HIGHER EDUCATION DEMAND IN CHINA:

MINISTRY RESPONSE, FOREIGN UNIVERSITIES, AND

GLOBAL COMPETENCE

by

Junjian Gao

Dissertation Committee:

Professor Hope Jensen Leichter, Sponsor

Professor Yolanda Sealey-Ruiz

Approved by the Committee on the Degree of Doctor of Education

Date February 10, 2021

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education

Teachers College, Columbia University

2021

ABSTRACT

HIGHER EDUCATION DEMAND IN CHINA:

MINISTRY RESPONSE, FOREIGN UNIVERSITIES, AND

GLOBAL COMPETENCE

Junjian Gao

This study examined Chinese university students enrolled in a Sino-United States

university and how they perceived learning processes, academic value, and cultural

awareness at two distinct campuses. Comparing and contrasting student experiences at a

foreign satellite campus in China (Wenzhou-Kean University) with the experiences of

those same students at an American host campus (Kean University), I examined

academic and cultural learning as well as the achievement of “global competence.”

Through the prism of student learning, the nature and quality of student experiences at

the two campuses informed my perceptions of the students’ understanding of culture and

context. Moreover, I attempted to gain a greater understanding of the role of Chinese

parents in the university decision-making process. This study was framed by human

capital theory (Schultz,1961; Tan, 2014), situated cognition theory (Brown, Collins, &

Duguid, 1989), and experiential learning theory (Rogers, 1969).

As the study investigated both Chinese students’ experiences and parental

involvement within the university decision-making process, I deemed a mixed-methods

design most appropriate. Data were collected by surveying 313 targeted persons, yielding

86 valid response surveys and 16 individual interviews.

The results were instructive. At both campuses, a university infrastructure existed

to maximize the cognitive and academic benefits of joining American and Chinese

student cohorts, the goal of English language proficiency, and an awareness of global

competence. However, while the Chinese satellite campus may have required a more

rigorous academic curriculum, the American Kean campus provided high-quality

meaningful learning opportunities to Chinese students. Indeed, while only a small

percentage of the Chinese students were able to obtain long-term competency-based

professional opportunities, those students who were able to build local connections

premised on global competence were the most successful. The study highlighted the

necessity of global competence as an explicit function of the academic experience, the

need for domestic and international students to participate in the formal and informal

ways in which the cultural context of language is learned, and the desire of Chinese

parents to have a university education that is competitive in the global marketplace.

ii

© Copyright Junjian Gao 2021

All Rights Reserved

iii

DEDICATION

Dedicated to my parents,

Mr. Xiaodong Gao and Jing Xu,

and those who have supported me throughout my education.

Thank you for making me see this adventure through to the end.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thank you to the academicians, teachers, and mentors who have guided me these

past years. With profound gratitude, I express my indebtedness to the learning, wisdom,

and direction of two extraordinary professors: Professor Hope Jensen Leichter and

Professor Yolanda Sealey-Ruiz of Teachers College, Columbia University.

Professors Leichter’s and Sealey-Ruiz’s research, tenacity, and constructive

critiques have sharpened my thinking and analysis. The globalization of higher education,

the development of unique Chinese models to foster higher education, and the quest for

“global competence” in a fluid landscape necessitated thoughtful and perceptive

professorial interaction. Engaging with them deeply was a great privilege.

Thank you to Professor Shanzhen Lu of Beijing Normal University, with whom I

have had the honor of seeking his counsel for the past several years as an administrator at

Wenzhou Kean University in designing the research methodology of this thesis as well as

in seeking historic context for the Chinese Ministry of Education’s decisions.

I am indebted to former President Dawood Farahi of Kean University, who

provided me with several unique professional opportunities in China and the USA.

To my dissertation committee members, Professor Lyle Yorks, Department of

Organization and Leadership, and Professor Alexander Eble, Department of Education

Policy and Social Analysis, thank you for the benefit of your accumulated research and

improvements to this work.

I am grateful to my parents and grandparents for their support, love, and caring;

for providing me with vibrant educational opportunities; and for preparing me for life’s

journey. I am indebted to former Governor Jim McGreevey and Mrs. Helen Lai

v

Brozozowski, who served on the original Sino-U.S. negotiating committee for the

establishment of Wenzhou-Kean University.

Lastly, I express my gratitude to my research participants. This study would not

have been possible without their contribution.

My hope is that the lessons learned here will sharpen our focus on the necessity

for and purposeful design of “global competence,” and in so doing, we will achieve better

thinking outcomes for a more harmonious world.

