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60
CHAPTER - III
REFERENCE TO VARIOUS ASPECTS OF APSARA IMAGERY FROM SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT SOURCES
111.1.1 - GODDESSES IN VEDIC LITERATURE
1.2 - APSARA IN VEDIC LITERATURE
1.3 - GANDHARVAS AND APSARAS
1.4 - RISE OF INDIVIDUAL APSARAS INVEDIC, EPIC AND PURANIC LITERATURE
1.5 - EMERGENCE OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT APSARAS : THEIRCHARACTERISTICS AND INTERPRETATION
1.6 - APSARA - DISAKUMARI INTERRELATIONSHIP
111.2.1 - THE CONCEPT OF THE FEMININE BEAUTY
2.2 - SIMILIES ON DANCE IN LITERATURE
2.3 - VARIETIES OF DANCES IN LITERATURE
111.3.1 - PRATIHARIS, FEMALE ATTENDANTS, KANCHUKINS ANDDANCING GIRLS FROM EPIGRAPHY AND LITERATURE.
III.4.0 - ARCHITECTURAL TEXTS ON APSARA/SALABHANJIKA/NAYIKA/ DEVANGANA PLACEMENT AND OTHER DANCE REFERENCES.
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311.1.1 GODDESSES IN VEPIC LITERATURE s
Conceptually speaking the feminine principles of nourishment,
plenty, fertility etc. are symbolised under different names in the Vedas
which do not grow further, e.g. the concepts of Puramdhi (plenty and
activity), Dhisana (abundance), Ila (nourishment), brhaddiva (mother), are1 Rgveda
all mentioned more than once in the Rgveda j also mentions Raka.a rich
and bountiful goddess along with Saraisvati and 11a, Sinivali is refered
to as a sister of the gods, broad hipped, fair armed, fair fingered,
prolific, a mistress of the family, and is implored to grant off-spring.
In the AV (8, 46^) Sinivali is c-tlled the wife of Visnu. The later
Samhitas and the Brahmanas also mention a goddess Kuhu, a
personification of the new moon. Raka and Sinivali are in later Vedic
texts connected with phases of the moon, the former being the presiding
deity of the actual night of full moon, and the latter of the first day
2of the fortnight of new moon. It is significant to note that these
goddesses exist individually and not as consorts of any male deity. This
emphasizes their power and individual significance addressed in feminine
gender and imagery which to certain extent is anthropomorphic.
There is no further reference to these goddesses coming into their
own, but as often observed and agreed upon by scholars, the highly
developed concepts of Urna, Parvati, Durga, Lakshmi etc,, have some
connection witk Vedic fertility goddesses such as Sarasvati, Puramdhi,
Aditi etc. It is only in the final stage of the development of religious
imagination that the divinity is conceived as 'All Mother1 - an abstract
3conception .
62
In my view the higher concepts of Durga, Lakahmi, etc. developed
by the amalgamation of the attributes of the above mentioned Vedic
.goddesses, but the concept of the power of the female to procreate,
regenerate and sustain 'life'-in short eroticism, fertility and fecundity,
were never obliterated from the memory of the mankind. This yearning
to create beautiful imageries of female divinities to reassure, fulfil the
desire and invoke love.} found imagery in apsaras and gandharvas. Since
the concepts of Shakti, Durga and Lakshmi became esoteric and sacred,
beyond the grasp of the common man, the minor female divinities
representing the sphere of the profane were conceived to fu Ilfil similar
functions. The imagery of the apsaras is not only effusive, illusive,
alluring but certainly fulfilling, sustaining and entertaining. As concepts,
these goddesses, apsaras, yaksis etc. emerge out of the attitude of
veneration for nature worship, in which earth, sky, water, vegetation,
sun, moon, air are all inter- related phenomena. Hence their attributes
and functions are not only connected but transferable and therefore
mutative. Hence the concepts of Vedic goddesses, apsaras and yaksi are
not diametrically opposite imageries but deeply interconnected.
The concepts of Vedic goddesses and apsaras develop in Vedic
literature but do not find a visual representation, while the principle
of yaksi through its absorption in Buddhist art acquiree a visual imagery
which when compared with the apsaras and other goddesses seems to
be analogous. Would it be too farflunged to observe the traces of
Puramdhi in the Bharat Kala Bhavan yaksi (Fig.), Ila in the yaksis from(2’}
Mathura and Sanghol (Fig.), squeezing their breasts, a motif which
continues later at Jagat and Rani ki Vav temples or Brhaddhiva in
putravallabha? The representation of the yaksis from Didarganj and
63
San chi, relate well with the discription of the goddess Sinivali from
Rgveda.
All these goddesses share common attributes which are no doubt there
in the higher goddesses as well. But the sheer continuation of the
generic female divinities' concept, imagery and visual representation,
from kushana periodj hints at its secular impact and demand. The visual
imagery has distinct gestures, postures and attributes which connect
various forms of different periods.
Even the concept of 'Vac', Speech,, conceived in feminine gender and
form> accompanied all the gods, supports Mitra-Varuna, Indra-Agni,
Asvins and bending the bow of Rudra against the unbeliever in the
Rgveda. She has a place in the waters and sea, besides encompasses
all beings. In the Brahmanas she is refered in the legend of Soma,
purchased from the gandharvas by the devas with the help of a woman,
'Vac', the goddess tempts the gandharvas, makes them surrender the
Soma and return to the devas. 'Vac' is equated with thunder and the
development of the human speech.^
Stella Kramrisch identified the sculptures of surasundari - vyala
juxtaposed on the temple architecture as symbols personifying Vac as£
'prakriti', activating the dormant 'purusha1. This 'Vac' is also
connected with Sarasvati in the Brahmanas (SB 3,9,1, A.B 3, 1 ) and
in the post - Vedic mythology Sarasvati becomes the goddess of
eloquence, wisdom, invoked as a muse and regarded as the wife of
Brahma. ^
Exploring the nature worship as a germinal phenomenon in the
development of the apsara— devangana imagery, the waters and rivers
64
also play a significant part. The waters are personified as mothers,
young wives, and goddesses who bestow boons and come to the sacrifice.
They are celestial, as well as flowing in channels, and have the sea
for their goal (7, 492). It is implied that they abide where the gods
are and the seat of Mitra and Varuna is (10, 30). King Varuna moves
3in their midst, looking down on the truth and falsehood of men (7, 49 )
Here the rain water is meant. Agni is dwelling in the waters and as
6 1mothers they produce Agni (10, 91 , AV 1, 33 ). The waters cleanse and purify guilt<ww^'sins} and heal^ bestow*^ wealth, strength and
immortality. Atharva veda refers to the installation of
gPurnakumbhanaris (AV 3.12.8) . Number of rivers like Sarasvati, Sarayu,
Sindhu, Ganga, Yamuna, Sutudri, Parusni. are mantioned in the Veda out
of which Sarasvati is much celebrated than any other i-iver. She
performs the attributes of waters mentioned above. Over and above^
17she bestows vitality, off-spring (2, 41 ) and is associated with deities
2who assist procreation (10, 184 ), She is bountiful, and in her terrible
3 7form she is a Vrtra slayer. (6, 61 ‘ ) This shows that the concepts
of water are also closely linked with fertility and eroticism, while the
upholding of ethical values and purification are also suggested. The
connection between nadi devatas, apsaras and later
indicated here. Sarasvati - has a male correlative, Sarasvat, who
is invoked by worshippers desiring wives and off-spring, protection
Arid plenty. Here the male fertilizing water, semen is implied. Roth
regards him as a guardian of the celestial waters who bestows fertility,Q
while Hillebrandt identified Sarasvat with Ap^.m Napat = Soma, the moon .
Soma is connected with waters and the moon for its quality to
swell (apya). In Rgveda (1, 91^ ®), 10, 85^) it is identified with the
devanganas is ^
65
moon. It swells like a river or sea and is connected with waxing and
wanning of the moon. Soma produces waters and causes heaven and earth
3 41 21to ram (9, 96 i Soma is the embryo of the waters (9, 97 , SB 4,4,5 )
or their child, for seven sisters as mothers are around the child,
36gandharva of the waters (9, 86 ) and waters are his mothers.
3Soma is also called a bull (9, 7 ). Being a bull among cow waters,
8 39Soma is the fertilizer of the waters (10, 36 ). He is also (9, 86 )
an , impregnator (Retodha), an epithet applied to the moon in thea in 4
Yajurveda (eg. MS 1, 6 ) Hence he is a bestower of fertility (9, 60 ,
574 ). By drinking Soma, gods became immortal. Soma stimulates the voice
4 5and the speech. He is referred to as 'Vacaspati' (9, 26 , 101 ). Soma
is also called the lord of the plants (9, 114, 2) and receives the
6 7epithet 1 vanaspati1 lord of the word (1, 91 , 9, 12 ).
Soma is referred to as moon in Rgveda (1st & 10th mandala)
3 4 7 1Atharvaveda (7, 81 ’ , 116 etc.) Chandogya Upanisad (5, 10 ) and even
the Brahmanas identify Soma with moon. There la "fleeter in moon, when
gods feed on thus the moon wan^es away. Soma is celestial and bright
dispelling darkness and swelling in the waters and it is often called
21a drop, Indu (6, 44 ). Thus Soma in the bowls la said to appear like
8 11the moon in the water (8, 71 )
Therefore,, Soma in water implies the male-female concept commonly
shared by apsara-gandharva, apsara - soma (drink), apsara-moon, apsara
shala (tree & vegetation in general), a feature explicitly depicted by
the ever-auspicious mithuna pairs. In my view the element of suggestion
(dhvani) of male-female principle is very subtly implied in this pairing,
which is poetically expressed. Further exploration of it in devangana,
66
imageries of kesanistoyakanni, salabhanjika, madhupana, prasadhika
holding mirror or a bowl, is worth while.
Thus recapitulating the concept of goddesses personified as nature■m
spirits namely Raka, Pura dhi, Sinivali, Ila, not only lead to the
concepts of Aditi (which is more abstract and generalised than the
former) Sri Lakshmi, Durga, Uma-Parvati etc. on one hand and apsara,
yaksi, surasundari, devangana etc. on the other. This process is
perennial and continues in temple architecture where it obtains a concrete
form from the literary imagery. (In a sense they are alankarika, not
only decorate the temple but enrich the literary flourish with poetic
imagination). It is very essential to visualize the cognate nature of Vedic
goddesses, apsaras, yaksis, river goddesses and later day devanganas.
The representation of Sri in early Indian art shares with our
feminine forms the visual semblance in depiction of its postures and
attributes e.g., salabhanjika posture, lotus, vessel, elephant, rich foliage
etc. and conceptual function - bestowing of prosperity, abundance,
progeny, good fortune and so on. The worship of Sri as a popular
goddess in pre-Buddhist times, like the Yaksa cult, and the yaksi was
the model for the representation of her form. Sri was associated with
12the northern quarter and Srimati or Srima with the southern one
In Srisukta, Sri is referred to as seated on a lotus, holding
lotuses and being bathed by elephants holding water jars. The early
sculptures at Barhut , San chi, Bodhagaya, Udayagiri and other places
conform to this description. The Vedic concept of Sri as the 'lady
bountiful', bestower of garments, food and drink, is closely related to
the Vedic concept of Aditi, the lady of Visnu, the Vedic predecessor
67
of the epic Bhudevi. Early sculptures contain suggestions of these
concepts also. Thus the lady pressing her breast in the Lucknow Museum
(which I prefer to call as svastanasparsa) and the lady carrying food
and water, represented at both Mathura and Amaravati, are sculptural
echoes of Yajurveda passages describing her as rich in milk, the
goddess... the lady of Visnu11 and “Sri that brings garments, cows, food
and drink" Her associations with lotus and her bounty in the bestowal
of food and drink are brought together^ as Coomaraswamy has pointed
out, in a sculpture from Sanchi, which is the link between the yaksi
type from Mathura and Amaravati and the lotus inhabiting lady.
Everything good and auspicious is believed to be the abode of Sri who
is Mangala. Thus a good house, gateway, flowers, banners, parasole,
seats, beds, gems, charming married women with their living husbands,
different fruits, grains, seeds, vessels, new clothes, cow, horse,
elephant and host of other objects are the abode of Sri.
