Ideologies of Eastness in Central andEastern Europe

This book explores how the countries of Eastern Europe which were formerlypart of the Soviet bloc have, since the end of communist rule, developed a newideology of their place in the world. Drawing on post-colonial theory and onidentity discourses in the writings of local intelligentsia figures, the book showshow people in these countries no longer think of themselves as part of the “east”,and how they have invented new stereotypes of the countries to the east ofthem, such as Ukraine and Belarus, to which they see themselves as superior.The book demonstrates how there are a whole range of ideologies of “eastness”,how these have changed over time, and how such ideologies impact in apractical way on relations with countries further east.

Tomasz Zarycki is an Associate Professor and Director of the Robert ZajoncInstitute of Social Studies, University of Warsaw, Poland.

Ideologies of Eastness in Centraland Eastern Europe

Tomasz Zarycki

First published 2014by Routledge2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

and by Routledge711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2014 Tomasz Zarycki

The right of Tomasz Zarycki to be identified as author of this work has beenasserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patent Act1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced orutilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, nowknown or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or inany information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writingfrom the publishers.

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataZarycki, Tomasz.Ideologies of eastness in Central and Eastern Europe / Tomasz Zarycki.pages cm. - - (BASEES/Routledge series on Russian and East European

studies ; 96)Includes bibliographical references and index.1. National characteristics, East European. 2. National characteristics,

Central European. 3. Group identity- -Europe, Eastern. 4. Post-communism- -Europe, Eastern. 5. Europe, Eastern- -Civilization. 6. Groupidentity- -Europe, Central. 7. Post-communism- -Europe, Central. 8. Europe,Central- -Civilization. I. Title.

DJK26.5.Z37 2014320.540947- -dc23

2013040876

ISBN: 978-0-415-62589-0 (hbk)ISBN: 978-1-315-81900-6 (ebk)

Typeset in Times New Romanby Taylor & Francis Books

Contents

List of figures xiiAcknowledgements xiii

1 Central and Eastern Europe and the idea of the East 1

2 Central and Eastern Europe in a center-periphery perspective 16

3 The dependence doxa: Western hegemony and its naturalization inCentral and Eastern Europe 32

4 The intelligentsia doxa: the hegemony of the intelligentsiaand its naturalization 64

5 Post-colonial theory in the Central European context 89

6 The Kresy (old borderlands) discourse and its critics 115

7 The new borderlands discourse 152

8 Constructing new identities for Eastern Poland 175

9 Belarussian, Lithuanian and Ukrainian reactions to Polishdiscourses on the East 229

10 Conclusions: critical theory in the Central European context 255

References 267Index 285

List of figures

2.1 Visions of relations of domination of the two principal politicalcamps of Poland 21

2.2 Visions of relations of domination of the two principal politicalcamps of Ukraine 22

2.3 Visions of relations of domination of the two principal politicalcamps of Russia 23

Acknowledgements

I have been working on the book in the Robert B. Zajonc Institute for SocialStudies at the University of Warsaw. I would like to thank my colleagues andthe staff of the Institute for their support of my project. I am also verygrateful to all representatives of several other institutions who supported myresearch, in particular, to those of them who shared their advice and agreedto be interviewed for the purposes of my research. I am particularly/especiallygrateful to all my interlocutors and all those who helped me during myresearch trips to Białystok, Lublin, Rzeszów, Vilnius, Kyiv, Lviv, Brest andMinsk. The list of persons who influenced my work intellectually would betoo long to fit in this place. Here, however, I would like to mention TomaszWarczok and thank him for the intellectual stimulation and his preciousadvice. He is actually the person with whom I have developed the Model ofthe field of power in a peripheral setting presented in this book. However,neither he nor any other person besides me, bears any responsibility for theway in which ideas in this book have been presented.

I would like to thank Marian Stefanski of the University of Economics andInnovation in Lublin for granting me his permission to reproduce parts oftwo chapters from books edited by him:

Zarycki, T. (2010) ‘Orientalism and images of Eastern Poland’, in M. Stefanski (ed.)Endogenous factors in Development of the Eastern Poland, pp. 73–88, Lublin: InnovatioPress Wydawnictwo Naukowe Wyz.szej Szkoły Ekonomii i Innowacji.

——(2011) ‘Eastern Poland in a center-periphery perspective’, in M. Stefanski (ed.)Strategic issues of the development of the Lublin region, pp. 95–112, Lublin: InnovatioPress Scientific Publishing House University of Economic and Innovation in Lublin.

These two texts have been partly used in Chapter 8.The research I present in this book was financed by the National Science

Center of the Republic of Poland (Narodowe Centrum Nauki—NCN) withinthe framework of a project entitled: “Critical Analysis of the Polish Discourseon the East” (“Krytyczna analiza polskich dyskursów o ‘wschodzie’”; 2009–12,No. 4264/B/H03/2009/37).