J. G.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter I – INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................1

Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................7

Research Questions ..................................................................................................7

Overview of the Study .............................................................................................8

Content Theories ..........................................................................................8

Human capital theory .......................................................................8

Situated cognition theory ...............................................................11

Experiential learning theory ...........................................................12

Cross-frame analysis ......................................................................13

Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................15

Significance of the Study .......................................................................................16

Definition of Key Terms ........................................................................................18

Organization of Their Dissertation ........................................................................19

Chapter II – LITERATURE REVIEW ..............................................................................21

Chinese Economic Ascendancy and international Regulation ..............................21

Chinese Students within the international University Market ...............................24

Modern Chinese Administration of Higher Education ..........................................27

Internationalization of Education in China ............................................................28

Global Competence in Education ..........................................................................31

Satellite Campus Corporate Structure ....................................................................33

English Language Proficiency ...................................................................38

Historical and Societal Needs ....................................................................41

Chinese Family Values of Higher Education and Academic Achievement ..........44

Summary ................................................................................................................52

Chapter III – METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................54

Background of the Study .......................................................................................55

Background Information of Research Sites ...........................................................57

Research Design.....................................................................................................58

Research Methodology ..........................................................................................60

Online Survey ............................................................................................60

Interviews ...................................................................................................63

Alumni interviews ..........................................................................63

Parent interviews ............................................................................64

Participants .............................................................................................................65

Pilot Study ..............................................................................................................70

Data Analysis .........................................................................................................70

Validity and Reliability ..........................................................................................72

Researcher’s Position .............................................................................................73

Ethical Considerations ...........................................................................................74

Member Checking ......................................................................................75

Summary ................................................................................................................76

vii

Chapter IV – RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ......................................................................77

Broad Overview of Cohort Survey Results: Who Are They?................................78

How and Why Wenzhou-Kean University? ..........................................................81

Parents and Tier Ranking ...........................................................................81

University Costs/Familial Revenue Sources/Influence .............................85

Decision of University Major Area of Study .............................................87

Participating in the Exchange Program......................................................91

Rationale for Studying Abroad ..................................................................92

Cultural Exchange and Learning ...........................................................................95

What Is Culture and Why Do We Need to Learn about It? .......................95

Global Competence, Participant Aspirations, and Responses ...................96

“Superpower” .............................................................................................99

“The American Freedom” ........................................................................101

“Open My Eyes” ......................................................................................104

“The American Dream” ...........................................................................106

“Unsafe” ...................................................................................................108

Academic Experience ..........................................................................................109

Curriculum Requirement .........................................................................110

English Proficiency ..................................................................................111

Faculty-Student Relationships .................................................................113

Administrator-Student Interactions ......................................................................116

Academic Support ................................................................................................118

Academic Atmosphere .........................................................................................121

“Competitiveness” ...................................................................................121

Academic Anxiety ...................................................................................122

“Not Strict” ..............................................................................................124

Academic and General Experience ..........................................................125

Social Life ................................................................................................127

Peer interaction ............................................................................128

Campus Activity ..................................................................................................132

Overall Satisfaction with Campus Life ................................................................133

Professional Preparation ..........................................................................134

“Global Issue Awareness” .......................................................................137

General Experience ..................................................................................141

“Trial for Future” .....................................................................................142

Interviews with Parents ........................................................................................143

Mrs. Wang................................................................................................144

Mrs. Chen .................................................................................................145

Mr. Li .......................................................................................................145

Mrs. Xu ....................................................................................................146

Mrs. Zhao .................................................................................................146

Mrs. Huang ..............................................................................................147

Comparative Analysis ..........................................................................................148

“Elite Education” .....................................................................................149

“My Mom” ...............................................................................................150

Summary ..............................................................................................................151

viii

Chapter V – DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION .........................................................152

Recommendations for Program Revision/Implications .......................................159

Recommendations for Future Studies ..................................................................162

Limitations ...........................................................................................................164

Conclusion ...........................................................................................................165

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................169

APPENDICES

Appendix A Survey Questions for Alumni Participants ..............................................189

Appendix B Interview Questions for Alumni ..............................................................198

