Increasing opportunities for requesting in classrooms serving children with developmental...

Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Vol. 24, No. 5, 1994

Increasing Opportunities for Requesting in Classrooms Serving Children with Developmental Disabilities I

Jeff Sigafoos, 2 Michelle Kerr, Donna Roberts, and Donna Couzens Fred and Eleanor Schonell SPecial Education Research Centre The University of Queensland

Evaluated an intervention package for increasing requestbTg opportunities in special education classrooms. Five teachers, serving 26 children with moderate to severe disabilities, received in-service training, consultation, and feedback on the use of three strategies designed to create opportunities for requesting (i.e., missing item, interrupted chain, delayed assistance). Observations were conducted in a multiple-baseline across classrooms design to record the number and types of opportunities provided by each teacher. During baseline, few opportunities for requesting were observed. The number of opportunities for requesting and the number of correct student responses increased during intervention. Opportunities continued to be provided during generalization and follow-up sessions. The study demonstrated an effective strategy for helping teachers incorporate opportunities for functional communication into the natural environment.

The opportunity to request may enable children with developmental disabilities to access preferred objects and exert some degree of control over the environment (Guess, Sailor, & Baer, 1974). Requesting is more likely to be functional when it is generalized to and maintained in the natural environment (Warren, Rogers-Warren, Baer, & Guess, 1980). In addition,

1Preparation of this manuscript was supported in part by grant number NSRG-34-GOV 92 from The University of Queensland.

2Address all correspondence to Jeff Sigafoos, Fred and Eleanor SchoneU Special Education Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Queensland 4072, Australia.

631

0162-3~7/94/1000--0631507.00/0 ~ 1994 Plenum Publishing Corporation

632 SigafmJs, Kerr, Roberts, and Couzens

a request is more functional when it occurs under appropriate motivational conditions (i.e., spontaneously) instead of only when prompted by the teacher (Halle, 1987; Sosne, Handleman, & Harris, 1979). Problems have been described in the areas of generalization, maintenance, and spontaneity (Carr, 1982; Harris, 1975; Lovaas, Koegel, Simmons, & Long, 1973; Sprad- lin & Siegel, 1982; Stokes & Baer, 1977), but there is growing recognition that functional use of requesting skills may be enhanced when the natural environment is adopted as the context for instruction (Cipani, 1989; Halle, 1988).

When the natural environment is used for intervention, success may depend on the teacher's ability to provide opportunities for communication across a range of activities. However, our companion study (Sigafoos, Roberts, Kerr, Couzens, & Baglioni, 1994) revealed that special education teachers in seven classrooms for children with developmental disabilities provided relatively few opportunities for requesting. These results suggest the need to help teachers incorporate opportunities for requesting into existing classroom activities.

Hart and Risley (1975) described incidental teaching strategies that have been used to provide opportunities for communication in classrooms for children with special needs (Haring, Neetz, Lovinger, Peck, & Semmel, 1987). Variations of these techniques have been developed that focus more explicitly on creating opportunities for functional requesting. One variation is the missing-item format (Cipani, 1988). This involves with- holding a needed item until the child requests or approximates a request for it. During a leisure activity, for example, the child may find her preferred puzzle with some or all of its pieces missing. This arrangement creates an opportunity for the child to request the missing parts and an opportunity for the teacher to prompt the required request if it does not occur independently (Duker & Moonen, 1986; Sosne et al., 1975). The missing-item format can be an effective method for teaching requesting skills (Hall & Sundberg, 1987; Sigafoos, Doss, & Reichle, 1989; Tirapelle & Cipani, 1992).

Another procedure for teaching functional requesting skills in the natural environment is the interrupted-chain strategy (Goetz, Gee, & Sailor, 1985; Hunt, Goetz, Alwell, & Sailor, 1986). This involves interrupt- ing an activity. For example, a child about to walk outside to play may be momentarily interrupted at the door, thus creating an opportunity for the child to make a request (e.g., "out please"). If the child does not make the required request within some reasonable length of time (e.g., 10 sec), the teacher would prompt a correct request before allowing the activity to continue.

