Indian Dress

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Encyclopedia of National Dress: Traditional Clothing aroundthe WorldBy: Jill Condra, Editor

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IndiaMichele A. HardyHistorical BackgroundThe first permanent human settlements in the Indian subcontinent are dated to 7000BCE and likely evolved into the Indus Valley civilization (3300–1700 BCE). Located inthe vicinity of the Indus River in present-day Pakistan, the Indus Valley civilization isassociated with some of the earliest evidence of cotton and cotton textiles. Indigenousto the region, cotton (gossypium arboreum) was used from 4000 BCE. There is evidencethat spinning, weaving, and dyeing were highly developed and that cotton textiles wereextensively traded from an early date.In the third century BCE the powerful emperor Ashok’s kingdom stretched frompresent-day Afghanistan and western Iran to the Indian states of Bengal and Assam inthe east and Mysore in the south (304–232 BCE). Relations with the Hellenistickingdoms to the north and west of his empire were amicable. Following Ashok’s demise,however, Demetrius I, ruler of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom (covering parts ofpresent-day Afghanistan and Central Asia), conquered much of north India andestablished the Indo-Greek kingdom. Dominating northern India between about 180BCE–10 CE, it was a period of cultural syncretism. Greek influence, particularly onsculpture, was evident from this period and has had an enduring influence on Indianart.The Gupta dynasty (320–550 CE) is often referred to as “India’s Golden Age.” It wascharacterized by relative peace and prosperity, fostering scientific and artisticachievements. Following a subsequent period of invasions from Central Asia, northernIndia and later much of south India was united under the Delhi sultanate (1206–1526CE), followed by the Mughal Empire (1526–1857). The Mughals were descendants ofthe Timurids, Persianate Central Asian Muslims. Under their rule and enthusiasticpatronage, Persian, Central Asian, and Indian arts creatively intermingled. From the16th century, the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British arrived, initially asmissionaries and traders. Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, India became a Britishcolony (1858–1947). By the end of the 19th century, the movement for Indianindependence was gaining momentum. A prominent member of

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the Indian National Congress, Mahatma Gandhi promoted independence throughnonviolent means including a return to the use of khadi, a hand-spun, handwovencotton cloth. This was an orchestrated attempt to undermine British economic control(whose machine-made cloth had caused widespread unemployment in India) andreassert India’s prominence as a textile producer. Khadi production remains supportedby the Indian government and closely associated in the minds of Indians withnationalism. Indian independence from Britain and the partition of India and Pakistanwere achieved in 1947.Geographic and Environmental BackgroundThe Republic of India has only been a political entity since 1947 when the former Britishcolony achieved independence. This involved the partition of India from the Dominion ofPakistan, which included the present-day Islamic Republic of Pakistan and People’sRepublic of Bangladesh. Indian sovereigns have, at various historical points, ruled overkingdoms that stretched from Afghanistan to the Indian states of Bengal and Mysore.India, as it is known today, is bordered on the north by the Himalaya Mountains, theworld’s highest range; the Thar Desert on the west; the Sundarbans Delta on the east;and the Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea, and Indian Ocean on the southeast, south, andsouthwest, respectively. The Ganges River originates in the Himalayas, feeds the richsoils of the Indo-Gagnetic Plain, and empties into the Bay of Bengal. Revered by Hindus,the Ganges has sustained cultivation in northern India for millennia.The climate of western India ranges from arid to semiarid, the southwest is tropical wet,the regions closest to the Himalayas are montane, and those along the Indo-GagneticPlain are subtropical humid. The climate is influenced by the presence of both theHimalayas and the Thar. The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian winds from blowingover the subcontinent, while the Thar attracts moist summer winds contributing to thesummer monsoons. For parts of western India in particular, the annual monsoonprovides much, if not all, of the yearly rainfall. The population of India in 2012 wasestimated at 1,205,073,600, making it the second most populous country in the world,behind China at 1,343,239,900.People and DressEthnic and Religious DiversityIndia has traditionally been divided in half by the prevalence of Indo-Aryan speakingnortherners (e.g., Hindi) and Dravidian-speaking southerners (e.g., Tamil). TheIndo-Aryans are thought to have arrived from beyond the Hindu Kush Mountains