Different concepts of Lakshmi such as Dhanalakshmi (goddess of
wealth), Dhanya Lakshmi, (goddess of corns), Bhagyalakshmi (goddess
of prosperity), Bhogalakshmi (goddess of pleasures), Rajyalakshmi
(goddess of royalty) Viralakshmi (goddess of valour) are all suggestive
of the presence of Sri in various auspicious things.
311.1.2 APSARA IN VEDIG LITERATURE :
The present attempt is directed towards compiling the available
references from Vedic texts regarding apsara and her nature. In order
to understand her origin and characteristics, one has to observe that
the nature and associations of an apsara have been changing from Rgveda
to Atharva Veda and to later Vedic literature. This indirectly is the
68
iconology of an apsara motif in Vedic literature. It is more imaginary
because the whole concept is ambivalent. The nature of apsara as an
aqueous nymph, also associated with trees, fertility and engaging in
dance, song and play, prompts one to connect themjas the predecessors,
of the devanganas shown in sculpture on the temple architecture. Hence
the present chapter is intended at bringing together all the varied
references and interpretations on apsaras, to pose them against the
devangana concept in order to try and see how both these concepts work
as complementary and interfacing alongwith each other.
Apsara denoted a kind of nymph, who is refered to only five times
in Rgveda as collated by Macdonell. She nmilos at her beloved
gandharva in the highest heaven (RV 10, 123 )» Apsarases of the sea
are described as flowing to Soma (RV 9, 78^) with reference to the water
which is mixed with the juice. The long haired ascetic with semidivine
powers, is spoken of as able to move on the path of the apsarases and the gandharvas (RV 10, 136^). The Apsaras is also meant by the aqueous
nymph (apya yosa), the wife of the gandharvas In the waters (RV 10, 103 4).
More light on apsaras is thrown by Atharva Veda as further
explored by Macdonell. Their abode is in waters, whence they come
3and go in a trice (AV. 2, 2 ). They are besought to depart from the
3vicinity of men to the river and the bank of the waters (AV. 4, 37 ).
The Goddesses connected with gandharva Visva Vasu are described on
connected with clouds, lightening and stars. (AV. 2, 2 ). They are also
known as wives of the gandharvas (AV. 2, 25) and their connection with
the latter has assumed the character of a formula in the later Samhitas
69
a 4(VS. 30,8, AV. 8,9 ). In the Satapatha Brahmana (11,5,1 ) the apsarases
are described as transforming themselves into a kind of aquatic birdQ
(atyah ; RV. 9,5 ). In the post Vedic literature they are very often
spoken of as frequenting forest lakes and rivers, especially the Gangas,
and they are found in Varuna's palace in the ocean. The etymological
meaning of the word is most probably 'moving in the waters', (according
to Yaska's Nirukta, 5, 13 by ap-sarini).
From the early Vedic literature it can be seen that the oldest
conception of the apsaras is a celestial water numph, and a consort of
a 'genius' named gandharva. In later Samhitas the sphere of the
apsarases extends to "the earth and in particular to trees. They are
spoken of as inhabiting banyans (nyagrodha) and sacred fig - trees4(asvattha), in which their cymbals and lutes resound (AV. 4,37 ).
Elsewhere, the same trees as well as other varieties of the fig tree
(udumbara and plaksa), are said to be the houses of gandharvas and
4apsara es (TS. 3,4,8 ). The gandharvas and apsarases in such trees are
7entreated to be propitious to a passing wedding procession (AV. 14,2 ).
In the S'B (II, 6, I) the apsarases are described as engaged in dance,
song and play. Post Vedic texts even speak of mountains, both mythical
and actual, as favourite resorts of these two claJ*es of beings. The
Atharva Veda adds the traits that the apsarases are fond of dice andc
bestow luck at play. (AV. 2,2 ) Bub they are feared especially as
causing mental derangement, magic therefore being employed against them (AV. 2, 35 etc.).
f
The love of the apsarases, who are of the great beauty (S'B
13,4,3) is employed not only by the gandharvas but occasionally even
9by men (op 10, 95 ). A myth turning on such a union is related to at
70
least one individual apsaras in Vedic literature. The names of several
other apsarases are also mentioned. Gandharva and the aqueous nymph,
4are alluded to as the parents of Yama and Yami. (SB 10, 10 ). They
3 12dwell in waters (AV 2,2 , 4, 37 ). The union of gandharva with the
water nymph is typical of marriage. He is therefore connected with the
wedding ceremony, and the unmarried maiden is said to belong to Soma
40-1and Agni (10, 85 ). The gandharva Visvavasu, in the first days of
22wedlock, is regarded as a rival of the husband (ibid ), and the
3gandharva's love of women is prominent in later texts (HS. 3, 7 ). The
gandharvas and apsarases thus preside . over fertility and are prayed
2to by those who desire offspring (PB. 19,1 3 ).
Originally, gandharva is a bright celestial being, some times
thought of as dwelling in the waters with his spouse the apsaras.
Various conjectures have, however, been made by different scholars.
Some regard the gandharvas as wind spirits, representing the rainbow,
or a genius of the moon, Soma, the rising sun or a cloud spirit^
Yama lives in the other world delighting himself in the company
of the apsarases (nymphs) who are connected with Soma (AV. 4, 34,
3). Thus apsaras adorn the court of Yama and Varuna before gitting
associated with Indrasabha.
Mut311.1.3 GANDHARVAS « APSARASES
In the Rgveda the word gandharva occurs 20 times, but only thrice
in the plural, from which it is fair to deduce that the nature of the
'spirit' was originally conceived as one. He is the hi^gb being of the
air MV the sky, a measurer of space who stands erect on the vault of
heaven. He is brought into relation with the sun, the sun-bird, the
71
sun-steed and Soma, likened to the sun. He is also connected with the
rainbow in a late hymn. He is especially connected with Soma, whosei
place he guards, standing on the vault of heaven. Gandharva is also
connected with waters, Soma in the waters is said to be the gandharva
of the waters : gandharva is the lover, of the apsaras. The gandharva
is further found in the marriage ceremony : the bride is claimed by
him, and he is in the beginning of the marriage a rival of the husband.
Gandharva has a fragrant garment and is wind haired.
Keith observes that in the later Samhitas the account of the
gandharva is fuller, but not essentially different. They now form a class
of ^gmigods, their abode is in heaven, they are mentioned with sun
deities as Agni, Sun, Moon, wind and in the post-Vedic literature the
Fata Morgana are connected with the gandharvas. Gandharvas kept Somal
for the Gods, but allowing it to be stolen, were punished by exclusion
from drinking it. Gods got the Soma stolen from the gandharvas through
Vac who in female form allured the gandharvas. In Atharvaveda,
gandharva knowns plants, doubtless the Sojna, and that the odour of
the earth arises to him, probably an idea due to folk etymology, with
gandha, odour.
In the Brahmanas, texts and rituals, the connection between the
apsaras and the gandharvas is especially close ! the gandharva Urnayu
sits among the apsarases who swing themselves, and is beloved by them.
(PB, 12, 11, 10). In a rite, the priest can point to the young men and
young maidens present, when he means to indicate the gandharvas and
apsarases. (SB, 13, 4.3, 7.8). They are besought to bestow progeny
(PB, 19, 3.2, SGS i. 19,2) and in the Buddhist texts^ the being, which
by the law of transmigrationj enters the womb at the time of conception,
is called a gandhabba.
72
For the nights immediately after the marriage, when the newly-
wedded couple are not allowed to consummate the marriage, a staff who
represents the Gandharva Visvavasu, is placed between them and not
until he is formally dismissed to the ' highest region, is the marriage
completed. (RV. 16, 85.22). A different and lower view of the gandharva
is also found in the Atharvaveda, where the plant, goat's horn, is used
to drive off the gandharva, who are regarded as shaggy with half animal
forms, and are said to seek to ruin women in the guis of an ape, a dog,
a hairy child or a fiend.
In a Buddhist text, Samyutta Nikaya, Pisacas replace Gandharvas
in conjunction with the apsarases can be developed from the
Gandharvas of the Rgveda. Gandharvas association with marriage leads
to a secondary connection with the embryo. According to Keith,
Gandharva therefore is not in the secondary period of the Vedic religion
any longer a single concept : he is compounded of different and in
essence disparate ideas. To Kuhn he is a cloud spirit, to Wallis the
rising sun, to Bergaigne Soma, to Hopkins a genius of the moon, and
to Roth the rainbow. To certain scholars like Manahardl EH. Meyer and
von Schroeder, he is a wind spirit developed out of the conception of
the spirits of the dead as riding in the wind and passing therefore into
wind spirits.
The gandharva in his origin is a spirit of the heaven and is also
associated with waters of the sky and the earth due to their association
with the apsarases.
The long haired Muni or ascetic with magic powers, moves on the
path of the gandharva and the apsarases. (RV 10, 136.6).
73
In the Atharvaveda and the Yajurveda the connection of the
Apsarases with the waters is frequently expressed 5 they abide in the
waters, they are often asked to depart from men to the river and the
bank of the waters, possibly a hint at the dangerous quality of the
nymphs.
In the Satapatha Brahmanas apsarases appear as swimming about
in a lake in the form of birds, ati, and the later literature often treats
them as water spirits, in forest lakes, in rivers, even in Varuna's
palace in the ocean. They have a further field of activity, they dwell
in the banyan and the fig - tree, according to Atharvaveda (4. 37.4),
where their cymbals and their lutes resound, The gandharva and
apsarases in these trees are begged to be propitious to a passing
wedding party (AV. 14, 2.9) (TS 3. 4.8.4). They are also said to be
engaged in dance and song and play, but the Atharvaveda mentions some
sinister characteristics : if they are fond of dice, and bestow good luck
in gambling, they are also liable to cause madness, and magic has to
be employed against them in this regard. In the post Vedic literature
besides trees, even mountains are their places of habitation. It is
perhaps from them that the Gandharva attains his power of causing
derangement or at least mental excitement, which is attested for the
Brahmana period by the ph rase 'seized by a Gandharva1 used for a
17lady who is inspired or demented.
HI. 1.4 RISE OF THE INDIVIDUAL APSARAS IN VEDIG, EPIC AND PURANIG LITERATURE :
Atharvaveda refers to three, Ugrajit, Ugrampasya and Rastrabhat apsaras
(AV. 16, 118 1.2) while Vajapeya Samhita, among others speaks of Urvasi
and Menaka (VS. 15, 15-19). Even the Satapatha Brahmana (3,4,122)
74
specifically talks about Sakuntala, the ancestress of the royal family
13 18of the Bharatas (SB. 13,5,4 ) as well as Urvasi (SB. 2,5,1')
According to Natya Sastra, the apsaras were created by the
powerful Brahma from his mind, who were skillful in embellishing the
drama and gave them over to Bharata in performance. (NS. 1, 46-47).
They are mentioned as Natyalankara, the embellished support to drama.
Their names in Natyasatra are as follows :
Manjukesi, Sukesi, Misrakesi, Sulocana, Saudamini, Dovadatta, Devasena,
Manorama, Sudati, Sundari, Vidagdha, Sumala, Santati, Sunanda, Sumukhi,
19Magadhi, Arjuni, Sarala, Kerala, Dhrti, Nanda, Supuskala and Kalabha.
Rsi Kasyapa is the father of the celestial nymphs who were
delivered by his wife Arishta. They were thirteen apsarases and four
gandharvas. Alambusa, Misrakesi, Vidyutparna, Tilottama, Raksita,
Rambha, Manorama, Kesini, Subahu, Suraja, Surata, Supriya, while the
20Gandharva are Haha, Huhu, Alibahu, Tumbura.
Another theory prevalent in the Epic - Puranic literature about
apsarases and their origin is through the Samudra Manthana. They were21 ^born out of the ocean.
22Matsya Purana refers to the origin of apsaras along with rishis,
gandharvas and kinnaras from a common parentage, namely Kashyapa and
Arista.
A significant verse (MP, 10.24) refers to a metaphorical comparison
between the -holding of a suckling infant by the apsaras (dugdha vatsa)
with the aid of gandharvas and the smell and fragrance which is the
inherent quality of the padmadala. Therefore the creation of the suckling
75
baby, Chitraratha refers to the nourishing aspect of an apsaras
character, where she can be compared with the mother. By refering to
padmadala gandha, the intention is to underline the inseperability of
the quality of nourishment.