Opportunities for Requesting 633

Reichle, Anderson, and Schermer (1986) used delayed assistance to create opportunities for requesting. When a child is seen struggling to open his or her lunch box, for example, the teacher may approach, but wait to provide the needed assistance until the child requests "help" either independently or after prompting by the teacher. As with the other two strategies, delayed assistance seems a practical way to create opportunities for functional requesting.

Application of these strategies in the classroom may require direct intervention with teachers. This assumption is based in part on our pre- vious observations (Sigafoos et al., 1994) showing that the teachers who were to participate in the present study incorporated relatively few opportunities for requesting into existing instructional activities. Haring et al. (1987) showed that teachers can be taught to incorporate other types of incidental strategies (e.g., mand model, time delay) into existing classroom routines and Peck, Killen, and Baumgart (1989) used nondirective consultation to train teachers to implement communications related ob- jectives in the classroom. Nondirective consultation involved describing the strategies (i.e., in-service training) and then assisting teachers to generate ideas on how they could use those strategies. Possibly because it seeks to involve teachers in the training process and because it exploits the teacher's greater familiarity with the children and existing classroom routines, nondirective consultation may represent an effective and acceptable form of teacher-directed intervention.

The present study sought to evaluate a similar consultation process for increasing requesting opportunities in classrooms for children with developmental disabilities. After the three strategies for creating requesting opportunities were described, teachers were assisted to generate ways these strategies could be incorporated into existing classroom routines. Observa- tions were conducted to determine whether the consultation process increased the number of opportunities provided by the teachers.

METHOD

Settings and Participants

Five of the seven classrooms described by Sigafoos et al. (1994) participated in the present study (i.e., Classrooms 1, 3, 5, 6, and 7). The other two classrooms did not participate due to a change in teachers. These five classrooms were located in four different special schools serving children with developmental disabilities. Only Classrooms 6 and 7 were located in the same school. Classrooms were staffed by a special education teacher

634 Slgafoos, Kerr, Roberts, and Couzens

and one or two teaching assistants. Related therapy (i.e., occupational, physical, and speech) was provided two or three times per week. Instruction focused on teaching motor, self-care, language, and other functional skills. Instruction was delivered using group and individualized formats in classroom and community settings.

These five classrooms served 26 children between 3 and 15 years of age (M = 7 years) all of whom had moderate to severe disabilities according to American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) criteria (Grossman, 1983). Classroom 1 consisted of 5 boys (6--8 years of age) with autism. The diagnosis of autism was made by school staff based on DSM-III-R criteria (American Psychiatric Association, 1987). One of these boys also had a vision and hearing impairment. Classroom 3 also had 5 boys (11-15 years of age) with severe mental retardation. The children in Classrooms 5, 6, and 7 had multiple disabilities, that is, moderate to severe mental retardation in com- bination with physical or sensory impairments. For example, of the 3 boys and 4 girls in Classroom 5, who ranged from 7 to 10 years of age, 3 had cerebral palsy, 1 had Cornelia de Lange syndrome, and another had Rett syndrome. Classroom 6 had 3 boys and 2 girls (3-5 years old). One of these children had autism, 3 others had cerebral palsy. Classroom 7 included 3 boys and 1 girl (6-7 years old). One of these children had cerebral palsy and another had a visual and hearing impairment.

Most children (65%) were described as nonverbal, but some spoke a few single words (23%) or simple sentences (12%). Of the 17 nonverbal children, 11 (64%) had been taught to communicate a few basic needs (e.g., eat, drink, toilet) using manual signs, natural gestures, or symbols. The re- maining 6 children had no formal means of communication. Adaptive behaviors were documented by the teachers using the TARC Assessment Inventory for Severely Handicapped Children (Sailor & Mix, 1975). This device was standardized on 283 children with severe handicaps. It provides an overall standard score with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 20. TARC scores for the 26 children ranged from 12 to 64 with a mean of 37, indicating that, as a group, these 26 children scored almost 1 standard deviation below the mean when compared to other children with severe handicaps.

The five participating teachers were qualified special educators with 1 to 15 years of experience in classrooms for children with developmental disabilities. Each held either a Bachelor of Education or Diploma of Teach- ing. One teacher was completing a master's degree in special education. Prior to and during the baseline phase, the teachers were naive with respect to the specific purpose of the study, but all had earlier volunteered to participate in research investigating communication skills among children with severe disabilities.