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sometime before the writing of the Rig Veda in the second and first millennia BCE. TheRig Veda is a collection of religious hymns that laid the groundwork for the developmentof modern Hinduism. The origin of speakers of Dravidian languages is unclear. Some


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scholars claim they migrated from East Africa, while others argue they were indigenousto the region. In addition to Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages, there are significantnumbers of speakers of Tibeto-Burman and Austro-Asiatic languages. The IndianCensus of 1991 recognized 1,576 different languages.While Hinduism predominates on the subcontinent, there are significant populations ofMuslims, Sikhs, Christians, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis, Ismailis, and other religions. Thereare also numerous adivasis (indigenous) populations who were traditionally animists.Many of these groups have converted to one of the major Indian religions or developedsyncretic beliefs (blending concepts from different spiritual traditions). Within Hinduismthere is great scope for diversity of practice. Devotees revere a number of differentdeities and engage in various forms of devotion.One of the most notable features of India is the presence of the caste system. Based onHindu ideas of purity and pollution, the system assigns certain prerogatives andresponsibilities to caste members depending on their rank within the system. The highercastes are considered the most pure and therefore eligible to perform certain rituals.They must, however, take precautions to safeguard their purity. Those considered lesspure are of lower rank and may be prevented from entering certain temples or usingcertain religious specialists. Those who fall outside of the caste system weretraditionally shunned. These groups include the untouchables, renamed Harijans (“GodMen”) by Mahatma Gandhi; adivasis, and Muslims. Caste is associated with spiritualrank and identity, but it also influences occupation, marriage patterns, residence, ritualpractices, food, and dress.Dress is, in the broadest sense, a marker of ethnic and religious identity, gender, age,life stage, and caste. A very broad generalization is between unstitched or drapedgarments and stitched garments. The former are often considered to have beenindigenous to India, while the latter are thought to have been introduced from outside.While certain tailored styles were undoubtedly introduced from Central Asia and beyond,there is also evidence that jackets were worn at the time of the Vedas (1500–400 BCE).Unstitched garments consisting of lengths of fabric draped around the body tend tocharacterize the dress worn by contemporary Hindus, while tailored garments are morecharacteristic of rural and Muslim populations.The sari, the quintessential garment worn by Hindu women, is a length of fabric,6.5–9.8 yards (6–9 meters) long, that is today worn with a petticoat and bodice. It canbe wrapped around the body in a variety of styles that speak to region, ethnicity, class,occupation, and fashion. In Gujarat, the pallu (decorative end of the sari) is broughtover the right shoulder and tucked into the waist at the left side. In Chennai (Madras),the sari is pleated, brought between the legs, and tucked into the

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waist at the back, giving the appearance of trousers. Sari blouses were not traditionallyworn until the arrival of European missionaries. Today they are typically tight fittingwith sleeve and bodice lengths and necklines varying according to fashion.Hindu men, while donning trousers and shirts for everyday wear, often turn to drapeddhoti (north India) or lungi (south India) for nonbusiness wear. For certain Hindu ritual


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practices, draped rather than tailored clothes are necessary to meet purity requirementsand suit customary practice.In rural areas women’s dress may involve gathered skirts worn with bodices and a veilcloth. These are often embellished with designs that speak to marriageability, clan, orsubcaste membership. Men’s dress in rural areas may involve combinations of tailoredanghurkas and draped dhoti, which, in combination with distinctively tied turbans,speak to ethnic identity and distinctive lifestyles.


