1

Philosophische Fakultät

der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn

Hausarbeit für

Caribbean Voices in Post-War Britain

WS 2014/15

Frau Miriam Gertzen M.A.

Hybridity and Multi-Culturalism in Zadie Smith’s White

Teeth

Vorgelegt von

Rihan Jawich

___________________

Matrikel-Nr.: ________

Wintersemester 2014/15

2

Table of contents

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1

2. Hybridity and Multi-Culturalism in theory ............................................................... 2

2.1. Hybridity ............................................................................................................ 2

2.2. Multi-Culturalism ............................................................................................... 3

3. Society in White Teeth .............................................................................................. 4

3.1. The Joneses ......................................................................................................... 5

3.2. The Chalfens ....................................................................................................... 8

3.3. The Iqbals ........................................................................................................... 9

4. Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 14

5. Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 15

5.1. Primary literature .............................................................................................. 15

5.2. Secondary literature .......................................................................................... 15

1

1. Introduction

Due to the United Kingdom’s long history of colonisation and imperialism, its

capital has become one of the most diverse and multicultural cities in the world. Indeed,

the city of London is considered a main source of British history and culture, but

especially in the last decades, many subcultures have emerged through immigration

from mostly the West Indies and Southern Asia. Hence, residents of the United

Kingdom faced a postcolonial development within their culture, eventually leading

scholars and authors to address certain issues, for instance the concepts of

multiculturalism and hybridity that have newly emerged within British society. Zadie

Smith, being a child of an Englishman and a Jamaican mother, grew up in London

amidst these mixed cultures and social groups. Thus, she is not only one of Britain’s

representatives of multiculturalism through her literature, but has also experienced the

development of a hybrid identity herself through her multi-ethnical background. In her

debut novel White Teeth, Smith depicts the lives of mainly three families in northern

London who are highly affected by postcolonial circumstances.

Besides the protagonists’ personal experiences and life events, the novel focuses on

fundamental issues of London’s mixed society and outlines the struggles of first

generation immigrants to approach and accept the culture they live in. Moreover, it

addresses the second generation’s self-consciousness and unsteadiness, for the children

of those families, Irie Jones, Joshua and the Iqbal twins, are torn in between two or

more cultures through their parents’ background and the society they live in. The main

challenge of each character is eventually the definition of one’s identity. By considering

not only their ethnic and religious backgrounds, but also focussing on their intra-

familial conflicts, Smith gives an insight into the challenges of these individuals in a

multicultural and hybrid society.

The following will outline the aspects of multiculturalism and its impact on the

characters’ actions in the novel. Furthermore, it is to be analysed in how far the

protagonists, particularly the children, correspond to hybridity. First, however, it is

necessary to explain what exactly is meant by the terms hybridity and multiculturalism.

Hence, with the help of Homi Bhabha’s and other postcolonial writers’ conceptual

definition of hybrid identity and the distinction of particular cultural aspects, which are

2

to be observed critically, one will get a profound glimpse into the families’ everyday

life and the protagonists’ life choices.

2. Hybridity and Multi-Culturalism in theory

In the last decades, there have been several new approaches in the explanation of the

formation and significance of culture. Especially in a postcolonial context, the

determination of those aspects and the meaning of culture in general, becomes more and

more varying. It is not only a question of defining a term, but more importantly, the

distinction and position of those terms have to be analysed. When reading postcolonial

texts and novels, such as Smith’s White Teeth, the question arises as to what specific

kind of society and culture is depicted and in how far it affects people’s everyday life.

The following aims at defining and positioning the terms hybridity and multi-

culturalism, for they are the two major aspects that are fundamental in order to

understand the protagonists’ specific behaviour and social circumstances. Furthermore,

the theoretical approach will shed a light on Zadie Smith’s choices of particular

character traits and the social construct, for many of the elements that are to be

discussed later, can easily be categorised within these postcolonial cultural terms.

2.1. Hybridity

Before analysing the elements of hybridity in the novel, it is important to decode its

meaning first. One must know that there exists more than one definition concerning the

term’s position in a social or racial context. Nevertheless, some aspects can be

generalised:

Hybridity refers to the process of the emergence of a culture, in which its

elements are being continually transformed or translated through irrepressible

encounters. Hybridity offers the potential to undermine existing forms of cultural

authority and representation. (A Dictionary of Sociology 2005, as cited in

Warner 2007: 5).

