversity) decreases. Furthermore, rare and specialised species, that is, those that require particular host

plants or have few broods are most affected (Clark, Reed & Chew 2007:321). Studies by Blair (2001) and

Marzluff (2001) in the United States indicate that the number of butterfly species in the urban core is

reduced to less than 50% of that found in natural, undisturbed areas. However, Blair’s study also

indicated a species richness in suburban areas that surpasses that of preserves created within urban

areas. This is explained by the argument that the initial human impact of suburban sprawl is relatively

mild. Only a few housing subdivisions are established in largely natural habitats and many homeowners

in these areas make informed choices regarding the plants they cultivate with many avoiding the

introduction of exotic species to their gardens (McKinney 2002).

A study conducted as far back as 1989 in the Brazilian city of Porto Alegre investigated butterfly diversity

in terms of urbanisation zones. The urbanised area was divided into three zones: buildings (B) higher

than four storeys with vegetative cover of less than 20%; houses and buildings (HB) no higher than four

storeys and vegetative cover between 20 and 40%; houses (H) and open areas with plant cover of more

than 40%. The distribution of butterflies correlated well with the urban zones with the lowest density on

the B area. This can be attributed to pollution, and the higher temperatures than normal resulting from

urbanisation, human density and lack of vegetation. The borders between H and HB presented a barrier

for several species much like fragmented habitats. The increase in urbanisation and pollution had a direct

impact on species diversity and density and there were definite signs of homogenisation of species in the

B and HB areas (Ruszczyk 1989:157).

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However, most of the world's butterflies, and certainly its largest and most beautiful species, are found in

tropical rain forests, which are disappearing at an alarming rate as a result of deforestation.

Human impact on Lepidoptera resulting from deforestation

The looming mass extinction of biodiversity in the humid tropics globally is a major concern. El Salvador,

which is the second most deforested country in Latin America after Haiti, lost 20.5% of its forest cover

between 1990 and 2005 and 85% in total since the 1960s. Currently, only 5% of the land area remains

forested (El Salvador 2006). In the South American tropical regions, during the past 40 years, close to

20% of the Amazon rain forest has been cut down (Wallace 2010). As one of the world's prime mega-

diverse countries, Brazil holds an immense number of terrestrial invertebrates and, according to the

current Brazilian national and regional data bases, 42% of the terrestrial invertebrate species that are

endangered are butterflies. Comprehensive knowledge of various biomes and habitats in the region is

irregular. The biodiversity of the Atlantic Forest, the Amazon and Cerrado has been relatively well

documented, but the Caatinga and the Pantanal are in need of far more study to establish an accurate

view of the current status of the biodiversity of these regions (Lewinsohn, Freitas & Prado 2005:640).

Moving on to the tropical regions of Africa, the verdant forests of the East Usambara Mountains in

Tanzania is one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, but is threatened by human development and natural

habitat destruction (Van Hartich 2012). Similarly, the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest and the Kakamega Forest in

Kenya, which are two of country’s most precious natural assets, also face human-induced habitat

destruction and the subsequent loss of the rich biodiversity (Nkube 2012). Zanzibar’s natural forests are

similarly threatened (Tutton 2012). The forests in these regions are generally cut down either for the wood

that is used to make charcoal or to establish cash crops as a form of income for the impoverished yet

expanding local populations.

The tropical regions of the East are also severely affected. Singapore reports an overall loss of

biodiversity of 28% of recorded species over a period of 183 years, as a result of large-scale

deforestation and habitat modification (Brook, Sodhi & Ng 2003:421). In India, the state of Assam is home

to more than 500 species of butterflies yet ironically, owing to a lack of awareness of butterflies, there are

no names for these creatures in the regional languages. This lack of awareness certainly contributes to

the fact that butterfly conservation is low on the biodiversity conservation agenda and the large-scale

deforestation and habitat fragmentation continues unheeded (Barua 2011). Satellite imagery shows that

Malaysia is subjected to deforestation at s rate of three times more than any of the other Asian countries

combined (Max 2011) – a country that is estimated to contain 20% of the world’s animal species many of

which are butterflies. The yellow birdwing, once known as the common birdwing, is no longer common

despite it being protected under the Malaysian Wildlife Act and CITES. This butterfly is native to the

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Malaysian lowlands but is steadily disappearing from viable locations owing to the destruction of its

natural habitat for the establishment of palm oil plantations (Penang Butterfly Farm nd). The Queen

Alexandra birdwing, which is the largest butterfly in the world and certainly not inconspicuous owing to its

size and vibrant colours, is on the verge of extinction. Previously found in Australasia there is only one

site where the butterfly can still be found: in northern Papua New Guinea at one location east of the Owen

Stanley Mountains. The butterfly’s eminent extinction has been caused by the clearing of forest for

expanding commercial palm oil, rubber and cocoa plantations, human settlement and subsistence

farming (New 2011).

BUTTERFLY AGRICULTURE The preceding discussion and references to the factors that lead to the destruction of habitats (mostly

human induced) and the consequent loss of biodiversity, including that of butterflies, that play an

indispensible role in the ecosystem, might leave the impression that ‘all is lost’. However there are various

attempts – many of them successful – to curb the impact of habitat destruction and simultaneously

address the threat to the wellbeing of butterflies. This practice is generally referred to under the umbrella

term ‘butterfly agriculture’ and takes on several forms. Each will be discussed below. However, to

contextualise the rationale for aspects of butterfly agriculture it is necessary to first mention the role of

butterfly flight houses in this process.

Butterfly flight houses

There is hardly a country that does not have at least one, but invariably several, butterfly flight or display

houses in which local and exotic species of butterflies are on display. The concept first started in

Guernsey in 1976 and the trend spread rapidly. D’Angelo’s words “all over the world butterflies soar into

the hearts of man, they sail boundless and free, speaking the universal language of beauty” probably best

capture most people’s response to the sight of a butterfly and explain why butterfly flight houses have

become so popular.

Because the species on display are not just endemic, pupae of exotic species need to be purchased from

all over the world and hatched for butterfly livestock for display. Most countries that import and those that

export butterfly pupae have to comply with strict regulations and be in possession of the required permits.

In most cases these permits do not allow species to be bred in captivity and plants within the display

house may provide nectar only. Larval host plants may not be cultivated. Since butterflies are generally

short-lived, regular shipments of new pupae are required. Once the butterfly emerges from the chrysalis it

is released into the exhibit. Strict measures to prevent escapes are taken (Hadley 2012). Some butterfly

houses in tropical and subtropical regions have breeding facilities for self-need and outside market

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demand. Nevertheless, the primary concern of butterfly display houses is not conservation, but to raise

interest and awareness of butterflies among visitors.

Farming and/or exhibiting of tropical butterflies is a worldwide business. However, although most of the

butterflies on display originate from tropical countries, most of the flight houses are located in temperate

regions.

Butterfly harvesting, ranching and farming

The rationale for butterfly agriculture is to protect or improve the habitats where butterflies occur naturally.

The areas which are generally most prone to habitat destruction – aside from the habitats destroyed for

large-scale agricultural purposes or logging for economic reasons – are mostly found in regions where

poverty is rife, population growth is rapid and survival is primary. Communities tend to destroy the areas –

mostly forested areas – to harvest firewood, log wood to produce charcoal or to clear land for subsistence

agriculture. For butterfly agriculture to succeed, local farmers and villagers need to be convinced that it

makes more economic sense to make money from butterflies which are a renewable resources than

continue with the non-sustainable exploitation of the forests. The promotion of butterfly harvesting,

farming and ranching can offer locals an alternative income that does not require the destruction of their

natural habitats, but instead preserves and protects the existing natural habitats.

Butterfly harvesting entails a passive process of habitat conservation. Harvesting can be described as

‘hunting’ for butterfly pupae in their natural habitats and collecting dead-stock for the manufacturing of

items sold to tourists. The pupae are sold to buyers who, with the required permits, export the harvested

pupae to butterfly display houses worldwide. Because butterflies have a high reproduction rate,

overharvesting is not generally a concern. The spin-off is that the local people find out how important it is

to preserve the natural environment to ensure a continuous source of host and nectar plants if their larvae

harvesting activities are to be successful. Consequently, the habitat is preserved and communities make

a viable income from the butterfly pupae they collect. From an environmental education perspective,

interest in, and awareness and knowledge of, butterfly habits and habitats are enhanced.

Butterfly ranching is more intensive than butterfly harvesting. The basic principle of butterfly ranching is

that traditional cultivated crop gardening is diversified to include butterfly host plants to attract oviposting

females. Because people are generally unaware which host plants are required by an egg-laying female

butterfly, farmers need to identify – through careful observation – which host plants are required and need

to be cultivated in their gardens to attract butterflies. Since butterflies are mobile, they congregate in

areas where the larval food plants grow (Le Roux 2000:40).This system has a dual benefit: the visiting

butterflies serve as pollinators for the cultivated crops and also provide larvae that can later on be

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harvested. Butterfly ranching thus involves artificial manipulation of the natural density of larval host

plants. Mature larvae are harvested and removed to cages for pupation to ensure that they are not lost to

natural predators. Farmers realise the importance of protecting the natural habitat and forested areas to

ensure that they have a constant supply of this renewable resource. Environmentally destructive

agricultural practices like logging, slash and burn cropping and ranching bush meat is significantly

curtailed (Weintraub 1995).

Farming butterflies – the most intensive intervention of the three measures – requires the building of

enclosures – usually with fine netting to protect the butterflies from their natural enemies during all stages

of their life cycle. Butterfly farming is more labour-intensive, but results in the large-scale production of

pupae for export. Nurseries of host plants are established to replenish food plants in the enclosure and

good nectar source flowering plants are cultivated to nourish the adult butterfly. New males are regularly

harvested from the surrounding habitat and introduced into the enclosures to ensure genetic diversity.

Larvae are removed from the enclosure to special cages at pupation stage and are then sold to buyers.

EXAMPLES OF CASE STUDIES OF SUCCESSFUL HARVESTING, RANCHING AND FARMING

PRACTICES

There are a number of successful projects involving butterfly agriculture. In general, the chief benefit is

that people in rural villages are able to make a viable income through farming butterflies by the sale of

pupae and dried specimens (Dunn 2006; Le Roux 2000). At the same time, natural habitats are

conserved and degraded and destructed habitats are rehabilitated by reintroducing indigenous host

species (Le Roux 2000). Furthermore, local awareness of nature and environmental sustainability is

promoted. Without the alternative of farming butterflies, villagers would clear the forests to plant cash

crops and log and burn wood for charcoal.

Successful projects include those of the Penang Butterfly Farm established in Malaysia in 1986, in which

some 100 native species are on display. The farm is a top tourist attraction with breeding stations.

Extensive habitat studies had to be done to identify host plants and to establish the macro-climatic

conditions required by the butterflies and their host plants. The farm releases a significant percentage of

the captive bred stock into the wild (Butterfly conservation 2010). In Papua New Guinea, butterflies are

classified as renewable natural resources and insect conservation as a national objective is specified in

the country’s constitution. The government established Insect Farming & Trading Agency helps villagers

establish programmes to raise and sell pupae. The goliath birdwing – the second largest butterfly in the

world – is but one of the species that is specifically ranched (Bayliss-Smith 2011).

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Success stories from Africa include those such as the KEEP project in Kenya where butterflies are farmed

in the Kakamega Forest on the border with Uganda. The local Shikami group (essentially comprised of

women) makes a lucrative business from butterfly farming. The director of the project maintains that the

farmers are able to earn a monthly income of about $950 per month – much more than they could from

making charcoal or from chicken or egg selling businesses. Farmers need to obtain a licence from the

Kenya Wildlife Services to trade butterfly pupae, which places a restriction on exploitation of the process

(Ncube 2012). In Tanzania, the Amani Butterfly Project works with rural villages in forested, mountainous

areas. The main aim is to provide villagers with an alternative income that will reduce their negative

impact on the environment through deforestation and slash and burn clearance to cultivate crops.

Participating farmers receive about 65% of the income generated; of the remaining funds, 30% covers the

project’s staff salaries and operating costs and 5% of the profits is set aside for community development

projects that benefit the community as a whole, such as building schools and hospitals (Den Hartigh

2012).

Suriname and Guyana are two of the smallest countries in South America but both have established

butterfly farms which contribute to nature education and the breeding of tropical butterflies. In Suriname, a

successful breeding programme for neotropical insects has been established close to Lelydorp. This

project produces and exports several indigenous butterfly pupae internationally. Guyana, to the west of

Suriname, started its butterfly farming project Kawê Amazonica Butterfly Farm – “Kawê” means “butterfly”

in the local Makushi dialect and “Amazonica” is an allusion to the butterflies of the Amazon region – in

2007. The farming sites consist of a host plant garden, a caterpillar rearing facility and a butterfly house

(Sambhu & Van der Heyden 2010:452–453). Iwokrama is another productive butterfly farm in the heart of

Guyana's rainforest. While preserving tropical rainforests, sustainable livelihoods for local communities

are generated by farming butterflies (Hance 2008).

However, the discussion on butterflies in the South American tropical region would be incomplete without

mention of Brazil. The country has in excess of 3 300 species – without doubt the greatest diversity in the

world. As mentioned before, certain regions of the country have been relatively well surveyed. For

example, the state of Rondonia apparently has an estimated 1 500 to 1 600 species within several square

kilometres. Unfortunately, the tropical rain forest in this area is being rapidly cleared. Another example of

a richly populated region is the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. This is a heterogeneous and endangered biome

of which only 10% remains. More than 2 100 species are found in the region. Logically, if regions like the

sites mentioned are being destroyed, the habitats of large numbers of butterflies will be destroyed and

consequently butterflies – their diversity and density – will be decimated (Emmel & Austin 1990:1;

Francini, Duarte, Mielke, Caldas, Freitas 2011: 31).

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Unfortunately, tropical butterfly conservation efforts are constrained by a lack of substantiated ecological

knowledge owing to the expanse and relative impenetrability of the area. Generally, conservation

research on butterflies in the tropics has focused on the relationship between habitat quality and butterfly

diversity. However, the increasing threat caused by habitat destruction, fragmentation and climate change

in Brazil makes it necessary to move beyond the habitat–diversity relationship if estimations of how

habitat destruction impacts on diversity are to be made. Tropical butterflies represent some of the most

spectacular and visually appealing organisms in the world and surely play – probably undocumented as

yet – vital roles in tropical ecosystems (Bonebrake, Ponisio, Boggs, & Erlich 2010:1831).

COUNTER-ARGUMENTS RELATED TO BUTTERFLY AGRICULTURE

Butterfly harvesting, ranching and farming as conservation efforts also have their critics. The main

arguments raised include contentions that the probability of disease can arise when butterflies are housed

in crowded situations and that hybridisation resulting from- the lack of genetic regeneration can take place

(LepSoc 2012:1). It is also argued that the release of butterflies bred under controlled conditions into a

different locality could result in the introduction of diseases to the native population which is unable to

contend with the disease. Apart from introducing disease to an area, the shipping or release of live

butterflies carries the possibility of spreading and generating diseases in health communities (Pavulaan

2009).

Populations that are localised are generally genetically distinct from geographically removed populations

of the same species. They may be adapted to prevailing local conditions that include climate, soil and

vegetation. The introduction of non-native genes into the localised populations could be detrimental and

disruptive to the primary population (Pavulaan 2009).

Transportation of species outside their native habitat for deliberate introduction into a new region can

have detrimental effects on the environment and the survival of the butterfly population itself. In addition,

the reintroduction of a species to a region should only be considered after the habitat requirements of the

species and the reasons for its decline (or causes for its extinction) have been understood or removed.

Any subsequent reintroduction should be monitored, recorded and evaluated (LepSoc 2012).

Assisted introductions are generally forbidden and when it is done as part of a biological weed eradication

programme, the introduction needs to be well considered and monitored for any detrimental effects. The

release of alien species should never be allowed (Pavulaan 2009) since they pose a risk of uncontrolled

expansion owing to a lack of local predators which threaten local Lepidoptera populations (LepSoc 2012).

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Another claim is that conservation efforts might inadvertently conserve a common species at the expense

of conserving a threatened species if advice from local or international experts is not first sought. Those

who challenge live butterfly farming argue that ranching of dead stock seems to be the most sustainable

method of conservation (Johnson 1998:12). Although not challenging the sale of livestock to flight

houses, the Lepidopterist Society of South Africa (2012) contends that the sale of dead stock can be

scientifically supported. An additional issue raised is that areas where host plants are removed and

transferred for ranching or farming purposes are at risk of encroachment by invasive plants.

CONCLUDING COMMENTS

The precarious state in which butterflies find themselves globally cannot be ignored, especially since this

state is human induced. Humanity is obliged to take responsibility for its actions and at least attempt to

make solid contributions to the preservation and conservation of butterflies globally. The indispensable

role that Lepidoptera play in nature is an accepted fact. That Lepidoptera find themselves globally in a

tenuous situation as a result of the consequences of global warming, including climate change and

ongoing human-induced habitat destruction cannot be denied. This article has provided a rationale for the

preservation of butterflies; has mentioned attempts to preserve and conserve butterflies that can be

supported by local communities since the benefit derived is of immediate financial benefit to them as well;

and it has also raised the counter-arguments and concerns related to these attempts.

The counter-arguments are valid and should be heeded to ensure that further destruction to butterfly

habitats and wellbeing does not occur. The cautionary comments raised need to be seriously considered.

However, the positive results achieved through butterfly agriculture need to be commended, as do the

spin-offs of habitat conservation, raising environmental awareness, appreciation and knowledge, as well

as providing impoverished communities with a sustainable financial income. The literature on this topic

overwhelmingly indicates that the conservation and preservation of butterflies and their habitats can no

longer be ignored. Measures such as butterfly agriculture provide a viable option for achieving this goal,

although it is imperative to equally consider the advice advanced by the critics – advice that is offered

from a well-informed and expert position.

William Wordsworth (1770–1850), in one of his poems entitled “To a Butterfly”, written many years ago

with some foresight it might seem, was concerned about the environmentally responsible individual’s

experience

Stay near me – do not take thy flight! A little longer stay in sight!

Much converse do I find in thee, Historian of my infancy!

Float near me; do not yet depart!

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13 The Narrative: An Info-Entertaining Way to Educate About the Environment

K Kezabu

Uganda

Abstract

Narratives were traditionally effective educational tools. Today, they have been effective in educating

about social issues. Forms of the narrative range from novels and short stories to plays and movies. In

Uganda, environmental issues are mainly taught at school. But how about those people that did not go to

school? How about those that went to school but lack the awareness of the current environmental threat?

Ugandans are involved in environmentally degrading activities in spite of efforts by organizations like

National Environmental Management Authority and National Forest Authority. In recent years, there is a

remarkable boom in the entertainment industry. However, there has been a gap in the exploitation of the

narrative as a tool of education on environmental issues. Using narrative theories, this paper intends to

show the extent to which the narrative has been used in educating the masses about their environment.

This paper also demonstrates the effectiveness of the narrative as an educational tool.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

Narratives are stories. These stories are presented in many forms and genres. They can be written or oral

like in the case of novels, short stories, folktales, myths and legends; they may be sung or recited as in

the case of songs, narrative poems or epic poetry; they may be viewed in motion or still pictures like the

movies, T.V soaps, or paintings; or, they can just be acted on stage or mimed for an audience like plays.