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Woman wears a sari in rural Rajasthan, India. (Vikram Raghuvanshi/iStockphoto.com)History of DressThe history of dress in India is a tale compounded by the depth and breadth of Indianhistory. What is known of dress, prior to the Mughal Dynasty (1526–1857), has been


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pieced together from sporadic literary references, archaeological evidence, and thestudy of art. Archaeological evidence includes jewelry, figurines, seals, and architecturalelements as well as rare samples of cloth, preserved by their proximity to metalartifacts. Literary evidence includes often vague references to cloth or clothesmentioned in early texts such as the Rig Veda (composed 1100–700 BCE) as well asmore descriptive passages of the Arthaśātra (composed 200–400 CE). Art in the form ofsculpture, bas-reliefs, and paintings provides important evidence for the history ofcostume, especially when analyzed in relation to other sources. Significant worksinclude the Ajanta cave paintings in the state of Maharashtra, dated from the secondcentury BCE, and the Brihadisvara Temple frescoes dating from the Chola dynasty ofTamil Nadu (ninth to 13th centuries CE).

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The famous “Priest King,” excavated at Mohenjo Daro and associated with the IndusValley civilization, dates to 2500–1700 BCE. The sculpture is of a male figure with shorthair held in place by a headband and wearing a cloak over one shoulder embellishedwith a trefoil pattern that was initially filled with red pigment. Other evidence suggeststhat both men and women wore draped garments that often left the chest and/or rightshoulder bare. Jewelry is worn mainly by women and includes necklaces, chokers, belts,fillets, and bangles. Men wear chokers and bangles as well as turbans and headbands.Hairstyles appear to have been elaborate and there is evidence for the use of cosmetics.


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The “Priest-king” sculpture from Mohenjo Daro, Indus Valley civilization, c. 2000 BCE.(National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi, Pakistan/DeAgostini/Getty Images)From the time of the Gupta dynasty (320–550 CE), commonly referred to as India’s“Golden Age,” there emerges a new syncretism in Indian art, culture, and dress. Guptaartists infused their works with a new emphasis on spirituality and stylization. Worksfrom this period betray Greek influences, particularly in depictions of draped textiles.They also speak to influences from Central Asia with the presence of items such as sewntunics, trousers, high boots, and armor. Indeed, the stitched garment, although knownearlier, becomes much more commonplace. Initially adopted for use by court servants,tunics began to be worn by court officials.The Delhi sultanate (1206–1526 CE) is a period characterized by a number of IslamicAfghan and Turkish dynasties that ruled over much of northern and parts of southernIndia. With historic and cultural ties to the Near East, the sultanate ushered in a periodof “Indo-Muslim” style that influenced literature, architecture, music, religion, anddress. This period saw the increasing use of tailored garments such as robes, gowns,and coats of extravagant fabric and trim.In 1526 Babur defeated the last of the Delhi sultanate rulers and founded the Mughaldynasty. Mughal, from the Persian word, Mongol, suggests descent from the

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Mongols of Genghis Khan; however, Babur was of Turkic descent from Turkestan.Although he only ruled India for five years, he spawned a dynasty that wouldconsolidate power over much of the subcontinent and parts of Afghanistan, introducedUrdu (a synthesis of Persian, Arabic, Turkic, and Indian languages), as well asencouraged new developments in the visual arts, especially architecture, bookillustrations, and dress. His grandson, Akbar (1542–1605), self-consciously undertookto synthesize Hindu and Muslim, Indian and foreign elements in the creation of newdress styles. Akbar is said to have manipulated an existing garment in order to removeit from its “ethnic” context and make it more acceptable to both Hindus and Muslims.His son, Jahangir (1569–1627), synthesized Hindu and Islamic philosophy in theconstruction of great architectural works, miniature paintings, and dress. Mughal dresscombined elements from different spiritual, ethnic, and aesthetic traditions to produce astyle that was distinctive.The earliest Europeans arrived as missionaries and traders and left rich descriptions ofdress and cultural practices. Portuguese, Dutch, French, and English trading companiesestablished bases in Surat, Cochin, Pondicherry, and Calcutta from 1498, and Indiabecame a British colony after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The East India Company hadbeen hugely successful, making British traders of textiles and tea extraordinarilywealthy. Subsequently, in the name of understanding its subjects better, the BritishCrown undertook numerous surveys and ethnographic reports including John ForbesWatson’s The Textile Manufactures and the Costumes of the People of India of 1866.Dress during the late 19th century reflected sometimes dramatic changes in Indiansociety. A new class of British-educated civil servants developed, who combinedelements of Western and Indian dress. Referred to as the Bhadralok in Bengal, they