Definition of Target Behaviors

Teachers were observed to determine the number of opportunities for requesting they provided using the missing-item, interrupted-chain, or delayed-assistance strategy. The missing-item format required the teacher to de- liberately withhold or hide an object that was needed for some activity. With this particular strategy, teachers were specifically instructed, during the consultation phase (see Procedures), to "give the child all but one of the items needed to complete or engage in some preferred activity. When that item is needed the learner is required to make a request. If a request does not occur within a reasonable amount of time (e.g., 10 sec), you should prompt a correct request. After the request occurs, give the child the missing item." For example, the teacher might give the child a bowl of ice cream while keeping the needed spoon hidden behind her back. Similarly, the child might be given a coloring book but not the needed crayons. To be counted as an opportunity for functional requesting, the teacher not only had to engineer the situation to create a missing item, but then had to wait at least 3 seconds before supplying the missing item, as if waiting for the child to make a request. It was not necessary for the child to actually make a request for an opportunity to be recorded, but the teacher did have to wait at least 3 seconds to give the child the opportunity to make such a request. Similar strategy-specific in- structions were given for the other two formats. Specifically, use of the interrupted-chain strategy was recorded if the teacher momentarily prevented or interrupted the child from engaging, continuing, or completing some activity. For example, the teacher might stop a child from walking outside to play by standing in the doorway or interrupt a child listening to music by turning off the radio. Such actions were only recorded as instances of using the interrupted-chain strategy, however, if the teacher then waited at least 3 seconds before allowing the activity to continue, thus giving the child an opportunity to make a functional request. Opportunities for functional requesting using delayed assistance were recorded when teachers approached a child who was clearly having difficulty completing a particular task and then waited at least 3 seconds before giving the child the needed assistance. For example, the child might be trying without success to open a candy bar wrapper or open the gate leading to the swimming pool.

When an opportunity using either the missing-item, interrupted-chain, or delayed-assistance strategy had been initiated, observations continued until the interaction ended (e.g., the child received the missing item or the teacher walked away). During this time, the child's response to the opportunity was recorded as either an independent or prompted request, or as a no response. An independent request was recorded if the child produced a form of communication that was accepted by the teacher as evidenced by her reinforcement

636 Sigafoos, Kerr, Roberts, and Couzens

of that response. For example, if the child produced a vocalization within 10 seconds of the teacher approaching, which resulted in the teacher supplying the needed assistance, that response would be recorded as an independent request. However, if the teacher provided some type of verbal, gestural, model, or physical prompt (e.g., demonstrating the manual sign for "help") after the required delay (i.e., 3 see), but before the child responded independently, then the child's request was recorded as having been prompted. Finally, if the interaction ended without the child making a request, either independently or with teacher prompting, a no response for that opportunity was recorded.

Observation Procedures

Observations were conducted in each classroom to record the number and type of opportunities for requesting that were provided by the teacher. In each classroom, 30-minute observation sessions were conducted from one to three times per week. These sessions were initially scheduled at the same time each day when the teachers followed a consistent and relatively structured routine as determined by prebaseline observations. Activities implemented during these times typically included recreation/leisure programs (e.g., swimming, playing with toys, painting), training in other adaptive do- mains (e.g., self-care or domestic skills), or instruction on some type of preacademic task (e.g., matching shapes or colors).

When an opportunity for requesting was initiated by the teacher during the session, observers recorded the type of opportunity provided (i.e., missing item, interrupted chain, or delayed assistance), the child to whom the opportunity was directed, and the child's response to the opportunity (i.e., independent, prompted, or no response). In addition, the actual clock time of each opportunity was recorded to facilitate the calculation of interobserver agreement. Observations were conducted by one of two research assistants. Each assistant had over 12 months experience with similar types of observations in special education settings. In addition, the observers were familiar with the definitions of target behaviors used in the present study.

Procedure

Baseline. For each baseline session, the observer entered the classroom, located the teacher, and conducted a 30-minute observation as described above. On some occasions, observation sessions were slightly less than 30 minutes owing to early completion of the scheduled activity. During baseline, teachers were informed that the observations focused on docu- menting the existing communication skills among the children.