Appendix C Interview Questions for Parents ...............................................................200

ix

LIST OF TABLES

Table

1 Annual Tuition Rate as of 2020 .............................................................................34

2 Data Collection Methods .......................................................................................64

3 Summary of Interview Participants (Pseudonyms)................................................68

4 Background Information of Valid Participants’ Responses...................................79

5 Relationship Chart ...............................................................................................144

x

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

1 Initial Idea and Final Decision ...............................................................................85

2 Rationale for Choosing a Major .............................................................................88

3 Rationale for Exchanging Program ........................................................................94

4 Confidence Level at WKU and KU .....................................................................112

5 Faculty Members at WKU and KU .....................................................................114

6 Communication with Administration at WKU and KU ......................................118

7 Helpfulness at KWU and KU ..............................................................................119

8 Academic Satisfaction at KU ...............................................................................126

9 Friendship at KU ..................................................................................................128

10 Sense of Self at KU ..............................................................................................129

11 Career Preparation Support at KU .......................................................................135

12 Work Destinations after Graduation ....................................................................135

13 Important Issues after Exchange Program Experience ........................................138

14 New Interest after Exchange Program .................................................................139

15 Enhancement of Understanding After KU ...........................................................140

16 Comparison between New Acquired Awareness and Enhanced Awareness.......141

1

Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

It has been 10 years since my first time studying abroad in Canada. I remember

the anxious anticipation, if not trepidation, upon my departure from China. The

experience was then relatively rare among my compatriots. During the intervening years,

academicians have commented about, written upon, or expounded as to the prudence as

well as the return of investment of foreign study. By contrast, instead of studying at a

prestigious Western university, the considered Chinese alternative was to enroll in a

private international school in China to receive an “elite” foreign education—that course

of study being well outside of the Chinese public school rubric.

As the Chinese educational system from primary school through university post-

baccalaureate education is designed, funded, and largely operated by the national and

provincial governments, historically Chinese families have competed aggressively to

secure the best public education for their children. As China and her populace have

increased in both capital gains and net personal wealth, there has been a somewhat

corresponding development of increasingly affluent parents. These parents seek to

provide their children with the full measure of competitive advantage by accessing

educational opportunities outside of the stringently regulated public system. Whether

students have not performed at the highest public levels in lower forms, thereby being

2

excluded from the top tier of Chinese university opportunities, or they have been the

highest-performing students who possess the desire to access an elite Western university

education, increased access to market capital has had an impact on Chinese students

deciding to leave the public education system. Disposable income has created historically

unanticipated options for higher education, given that study abroad was previously only

for elite students most often sent and supported by the government. During 1972 to 1978,

1,977 Chinese students were sent to study abroad (Miao, 2010). However, no students

were sent to the United States for nearly 30 years (1949-1978) until January 1st, 1979,

when official relations were established between the United States and the People’s

Republic of China and the United States shifted diplomatic recognition from Taipei to

Beijing.

According to the Open Doors Report from the Institute of International Education

(IIE, 2019), the United States received 269,883 international students during the 2018-

2019 academic year. China, India, and South Korea ranked as the top three nations, based

on student origins (IIE, 2019). Institutions are now seeking unique ways to recruit

students who are not only more racially and ethnically diverse, but who also possess

strong academic ability. As the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the United

States (2020) has reported, over 400,000 Chinese students are studying in the United

States.

In past decades, China focused on rebutting the foreign allure of the best British

and American universities by establishing effective recruitment efforts to maintain and

secure domestic academic talent. In more recent years, China has also engaged in

competitive efforts to recruit internationally, particularly as private Chinese companies

3

require international skills to assist companies in managing government and regulatory

scrutiny. The international market economy is the driver for China; the need to attract

high-quality Western technology and “best business practices” is a significant force in

Chinese manufacturing. Yet, in the absence of a sufficient variety of Western students or

Chinese students educated at Western universities and business graduate schools, the

market seeks to ensure that Chinese students have achieved international core

competency in order to compete in the international market. As Knight (2003) has

suggested, the Chinese have recognized the internationalization of higher education—

namely that set of activities that “integrate an international, intercultural, or global

dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of post-secondary education” (p. 2).

The foreign satellite campus in China in contrast with the foreign host campus was

understood to be an efficient and relatively low-cost domestic alternative to retaining

Chinese talent; the foreign satellite campus came into existence as a result of the

international market, the exorbitant expense of foreign universities, and the pragmatic

necessity required of Chinese higher education reforms to accommodate domestic

economic growth.