(Barthes 1995: 238). Narratives are universal. They are part of us, all the time, everywhere in the world.

About the universality of the narrative, Barthes (ibid, 239) says, “…indeed narrative starts with the very

history of mankind; there is not, there has never been anywhere, any people without narrative; all classes,

all human groups, have their stories…like life itself, it is there, international, transhistorical, transcultural.”

Scholars contend that our identity is built on the narrative. The phenomenon of experience itself is usually

approached in the structure of the narrative. When, for instance, a people want to record their life

experiences, goals and accomplishments they write them in the form of a story with the same narrative

structure as narrative fiction. It has a beginning, when for instance he is young; and middle when he is an

adult, energetic and full of life; and the end, when he is old and retired from active service. Rimmon-

Kenan (2002: 11) says, “… that we lead our lives as stories, and our identity is constructed both by

stories we tell our selves and others about ourselves and the master narratives that consciously serve as

models to us.”

Studies in personal psychology reveal that the narrative is a vehicle of appreciation and examination of

the self and society. We need to know the people we work with and also live with. Lack of that knowledge

will make us fail to live in harmony and therefore development will be hampered. When we understand

the people around us and what affects them, our personalities are developed. McAdams (2006: 14)

emphasizes the importance of narrative approaches in the study of difficult life events, and major life

decisions. The same narrative approaches help reveal the way people make sense of adversity and

change and how that sense-making influences the development of personality.

On the issue of fictionality, Punday (2003: 18) expounds on how we live in a fiction surrounded world. He

explains that our career moves are based on imagining likely futures and our judgment of our actions and

the actions of others is based more often on models provided by narratives like films and novels. Without

the use of one’s imagination, life would not only be boring but also impossible. Kennedy (1991: Preface

xi) wisely points at the consequences of a lack of imagination when he attributes people’s failure to their

failure to view the world from other people’s point of view. According to him, most people’s failure is not

as a result of an inability to understand their jobs but the failure to understand the people they work with,

their clients, or customers.

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Van Dijk (1994: 293) defines a story as any discourse which has a narrative structure. Aristotle speaks of

“a unified plot with a beginning, middle and an end,” in his description of the structure of a play which is

also a form of the narrative. (Dorsch 1965: 41) The structure of a narrative is emphasized by many literary

scholars. A structuralist understanding of the narrative will emphasize the same traditional order.

Ferguson (1994: 218-219) clarifies that all stories short or long have certain required properties of

narrativity – characters, places, events, “a beginning, middle and an end”, and coherence among the

parts. Narratives are distinguished from other forms and genres by their special structure.


The researcher employed the structuralist narrative theory because the paper emphasizes the use of the

unified structure of the narrative (beginning, middle and end) in the exposition of ideas and in this case,

about the environment. The researcher employed the cognitive model which examines stories as a

means of discourse processing. In this paper, stories or narratives are considered as a medium through

which information can be dispensed.

STATEMENT OF THE OBJECTIVE

This research was intended to establish the extent to which the narrative has been used in environmental

education in Uganda. The research also reveals the main educational tools that are employed in teaching

the masses about the environment in Uganda. The paper also aims to show how the narrative can be an

effective educational tool.

THE UGANDAN ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION

At 3.3 % per annum, Uganda’s population growth rate is considered one of the highest in the world. As

per population census of 2007, Uganda’s population was estimated at 28 million people and growing by 1

million people per year (Uganda National Commission for UNESCO 2010: 31). This large population has

implications for the environment. Many of the livelihood requirements of most Ugandans are directly

derived from the environment. An imbalance is likely to be created when the rate at which the rapidly

growing population utilizing the nature resources exceeds the natural growth and renewal of these

resources. Such a stressed environment cannot be sustainable for long. When the resources become

scarce in the face of a rapidly growing population, poverty intensifies. With increasing poverty, people

start engaging in environmentally degrading activities like deforestation, charcoal burning, encroaching on

wildlife areas and wetlands, overharvesting of fish, water pollution etc. This further depletes the

environment and makes people more vulnerable to environmental hazards like droughts, mudslides,

storms, and diseases, all of which are common phenomena in Uganda today.

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Environmental education was introduced through “The school environmental education program”,

launched in 1996, and was later revised in 2005. (National Environment Management Authority 2008).

Although this program was integrated in the curriculum at primary, secondary and tertiary levels, it has

been criticized for being too theoretical and exam-oriented. (Uganda National Commission for UNESCO

2010:19). Outside the classroom, the students are totally unaware of the environmental issues and

therefore lack practical skills, values and ethics to survive and manage resources in a challenging world.

Even though the government launched a strategy through “The non-formal environmental education and

community training strategy” (National Environment Management Authority 1994: 2) to educate the

masses about sustainable development in 1994, there is still a lot of ignorance among the people. People

are still burning charcoal uncontrollably, destroying wetlands, destroying forests for timber and even

recently, the President has twice tried to sell the largest natural forest reserve, Mabira forest, to a sugar

manufacturing company for sugarcane growing, hence, threatening to destroy its human and wildlife

reliance.

In her dissertation entitled “Environmental Degradation and Food Insecurity in Bukwo District, Eastern

Uganda,” (Cheptoris 2011: 61) 34.5% of her respondents failed to associate environmental degradation

(charcoal burning, wet land encroachment, deforestation etc) to food insecurity in their region. This

implies that a good number of Ugandans are ignorant of the effects of their degrading activities on their

own wellbeing.

THE NARRATIVE AS AN EDUCATIONAL TOOL

In many cultures, narratives have been limited to the field of entertainment. Hyvarinen (2006: 22)

comments on the fact that the narrative has been neglected and marginalized in society. Also due to their

fictional nature, narratives have often been dismissed as lies. Long ago, Plato had the same view when

he banned them from his ideal republic because according to him, they were simply imitations of reality.

(Plato 2005:24). However, Aristotle, his student, thought otherwise and argued that the basis of learning

is imitation. He clarifies that man is the most imitative of all animals and that his earliest lessons are learnt

through imitation. (Dorsch 1965: 35) Modern scholars warn that children should be introduced to stories

early in life: MacIntyre (1984: 216) stresses that children deprived of stories become unscripted, anxious,

stutterers in their actions as in their words.

Teachers are aware that the main reason for a teacher to be innovative is to hold the attention of the

learner for as long as the lesson lasts and even more. A generally inattentive class is a result of boring

traditional teaching methods. Traditionally, the teacher’s was the active role and the student was the

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passive receiver. Narratives as teaching aids involve the students emotionally (and in many cases

practically) in a way that the students are usually carried away by the anxiety of ‘what happened next?’

and ‘so what?’ of the story. This applies to all levels of learners, from pre-primary to university; and all

fields, ranging from Languages and Literature to Medical Science.

In a class of environmental science, students can be bombarded with very farfetched abstract concepts.

The use of narratives helps to make the abstract concepts realistic. The information that would otherwise

be hard to decode and remember can, by the use of stories, be brought closer to the level of the students’

understanding. As narratives are educative, they are also entertaining. Scholars have written that human

beings naturally enjoy stories. Aristotle elucidates that it is actually an in born instinct in man to enjoy

works of imitation. (Dorsch 1965: 35) Evidence of this enjoyment is the current flourishing entertainment

industry. There are a lot of films, movies, soaps etc produced all the time. The use of characters that, like

us, are stupid, tragic, ambitious and sometimes indecisive, make stories entertaining and allows us to

relate to them as we often see our personal characteristics portrayed in the narrative.

Narratives are hard to forget. This makes them better teaching aids compared to other teaching methods.

The narrative structure and unified plot function in such a way that whoever is listening, reading or

watching a story easily commits to memory what is being taught. In the other teaching methods, issues

are disjointed fragments that are usually hard to piece together by the learners. The narrative with its

unified plot easily sticks to the learners’ memory. The other thing that makes these stories good

educational tools is that the stories break up the content of the data into smaller manageable bits that can

be easily taken in by the learners. For example using the story “Will I ever go back home?” (UWEC 2011:

6-7), a teacher may step-by-step teach the dangers of poaching and the importance of forest

conservation. In education all teachers worldwide are trained to teach from the known to the unknown.

This philosophy works better if the teacher uses stories as a teaching aid. Stories reflect human

experience and they are about human beings. This simplifies the information so that the learner’s ability

to comprehend the information at hand is made easier.

Stories also perform the illustrative function. They show what the problem actually looks like. (Stewart,

121) Because of the artful selection of the language used in telling the story, the vivid description of the

people, places and incidents, the story acts as an illustration that stimulates the learner’s interest in the

subject being taught. Because stories present life situations, they help replicate real world problems. The

student is asked to deal with the reality of life and not the unreal. They portray human problems and in

using wretched people like us or like the people we live with, learners experience real human feelings

thereby identifying with the problem. From the characters in the stories, learners may learn how to

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overcome or solve certain life challenges like poverty or drought.

The case study which is widely used in management studies is also a form of the narrative. The case

study is a sort of short story, which presents the problem at hand, in story format. Usually it leads to a

discussion which in most cases results in critical thinking and problem solving. On the effectiveness of the

case study, Lawrence (1953: 215) clarifies that it not only keeps the class discussion grounded upon

some of the stubborn facts that must be faced in real life situations but also it is “the anchor on academic

flights of fancy”.

METHOD

This research employed the qualitative approach. The overall strategy was mainly descriptive for both the

data derived from the live sources (interviews and focus-groups discussion) and documentary sources.

The sampling was both purposive and random. Reason being that the researcher selected two most

respected and responsible environmental organizations in the country: The National Environmental

Management Authority (NEMA) which is the principal agency in Uganda responsible for the coordination,

monitoring and supervision of all environmental management issues in the country; and Uganda Wildlife

Educational Centre (UWEC), formally Uganda zoo, an educational arm of Uganda Wildlife Authority in

charge of wildlife in the country.

The researcher also purposively chose to interview the heads and three other members of the education

departments in both organizations because the information required was on public awareness or the way

the organizations educate the public on matters pertaining to the environment. The sampling was also

random because members of the public were randomly selected to discuss their views about how they

got their information about the environment.

Documentary sources in form of text books, newspapers, and journals were selected using the purposive

sampling method and these were used to get more information on the environment in general and on the

narrative as both an instrument of exposition and research.

National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA)

The national environmental act mandates NEMA in article 86(4) to publish such publications as it

considers necessary for public education on the environment and other environmental issues. Article 87

also mandates the authority, in collaboration with the minister responsible for education, to take all

measures necessary for the integration into the school curriculum of education on the environment. (The

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National Environmental Act 1995: 71). NEMA’s mission is to ensure Sustainable socio-economic

development for Uganda. One of the specific objectives is to promote awareness programs and increase

public knowledge about environmental issues.

The people interviewed revealed that the National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) has a

fully fledged department in charge of education. This department is in charge of designing education

programs and materials for environmental education for both the public and for schools. For

environmental education for schools, among other materials, NEMA has published a booklet entitled

Promoting Environmental Education in Schools which explains to school children what the environment

is, its benefits and how to form environmental clubs at school. It also elaborates some of the activities that

can be done by the environmental clubs in schools.

Some other materials for environmental education at tertiary and university levels developed by NEMA

are the modules (Module 1 and 2). These are step-by-step guides to the instructors on how to teach

university students about the environment. Other materials are posters, and bound booklets of the

numerous workshops done in the past. The interviewees also showed that workshops are mainly carried

out for target groups (especially policy makers and implementers). For the public and libraries, a quarterly

newsletter, NEMA News, about environmental issues in Uganda is published. In this newsletter, there are

creative stories (fiction) written about the environment.

The National Environmental Management Authority publishes, every two years, a report entitled the State

of Environment Report for Uganda. This report gives factual information on the achievements and

challenges of the Ugandan environment for the last two years. National Environmental Management

Authority (NEMA) all together showed eight (8) ways of educating about the environment.

S/N Educational Tool Mode of Rhetoric 1 Booklet: Promoting Environmental Education in Schools Expository, Descriptive

2 State of Environment Report for Uganda (Every two years) Expository

3 Newsletter: NEMA NEWS Expository, Narrative

4 Modules (1 and 2) for tertiary environmental education Expository, Descriptive

5 Workshops Expository

6 Bound previous workshop reports and papers at NEMA Available only in NEMA House Kampala

Expository

7 A library at NEMA House Kampala: open to the public Expository

8 Posters Descriptive

Table 1: The rhetoric mode of the NEMA environment educational tools

Uganda Wildlife Educational Center (UWEC)

The center is home to several endangered species of plants, animals, reptiles and birds. On average, it

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receives about 100 children from one school per day to tour the premises. The children observe the

animals and the guides explain many scientific facts about the animals. The centre also has facilities for

camping and at night, they hold campfires where stories about the animals are narrated. The stories are

mainly folk-tales and myths surrounding the particular animals, birds and reptiles at the center. On

average, the center receives about one tourist family in two months and very rarely the Ugandan families

for camping. Out of these stories, a publication entitled Animal Stories is underway.

The center also has recently published a booklet entitled Bush Meat to discourage poaching and to

educate the public about the dangers of wild animal meat to humans. In this booklet (UWEC:6-7), there is

a fiction story, Will I Ever Go Back Home?, used to show the plight of monkeys like Sarah who end up in

Zoos after the loss of her parents to bush meat hunters. The Uganda Wildlife Educational Centre (UWEC)

showed three ways of educating about the environment; and one collection of stories Animal Stories is

yet to be published.

S/N Educational Tool Mode of Rhetoric 1 Tours Expository

2 Campfire Stories Narrative

3 A Booklet: Bush Meat Expository, Narrative

Table 2: The rhetoric mode of UWEC environmental educational tools

Other Tools of Environmental Education

Some of the interviewees, who were working class and literate, said that they get their environmental

enlightenment from the national papers. These mainly were The New Vision and The Monitor. Leading

stories like the Mabira Forest give-away scandal and related public protests; and the National Forest

Authority (NFA) corrupt boss scandal were mentioned. Also mentioned from the papers are the Buduuda

mudslide disasters and Teso floods. All these stories were obtained from the news papers.

The television was another mentioned educational tool about the environment. News about environmental

disasters, scandals and threats are aired on most television stations. There was a mention of the eco-talk

on National Television (NTV) Uganda that was praised to be very informative. Uganda Broadcasting

Service (UBC) television was praised for airing, once every week, foreign documentaries about different

environmental related situations in the world. The radio was yet another educational tool about the

environment. Environmental news about disasters, challenges and current environmental issues are

usually aired on the different radio stations.

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These sources showed the following ways of educating about the environment:

S/N Educational Tool Mode of Rhetoric

1 News papers Expository, Descriptive

2 Television Expository, Descriptive

3 Radio Expository, Descriptive

Table 3: The rhetoric mode of other environmental educational tools

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

The environmental educational tools used by the National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA)

are eight and out of the eight, only one, NEMA NEWS, employs the narrative rhetorical mode. The

Uganda Wildlife Education Center (UWEC) shows only three environmental education tools and of those,

two are in the narrative mode. The other environmental education tools are mainly the media

(Newspapers, Television and Radio) and none of them use the narrative rhetoric mode to educate about

the environment. All together, there are fourteen main environmental education tools that are used to

educate Ugandans about their environment and of those; twelve, use the expository rhetoric mode, and

six use the descriptive rhetoric mode and only three employ the narrative rhetoric mode in educating

about the environment.

Venn diagram showing the rhetoric modes of the different environmental education

tools used in Uganda

Expository = 12

4

2

Descriptive = 6 Narrative = 3

6 1

CONCLUSIONS

The strategies that the government has used to inform the public about sustainable development and the

dangers of abusing the environment are not effective. The evidence is that today, the degrading activities

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are even worse than they were ten years ago. Daryl Khunle (2007: 56), a public information and

education specialist, says “it is not just about giving people the scientific facts, rather one should identify

the emotional or practical reasons why stake holders act the way they do”. He further advises,

“…translate the scientific facts into stimulating concepts and messages that appeal to the stakeholders,

are relevant to them and connect with their emotions and personal benefits.”

In Uganda today, with the boost of technology, the media industry has tremendously grown and so has

the entertainment industry. Before 1990, Uganda had one radio station, Radio Uganda; one television

station, Uganda television; and one newspaper The New Vision and all were state owned. Today,

Uganda boasts of over 10 newspapers, about 19 television stations, and about 150 radio stations. Most of

them are privately owned and provide info-taining programs even in the local languages to attract the

public. The youth and the elite have unlimited internet access and spend a lot of time on various social

networks. (http://www.ucc.co.ug)

One would think that this kind of boost in the information access would be the best for the concerned

ministry and the environmental bodies to make known their campaign against environmental degradation.

The data from the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) showed that the eight

environmental educational tools mostly used are in the expository rhetoric mode. This mode of

communication is in the form of scientific facts. It is noteworthy that Uganda is a country where most of

the adult natural resources exploiting populace are illiterate, and yet the education methods used by

NEMA are not only in written form but also in English. The people in offices are not the only ones that

need to know about the repercussions of burning charcoal to the forests, but also the poor uneducated

peasants who have made charcoal burning their major source of income.

The data from the Uganda Wildlife Education Center which is located only in Entebbe, showed that two of

the three environmental education tools are in the narrative rhetoric mode. These, however, target only

the children in urban schools and the people that come for campfire, who are mainly tourists. A collection

of the same stories about to be published under the title, Animal Stories, will again target the literate and

only those who understand English – again marginalizing those for whom the information is intended and

required. The media has also devised programs to educate the public about the environment.

Newspapers, television stations and radio stations, have a wider coverage but are also disadvantaged in

some ways. UBC documentaries focus on different aspects of the environment i.e. global warming and

the polar bears, the lions, the seals, the chimpanzees etc. Such programs are very informative but they

mainly tackle subjects that are not directly related to the Ugandan situation and when they do, they are

aired only in English like in the case of Eco Talk on NTV.

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RECOMMENDATIONS

In a situation when people are bombarded with a lot of information, we need to know that people will only

listen to what appeals to them. As a creative way of effectively educating about the environment, the

narrative in all its forms should be employed through entertainment to inform the public about their

relationship and responsibility towards the environment.

On top of the different teaching methods, the Ugandan environmental organs and the Ministry of Water

and Environment should budget for support of artists to compose songs, plays, stories, and other

narrative forms to educate the public about the environment.

The government should consider developing programs and materials in the different local languages

bearing in mind that not all Ugandans understand English and also reach out to the communities where

knowledge about the environment and its sustainable use is most required.

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REFERENCES Aristotle, 1965: On the art of poetry. Dorsch T.S (ed.) Classical Literary Criticism. London: Penguin. Barthes R & Duisit L 1975. An introduction to the structural analysis of narrative: New Literary History. 6 (6): 235-272.

Cheptoris R 2011. Environmental degradation and food insecurity in Bukwo district. MDs dissertation. Mukono:

Uganda Christian University. Dijk V 1994. Story comprehension: an introduction. May C (ed.) The New Short Story Theories. Ohio: Ohio University

Press. Ferguson, S.C. 1994. Defining the short story: impressionism and form. May C (ed.) The New Short Story Theories.