23Vayu Purana > which is one of the older Purana,, refers to the
origin of apsaras as a creation of Brahma, who created moveable and
immoveable objects along with groups of yaksas, pisachas, gandharvas
and apsaras. (MP. 9.55). Out of the many similar groups of apsaras,
most of them were endowed with happiness, benevolence, protection,
fragrances and purity, (VP. 30.87).
Moreover, each group of apsaras contains 14 boon bestowing ones,
who are called the beauty incarnates, (VP. 69.53). Vayu Purana clearly
mentions them as the Manasa Kanya of Brahma who emerge from his mental
creativity. They are endowed with the nature of energy, force and
created from Agni and Arista (VP. 69.54).
They are bright and resemble the long rays of the sun, they also
bear nourishment from moon and benevolence. (VP. 69.55).
They are born of yajna and are called subha, they also resemble
the sound of Rik and Sama recited before Agni. They are born of water
and nector and known as amrita (VP. 69.56). Vayu Purana also refers
to them as born of the wind, and calls them as 9uddha, while the
mundane ones are earth born, the lightenning born are called Richa, the
death born are called Bhairava (VP. 69.57). This verse is very
significant because it characterises the diverse origins, names, characters
and affiliations of apsaras. Some of them are boon bestowing,
nourishing, while some of them are ferrocious.
76
There is one amorous group of apsaras who are refered to as
beautifiers and they are fourteen in number. They are created to enhance
the beauty of the Indra Sabha. (VP. 69.58). Note that nowhere have
they been refered to as prostitutes, courtesans or enchantresses given
to mean ways. The Surayana of Indra Sabha are bestowed with beautiful
form and youth, and these celestial maidens are known by names such
as Dhanurupa, Mahabhaga, Tilottama. The illustrious divine beings are
born in the circle of Brahma and Agni. (VP. 69.59). Further on, Vayu
Purana mentions a metaphorical verse in which one Apsara, called
Vedavati, is born from the alter of Brahma's mental sphere bearing a
great bright halo (VP. 69.60).
The next verse refers to the daughter of Varna who is youthful
and beautiful. This celestial maiden called Sulochana is suffused with
golden halo. (VP. 69.61). These various groups of apsaras which range
into thousands, some of them are the wives of the Oevas, and Rishis
while some are mothers. (VP. 69.62). This verse throws much light on
the material aspect of the apsaras. It would be worth mentioning at this
stage that nowhere in the preceding verses do we come across the nature
of the apsaras as a seductress or an enchantress, the maligned position
to which they were brought down in the later periods of the Epics
and the classical literature. Therefore the data given in Vayu Purana
is very valuable in reviewing the character of apsaras and also for
interpreting the sculptures, (to be elaborated in the relevant context).
Vayu Purana not only mentions the entire range of the imagery of
apsaras but also mentions their physical attributes along with their
names. They are golden complexioned, suffused with fragrance and when
they perform their chores, their orb intoxicates the onlooker without
77
the aid of wine. Their touch alone enhances the ananda (VP. 69.63).
This group of thirty four ipsaras of the heaven are full of
auspiciousness, water, and one of them, Surottama, is the specially loved
(69.4). The list of them are Misrakesi, Chasi, Varnini, Alambusa,
Mari chi, Putrika, Vidyutparna, Tilottama, Adrika, Laksana, Devi,
Rambha, Manorama, Suvara, Subahu, Purnita, Supratisthita, Pundarika,
Sugandha, Sudanta, Surasa, Hema, Saradvati, Suvrata, Subhuja and
Hamsapada, these are the wellknown apsaras known from the Munis of
the yore (VP. 69.5-8).
Brahmanda Purana^ also has a list of 24 apsaras such as
Misrakesi, Chasi, Parnini, Alambusa, Marichi, Suchibha, Vidyutparna,
Tilottama, Adrika, Laksmana, Ksetna, Divya, Rambha, Manobhava, Asita,
Supriya, Subhuja, Pundarika, Jagandha, Sudali, Surasa, and
Subahu. The list gives only 22 names and comparing it with the Vayu
Purana list the names appear more or less the same or analogous, qg.^
Sugandha, Jagandha, Sudanta - Sudali, Putribha - Suchibha and so on.
These apsaras belong to the lower class of the auspicious heavenly
beings^ who are fair complexioned (Aruna) and harmless. (BP 3 7.5).
They are the attendants (Shaivya) of the Devi (Lakshmi?) and out of
the 1016 of them, the group of apsaras consists of 14 of them (BP.3
71.243). Brahma asked Indra to send some chosen ones from his palace
to become the wives of Vasudeva (BP.3 71.244). This connection of
apsaras with Brahma (as Manasa Kanya) reiterated by (NS.1.46-47) and
with Krishna (as Patnyartham Vasudevasya) throws light on their
acceptance into the pantheon, right from the early classical period.
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Vishnu Purana mentions the apsaras as the attendants of Surya
m the form of the twelve Adityas who are the harbingers of various
seasonal changes and who dance to spread happiness. This iconography
(which is given in a tabulated manner) throws further light to
support the mainstream acceptance of apsaras in the Hindu pantheon in
association of the major male gods. Their representation on Nagara
temples in the medieval period is a logical continuation of the same
textual memory.
Parasara says that between the extreme northern and southern
points, the sun has to traverse in a year one hundred and eighty
degrees, ascending and descending. His car is presided over by divine
Aditya, Rsis, heavenly singers and nymphs, yaksas, serpents and
raksasas (one of each being placed in it in every month). (VP.2. 10.
1-2).
In this manner, Maitreya, a troop of seven celestial beings,
supported by the energy of Visnu, occupies during the several months
the orb of the sun. The sage celebrates his praise, and the gandharva
sings, the nymph dances before him, the raksasa attends upon his steps,
the serpent harnesses his steeds and the yaksa trims the reins, the
nunerous pigmy sages, the Balakhilyas, ever surround his chariot. The
whole troop of seven, attached to the sun's car, are the agents in the
distribution of cold, heat and rain, at their respective seasons.
(VP .2.10. 19-20).
26Bhagavat Purana reiterates the origin of apsaras from the
churning of the ocean, they emerge after the kalpavriksa. They were
draped with beautiful robes and golden neckleces. These celestial nymphs
80
were engaged in enticing by making langourous movements and amorous
glances. (BHP, 8, 8.7).
In another context Bhagavat Purana (12 8.16) says that Indra sent
Gandharvas, apsaras, )<araa, Vasant, fflalayanila and Itfada to the ashram
of Markandeya to disturb his penance. From the above references the
amorous character of apsaras comes to the fore. They have been
portrayed as agents of allurement, a stumbling block, to test the
integrity of a sage or a mortal.
The beautiful women were created by Visnu with his yogic powers.
They were beautifully dressed and attended upon him. Looking at their
Lakshmi-like form and affected by their sweet smelly the subordinates
of Indra lost their lustre. Then with a polite smile Visnu said selecte
an appropriate one from among them and make them embelish the heavens
(BHP.11.4.12-13) At that time they also lauded Urvasi as the best
apsara.
Visnu Purana mentions in the famous incident related with Samudra
Manthan how there arose the goddess Varuni, coral tree parijata, the
jewel kaustubha, sacred cow kamadhenu, celestial apsarases and the
goddess Lakshmi who went to Hari (VP. 1,9,2-116). When the goddess
Lakshmi arrived with vibrant beauty, the seers assembled there praised
her with the Srisukta and the gandharvas led by Visvavasu sdng before
27her and the throngs of apsarases led by Ghrtaci, danced
One of the most fascinating imageries of apsaras found ever is in
Vamana Saromahatmya (10.33-66). When Vamana shed his dwarf-like form,
in a twinkling of an eyef he manifested the form which consists of all
the gods, his eyes were the moon and the sun, the sky was his head
81
and the earth his feet, his toes we re the Pisacas and his fingers the
guhyakas. The Visvedevas were in his knees and the excellent deities,
the Sadhyas were in his skins. In his nails appeared the yaksa and
28in the contours of his body, the apsarases . This suggests that apsaras
have been associated with aerial form which is contourless and can
change at will.
311.1.5 EMERGENCE OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT APSARAS *
THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND INTERPRETATION s
URVASI :
Urvasi is mentioned in Rgveda as an apsara to whom Vasistha is said
11.12to have been born, (7, 33 * ). She is once invoked with the streams
19(5, 41 ). She is also described as aqueous (apya) as filling the
atmosphere, traversing space, an expression which is applied to the
5celestial Gandharva (in 10, 139 ). She is said to have spent four autumnsamong mortals (5^) and is besought to return (5^)^ the request of
18Pururavas is granted with an entry into the heaven (5 ). Several verses
of this hymn find their setting in a continuous story told in the SB
(2,5,1) which fills in details partly based on a misunder-standing of
the text of RV.
Urvasi is the abstraction of a subtle principle. She is the life
- principle in matter (pranagni) that requires a unit of ghrita (clarified
butter, literally) for its sustenence daily. Ghrita is a form of Agni who
in turn is nothingg but the life - principle. It is then, this
life-principle that is kept kindled by its daily share of sustenance that
it reviews from various sources. The crux of it all is that energy is
sustained by energy and life sustained by life-to continue for its full
82
span of existence in the human body or on the material plane for a period
of one hundred years. The measure of fuel which supports this life is
symbolised by the 'one drop of ghrita'. The principle of Rajas measures
at life and such is the function of Urvashi as well (RV 10.95.17).
Urvashi is most clearly a celestial nymph or *psaras (amanushi)
who is wooed by immortal man (RV. 10.95.8). She is the immoral lady
of the heavens whom mortal man follows and posseses but for a while!
Their muhlflj covenant is that she would have him if her daily share
of ghrita were to cease. She reveals her true nature in the Rgveda
saying : '1 am like the first of the dawns; I move like the tempestuous
wind difficult to hold or capture; I flash brilliant as the falling
lightenings!
It is for Puraravas, the unique, separate manifestation of prana
that Urvashi has descended upon the earth. She herself says :
1 The birth had made me drink from earthly milch kine1.
(RV. 10.95.11). According to the Rgveda Urvashi moves in a select band
of six other nymphs making in all the seven sisters, which is analogous
to the principle of the seven fold female powers or mothers of creation.
In addition to the condition of her daily portion of ghrita, there
were two other conditions that she imposed on the king Pururavas. That
her two lambs should ever be protected from any danger and that she
should never behold the form of the king in a complete state of
nakedness. The lambs symbolise the firm principles of Prana and Apana
whose mingled energy is the lightening like Urvashi, (RV. 10.189.2). The
veil over Pururavas is the physical body itself, the fabric of material
form or corporeal modality which is essential as an element of life in
83)
matter, Urvasi and Pururavas separate as soon an life leaves the mortal
coil.
Urvasi is a mental creation of Narayana illustrated in a verse from
Visnudharmottara (3, 35, 2-4) which relates a tale of the meditation
of Nara and Narayana in the Badari grove. While they were in deep
concentration, Celestial damsels were sent by Indra to disturb the peace
of asceticism. Narayana took a fresh mango leaf and with its juice
sketched on his thigh the most beautiful form of a nymph that at once
sallied forth from it, appropriately styled Urvasi. She put to shame
30everyone of them by her superior grace and perfection of charm.
The association of the creation of apsara from the thigh of a rsi
with the sap of a mango leaf presupposes a number of conclusious weio
are going to draw in the forth coming chapters relating eroticism,
asceticism, fertility and creativity,
3?
RAMBHA :
Rambha in Purana is mentioned as an apsaras presiding over the month
of Suci (Bha 12 11.36) and Urja (Bha p.12 11.44, lb II 23.22, IV
33.18), where as in (Br. P.3 6.28, 7.7) she is mentioned as wife of
Maya. In (MP. 136.11) Rambha was created by Brahma^ while she is
described to be well versed in dancing in (M 24.28 Va 69.6). She is
supposed to have gone with the sun sometimes in (IB 126.23) while once
she was seized by the suras (IB 126.7, 133.9) in the abha of Hiranya
Kasipu (lb 161.75). According to Vishnu Purana, Rambha accompanies
Surya during the months of Phalguna and Asadha (2 10.18). The nature
of Rambha is snake-like in the month of summer, when she accompanies
the sun (va 52.6) where as she along with other apsarases was cursed
by Astavakra (lb 5 38.73.77)
84
Ip the Puranic literature, Rambha is considered as one of the most
beautiful of the ifcpsarases along with Urvasi, Tilottama etc. All these
celestial women are considered to be daughters of Kasyapaprajapati by
wife Pradha. Adi Parva of Mahabharata Ch. 65 mentions that from the
above parentage were born Alambusa, Misrakesi, Vidyutparna, Tilottama
etc. Once Ravana raped Rambha and her lover Nalakubera cursed him.