As a new model of higher education institution in Mainland China, foreign

satellite campuses have become more popular as the student recruitment number has

expanded over the last 15 years (in 2004, the first satellite campus, Nottingham

University, was established in Ningbo, Zhejiang). The number of foreign satellite

campuses has expanded from one in 2004 to nine in 2019. The undergraduate student

enrollment number has increased from 300 in 2004 to 9,602 in 2019. The satellite campus

is considered an ideal form of higher education institution for middle-class Chinese

4

parents who wish their children to receive a perceived “high-quality” Western education

without unaffordable expenses and the necessary travel for a 4-year foreign degree. The

current generation of college students in China is largely from families with only one

child. Nonetheless, Chinese families recognize that cultural learning and authentic

international experience are two important components of study abroad, which may

possibly impact academic performance. MacNeil, Prater, and Busch (2009) argued for the

importance of the environment and/or cultural influences for the learning process and, by

extension, for global core competence.

Studies conducted by the Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP) on

this generation of college students have documented collegiate awareness of global

competence. Indeed, even more than half of American college students concur that it is

important to improve their understanding of other countries and cultures. In fact, a full

one-third of American students intend to study abroad (CIRP, 2018). In contrast to

American wanderlust, Chinese students, while yearning for an elite educational

experience, nonetheless value filial piety as a core value within their family and society;

respecting senior family members is an obligation that creates domestic tension against

the international experience. Indeed, almost the entirety of the Chinese higher education

application process focuses on domestic university opportunities. Unlike the Western

(universal) college application process, Chinese college admission is almost solely based

on the GaoKao score (except for certain fields as the performing arts, the fine arts, etc.),

which is a nationally/provincially administered college entrance examination in China.

China strictly categorizes universities into three different tiers. The rights of passage in

preparation for university are relatively consistent: GaoKao, the College Application

5

System, which details schools and preferable scores; and national College Fairs, which

are regional university bonanzas. The Chinese university admissions process is

remarkably different from the typical American experience; despite China’s rising

affluence, widespread university education has only occurred with the last generation.

Most Chinese parents are directly involved with, if not govern, their children’s

college application process. Bodycott and Lai’s (2012) study documented this apparent

reality: “No matter who initiated the discussion about cross-border or trans-local

(university) study, there was evidence that students did feel they had a say in the

decision-making process” (n.p.). Parents decide if children have “a say.” Chinese parents

make the final decision because parents “know” they are more experienced with domestic

Chinese universities, understand employment demands, and have confidence in their

decision-making capabilities; they live by the often-heard Chinese saying, “I eat more

salt than you eat rice” (“我吃的盐比你吃的米还多” meaning “I am more experienced

than you”). Yet, the advent of satellite campuses in China is relatively new. It is

appreciably more difficult for parents to have experience with or knowledge about these

campuses because many of these campuses may, in fact, be admitting students for the

first time.

The need exists to compare and contrast the experience of a cohort of Chinese

students and their families’ decision-making process in selecting to enroll at domestic

satellite campuses. There is much to be learned from their experience at host foreign

university campuses in an effort to identify, measure, and evaluate the experiential

quality of student engagement, which may impact language proficiency, cultural

adaptation and global competence, and critical thinking. Foreign university “exchange

6

programs” may provide an opportunity for Chinese students to experience culture and

language. However, the threshold question remains: Are students learning a set of

specific skills with the proficiency required to enhance their “global competency,”

allowing for diverse opinions about the definition of that phrase and resulting in

enhanced employment competitiveness? As China and the world grapples with the reality

of increased global integration and interconnectedness, the Organisation for Economic

Co-operation and Development (OECD) developed a pragmatic approach cited as the

Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), which is noteworthy as it

enshrines the international definition of global competence. As the definition from OECD

(2018) indicated about the PISA:

The PISA 2018 assessment uses the following definition of global

competence: Global competence is the capacity to examine local, global and

intercultural issues, to understand and appreciate the perspectives and

worldviews of others, to engage in open, appropriate and effective interactions

with people from different cultures, and to act for collective well-being and

sustainable development. Global competence education can also prepare our

youth to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to lead lifestyles that promote a

culture of peace and non-violence, sustainable development, and respect for

human rights. (p. 7)

The tension remains as to whether the foreign satellite campus and the host

university offer Chinese students a holistic experience of learning, which would include

the necessary language competency, critical thinking, and cultural competency to fulfill

that measure of technical prowess to provide individual students with the skills required

to compete in an increasingly global Chinese market.