Tomasz'Zarycki''

Ideologies)of)Eastness)in)Central)and)Eastern)Europe)'Routledge','2014.''['http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415625890/']''Series:'BASEES/Routledge'Series'on'Russian'and'East'European'Studies'''This'book'explores'how' the' countries'of' Eastern'Europe,'which'were' formerly'part'of' the'Soviet'bloc'have,'since'the'end'of'communist'rule,'developed'a'new'ideology'of'their'place'in' the'world.'Drawing'on'postQcolonial' theory'and'on' identity'discourses' in' the'writings'of'local'intelligentsia'figures,'the'book'shows'how'people'in'these'countries'no'longer'think'of'themselves' as' part' of' the' "east",' and' how' they' have' invented' new' stereotypes' of' the'countries'to'the'east'of'them,'such'as'Ukraine'and'Belarus,'to'which'they'see'themselves'as'superior.'The'book'demonstrates'how'there'are'a'whole'range'of' ideologies'of'"eastness",'how' these' have' changed' over' time,' and' how' such' ideologies' impact,' in' a' practical' way,'relations'with'countries'further'east.''''ABSTRACTS)'CHAPTER)1):)Central)and)Eastern)Europe)and)the)Idea)of)the)East''The'introductory'chapter'of'the'book'presents'the'main'goals'and'assumptions.'The'author'discusses' definitions' of' key' notions' introduced' in' the' book' such' “orientalism”' and'“ideologies' of' eastness”.' The' chapter' presents' the' main' arguments' of' the' book,' which'includes' a' thesis' related' to' the' unavoidable' character' of' negative' stereotypes' of' Eastern'Europe'in'the'context'of'contemporary'hierarchies'of'power'and'status'within'the'continent.'The' author' argues' that' dominant' visions' of' Eastern' Europe' may' be' seen' as' highly'ambivalent' and' symbolic' inequalities' between' this' part' of' the' continent' and' its' core' are'largely'naturalized.''')CHAPTER)2:)Central)and)Eastern)Europe)in)a)Center>Periphery)Perspective''The'chapter' introduces'a'view'of'Central'and'Eastern'Europe'as'peripheries.' It' is'based'on'the' perspective' of' Immanuel'Wallenstein’s' world' system' theory.' This'model' is' related' to'Stein'Rokkan’s'typology'of'political'cleavages.'It'is'argued,'in'particular,'that'specific'types'of'centerQperiphery' cleavages' can' be' identified' as' being' characteristic' of' particular' zones' of'Central' and' Eastern' Europe.' The' main' focus' of' the' chapter' is' on' the' soQcalled' antiQcommunist' cleavage' and' the' cleavage' based' on' different' attitudes' towards' Western'domination.'The'role'of'the'soQcalled'ideology'of'antiQcommunism'is'discussed'towards'the'end'of'the'chapter.''')

CHAPTER)3):)The)Dependence)Doxa:)Western)Hegemony)and)its)Naturalization)in)Central)and)Eastern)Europe''The'chapter'introduces'the'notion'of'“dependence'doxa”,'which'refers'to'the'naturalization'and'resultant'relative'invisibility'of'the'dependence'of'Central'and'Eastern'Europe'from'the'Western'core.''It'is'argued'that'the'economic'dimension'of'Western'hegemony'remains'the'key,'but'least'contested,'element'of'dependence'within'the'region.'On'other'hand,'it'is'the'cultural'and'partly'political'dimensions'which'are'most'vividly'debated.'This'results'in'what'is'called' a' “cultural' reductionism”' of' the' critical' discourses' related' to' problems' of' Central'Europe.' These'dominant' culturalist' images'of' the' region'may'be' linked' to'mechanisms'of'symbolic'violence.''''CHAPTER) 4:) The) Intelligentsia) Doxa:) The) Hegemony) of) the) Intelligentsia) and) Its)Naturalization''The' chapter' introduces' the' notion' of' the' “intelligentsia' doxa”,' which' refers' to' the'naturalization'and'resultant'relative'invisibility'of'the'privileged'role'of'the'intelligentsia,' in'particular' in' the' countries' of' Central' Europe.' ' The' special' status' of' the' intelligentsia' is'theorized'in'terms'of'the'dominant'role'of'cultural'capital.''It'is'argued'that'cultural'capital'in'Central'Europe'and'political'capital'in'Eastern'Europe'may'be'seen'as'compensatory'capitals'in'peripheral' regions.'The'chapter'discusses'the'role'of' the' intelligentsia' from'the'point'of'view'of'its'position'in'the'so'called'field'of'power.''')CHAPTER)5):)Post>colonial)Theory)in)Central)European)Context''The'chapter'discusses'Central'European'uses'of'postQcolonial'theory'with'special'reference'to' Poland.' Such' uses' are' seen' as' recontextualizations' of' an' imported' academic' discourse'into'a'new'context,'which'is'marked'by'a'specific'configuration'of'political'oppositions'and'ideological'biases.'Consequently,' two'key'parallel' reinterpretations'of'postQcolonial' theory'are'discussed:'the'euroQskeptical'conservative'recontextualization'and'the'euroQenthusiastic'liberal' recontextualization.' Finally,' a' view' of' postQcolonial' theory' is' presented' as' a' new'language'of'expression'of'the'concerns'of'CentralQEuropean'intellectuals.''')