In.Ira once killed an asura chief Mayadhara, and in the victory festival
Rambha danced before her preceptor, Tumburu.
ALAMBUSA :
Alambusa - celestial maiden born to Kasyapa by his wife Pradha.
Alambusa entices sage Dadhichawhose semen flows into the river
resulting in the birth of child, Sarasvata. Then crops fail in the land
resulting in a wide-spread famine. The brahmins flee the land and finally
Sarasvata resusci cates the dying old order by reciting passages from
the scriptures. Once when Indra goes to see Brahma, Alambusa also
happens to be there, when her robes are displaced by the wind,
Vidhuma, who had accompani ed Indra, is over- come by libido.
The mutual passion of Vidhuma and Alambusa displeases Indra and Brahma^
who cursed them to be born as humans. Vidhuma is reborn as
Sahasranika, an illustrious king of the Candra-mansa, Alambusa is reborn
as Mrigavati, the daughter of king Krtavarma and Kalavati. Sahasranika
is invited by Indra to heaven. The apsara Tilottama is sent with him
to entertain, but Sahasranika is immersed in the love of Mrigavati. He
earns the curse of Tilottama for having scorned her. She curses him
to suffer the proverbial fourteen years of seperation from his beloved.
The child born of the union of Sahasranika and Mrigavati is Udayana
who is instrumental in bringing them together eventually.
85
Alambusa is said to have taken part in the birthday celebrations
of Arjuna (Kaunteya). MB, Adi Parva-65.49.
T1LOTTAMA33;
One of the more prominent celestial maidens, was born to Kasyapa
through his wife Pradha. Kasyapa was the grandson of Brahma and the
son of Manci. Alambusa was one of the sisters of Tilottama (Adi parva
65). To cause a schism between the demons Sunda and Upasunda, Brahma
creates her baking the (Uttama) of both the animate and inanimate
objects (Adi parva 215). She is also said to have been created from
small particles of diamond by Brahma (Anushasana Parva 141.1).
Shiva sees her circumambulating Brahma wanting to behold herv
constantly, he causes faces to form pointing towards all the four
quarters. A similar situation results in the "many eyed" form of the
king of the Gods, Indra.
MENAKA34 s
A nymph of extraordinary beauty, taking instructions from Indra^ enticed
and shook the tapas of many sages destroying their powers of penance.
Impregnated by a gandharvu named Visvavasu, she bore a girl child
whom she deserted on a river bank. Sage Sthulakesa brought up this
girl as Pramadvara who married king Ruru. Another source has it that
Menaka unites with Viswamitra to give birth to Sakuntala. Menaka's gift
to Durvasa leads to the churning of the Ksirasagara, Menaka holds pride
of place amongst the apsaras along with Urvasi, Purvacitti, Sahajanya,
Ghritaci and Visvaci (Adi Parva 74.68). Menaka is said to have been
present at Arjuna's janmotsava and is also said to have sung on the
occasion (Adi Parva 122.64). She was a dancer in the court of Kubera.
86
(Sabha Parva 10.10). Menaka gave a musical performance in Indra's court
to honour the archer, Arjuna (Vana Para 43.21).
III. 1.6 APSARA-DISAKUMARI INTER RELATIONSHIP
While exploring the contents of the Vedic and the Puranic literature
regarding the role of apsaras in Indian literary thought, one also felt
a need to look into the Agamic and Prakrit indexes as well, which could
35throw more light on our subject.
The apsaras as we now understand is a charming and beautiful
concept of the aquatic origin which resides in the air and shares
intimate communion with Surya, Marut, Kubera, Kama, Yama and of course
Indra and Varuna. Apsaras also appear on the earth to charm the mortal
men. They are bestowers of luck, hapiness, prosperity and progeny.
As they adorn the sabha of Indra in the heaven, they also adorn the
earthly abode of the Gods on earth to add splendour and beauty to the
monument. As conceived by the temple architect and sculptor these
apsaras (devanganas) adorn all the four walls of the temple facing the
four cardinal and the four subsidiary directions. An interesting concept
of disakumaris is found in Prakrit literature which indicates the presence
of presiding directional deities who belonged to the Bhavana Vai class
of Gods.
It was observed that many of the disakumaris shared the same
names as the apsaras viz. Alambusa, Missakesl, Vicita, Vijaya etc. These
disakumaris preside over the four directions of the Ruyyaga mountain.
They are 56 in all and they are called disakumarijnaha^ttariyas. Each
of them have a large retinue and mount Ruyagga is their main abode.
Each of the four quarters have four divisions and each division
8?
has eight peaks. They are divided into those of the adholoka and
urdhvaloka. Their character has been observed as sportive and they
participate in the consecration ceremony of Tirthankaras. The following
list gives their names. The principal disakumari of adholoka are
Bhogamkara, Bhogavai, Subhoga, Bhogamalini, Toyadhara, Vicitta,
Pupphamata, Animdia. They built a maternity hall for the expectant
mother of a Tirthankara, while the disakumaris of the urdhvaloka purify
the maternity hall with artificial rain. They are known as Mehamkara,
Mehavai, Sumeha, Mehamalini, Suvaccha, Vaccamitta, Varisena, Balahaga.
The disakumaris of eastern Ruyaga mountain wait on the expectant
mother holding mirrors in their hands. They are Nanduttara, Nanda,
Ananda, Nandivadhana, Vijaya, Vejayanti, Jayanti and Aparajita. The
western Ruyaga is adorned by Iladevi, Suradevi, Puhai, Paumarai,
Eganasa, Navamiya, Bhadda and Sita, who wave the fan. On the northern
Ruyyaga are placed Alambusa, Misrakesi, Pundaria, Varuni, Hasa,
Savvapabha, Siridevi and Hiri, who wave the chauries. The southern
Ruy aga is inhabited by Samahara, Supainna, Supabudha, Josahara,
Lacchimai, Sesavai, Cittagutta, Vasundhara, who raise pitchers in their
hands and all of them Sing auspicious songs. Some more are also known
viz. Citta, Cittakanaga, Sutara and Soyamani, who belong to the
subquarters and hold lamps while Rua, Ruasia, Ruagavai of the middle
region perform the ceremony of severing the naval string of the new
born child.
Does the above data not throw light on the similarity of functions
shared by apsaras and disakumaris? the aquatic association in terms
of rain and other auspicious functions like holding lamps, fan, pitchers
and chauries. Their association with maternity itself -ihows the fertility
88
connotation. Would it be possible to connect the disakumaris with the
devanganas sculpted on the temple mandovara on all the next to
the dikpalas, involved in the above mentioned actions. The devanganas
adorn the temple which is conceived as a meru prasada, the form of
a mountain and the devanganas in different imageries adorn the walls
of the mountain just like the disakumaries.
The Agamic tradition also has a concept of Vijjukumara and
Vijjukumari mahattariya, who are the personification of light and they
are supposed to hold lamps in their hands. Could we not extend this
personified idea of nature from iconography to physical representation
of female forms on temple architecture? Jaina and Hindu temples alike
have the representation of the devanganas on all the cardinal directions
signifying auspiciousness and removing evil. It is very likely that the
original idea must have struck the sculptors in the context of
disakumaris to evolve from the imagery their visual representation. This
phenomenon of identifying in the devangana imagery the disakumari
concept itself, suggests a step further to the previous step of
personification. Hence the devanganas could be taken as embodiment in
female form the natural concept of apsara, surasundari, yaksi and
disakumari as well. Their representation often overlaps their imageries
because symbolically and conceptually they share parallel thoughts. Thus
superficially they all look alike because ttheir visual representation is
similiar, but when probed more carefully one could unravel parallel
segments of congruous symbolism. This brings us back to noticing the
significance of the female form and the female potential energy and its
role in religion, culture, life and philosophy. Buddhist sources also
reveal the significance of protective directional guardian gods and
goddesses.
89
The four quarters of a Buddhist stupa are protected by the
lokapalas known as kings or guardians of the four quarters, each quarter
being represented by a quadrant of the railing. According to setting
suggested in the Atanatiya Sutta, Dhritarastra is to guard the eastern
quarter with the aid of Surya, seven constellations and eight
devakumaris. Virudhaka is to guard the southern quarter with the aid
of Yama, seven constellations and eight devakumaris, Yirupaksa is to
guard the western quarter with the aid of Varuna, seven constellations
and eight devakumaris, and kubera is to guard the northern quarter with
the aid of Manibhadra, eight constellations and eight devakumarisJ . It is
difficult to verify if these directions have been strictly followed, says
Barua. Here the devakumaris are mentioned in every direction
accompanying the lokpalas of each direction. The above data tallies with
disakumaris quoted by us in the Jaina context. The only difference is
that their names and functions are not mentioned, but conceptually their
presence as protective spirits is commonly shared in Jaina and Buddhist
iconography and art. On a stupa at Barhut they appear in the form of
devatas and yaksis for the first time. For a discussion see the chapter
on sculpture.
90
SECTION - II
In this section one tries to aquaint with the literary sources
dealing with the role of dance in social, literary, aesthetic and religious
spheres. Tracing its development through the Vedic to classical kavya
and Natya literature one can realise that dance was integral to life and
it had been viewed in different dimensions including poetic imagery of
similies and metaphors. Dance was the most significant accomplishment
of the apsaras, devadasi and the royal women who were expected to
learn it as one of the sixty four arts. But dance is also a mode of
worship dedicating one's body and soul in honour of the almighty. The
tradition of temple dancers and temple dancing originated as a continuous
process of thought and living. This also gives a thematic background
to our dace forms which are essentially religious in origin.
One is interested in the poetic imagery of dante and its comparison
with the beauty of the nature and the beauty of the charming woman.
In this section an attempt has been made to realise the qualitative
similies of nature and the feminine beauty, dance and nature's play and
the various social events in which dance is the integral mode of
celebration.
m.II.l THE CONCEPT OF FEMININE BEAUTY
Sensual charm of a woman has always engaged the attention of
poets, writers^ painters and sculptors from times immemorial. In Indian
psyche, woman is not only a mother, wife, sister, courtesan or goddess,
her representation in visual form is always charming and beautiful. So,
the image and the imagination both result into a beautiful form of woman.
91
And when it comes to depicting an apsara, yaksini or a surasundari,
the epitome of beauty and ultimate charm of allurement, the artist puts
his soul into the creation of her ideal form. The ideal of Indian feminine
beauty37 can be traced from Mauryan times and the most bewitching are-ffumt' ScmcM/
the Didarganj yaksi at Patna Museurn» salabhanjikayand Mathura.
Another glorified yaksi of the medieval period is the Gyaraspur vrksaka
of Gwalior Museum. The Andhra, Kushana and Gupta period yaksis,
nadidevatas and other deities have always been recognised for the beauty
of their supple bodies, youthfulness and accentuated sensualness. The
conventions of drapery, mekhala, ekavali, hair-do and ornamentation more
or less augment resemblances among them. These provides a concrete
evidence to artist's image of an ideal Indian woman, may she be a duti,
attendants, Mayadevi, Lakshmi, apsaras, devangaoa, vrksaka, yaksi,
a queen or Durga.
The most well known descriptions in Indian literature - Sanskrit
and Prakrit alike, evoke the imagery of the beautiful female body using
similies and metaphors from nature to denote different parts of the body,
their actions and moods. Thus this illustrates the implicit parallelism
between nature's forms and human form, nature's mood and human mood
and a symbiotic relationship that exists between the two. This poetic
imagination pervades the world of art as well, and as dhvanikar^ or
alankarikas would say, the best mood for illustrating is vipralambha
shringara and the most delicate - symbol of appreciation is woman.