7

Purpose of the Study

I sought to understand how Chinese students perceive learning, academic value,

and culture in their study abroad experience by comparing and contrasting student

experiences at a foreign satellite campus in China (Wenzhou-Kean University) with the

experiences of those same students at a host campus in the United States (Kean

University). I explored how students viewed the differences between campuses in relation

to academic and cultural learning, an appreciation for “global competency,” and students’

personal experiences at the two different campuses (satellite and foreign) of the

university. The secondary purpose of this study was to gain an understanding of Chinese

parents’ role in their children’s college and academic decision-making process, and the

impact on the selection of those universities outside of the Chinese domestic (public)

higher education system.

Research Questions

1. To what extent did students’ perception of global learning outcomes align

with perception of achievement of study abroad goals? Did students’

experience at Wenzhou-Kean University (China foreign satellite) and/or Kean

University (U.S. host campus) enhance awareness of global competence?

2. How did Chinese students’ experience at Wenzhou-Kean University compare

and contrast with their experience at Kean University regarding academic,

cultural (an element but not the entirety of global competence), and

professional and technical preparation?

8

3. What are the roles of Chinese parents in college and academic decision

making?

Overview of the Study

Content Theories

Human capital theory. Nobel laureate Theodore Schultz (1961) introduced the

human capital theory (HCT) and the concept of educational capital. Emrullah Tan (2014),

University of Exeter Business School, set forth the application of human capital theory to

education. “Education, in this approach, is placed at the center and considered the source

of economic development” (p. 411), according to Tan. The advent of China’s entrance

into the World Trade Organization (WTO) precipitated a change in ministerial outlook

toward foreign participation with education, whether cooperatively or for more

substantial foreign investment (Altbach, 2001). The almost linear development and

expansive tolerance of foreign investment are reflected in recent literature: from 2002

with National Education Minister Chen (“uphold Chinese educational sovereign

prerogative”), to 2004 with Vice Minister Zhang (“market labour demands…close

educational gap…improve teaching quality and competitiveness”), to 2007 with

academic commentator/scholar Huang (“internationalization of higher education is more

driven by a commercial and entrepreneurial spirit”).

If human capital is defined as “productive wealth embodied in labor, skills and

knowledge” (OECD, 2001, n.p.), then the liberalizing of Chinese regulation of foreign

partnerships with domestic universities is a model demonstration of rational choice

theory. Knight and Morshidi (2011) claimed the opening of the Asian market was

9

necessary to not only increase competitiveness, but also to increase the revenue base of

individual Asian universities who partnered with foreign universities (more opportunities,

more students, more revenue). Goodman (2004) also emphasized the value of cultural

exchange with China’s “open-up” higher education policy since 1978. While Knight was

focusing on the regional Asian market, the application of her observations to Chinese

approval for the establishment of nine joint ventures for satellite campuses effectively

enabled the Chinese to reach their goals, as set forth in the aspirational WTO language of

Altbach (2001) and the insightful commentary of Huang (2007).

While Steiner-Khamsi (2004) noted the distinction in comparative education

between implementing and educational “borrowing and lending,” she commented on the

fears and critiques of an “international model of education” in the face of the

globalization epidemic. This is not a critique of her thoughtful commentary, but more an

underscoring of her view: “The nation state must transcend national boundaries to

survive, economically and politically, in today’s ‘global village’” (Jones, 1998, as cited in

Steiner-Khamsi, 2004, p. 5).

In addition to the significant literature cited above on developing international

partnerships to achieve higher educational reform, the research literature of foreign

universities in China has focused upon: (a) financing and the economic impact of satellite

campuses, and (b) the development of a satellite campus curriculum. For purposes of this

research, the focus is on the latter. Callan (2000) simply defined “Internationalization of

the Curriculum” as designing the curriculum to meet the expectations of international

students. In contrast, the proposed support of the Chinese government for joint ventures

to create satellite campuses was to enhance higher education quality as well as to bridge

10

the gap between China and “advanced countries” (Huang, 2005, 2007). Yet, Chinese

Ministry of Education (MOE) officials have opposed the wholesale copying of Western

curriculum directly; the standard National MOE regulations require that Chinese

language courses be compulsory within the 4-year plan (as previously cited, no less than

10% of Chinese courses throughout a 4-year study to award students a degree from a

Chinese campus). In addition to the curriculum restrictions placed on satellite campuses,

the MOE (2006) strictly forbids certain programs and academic majors that have not been

released to the public. As for newly developed academic majors, all schools (domestic as

well as joint venture satellite campuses) must receive permission from either the

provincial education bureau or the MOE before launching a new major; moreover, the

overseas fund should not exceed 50% (MOE, 2012).