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were concerned with balancing social reform with nationalism. With the growingmovement for Indian independence, Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) promoted khadi, ahandwoven, hand-spun cotton fabric worn in the traditional manner (dhoti, chaddar orsalwar kurta for men, sari for women), as a means to overturn British economic andcultural domination.Since Indian independence in 1947 dress in India has continued to evolve, selectivelyincorporating foreign influences and materials. Tailored pants and shirts are theaccepted daily wear for men while salwar kameez, once considered Muslim dress, iswidely worn by Hindu and Muslim women. The sari is still the quintessential dress ofHindu women although it is not impervious to the effects of fashion. Sari blouses, inparticular, reflect changing tastes. Urban elites, college students, and the growingIndian diaspora introduce new styles including a taste for jeans and sportswear.Bollywood films spawn periodic interest in “ethnic” fashions borrowed from India’s tribalor ethnic minorities.

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Materials and TechniquesThere are a number of plants and animals indigenous to India used for the production offiber. Excavations of the sites associated with the Indus Valley civilization point to someof the earliest evidence of cotton processing. Mineralized fragments and other evidencesuggest that cotton (gossypium arboreum) was already grown, spun, woven, and dyedfrom 1750 BCE. Textual sources point to its extensive trade and foreign appreciation ofIndian technology. Silk was in use by the time the Arthaśāstra was written sometimebetween the second and fourth century CE. It notes a distinction between Indian andChinese silks as well as Indian cultivated silk (bombyx mori) and wild silks (antherapaphia, anthera assama, saturnia assama), all of which were grown and processed inthe areas corresponding to present-day Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and AndhraPradesh. Other bast fibers (jute, hemp, flax) were widely used for cordage and theproduction of mainly rough cloths. Indian sheep produce coarse wool that is not suitablefor garments; consequently wool was little used for clothing.The exception is in the far north, particularly in Kashmir, where the cool, mountainousclimate supported different breeds of sheep and goats with wool more suitable forgarments. Intricately woven or embroidered cashmere shawls (produced from the woolof the Cashmere goat (capra hircus laniger) were particularly popular during the latterhalf of the 19th century.Indian craftspeople were highly skilled in all aspects of textile manufacture. Cottongrown in what is now Bangladesh was woven into muslins renowned for their fineness.Praised by Greek, Roman, and Arab authors, they were variously known as baf-thana(woven air) or shabnam (morning/evening dew), among other poetic names. Complexwoven clothes are produced in various textile centers. Jamdani (intricately patternedwoven cotton) is produced in West Bengal and Bangladesh, while silk and cottonbrocades are made in Varanasi, Ahmedabad, Paithan, and Kanchipuram. Many of thesecenters are famous for their saris brocaded with gold or silver threads.Indian textile dyers are world masters of this art form. Early craftspeople developed


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methods of dying cotton with mordants that remained unknown in Europe until the 17thcentury. They also excelled at a variety of textile printing and embellishmenttechniques. It has been suggested that the “Priest King” unearthed at Mohenjo Daro(circa 2500 BCE) may be wearing a block-printed shoulder cloth called ajrakh becauseof its trefoil design and evidence of being colored red at one time. Block-printed ajrakhcloths are still produced and worn by Muslim men on both sides of the India-Pakistanborder. Predominantly red with blue ajrakhs are a symbol of Sindhi identity, whilepredominantly blue with red ajrakhs are