Poets and writers from Hala, Asvaghosa, Kalidasa to Rajasekhara
and Jaydeva, have sung the glory of the feminine beauty. Although natures
forms are often cited as comparable example^ qualifying feminine beauty,
the woman's body bears all those qualities in totality which in the
92
nature are found in part. As yaksa in Meghadutam recalls the beautyi
of his beloved wife in the nature around, him on the Ramagiri hill, 'In: i
the syama vines I see your body, your glance in the gazelle's started
eye, the cool radiance of your face in the moon, your tresses in the
peacock's luxuriant train, your eyebrow's graceful curve in the stream's
small waves, but alas! 0 cruel one, I see not your whole likeness any
38where in any one thing (Meghadutam, 103)
111.11.2 SIMILIES ON DANCE IN LITERATURE
From the Buddhacarita of Asvaghosa we find that the mrdanga was
ornamented with golden bands and played by women ' with the foreparts
of the hands' (nari karagrabhira hataih). The ladies of the palace hold
different musical instruments in their laps which the Bodhisattva watches
and then walks out of the palace. In another instance Buddha's voice
has been compared with the sound of the thundering clouds, (ghana
dundubhi VIII.53)
i
The ladies of the palace are endowed with alluring movements
(lalitabhava) while their eyebrows are arched (bhmvancitaih) and they
cast on Boddhesattva half shut half stolen glances (11.31). The terms
lalita and ancita occur in Natyasastra for demonstrating amorousness.
Kalidasa in kumarasambhava mentions the sukumara dance of
Parvati, the graceful abhinaya of the trees, the dance of the peacocks,
as also the grotesque dance of Bhrngi om the occasion of the marriagel
of Siva and Parvati (IX.48).!
The graceful dancing of the earlier cantos is replaced by the danceI
of swords and men in the context of Kartikeya's fight with Tarakasura
93
(XVI.48.49). The swords covered with blood dance like lightening in
the battle field (XVI. 15) and soon there I is nothing but the dance of
headless trunks of soldiers which the spirits of the soldiers watch froi»
39above
Meghaduta and Rtusamhara are more imaginative and the similies
on nature's beauty resplendant with rhythm and grace are numerous in
these two kavyas. The peacocks dance to the rhythm of the thunder,
trees dance to the rhythm of the personified wind, while the thunderous
clouds provide percussion accompaniment like rauraja to the sangita in
Alkapuri.
The woman of Alakapuri have large eyes and with their cakita
netra and through their graceful movements they allure the clou4 -
messenger (Purva Megha 29). The bhru-vilasa is the amorous movements
of the eyebrows which attract the attention!of the cloud* Kalidasa notices
the graceful dance, like movement of such a delicate part of the human40 '
body namely bhrukuti and kataksa.
In Rtusamhara Kalidasa observes the! gracefully gliding movement
%of the river as ‘Pretily girdled by glittering minnows darting about,
garlanded by rows of white birds on the margins, with broad curving
flanks of sandy banks, rivers glide softly like young women rapt in41love1. (Rtusamhara, III, Antumn, 3) j
III.II. 3 DANCE AND DRAMA TYPES ; KRIDA AND COURTLY PAST-TIME
An interesting corpus of information | from Sanskrit literature is
the miterial on the so-called 'love sports'1 or 'desi kridas' which are
performed by men and women together or by all women groups.i
Representation of such instances are found in painting and sculpture from
94
time to time in all the regions of India. What is most significant to note
here is that not only Kavya and Natya literature mention them, but even
shastrik literature mentions them. In Prakrit literature also such
references are met with. This signifies ,the cross currents between
Sanskrit and Prakrit and between 'margi! and 'desi' literature, and the
fluid nature of the themes like ashokadohada and kanduka krida. Some
of these desi kridas are mentioned in Katha Saritsagara, Brihatkatha
and Brihatkatha Manjari (folk- tales), Hala's Gahasattasai (Prakrit),
Bhoja's Sringara Prakasa and Kamasutra of Vatsyayan (Shastra) and Bana's
Harsacarita and Rajashekhar's Viddha-Salabhanjika (Natya)
A light on the nature of the kridas opens up a totally secular
world. This is an aspect of the Indian culture committed to a gay
abandon and a celebration of the youth. Bhoja mentions them in Sarasvati
kanthabharana and the Sringara Prakasa^ under the different headings of
seasonal festivals^ while Vatsyayan calls them as uddipana vibhavas,
nourishing love.
References to udyanakrida are ample,, (BKSS, 11.24, IV.55) known
also as mandirodyana or bhavanodyana in which the king ordered his
ministers to arrange for an apana bhumi, a pavilion for enjoying drinks.
Royal enjoyments in the palace garden consisted of several items :
Pushpa krida Saliia krida, Vastra bharana Mandava, Kesa Samskara
and Chandananulepana, Nritya, Sangita, Rahovilasa^ Panagoshthi, to which
42references are found in the kavyas and the puranas.i
The drinking sessions were punctuated by dance and music and
‘all-women’ theatre (BKSS, II 3G-32)43 '
!
95
There are a number of kridas mentioned in Sringara Prakasa,t
Kamasutra and its commentaries, and BhavaJ Prakasa, which refer to the!
seasons in which they are celebrated. Bhoja's Sringara Prakasa writtenI
around 1050 A.D.^ has chapters related to; celebrations to love, which
are devoid of any religious significance. Sanskrit literature is full of
mahakavyas and natakas which supply references to love festivals likei
kaumudi mahotsava, carcari dance etc. As an anga of the subject of kama
Sastra, a large number of these are mentioned by Vatsyayana, and Bhoja
also mentions them in Saras vati Kanthabharana, as a comparative study
44between Kamasutra and Jaya Mangala's tika. Kamasutra (1, IV, 42)
enumerates twenty group sports or sambhuya kridas, and some desi
kridas (III, 6.7). Saradatanaya borrows from Bhoja, and makes slight
amplifications by classifying them according to the six seasons (Bhava
Prakasha, VI, pg 137, 138). Sahitya Mimamsa follows Bhoja, and gives
some regional varieties also, while Virabhadra's Kandarpa Cudamani
follows Jayamangala in his description of these sports.
i
Under the season of vasant the following sports are known :
Astamicandra, Sakrarca, Vasantotsava, , Madanotsava, Vakulavihara,
Asokavihara and Salmalimula Khelana. i
Sakrarca or Indrotsava is a festival in honour ,of Indra, the
antiquity of which goes back to Rgvedic times. References to Indradvaja
festival can be found from Ramayana, ' Mahabharata, Mrcchakatika,
Raghuvamsa, Buddha carita and also Silappadikaram and Manimekhalai.i
The origin of Sanskrit drama can also bej traced to this festival and
in the Purvaranga this is absorbed in the form of a ritual. The Inara'si
banner is represented by a high pole which in installed, followed by
sword fights and wrestling. Samarangana Sutradhara mentions manufacture
96
of divine staff, its erection and festival. (SS, XVII). People keep awake
whole night around it, sing and dance and make merry (SS, XVII, 104, 141-42, 191) !
Vasantotsava is mentioned in the opening of Ratnavali while Bhoja
calls it Suvasantaka, it occurs in Chaitra when the mango tree is in
blossom. Jayamangala mentions that .both these festivals are
characterised by music and dance.
Vasantotsava is also called Madanotsava in which Bhoja says
Kamadeva is worshipped by ladies, on the caitra sita caturdasi, (KS)
45wearing saffron coloured dresses.
They also play ekasalmali by decking themselves with flower, and|
playing the blind man's buff.
Raghavan gives a number of references to Asokottanisika and the
use of these references to interpret the mjotif of 3alabhanjika in Indian
sculpture. When beautiful damsels kick the jasoka tree with their delicate
feet, decked with alaktaka paint and tinkling anklets, the tree burst
into blossom and the damsels deck themselves with fresh asoka flowers.
The act of asoka dohada is mentioned by ■ Ralidasa in Malavikagnimitra,
the only place in a nataka where it integrates with the plot of the play.!
It is believed that the tree requires upa! caras from the ladies beforei
that gives forth flowers, spitting of chewed betel, half drunk wine,
embracing and so on. The asokottamsika or Bhoja is asoka vihara for
Saradatanaya . i
ii
Another krida is the cutabhanjika, plucking of fresh clusters ofI
mango blossoms, offering as arrows for ; cupid and bedecking them.
97
Sakuntala also mentions this krida in Act VI, where as Sringara Prakasa
mentions this as sahakara bhanjika among group sports (sambhuya
kridas). Jayamangala describes it as eating mangoes and not the
blossoms. Raghavan observes that these kinds of amusements for couples1
and ladies in the gardens were mentioned as early as Panini's times.I
They have also been found apt for the1 interpretation of the common
46sculptural motif of salabhanjika and other such images.
Vasantj a season also calls for a play with water filled in syringes
and spraying on each other. It is known as udakasvedika by Bhoja and
jrugakrida by ' Jayamangala. The last two sports namely cutalatika or
navalatika and pancalanuyana, will be discussed in Chapter IV in support
of the sculptures illustrating these kridas. '
The vinodas mentioned for grisma, summer, are salilakrida,
udyanayatra, puspavacayika, navamrakhadika, cutamadhavi, navasamagama,i
etc. !i '
The varsa vinodas are sikhandilasya and navambuda abhyudgama,
the enjoying of peacocks dance and the welcoming of first rain clouds
at hearing their rumbling noise. The game of kadamba yuddha is also
mentioned by Bhoja and Vatsyayana. The, couples search for kadamba
blossoms and after that a mock fight is: enacted. In sravana month!47dolovilasa is also performed. ;
The navapatrika of sarad is mentioned by Bhoja in which men and
women sit on the ground making merry;, eat, drink and celebrate4, 1fictitious marriages. MrMAlakhadika is game which is a water sport in
which men and women eat the lotus stalks. Other sports are kanduka
krida, candrikatalana, hamsalilavalokana, balikrida, yaksaratri,
1
98
saritpulinakeli, according to Saradatanaya. ; Raghavan refers to kanduka
krida very elaborately pointing to the dance form and the various charis
employed in this dance, curanapada, mandalabhramana, panca bindu
prasrta, gatamarga, gomutrika etc. Dasakumara carita, Chapter VI,
mentions the daughter of king Tungadhanva named Kandukavati, who plays
kanduka nrtya on krtika of every month to propitiate goddess
Vindhyavasini. The commentary quotes a treatise on this dance game
called kanduka tantra.
Yaksaratri is dipavali, and kaumudi jagarana in the month of asvin
are celebrated by keeping awake whole night, and enjoying gambling,
swing games and others in the moon light. Some more sports like cocki
and ram fights, sunbathing, drinking, and teaching pets to speak,while
eating freshly roasted pulses in the fields with raw sugar-cane etc.,
are among the known ones.
HI.3.1if
PRATIHARIS/FEMALE ATTENDANTS, KANCHUKINS AND DANCING GIRLS FROM EPIGRAPHY AND LITERATURE.,
I
It is an accepted fact that dancing girls (among them devadasis)
were, dedicated to the major temples (Saiva, Vaisnava, Sakta) of India
(more so in south India but also to a notable extent in the north as
well) all through the medieval period. Indian epigraphy can furnish
authentic reference to the activity of dancing in temples, the proficiency
of some kinds of women at dancing and the socio-economic condition of
many such families. Even Sanskrit literature can supply enough evidences
to the historicity of certain social/religious/cultural institutions like
Devadasi, Kanchukin and Pratihari system in the medieval period.
99
The following references are collected from secondary sources.I
The Harsanatha Temple at Sikar was presented with many maidens,
so mentions the Harsanath temple inscription of the time of Vigraharaja,I
II. (V.1030).48 :
An inscription found from Kalanjar of !the Chandella period mentions
Athat the Mahapr tihara Sangram Singh had a court dancer by name
Padmavati. Many dance performances were organised in Nilakantha templei
49during this time. j
A fragmentary copperplate inscription of Alhana (VS. 1205) records
the arrangements made by various rulers for courtesans and musicians
attached to the temples of Ghandalesvara and Tripurusadeva. The debate
broke out when Raja Jojaladeva of Nadol ordered the courtesans to joinI
the royal processions in order to punish learned people, old men and
50others ..who tried to interfere with this time-Jhonoured custom.i1
While checking the medieval cultural history, an interesting debate
between the royal class patronizing the institution of prostitution andi
the resenting Jaina monks has come to light.'I
Among the puritanic Jaina monks, Haribhadra Suri raised his voice
against the above practice, including the Kharataras and others whichi
led rulers like Jojaliadeva to issue their edicts. Haribhadra1 s pupil,
Uddyotana Suri wrote an allegorical story named Upamitibhava prapancha-
51katha^to carry the message in his own way! to the people.