As with any Chinese university, the joint venture satellite campuses of the nine

universities are required to have licenses from both the MOE and Provincial Education

Bureau before recruiting students. In addition, as with other Chinese universities, the nine

universities are required to have permission from the province from which they may be

recruiting. For example, if XJT-Liverpool (domiciled in Jiangsu Province) seeks to

recruit students from another province (e.g., Guangdong Province) or a direct-controlled

municipality (e.g., Shanghai), the Chinese degree-granting authority (XJT-Liverpool) is

required to obtain permission from the provincial or local education bureau if the school

wants to recruit students from a first-tier cohort. Students who reside outside of the

province within which a university is domiciled may not apply to these schools without

explicit permission.

11

The institutions are required to recruit domestic undergraduate students in

alignment with the Chinese Higher Education Law, which requires schools to recruit

based on students’ scores on the Chinese “National College Entrance Examination”

(Gaokao) and not to utilize SAT, TOEFL, or United Kingdom A-level scores.

Lastly, as within certain majors among the joint degree-granting institutions,

students are required to study 2 years in China and complete the subsequent 2-year

program in the primary foreign campus, e.g., Computer Science program of Ningbo-

Nottingham University due to factors including facility limitations (necessity for design

laboratory, biomedical research). Therefore, the Chinese MOE has national and

provincial local degree requirements that are minimized or satiated within the first 2

years of Chinese student offerings.

Situated cognition theory. Situated cognition theory (SCT) sets forth the

construct that knowledge is embedded in the activity, context, and culture in which it was

learned (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). Utilizing a cognitive approach, the theory

emphasizes the importance of context and cultural influences; that is, learning is not

isolated unto itself but is a social activity. Within the social context, individual college

gains have been affected by the surrounding environment (e.g., different campuses,

countries, and people). The epistemology of the theoretical framework may be considered

constructivist; namely, that individuals “construct their own understanding and

knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those

experiences” (Bereiter, 1994, as cited in Bada, 2015, p. 67).

I designed this research to investigate the different college experiences of

collegiate students in the same university but located at different campuses; namely,

12

Chinese students pursuing a baccalaureate degree at an affiliate China campus, while

some of them attend the principal university campus in the United States for a certain

period as study abroad. The research was ideally suited for the application of the situated

cognition theory, as culture and context are unique in that student performance at satellite

campuses in China contrast and compare with student performance at U.S. campuses. To

this end, Feldman and Newcomb (1969) gave a summary of more than 1,000 empirical

research studies in which researchers investigated how college students were affected by

their college experience.

Several assumptions are applied in situated cognition theory. Astin and Astin

(1992) stated that the different college environments have a significant impact on science

learning. Anaya (1999) claimed that different collegiate pedagogies impact student

learning differently; furthermore, Anaya’s claim reflects the critical assumption that

knowledge is constructed—indeed, perceived and known—within specific contexts

which have specific situational affordances.

Experiential learning theory. Experiential learning theory (ELT) indicates

experience at the core of the learning process, and a meaningful experience promotes

learning (Rogers, 1969). It emphasizes the importance of experience towards learning.

Rogers (1969) believed humans are born with the innate natural desire to learn, and

teachers are designed to facilitate and guide this learning action. The student learning

process is one particular example of “experience learning,” which is based on students

experiencing growth and triggering their self-motivation and resultant learning. Thus, the

purpose of education is to promote students to change, to develop, to have students learn

by their own and to self-educate them to adjust themselves to the environment/

13

surroundings: how to study, how to act as an individual with a unique personality

structure.

Rogers and Freiberg (1994) pointed out that to achieve this goal, teachers need to

facilitate a “non-guidance teaching method,” whereby teachers need to respect students,

value students, have empathy for their students, and trust students. Combs (1982)

practiced Rogers’ educational theory and understood it to be a significant method of

learning. He found four effective learning factors which promote a student’s knowledge,

namely: (a) self-concept, (b) challenge or threat, (c) values and belonging, and (c) being

cared for.

While this research focused on the different academic experiences at domestic

satellite campuses versus international study abroad, China has a long and somewhat

parochial history of “teacher-centered education methodology.” Large classroom sizes

(approximately 50-60 students in one classroom), Chinese student obedience, Chinese

student note-taking (some believe that teachers’ salary are associated with student

scores), and memorization and recitation of material in direct, if not radical, contrast to

Western education values are exemplified by student-centered teaching and critical

thinking.