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more associated with Muslims on the Indian side of the border. Block printing washighly developed both on the west and east coasts and traded widely. Kalamkari is atechnique of block printing and/or drawing on fabric with a kalam (pen) to producedelicate, often floral designs. Kalamkari bed covers called palampores and later chintzfabric from the Coromandel Coast were exported to Europe in the 17th through 19thcenturies. Chintz became so highly sought after in the 17th and early 18th centuriesthat British authorities imposed laws to protect local textile producers. The use of blockprinting in Indian dress is suggested by the depiction of richly embellished garments inminiature paintings and palm leaf manuscripts, among other sources.Tie-dye and ikat are other techniques that Indian craftspeople excel at. The mostfamous and highly prized is the Patola of Patan, Gujarat. The Patola fabric is a doubleikat: both the warp and weft are tied and dyed prior to weaving. The Patola fabric hasbeen exported to Indonesia since the early 15th century where it was worn by thenobility and associated with ancestor worship. In India, Patola saris are highly desiredfor weddings. Typically they have red grounds with various animal, floral, and geometricmotifs in white, green, black, or yellow. Tie-dyed cloth is particularly popular in westernIndia. Produced primarily in Kachchh in the state of Gujarat, it is made mainly byMuslim Khatris for a broad market. Memon and Khoja women traditionally wore veryintricately tied and dyed tunics called abas with gathered trousers while other groupswore full, gathered skirts (ghagra) embellished with tie-dyed patterns. Tie-dyed veilsremain an important gift from Muslim mother-in-laws to new brides (although many usemachine-made imitations today).Embroidery is one of the many techniques used in India to embellish clothing andhousehold textile items. Chikan embroidery involves stitching intricate designs usually inwhite cotton or silk thread on fine white cotton. It was produced in the vicinity of Dacca,Calcutta, and Lucknow; only chikan from Lucknow was produced for the local marketand continues to be produced today. Kantha embroidery is practiced in Bengal where itinitially developed as a form of making quilts from recycled cloth. Layers of old saris, forexample, were stitched together with running stitches that formed designs culled fromreligious tales and everyday life. Today kantha-style embroidery embellishes saris andsalwar kameez for urban consumers. Zardozi embroidery is another style associatedwith urban workshops employing men. Zardozi involves stitching gold- or silver-wrapped threads onto cloth. Embroidery is also widely used by various ruralcommunities to create distinctive dress styles. The Indian state of Gujarat, for example,


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is famous for its ethnic diversity and richly embroidered folk dress. Many communitiesincorporate mirrors into their embroidery, creating a dazzling effect. The Banjara orLambadi