In this definition, hybridity is described as an own culture. According to Edward Said, a

Palestinian American theorist, “cultures are hybrid and heterogeneous […] and

interdependent” (Said 1995: 347), thus hybridity can be seen as not only a result of

globalisation, immigration and colonisation, but as a constant circumstance in the

development of every culture. Therefore, it is nearly impossible to determine a

particular culture (cf. Said 1995: 348). Hence, its concretisation must be critically

3

reviewed. The Indian postcolonial scholar Homi K. Bhabha further developed the

concept of a hybrid culture and identity. He “uses the term hybridity to mark the

interdependent construction of post/colonial identities, which combine and intersect

binary oppositions in complex and ambiguous ways” (Meyer 2008: 171), ultimately

giving a more ambivalent insight into its structure in comparison to Said’s approach and

criticism towards orientalism.

A particularly interesting aspect of his study, is the concept of mimicry, which means

that the “other” (Meyer 2008: 171) imitates certain behaviour and aspects of the

dominating culture. Although Bhabha gave the term a rather positive connotation in

contrast to a common racist attitude towards it, for it “was often linked with

degeneration, infertility, weakness and bastardisation” (Hadjetian 2014: 51), he does not

deny the problems that come with the behavioural pattern of mimicry, pointing out that

even if the minority group perfectly mimics the dominant group’s cultural codes, there

is no guarantee that they are equally accepted or that their imitation is taken seriously

(cf. Meyer 2008: 171). Bhabha’s “version of hybridity gestures more directly to the

unequal position of power within which hybridity is created” (Prabhu 2007: 9). The

literary theorist and Columbia University professor, Gayatri Spivak, criticises that there

should be a much greater focus on power relations within a hybrid culture (cf. Scott,

Marshall 2009: 328) in order to overcome social and political injustices, in which the

“subaltern” (Meyer 2008: 171) is not given the chance to express his or her view.

As already mentioned, there are different views on hybridity’s position in a social

context. According to Tim Warner, “hybridity is a concept settled between

multiculturalism and the concept of a melting-pot” (2007: 5).

However, this assumption raises the question in how far multiculturalism and hybridity

can be separated, and how one has to position multiculturalism.

2.2. Multi-Culturalism

One could generally agree that multiculturalism is a particular circumstance a

society finds itself in, namely the co-existence of certain cultures in one place.

According to von Meien, the equality of cultures and even power relations are

fundamental for the definition of multiculturalism, and thus it can be referred to as a

“public policy” (2007: 3) in which “mutual respect and tolerance” (2007: 3) are

emphasised. However, the term might also imply a strong categorisation of different

ethnic groups, which creates the opposite effect, namely a strong focus on belonging to

a certain group, which can divide a society into multiple parts and create a disunity.

4

Beyond any negative or positive connotation, a multicultural society is often described

as a “salad bowl” (Burgess 2005: 31), meaning that the distinct cultures that are found

within a locality do not merge into each other, but are to be observed and defined

separately. Therefore, it becomes evident why Warner locates hybridity in between the

idea of multiculturalism and the melting-pot concept (cf. 2007: 5).

In the United Kingdom, the term has been highly politicised in the last decades. The

current Prime Minister David Cameron has stated his discontent towards this concept,

claiming that “under the ‘doctrine of state multiculturalism’, different cultures have

been encouraged to live separate lives” (BBC 2011). Indeed, the concept of

multiculturalism is in many respects problematic. It is however barely possible to

control the outcome of coexisting cultures. As one will notice in the analysis of Samad

in White Teeth, one cannot force one cultural group to merge with another, especially

when the extrinsic culture is already in a dominant position. The people of a minority

culture might feel threatened by being ultimately forced into subalternity.

3. Society in White Teeth

An interesting circumstance in White Teeth is that one cannot only find people in a

hybrid situation, but there are also further aspects that present themselves as such. In

Willesden, many things are hybrid. Whether it is the Irish pub run by an Arab named

Mickey, whose regular guests are Samad and Archie, or the Afro hair salon owned by a

white man, in which hair extensions from Indian women are put on African or

Caribbean women’s heads. There is neither such thing as one significant dominant

culture, nor is there a clear division between any of the ethnic minorities. Thus, one

realises that it is not enough to analyse the difference between Englishness and the

other, but that there are indeed blurred lines between the immigrants themselves.

Moreover, it is important to distinguish the elements that are found in the text. The

examples of hybridity do not prove that the society presented in the novel are clearly

hybrid. In fact, there are also elements that indicate a multicultural society. “It was only

that here, in Willesden, there was just not enough of any one thing to gang up against

any other thing and send it running to the cellars while windows were smashed” (Smith

2000: ch. 3). This statement about the coexistence of different groups without the

domination of one, is incompatible with the definition of hybridity according to Bhabha.