Cross-frame analysis. A cross-frame analysis incorporating both theoretical

frameworks permits a final comprehensive review of the current situation in Chinese

satellite campuses and a better understanding of how these new forms of higher education

institutions support student learning and living. Combining the HCT and SCT theories

with the “Borrowing and Lending” concept provides a broad perspective of satellite

campuses in China. Each of the respective theoretical frames cross with another, while

14

also providing an analysis of the scenario of satellite campuses in China; the theories are

linked with each other in their applied utilization. It is possible to understand the

significant impact of the culture on the texture and quality of daily interactions among

students. The core content of SCT intones the cultural and environmental influences and

resultant effect on a learner’s learning objectives. HCT places rightful emphasis on an

understanding of education as a significant investment (input), and Chinese families

traditionally value education. Human capital functions more than as merely physical

capital; human capital investment has a positive correlation with a wide variety of factors

not limited to national income, which may grow more expeditiously than physical

resources. Indeed, human investment arguably has a greater economic benefit than

physical investment (Becker, 1993). The core content of human capital is improving

population quality, and educational investment is a major part of human investment for

the benefit of the population.

While SCT may emphasize the cultural aspects of influencing and “receiving”

education, the education investment is the major investment to precipitate the

population’s quality improvement. It may be rationally surmised that culture and

education are in part conflated to influence population quality concurrently. As a prior

and basic method to improve human capital, human investment has been viewed as an

education investment necessity, which leads more nations to place a growing focus on

their education infrastructure and delivery, as measured not only in quantity but also in

quality (especially emphasizing good educational culture, either borrowing from foreign

education with good educational culture or creating a sound, healthy domestic education

culture). Apart from cultural influence learning, Rogers’ (1969) “experiential learning”

15

emphasized the importance of self-motivation and receiving new knowledge, which

differs from cognitive learning. He viewed the importance of the experience of having

meaningful input, instead of merely undergoing a cognitive learning process, such as

learning vocabulary or multiplication tables.

Over the last two decades, the first nine satellite campuses have been partnered,

incorporated, and licensed with developed nations (mainly U.S. and U.K. universities,

which have developed a partially Western education culture with dedicated resources).

Also, the Chinese “National Education Plan Outline” emphasized importing “advanced,”

“high-quality” education resources into China as a national strategic plan for education

development within the decade. These objectives indicated that higher education reforms

in China are transforming from quantity focus to quality focus, giving Chinese students

another “new experience” option of the Chinese higher education model, which might

bring them a more affordable and accessible pathway.

Statement of the Problem

The challenge for students from middle-class Chinese families is to discern one’s

best academic course as a precursor for employment opportunity. American readers of

this dissertation need to understand the profound differences between the American and

Chinese educational systems and the inordinate prestige and value of the university as a

determinant of lifetime achievement. For many families with a limited financial

bandwidth for higher education expenses and the desire to preserve the Chinese core

family unit, the Chinese college decision-making process includes myriad factors within

a fairly recent relatively narrow spectrum of available domestic options. The decision-

16

making process is constrained by financial availability, Chinese cultural values, travel

restraints, and the discernible yearning to achieve marketable skills, which are

competitive within the employment market. The reality of the expansive domestic

manufacturing capacity necessitates that industry have a professional cadre of industry

experts who possess the knowledge of global “best practices.” The quagmire for Chinese

students is grappling with whether to attend a foreign university or to enroll in foreign-

affiliated domestic satellite campus. Concomitant with the challenge over the most

desired university locale, Chinese universities have deliberately undertaken the rising

technical proficiency and competitiveness of Chinese national universities. As Chinese

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) outpaces international normative economic trends with a

corresponding increasing demand for higher education, Chinese higher education is

embarking into uncharted territory without the benefit of longitudinal studies to

demonstrate the proficiency and/or competency of nontraditional models. This research

focused on the evaluation, comparison, and contrast of these academic and cultural

experiences, as manifested through the college experiences of Chinese students at foreign

university satellite campuses in China, in contradistinction with their experiences after

participating in a study abroad program on the main campus abroad.

Significance of the Study

This study contributes to several aspects relative to current international students

and international education. First, it benefits and expands on the very limited research on

foreign satellite campuses in China. This study also represents a comparison and contrast

of Chinese students’ study abroad experiences with their experiences at domestic satellite

17

campuses. It is a unique experience to compare and contrast the students of one

university who study at different campuses in different countries. An aspect of higher

education abroad has been for Chinese students to learn ostensibly of American and/or

British culture and to read Western standards that are relevant to systems analysis and

management practices. The question, yet unresolved, is whether the foreign university at

a domestic campus is instructing Chinese students in these specified areas in order to

increase technological and global competence, or whether Chinese students are merely

learning the undergraduate practices and subjects that every other American student is

learning. This study could draw more attention from both researchers and university

administrators, not only for to support their research interests but also to promote

students’ subject matter learning, accrued expertise, and experience through such

exchange programs.