1
It appears that the participation of 'monks in dance and music as
part of the temple worship was a normal practice against which certain
100
Jaina monks raised their voice. As part of Jinavallabha1 s
anti-chaityavasa propaganda, Sangha pattakaj is a specimen of his writing-
which criticizes those sadhus whose life was interfered by singing of
musicians, dancing of courtesans (in front of i the deity) sounding of drums
52and crowding of spectators wearing garlands. >1
Conversely, courtesans added magnificence to the glory of the ruler
and were a major source of income to the state. The Bhinnamal
inscriptions of V.5. 1306, V.S. 1334, V.S. 1345 convey elaborate arrangementsI
which were made for the 1 pramada-kula1 pf the Sun temple of Jagat
Swamin, From Moharajaparajaya it is learnt that Kumarapala Chaulukya
tried to eradicate many social evils from his dominions, but for
prostitution he says that nothing is lost or gained from its removal or 54 •continuance.
IAccording to Kavya Kalpalata Vrtti, a I Jaina work of 13th century,
there is a general rule cited in which the ruler should always be! 55attended upon by courtesans in the royal court. Kadambari and!I
Priyadarsika of Bana and Harsa mention that the courtesans bathed the
ruler and even accompanied him to the temple and danced in front of56 1his favourite deity. 1
iJinadatta Suri, the pupil of Jinavallabha (d.1167 V.S.) who
propagated the Kharatara gaccha, adopted Apabhramsa to popularize
his ideas. His Charchari, Upadesarasayana :and Kala Svarupa - Kulaka,
57were set to music and sung while dancing. jI
Some more epigraph!cal references may be looked into which are1
from north India, contemporaneous to Bhoja Paramara1 s times.
101
Sudi Inscription of the reign of Somesvara I dated AD. 1054, refers
58to dancing girls as members of the OTganising staff of the temple.
Kalhana refers to the devadasis in the temples of Kashmir and Merutunga
59in the Kumara Vihara in Somanath Pattarfa.
Alberuni observed that the kings maintained the institution of
devadasis for the benefit of their revenue even in the teeth of opposition
by Brahmin priests. Kings made these dancing girls as a source of
attraction to their subjects for meeting the expenditure of the armies
out of the revenue derived therefrom.^
This practice of maintaining devadasis in temples is as old as
Kautilya, but there was no attempt before 11th . to pool together
all dancing girls, attached to all the temples of particular region, with
a view to adding to the attraction of particular religious festival. AcewtoM-
10th * inscription from Rajasthan confirms the statement of Alberuni.
It records the instructions of a chieftain to his descendants that if the
arrangement that he had made about the services of the dancing girls
at different temples was interfered with by ascetics and brahmins, theyshould at once be stopped.^
Merutunga in Prabandha Chintamani refers to hetaera poetess of
Gujarat, who pleased the Paramara king Bhoja. He also tells the story
of Chaula Devi of Pattana, a courtesan who remained faithful to her lover
during his long absence. The great grandfather of Kumarapala was born
63of this Chauladevi. Dancer^ thronged the temple courtyards and the64palaces of the kings. The above data has been supported by the
inscription^ from different parts of India. In the plan of a palace, Bhoja
included, interalia the construction of a dancing hall, a theatre and a
102
6 5gymnasium. In the same chapter a reference to music hall has also
been given. The Sangita Makaranda, attributed to Narada (perhaps belongs
to the 11th century A.D.) which deals with music and dance in two
66seperate sections The well-known - architectural text - Aparajita Prccha| 67
as well describes various kinds of dances with their main characters.
The kuvalayamala of Udyotanasuri describes that to the temples
of Avanti were attached vilasinis who gave musical concerts, plied
morchals and held umbrellas. In one instance the author describes the
scene of heaven on earth in which some vilasinis hold pitchers, fans,
chauris, mirrors etc. while some apsaras held vinas, mridangas, and
some moved langurously and danced. This implies that heavenly
activities of the court were recreated in the temple court yards where
the vilasini - devadasis impersonated the roles of the heavenly apsaras.
In Ruttanimattam^, 663 devadasis are mentioned who carved their
70livelihood from the , temple. In Samayamatrika of Rsemendra it is
record ed that the devadasis received grains in exchange for their
71services. They performed only before the God. Sringaramanjari sites
an example of a beautiful courtesan known as lavanya sundari v/ho danced
only before the God in the temple of Bhaillasvami at Vidisa. The abovei »
reference have been quoted from Moti Chandra's study on Courtesans who
interpretes the devadasis as some kind of courtesans on the basis of
their proficiency in music, dance and the other 64 arts. In my view,
a devadasis m not on par with ganika and their functions are targeted
at two different kinds- of andiences. This distinction on microlevel is
72rendered insignificant by the esteemed scholar
It was interesting to observe that the sword of the king was
103
generally held by a female attendant who would be called a khadga -
vahini. She appears to be the female counterpart of the asiggahaka of
73 ;the Jataka stories
Probably because she was closely akin to the pratihari, both in
her physical features and in the nature of her job, she has not received
much attention. The characters employed in the roles of keeping charge
of - the king's sword or bow and addressed as favanis in the Sanskrit
dramas, as mentioned above, are the same as the khadga vahinis. From
Kautilya's specific reference to them we may conclude that they were
74Greek or of Amazonian origin.
Bana's works are full of descriptions of personal attendants of
royal courts, of which Kadambari has an instance of King Sudraka. Bana
says that when King Sudraka after lunch reappeared in the audience hall,
he was sitting with his feet resting on the foot stool, which were gently
massaged by his sword bearer. She was doing this with her delicate
hands after placing, for the time being, the long thin sword on her lap.
She herself was seated on the floor of the audience hall. This shows
that besides the ilratihari it was the khadga - vahini who was closer
to the king and followed him everywhere and attended upon him as a
dasi shampooing his feet as well. In fact if one begins to notice
carefully, there are numerous sculptures from' iVathura, Amaravati, Ajanta
and other early sites depicting the khadgadhari. An elaborate discussion
will be followed in Chapter VL
75The Bnhat Katha Sloka Samgraha of Buddhaswamin, written m
chaste Sanskrit sometime in Gupta period, is a summary of the Brihat
Katha of Gunadhya. This collection of verses is divided into lambhakas
] 04
which revolve around the fact that the hero Sanudasa in each sarga
contracts a new marital alliance. It throws lights on female attendantst
of this kind. The female attendents of the royal palace were kept
satisfied with drinks, ornaments, clothes, garlands and sweet words.
These were the same as antahpurika, chief of them were known as
z^*#varika or vetragrahini (BKSS II 19).
The rakes formed part of the royal entourage to which literature
and art provide enormous proofs. The Brihat Katha refers to Vita -
Sastra, i.e. the lore of Rakes (or ways of Rakes?) which the girls of
the courtesan's quarters were expected to learn as part of their
education. There was attached to their quarters, a shrine of godt
Kamadeva, m which the deity was worshipped by offering a pradakshina
to him. In X. 76-7, the actual Vesaj is described as having the
appearance of a royal palace in which a number of hermaphrodites
(yoshidvashavarapraya) were employed. \
Besides the courtesans' quarters, mention of Prekshaka Kula andI
Ranganganam i.e. auditorium and stage , are found on which the two
nrityacharyas are said to have come and done namaskara (XI. 3).
Kanchukin or chamberlain is the attendant of the women's apartment.
Kautilya mentions his job, the designation and also the uniform, viz.
the dress of a kanchuki. The Varshavaras (eunuchs) and other
attendants of the abhyya —garika are also mentioned in the Artha Sastra.
It describes the kanchuki as the chief, kanchukosnist, because they were
all wearing kan^chuka (a close jacket), and usnisa (the turban). Kanchuki
would generally accompany the king every where, and being the king's
attendant, would remain in the fore-front of the palace activities. It
is said that while Sita was being brought out of the palace of Ravana,
105
the attendants of the inner apartment, wearing kanchuka and usnisa and
holding cane - sticks in their hands, cleared her way to the nL i
palanquin. While dwelling on abhy^-jgarikas, Bharata, in his Natya
Sastra, offers details regarding not only the kanchuki, but also otheri
attendants of the harem. Kanchuki knows* the nature of the women of thei
harem and can keep them under his control. In one MSS of the NS,I 77
kanchuki is described as an expert in the art of controlling women.
Besides this, there is a, verse which is generally quoted by most
of the traditional commentators on Kalidasa, ascribing it to Bharata,
which explains the prominent features of a kanchuki more directly and 78 !
in detail also. Kanchuki appears prominently in the plays of Kalidasa-
Latavya is the kanchuki of Vikramorvasiyam who finds it difficult to
handle the women of the harem in his advancing age. The reference to
vetra - yasti in Sakuntalam, concerns the old kanchuki, whose cane staff
which was once the mark of his office in the female appartment of the
palace, has now become in course of time an indispensable object of
support for him in his tottering old age. i
In the Kadambari, Bana takes up the gay description of the birth
day celebrations of Chandrapida and Vaisampayana describing the gay
abandon with which the ladies of the’ harem and their maids, werei
celebrating the happy occasion. Bana says that their prank, s did not! ^fspare even the old and the sober lopking chamberlains. They were
playing jokes upon the multitude (kadambaka) of aging chamberlains,i
by tying the silken upper garments round their necks and drag ing them.J\
The term vidambi could be meant for teasing, joking and pranking.
The reference to playing of joke by tying the upper garment (uttariya)
106
is interesting, because even V.S.Agrawala refers to a term, chelukkhepa,
from Pali which means the waving of the upper garment as atakcn of
joy. A similar reference is made by Hajrsa in Nagananda, whero a Vitai
pulls away a scari thown round the neck oi the court jester, who „>ants
to run away. Amarakosa mentions kanchuki and his synomyms, like
sauvidala, sthapatya and sauvida. These terms as explained by the
commentators of Amara, tend to mean one and the same thing, namely
that a kanchuki was to look after the ladies of the harem.
Bana in Kadambari mentions mahattarilca, the female official, in
charge of the bed-chamber called kulavardhana. She is called efficient
by long experience in the service of the royal household. She is even
79well skilled in all the auspicious rites. Tiwajri differs with Agrawala
in his comparison of mahattarika of queen Vilasavati, with the pratihari
of Indumati, called Sunanda, because the lady attendant of the royal
bed-chamber and an ordinary female doorkeeper are al together different.
In the Vaijayanti Kosa of Yadavaprakasa it is described that mahattri
is an old lady—attendant of the harem who was well versed in all the
.... 80auspicious rites.
III.4.1
REFERENCES FROM ARCHITECTURAL TEXTS FOR DEVANGANA PLACEMENT AND OTHER DANCE REFERENCES._________________ _____________ _______ ______________
The following references have been put together with a view to
collect all the references from texts dealing with architecture, on the
placement of the devangana figures in the architectural fabric. Since
temple architecture is the main focus of this research, our data here
elaborates upon the architecture of the temple alone and not the stupa,
viharaj oijchaitya. The references to salabhanjika on stupa etc. will be
107
taken up in the context of the evolution of the salabhanjika motif itself
in the chapter on sculpture. The textual references collected here are
not exhaustive and much more data is yet to come to light. But whatever
little that has been found by the researcher here bears testimony to
the tradition of placing apsara, kumarika, salabhanjika, varangana,
surangana, devangana type of figures on the vitana, stambha, jangha,
sikhara and such other parts of the temple. Curiously only two texts
refer to their number, names and imagery while , the rest only suggest
their generic names as listed above. Their ritualistic or religious
purpose is seldom attested to, although they are generally invoked to
protect, decorate, bestow peace and prosperity. Their cultic association
with Sakta, Saiva sects is absent since in the texts and in practice,
.they are freely represented. It appears that even though their imagery
is seldom mentioned by the architectural texts before 15th century their
representation in sculptures from western India to eastern India, retains
a uniformity of form and imagery. Hence there must have been an oral
exchange of ideas between the sculptors of various regions who may
have shared their common information of iconography of gods, goddesses
and other semi divine figures. Even in texts dealing with pratima
Laksana the iconography of Vishnu, Shiva, Devi etc. are mentioned in
detail, but the apsaras are generally not described (except for
Ksirarnava and Silpa Prakasa). It appears that information on apsaras
may have circulated in the form of desi literature in colloquial parlance
and widely shared but the authors of classical texts like Bhoja and
Bhuvanadeva, may have overlooked the significance of noting their
imageries. The following texts have been studied by the researcher for
preparing a corpus of information from architectural texts on apsaras
108
and their placement on temples, palaces, courts, city gates etc. The
texts are Samarangana Sutradhara, Silpa Prakasa, Aparajit Piecha,
Vaikhanasiya Atrisamhita, Laksana Samucchaya, Vastusutra Upanisad,
Ksirarnava, Vrksarnava.