Hence, one must realise that Willesden is not purely hybrid, neither is it purely

5

multicultural in the sense of a salad bowl. The reasons for these differences are mainly

due to the older and younger generations’ different approaches on cultural identity. It is

also of great importance to note the role of religion and how it is used differently by the

characters. “White Teeth focuses on the characters’ use of religion for non-religious

purposes, such as coping with socioeconomic inequity (Hortense) and traumatic

immigrant experience (Samad), or forging new modes of belonging (Millat)” (Tew

2013: 128).

3.1. The Joneses

Archibald Jones and his wife Clara Bowden Jones are an interracial married couple. At

the time they meet, he is a much older divorced Englishman and she is a 19 years old

Jamaican. Both, Clara and Archie are somehow affected by an identity crisis when they

decide to marry. Clara’s mother turned her boyfriend Ryan Topps into a Jehovah’s

Witness, while she distanced herself from her mother’s belief, and as a consequence,

from Ryan. Archie breaks up with his wife, with whom he has never gotten along, and

takes Samad’s advice to marry again. As a part of his improvident character, he does not

concern himself with neither the race of his wife nor of Samad’s (cf. Smith 2000: ch. 4).

In general, one could say that he lives without a thought for tomorrow. If there is a

decision he needs to make, he throws a coin, which underlines his aimlessness.

While Clara appears to be rather conflicted in the beginning, for she is desperately

trying to escape the life her mother has dictated for her, she becomes more and more

unconstrained throughout the years. She does not love Archie but she decides to marry

with him nonetheless in order to begin a new life. The fact that he promises her to go

somewhere far away but eventually buys a house in Willesden (cf. Smith 2000: ch. 3)

does not discourage her to stay with him. These aspects put emphasis on Clara’s

willingness for compromises. When she is pregnant, she explains the meaning of the

name she wants to give her future daughter. "If it's a girl, I tink I like Irie. It patois.

Means every ting OK, cool, peaceful, you know?" (Smith 2000: ch. 4). Indeed, there is

something peaceful about Clara and her attitude. This becomes evident when Irie

becomes obsessed with the Chalfens. She does not see any harm in the beginning, to the

contrary, she thinks that the Chalfens play a positive role in Irie’s education. However,

one notices that Clara’s attitude changes throughout the novel. She becomes more

insecure about the development of her daughter, fearing that white culture could

dominate her.

6

From Irie’s bedroom shrine of green-eyed Hollywood idols to the gaggle of

white friends who regularly trooped in and out of her bedroom, Clara saw an

ocean of pink skins surrounding her daughter and she feared the tide that would

take her away. (Smith 2000: ch. 12)

In how far does the analysis of Irie’s parents’ character traits contribute to the

question of a cultural identity? The fact that they are an interracial couple in a disturbed

postcolonial society, that is less concerned about the situation they find themselves in

than one would expect, displays one example of how heterogeneous the families in

Willesden are; they are not only culturally different but also in their way of coping with

multiple cultural influences. Not only in comparison to the Iqbals but also within the

family, these differences are highlighted.

Hortense, Clara’s mother, although being of mixed English and Jamaican descent

herself (cf. Smith 2000: ch. 12), does not accept that her daughter married a white man

(cf. Smith 2000: ch. 3, 12). She is a strictly religious Jehovah’s Witness and is

constantly waiting for the apocalypse. As already mentioned, religion in the novel is an

instrument for the protagonists to manage their lives, also in a non-religious context.

Hortense’s attitude is a result of the suppression of minorities and her mother’s history.

She represents the ultimate subaltern in England. “A little English education can be a

dangerous thing” (Smith 2000: 13), she claims, giving a hint about how her mother

Ambrosia was impregnated by her English teacher and was left alone during the

earthquake. With the help of her religion, she creates a personal solution for escaping

her social inferiority by craving for the end of the world. In the belief of Jehovah’s

Witnesses, only the most dignified and pious 144.000 people in the world will “sit next

to Jesus” (Smith 2000: ch. 14) on doomsday. Believing that through being a devout

human being, one is destined to become the elite in the afterlife, is one way to get out of

the subordinated role. Another significant aspect about Hortense is that she teaches Irie

about her past. She is the closest connection to her mother’s homeland Jamaica, which

makes her a symbol for cultural memory and the reminder of colonial oppression. It is

in the end her who understands Irie’s identity conflicts for she provides her information

about her ancestry. It is also her who convinces Irie to visit Jamaica in the year of 2000

due to her belief that the millennium was the final day on earth. One should note that

although Archie’s and Clara’s carefree attitude might be refreshing in a society that

might be too much concerned about the rapid cultural change, it does not help their

daughter for her development of an identity.