CHAPTER)6):)The)Kresy)(Old)Borderlands))Discourse)and)its)Critics'

The' chapter' discusses' the' heritage' and' contemporary' uses' of' the' soQcalled' “Kresy”'discourse,'which'is'a'traditional'Polish'way'of'referring'to'the'eastern'borderlands,'especially'during' the' period' of' the' First' Rzeczpospolita' and' the' PolishQLithuanian' Commonwealth.'Along' with' that' discussion,' contemporary' discourses' critical' of' the' Kresy' myth' are' also'analyzed'and'some'of' the'questionable'assumptions'of' those'discourses'are'revealed.'The'historical'Kresy'debate'is'deconstructed'as'another'instance'of'the'contemporary'key'debate'between'liberal'and'conservative'camps'in'the'Polish'political'field.''

)CHAPTER)7):))The)New)Borderlands)Discourse)''The'author'argues'that'the'old'discourse'of'“Kresy”'discussed'in'the'previous'chapter'can'be'seen'as'a'conservative'ideology'of'eastness'and'as'a'traditional'Polish'orientalist'discourse.'A'new' liberal' discourse' of' borderlands' is' analyzed' and' interpreted,' in' this' chapter,' as' an'implicit'new'ideology'of'eastness.'The'chapter'deconstructs'the'idealistic'assumptions'of'the'borderlands'discourse'and'points'to'its'normative'character'and'practical'implications.'In'the'conclusion,' it' is' suggested' that' the'new'borderlands'discourse'may'be' seen' as' playing' an'important'role'in'naturalization'of'the'privileged'role'of'the'intelligentsia.''')CHAPTER)8):)Constructing)New)Identities)for)Eastern)Poland''The'chapter'presents'contemporary'Eastern'Poland'as'a'case'study'of' the'reproduction'of'old' ideologies' of' eastness' and' the' application' of' their' new' forms.' It' begins' with' a' short'overview'of'the'history'of'Eastern'Poland’s'marginalization,'in'particular'in'economic'terms.'The'author'links'this'geoQeconomic'context'to'the'reproduction'of'orientalist'images'of'the'region.' The' chapter' concludes' with' an' overview' of' internal' images' of' the' region,' with' a'focus'on'new'discourses'of'regional'identity'within'the'three'metropolitan'areas'of'Eastern'Poland:'Białystok,'Lublin'and'Rzeszów.''CHAPTER) 9:) Belarussian,) Lithuanian) and)Ukrainian) reactions) to) Polish) discourses) on) the)East''The'chapter'presents'an'analysis'of'the'relationships'between'Polish'ideologies'of'Eastness,'in' particular' those' referring' to' the' region' between' Poland' and' Russia,' and' discourses' of'countries'which'share'a'common'historical'heritage'with'Poland:'Belarus,'Lithuania'and'the'Ukraine.'The'discussion'centers'on'which'elements'of'the'Polish'narratives'in'these'countries'are'most'strongly'rejected'by'them,'and'which'more'or'less'resonate'with'discourses'of'local'intellectuals.' A' short' overview' of' the' uses' of' postQcolonial' theory' in' the' region' is' also'presented.''''CHAPTER)10):)Conclusions:)Critical)theory)in)the)Central)European)Context''This'last'chapter'summarizes'the'main'arguments'of'the'book'and,'at'the'same'time,'relates'them' to' some' of' the' key' debates' of' contemporary'Western' critical' theory.' It' argues,' in'particular,' that' the' case' of' Central' and' Eastern' Europe' does' a' good' job' of' exposing' the'ambiguous' status' and' implications'of' the'uses'of' contemporary'Western' critical' theory' in'peripheral' settings.' Idealism' of' critical' approaches' may' unintentionally' reinforce' and'naturalize'such'relatively'invisible'hierarchies,'such'as'the'dependence'of'the'region'on'the'Western'core'and'the'hegemony'of'the'intelligentsia'over'other'social'groups.'''

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