Ohio: Ohio University Press. Hyvärinen M. 2006. Towards a conceptual history of narrative. University of Helsinki.

http://www.helsinki.fi/collegium/e-series/volumes/volume_1/001_04_hyvarinen.pdf Kennedy X.J 1991. An introduction to fiction. New York: Harper Collins. Khunle D 2007. Public information and education action plan. A Toolkit for National Focal Points. Montreal:

Communication Education and Public Awareness (CEPA). Lawrence P. R 1953. The preparation of case material. Andrews K. P (ed.) In the Case Method of Teaching Human

Relations and Administration. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. MacIntyre A 1984. After virtue: a study in moral theory. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. McAdams D. P 2006. The role of narrative in personality psychology. North Western University: John Benjamins

Publishing Company. Plato 2005. The republic. Adams H (ed.) Critical theory since Plato. Boston: Thomson & Wadsworth. Punday D 2003. Narrative bodies. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Rimmon-Kenan S 2002. Narrative fiction: contemporary poetics. London & New York: Routledge. Stewart, A. H The role of the narrative structure in the transfer of ideas.

http://wac.colostate.edu/books/textual_dynamics/chapter5.pdf National Environment Management Authority 1994. Non formal environmental education strategy. National Environment Management Authority 2008. State of the National Environmental Report for Uganda 2008. National Environment Management Authority 2009. Promoting Environmental Education in Schools. Uganda National Commission for UNESCO 2010: Education for Sustainable Development Uganda Implementation

Strategy. Uganda Wildlife Education Center 2011. Will I ever go back home? Bush Meat.

http://www.helsinki.fi/collegium/e-series/volumes/volume_1/001_04_hyvarinen.pdf

http://wac.colostate.edu/books/textual_dynamics/chapter5.pdf

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14 From the horse’s mouth: Successful environmental education programmes. A

provider perspective

JM Dreyer

CP Loubser


Abstract

There is a perception that environmental education is failing to accomplish its goals (globally and in South

Africa). To find out if this perception is based on fact, we decided to do research to determine what the

position is in South Africa. As we could not find research done in South Africa about providers’ self-

evaluation of their environmental education programmes, we decided to focus our research on a

provider’s perspective of these programmes. Amongst others, structured interviews were held with 23

individuals from institutions providing environmental education in the formal and non-formal education

sector to determine their views on the success of, as well as examples of good practices in,

environmental education at their institutions. The participants were selected to be representative of

different types of environmental education providers situated in different provinces. This research showed

that there are a number of "success stories" all over the country. Several elements of the programmes

contributing to success and indicators of success were identified by the providers themselves and are

reported in this paper.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

Environmental education is at a critical point in South Africa. It is not a new concept in South Africa and

grew from a modest "official" start in 1982 (Irwin 2005) to include an active family of participators

(including universities, government and NGOs) in the current era. Despite a relatively sharp growth in the

activities of the above-mentioned institutions pertaining to environmental learning, there is very little proof

in the literature that environmental education has contributed much to an improvement in the state of the

environment. This could perhaps (at least partly) be ascribed to a loss in impetus in many projects aimed

at improving environmental awareness and action. For example, the environment lost its status as a

phase organiser in the school curriculum in 2005 (Irwin 2005:53) and the costly National Environmental

Education Programme (NEEP 2003) seems to have contributed very little to increase the integration of

environmental learning in the school curriculum.

It would seem that an analysis is necessary to determine whether environmental education is achieving

its goals. A number of authors have expressed concern about the success of environmental education

(Van Matre 1990; Bak 1994-1995, Bak 1995; Jickling & Wals 2008). These authors have shown concern

about issues such as the lack of a clear definition of environmental education, implementation in the

formal school curriculum, application in general, focus on the affective domain, et cetera. To provide

direction for this paper, we may, rather simplistically, accept that a main goal of environmental education

is to create an environment-literate society (Loubser, Swanepoel & Chacko 2001; Swanepoel, Loubser &

Chacko 2002). Ideally, an environment-literate society will assist in establishing a healthy environment.

As a healthy environment is enshrined in the South African constitution, citizens have the right to know

whether all the efforts of environmental education lead to successes in establishing a healthy

environment (Loubser & Dreyer 2002).

There are two possible ways of looking at the success of environmental education efforts: either

holistically or individually. A holistic view implies that we look at the state of the environment and one can

ask if the environment is better off or more degraded because of or despite environmental education

efforts. The answer is of course that the environment is worse off than it was before (De Beer, Dreyer &

Loubser 2005), but there are so many factors that have an impact on this that it is impossible to link this

specifically and exclusively to environmental education efforts (or the lack or the failure of such efforts).

If we, however, look at individual environmental education efforts, it is much easier to determine what

their effects are on affected people and their immediate environments. It is also easier to ascribe an

improvement of people’s environmental attitudes and actions towards the environment more directly to

specific individual environmental education interventions.

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From own experiences and involvement with environmental education interventions and efforts over a

combined 60 years, we are aware that some of these can be considered successful. In a Best of Both

Worlds International Conference held in 2009, role players in environmental education shared what they

considered to be success stories. From their experiences it seemed as if there are providers of

environmental education programmes that are achieving success. The question is, however, why some

are perceived as successful while others are not.

Because the answer to this question is not obvious, it was decided to undertake research on successful

individual environmental education efforts in South Africa, and try to determine the reasons for these

successes. The research question for this study is therefore: “How do successful environmental

education providers perceive or explain their apparent success?”

THEORETICAL FOUNDATION AND RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

The theory underlying this research is derived from the work of Hines, Hungerford, and Tomera (1986–

87), Hungerford and Volk (1990), and Knapp, Volk, and Hungerford (1997), who developed a behaviour

change theory of responsible environmental behaviour that is dependent on three variable levels, namely:

entry-level variables such as environmental sensitivity and knowledge about ecology (the level at

which most environmental education programmes function)

ownership variables such as an in-depth understanding of environmental education issues and a

personal investment in and identification with them (which only a few environmental education

programmes are successful in establishing)

empowerment variables such as a perceived skill in using environmental action strategies and

skills, knowledge of action strategies, an internal locus of control, and the intention to act (which is

usually only obtained in the long term through multiple efforts and multiple avenues)

While one cannot expect miracles after a single intervention, providers can still claim success even at

level one above, as they laid a foundation for possible change of behaviour through the transmission of

knowledge about the environment.

In this research, one of the things we wanted providers or programme managers of environmental

education programmes to tell us was at which level they think they are operating and whether they are

successful in achieving that.

All except four providers of programmes indicated that they are successful at level one as their

interventions were limited and usually once off. They also indicated that they had some indications or

even evidence that individuals or individual groups had gone beyond knowledge and had even taken

action. This was, however, not the norm or they just did not know whether groups went beyond the

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knowledge level and took action. The other four believed that they were successful at level three, and in

three cases had evidence of this gained through comprehensive evaluations of their programmes. The

fourth case had actual evidence from experiences in working with schools.

During the research, it was accepted that success at any of the levels would be considered in the

determination of success indicators. The research framework is represented in the following diagram:


The methodology was qualitative in nature and falls within the socio-constructivist paradigm.

Research methods

Because we were interested in the perceptions and personal views of individuals (in other words their

context-specific lived experiences) we decided to use individual interviews to gather data.

A literature study was undertaken but not presented as a separate section in this paper. The findings

were interpreted in relation to relevant topics identified by existing research and integrated in the research

findings as discussed later in this paper.

In addition, qualitative documentary analysis of some of the environmental education programmes was

undertaken to determine their contribution to the success of the providers. In four cases, observation of

programmes in action was done to gain further insight into the reasons for their success.

What do the interviewed providers say make them successful?

Interviews with successful providers (to find out

what they think makes them successful)

Documentary analysis of successful

programmes

(to find how they contribute to the success)

Observations of programmes in action

(to find out how they contribute to the success)

D

A

T

A

This makes the interviewed providers

successful

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Sampling

We used non-probabilistic sampling as the population of all successful institutions providing

environmental education in South Africa is not known. We started off with convenience sampling as we

were aware of a number of successful institutions through experience and involvement with these

providers (for instance, by providing training and assisting with programme development). Some were

identified from the success stories that were presented at the Best of Both Worlds International

Conference held in 2009. We also used snowball sampling as participants we had identified directed us to

other possible participants they thought were successful.

From this sampling frame (the possible known population), participants were selected through stratified

purposeful sampling to be representative of different types of environmental education providers situated

in different provinces.

Research instrument

Because interviews were unstructured, no formal interview schedule was used. The research question

was the only guideline used during the interviews.

Data gathering

Interviews were held with 23 individuals from institutions involved in environmental education in the formal

and non-formal education sectors in five of the provinces in South Africa. These were held to determine

environmental education providers’ views on the success of, as well as examples of good practices in,

environmental education at their institutions. Among the providers and programmes were:

Privately-run environmental education centres

Provincially-sponsored environmental education centres (Department of Education)

Environmental education programmes from metropolitan areas

Environmental education programmes from botanical gardens

The Eco-schools programme (managers and individual schools’ representatives)

Non-Eco-schools running independent environmental education programmes

Environmental education programmes from national parks

Environmental education programmes from zoos

Environmental education programmes from wildlife areas

Environmental education programmes from the Department of Agriculture

Furthermore, most of the chosen participants were managers and/or drivers of environmental education

programmes and were therefore in a position to give an informed opinion on the success of their

programmes based on actual involvement and experience. In this way, valid and valuable data could be

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collected. Interviews were recorded and transcribed. Two researchers did the interviews and the data

analyses together to further ensure the validity of the data.

Data analysis

A thematic qualitative data analysis of the interviews was undertaken. Responses were analysed by using

an open coding procedure that included labelling, identifying categories, naming of categories and

developing patterns or themes.

Documentary analysis and observation notes were also coded and resulted in six categories which will be

discussed under one theme, namely elements of the actual programme that ensure success.


Findings from interviews

Eleven categories were identified and the following patterns or themes emerged:




As the researchers could not do a comprehensive assessment of each environmental education (EE)

provider, the research participants (numbered from N1 to N23) were asked to give an opinion on the

success of their programmes. They identified indicators of such successes in the following categories:

Numbers of people reached – this is one indicator used by most providers but usually in tandem

with a range of other indicators.

“We are fully booked for the next six months and wish we can accommodate more … there is definitely a

need for our programmes out there.” (N12)

“According to our records for the past five years our numbers have grown every year – even though

economic times are difficult.” (N7)

Comebacks – providers feel that if the same institutions (like schools) come back to them

repeatedly it must indicate that they are successful (at least in the eyes of those institutions).

“Some schools have been coming to the berg (mountain) for our workshops for fifteen years.” (N10)

“We have a lot of repeat business.” (N3)

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Evaluations at the end of a programme presentation – most providers use some sort of feedback

evaluation to find out if participants found their programmes useful and use the feedback to adjust

and improve their programmes.

“We have a 90% plus satisfaction rating from students who completed our week-long programme.” (N1)

“Everyone fills in a satisfaction questionnaire at the end, the teachers and the children. Our average

rating is over 4 out of 5 on the activities we offer. Recently we still changed an activity; actually we

improved it, because of a recommendation …” (N12)

Networking – very strong EE networks exist in regions in South Africa where providers share

information, facilities and resources with a range of role players and feel that they are in a better

position to present programmes successfully because of this association.

“In … we have a good EE network and everyone alerts all the others when they have events like when on

environmental days we clean the beach … resources are shared.” (N2)

Letters of appreciation – some providers indicated that they receive unsolicited feedback in the

form of letters or notes of appreciation.

“Look at this file – it is full of letters from children to say thank you. This is the one I like best – she wrote a

poem about our place and how we opened her eyes for the environment.” (N7)

“This is our ‘wall of fame’ where we put up recent letters from schools thanking us. This school wrote that

they are now going flat out to become an eco-school.” (N21)

Volunteers involved – providers that make use of volunteers use the number of volunteers, the

number of hours they volunteer and repeat volunteering as indicators of the success of their

programmes.

“All the [EE programmes] in the country make use of volunteers, but we have so many that we can get up

to five volunteers on a specific day when we have a very big group.” (N20)

“We have one volunteer that missed only four Saturdays the whole year when he went on leave. He is

more experienced than most of our permanent staff. He is over 70 [years of age] and says that here he

gets to make a difference to people’s behaviour towards the environment before he dies.” (N9)

Behaviours – very few providers are in a position to do what some call aftercare or can visit their

clients to observe if the behaviour of participants changed because of the EE programmes they

were involved in. The four that did so report positive behavioural changes.

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“Most of the schools where the gardens of trees were planted and the learners were shown how to take

care of them, did a good job of keeping them alive and thriving.” When pushed to put a number on it the

participant said between 70% and 80%. (N19)

"The number of schools participating is increasing and the number that drops out after the first year is

decreasing. So most are keeping up their efforts” (N17)

Environmental impact – Is the environment better off or not because of the environmental

education efforts? Once again, the providers that do monitor what workshop participants do as a

result of the environmental education programme report positive behavioural changes.

“The communities with volunteer action committees are visibly cleaner and have regular campaigns and

activities to clean up their areas.” (N2)

“Some schools extended the gardens we planted and planted their own additional trees and other plants.

When we go to the schools we find learners sitting around in the garden during breaks.” (N19)


A champion in charge of the programme.

Every person in charge of a successful programme was passionate, enthusiastic and committed to EE. In

interviews the following was said:

“This is my life and if I could have it over I would do nothing different.” (N8)

“I love what I do and would not change it for anything. Before this I was a teacher but I found the

curriculum too limiting to do quality Environmental Education.” (N14)

Sound management

This aspect was stressed by numerous participants and was considered to be very important in ensuring

success. More than one mentioned that they work with very tight budgets and have to ensure that every

aspect of their programmes is managed meticulously if they want to survive. They also believe that their

repeat business is dependent on sound management.

“I have a wonderful team working for me. Some days we work up to 12 hours because we also have

evening activities and no one wants to leave.” (N14)

“I always participate in the presentation of the programme and monitor the rest through frequent visits –

not to spy or anything, but to make sure our quality is always good.” (N23)

Well trained and experienced presenters/facilitators

According to participants, this aspect seemed to be very important to users of the programmes and was

therefore considered to be of equal importance by the providers. Good facilitation ensured enjoyment and

in turn ensured a positive experience by users.

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“I get guys who study nature conservation-related courses and they come to do their practicals with me.

When they finish they really know their stuff.” (N10)

“Our facilitators all did EE training of some kind – quite a few have Unisa certificates and all have lots of

experience”.

We could not find any other studies that focused specifically on the perspective of environmental

education programme providers regarding their success and can therefore not interpret these findings

against the background of existing research in the literature. If we, however, combine these findings with

those in the next section it provides a more comprehensive picture of what may be considered successful

in providing environmental education.

Findings from documentary analysis and observations of programmes

Through documentary analysis of the programmes and observation of the presentation of some of the

programmes, it was possible to identify elements of programmes making them successful.

Elements of the actual programme that ensure success

Good quality programmes.

Overall programmes were well designed as they had specific outcomes, a curriculum

(environmental issues), relevant methodologies (outdoor learning, practical work) and some form of

assessment (feedback, product, demonstration by learners). Many had booklets that participants

could use and were linked to several subjects in the school curriculum. One even had an activity on

trees that linked to all eight learning areas to demonstrate how integrated environmental issues

are.

The practical nature of programmes.

Programmes mostly consisted of practical activities and not lectures. Much was done in teams

where they collectively had to identify the best way to overcome a problem/hazard or find a solution

for a puzzle/problem/treasure hunt, etc.

The active nature of programmes.

Participants were actively involved in activities (physical and otherwise such as debates) to

emphasise the fact that they had become active in their own schools and/or communities.

The “fun” element of programmes.

Activities were much like playing games. There was a lot of cheering, shouting and laughter.

Capacity-building of programmes.

Many programmes not only imparted knowledge but learners practised skills they could use to take

action in their schools and communities. Some programmes had websites with resources, news or

updates (one even had a blog) where environmental issues and/or good practices and/or

challenges with action-taking could be shared.

Context-specific programmes.

A few programmes had different options depending on the grade/age, the subject and the

curriculum theme from which participants could choose. One programme had an open option

template where groups could build their own programme according to their requirements from a

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menu. According to the provider, this was a very popular option as learners and teachers

participated in shaping the programme to their needs.

These findings on elements of programmes that contribute to success are very similar to what has been

recorded elsewhere in relevant literature. A good example is the Canadian Green Street Initiative (2005)

that identified the following elements according to which excellent environmental education programmes

are credible, reputable, based on solid facts, traditional knowledge, or science, and that values,

biases, and assumptions are made explicit;

create knowledge and understanding about ecological, social, economic, and political concepts,

and demonstrate the interdependence between a healthy environment, human well-being, and a

sound economy;

involve a cycle of continual improvement that includes the processes of design, delivery,

evaluation, and redesign;

are grounded in a real-world context that is specific to age, curriculum, and place, and encourage a

personal affinity with the earth through practical experiences out-of-doors and through the practice

of an ethic of care;

transcend curricular boundaries, like the environment itself does, striving to integrate traditional

subject areas and disciplines;

provide creative learning experiences that are hands-on and learner-centred, where students teach

each other and educators are mentors and facilitators. These experiences promote higher-order

thinking and provide a cooperative context for learning and evaluation;

create exciting and enjoyable learning situations that teach to all learning styles, promote life-long

learning, and celebrate the beauty of nature;

examine environmental problems and issues in an all-inclusive manner that includes social, moral,

and ethical dimensions, promotes values clarification, and is respectful of the diversity of values

that exist in our society;

motivate and empower students through the provision of specific action skills, allowing students to

develop strategies for responsible citizenship through the application of their knowledge and skills

as they work cooperatively toward the resolution of an environmental problem or issue;

engage the learner in a long-term mentoring relationship, transforming them as they examine their

personal values, attitudes, feelings and behaviours;

promote an understanding of the past, a sense of the present, and a positive vision for the future,

developing a sense of commitment in the learner to help create a healthier environment and a

sustainable home, community, and planet.

All the above elements are also present in some way or another in one or more of the programmes we

analysed and observed. There is also a good alignment between what we found and most of the six “key

characteristics” of “high quality” environmental education programmes published by the North American

Association for Environmental Education (NAAEE 2002):

support their parent organisation’s mission, purpose, and goals

designed to fill specific needs and produce tangible benefits

function within a well-defined scope and structure

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require careful planning and well-trained staff

built on a foundation of quality instructional materials and thorough planning

define and measure results in order to improve current programmes, ensure accountability, and

maximise the success of future efforts

Furthermore, South African literature indicates that successful individual environmental education efforts

in the informal education sector seem to be alive:

the City of Cape Town achieves many successes in their metropole as shown by an independent

evaluation (Nair & Janisch 2009)

Durban Waste Section achieved a cleaner environment through ongoing and comprehensive

environmental education programmes – the surface litter of the city has reduced by 75,3 % over a

period of 25 years (Caws 2010)

Eco-schools are achieving growing success because of the “winning concept (sustained school

environmental projects with awards), resources to draw on, from the broader environmental

education community; highly motivated participants (teachers and staff) and mix of ingredients that

are relevant to funders, teachers and other partners” (Rosenberg 2008:6)

The fact that our findings correspond with what others have found and also contribute some new

knowledge regarding the perspective of providers offering successful environmental education

programmes, brings hope that others can try to emulate their efforts to also become successful in their

environmental education efforts. It also broadens the aspects one can consider when trying to identify

what makes environmental education efforts and initiatives successful.