Consultation. Between the last baseline session and first intervention session, teachers participated in a 60-minute individual consultation process. First, teachers were informed that the baseline observations had revealed low rates of spontaneous requesting among the children. Next the teachers were given a one-page description (available from J.S.) of the missing-item, interrupted-chain, and delayed-assistance strategies. After the teachers had read these descriptions, the consultant (first author) ver- bally explained each strategy. Finally, the teachers were asked to generate ways these strategies could be used with each child during existing classroom routines. The consultant sometimes had to facilitate this discussion (e.g., "How might the missing-item format be used with Jane?" or "Do you think the interruption strategy could be used during swimming?"), but in most cases teachers needed little prompting to generate ideas for using each of the three strategies.

Intervention. Observations during intervention were identical to baseline sessions. Five minutes before each session, however, the observer and teacher reviewed the written descriptions of the three strategies and the accompanying list of ideas for using these strategies that had been gener- ated during the consultation process. Using these ideas and strategy de- scr ipt ions as a guide, the teacher was asked to provide as many opportunities for requesting as possible during the upcoming 30-minute session. After each session, the observer provided feedback to the teacher on the number and types of opportunities she had actually provided during the preceding 30 minutes. Additional ways to use the missing-item, interrupted-chain, or delayed-assistance strategies were then discussed and the teacher was thanked for her cooperation.

Generalization and Follow-Up. Observations during generalization and follow-up were identical to baseline, except that these observations were conducted at times of the school day that had not been observed before. Observation times were selected that involved activities different from those typically implemented when baseline and intervention observations were conducted. Generalization and follow-up observations in Classroom 1 oc- curred at times when children were scheduled for leisure training (puzzles, clay, books, or paint) cooking, sensory stimulation, and speech therapy. Classroom 3 was observed during classroom and outdoor games, computer- based learning, and snack routines. Leisure (e.g., painting, music), preaca- demics (matching shapes and colors), and snack routines were observed in Classroom 5 and similar leisure and snack activities were observed in Class- room 7. Finally, in Classroom 6, the activities observed during generalization and fol low-up included snack t imes, self -care training, and preacademic instruction. In all classrooms, follow-up observations were conducted at monthly intervals from the last generalization session.


Teacher Questionnaire

At the last follow-up session, teachers anonymously completed a questionnaire concerning the project. The 8-item questionnaire asked teachers to rate the usefulness and value of the strategies and consultation process (e.g., How useful did you find the missing-item format for creating opportunities for your students to request?, How valuable to you was the consultation session for generating new ways to create opportunities for requesting in the classroom?). Four-point rating scales were used (e.g., very valuable to no value, very useful to no use) for all but the last item which asked for any further comments concerning the project.

Experimental Design

A multiple-probe design (Homer & Baer, 1978) was used to evaluate the effects of the consultation/intervention package on the number of opportunities provided for requesting across Classrooms 1 and 3. This design was selected because it was difficult to collect baseline data on a more frequent basis in Classroom 3. A separate multiple-baseline design was used across Classrooms 5, 6, and 7 because data collection began approximately 1 month later in these three settings. Intervention began at the same time in Classrooms 6 and 7 because these classrooms were located in the same school, thus making it difficult to ensure complete independence of the two teachers. Because of these constraints, the integrity of the design was compromised, and so the data should be interpreted with caution.

Interobserver Agreement

An independent observer collected agreement data on the occurrence of target behaviors during all phases of the study, except in Classroom 6 where agreement data could not be collected during the generalization phase because the independent observer was unavailable. Agreement data were collected on an average of 40% of the sessions in each classroom (range = 25 to 100%). An agreement was counted only when the two observers had recorded the same type of opportunity at the same clock time (to the nearest minute). Observers also had to agree on the child to whom the opportunity was directed and the child's response to that opportunity before an agreement was recorded. Any discrepancy between the two observers on one or more of these details (i.e., type, time, child, response) was counted as a disagreement. Observers were positioned so they could


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not read each other's data. This helped ensure independence if an observer reacted to the other marking her data sheet. A percentage of agreement was calculated at the end of each observation session using the formula: Agreements/(Agreements + Disagreements) x 100%. Percentages of agreement ranged from 83 to 100% with a mean of 96%.