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are a seminomadic tribal community living across central and south India. Their dressstyle likely hails from Rajasthan; however, their embroidery, with its inclusion ofmirrors, cowry shells, metal or plastic objects, and even bone, is distinctive.Everyday and Special-Occasion DressThe difference between everyday and special-occasion dress is, in many parts of India,less about substance and more of degree. In urban centers, women will don more richlyembellished versions of saris or salwar kameez and wear more and better qualityjewelry. Where Hindu women may wear salwar kameez during the day, for specialoccasions and for religious observances, they are more likely to wear a sari. Being anuncut garment, it is thought to be more pure and therefore more appropriate for ritualactivities. Similarly, silk or silk-like fabrics are preferred because of their apparentimpermeability to pollution. Among rural communities, women will don garments madeof more expensive fabrics with more embellishment as well as more jewelry. Among theMutwa, a rural Muslim clan in Kachchh, women will wear their most heavily embroideredgarments as well as veils embellished with bands of embroidery, and gold or silverjewelry including the nath (nose ring), which they do not wear every day. The Mutwatraditionally wore specially embroidered garments made specifically for the marriageritual and included motifs associated with fertility. The women of neighboring Hinducommunities, likewise, wear special garments that mark a young women’s transitionand new status, generally tight-fitting embroidered blouses worn with gathered skirtsand veils. The dress associated with widows in both Hindu and Muslim communitiesdiffers from the dress of married women. Hindu women will remove their jewelry anddress in simple white garments while their Muslim sisters will also remove their jewelryand don more simple, darker colored versions of their traditional dress. Muslim men orwomen who have made the pilgrimage to Mecca may wear white garments withoutjewelry upon their return home.For many communities, special occasions are marked by the use of traditional dressstyles seldom used for daily wear. In Gujarat, the festival known as Navratri involvesnine nights of dancing with the dancers dressed in traditional styles. Men in urbancenters across India tend to wear tailored pants and shirts for business. For weddings,funerals, and other ritual occasions, however, men don more traditional forms of dress.For Hindus this most often involves the untailored dhoti, chaddar, and turban, althoughthere are rural communities who also wear short fitted vests or jackets (anghuraka).Rabari men of Kachchh are renowned for their magnificently embroidered wedding attireconsisting of kediyun (jacket), dhoti, and pagadi (turban). Muslim men most often don aPathani suit for special occasions consisting of a pair of salwar (gathered trousers) andlong tunic (kamiz) with or without a vest,

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shoulder cloth, turban, or a topi (cap). With the exception of the topi, embroidery isseldom used on Muslim men’s dress, although finely printed or woven textiles may beworn as turbans or shoulder cloths. Muslim men do not wear gold jewelry or silkbecause it is thought to interfere with prayers. The turban is an important marker ofboth respect and identity for men in India. Covering one’s head is a sign of marriage forwomen and speaks both to men and women’s honor. Laying one’s turban at the feet ofanother is an act of great humility. Turbans are also markers of group membership.From the voluminous white swathes worn by Ahir farmers in Gujarat to the intricatefolds donned by Muslim dandies, turbans speak to age, caste, religion and ethnicity.Component Parts of DressArguably the most traditional Indian dress consists of different lengths of cloth wrappedaround the body. From the earliest date Indian men’s dress consisted of a clothwrapped around the lower part of the body, another around the upper, and a belt orcummerbund. Women’s dress involved a cloth wrapped around the lower part of thebody with a second worn around the upper body. The names of these basic types varyaccording to region, time period, style or draping, embellishment, and whether men orwomen wore them.The lower part of men’s bodies have traditionally been covered by what is referred to inSanskrit as the antariya, a length of fabric which, depending upon its size and how itwas draped, could form a loin cloth or nīvi, the skirt-like lungi or billowing trouser-likedhoti. The upper part of their bodies was covered by the uttariya, cloths subsequentlyreferred to as a dupatta or chaddar depending on the size. Dhoti today are generallymade of cloth 2.2–5.5 yards (2–5 meters) in length and are worn with a kurta or shirt.Women’s early dress was similar to men’s and consisted of a cloth worn around thelower part of the body, sometimes as minimal as a loincloth, other times more like adhoti or skirt. A second cloth, also called uttariya for women, covered the upper part ofthe body to form the sari.Although stitched garments were known earlier, the first centuries of the Christian erasaw the introduction of new tailored garments. In both north and south India, fromapproximately 200 BCE tunics began to be worn as well as trousers, jackets, coats, andboots. The Kushans, for example, hailed from Central Asia and ruled over areas fromTajikistan to Pakistan and across northern India. They introduced a tunic called achugha, which had a center-front opening and was embellished with borders down thefront and along the hem.Initially worn by servants and soldiers, these became increasingly elaborate as thenobility adopted them. During the Gupta period, choli (fitted blouses), gaghra (gatheredskirts), angarkha (a tunic with an opening), and quaba or jama (calf-length coats) wereworn. The Mughals refined and elaborated these garments, introducing new variationsbased on length, cut, opening, and embellishment.