Unanticipated findings

One participant told us that he thinks part of their success can be ascribed to the fact that most schools

are not doing environmental education at all or are failing in what they do, so that schools have to come

to them for environmental education. Although not our original intention, we thereafter decided to include

a question on the providers’ thoughts or perceptions on the success of environmental education in the

public school system when we interviewed the rest of the participants.

In general, it is the opinion of the participants (which included some educators) that environmental

education is not successful in public education. Reasons for this seem to be:

The few islands of excellence regarding environmental education are too isolated.

“In the school district I was in, there was only one school that did environmental education – they

had a green flag” (were an Eco-school). (N14)

The Revised National Curriculum made it less explicit that environmental education must be

included and integrated in Learning Areas (as was the case in C2005).

“When teachers had environment as organiser they had to give attention to it.” (N15)

Environmental education aspects are rarely examined in credit-bearing formal examinations.

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“In five years of high school my son never learned about looking after the environment. They did

things like pollution or biodiversity, but it stopped there. You can ask him yourself, he is now one of

my facilitators.” (N18)

Teachers are not trained in environmental education and are not required to do it.

“In discussions around the campfire in the evenings after the day’s activities teachers have told us

that they cannot do what we do because they do not know how, no one expects them to do it and

in any case they do not have the facilities.” (N18)

There are not enough experts or dedicated officials to drive the inclusion or integration of

environmental education in public educational institutions.

“I know of the NEEP initiative but there was no real political will from provincial departments to

ensure that it (environmental education) happened”. (N21)

The apparent failure of NEEP (or at least its sustained introduction) was cited by a few participants as an

example of the lack of success that has been achieved in attempts to include environmental education in

public education.


Because this is a qualitative study with limited participants, there is no intention to generalise the findings.

We are, however, convinced that the findings are significant especially in that a provider perspective

could be added to the research possibilities in this field to gain an additional perspective. The success

indicators of environmental programmes identified from a provider perspective could be especially

significant.

CONCLUSION

The continued degradation of the environment on a global scale or even countrywide in South Africa, may

make one despondent about people’s attitudes and actions towards the environment. It may also lead to

the assumption that environmental education has failed and that all the money and efforts to influence the

attitudes and actions towards the environment have been spent in vain. The study reported on in this

paper shows that when one observes contributions made by environmental education institutions at a

local scale, a different picture emerges. There still seem to be many capable and enthusiastic people and

institutions that are achieving success with their respective environmental education contributions and are

making a real difference. When analysing the activities and programmes of such people and/or

institutions it becomes clear that they achieve success because they are well organised and have good,

meaningful programmes run by environmental champions, who are committed, visionary and inspired

leaders that dedicate their considerable knowledge and skills towards achieving success in environmental

education. They gave us their perspective of the success they are having with environmental education.

We can all learn from that.

454

REFERENCES

Bak ,N. 1994–95. Tensions exist in EE. Environmental Education Bulletin Dec 94/Jan 95. Bak, N. 1995. Green doesn't always mean "go": possible tensions in the desirability and implementation of

environmental education. Environmental Education Research 1(3):345–352.

Canadian Green Street Initiative. 2005. Ten principles of excellent environmental education. http://www.green-

street.ca/files/TenPrinciplesofExcellentEnvironmentalEducation.pdf. Accessed on 02 August 2012. Caws, G. 2010. Reduction of waste through Environmental Education Programmes in Durban. Unpublished report,

City of Durban. De Beer, J, Dreyer, JM., & Loubser, CP. 2005. Environmental issues and risks, in Environmental education: some

South African perspectives, edited by CP Loubser. Pretoria: Van Schaick. Hines, JM, Hungerford, HR & Tomera, AN. 1986–87. Analysis and synthesis of research on responsible

environmental behavior: a meta-analysis. Journal of Environmental Education 18(2):1–8. Hungerford, HR & Volk, TL. 1990. Changing learner behavior through environmental education. Journal of

Environmental Education 21(3):8–21. Irwin, P. 2005. The history of environmental education, in Environmental education: some South African perspectives,

edited by CP Loubser. Pretoria: Van Schaik. Jickling, B & Wals, AEJ. 2008. Globalization and environmental education: looking beyond sustainable development.

Journal of Curriculum Studies 40(1):1–21. Knapp, D, Volk, TL & Hungerford, HR. 1997. The identification of empirically derived goals for program development

in environmental interpretation. Journal of Environmental Education 28(3):24–34. Loubser, CP & Dreyer, JM. 2002. Ensuring the right to a healthy environment through school involvement in rural

areas: the case study of a higher education institution. South African Journal of Higher Education 16(2):150-157.

Loubser, CP, Swanepoel, CH & Chacko, CPC. 2001. Concept formulation for environmental literacy. South African

Journal of Education 21(4):317–323.

NAAEE. 2002. Guidelines for Excellence in Nonformal Environmental Education Program Development and

Implementation. Washington, DC: NAAEE. Nair, N & Janisch, C. 2009. Evaluation of the City of Cape Town Environmental Education & Training Programmes.

City of Cape Town Final Summary Report, Cape Town. NEEP. 2003. Launch of National Environmental Education Programme. Department of Education: Pretoria. Rosenberg, E. 2008. Evaluation of the Eco-schools South Africa programme. www.wessa.org.za/documents/EcoSchools_Evaluation_Report08.pdf. Accessed on 02 August 2012. Swanepoel, CH, Loubser, CP & Chacko, CPC. 2002. Measuring the environmental literacy of teachers. South African

Journal of Education 22(4):282–285. Van Matre, S. 1990. Earth education: a new beginning. Greenville, WV: The Institute of Earth Education.

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15

Addressing shortcomings in environmental education: Assessing a Malaysian

Wetland Programme

CP Loubser & JM Dreyer University of South Africa, South Africa

Y Noor Azlin, AK Azyyati & CL Naimah Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Malaysia

Abstract

The implementation of environmental education programmes in Malaysia is faced with the common

problems of lack of time, financial support and technical expertise on conducting outdoor learning

activities. To be effective, programmes that relate specifically to local situations need to be designed and

teachers should be trained to inspire students towards environmental conservation actions. Nature

education activities designed to support environmental education programmes are conducted by many

government and non-government agencies. Some concerns are raised about the lack of coordination

between the multiple players. Overlaps of similar activities could be reduced but, more importantly, topics

that are school curriculum related should not be left out when designing any programmes. Most Nature

Education Centres in Malaysia are located near forest areas, thus many activities organized by these

centres are focused on forest habitats and nature conservation of such areas. A specific programme on

water appreciation is perceived to be non-existent, although aspects related to water conservation are

some of the most important issues that need to be addressed. The Forest Research Institute Malaysia

(FRIM) has forest areas and suitable wetlands for outdoor learning to support environmental education. A

wetland education programme was therefore established to train school teachers in conducting activities

related to wetland habitats and their useful functions for the environment. Suitability of the programme for

the primary school curriculum was tested and an activity kit was developed to aid facilitators. The

programme can easily be duplicated in any wetland in the residential areas and training time is reduced

because of the available tool. This paper discusses the process of developing the wetland programme

and some preliminary achievements.

BOB

457

INTRODUCTION

Environmental education (EE) promotes sustainable development and improves the capacity to address

environmental and developmental issues. Article 13 of the convention on biodiversity recognised the need

for education and public awareness to secure active involvement of all sectors and various stakeholders.

(UNESCO1992).

Adhering to the UNESCO’s 1975 Belgrade Charter and the Tbilisi Declaration of 1978, Malaysia

introduced its first formal EE programme, called `Man and the Environment’ for the Malaysian fifth year

primary school curriculum in 1982 (Arbaat 2006). The subject has since been replaced as it did not

address the lower primary and secondary schools. At the beginning of 1998, the Ministry of Education

infused EE across the curriculum as reported in its 112th Education Planning Committee meeting (Ministry

of Education 2005). The infusion was carried out as part of the daily teaching and learning processes in

the classroom as well as through co-curriculum activities such as Nature Clubs.

Hopkins and McKeown (2002) is of the opinion that the non-formal sector should work in tandem with the

formal education sector to educate people from all generations and from all walks of life. It was recently

found in China (where Environmental education has been compulsory in primary and secondary schools

since 2003) that it did not work well in formal education and that greater success is achieved by non-

formal providers (Efird 2012). Kola‐Olusanya (2005) made similar findings regarding what he calls free-

choice environmental education’ in all sorts of non-formal learning situations. He goes as far as calling it

`powerful learning’ that is taking place in these settings. Similarly, the Forest Research Institute of

Malaysia (FRIM) embarked on a project that was meant to solve some environmental education problems

in Malaysia because it realised the importance to support environmental education (EE) programmes in

the Malaysian formal education system.

A common problem with the implementation of EE in many countries is the tendency to focus on abstract

knowledge of general global environmental problems (Hopkins and McKeown 2002). Malaysia considers

it a significant problem that EE programmes are often not connected to its local situation, thus failing to

provoke direct actions in learners. The importance of environmental issues is often better understood

when it impacts on one’s livelihood. In this regard, Bekalo & Bangay (2002) found that when the link

between environmental degradation and failing crops was explained to local farmers they realised the

importance of looking after the land. In China they have a successful non-formal environmental education

programme for children called “learning the land beneath our feet” where there is “a sensitive

engagement with the specifics of local culture and ecology” (Efird 2012:569).

458

Further validation for the use of non-formal programmes for EE can be found in the general problems

faced by Malaysian teachers when conducting EE that include time limitations due to the heavy laden and

examination oriented school curriculum, financial resources to transport students for outdoor learning and

the lack of technical expertise to conduct effective outdoor learning activities that could capture students’

interest and encourage actions (Salih and Yahya 2009:219). The importance of environmental

interpretation as implemented during the project reported cannot be underestimated as defined by Tilden

1976:

“…an educational activity, which aims to reveal meanings and relationship through the use of original objects,

by firsthand experience and by illustrative media, rather than simply to communicate factual information”.


In Environmental Education there are many theoretical frameworks which explain how to go about

inducing pro-environmental behaviour. In the case of this study a combination of approaches (or parts

thereof) is used, as a variety of factors are evident.

The theoretical framework, therefore, comprises of the following:

Knowledge transfer

As all behaviour change starts with knowledge there should be some sort of intervention that will ensure

that children gain this knowledge. The first important contribution which is applicable to the theoretical

framework of this study (regarding knowledge acquisition) is that of Hines, Hungerford, & Tomera (1986–

87) and Hungerford & Volk (1990) who developed a Model of Responsible Environmental Behaviour. The

two important aspects of this model applicable here are:

knowledge of issues: children need to acquire knowledge of an environmental problem and its

causes.

knowledge of action strategies: children need to know which actions can be taken to assist in

alleviating the environmental problem.

Transfer of knowledge in a natural environment

The next contribution to the theoretical framework pertains to where this knowledge should be

gained. Here the relevant ideas come from Chawla (2006) regarding formative life experiences that

predispose people towards gaining knowledge about the environment, but more importantly feeling

concern for the natural environment and acting to conserve it, According to her the most influential life

experiences during childhood are experiences of natural areas.

459

Transfer of knowledge by a non-formal provider in a natural environment

The third important aspect of the theoretical framework concerns the provider of the knowledge and the

above-mentioned experience. The afore-mentioned non-formal organizations can play a very important

role in imparting knowledge about and providing experiences in the natural environment (Hopkins and

McKeown 2002; Kola‐Olusanya 2005 and Efird 2012).

Transfer of knowledge regarding a local environmental issue by a non formal provider in a natural

environment

The fourth contribution to the theoretical framework is also explained in the introduction and revolves

around the belief that it is easier to convince people to take action if the environmental issue is local and

they are in a position to do something about it (Bekalo & Bangai 2002; Hopkins and McKeown 2002 and

Efird 2012).

If all the afore-mentioned factors are combined, the theoretical framework can be illustrated as follows:

Figure 1: Diagram to depict the theoretical framework of this study.

THERE IS A REASONABLE CHANCE

OF ENSURING ENVIRONMENTAL

EDUCATION AMONGST CHILDREN

IF

The environmental issue is local

(wetland

degradation)

The knowledge is provided by a

non-formal organisation

(FRIM)

The knowledge is about the

issue and about ways to take

action (FRIM wetlands

programme)

The knowledge is provided in a

natural environment

(wetland habitat at

FRIM)

INACTION

ACTION

460

ISSUES ABOUT THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA

Problems in implementing EE were discussed at length during the Best of Both Worlds Conference on

Environmental Education for Sustainable Development in Kuala Lumpur (Noor Azlin et al. 2006). A

summary of these discussions follows:


More accessible sites for educational activities should be established; the local municipal agencies could

provide such sites as not all students can afford to travel to the forests in view of the time and financial

support needed. There are many programmes conducted by government, private and non-government

agencies that emphasize the forest activities (Table 1) and experience in natural environment. As

learners would benefit more when they understand their own impacts, the immediate environment would

contain more suitable areas to conduct EE than the remote ones. Everyday surroundings and behaviours

that promote actions contribute to more effective EE programmes.

Government Agencies Environmental Education Programme

Department of Environment (DoE)

Environmental Awareness Camps (KeKAS)

The Environmental Awareness Camps were organised in collaboration with the Ministry of Education and the State Education Departments. The modules which were implemented were based on the Marine, Forest, Highland, Organic farming, Urbanization and Oil Palm Plantation Ecosystems. These camps had been held regularly for school children in different parts of the country. (http://www.doe.gov.my, 2009)

Department of Wildlife and National Park (PERHILITAN)

Jungle River Ecology (JRE)

The Jungle River Ecology Activity is a train-the-trainers course designed by the PERHILITAN for the purpose of training the teachers. The objective of this course is to train the teachers in conducting environmental education using the resources of river biodiversity in the National Park in their teaching approach. The activity is conducted over a period of 6 days - 5 nights with 30 to 40 participants for each session. (http://www.perhilitan.gov.my, 2009)

Forestry Department, Peninsular Malaysia (FDPM)

The Forestry Department of Peninsular Malaysia established a Community Forestry Programme that initiated consisting of various EE programmes

such as Forest Camp, Forestry Talk, Forestry Day, Tree Planting and Forest Tour. The FDPM conducts several EE programmes every year across the country in the many recreation forests under its management which mostly involves camping activities for schools and university students (Forestry Dept. Peninsular Malaysia, pers comm.)

Table 1: Environmental Education Programmes by Government Agencies


Environmental education should link to the school curriculum. The subjects of science, geography,

religion and others should be referred to when designing EE programmes. In Malaysia, there is no

specific subject addressing environmental education, but EE is supposed to be taught across the

461

curriculum. As the Malaysian education system is highly exam orientated, there is a tendency to lose the

importance of EE within the main subjects because examinations are not written. Referring to the

curriculum would also make it easier for learners as they can relate to what they learn at school and it

could be useful in the examinations of the subjects referred.

Capacity building

The development of human resource development programmes in EE for key target groups such as

teachers, community leaders, religious leaders, NGO’s, the media, and others are important role players

is of utmost importance. As a lack of technical skill was often quoted as the reason not to conduct EE

activities, it should be the Malaysian aim to encourage academic programmes for trainers and facilitators.

Meanwhile, EE programmes should be supported by making it easy to deliver an effective message about

environmental conservation. Properly tailored activity kits can help to reduce the time spent on time

consuming training programmes which especially teachers cannot afford due to the afore-mentioned

relevant school curriculum.


Although there is an increase in the variation with which EE programmes are implemented by NGOs and

government agencies, a gap still exists in learning approaches, especially in day-to-day examples of

programmes for EE for sustainability. Lessons in consumption behaviours, for example, should be

intensified. Learners should understand that they affect the environment and the environment, in turn

affects them. Giving a relevant example can provoke actions that benefit the environment. As there are

many players involved in environmental education programmes including government and non-

government agencies, some co-ordination is needed. An examination of the types of activities and

whether they address the critical environmental issues in Malaysia need to be done. The above-

mentioned can be utilsed as indicators of a successful programme such as the FRIM Wetland Education

Programme. A study was conducted in an attempt to establish whether the wetland programme was

successful. The evaluation of the initial phases of this programme is reported in this paper.

FRIM's Wetland Education Programme

The Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) is a semi-government research organisation with its main

office located on almost 487 ha of plantation and rehabilitated forests. FRIM is situated 20 km away from

the centre of Kuala Lumpur City, thus it is very accessible to the urban residential populations. Due to the

increasing awareness of forestry and interest in environmental issues, a project on assessing existing

environmental education programmes in Malaysia was initiated in 2006. Many issues in the

implementation of school environmental education which had been discussed at Best of Both Worlds

Conference in 2005, were addressed. Subsequently, a wetland conservation programme was initiated

462

since the afore-mentioned discussions found specific programmes on water appreciation lacking in

Malaysia. Addressing problems related to water conservation is one of the most important issues that

needs to be addressed in Malaysia (Borneo Post Online 2012).

Besides the above-mentioned factors, the rationale behind the project was that training needs to be

extended to teacher in order to motivate them to take students outdoors, either within the school

compound or to parks and other accessible natural sites. Facilities such as simple modules and activity

sheets need to be provided to aid teachers in their EE activities. The freshwater wetland education

programme was developed specifically to facilitate school teachers in conducting activities related to

wetland habitats and their useful functions for the environment. As was mentioned the teachers at

government schools have limited time, skills and financial capabilities to conduct outdoor activities for

environmental education.

The project aimed to assist teachers so that they would find it easier to conduct educational activities.

Some of the outcomes expected would be that teachers incorporate outdoor activities during their

teaching and conduct outdoor activities more often. As a long term impact; the students would benefit

through greater environmental awareness and knowledge and an improved change in attitude towards

the environment that would support Malaysia in its conservation management.

The development of a tool kit

An interpretation kit which included activities that can be conducted by students was designed and

produced (Ong, et al. 2008). It was printed in black and white to make it to be easily copied when

teachers conduct the activities with the students. Wetlands as natural filters and pollution issues, plants

and their adaptation to the wet environment and wetlands as the living support system for wildlife were

the main lessons that were included into the education kits. The kits also included identification guides for

common fresh water aquatic plants, birds and insects. Traditional games and crafts were also included.

The suitability of the programme for the primary school curriculum was tested twice before the activity

books were published to ensure user friendliness of subjects and logistics. The programme was designed

to be easily duplicated in any wetland in the residential areas and training time for future users of the

activity kit is reduced because of the available tool.

The way forward with the project

The project is still ongoing, in the sense that it is being monitored by FRIM staff to assess the

effectiveness of the programme especially in the use of the education kit. After the initial evaluation

reported in this paper, a questionnaire is being designed and will be distributed among the teachers who

463

attended the training course. Some of the questions will relate to teachers, implementation of EE activities

at school as well as out-of-school nature areas. Basically the questionnaire aims to assess whether

teachers are motivated to bring students outdoors and utilise the education kit. The kit was also meant to

be improved from the teachers’ feedbacks.