SAMARANGANA SUTRADHARA :
It is a text written by Paramara Bhoja around the middle of the
11th century. Bhoja was a great builder and a literateur. His text on
architecture is an encyclopaedic work, refering to the architectural
traditions in Malawa region in particular, and northern Indian style
(nagara) in general. In the section on Meruprasada he discribes that
the torana should be adorned with makara, heads of elephants, leaves
as well as groups of apsaras. The pillar design contains an elaborate
prescription using auspicious motifs for its decoration. The pillars should
be many faceted and contain many sections. It should be decorated with
painted design everywhere, auspicious signs, chandrashala along with
82torana and beautiful chamaradharinis. (57, pp.404) The placement
is also indicated. The vidyadhara couples should also be adorsed here
by groups of siddhas, gandharvas, yaksas, devas, apsaras and kinnaras
In the vimanavali divine apsara groups should be adorned, highly
immersed in play continuously with beautiful swaying movements. (57,
of apsaras, nagakanyas, kinnaras, etc. should be placed in the vitana
of elephant heads which are highly intoxicated and mood
83who have just started to play (57, pp.404) . It should be surrounded
holding Vina (57, pp.404) 84
85pp.404) Even nagakanya and kadamba should also be used for adornment88everywhere on every storey. (57, pp.404) It appears that the figures
109
as well as on the bhumis of the jangha and the stambha. But their
imagery and their significancce are not told by Bhoja explicitly.
SILPA PRAKASA
87According to Silpa Prakasa, the Onssan temple architectural text,
the pillar should be decorated with naga nayika who is a giver of
88wealth, corn and good fortune. (1. 225, p.32) No further description
of this is given. There is another section in this chapter called Avarana89Devatas which include dikpala, mahavidyas, etc. (1. 256, p.35) It
is followed by a section on alasa, which in local terminology is refered
to as naribandha or kanya banda, and it is indispensable in architecture.
The main purpose of embellishment is indicated here - a house without
a wife, as frolic without a woman, so a monument without (figure of)
90a woman will be interior and bear no fruit (1.392). Qandharvas,
yaksas, raksasas, pannagas (nagas), kinnaras become enchanted on seeing
91the graceful postures of women. (1.393). Contemplated in various
postures, she is known as alasa and it should be placed in gavaksa,
92sikhara, walls and other parts of the mukhasala. (1.394 - 395). The
names given to them (recommended by the Sastras) are Alasa, Torana,
Mugdha, Manini, Dalamalika, Padmagandha, Darpana, Vinyasa - Dhyana-
karsita, Ketakibharana, Matrimurti, Camara, Gunthana, Narjtaki,
Sukasarika, Nupura padika, Mardala. These are the sixteen most
important types of alasa. There is no sequence or order of placement
indicated in this text. The alasa also does not have any relation with
dikpala or the major forms of the gods and their placement in the temple
architecture seems to be independent and uncanonical. But Silpa Prakasa
mentions a yantra to denote the posture of the indolent nayika with
predominent oblique lines to indicate the tribhanga posture. The text
no
also indicates the position of the palms - c handila (palms vurned
upwards), spandita (palms turned downwards) as the two movements
94prescribed for alasa.
The various alasakanyas are described thus :
1. Alasa - indolent, make chandita or spandita hand
movements.
2. Torana - leaning in a doorway
3. Mugdha - innocent naganundra,
4. Manini - resentful or offended
5, Dalamalika - garlanding herself with a branch
6. Padmagandha - smelling the lotus
7. Darpana - holding a mirror
8. Vinyasa - having her mind fixed in meditation
9. Ketakibharana - wearing flowers
10. Matrmurti - image of a mother
11. Camara - holding a flywhisk
12. Gunthana - hiding herself, showing her back holding
drapery, flowers, fan
13. Nartaki - dan cer
14. Sukasanka - playing with a parrot
15. Nupurapadika - wearing ankle bells
16. Mardala - drummer
This attractive naribandha should be placed on the shikhara and other
parts like gavaksa etc. This list could be compared with the Ksirarnava
list to find out how many of them correspond with each other and the
sculptural representation on the whole.
Ill
APARAJITA PR GCHA :
It is written under the influence of Samarangana Sutradhara in the
reign of Kumarapala by Bhuvanadevachary a^ during the later part of 12th
and firstjhalf of 13th century.^ It ..says that on the vitana, 8,12,16.24,
32,64 vidhyadhara should be placed and above that varanganas should
be placed. (190-14).*^ They should hold string and leather instruments,
and perform acting and dancing movements creating sounds of singing and 'm97
(190-15). It also mentions that in the decoration of the
house, village or the town, make a nrityashala to the north of
Ghatisthana on whose vitana salabhanjika should be made along with98ghanta. (85-26) The jangha should be 35 parts and it should have
stambha, Nasika and phalanas on all the sides of the sandhara (prasada).
On the mulanasa and all sides of the stambhas Gaja simhavala and makara
99should be made (127.21-22) On all the sides of the karnas the eight
dikpalas should be placed in the pradaksina order, Natesha facing East,
Andhaka facing south and chandika with canine teeth on the north side.
Compassionate Sasanadevis should be placed in all the directions (127- 23, 24)^® On the varimarga munindra should be placed while ascetic
figures in the pralina.
The placement of decorative figures on the gate ways to the city
t& also mentioned by Aparajita. On all the four corners make repeated
decoration every where, after every 3000 measures a pair of vidhyadhari
and a yoddha (70—21)
While on the four sides of the royal court's exit place yaksis
for decoration. Embellish each wall with gems in all the dvishalas. On
each pratibhadra of the shala make lotuses which are the favourites¥
of the kings. In the vitana place unusual hanging lumas from the centre
112
while various forms of royal sports be represented in different shapes.
On the upper part of the stambha place salabhanjika statues (779-11)1^
It is only here that the term pratima is indicated.
Number of references have been brought to light from the Agama
which enlighten us about the parts of temple architecture in which the
apsaras should be placed.
Kasyapa Silpa Patala (chapter 48. 49-57) describes the form of
the apsaras as very bright with long and heavy hair, decorated with
various flowers and draped with silk clothe^. Their thighs should be
thick and touching each other, waist should be narrow, but face should
be serene and slightly smiling, their bodies should be smeared with
different fragrances. Their groups should be placed in inter-related
movements on the bhadra pitha in samabhanga and they should be seven
in number.
Vaikhanasiya Atnsamhita, (Samurtar Chanadhikarana 7.29) mentions
the mandapa as the place for pure and divine apsaras and five of them
should be placed at five places in the mandapa.
103Laksana Samucchaya (chapter 26, 9-11) is more precise in
stating the placement of the kumarikA^. The 28 kumarikas should be
carved fully all around on the s+ambhas of the bhitti and not on the
kudya (pilaster on the relief wall). Refering to the mandapa, which
should be visible from all the four sides, clearlyAftd divided into thirty
parts, and in the middle of its four pillars should be placed twelve
kumarikas. On the corners and on the fore parts and sides of the pillars
place the kumarikas.
/
113
/O^For Vikhanasa Kasyapa Janakhanda (Chapter 32) the temple wall
should be decorated wwith apsara, yaksha, gandharva, naga_, as if
descended from the heaven in a playful mood. This group should be
represented in a beautiful and enchanting way which should give pleasure
to the eye.
VASTUSUTRA UPANISAD
This is a text with a difference. Its attributed author, Pippalada,
has divided it into six prapathakas just like the Prsna Upanisad of the
Atharvaveda. 3 It is known as Vastusutra and not Silpasutra, because
it deals more with the layout, and composition of sculptures and not
so much with modelling of forms. It proposes a fundamental grid
structure for images which are created using geometrical and mathematical
configurations. This khilapanjara, as it is known., indicates the basic
disposition and movement of the figures in space. In the composition
for an image of the main deity who occupies the central Brahma Kshetra
the upper Daiva Khetra is occupied by the yakshas, gandharvas and
apsaras. The lower khetra is occupied by the adorers, human
worshippers and the vehicles of the divinities. (VSU : 8,9). The apsaras
entertain the gods in diverse ways and through the representation of
the singers of praises, the images become particularly beautiful (VSU
: 25).
KSIRARNAVA/VRKSARNAVA (A 120.82 - 132)
During 15th century in Gujarat, three texts were written borrowing
from the earlier architectural texts, namely Vrksarnava, Ksirarnava and
Diparnava. Dhaky observes that Vrksarnava belongs to the first half
of the 15th century, while Ksirarnava (also known as Naradaprccha)
114
to the beginning of the 15th century. Diparnava, derives from Aparajita
prccha, Ksirarnava and Vastu vidya is a 16th century architectural text.
the measurements of its parts and the placement of the figures on its4-mandovara is mentioned. The figures consist of lokpala, dikpala and
devangana^ who should be placed in the ratha-pratiratha playing on
musical instruments and dancing gleefully. Indr a and other gods with
ayudha and vehicles should also be made along with ganas and attendantsf
as if celebrating some festive occasion. The dancing devanganas should
look with down cast eyes and aiming arrows or taking a step forward
with the left foot. Some devanganas should be shown dancing with left
hand descending towards the left side as if demonstrating the left side
of her body.
The following few verses throw light on the placement of specific
devanganas on certain directions conjointly with the dikpalas. In south,
Yama is shown observing while in south-west Ksetrapala* along with
yaksas and ganas is placed. West is the place of Varuna, north west
is the territory of Vayu, who is to be represented dancing in a circular
manner some sort of tandava nritya holding a scarf. In Kubera's abode
Padmini devangana is to be placed dancing in an amorous way with one
hand above the head. In Isana direction of north-west make Menaka
>m the heaven to descend on the earth. Even show Indra
embracing Rambha, who holds a beautiful arrow and vina with her.
Urvasi should be shown playing a flute in the agnikuna, while in south
make Trilochana with cymbals and Kamarupa to dance with Yama. In
the south west direction place ksetrapala and Chandrauli holding anjali
.hasta, while place Varuna in the west, flanked by Rambha holding bow
While describing the emergence of the Chaturmukha Mahaprasada106
115
and arrow. The west north has Vayu on whose right is Manjughosha.
It will be observed that the above description is not consistent
and some of the devanganas do not have a specific form, since only their
names are given without reference to imagery.
Now starts another list of thirty two devanganas who should be
placed m pradaksma order on the jangha starting from the isana corner
that is north east with Menaka. The thirty two devangana are : Menaka,
Lilavati, Vidhichitra, Sundari, Shubhagamini, Hansavali, Sarvakala,
Karpuramanjari, Padmini, Gudhashabda - Padmanetra, Chitrini,
Putravallabha, Gauri, Gandhari, Devasakha, Marichika, Chandravali,
Chandrarekha, Sugandha, Satrumardini, Manini, Manahansa, Susvabhava,
Bhavachandra, Mrigakshi, Urvasi, Rambha, Manjughosa, Jaya, Vijaya,
Chandravaletra, Kamarupa.
Place all these Devanganas in the "toandovara, and vitana of the
temples of Brahma, Visnu, Siva, Surya and Jina. Some of the devanganas
could be repeated more than once on the same temple.
Ksirarnava describes how each of the Devanganas should be
represented according to their prescribed iconographies and descriptions.
1. Menaka - bow and arrow, left leg raised.
2. Lilavati - amorously shunning laziness.
3. Vidhichitra - holding mirror and putting bindi.
4. Sundari - simply dancing.
5. Subha - pulling out a thorn from the foot
6. Hamsavali - putting payal, lotus eyed.
7. Sarvakala dancing with varada
chintana mudra.