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Camel trader wearing a dhoti at the Pushkar Camel Market in Pushkar, Rajasthan, India.(Mlenny Photography/iStockphoto.com)


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Contemporary Indians continue to wear stitched and unstitched garments modifiedthrough interaction with Western culture and re-envisioned historic dress. Women’sdress consists of the sari worn with a petticoat and blouse, salwar kameez, skirts,blouses, pants, and dresses. Men’s dress, similarly, consists of dhoti or lungi worn witha kurta, as well as a variety of traditional jackets and tunics (e.g., anghurka), trousers,and suit jackets.Jewelry, Body Paint, and Body ModificationsJewelry is widely and prolifically worn by men and women across India. It speaks towealth as well as class, religious belief, life cycle, and ethnic identity. Dar has pointed tothe importance of binding parts of the body in order to both control and containmalignant forces. Women’s hair, for example, is most often worn in plaits as loose hairis associated with wantonness. Similarly, women’s extremities are often encircled or“bound” with bracelets, arm bands, necklaces, belts, and ankle bracelets while theirears, noses, and other body parts are embellished with metal, plastic, or otherornaments. Specific ornaments are associated with different ethnic groups, occupations,or regions. Muslim and Hindu women living in Banni, a geographical region in northernKachchh, for example, wear chura, sets of plastic bangles on their forearms and upperarms. Traditionally these would have been carved out of ivory and speak to Kachchh’smaritime trade with East Africa. Worn in sets of 12, chura are graded in size to fitsnugly and are not removed until the woman’s husband dies. In rural communities,people most often wear silver jewelry. Gold is preferred, for those rural dwellers whocan afford it, and in urban contexts. Jewelry marks ethnic identity and life cycle stage.Considered a requisite of marriage negotiations, prescribed pieces of jewelry are givento the bride from the groom’s family as well as her own. For the Mutwa the groom’sgifts should include jir (ankle bracelet), varna (ring), and varlo (heavy silver necklace)among other items, which, when worn, speak to the bride’s married state andlegitimized sexuality. For Hindu women, there are five traditional markers of marriage:bangles, a nose ornament, toe rings, sindoor (vermilion color applied to the front oftheir hair part), and most importantly, the mangalsutra (a necklace of black and goldbeads). The bindi is a small dot worn in the middle of a woman’s forehead just abovethe eyebrows. Although once associated with Hindu marriage, it is commonly worn bywomen across India and broadly associated with beauty. Kumkum are marks made withpowdered turmeric by devotees visiting a temple or offered to female guests

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as a sign of respect or blessing. Larger markings are referred to as tika or tilak andworn by Hindu devotees.Men in India also wear jewelry although in less quantity than women. Unlike theirMuslim brothers who avoid gold, Hindu men wear gold necklaces, rings, andoccasionally bracelets. Wristwatches are worn extensively by men and often demanded