FINDINGS OF THE INVESTIGATION

In general, the wetland education programme aims at providing environmental learning and to relate the

benefits and functions of fresh water wetland habitats. The programme also teaches learners about native

and introduced plants as well as about wildlife that indicate the healthiness of this precious ecosystem in

terms of biodiversity. If measured against the indicators identified earlier the project can currently be

assessed as follows:


Fresh water wetland ecosystems can be found everywhere in the rural and the urban residential areas.

Parks, abundant tin mines and garden ponds are areas where this activity can be conducted. The

Wetlands programme was designed to be conducted in any of these areas. Therefore, not much financial

support is needed for field trips.


The topic of freshwater wetlands can be linked to the Science curriculum of Year 5 primary schools. An

activity book was developed by FRIM as a guide for teachers to conduct wetland education at FRIM. The

content was tested by teachers who bring their students to FRIM and was tested twice before the activity

book was printed and distributed for use.

Capacity building

Teachers are often well-trained, but the unavailability of teaching resources can be a limiting factor during

their teaching. The Wetlands project activity kits make the programme easily duplicated by teachers and

could save time on lengthy training programmes for teachers. It also addresses the lack of technical skills

teachers might have when conducting EE programmes.


The choice of the programme’s topic was based on the examination of existing programmes conducted

by various government and non-government agencies. The readily available fresh water wetlands all over

Malaysia are very suitable to stimulate outdoor learning. Although some educational activities about fresh

water wetlands in Malaysia exist, most are based on the forest ecosystems including lowland,

mangroves, and heath forests. Education in urban areas includes botanical gardens and animals in zoos

464

(Noor Azlin et al. 2006). Developing a new programme that addresses as many of the issues discussed is

a challenge and developing a duplicable programme for other sites is also an important factor to consider

when choosing this topic.

CONCLUSION

According to Ham (1992), Environmental interpretation is the translation of the technical language of the

environment for the laymen without loss of accuracy; interpretation creates in the listener sensitivity,

awareness, understanding, enthusiasm and commitment. This project has managed to start the

development of a wetlands environmental education programme. One of the success stories so far was

the design of a wetland education kit with environmental interpretation in mind. Its strong points are that it

is easy to utilize and it is beautifully printed, while not losing its technical message. Involving teachers and

utilising local areas as suggested in this project, would give rise to involvement in conservation projects;

inspiring awareness and appreciation towards nature conservation through the sense of ownership.

REFERENCES

Arba’at, H 2006. An analysis of school teachers’ attitudes on the importance of environmental education goals. Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences, 10(2): 303-312.

Bekalo, S and Bangay, C. 2002 Towards effective environmental education in Ethiopia: problems and prospects in responding to the environment - poverty challenge. International Journal of Educational Development. Volume 22, Issue 1, January 2002: 35–46.

Borneo Post Online 2012. http://www.theborneopost.com/2012/07/04/calls-for-water-conservation-in-malaysia-grow-louder/, accessed on 30/07/2012.

Chawla, L 2006. Learning to Love the Natural World Enough to Protect It. Barn nr. 2, 2006:57-78

Efird, R 2012. Learning the Land Beneath Our Feet: NGO ‘local learning materials’ and environmental education in Yunnan Province. Journal of Contemporary China, Vol 21, Issue 76: 569-583.

Ham, SH 1992. Environmental Interpretation: A practical guide for people with Big Ideas and Small Budgets. Golden, Colorado: North American Press.

Hines, JM, Hungerford, HR & Tomera, AN 1986–87. Analysis and synthesis of research on responsible pro-environmental behavior: a meta-analysis. The Journal of Environmental Education, 18(2):1–8.

Hopkins, C and McKeown, R 2002. Education for sustainable development: an international perspective. In: Tilbury, D; Stevenson, RB; Fien, J & Schreuder, D (Eds). Education and Sustainability Responding to the Global Challenge. IUCN commission on education and Communication CEC. Gland:IUCN.

Hungerford, HR. & Volk, TL 1990. Changing learner behavior through environmental education. The Journal of Environmental Education, 21(3): 8–21.

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Kola‐Olusanya, A. 2005 Free‐choice environmental education: understanding where children learn outside of school. Environmental Education Research. Volume 11, Issue 3: 297-307.

Ministry of Education, Malaysia 2004. National report of Malaysia. The development of education. Accessed on 15/4/2008 from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/international/ICE47/English/Natreps/Malaysia.pdf.

Noor Azlin, Y; Ong, T. Shanmugaraj I. S. , & Chong, M. I. 2006. Guidelines for Establishing A Nature Education Centre for Urban Areas. Kuala Lumpur: FRIM, Kepong.

Noor Azlin, Y.; Philip, E; & Ong, T (Eds.) 2006. Proceeding of the Conference on Best of Both Worlds: Environmental

Education for Sustainable Development. Kuala Lumpur: FRIM, Kepong.

Ong, T; Chong, MI & Noor Azlin, Y. 2008. Activities in Wetlands. Siri Alam Rimba No. 11. Kuala Lumpur: Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM).

Maria S. & Noor Azlin, Y. 2009. Environmental education in Malaysia: Current Practice and Future Possibilities. In: Environmental Education in Context. An International Perspective on the Development of Environmental Education. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.

Stevenson, B 2002. Education and sustainable development: Perspectives and Possibilities. In: Tilbury, D., R. B. Stevenson, J. Fien, D. Schreuder (Eds). Education and Sustainability Responding to the Global Challenge. IUCN Commission on Education and Communication. Gland: IUCN.

Tilden, F 1967. Interpreting Our Heritage. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.

UNESCO. 1992. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development: Agenda 21. UNESCO, Switzerland.

Chapter 36, pp 13.

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16


R Maimane

IB Phage

Central University of Technology

Abstract:

Education is essential for sustainable development of any society. Without it the society will cease to exist

and as such will be left behind by other developing societies. This paper argues that knowledge gained

through formal education with the involvement of communities could lead to socio-economic upliftment

and sustainable development. The paper focuses on the impact of a skills training project through

remedial classes undertaken by the Ikhwezi Mangaung Trust, a non-governmental organisation servicing

the Thaba-Nchu and Mangaung region of Motheo District in the Free State Province, South Africa.

Learners are identified according to the community needs and their financial background, i.e.,

underprivileged communities and learners are the target group. Learners are helped to identify their

talents and skills that lead to sustainable development. Such learners are exposed to lifelong learning and

sustainable development through motivational classes and different career paths/skills in the form of

remedial classes. They get helped to acquire learning skills associated with subjects done in high schools

and that are required for formal training of literacy and vocational skills. The impact of the project is

assessed using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Results have indicated that education for

sustainable development can be achieved by all stakeholders including non-governmental organisations.

BOB

467

INTRODUCTION

This is an Enrichment Programme targeting learners from high school, that is, Grade Ten to Grade

12.The classes are conducted mostly on Saturdays and during school-holidays to ensure that they do not

interfere with normal schools hours and do not meant to deviate from school curriculum.

Ikhwezi Mangaung Trust is a non-governmental organization (NGO) run with the sole purpose of

community engagement and enrichment through a learner enrichment programme. The programme

focuses on life-long skills development in an integrated approach to preparing learners to make healthy

life skills choices. As such, education plays significant role as a vehicle through which learners will be

able to sustain themselves. According to Van Eijck and Roth, (2007: 2768) learners can also help to

guide their communities toward a sustainable future. By all measures, students did not only learn science

but also learnt more than they would have in normal science lessons. They also helped guide their

community toward a sustainable future. The program has several main approaches to educating learners

such as study methods, preparation for exams, stress management, social pressure resistance skills,

human rights and responsibilities, heightened health awareness, empowerment, and social skills

development.

This programme is the prototype to help develop a new generation of champions. The program is

designed, created and developed to inspire, motivate and educate learners to set and reach their goals

and enjoy the quest to success. This programme goes further by providing a platform for learners to

share stories, personal experiences and actively learn.

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE PROJECT APPROACH

Koichiro Matsuura, the Director-General of UNESCO, in the foreword of the International Conference

book highlighted that in 2004, the United Nation General Assembly recognised education to be a key

parameter for a sustainable future when it declared the period 2005-2014 as the Decade of Education for

Sustainable Development and designated UNESCO as the lead agency for its international coordination

and promotion. He advocated the purpose of Decade as that of highlighting the central role of education

and learning in the common pursuit of sustainable development. As a framework for mobilising

collaborative action at international, regional, national and local level, the Decade seeks to generate

practical results through partnership and joint endeavours. The Decade is a vehicle of educational change

and mobilization aimed at making sustainable development a concrete reality for all of us – individuals,

organizations and governments (Matsuura 2006:19).

468

The group signatories of the Ubuntu Declaration (the Ubuntu Alliance) are working towards:

Strengthening the role of educators in the CSD process as one of the major stakeholders;

Promoting communication and collaboration among scientific technological and educational

organizations by the frequent exchange of information and views on their activities (van Ginkel

2006:25) “Education for Sustainable Development” means what it says: it is not just environmental

education or even sustainable development education, but education for sustainable development.

Education serves as a powerful tool for moving nations, communities and households towards a more

sustainable future (van Ginkel 2006: 20). During the learning process, new options are tried out and

choices are continuously made. Two of the most important factors in the process are the learner and the

learning environment. For the learner, the learning process contributes to the formation of a social identity

in which the individual can recognize him or herself as a valuable individual with respect to others. The

format of the learning environment depends on age, prior knowledge and social activity. It will therefore

change throughout the life-long process (Van Dam-Miers (2006: 83). Creating a learning environment that

facilitate learning for sustainable development requires reflection on the characteristic of the world we are

living in. This is based on the meaning of the concept of sustainable development and on the way we

have organized learning process in our communities (Van Dam-Mieras 2006:85).

ESD is all about learning – learning for success, learning from failures and learning to sustain for the

future (Razak 2006: 89). It is also an abstract and conceptual principle that is in dire need of examples of

practices that transform conceptual values into real contribution towards sustainable development (Razak

2006: 87). Theories about the way human beings, specifically children and adolescents, grow, learn and

behave provide the foundation of a life skills and behaviour modification approach. These theories are not

mutually exclusive and all contribute to the development of a life skills approach used in the development

of the program. These theories are: child and adolescent development, social learning, problem behavior,

social influence, cognitive problem solving, multiple intelligences, occupational performance and risk and

resilience theories. They also highlight key links in development of life skills in youth.

In summary, each of these theories provides a piece of the foundation for justifying skills development

and differing perspectives as to why these skills are important. Some focus more on behavioral outcomes

and justifying skills development. This will move adolescents towards the behaviours required for

sustainable developmental expectations, cultural context and social norms. Others focus more on the

acquisition of skills as the goal for future sustainable development. As a result competency in problem-

solving, interpersonal communication and resolving conflicts can be seen as crucial elements of healthy

human development of the learners.

469

Finally by teaching young people how to think critically and creatively, rather than what to think provide

them with the tools for problem solving, decision making and managing emotions. They will be engaged

through participative methodologies, skills development and behavioural modification that could become

a means of sustainable development. According to Saez (1999: 567), the concept of Sustainable

Development is the bridge between the integrated knowledge used by students in every day thinking and

the contents used for various subjects to solve the given problem.

OBJECTIVES OF THE PROGRAMME

To promote the development of life skills by offering an integrated educational and developmental

program for learners.

To assist learners to reach their full potential in a positive approach in life skill development.

To provide a comprehensive interactive life skills programme (role-plays, open discussion, skills

rehearsal and small group activities) that aim to improve the quality of life of learner.

To implement an activity-based programme that will promote reinforcement and active participation

in learning based on the social and health tasks of adolescence within the specific culture of youth.

Strategies to achieving the Aims and Objectives

Ikhwezi hopes to achieve its aims and objectives by:

Developing a sound academic attitude, passion for the environment and intellectual problem-

solving skills.

To enable learners to adopt an integrated approach to their academic careers by encouraging them

to take any subject related to lifelong skills and sustainable development.

To provide learners from underprivileged communities with bursaries to pursue higher education at

any tertiary institution of their choice.

To help teachers who show commitment in helping deserving learners with financial assistance as

well as helping to improve their teaching skills.

Beneficiaries of the Project

The learners from the respective schools are from grade 10 to 11 and receive an intensive programme on

Saturdays from 7h45 to 11h45. The Students come from: Comm. Tech School; Brebner School; Ikaelelo

School; Atlehang Secondary School; Kaelang Secondary School; Louis Botha School; and Bloemfontein

South to mention a few. This year, according to the presenters, it has been a very active and exciting

year. The learner enrichment programme has recruited more learners. The programme has also been

very intensive and responsive to the individual needs of the learners.

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RESEARCH COMPONENT

Self-assessment is a very crucial part for the development of any organization as this highlights its strong

and weak points and assists the organisation in assessing its performance. This is also critical, as funders

would like to know the impact made by the project they are sponsoring. The organization also needs

research in order to be able to prepare itself for future undertakings that it would need to embark on.

Ikhwezi being on the same mission as the other non-governmental organizations, found it imperative to

look into its activities through the involvement of research in order to determine the impact it has on its

beneficiaries. Thus, the purpose of this research component is to determine the impact of the project on

the learners it serves. One hundred and thirty eight learners were randomly selected to participate in the

research. The results from the quantitative-qualitative methods were employed, indicating that learners

benefit from the project.

The evaluation of the project was structured around the following questions:


classes?




Research Design

A questionnaire was administerd to Grades 11 and 12 (N=138) who were randomly sampled from a

population of four-hundred and forty-two (N=442) learners. The questionnaire was characterised by

closed questions dealing with the profile of the learners and the open-ended questions were based on the

impact of the project on them. They were told that their participation in the research was to be anonymous

and that they would not to be penalised for the way they responded to the questions. Teachers were also

given questionnaires to respond to with the same ethical considerations as that of the learners. The

management of Ikhwezi were pleased that the sample would be representative enough and suggested

that the research continue.

Data Analysis

Both quantitative data (through closed-form items) and qualitative data (through open ended questions)

were obtained by means of a questionnaire. The first group of questions (See Table 1) determined the

demographic aspect of the participants. Data was collected and triangulated from a variety of sources,

which included evaluation questionnaire responses, learners’ and teachers’ transcripts and the

discussions held with management.

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Participants Demographics

Figure 1: Gender variables of learners

Figure 2: Age range

Figure 3: Home language

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Figure 4: Person responsible for education

Figure 5: Subjects that are done at Ikhwezi

A selection of the learners’ responses to the questions:

What is happening in the classroom is very important for teaching and learning to take place. Learners

are to be given the opportunity to present their views about their teaching and the teacher on the other

hand must also assist them in understanding the subject matter. Learners are to be active in the

classroom, be given time to take notes, ask questions and to work in groups. According to the results,

one hundred and thirty eight (100%) learners indicated that they are active in class, one hundred and

twenty four learners (90%) affirm that they are given time to take notes as compared to the twenty-four

(10%) that say otherwise. The teacher is involving learners in the classroom which is an indication that

473

are doing their work and perform to their maximum potential as far as teaching and learning is concerned.

This is indicated in Figure 6 and Figure 7 respectively.

Figure 6: The teacher gives us homework

According to Figure 6, Seventy percent (70%) of the learners indicate that teachers give them homework,

20% say that teachers do not give homework, while 10% state that they are sometimes given homework.

It is clear from this graph that teachers keep learners occupied by giving them work to do at home so that

they could practice what was done at school.

Figure 7: The teacher checks our homework

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According to Figure 7, majority of learners (40%) indicate in affirmation that teachers do check on their

homework, 20% contradict this, while 20% say that the teachers do sometimes check their homework and

20% say teachers never do this.

The harmonious relationship formed between learners, educators and the learning content plays a vital

role for teaching and learning to take place. This also helps in the creation of the conducive atmosphere

for learning to take place as educators are able to manage their classrooms. The results indicated this

through the voices of the respondents:

Question: What measures do teachers give you when you do not cope in class?

Learner A: They give us attention and make us to try to listen to them, sometimes they even make some

jokes in order for us to cope.

Learner B: The teacher tries to talk to you privately after class to try to understand why you ain’t copying

and find solution on how to help you.

Learner C: Group us in a group of four people to make sure we understand what he/she saying.

Question: What are your views about Ikhwezi Saturday Classes?

Learners responded to the above question by stating:

Learner D: My views about the classes is that it helps a lot because what is being taught here we can

apply at home when we doing self study and also at school.

Learner E: We get benefited by Ikhwezi classes because we gain knowledge and receive better or quality

education as we don’t have teachers who can give us quality education at our school so here we get

taught by professional teachers who knows what they are doing.

Learner A: They really help us a lot because if you didn’t understand something during the week at our

school we are able to get some different opinions from different teachers.

Learner F: Ikhwezi Saturday classes helps us very much because we are taught things that we hardly

taught at school and we learn new things every Saturday in every subject. The teachers are very

understanding and they teach without the book they know what they are doing they provide use with

useful study materials and once they are applied they benefit very much. I wrote my term exam with the

information I accumulated from Ikhwezi Saturday classes.

From the above responses it is crystal clear that learners do appreciate and value what the Ikhwezi

educators are doing. The knowledge they acquired from these educators is beneficial to them as they are

475

able to use during examinations. Learners are aware of the contrast in teaching styles of their teachers at

their respective schools and those of Ikhwezi. The feeling is that they gain from Saturday classes. Their

attitude towards their studies and Ikhwezi educators seems to be positive as these educator’s

performance is higher than that of their own educators at their schools.

Some of the educators’ response to the questions:

Teaching and learning demands that teachers and learners should be fully committed to their wok in

order that the goals for which they strive for should be attained. Educators were asked when they do their

assessment. Here are some of their responses:

Educator A: Usually informal tests are written every weekend but formal tests are written once per term.

Educator B: Every after a lesson and test every month

Educator C: During the third week and sometimes same time.

It is clear that educators do differ in giving learners assessment task which might be done as an informal

tests done during their next meeting on a weekend or formal test at the end of the month.

Asked about the impact assessment results has on the learners’ performance the educators responded

by saying that it:

Educator D: Improves understanding and knowledge of the content.

Educator B: It improves their confidence and knowledge and understanding of the content.

Educator A: It differs; some are motivated to do better next time while others remain the same.

The above responses indicate that although there seems to be a slight difference on the impact of the

results on performance of the learners, the understanding and improvement in confidence on the part of

the learners is unmistakable. Teachers take a personal interest in every learner’s work and motivate

learners by developing their confidence in their ability to understand content presented.

Question: What is your perception of Ikhwezi Saturday classes?

Educator D: We have a crisis of improved education. And therefore the project is playing a major role in

the delivery.

Educator A: It helps multitudes to better their performance in various subjects they do at their schools.

Educator E: It plays an important role towards results in this province and country at large by preparing

learners very well for assessment.

Educators indicate that Ikhwezi has a role to play in the development of the learners and the upliftment of

the province and the country at large.

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Question: Why do you commit and sacrifice your Saturdays for Ikhwezi?

Educator E: Teaching is close to my heart and helping South African children become better South

African.

Educator A: I think I am a philanthropist by nature. Helping the less fortunate gives me pleasure as big as

Mount Everest.