Considering her identity development, there is possibly no better example of

hybridity than Irie, for she is not only of mixed race, but also behaves in particular

7

manners that are naturally hybrid. However, since the novel contains a lot of sarcastic

and humorous elements, it is rather difficult to determine whether Irie’s actions are, in

fact, simply teenage experimenting and curiosity, or can be read as an act of ethnic

assimilation, or isolation depending on the circumstances. For instance, she suffers

heavy pain in order to straighten her hair. But it must be noted that she does that to

impress Millat, who mostly dates white girls. One cannot conclude whether Irie wants

to be white or is only obsessed with the idea of pleasing Millat’s understanding of

physical beauty. In contrast to her wanting straight hair, she interprets a Shakespeare

poem as being an ode to a black woman (cf. Smith 2000: ch. 11), which is negated by

her teacher. Nevertheless, it shows that she sees beauty in black women. One could

possibly argue that the negative reaction by her teacher and classmates might have

negatively affected her conception of beauty. However, it has to be considered that

Millat criticises her for her new hairdo, so that she receives different responses on

beauty in an ethnic context. Throughout the novel, Irie collects these responses she gets

from society and develops her own view on culture and identity.

Hence, it is difficult to define Irie as either Jamaican or English. She is ultimately none

and both at the same time. Growing up in England and her English ancestry naturally

make her English. But the fact that in the end she is more interested in the history of her

Jamaican grandmother, is a great influence in her cultural belonging and identity.

Furthermore, there is the Chalfen family, which Irie admires for their intelligence and

sophistication. Although she doesn’t recognise that in the beginning, the Chalfen’s

Englishness is an illusion since they are not of English descent.

She wanted their Englishness. Their Chalfenishness. The purity of it. It didn’t

occur to her that the Chalfens were, after a fashion, immigrants too (third

generation, by way of Germany and Poland, né Chalfenovsky), or that they

might be as needy of her as she was of them. (Smith 2000: ch. 12)

In conclusion, the Joneses/Bowdens are a family of which three generations are

depicted in the novel. While the first generation, namely Hortense Bowden is overeager

to preserve traditional and religious values, the second generation is not concerned with

the differences they face but rather with how to see the best in their situation. And Irie,

the youngest generation, eventually manages to create a new culture for herself. She is

hybrid in every sense. She internalises her Jamaican ancestry with the help of her

grandmother but does not force herself into believing in everything her grandmother

does and says, only in order to fit the image. A notable aspect is that Irie experiences

different cultures at one time, while for the older generations the opposite culture is

8

something new; and it is a common fact that at a young age, one is more likely to be

influenced by external factors, such as the existence of more than one cultural groups

within one’s society. Therefore, hybridity is more frequent in the younger generation,

while the older generation relies on what has effected them in their youth.

Another development of great importance is that Irie, while growing up,

releases herself from her self-consciousness and her compulsion to find answers about

everything. She is even alright with not knowing whether Millat or Magid is the father

of her child. Finally, Irie and Joshua’s relationship can be interpreted as the foundation

of a new culture, which would fit to Edward Said’s conception of hybridity being an on-

going reality in the development of culture, because finally, all three families merge into

one.

3.2. The Chalfens

Although the Chalfens might appear as the typical English family, they are Jewish

immigrants themselves. Furthermore, their behaviour, and their culture is exclusive and

cannot be generally described as typically English. In the novel, their way of living and

behaviour is called “Chalfenist” (Smith 2000: ch. 15). The existence of the Chalfens in

the novel sheds a light on two aspects that might contribute to the multicultural context

of the story: On the one hand, Chalfenism is unique and excludes anyone who is not

part of the family; they represent an isolated culture. On the other hand, it displays the

possibility to develop an own culture. The family members, especially the parents,

appear to be extremely peculiar. The parents’ need for determination and control, their

obsession with genes and their superior self-perception cause the effect that the children

of the family distance themselves more and more. For example, Joyce Chalfen, the

matriarch of the family, constantly speaks on behalf of her son Oscar, although he does

not hesitate to object anytime she states an opinion that is not his. And Marcus’ genetic

research project on a mouse upsets Joshua so much that he decides to dissociate himself

entirely from his family. Joshua expresses his inability to have a discussion with his

father for he thinks “there's no point being reasonable with him because he thinks he

owns reasonableness” (Smith 2000: ch. 15).