RESULTS

Figures 1 and 2 show the rate at which teachers provided opportunities for requesting across sessions. During baseline, only two opportunities for requesting were observed. Both of these were implemented by the teacher in Classroom 1 and involved the delayed-assistance strategy. After the consultation session and with the introduction of intervention, the number of opportunities for requesting increased to varying degrees in each classroom. Opportunities continued to be provided during generalization and follow-up sessions.

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Table I shows the percentage of opportunities provided with each strategy. For example, of the 180 total opportunities observed in Classroom 1, 40 (22.22%) involved the missing-item format. All three strategies were used in each classroom. To illustrate how the missing-item format was used, the teacher in Classroom 1 provided children with paper and paint, but withheld the needed brush. This created an opportunity for one child to request the missing item after prompting by imitating the phrase "I need a paint brush." and another to do so by making the sign for brush. Teachers used interruption

Opportunities for Requesting

Table I. Percentage of Total Opportunities Provided Using Each Strategy

Strategy

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Classroom Total n Missing-item Interrupted chain Delayed assistance

1 180 22.22 32.22 45.55 3 149 17.44 24.16 58.38 5 128 22.65 11.71 65.62 6 72 58.33 20.83 20.83 7 39 38.46 15.38 46.15

in several ways, including standing in the doorway to prevent a child from going outdoors until a request appeared (e.g., the student motioned for the teacher to move with a natural gesture). Teachers often used the delayed- assistance strategy by approaching but not helping a child having trouble with a jigsaw puzzle or some other task. Correct requests were observed on several such occasions (e.g., the student independently signed "help").

The number of opportunities provided to individual children ranged from 2 to 67 with a mean of 20 opportunities per child. After baseline, every opportunity ended with the child either making an independent (correct) request or being prompted to request. The ratio of correct to prompted requests varied across classrooms, sessions, and children, but Figures 3 and 4 show that both types of requests increased from baseline to follow-up.

Teachers rated the consultation process as "very valuable," "valuable," or of "some value." The three strategies were rated "very useful," "useful," or of "some use." Teachers indicated that most children showed some im- provement as a result of using each strategy, One teacher commented that the project was "extremely useful," while another said the strategy descriptions were "clear" and "useful." The only other teacher to supply a written comment said that effectiveness depended on the student and task.

DISCUSSION

The present study evaluated the effects of a consultation/intervention package on the number of opportunities for requesting provided by teachers of children with developmental disabilities. Introduction of the package was associated with an increase in the number of opportunities provided. Oppor- tunities were provided in a number of activities and continued when intervention ended. Missing-item, interrupted-chain, and delayed-assistance strategies appeared relatively easy for teachers to use across a variety of activities. The overall increase in the number of correct requests from baseline suggests that the intervention package was of benefit to the students.


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Fig. 3. Cumulative number of correct and prompted student requests in Classrooms 1 and 3.

Past research demonstrated that teachers can be taught to incorporate opportunities for communication into existing classroom routines using similar training packages (Haring et al., 1987; Peck et al., 1989). Our study ex- tends this research by demonstrating the effectiveness of a nondirective consultation process and intervention package for training teachers to use strategies that focused more explicitly on creating opportunities for functional requesting in the natural environment.

However, the generalization and follow-up data should be interpreted with caution because these data were collected on activities and at times that differed somewhat from those observed during baseline and intervention. It is therefore possible that teachers provided opportunities in these different circumstances prior to intervention. However, prebaseline observations from the companion study (Sigafoos et al., 1994) revealed that these teachers provided relatively few opportunities for requesting and were never observed to use the missing-item, interruption, or delayed-assistance strategy over 5-10 days of naturalistic observations that covered a range


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of times and activities. Nonetheless, these differences make it difficult to draw firm conclusions about the effects of intervention during generalization and follow-up. These differences also mean that the follow-up sessions do not provide a good measure of maintenance. In addition, the follow-up data should be viewed with caution because of the trend towards fewer opportunities in three of the five classrooms. Despite these trends, however, none of the data points collected during this phase (or during intervention and generalization for that matter) show any overlap with baseline. Future research should include better measures of generalization and maintenance and evaluate the need for each component of the intervention package.

644 Sigafims, Kerr, Roberts, and Cnuzens

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