Educator D: I am motivated in assisting and giving time to learners who are in need of good and quality

education and also want to do well in school.

The above comments by the educators’ project the feeling that they are prepared to spend their hours

and free time to help learners. They are committed to their work and have passion to doing it always

doing self-reflection and analysis of their work. They continually research on their own effectiveness as

teachers and are willing to admit mistakes or lack of knowledge.

CONCLUSIONS


classes?

Learners have a significantly positive attitude about Ikhwezi Saturday classes.

Learners participating in the project are more positive about Ikhwezi educators.

From what they say, learners are more happier at Ikhwezi than at their schools.


They are more confident and use the knowledge they gained at Ikhwezi in tests and examinations.

Working in groups has helped them to compete with other learners from other schools.

Educators at Ikhwezi are more sympathetic and helpful to them in terms of helping them to solve

problems.


To help learners with their studies irrespective of whether they do well or not at their schools

The project Encourages those who are not doing well by providing intervention mechanisms.

Educators are doing all they can to help learners by demonstrating, giving notes, extra information

and using available resources.

More and more learners and their parents request to be admitted at the Ikhwezi.


The educator’s performance is of high standard most of them have post-graduate qualifications.

477

Ikwezi provides new information and knowledge to the learners. They show commitment to helping

them.

The educators Interact with learners in a friendly way and encourage them to ask questions and to

come up with new infromation themselve that they could share with the class.

They constantly give learners work to do in class or at home thereafter see to it that they mark it

and promptly give learners feeback.

Assessment of the work of learners is on regular basis and reports are to management during

meetings.

DISCUSSIONS

Learners who attend Ikhwezi Saturday Classes Project come from different background as indicated in

Figure 4. As the findings of the project indicates, it is important that there are areas that need to be

investigated as to have a clear picture of the impact exerted by Ikhwezi on the overall project as expected

by learners- who wants to catch-up on parts they did not do at school, parents who wish to see their

children performing well at the end of the year and the donors who are committed to enriching the

communities they serve. With the help of the ongoing research, we will be able to get answers to inherent

questions.

Challenges

A huge number of learners wanting to participate and more parents wanting to enrol their learners.

Lack of capacity to accommodate all learners who wish to attend.

Lack of enough human resources to deal with the demands of the project

Sponsors and donors who want constant detailed reports on the progress of the project.

Parents who want to see their children perform exceptionally well in their examinations.

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REFERENCES

Matsuura, K 2006. Foreword (in Wong, L. (ed.) 2006. Globalization and education for Sustainable Development: Sustaining the future. Paris: UNESCO. International Conference Proceedings held in Nagoya, Japan from 28- 29 June2005

.

Razak, DA 2006. Initiatives on Education for Sustainable Development. (in Wong, L. (ed.) 2006. Globalization and education for Sustainable Development: Sustaining the future. Paris: UNESCO. International Conference Proceedings held in Nagoya, Japan from 28- 29 June2005.

Saez, MJ Riquarts 1999. Sustainable Development as a topic for integration the Science Curriculum. (in the 9th Syposium of the International Organization For Science and Technology Education Proceedings- Volume 2 held in Durban, South Africa

Van Dam-Mieras, R. 2006. Lifelong learning and Education for Sustainable Development. (in Wong, L. (ed.) 2006. Globalization and education for Sustainable Development: Sustaining the future. Paris: UNESCO. International Conference held Proceedings in Nagoya, Japan from 28- 29 June2005.

Van Eijck M & Roth W 2007. Improving Science Education for Sustainable Development, PLoS Biology, 5(12: 2763 – 2769.

Van Ginkel, H. 2006. Mobilizing for Sustainable Development. (in Wong, L. (ed.) 2006. Globalization and education for Sustainable Development: Sustaining the future. Paris: UNESCO. International Conference Proceedings held in Nagoya, Japan from 28- 29 June2005.

World Bank (1998). Organizing Knowledge for Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development. Washington: World Bank.

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17

The influence of particular teaching methods in Environmental Education

programmes for promoting sustainability and enhancing knowledge retention at

uShaka Sea World

H Killian

uShaka Sea World, Durban

Abstract

Environmental Education (EE) is a process described as one that involves teachers and learners in

promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of people to address environmental

issues. Zoos and aquaria have the opportunity to achieve this through hands-on experience, but which

teaching method would be more successful in imparting knowledge – active participation or a more

passive approach? A study was conducted to compare two teaching methods to ascertain which is more l

suited to promoting sustainability and knowledge retention amongst learners when conducting an EE

programme at the uShaka Sea World Education Centre. The aim of the study was to compare the

'traditional' lecture style method with co-operative learning to determine their influence on learners’

knowledge retention with regards to sustainability and marine conservation. Both methods are effective at

increasing knowledge retention. However, this study suggests that the teaching method used in a

particular school could influence the learning outcomes of the EE programme because of pre-existing

abilities, skills and context of the learners. In conclusion, for an EE programme to be successful one

would need to determine which method of teaching is practiced within schools and then ensure that the

same method is used when conducting the EE programme.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

The goals of any EE programme should be to increase environmental knowledge, encourage positive

attitudes towards the environment and create environmentally friendly behaviour by making connections

between learners and their natural environment (Kuhar, Bettinger, and Lehnhardt, 2007:161). The

challenge is to translate these ideas into practical experiences in such a way that will allow learners to

make up their own minds about what is appropriate action (O’Riordan, 1981:13).

During the development of an EE programme it is important to consider the theme of that particular

programme, as learners need to be made aware of the impacts on the environment and to develop skills

that can promote sustainable development. Langen and Welsh (2006:600) state that EE should inform

and influence one’s opinion about the impact of human activities on the environment and that through

problem-solving one can appreciate the relevance of content to the real world. A person’s understanding

of natural processes and human activities has an effect on his/her surroundings (Yeung, 2004:101) and

consequently EE should include aims to understand why people act in environmentally sustainable or

unsustainable ways, and further use these aims to understand and promote sustainable behaviour

(Clayton and Brook, 2005:88).

Sustainability has been defined as development that meets the needs of the present generation without

compromising those of future generations (Bak, 1995:57), but unless one’s basic needs are met

emotionally and physically there can be little consideration for ecological issues (Roth, 2008:211).

People need to see themselves as part of the natural world and that every action has a consequence.

They therefore need to learn how to think about those consequences before they take any action (Roth,

2008:212). EE programmes are vital for encouraging youth to protect resources now and in the future

(Kruse and Card, 2004:34).

At uShaka Sea World, there is the opportunity to teach through hands-on experience. By incorporating

EE programmes that are hands-on, learners can develop skills that will enable them to identify problems,

learn how to think, provide skills to collect and analyse information and then make informed decisions

(Athman and Monroe, 2001:41). Habitats and species cannot be valued if they are not known, or the

damaging practices affecting particular species cannot be altered if those practices are not perceived as a

threat (Evans, 1997:239). The lack of awareness for the marine environment creates a challenge, as not

many people visit aquaria. So when they do, it is vital that a lasting impression is made on them. Through

sensitization one can hope that learners will then make more environmentally positive choices that will

lead to improved care and protection of the environment.

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But which method of teaching would be more successful in imparting knowledge about sustainability –

active participation or a more passive approach?

Teaching, an action to facilitate learning, can take the form of many strategies. These strategies, along

with their methods promote the acquisition and retention of knowledge. A study was conducted to

compare two teaching and learning methods to ascertain which is more suited to knowledge retention

amongst learners when conducting an EE programme about sustainability at the uShaka Sea World

Education Centre.

Two teaching strategies (McCown, Driscoll and Roop, 1996:293) that were considered are the following:

c) Teacher-centred instruction

d) Learner- centred instruction

Teacher- centred instruction focuses on the teacher presenting key concepts of the subject matter in the

form of a lecture. If learners need any elaboration or need to ask questions, they ask the teacher directly.

Learner-centred instruction focuses on the teacher organizing the learners into groups and then providing

them with resource material. This strategy spreads the responsibility for learning between the teacher and

the learners (McCown et al, 1996:393). A learner- centred approach is also consistent with a constructive

view of learning (McCown et al, 1996:405), with learning best done in real life environments, where

learning concepts and ideas should be learned in diverse ways.

There are, however, a variety of teaching methods that can be associated with each of the teaching

strategies. This study specifically focused on the lecture method, which is associated with a teacher-

centred strategy, and cooperative learning, which is associated with the learner- centred strategy.

This paper discusses which teaching method would be more successful in increasing knowledge

retention and integrating sustainability when conducting EE programmes for younger primary school

learners in the context of the marine environment at the uShaka Sea World Education Centre.

THE STUDY

Sample selection focused on the target population from the eThekwini Municipal area in Durban, South

Africa, and a simple random sampling technique was used to select the schools from the Sea World’s

Natal Portland Cement (NPC) Outreach Programme. The area was divided into five regions namely: a

central, northern, southern, inland and a coastal area.

483

One school from each area was chosen, and each of the 5 schools had an average of 100 grade 7

learners, ranging from 10-15 years of age. These learners were from similar socio-economic backgrounds

but from different geographical areas.

Data was collected over 5 days with each school being brought into uShaka Sea World on a different day.

The selected sample of 100 learners was divided randomly into two groups. Each group received a pre-

lesson questionnaire in English, which covered specific environmental topics relating to the lesson given.

This gave an indication of the baseline knowledge of the learners, as well as an assessment of their

understanding of their environment before the lesson.

The questionnaire was completed in the presence of a Sea World Educator. Each learner responded

individually, although the questions were read aloud to guide the learners. This was designed to eliminate

the possible problem of poor reading ability.

The questionnaire had 3 sections:

Section A focused on determining the demographics of the group

Section B consisted of 10 multiple choice questions that determined knowledge

Section C consisted of two open-ended questions to determine the learners’ perceptions about

environmental problems.

The questions were intended to establish the learners’ knowledge and understanding about the

environment as well as providing background information about the learners themselves.

Each group received a lesson on how we rely on the environment in order to survive, the role the marine

environment plays and why sustainability is important. Group A was exposed to a teacher- centred

strategy using the lecture style method. A PowerPoint presentation was given during the lecture and

followed the theme of resources that are used by humans. The presentation portrayed the idea that

people need these resources in order to survive, and that the choices they make have an impact on these

resources and the environment. The presentation also looked at steps individuals can take to help solve

any problem at hand. Group B was exposed to a learner-centred strategy participating in co-operative

learning. The co-operative learning lesson was based on the same topic as the lecture; however, the

presentation of material differed. This lesson used picture cards to determine what resources are

essential in order to survive; a globe with coffee mug and saucer containing boiling water to describe the

water cycle; live animals and pictures to discuss food webs; the ‘who dirtied the water’ game to look at

human impact on nature; and ‘match the cards’ to teach about positive environmental choices. Group B

conducted their lesson within groups of 10.

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After the learners had completed their lesson and had taken a guided tour through the aquarium, they

were given a post-test questionnaire containing the same questions. Three months after their visit to the

uShaka Sea World Education Centre, the learners were re-visited and given a second post-test

questionnaire. The design of the three questionnaires would provide an indication of prior knowledge,

knowledge directly after the lesson and long term (3 months) knowledge retention

DATA ANALYSIS

The data from Section A was used to give an outline of the demographics of the sample population as

well as the ratio of males to females, in order to determine if there would be any bias. The information

collected from the question pertaining to the tap location provided an understanding of what was the

learners’ value of water, while the question about food acquisition served to provide information about the

emphasis learners placed on where food was sourced. Asking learners if they are taught about

environmental education at school would have given some background to their understanding of what

constituted environmental education, as environmental education is included in the National Curriculum.

These interpretations could then provide insight into results from Sections B and C.

The multiple choice questions from Section B had four possible answers but only one correct answer, and

were designed to cover the full scope of the lesson. A learner would obtain a single knowledge score on

the basis of the number of questions answered correctly with a minimum score of 0 and a maximum score

of 10.

Section C contained 2 open ended questions which were scored according to pre-coded answers in

terms of being a local problem (1), a national problem (2) or a social problem (3). This was done by the

researcher for uniformity, and each answer was categorised as being either a problem that related to

social issues like violence or theft; a local environmental problem like litter; or a national or global problem

such as climate change or energy crisis.

Microsoft Excel and Statistica were used to perform parametric statistical analysis on the data collected.

The pre-test and post-test questions and the coded open-ended question responses were typed into an

Excel worksheet and then transformed into a Statistica worksheet and variables named.

Analysis included the measurement of the raw data to determine the average, distribution and spread of

the data sets. A normality test was done to determine if the frequency distribution of values from the

different ranges of the variables were symmetrical, therefore indicating a normal distribution of data. A

Levene’s test was then done to determine the absolute deviations of values from the respective group

485

means, therefore indicating that the variances in the different groups are equal. If this is the case in both

instances, the assumption can be made that the data is normally distributed and parametric tests can be

applied.

A paired t-test (Tuckman, 1999:300) was performed to compare the differences in the means between the

pre- and post-test scores of learners as well as the pre- and delayed post-test scores of the learners for

both groups. An analysis of variance using ANOVA was then used to compare the results of the two

methods.

The tests were done collectively for all data and then individually for each participating school.

RESULTS

Demography and general information (Questionnaire Section A)

The results from this section showed that most learners had access to running water either in their home

or on their household property. Very few learners needed to travel from home to collect water. This

information may be important in understanding the learners’ value of water. Learners who have easy

access to running water may be less likely to appreciate the resource compared to learners who need to

travel long distances to collect water for home usage. While conducting the lessons, water was

highlighted as a very important resource. Learners were shown how human activities may have

detrimental effects on water as a resource and therefore ultimately on human beings. The more

‘privileged’ learners may never have been exposed to such impacts as they have access to water from a

tap, and therefore may be less concerned about environmental impacts on water bodies.

The majority of the learners and their families obtained food from supermarkets, with only a small

percentage either growing their own food or receiving goods from family and friends. This may indicate

that learners are accustomed to packaged food and may not always be aware of where food originates.

This further suggests that learners may be unaware of the impact human beings have on the environment

and therefore on food stocks. Learners are less likely to be aware of over-fishing and the impact of bad

fishing practices on both the environment and food stocks in general.

Of the learners surveyed, 90% (n=454) indicated that they were taught about environmental matters in

the classroom, while 10% (n=50) indicated that they were not. This ascertained that learners are being

exposed to environmental education at school. These results indicate that learners are being taught

environmentally related topics, and that they should have some basic knowledge about the environment.

486

The information from these three questions may be able to provide some answer to the interpretation of

the results from the knowledge questions, as the questions from these sections were related to water and

food as resources and how a range of environmental impacts may affect these resources.

Knowledge (Questionnaire Section B)

The learners’ knowledge of the environment and environmental issues was tested with ten multiple choice

questions relating to the topics covered in the lessons.

Table 1 shows the comparison of the means of the pre- and post-test scores for method one, and the

result shows a significant difference (p=0.00000) between the pre-test and post-test score for the total

group. This indicates that the learners’ knowledge did increase after the lesson using method one. A

similar trend was indicated by each individual school, with the exception of school 4, where knowledge

levels did not change significantly between the pre- and post-testing. This may be due to the fact that

school 4 already had a strong understanding of the concepts presented during the lesson, and therefore

the amount of new knowledge gained after the lesson would be limited.

Pre-Test Post-Test

Group n Mean Standard deviation

Mean Standard deviation

t (1) P

Total 251 5.29 1.98 6.37 1.58 -7.24 0.00000**

School 1 36 4.28 1.91 6.19 1.28 -4.71 0.00003**

School 2 50 5.56 1.59 6.68 1.56 -3.54 0.00080**

School 3 52 4.87 1.58 6.19 1.22 -4.42 0.00005**

School 4 54 7.09 1.78 7.35 1.51 -0.77 0.44180

School 5 59 4.41 1.66 5.46 1.56 -3.52 0.00080**



and post-test for method one.

Method one therefore, appears to be successful in enabling learners to retain knowledge after the lesson

had been conducted. When comparing the scores for method one, there was an overall significant

difference (p=0.00011) between the pre-test and delayed test scores.



deviation

Mean Standard

deviation

t (1) P

Total 251 5.29 1.98 5.84 1.86 -3.93 0.00011**

School 1 36 4.28 1.91 5.28 1.72 -2.45 0.01950*

School 2 50 5.56 1.59 6.24 1.51 -2.53 0.01460*

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School 3 52 4.87 1.58 5.75 1.66 -2.87 0.00590*

School 4 54 7.09 1.78 7.29 1.28 -0.67 0.50590

School 5 59 4.41 1.66 4.61 1.85 -0.67 0.50430



and delayed test scores for method one.

This indicates that the level of knowledge retained three months after the study was still significantly

higher than the pre-test knowledge for method one. When considering the schools individually, schools 1,

2, and 3 showed a significant difference when comparing the pre-test scores with the delayed test scores,

while schools 4 and 5 showed no significant differences between the two test scores. This may indicate

that the lesson had no long term effects on schools 4 and 5. School 4 showed no significant difference

between pre- and post testing either. Therefore, it is possible that the method was not successful in this

instance or that the topic had been covered by the teacher at the school. School 5 showed a significant

difference between pre- and post testing, but not between pre- and delayed testing, suggesting that this

method was not successful in creating long term knowledge retention in learners from school 5. It could

therefore be deduced that overall, method one is an effective method for knowledge retention in learners

for both short term and long term (three month) periods.

Pre-Test Post-Test


deviation

Mean Standard

deviation

t (1) p

Total 253 5.07 2.04 5.87 1.99 -5.25 0.00000**

School 1 47 4.11 1.48 5.24 1.76 -3.06 0.00370*

School 2 53 4.89 1.49 5.91 1.55 -3.46 0.00110*

School 3 55 4.93 1.82 5.56 1.87 -1.76 0.08420

School 4 47 7.59 1.36 8.06 1.09 -1.74 0.08800

School 5 51 3.96 1.75 4.73 1.89 -1.94 0.05830


Table 3: Comparison of the learners’ knowledge scores from the paired sample t-test for pre- and

post-test for method two.

When comparing the means of the pre- and post-test scores for method two, it was found that overall the

total group showed a significant difference (p=0.00000) between the two scores. This indicated that

learners’ knowledge had increased between the pre- and post-tests after the lesson had been conducted.

A similar trend was shown by schools 1 and 2, who have a relatively small number of learners within the

entire school, compared to schools 3, 4 and 5 who showed no significant difference between scores.

488

Schools 3, 4 and 5 all have very large numbers of learners per grade and therefore per class within the

entire school, and are therefore much larger schools. Schools 3 and 5 are schools that do not have

access to many resources and when combined with large numbers per class, group work may be an

unfamiliar method for these learners. Consequently, they may find it difficult to participate in group work

because they are not used to it. Therefore, being taught using a method with which the learners are

unfamiliar may have impacted on their knowledge retention. School 4 may be more familiar with this

method of teaching as their educator indicated that this method is practised in their school. However,

similar to the situation of method one, the learners may already have had a good background knowledge

of the subject material and therefore their knowledge may not have increased significantly.