Here again, one can note a sense of generation differences. As already mentioned,

the risk of isolation is significantly high when a society is multicultural. Nonetheless,

Smith manages to represent the Chalfens’ interest and fascination towards Millat and

Irie. They might be biased and their imagination of other cultures is based on

stereotypes, but they still feel sympathy for the children and care about them. Joyce

9

even tends to care more about Millat than for her sons, even though he is being

disrespectful and rude on many occasions.

The family serves as an example for the fine line between multiculturalism and

hybridity. Although the parents are trying to preserve their family’s culture, their son

reaches out for further influences in his life, becomes a vegetarian and begins a

relationship with a mulatto girl who is mother to an English-Jamaican-Bengali child.

Again, one observes that the younger generation’s tendency into hybridity is much

higher than the older ones. However, even Marcus and Joyce are willing to accept that

they can learn from others. This is most explicitly highlighted through Magid’s and

Marcus’ friendship.

He saw room for change. And the genius of it, the master stroke, was that Magid

never for a moment let Marcus feel that Chalfenism was being compromised in

any way whatsoever. He expressed his undying affection and admiration for it

every day. All Magid wanted to do, he explained to Marcus, was bring

Chalfenism to the people. And you had to give the people what they wanted in a

form they could understand. (Smith 2000: ch. 16)

In this passage, it is obvious that Marcus is ready to accept change, but also that Magid

highly respects his ways and morals. Since their relationship is based on mutual

admiration, it is an apposite example for a more positive view on multiculturalism, thus

comparable to the definition that it depends on “equal respect” (Hirsch et al. 2002: 438).

Although Alsana, and later also Clara, struggle to sympathise with the family, they

acknowledge the positive impact they have on their children’s education.

It might be a stereotype that the white family helps immigrant children to become better

at school, but the fact that they descent from Polish-German Jews, only puts emphasis

on Said’s theory, namely the non-existence of a self-reliant and self-developed culture.

And in the end, even the Chalfens depend on Irie’s and the twins’ help (Smith 2000: ch.

12), so that there is no distinction between the inferior and the superior.

3.3. The Iqbals

The Iqbals, in contrast to the Joneses, are not an interracial family. In fact, the

marriage of Samad and Alsana is of very conservative and traditional nature. They have

never met before their wedding and their marriage has already been arranged before

Alsana was even born (cf. Smith 2000: ch. 5). However, their children are born in

England. The patriarch of the family, Samad, clearly represents the archetypical

preserver of the old, the known culture. He does not accept any form of assimilation,

10

although he finds himself in non-traditional situations throughout his life. Although he

is never tired of mentioning his great-grandfather Mangal Pande (cf. Smith 2000: ch.

10), whom he considers a hero for his aim to fight for India’s independence from the

British, he serves the British military and becomes the closest friend of Archibald Jones.

One realises a high degree of ambiguity between his speech and his actions.

This paradox becomes even more evident, when one observes his parenting. On

many occasions, he expresses his disappointment towards Millat, whom he regularly

calls “good-for-nothing” (Smith 2000: ch. 6), since he is neither interested in Bengali

culture nor does he behave in what Samad thinks is the proper way to behave as a

Muslim. By contrasting Samad’s actions with his expectations towards his sons, one is

led to the assumption that he is in many cases a hypocrite. Not only does he constantly

break his own religious rules whilst downplaying his sins by claiming that “to the pure

all things are pure” (Smith 2000: ch. 6), but his hypocrisy reaches the ultimate climax

when he meets Poppy Burt-Jones. He is fascinated by his sons’ white teacher, with

whom he eventually begins an affair after a long period of isolation and masturbation,

only because of meeting her once. Later in the story, he argues with Millat for bringing

home white girls (cf. Smith 2000: ch. 12).

Another interesting encounter with the twins’ teacher, Poppy Burt-Jones, is her role

in the decision of whether sending Millat or Magid to Bangladesh. In the beginning,

everything speaks in favour of sending Millat there, for Samad is rather proud of

Magid’s development. He thinks that Millat is more in need of education in Bangladesh

due to his rebellious behaviour. However, he takes Poppy’s advice to send Magid,

which is a result of her being jealous about the amount of time and attention Samad is

paying his son. This twist is another example of Samad’s hypocrisy and ambiguity: he

wants to send one of his sons to Bangladesh in order to restore the old traditional values

in his family, but does what an English woman tells him to do. In addition to that, his

plan does not even achieve the effect he expected. When Magid writes letters to his

father and later comes back to England, he is the opposite of a typical Bengali Muslim.

In fact, he has become more English in Samad’s eyes than ever before. To sum up,

Samad is a Muslim who wants to force his family into his personal traditional idea of a

good Muslim family but cheats on his wife, befriends an Englishman and is in many

ways untraditional himself.