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as part of marriage negotiations. Men, women, and children also occasionally wearsmall protective amulets around their upper arms or necks. The men of certaincommunities wear distinctive earrings. Rajput men of Rajasthan, for example, weardiamond studs while Rabari men of Kachchh wear ghokh or toliya.Tattooing is widespread among adivasi and rural communities in India. Naga tribalwomen of Manipur, a state in northeastern India, wear elaborate tattoos that indicategroup membership, offer protection, and generally speak to their strength. The Kanbiand Kharek women living in peninsular Kathiawar, Gujarat, tattoo their arms and hands.Muslims generally do not wear tattoos. Both Muslim and Hindu women paint theirhands, lower arms, and feet with henna prior to special occasions. Prior to the wedding,urban brides are painted with particularly intricate geometric or floral designs. Ruralbrides paint the whole palms and soles of the feet with henna.Makeup is widely worn in India. Even in the most isolated villages young women wearnail polish, lipstick, and kajal (eyeliner) on special occasions. Men will also wear kajal onspecial occasions. Young children’s eyes are frequently smeared with it to ward off theevil eye and protect the eyes from the sun’s glare. Hindu bridal makeup can beelaborate with extravagant bindis and eyebrow tikas.Contemporary Use of Ethnic DressMany ethnic groups in India are reconsidering dress in the face of modernization andglobalization. Even in the most remote corners of India, new materials are beingincorporated, new ideas considered, and new meanings negotiated. Many communitiesare reevaluating their relationship with traditions and the past. For some embroidery isconsidered “backward,” while for others, the heavy financial burden of producing adowry of traditionally embellished garments is too much. Cultural tourism, however, inIndia as elsewhere is dependent upon the preservation of traditional culture, whichincludes dress. Members of different communities in Kachchh are not unaware of theeconomic value of their traditional dress and use it to their advantage. Similarly,traditional dress is implicated in the demonstration of sovereignty. Members of localcommunities, in Kachchh and beyond, periodically use traditional dress or elementsthereof to demonstrate historic presence and political legitimacy.Ethnic dress has had a profound influence on Indian fashion. Periodically it incorporateschunky silver jewelry, mirrored embroidery, and tie-dyed cloth. Indian

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films, too, borrow heavily from ethnic groups featuring vamps and other characters inmidriff-baring, tight-fitting embroidered cholis with swirling veils and jingling anklebracelets. Khadi, the simple hand-spun, handwoven cloth associated with Indianindependence, is still produced and used by nationalist-minded Indians. It is alsopopular among intellectual elites and is occasionally seen on Indian runways.Further Reading and ResourcesBayly, C. A. “The Origins of Swadeshi (Home Industry): Cloth and Indian Society.” In A.Appadurai, ed. The Social Life of Things. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986,pp. 285–321.Bean, S. S. “Gandhi and Khadi, the Fabric of Indian Independence.” In A. B. Weiner and


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J. Schneider, eds. Cloth and Human Experience. Washington: Smithsonian, 1989, pp.355–376.Bhandari, V. Costume, Textiles, and Jewellery of India: Traditions of Rajasthan. London:Mercury, 2005.Chandra, M. Costumes, Textiles, Cosmetics, and Coiffure in Ancient and MediaevalIndia. Delhi: Oriental Publishers, 1973.Chatterjee, P. “Colonialism, Nationalism, and Colonized Women: The Contest in India.”American Ethnologist 16 (1989): 622–633.Cohn, B. S. “Cloth, Clothes, and Colonialism: India in the Nineteenth Century.” In A. B.Weiner and J. Schneider, eds. Cloth and Human Experience. Washington: Smithsonian,1989, pp. 303–353.Dar, S. N. Costumes of India and Pakistan: A Historical and Cultural Study. Bombay: D.B. Taraporevala Sons, 1969.Forbes Watson, J. The Textile Manufactures and the Costumes of the People of India.London: Printed for the India Office, 1866.Goswamy, B. N. Indian Costumes in the Collection of the Calico Museum of Textiles.Ahmedabad: The Calico Museum of Textiles, 1993.Pandya, V. “Nose and Eyes for Identity: Accoutrements and Enumerations of EthnicityAmong the Jatha of Kachchh.” Journal of Material Culture, 7 (2002): 295–328.Tarlo, E. Clothing Matters: Dress and Identity in India. New Delhi: Viking, 1996.Watson, J. F. The Textile Manufactures and Costumes of the People of India. London:Printed for the India Office, 1866.

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Hardy, Michele A. "India." In Encyclopedia of National Dress: Traditional Clothingaround the World. Edited by Jill Condra. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2013.http://ebooks.abc-clio.com/reader.aspx?isbn=9780313376375&id=B3237C_2047.

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Indian Dress

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