Method two appears to be successful in facilitating knowledge retention in learners, as their knowledge

had increased significantly between the pre- and post-tests although only for two of the schools. When

one looks at the pre-test and delayed test scores a similar significant difference is found. Therefore

although method two also allows for short term and especially long term (three months) knowledge

retention, it would not appear to be as effective as method one.

Table 4 shows the comparison of learners’ knowledge scores from the paired t-test for pre- test and

delayed test scores for method two, the cooperative learning method. The following results were

obtained: The means for the pre- and delayed test scores showed a significant difference (p=0.00000) for

the total group, and similarly for schools 1, 2 and 5 individually, while schools 3 and 4 showed no

significant differences. This suggests that the total groups’ knowledge, for both methods, increased from

the time of taking the pre-test to the time of completing the post-test and that knowledge had increased

from the time of the pre-test to the time of completing the delayed post-test.



deviation

Mean Standard

deviation

t (1) p

Total 253 5.07 2.04 5.72 1.82 -4.59 0.00000**

School 1 47 4.11 1.48 5.19 1.59 -3.44 0.00130*

School 2 53 4.89 1.49 6.30 1.45 -5.19 0.00000**

School 3 55 4.93 1.82 4.91 1.76 0.05 0.95860

School 4 47 7.59 1.36 7.49 1.12 0.41 0.68050

School 5 51 3.96 1.75 4.66 1.67 -2.70 0.00943*



and delayed test scores for method two.

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Where individual schools have shown no significant differences between the pre- and post-tests and pre-

and delayed tests, it may indicate strong pre-knowledge. Learners may already have had a strong

understanding of the concepts that were taught in the lessons and, as no new information was presented,

there may not have been any room for improvement in knowledge gained. Alternatively, the learners may

not have had any background knowledge or basic understanding of the subject matter and therefore the

questions or concepts discussed were foreign to the learners. Even after the lesson they still had no real

understanding of what they had been taught.

Thus, in comparing the two methods on the basis of long-term knowledge retention, it would appear that

both methods are equally l (Fig. 1). suitable.

Figure 1: Box and whisker plots for a comparison between the two methods for knowledge scores

for pre-, post- and delayed post-test.

Figure 1 shows a comparison between method one and method two for the pre-test, post-test and

delayed test knowledge scores. All learners had the same knowledge base when they started the

programme, which is shown in no significant differences in the pre-test values. The post-test scores show

a significant difference, which indicates that there was a significant difference between method one and

method two when comparing the post-test knowledge scores, and that method one may be a more

effective method than method two for the overall group. For the delayed test, neither method was more

effective than the other as there were no significant differences for the overall group.

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Table 5 shows a comparison of p values between method one and method two for the post-test

knowledge scores as well as the means for group A and group B. The post-test scores show a significant

difference (p=0.002) for the total group, as well as for each school individually, indicating that there was a

significant difference between method one and method two when comparing the post-test knowledge

scores. Overall, method one had a higher mean than method two. Similar results were found when

comparing post-test scores for schools 1, 2, 3 and 5. This indicated that, overall, method one was a more

successful method for knowledge retention in the short term, with the exception of school 4 who showed

a significant difference in favour of method two. This may suggest that the learners from school 4 gained

more knowledge in the short-term period when participating in an interactive lesson as compared to a

lecture style lesson. This may be due to the fact that out of the five schools, school 4 is the only school

that practises cooperative learning on a consistent basis in the classroom. It is also possible that as

learners are taught using this method, they are more familiar with it and therefore this may allow for

greater knowledge retention.

Group Post-test score Mean Group A Mean Group B

Total 0.002* 6.366 5.869

School 1 0.007* 6.194 5.234

School 2 0.013* 6.680 5.905

School 3 0.044* 6.192 5.564

School 4 0.008* 7.352 8.064

School 5 0.028* 5.458 4.725


Table 5: Comparison of p value and means for the learners’ knowledge scores from the paired

sample t-test for post-test scores between the two methods.

Environmental perceptions (Questionnaire Section C)

Section C of the questionnaire asked open-ended questions related to what the learners may consider as

environmental problems and how they would solve them. The responses were coded according to

problems that may be at a national or local level or be of a social nature.

Figure 2 shows the responses to perceptions about environmental problems. The pre-test results showed

that what learners considered as environmental problems were in fact social problems, and this included

issues such as abuse, drunkenness in the community and drugs. The post-test results pointed to a

greater understanding of environmental problems with a focus on local issues such as litter, water

pollution and damaged and dripping local taps.

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The delayed test indicated an increase in awareness of national environmental problems such as climate

change and energy use, as well as an increase in social problems compared to the post-test. In general,

the learners became more aware of local and environmental issues after the lessons were conducted,

and gave positive and realistic methods for solving the problems.

Figure 2: Responses to perceptions of environmental problems for pre-, post- and delayed post-

test.

DISCUSSION

Method one, the lecture method, showed an overall increase in knowledge retention for both pre- and

post-tests and for pre- and delayed test. This would suggest that method one is effective in promoting

both short-term and long-term knowledge retention. However, if learners in a particular school had a

strong prior knowledge of the subject material, the pre- and post- and the pre- and delayed tests results

may be influenced by showing no significant difference, as was possibly the case with school 4.

Method two, the cooperative learning method, also showed an overall increase in knowledge retention for

both pre- and post-, and the pre- and delayed tests. Method two might also be considered as a successful

method in promoting knowledge retention, as overall there appeared to be a significant increase in

knowledge retention between pre- and post- and the pre- and delayed tests. However, individual school

groups from larger schools with greater numbers of learners within each class and who lack resources did

indicate no significant difference between pre- and post- and pre- and delayed tests results. This was the

case with schools 3, 4 and 5.

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When a comparison was made between the two methods to ascertain which method may be more

effective for short-term knowledge retention, method one showed an overall significant difference

compared with method two. This may imply that method one enhanced knowledge retention over the

short-term period (before and after the lesson). However, method one showed no long-term (three

months later) significant difference compared with method two. This could suggest that neither method is

more successful than the other regarding long-term knowledge retention. When comparing the two

methods within each individual school, school 4 showed that method two was more effective in short-term

knowledge retention when compared with method one.

Both methods one and two can be considered effective teaching methods to increase knowledge

retention. However, this study suggests that the teaching method used in a particular school could affect

the knowledge retention because pre-existing abilities, skills and context may influence the way a person

learns and this may influence the learning outcome (Akhtar, 2007:268).

As seen from this study learners from schools 1, 2, 3 and 5 (who participated in method one’s lesson)

appeared to achieve better results, having a greater increase in knowledge retention, compared to the

learners from the same schools who participated in method two’s lesson. The learners from school 4, who

participated in the method two lesson, showed a greater increase for knowledge retention compared to

learners from the same school who participated in method one.

While the literature may show preference towards method two in terms of the effectiveness of this

teaching method, Athman and Monroe (2001:43) describe how learners cannot learn if they do not

understand what is being asked of them, and that real knowledge can only occur when the task is useful

to learners. When learners are presented with an unfamiliar teaching method this may influence their

perceptions and understanding (Ormrod, 1990:192). Learners therefore need to be able to connect with

the concepts and methods presented to them. Anderson (1995:202) suggests how the material is studied

impacts on how much of that material is retained. In this study the educators from each school indicated

that schools 1, 2, 3 and 5 use the same methods of teaching as method one (lecture method) while the

teaching method used in school 4 more closely resembles that of method two. This may therefore

indicate that in order to acquire knowledge one needs to consider the teaching method that learners are

familiar with and that is used in the classroom.

One also needs to take into account the background and life context of the learners for the programme to

be a success. Learning is a process of relating new information to previously learned information (Omrod,

1990:151), and learners understand better when concepts relate to other concepts that they know

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(Taylor, 2002:154). It is therefore important that the learners are familiar with the materials used in the

programme, as learners need to find personal relevance to what they learn to be able to connect with the

concepts presented to them. Athman and Monroe (2001:39) describe how content is more effective if

conveyed when embedded in a local context, giving learners a chance to explore what is around them.

Learners who participated in this programme had access to running water and packaged food, so they

may not have been fully aware of where their food comes from and the impacts food production has on

the environment. Their social environment also played an important role in how they viewed

environmental problems, where initially in the pre-test questionnaire issues such as drugs and violence

were seen as the most important environmental problems. The most powerful experiences in our lives are

not those designed to educate, but rather life experiences (Newhouse, 1990: 27). If this is true, then it is

very important to consider the learners in their life context, and that resources and materials used during

a lesson should be related to the location and understanding of those learners.

The key conclusions drawn from this study for implementing a successful EE programme would be to

determine which method of teaching (method one or method two) is practised in the classroom of the

visiting school, and then ensure that the same method is used when offering the programme. It is also

important, when designing the programme, to relate any new information to existing concepts with which

the learners may be familiar. Marine education and marine species are often foreign to learners who visit

the uShaka Sea World Education Centre, so when designing a programme for these learners it would be

important to link or relate new information to knowledge or species with which the learners are familiar.

IMPLICATIONS

As either method could be effective, and the background context of the learners and their current method

of teaching in the classroom are important, a number of implications may arise when designing and

presenting EE programmes.

One would need to determine the background and teaching methods used at each school that

plans to visit to the Education Centre.

While one could have a general outlined lesson for both methods (method one and method two), in

order for the lesson to be effective and achieve maximum results one would still need to relate the

lesson to suit the individual school in terms of the learners’ background knowledge and life context.

The resources used need to be familiar to a range of learners, or at least related to those that the

learners can comprehend and recognise.

RECOMMENDATIONS

To get a more detailed understanding of the role played in the classroom teaching methods and how they

might influence the choice of method used for an EE programme, it is recommended that further studies

be undertaken to include a range of schools, both rural and urban, which employ either or both of the two

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methods within their own classrooms. The results of such a study could provide a better understanding of

how the present classroom teaching methods relate to the effectiveness of the method chosen for an EE

programme.

REFERENCES

Akhtar M 2007. A comparative study of student attitudes, learning and teaching practices in Pakistan and Britain. Educational studies, 33(3):267-283.

Anderson JR 1995. Learning and memory: An integrated approach. Second edition. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Athman JA and Monroe MC 2001. Elements of Effective Environmental Education Program. Available at: http://www.rbff.org/educational/BPE3.pdf. Accessed 3 September 2009.

Bak N 1995. The unsustainablility of ‘sustainable development’ in a South African Context. Southern African Journal for Environmental Education, 12: 57-63.

Clayton S and Brook A 2005. Can Psychology Help Save the World? A Model for Conservation Psychology. Analyses of Social Issues & Public Policy, 5(1):87 - 102.

Evans KL 1997. Aquaria and marine environmental education. Aquarium Sciences and Conservation, 1:239–250.

Kuhar CW, Bettinger TL, Lehnhardt K, Townsend S and Cox D 2007. Into the Forest: The Evolution of a Conservation Education Program at Kalinzu Forest Reserve, Uganda. Applied Environmental Education & Communications, 6:159–166.

Langen TA and Welsh R 2006. Effects of a Problem-Based Learning Approach on Attitude Change and Science and Political Content Knowledge. Conservation Biology, 20(3):604-607.

McCown R, Driscoll M and Roop PG 1996. Educational Psychology – A Learning Centered Approach to Classroom Practice. Second Edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Newhouse N 1990. Implications of Attitude and Behaviour Research for Environmental Conservation. Journal of Environmental education, 22(1):26-32.

O’Riordan T 1981. Environmentalism and Education. Journal of Geography in Higher education, 5(1):3-17.

Ormrod JE 1990. Human Learning – Principles, Theories and Educational Applications. New York, Merrill: Macmillan International Publishing Group.

Roth CE 2008. Paul F-Brandwein Lecture 2006: Conservation Education for the 21st Century and beyond. Journal of Science Education & Technology, 17(3):211-216.

Taylor GR 2002. Using Human Learning Strategies in the Classroom. Lanham, Maryland & London: The Scarecrow Press, Incorporated.

Tuckman BW 1999. Conducting Educational Research, Fifth Edition. Orlando: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Yeung SP 2004. Teaching Approaches in Geography and Students' Environmental Attitudes. The Environmentalist,

24:101-117.

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18 Inter-college cooperation as a tool for campus environmentalization:

strengthening the cooperation project between Universidadede São Paulo, Brazil,

and Universidad Autónoma De Madrid, Spain Patricia C. Silva Leme – Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Brazil Maria Jose Díaz - Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Spain Marisa Sartori Vieira – Consultant to USP/ UAM, Brazil Welington Braz Carvalho Delitti - Institute of Biosciences; Superintendent of Environmental Management/ USP,

Brazil Javier Benayas del Alamo – Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Spain David Alba – Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Spain Marta Casado –Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Spain Marcos Sorrentino –Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil Miguel Cooper –Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil Daniela Cassia Sudan –Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Brazil Ana Maria de Meira –Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Brazil Renata Castiglioni Amaral - Environmental Engineer, Consultant to the cooperation USP/ UAM, Brazil Cintia G. Rissato - Consultant to the cooperation USP/ UAM, Brazil Pedro Luiz Cortês –, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil

Abstract

For several decades, environmental variables have been introduced to universities, either in curriculum activities or campus management. Following such trend, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), in Brazil, and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), in Spain, created, throughout the 1990s, organizational structures able to coordinate environmental actions: the USP Recicla Program (at USP) and Ecocampus Office (at UAM). Since 2008, both universities have been developing a collaboration line through an international cooperation project by Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional y Desarrollo de España (AECID), which intends to strengthen the environmental action of USP and UAM, leading them to sustainability. This article presents the means used and the main opportunities and difficulties found in both universities concerning their participation, management and environmental educational processes. For so, different investigation techniques are used in the diagnosis, such as statistical surveys and interviews with institutional officers and members of each participation and environmental management organization. Diagnosis created for each university indicated differences and similarities regarding the internal issues and motivations for the administrative, political and technical characters of the environmental subject in both institutions. Therefore, this article aims at explaining the relevance of inter college cooperation as a feasible tool to strengthen institutional social environmental cases, which, on their turn, may be examples to other educational institutions.

BOB

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INTRODUCTION

For several decades, universities have been invited to adopt more sustainable guidelines in terms of

teaching, research, extension and management within university campuses. The responsibility of

universities concerning a sustainable future has been highlighted as of the appearance of the first official

documents in the environmental education area, like the publication of the First Intergovernmental

Conference on Environmental Education (Tibilisi, 1977).

A preliminary analysis on how universities have been implementing sustainability and the environmental

education enables the identification of two complementary poles: the management of impacts caused by

the activities of the university and the education of the university community (Sterling, S., & Scott, W.;

2008, Wals, A., 2007; Alba, 2006). In the first group, there are management actions, understood as a set

of activities to prevent, reduce and correct negative impacts caused by human activities in universities. In

the second group there are actions that try to incorporate the dimension of sustainability in all its senses

(ecological, social, political and economical) to the education of the university community. The last group

is endowed with a complex environmental vision concerned with the building of critical willing to act and

transform socio-environmental relations. This means that the university is considered a "public good

closely linked to the national project" (SANTOS, 2005 apud and SORRENTINO BIRTH, 2010 p. 18)

For the last two decades, several university associations and networks were created in order to stimulate

actions concerning university sustainability. In the case of Brazil, was sanctioned in 1999 the National

Policy on EE and now (2012) we have the National Curriculum guidelines for EA, which brings progress

in implementing the environmental issue in higher education institutions.

The network “Rede Universitária de Programas de Educação Ambiental (RUPEA)” [University Network for

Environmental Education Programs] was created in 2001 and was established as from agreements

entered among three Brazilian higher education institutes (Pavesi, 2007). In Spain, the Conferencia de

Rectores de Universidades Españolas (CRUE) [Conference of Deans of Spanish Universities] was

created in 1994, a non-profit and state association formed by Spanish universities. In 2002, this institution

formed a Commission for the Environmental Quality and Sustainable Development with the purpose of

stimulating the curricular environmentalization and sustainability of university studies, promoting best

practices in the environmental management of universities and sensitizing the university community on

the principles of sustainability. However, despite its relevance, sustainability in higher education is

relatively recent and requires scientific systematization on how the processes to incorporate sustainability

in the university life have been playing out (Shriberg, 2007).

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Universidade de São Paulo (USP), in Brazil, and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), in Spain,

institutionalized their actions for the university sustainability in the 1990s, promoting two environmental

programs in their campuses, according to the explanations in the following paragraph.

Despite of the different organizational, infrastructural, geographical, cultural and financial contexts, both

universities tried the dialogue to improve their environmental engagement, moving towards the socio-

environmental sustainability in their campuses. The alternative chosen has been the shared

systematization of their experiences, which facilitate the joint deliberation on the improvement of their

action strategy. As of 2007, there have been different meetings and discussions among educators,

researchers and technicians from the environmental management of both universities, which built up

cooperation links among the team of Communication research, Education and Environmental

Participation of Departament of Ecology, and Ecocampus, both from UAM, and also USP Recicla and the

collaborative research teams in their programs. Such cooperation was formalized in December 2008 with

the approval, by the Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional paral el Desarrollo (AECID) of a

project named "Strengthening and Consolidation of Cooperation between Ecocampus Office (UAM) and

USP Recicla Office (USP)” (D/020589/08) and later renewed until 2010 (D/026504/09). The main purpose

of this project is to strengthen the environmental structures of both universities in the environmental

management, participation & education areas and to guide them towards the incorporation of sustainable

measures in their processes.

This article will describe the chosen paths, the main difficulties found and the opportunities of

environmental management, participation and education activities of both universities that have occurred

up to this moment through this cooperation process associated to the Project that was financed by the

abovementioned AECID. This way we can see the importance and relevance of inter-university

cooperation as a strengthening tool for institutional actions with socio-environmental characteristics and

its spread in other universities, as well as future projects among universities aiming at working together

for the improvement of the university sustainability.

INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL DEPARTMENTS AT USP AND UAM

Universidade de São Paulo (USP, 2011), founded in 1934, currently has 11 university campuses, located

in 7 cities of the State. Its academic community has over 110 thousand people among undergraduate and

graduate students (88,962), teachers (5,800) and technical administrative servers (16,187).

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Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM, 2009) was founded in 1968 and has two campuses. Nowadays,

the total number of people at the university is over 36,000: teachers and research personnel (2,454),

administration and service personnel (1,050) besides first, second and third cycle students (32,326).

At USP, USP Recicla Program is one of the main departments that institutionally work the environmental

issue. It was created in 1993 and aims at “contributing to the development of sustainable societies

through actions towards the reduction of waste generation, environmental preservation and improvement

of quality of life". It is based on the concept of work seeking for coordinated autonomy and for the setting

of a network, as well as the horizontal construction of planning and decision-making. Its focus is solid

waste, using the 3 Rs principle: reduce consumption and waste, reuse materials and recycle by

promoting selective waste collection. The waste topic is only a motivation to pursue socio-environmental

sustainability within the university. In order to encourage the active participation of several actors of the

university community (undergraduate and graduate students, administration and services personnel and

teachers) the Program is governed by rules that organize its structure and organizational operation

comprising the different properties of the university community.

In 2012 USP created an Environmental Management Office (EMO) which incluides all the environmental

programs of the university, such as USP Recicla.