Although one might lack sympathy for Samad Iqbal, it is important to take his

background into consideration. In fact, Samad is aware of his flaws, and is obsessed

with the idea that he is punished by God for being a bad Muslim.

11

I AM NOT A WAITER. I HAVE BEEN A STUDENT, A SCIENTIST, A

SOLDIER, MY WIFE IS CALLED ALSANA. WE LIVE IN EAST LONDON

BUT WE WOULD LIKE TO MOVE NORTH. I AM A MUSLIM BUT

ALLAH HAS FORSAKEN ME OR I HAVE FORSAKEN ALLAH, I’M NOT

SURE. I HAVE A FRIEND ARCHIE AND OTHERS. I AM FORTY-NINE

BUT WOMEN STILL TURN IN THE STREET. SOMETIMES. (Smith 2000:

ch. 3)

It is important to Samad that he is not characterised by his profession as a waiter for he

likes to see more in himself than one could acknowledge. He thinks of himself as a

failure in terms of religion so that his life did not go well although he is “a student, a

scientist, a soldier” (Smith 2000: ch. 3) and more than that. Furthermore, he blames

English culture for his personal failure and thus tries to save his family from his fate.

In a place where you are never welcomed, only tolerated. Just tolerated. Like

you are an animal finally house-trained. Who would want to stay? […] it drags

you in and suddenly you are unsuitable to return, your children are

unrecognizable, you belong nowhere. […] And then you begin to give up the

very idea of belonging. Suddenly this thing, this belonging, it seems like some

long, dirty lie ... and I begin to believe that birthplaces are accidents, that

everything is an accident. But if you believe that, where do you go? (Smith

2000: ch. 15)

Samad is evidently suffering from trauma of un-belonging. Being a Bangladeshi, his

country has undergone several stages of change. Bangladesh was “previously Pakistan.

Previous to that, Bengal” (Smith 2000: ch. 6), and in between these two stages, it was

part of the former British colony in India. It is not until towards the end that Samad

expresses his fear of un-belonging. Due to the fact that he does not feel respected in

England, he has the need to be at least a respectable Bengali. His attempts certainly fail

for he stays in England, and thus his efforts become irrelevant. Either way, his family

refuses to obey him.

Especially his wife becomes more and more frustrated with her marriage. She might

be very traditional, “lacking nothing except the faith” (Smith 2000: ch. 3, 9). This

means, on the outside she could be considered the perfect match for Samad, but it

becomes clear that she disagrees with him on many aspects in life. Instead of taking her

feminist niece’s advice, she states that she “cannot be worrying-worrying all the time

about the truth” (Smith 2000: ch. 4) but that she has to “worry about the truth that can

be lived with” (Smith 2000: ch. 4). So Alsana sticks to the traditions and does not want

to know more about her husband or about cultural change. Nevertheless, one realises a

hint of modernity in her, every time Samad speaks about religion, or when he sends

Magid away. Very often she refuses to simply be quiet and accept the circumstance.

Moreover, although she calls her “niece-of-shame” (Smith 2000: ch. 3), she seems to

12

subconsciously feel connected to Neena, for she asks her for help when she wants to

find out what the Chalfens’ plan is for Millat (cf. Smith 2000: ch. 12). In addition, it is

rather unrealistic that Neena would spend so much time with her aunt, if there was no

mutual affection and sympathy.

The analysis of Alsana’s attitude does not give a concrete answer to the question of

her cultural belonging. Her actions are mainly led by emotions, and while she is

deliberating herself increasingly throughout the novel by speaking out what she thinks,

her life does not change a bit until the point in which O’Connell’s is open for women,

too. This change may not be radical but it is one step forward into more openness. It is a

change that even Samad accepts and tolerates. Although Alsana is in many respects a

traditional woman, her sons do not criticise her as much as they criticise their father.

This might be based on Alsana’s inner compulsion to speak out the truth, and her

understanding of culture. In an argument with Samad she notes: “you go back and back

and back and it’s still easier to find the correct Hoover bag than to find one pure person,

one pure faith, on the globe. Do you think anybody is English? Really English? It’s a

fairy tale!” (Smith 2000: ch. 9). Smith might have intended to give a reference to

Edward Said’s Orientalism, in which he explains the interdependency of cultures (cf.

1995: 347-348). In addition to that, Alsana also acknowledges the generational

differences: “Let the boy [Magid] go. He is second generation—he was born here—

naturally he will do things differently” (Smith 2000: ch. 11). It is this ability that keeps

her relationship to her children stable, while the twins tend to fight or disagree with

Samad more often.