116
8. Karpuramanjari
9... Padmini
10. Padmanetra-Gudhasabda
11. Chitrini
12. Putravallabha
13. Gaun
14. Gandhari
15. Devasakha
16. Manchika
17. Chandravali
18. Chandrarekha
19. Sugandha
20. Satrumardini
21. Manavi
22. Manahamsa
23. Svabhava
24. Bhavachandra
25. Mrigaksi
26. Urvasi
27. Rambha
- dancing in nude while bathing.
- one holding a stalk of lotus.
- holding abhaya hasta and a child stands
by her side.
- dancing with left hand on the head.
- one who has a baby on her side.
- Killing a lion.
- a special one dancing with right hand
aloft.
- one dancing a circular dance.
- aiming a bow-arrow looking on left side.
- looking in front with anjali hasta, beautiful eyed.
- writing a letter, her forehead is broad
like the half moon.
- dancing in circles holding the moon aloft.
- holding knives and dancing.
- holding flower garlands and dancing.
- dancing with her back visible.
- one whose body is bent in chaturbhangi,
leg is lifted and hands raised above head.
- one who is dancing with her hands and
feet in yogamudra.
- dancing with full bloom and beauty.
- killing the asura with a khadga and pulling him by his shikha.
- holding knives in both hands and dancing with her right foot lifted up.
28. Manjughosa she dances in circles holding khadga in
both hands.
117
29. Jaya
30. Mohini
31. Chandravaktra
32. Tilottama
- dancing with a water pot on her head.
- dancing and embracing the male companion.
- dancing gracefully by lifting one foot.
- either holding manjira or pushpabana
and dancing.
Like this the devanganas should be made in the jangha, vitana
and the celestial places on the four sides of the mandovara and the
mandapa, where as the munis, tapas, vyala and others in the jalantra
or salilantara. (133-34).
107PRASADA MANDANA
Written by Sutradhara Mandana in the reign of Rana kumbha of
Chittor between 1433 - 1468 A.D. In the reference dealing with temple
parts he mentions that the vidyadhara thara should be seven parts broad
and ten parts long. On this make beautiful dancing salabhanjikas.
Decorate the centre of the mandapa, vitana with paintings and devanganas
in dancing mode along with pauranic themes. (PM, 7-32, 34)
118
Placement of devanganas on the jangha of the temple mandovara
in j*d'radaksina order starting from Isana with Menaka in relation with
-th.e_ respective directions, prescribed in KSIRARNAVA.
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119
CHAPTER-111
REFERENCES TO VARIOUS ASPECTS OF APSARA IMAGERY FROM SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT SOURCES
FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES
SECTION-1.1
1. A.A.Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, Strassburg, 1898, p.124,125.
2. ibid, Macdonell 1898, p.125
3. S.K.Das, Sakti or Divine Power, Calcutta, 1934, p.741, (It) Indian
Culture, Vol.VIII, p.67, (III) M.C.P. Srivastava, Mother Goddess
in Indian Art, Archaeology and Literature, Delhi, 1979, p.33.
4. A.B.Keith, The Religion and Philosophy of the Vedas and Upanisads,
Harvard Oriental Series, 1925, p.199.
5. Stella Kramrisch, Hindu Temple, Calcutta, 1946.
6. A.A.Macdonell, op.cit, p.87.
7. A.A.Macdonell, ibid, p.87.
8. V.S.Agrawal, Indian Art, Varanasi, 1965, p.325.
9. A. A.Mqcdonell, op.cit. p.88
10. ibid, p.107-114.
11. ibid, p.113.
12. C. Sivaramamurti, Amaravati Sculptures in the Madras Government
Museum, Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum, Vol.IV, new
series, Madras, 1977, p.82.
13. C. Sivaramamurti, ibid, p.84.
14. C. Sivaramamurti, ibid, p.84.
15. C. Sivaramamurti, Lakshmi in India Art
SECTION-1.2
16. A.A.Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, Strassburg, 1898, Reprint, Delhi,
1981, p.134-137, the above data has been compiled from the data
120
collected by Macdonell.
SECTION-1.3
17. A.B.Keith - The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and
Upanishads, Harvard Oriental Series, Vol.31, 1st Ed. 1925 p.179-
184, This section was compil ed from the data collected by
A.B.Keith.
SECTION-1.4
18. A.A.Macdonell, op.cit. p.134.
19. Bharata - Natyasastra, trans, Mahmohan Ghosh, Calcutta, 1950.
20. a Agni Purana - Chapter 19 (From Vettam Mani, Puranic Encyclopaedia,
A Comprehensive Dictionary with special reference to the Epic and
Puranic Literature, 1st Ed. 1964. (/hhlayalam) English Ed. New Delhi,
1975.
20. b Mahabharata, Adi Parva, 67-83, ibid.
21. a Valmiki Ramayana, Balakanda, 45.32, (From A.B.Keith, op.cit)
21.b Vishnu Purana, 1.9, H.H.Wilson.
21. c Agni Purana, Chapter 3, op.cit,
22. Matsya Purana, Anandashram Sanskrit Series, No.54, Poona, 1907.
23. Vayu Purana - Anandashram Sanskrit Series, No.49, Poona, 1893.
24. Brahmanda Purana - Ed. J.L.Shastri, Delhi, 1973.
25. Vishnu Purana - Oriental Press, Bombay, 1899.
26. Bhagavat, Purana
27. Cornelia Dimmitt and J.A;B. Van Buitoneo - Classical Hindu
Mythology, 1st pub. 1978, Indian Ed, New Delhi, 1983, p.74 & 97
28. Dimmitt and Bintenen, ibid, p.82.
SECTION-!. 5
29. V.S.Agrawala - Matsya Purana - A Study, Varanasi, 1963, p.133.
121
30. C. Sivaramamurti - Chitrasutra of the Vishnudharmottara, New Delhi,
1978.
31. V.R.Ramachandra Dikshitar, The Purana Index, Vol.IlI, (Yato H)
University of Madras, 1955.
32. Vettam Mani, op.cit.
33. Vettam Mani, ibid. i
34. Vettam Mani, ibid.
SECTION-1.6
35. Mohanlal Mehta & K. Rishabh Chandra, Agamic Index, Vol.I, Ed.
Dalsukh Malvania, Ahmedabad, 1970.
36. B. Barua, Barhut, Stone as a Story teller, Calcutta, 1934, 2nd Ed.
Patna, p.54.
SEGTI0N-II.1
37. Heinrich Zimmer, The Art of Indian Asia - Its Mythology and
Transformations^ 1st published Princeton University Press, 1st Indian
Ed. New Delhi, 1984, Vol.I p.68-84.
38. Kalidasa - Meghadutam, tans, Chandra Rajan, Kalidasa - The Loom
of Time, A Selection of his plays and poems, New Delhi, 1989,
p.162.
39. Kapila Vatsyayan, Classical Indian Dance in the Literature and the
Arts, New £)elhi, 1st Publication 1968, 2nd Ed. 1977, p.195.
40. K. Vatsyayan, ibid, p.199.
41. Kalidasa - Loom of Time, op.cit., p.116.
SECTION-11.2
42. V.S.Agrawala, Brihat Kathasloka Sangraha, A Study, Varanasi, 1974,
p.301.
122
43. V.S.Agrawala, ibid, p.302.
44. V. Raghavan, Sringara Prakasa, Madras, 1903, p.648.
45. V. Raghavan, ibid, p.853
46. V. Raghavan, ibid, p.652
47. V. Raghavan, ibid, p.850.
SECTION-III
48. D. Sharma, Early Chauhan Dynasties, New Delhi, 1959, p.260.
49. Shishirkumar Mitra, Early Rulers of Khajuraho, Calcutta, 1958, p.178-
79.i
50. D. Sharma, op.cit, 1959, Appendix G (iii) and Epigraphi a Indica,
XI p.28.
51. D. Sharma, ibid, 1959, p.222.
52. D. Sharma, ibid, 1959, p.224.
53. D. Sharma, ibid* 1 * * * * *, and Bombay Gazatteer, Vol I part I, p.469.!
54. D. Sharma, ibid, 1959, p.261.
55. D. Sharma, 1959, p.261.
56. Kumarapala Charita VI, 32, I 6b-b7.
57. GOS XXXVI, p.I: (Jinapala on Charchari) & D. Sharma, 1959, p.226.58. Epigraphia Indica, XV, p.85.7
59. Rajatarangini, VII, p.858, P.G.C.Singhi Jain mala p.108.
60. Mahesh Singh, The Paramaras,ep.p.177.
61. Epigraphia Indica, XI, p.28' * \
62. Prabandha Cintamani, IV, p.93.
63. Mahesh Singh, op.cit, 1984, p.214.
64. a Rajatarangini, VIII, 606, 928, 931, 944.
64.b Prabandha Cintamani, III, 35.37.I[
64.c Inscriptions from Bengal II, 35.41.
123
65. Samarangana Sutradhara, XV, GOS, p.18.
66. Struggle for Empire, p.329.
67. Aparajita Praccha, GOS, CXV, Baroda, 1950, 239, Tandavadi
Natyalaksana p.614
68. Udyotanashrij Kavalayamala, Ed. A.N.Upadhye, Bombay, 1957, p.50.
69. Motichandra, The World of Courtesans , New Delhi, 1973, p.57.
70. Ksemendra, Samayamatrika, VIII, 83, ibid.
71. Sringaramanjari, Ed. Kalpana Munshi, Bombay, 1959, p.57.
72. Moti chandra, op.cit, For the discussions on this point see
Introdu ction Critique.
73. S.P.Tewari, Royal Attendants In Ancient Indian Literature, Epigraphy
& Art, New Delhi, 1987, p.30. \
74. S.P.Tewari, 1987, ibid.
75. Buddhasvami, Brihat Katha Sloka Samgraha, V.S.Agrawala, Indian
Civilization Series, No.IV, Varanasi, 1974.
76.
op. cit., Tewari.
77.
78.
Monier Williams, Via Tewari.
79.
op. cit. Tewari.
80.
124
SECTION-IV
82.
81. Samarangana Sutradhara (57, 46-47).cm: ■’! //
4T3rfc^j-cn^^T\^rui i 4?ed. 7. Ganapati Sastri, G.O.S., No.25, Baroda, 1966.
ripsff# li
si^2S it£P* : IIW^T^57*1,3^ iTpq ,' /
'TaiU^r q yg^,- ,• /83.
84.
85.
S.S.57, p.<i04, ibid. _ ^
fWVr* 4-ji ^ 1 |*er< I r-Xr^i ^ *1 V) U
S.S.57, p.404, ibid. r-s
pT*f fcrtnhr.’ ■&^>f s^rtf3,/TirnH<>c^?3j_ 1186.
S.S.57, p.404, ibid.
The above five verses are not numbered but they constitute the Meru
section of the Chapter 57, which covers Mervadivimsika Prasada
Laksana. Besides Meru, the other type of Prasada which contain
Apsara, Kinnara, Vidhyadhari, Gandharvas, Yaksas and Salabhanjika
for decoration are Sridhara, Puspaka, Mahavraja, Ratideha, Vimanam.
87. Alice Boner and S.R.Sharma, Silpa Prakasa, Medieval Orissan Sanskrit
Text on Temple Architecture, By Rama chandra Kaulacharya, Leiden,
1966, p.46-53.
88. ibid.S.P. 1.225, p.32.
125
89. ibid, S.P. 1.256, p.35.
90. ibid, S.P. 1.392, p.46.
91. ibid, S.P. 1.393, p.46
92. ibid, S.P. 1.394-95, p.46
93. ibid, S.P. 1.407-481, p.46-53. ;
94. ibid, S.P. 1.402-409, fig.11, p.47, plates XXI, XXII, XXIII.
95. Aparajita Pr ccha - Bhuvanadevacharya,SmS> J Ed. P. A.Mankad,
CXV, Baroda, 1950.96. yt'Bj. r^m. I
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103- ttzrifaffcftvrr&tcc?; cS/ht'&fiir gwOd : jj ^Laksana Samucchaya, 26 - 9,11.
lOl.Kashyapa Silpa Sastram - (fid) S.H.Ganapati Sastri, Anandashfam
Sanskrit Series 1986.
105 Vastusutra Upanisad, The Essance of Form in Sacred Art, text, trans,
Ed. Alice Boner, S.R.Sharma, B. Baumer, New Delhi, 1982.
106 Ksirarnava, (Ed) P.O. Sompura, Palitana, 1967.
107 Prasada Mandana - (Ed) Bhagvandas Jain.
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