In 1997, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid consolidated its environmental engagement upon the creation

of the Ecocampus Program and an office in charge of its coordination. Thanks to the implementation of

this program, the commitment with Agenda 21 has been formalized, improving the environmental

situation of its different campuses and teams and sensitizing the university community in order to

encourage the participation and intervention in the debate and the quest for solutions to the global and

local environmental conflicts (Benayas et al, 2009).

Aiming at combining the environmental management technical activities with the education, awareness

and participation processes of the university community, four strategic lines were developed (Proyecto

Ecocampus, 2009):

5. environmental management integrating water consumption, transport & mobility, construction,

interior design & quality, biodiversity & gardening, waste management, energy efficiency, and

atmospheric & acoustic contamination areas;

6. awareness and involvement of the university community in practices focused on the support to

environmental education, participation and curricular environmentalization;

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7. research for sustainability with the development of final essay projects by students, upgrading the

relationship with research teams whose projects are related to sustainability;

8. involvement with society setting relationships with other university level institutions and

By considering different contexts and trying to value different experiences, USP and UAM decided to

promote a collaboration that could strengthen the departments that already institutionally work the

environmental issue. The proposed challenge arise from the teams involved and spreads towards the

general context of both universities, involving researchers, students, technicians and other members of

their university communities.

This article presents the means used and the main opportunities and difficulties found in both universities

concerning their participation, management and environmental educational processes.

METHODOLOGY

The case study was used as a methodological strategy in which the universities involved are the object of

analysis. In this kind of study, the results obtained cannot be generalized, even when valid for the studied

reality and similar situations (Triviños, 1987). The methodological path of the project research is oriented

by a qualitative approach. According to Lüdke and André (1986), this type of approach tries to answer

particular questions and the concern is in the subjectivity, in understanding and explaining the dynamics

of social relationships, wisdom, experience, quotidian, as well as the understanding of structures and

institutions as results of human activity (Minayo, 1996).

With the purpose to develop the research and exchange good practices focused on sustainability in

university campuses, different USP and UAM’s activities and experiences were analyzed. Given the

different physical and institutional characteristics of each university, certain research tools have been

adapted to each reality, and it was grouped in diagnostic, sharing and disclosure tools. To carry out

research universities in both simultaneously, different work places have been developed and consolidated

with videoconferences, seminars, technical meetings and the creation of departments. Due to these

actions, integration among teams was encouraged, the exchange of experiences was eased, and the

adjustments and definition of the action methodology, as well as the adequacy of the schedule to execute

the project, were more efficiently carried out.

The departments of both universities have provided all necessary support data collection, development of

activities to share experiences, organize meetings and seminars.

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Diagnosis tools

In the first phase of the project, a diagnosis on the departments or environmental management,

participation and education structures was carried out for both universities.

During the second phase, its operation was better observed, identifying synergies between environmental

structures and involved actors, within the universities. By environmental structures or departments we

understand all sections, departments, commissions, groups of study and research, laboratories, projects,

sectors and councils that institutionally handle the environmental topic, either with global (in all

campuses) or local presence and belonging to the University’s organizational chart. Initiatives, projects

and non-institutional programs (student associations, external projects, among others) and actions of

curricular environmentalization, although vital for the insertion of sustainability into the university, were

excluded from this survey in regards to USP, and less considered in the case of UAM.

In both cases, it was differently traced to achieve the proposed goals and keep the parallelism of the

research at the universities (Table 1).

Diagnosis phases

First phase: diagnosis on the departments or environmental management, participation and education structures

Second phase: analysis of synergies between environmental structures and involved actors, within the universities

Sample

USP: seven campuses UAM: main campus

Synthesis of variables

USP: General perspective over environmental management, education and participation at the campus, analysis of structures that encourage these actions e) projects and programs: general and local

actuations; f) services; g) decision-making departments; h) groups of study and research), weaknesses

and strengths of the general sustainability panorama at USP.

UAM: Evolution and current situation of environmental management, education and participation deepening about aspects of solid waste generation and structures working for the environmental management, education and participation in order to learn more about its operation and relations.

Data collection

USP: d) Analysis of documents of official sources. e) Survey (n=50) was carried out with

coordinators of university campuses and people responsible for institutional environmental programs, teachers, researchers, extension units and

UAM: d) Analysis of reports, and other secondary sources. e) Semi-structured interviews (n=13) with people in

charge of the several known environmental structures.

f) Non-participant observation of different gatherings and a survey (n=82) aiming at registering

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administrative agencies. f) Semi-structured interviews (n=21) with the

relevant actors of environmental management and education.

information concerning behavior and dynamization of the participation processes in real meetings, and satisfaction level with the activity and structure of participation studied.

Data treatment

Discourse analysis was carried upon an emergent categorization of qualitative data, and descriptive analysis of quantitative data.

Table 1: Description of the technical data of both study cases as methodological strategy

Sample and main variables

Regarding the sample, for UAM, the study was focused on the main campus, and for USP, it was focused

on the seven campuses forming the university. Concerning the environment, for the case of USP, it was

intended to present a more complete view of the university sustainability in its different areas (water,

waste, energy, among others). Likewise, a general perspective of education, participation and articulation

among the different structures was intended. For the case of UAM, different areas of environmental

management were generally presented, nevertheless, the research was focused on the aspects of solid

waste generation and there were attempts to go deeper into the structures working for the environmental

management, education and participation in order to learn more about its operation and relations.

Data collection and treatment

At USP, after examining official documents of the university organization, including rules and other

organizational standards, a survey was carried out with the following actors:

4. Coordinators of university campuses who are responsible for territorial management;

5. People responsible for and participant in institutional environmental programs, acting in the whole

university;

6. People responsible for teaching, research and extension units and administrative agencies.

Out of the 80 questionnaires sent, 50 returned, from which information was systematized and its analysis

pointed out the need to go deeper into research in order to identify other environmental structures at the

campuses of USP that were not taken into consideration during the first phase. The research was

complemented by the development of 21 interviews with the relevant actors of environmental

management and education at the university.

Moreover, the study was increased by the following topics:

4. General perspective over environmental management, education and participation at the campus;

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5. Structures that encourage these actions, considering: i) projects and programs; ii) services

(laboratories, material classification sector, etc.); iii) decision-making departments (committees,

councils, commissions, etc.); iv) groups of study and research;

6. Weaknesses and strengths of the general sustainability panorama at USP.

At UAM, after reviewing existing reports and other secondary sources (access to spaces and web in the

network) regarding the evolution and current situation of environmental management, education and

participation, the interviews directed to the people in charge of the several known structures were

designed. Thirteen semi-structured interviews were carried out, comprising topics of environmental

management as well as environmental education and participation. The discourse analysis was carried

upon an emergent categorization.

In the second phase, as a data collection technique, it was applied the non-participant observation of

different gatherings comprising structures and groups, aiming at registering information concerning

behavior and dynamization of the participation processes in real meetings. With this purpose, a set of

values was designed to enable the systematization of information collection. Subsequently, a different

questionnaire was given to participants and members of some structures with the purpose to evaluate the

satisfaction level with the activity and structure of participation studied. These questionnaires were

designed and filled out by 82 people involved as participants and/or volunteers.

Sharing tools

With the purpose of achieving the cooperation between teams (USP and UAM), a space were created for

the exchange of experience and knowledge about the development of project activities at each university.

The tools used for these purposes were:

4. videoconferences: with a more direct contact as compared to e-mails, the videoconferences enable

a reciprocal information flow in real time. Seven videoconferences were carried out, integrating

teams, methodological adjustments, adequacy of the Schedule and financial resources, among

others, in addition to the conceptual deepening of Project matters;

5. six seminars, three in 2009: June (Spain), October (Brazil) and December (Spain), and three in

2010: in June and September (Spain) and the last one scheduled in Brazil to take place in

December. In these seminars the institutional cooperation was effective by means of experience

exchange, theoretical deepening of conceptual project foundations and joint production of teams,

which strengthened relations in an intense teamwork.

6. exchange of team members, by means of: meetings with the participation of institutional

representatives and experts, and of researcher-assistant departments (one UAM assistant at USP

and two USP assistants at UAM) and helping to perform the different activities of the project, such

as information collection for diagnosis (surveys, interviews, non-participant observation),

preparation of videoconferences, meetings and seminars, etc.

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Dissemination tools

As part of the research methodology and the cooperation project, the disseminations tools aimed at

making information accessible and available for the internal community of both universities, but also for

other universities. At USP a seminar driven to the whole university community was carried out at the main

campus in São Paulo, and other seminar was scheduled for December 2010. Furthermore, a temporal

project section was created on the Ecocampus Office’s webpage; an article was presented in the VI

Iberoamerican Congress of EA (September 2009, San Clemente del Tuyú, Argentina), as well as the

publication in the form of a magazine named "En el camino a la sostenibilidad [On the track of

sustainability]”: challenges and learning shared at USP and UAM”.34

RESULTS: ACTUATION OF USP AND UAM TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY

This section points out the most relevant results of the inter-university cooperation activities carried out in

2009. With different techniques, a characterization was carried out on the structures and actors involved

in the processes of environmental management, education and participation, as well as a diagnosis of its

strengths and weaknesses.

USP and its institutionalization process of environmental topics

The information provided by the 50 questionnaires replied (a sample of 62.5%), and complemented by

the development of interviews, revealed different performances in the university scope, classified as

general actuations (in all campuses of USP) and local actuations (created in accordance with the

specificities of each campus).

The several structures concerning environmental issues at USP do not exclusively handle them. In

addition, these departments are in different hierarchical levels of the USP administration, which, on the

one hand, expresses the decentralization of the university administration concerning environmental

issues, but on the other hand, might hinder their communication, causing a lack of interaction and

common work, according to what was stated by the interviewed departments. Regarding the local

presence in each campus, over 70 environmental structures were mentioned such as administrative

departments and sections, programs, projects, laboratories, decision-making agencies, study/research

groups, teaching programs, etc. This diversity of environmental structures is not evenly distributed among

34 Access at www.projetosustentabilidade.sc.usp.br

http://www.projetosustentabilidade.sc.usp.br/

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USP’s campuses, in some of them only the action of institutional structures of the entire university such

as USP Recicla, PURA and PURE could be identified. Nevertheless, other campuses presented an

integration movement of the several environmental issues and structures, comprising environmental

management, participation and education. Among them, we can mention the “Sustainable Campus”35

Work Plan of the coordination office in the State Capital of São Paulo, and the Participative Socio-

Environmental Master Plan36 (PDSP) of the Campus Luiz de Queiroz, in Piracicaba (SP).

Regarding the weaknesses or barriers that hinder the correct operation of structures identified at USP, we

can mention:

5. Reduced participation of the university community in environmental issues. The greatest difficulty is

to have the participation by the university community due to, among other things, the lack of a

formal commitment of the university towards environmental issues of an environmental policy

establishing socio-environmental guidelines for teaching, researching and managing activities in

the whole institution.

6. Lack of availability of specific financial resources and infrastructure that are only allocated based

on the decision making of the institution, which, most of the time, has other priorities for the

budgetary allocation hindering the performance of continuous activities.

7. Lack of an environmental department or structure in the organizational chart of university

administration, what interferes the introduction of the theme to the schedule of decision making of

managers and in life of the university community;

8. Lack of an institutional environmental policy to provide environmental guidelines for the

development of programs and projects in the environmental management, participation and

education areas. With regard to the facilitators for the preparation and implementation of

environmental initiatives at the university campus, we can remark: i. the role of the university as a

promoter to train people in the environmental area; ii. the need of the university to adapt to the

environmental standards and Laws in force; and iii. the existence and consequent familiarity of

different knowledge areas and their encouragement in environmental researches and their proper

application in the campuses.

UAM and its institutionalization process of environmental topics

For the case of UAM, different structures and actors are involved in the management and/or stimulate the

environmental education and participation of the university community. It was possible to carry out an

identification of the structures and actors. On the one hand, at a more institutional level, we have several

government agencies (councils, vice rectorates and commissions) located in rectorates and on which

35 Access at http://www.puspc.usp.br/

36 Access at www.esalq.usp.br/instituicao/docs/plano_diretor_socioambiental.pdf

http://www.puspc.usp.br/

http://www.esalq.usp.br/instituicao/docs/plano_diretor_socioambiental.pdf

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other services, programs and actors rely. At a more academic and teaching level, there is a graduate

program that is focused on research-training with respect to waste.

The identification of environmental structures have been a more simple process at UAM as compared to

USP, because UAM is provided with a based structure (Vice-Dean’s Office and Environmental Quality)

that coordinates everything related to the environment at the university, except for student associations

and training programs. However, despite the existence of such structure at an institutional level facilitating

the environmental management, education and participation process and other initiatives (associations,

etc.) consolidated over time, there must be efforts to boost the relations among the studied structures.

At UAM, the items below were also identified as weaknesses that hinder the good efficiency of

environmental management and participation processes:

8. Management – waste collection: UAM is not provided with full flexibility, autonomy and knowledge

of all data concerning waste collection, because its final phase and its further treatment is carried

out by the local government. Internally, there are infrastructure difficulties regarding the

involvement of actors in waste collection and deficiencies sorting it;

9. Lack of communication among some of the several internal actors involved in environmental

management, which hinders the implementation of joint projects;

10. Lack of public policies for a consolidated and powerful waste management (and within the articles

and conditions guidelines of the agreements);

11. Lack of environmental awareness at the university: several actors interviewed pointed out the lack

of waste-sorting interiorization since the university community considers it an extra effort;

12. Lack of innovative techniques in awareness campaigns. The current propagation techniques can

saturate due to the great amount of information flowing everyday on other themes through

brochures, posters and more common means of communication. Likewise, these campaigns are

more likely driven to a certain type of audience, the students; although it should actually reach

everyone involved in the university community.

13. Problem of consolidation of environmental participation: insufficient knowledge of structures and

lack of information reflected by its action to the rest of the university community so as people know

what is being done. Additionally, there is a lack of relationship among structures for them to work

together more collaboration is required among them;

14. Instability of some structures due to the rotation of people involved with them (students in

associations, technicians in management services).

In contrast, strengths and facilitators were also identified:

6. Existence of an institutional structure that comprises and coordinates all themes related to the

environment at the university;

7. Waste management: the local government collects waste with no charges. Agreements were

created, like conventions, for the good operation of management.

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8. Awareness: importance of training activities carried out by Ecocampus that contribute to the

collaboration improvement of people involved in the management process. Campaigns are also

positively valued because they stimulate waste sorting;

9. Participative processes: decisions made within the structures tend to be consensual, not by voting.

But in some cases, voting is chosen. The participative decision-making requires efforts and time,

but it is positively valued by the ones involved because all opinions are taken into consideration;

10. Economic and material resources: the lack of budget is not perceived as a great problem.

DISCUSSION: LESSONS LEARNED

As one of the results of this research and cooperation project, we were able to extract some lessons that

will certainly help us to rethink the environmental management, participation and education in universities.

An institutional environmental structures strengthens environmental management, participation

and education

The existence of an environmental structure connected to the senior management and policy of university

facilitates the insertion of the theme to decisions and actions. At UAM there is an institutional structure

and a centralized environmental policy consolidated at a rectorate level. In this sense, USP has learned

which steps to follow in order to create an environmental structure that depends directly on a vice-

rectorate, such as the ECOCAMPUS Office. However, the efforts of Environmental Management Office

since 2012 as a driver of environmental activities inside USP must be considered from now on.

Participative processes in decision making, guarantee of sustainability

The participation in discussions and decision–making processes on how to act regarding sustainability in

both universities is a determining factor for the development of their programs. In the case of UAM, the

Commission of Users and Environmental Quality has the participation of different university sectors and

the different perceptions of users and centers are represented. Debates consolidate decisions so as they

can hardly be reversed by superior departments. The fundamental value of USP’s experience is the

motivation of agents supposed by the participation organization in USP Recicla Program. Its structure in

commissions, from units up to the university itself, passing by the different campuses, allows the

involvement of an important number of people who, with a pro-active attitude, become agents that

propagate awareness and actions for sustainability.

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The centered work on a unique environmental theme facilitates the awareness of the university

community, however, it loses interrelation with other themes.

The centralization of the work with all environmental themes at ECOCAMPUS Office (water, energy,

waste, mobility, etc.), integrating environmental education and participation, is a good design of actions

considering the environmental theme and its different dimensions as a whole. On the other hand, USP

Recicla is focused on waste (education for its reduction), and by working with a more specific theme, it

can go deeper with different actors of the university community, gathering more people and increasing the

awareness.

Educational campaigns (short-time) are to motivate the community and projects (long-time)

stimulate education of more critical people.

ECOCAMPUS Office works with specific campaigns in its actions at the university. They are short-time

campaigns that use different activities such as posters, stickers, gymkhanas and simulation games,

attractive activities that calls the attention of the university community. On the other hand, USP Recicla

Program works by means of long-term projects, in which scholarship students and volunteers participate

during a long period and that, due to this particularity, achieve a greater engagement towards the theme

from the part of the community. In addition, actions are progressively developed aiming at achieving a

gradual change in each one.

The activities developed go from the wideness of the environmental theme and sustainability and

its link to social aspects

For the development of projects, USP Recicla Program values the integration of theory and practice, the

joint perspective of “society and environment” and assumes theoretical references of education and

sociology. These principles are reflected in the communication and awareness campaigns of the

Program. UAM handles different themes, most of them environmentally based, putting up social matters

in its projects.

The lack of people makes the work difficult and furnishes extra roles to people who are involved.

The USP Recicla Program, as well as the ECOCAMPUS Office, relies on their own team of technicians in

addition to scholarship students and volunteers. On one hand, the temporal rotation of students involved

in environmental programs allows several people to become propagation agents and, on the other hand,

there is a lack of employees, which furnishes extra roles to the steady personnel. The involvement of

researchers, educators and other professionals in this project has been remarkable in the sense of

addressing sustainability into university. However, such actions remain being punctual, in the sense of

being limited in time (short or medium duration). Although the innovative character, isolated actionsbut

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never substitute public policy (Carvalho 2004 apud RUPEA, 2007). The lack of public and institutional

policies has been still a major obstacle to the implementation of EE programs in Higher Education.

FINAL REMARKS

The work developed through cooperation was an important opportunity for mutual learning in order to

strengthen socio-environmental actions. The experiences of each university were deeply studied,

comprising not only the main units of activity dynamization for university sustainability (ECOCAMPUS at

UAM, USP Recicla at USP) but also other units, spaces and people involved driven to achieve the

university contribution towards sustainability. During the last financed period, the efforts were not focused

to knowing experiences but to reflecting on its strengths and weaknesses so they can be shared by the

participant universities and by other interested institutions. For that, the design of an evaluation tool has

been developed to enable the systematic collection of information concerning the current status of the

university activity with respect to sustainability in order to improve its planning and quality. An virtual

awareness tool was also developed in order to involve more members of the university community in

sustainability issues. The main purpose will be keeping the reinforcement actions for the sustainability of

participant universities as models for other Latin American higher education institutions. This digital tool is

named “Virtual Platform of information, awareness, and evaluation for environmental management,

education and participation at universities” and can be access in this link:

www.projetosustentabilidade.sc.usp.br. The university community will have the opportunity to evaluate

the socio-environmental status of its campus and to acquire knowledge and trainings as sustainable

agents at their own university.

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