Millat is permanently in dispute with his father. He is the typical rebellious teenage boy,

a heartthrob and a problematic student. Already in his early years, his behavioural

problems, for instance his cannabis consumption, become evident. Similar to Irie, Millat

is still in search of an identity. In spite of his popularity, he is aware of his image in

English society:

He knew that he, Millat, was a Paki no matter where he came from; that he smelt

of curry; had no sexual identity; took other people’s jobs; or had no job and

bummed off the state; or gave all the jobs to his relatives; that he could be a

dentist or a shop-owner or a curry-shifter, but not a footballer or a film-maker;

that he should go back to his own country; or stay here and earn his bloody keep;

that he worshipped elephants and wore turbans; that no one who looked like

Millat, or spoke like Millat, or felt like Millat, was ever on the news unless they

had recently been murdered. (Smith 2000: ch. 9)

Taking these thoughts into consideration, one gets an idea of the main aspects that cause

Millat’s anger and rebellious behaviour. Being called a “good-for-nothing” (Smith

13

2000: ch. 6, 11, 15) by his father, not being accepted by the dominant white society, an

imbalanced and almost unhealthy relationship with sex and women eventually leads him

into the arms of a radical islamic group named KEVIN (cf. Smith 2000: ch. 11). It is

there where he is taught that his behaviour and his longing for sexually liberated white

girls is perverse. It is also KEVIN’s influence after which he exposes his father’s

hypocrisy (cf. Smith 2000: ch. 12). An interesting aspect is that becoming a member of

KEVIN does not make him change his lifestyle radically, he still smokes cannabis, and

he still dates white women. But in this group he experiences the feeling of belonging,

for it is said about Millat that he is neither an “Englishman [n]or Bengali” (Smith 2000:

ch. 12). “And underneath it all, there remained an ever-present anger and hurt, the

feeling of belonging nowhere that comes to people who belong everywhere” (Smith

2000: ch.11). Although he might not genuinely agree with what he is taught by KEVIN,

he is the one who ends up as the most radical.

Zadie Smith’s choice to present a fundamentalist group of Muslims again, can be

interpreted as a critical view on the dangers of multiculturalism. A group, may it be

religious or ethnic, which does not find its place in a society as a result of discrimination

and socioeconomic isolation, can develop into a threat. It is very typical for a person

like Millat to join this kind of group, since his tendency to the extreme is obvious.

The same could be said about his twin brother.

Yet, despite all the mixing up, despite the fact that we have finally slipped into

each other’s lives with reasonable comfort […] despite all this, it is still hard to

admit that there is no one more English than the Indian, no one more Indian than

the English. (Smith 2000: ch. 12)

Magid, in contrast to his identical twin brother, is an intelligent young boy, and this

does not change when he is sent to Bangladesh. His eloquence in English and way of

dressing is an unacceptable Anglicisation in the eyes of his father. The fact that he

orders bacon at O’Connell’s (cf. Smith 2000: ch. 17) is only one of many examples of

his Englishness he has ironically adopted in Bangladesh. Magid’s development shows

the reader that cultural hybridity is not only found in the United Kingdom but that the

former colonies are as well affected as the capital of England. It is a circumstance that

Samad did not expect and which he does not tolerate. He is incessantly trying to save

his culture, and is eventually confronted with the fact that his culture has changed, too.

The unequal power relations and suppression of the minority, and most importantly

colonial history play a significant role in Samad’s life. While he might not have

interpreted this change as harmful if he lived in Bangladesh, just as Archie does not

14

concern himself with ethnicity as an Englishman (cf. Hamilton, Jones 2013), it is indeed

felt like a humiliation for Samad, due to the fact that he is in a subordinated position.

In this context, it is of great necessity that Magid’s change is not only limited to

adopting Englishness. What is more important, is his attitude towards history and fate,

and how people rely too much on it. When he claims that “we must be more like the

English” (Smith 2000: ch. 11), he does not mean that one should neglect the original

culture. It is much more one certain aspect that he seems to dislike about Eastern

culture. “The English fight to the death. They do not listen to history unless it is telling

them what they wish to hear. We say it had to be. It does not have to be. Nothing does.”

(Smith 2000: ch. 11). This statement demonstrates Magid’s call for the acceptance of

change and self-responsibility.

Samad’s failure to control the paths of his two sons indeed underlines the

unexpected transformation of cultural identity in general that people experience in

diaspora. Zadie Smith, in addition to Gayatri Spivak’s criticism, does only not display

the uneven power relations between a dominant and a minority culture only, but she

also depicts issues from another point of view, namely the difficulty of first generation

immigrants in the UK to accept the cultural transition, whilst the second generation

naturally adapts influences from both sides.

4. Conclusion

“Smith has created characters of mixed races, mixed cultures and mixed languages; in

short, she has created a portait of hybridity in a North London borough” (Moss 2003:

11). By considering the aspects that affect the families, either intra-familial or societal,

one comes to the conclusion that Zadie Smith’s novel White Teeth indeed is a realistic

example of the existence of hybridity and multiculturalism in the United Kingdom.

Further than that, one gets an insight into the different approaches and the protagonists’

motives of how to cope with the difficulties a society constructed by multiple distinctly

different cultures brings along.

On the one hand, there is the older generation, Hortense Bowden or Samad Miah Iqbal,

the preservers of their culture who both either fail in their aim or change their ways

eventually by overcoming their post-colonial trauma and fear of un-belonging, and of

subordination. On the other hand, there are Irie, Millat, Magid and Joshua: all of them

15

develop a hybrid identity, all of them rebel against their parents’ understanding of

culture.

But the novel does not only provide examples of personal revolts and cultural clashes,

but it also presents positive interactions between the protagonists that function as

symbols for mutual understanding and development. The relationship between Marcus

and Magid can be read, in contrast to many other aspects, as an analogy of a positive

interrelation between Eastern and Western culture. Both men are intellectuals and

admire each other (cf. Smith 2000: ch. 14). And most notably, there are Archie and

Samad. Their friendship lasts over decades despite their cultural differences. And even

Alsana and Clara become friends, although they are “hesitant in the beginning” (Smith

2000: ch. 4).

In the end, Zadie Smith does what history does in reality: she manages to bring all

families, all representatives of a particular culture in Willesden, together, when Irie’s

child is born and she begins a relationship with Joshua. Eventually, this is the point in

which Edward Said’s theory of the development of culture implies. Furthermore, the

importance of the novel, besides its realistic insight into North London’s multicultural

hybrid society, can be ultimately expressed in the following:

Around the beginning of this century, the Queen of Thailand was aboard a boat,

floating along with her many courtiers, manservants, maids, feet-bathers, and

food-tasters, when suddenly the stern hit a wave and the queen was thrown

overboard […], where, despite her pleas for help, she drowned, for not one

person on that boat went to her aid. Mysterious to the outside world, to the Thai

the explanation was immediately clear: tradition demanded, as it does to this

day, that no man or woman may touch the queen.

5. Bibliography

5.1. Primary literature

Smith, Zadie. White teeth: A novel. 1st Vintage International ed. New York: Vintage

International, 2000. Kindle file.

5.2. Secondary literature

BBC News Online. State Multiculuralism has failed, says David Cameron, 2011. Web.

28 Mar. 2015. <http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-12371994>.

16

Burgess, Ann C., and Tom Burgess. Guide to western Canada. 7th ed. Guilford, Conn.

Insiders' Guide, 2005. Print. Insiders' guide.

Hadjetian, Sylvia. Multiculturalism and magic realism in Zadie Smith's novel White

Teeth: Between fiction and reality. Hamburg: Anchor Academic Publ, 2014. Print.

Hamilton, Geoff, and Brian Jones. Encyclopedia of contemporary writers and their

work. 2nd ed. New York: Facts on File, 2013. Print. Facts on File library of world

literature.

Hirsch, E. D., Joseph F. Kett, and James Trefil. The new dictionary of cultural literacy.

Completely rev. and updated, 3rd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002. Print.

Laura Moss. “The Politics of Everyday Hybridity.” Wasafiri 39 (2003): 11–18. Print.

Meien, Joachim v. The Multiculturalism vs. Integration Debate in Great Britain.

München: GRIN Verlag, 2007. Print.

Meyer, Michael. English and American literatures. 3rd ed. Tübingen [u.a.]: Francke,

2008. Print. UTB basics 2526.

Prabhu, Anjali. Hybridity: Limits, transformations, prospects. Albany: State University

of New York Press, 2007. Print. SUNY series, explorations in postcolonial studies.

Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 1995. Print.

Scott, John, and Gordon Marshall. A dictionary of sociology. 3rd ed. rev. Oxford, New

York: Oxford University Press, 2009. Print. Oxford paperback reference.

Tew, Philip, ed. Reading Zadie Smith: The first decade and beyond. London, New

York: Bloomsbury, 2013. Print.

Wamer, Tim. Restructuring society - The concept of hybridity among different ethnic

groups in Tony Kushner's 'Angels in America'. München: GRIN Verlag GmbH, 2007.

Print.