Second, this study offers an opportunity for the public to gain a better

understanding of a specific population—Chinese international students. As negative

reports about Chinese students appear in leading news press, such as The Chronicle of

Higher Education (Bartlett & Fischer, 2011a) and The New York Times (Bartlett &

Fischer, 2011b), many aspects of the “China Conundrum” have been highlighted.

Western researchers and reporters have argued that international students are being

treated as “cash cows” (financial resources) for higher education institutions (Choudaha,

2017; Li, 2019; Power, 2020). This study can supplement a better understanding of

Chinese international students through multiple lenses on their own experiences with the

study abroad (exchange) program.

18

Third, this study provides the Western world with a chance to understand the

substantial role of Chinese parents and their critical involvement with their children’s

academic and college decision making. Anecdotally, Yale professor Amy Chua, who

wrote Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother, has described perhaps the most well-known

Asian parent and parenting style in China that adheres to many cultural principles

enshrined in “elite education.” This study may assist Chinese parents in becoming more

aware of cultural determinants as a benefit as well as a detriment in decision making

within a global context.

Definition of Key Terms

The following definitions are provided to facilitate a better understanding of the

terms used in this research and in Chinese education.

University Tiers: Regular higher education institutes have been categorized as

“Undergraduate Prior Tier,” “Undergraduate First Tier,” “Undergraduate Second Tier,”

“Independent Higher Education Institute (Third Tier),” “Vocational Institute (Fourth

Tier),” and so on. The name of categorization may differ provincially, yet all categories

are divided by the College Entrance Examination scoring. For the purpose of this

research, I reviewed primarily Tier 1 Universities. Project 985 and Project 211’s

universities are First Tier Universities.

Project 985: The Chinese MOE (2011) has stated, “Project 985 is a project that

was first announced by CPC General secretary and Chinese President Jiang Zemin at the

100th anniversary of Peking University on May 4, 1998, to promote the development and

19

reputation of the Chinese higher education system by founding world-class universities in

the 21st century.” Project 985 sponsors 39 universities.

Project 211: In contrast, Project 211 is a project of National Key Universities and

Colleges initiated in 1995 by the MOE of the People’s Republic of China, with the intent

of raising the research standards of high-level universities and cultivating strategies for

socioeconomic development (MOE, 2008). By 2008, China had 112 institutions of higher

education (about 6%) designated as 211 Project institutions for having met certain

scientific, technical, and human resources standards and offering advanced degree

programs.

Double Top University Plan: The MOE, the Ministry of Finance, and the National

Development and Reform Commission jointly released a “Double Top” plan on 2017,

with the aim of developing a batch of world-class higher education institutions and

disciplines. The new plan replaced the “211” and “985” projects launched in the 1990s.

Peking University, Renmin University of China, and Tsinghua University are among the

42 universities listed, and another 95 institutions have been designated to develop world-

class courses.

Organization of This Dissertation

Chapter I provided the background of this study, research questions, theoretical

framework, and significance of this study. Chapter II examines the current research

literature and past accomplishments of Chinese international students who study abroad

as well as the image and familial traditions of Chinese parents. This chapter also reviews

Chinese educational policy within higher education and international education. A review

20

of “global competency” as a focus of international university education is also succinctly

reviewed. Chapter III consists of the methodology and research method I used for the

research design, data collection, and data analysis. Chapter IV presents the results of the

data collection and analyses and the themes generated from the data. Chapter V raises

implications from the analyses of the findings in line with the research questions. It also

offers recommendations for program revision and future study as well as the limitations

of this study and conclusions.

21

Chapter II

LITERATURE REVIEW

This literature review examines the impact of a yearning for international

university degrees or private (non-Chinese government-administered) international

satellite campuses in China. The literature review succinctly highlights the myriad

conflating factors that have contributed to this higher educational phenomenon,

including, but not limited to, the ascendency of the Chinese economy and the resultant

number of Chinese students in the international education market. The resultant increase

of disposable income, the enhanced regulation of Chinese goods as Chinese products

enter diverse international markets, and the awareness of Chinese families of the prestige

and rigor of Western universities have arguably necessitated for a more globally

competent workforce. Perhaps concern with well-meaning intentions yet the insufficient

entrepreneurialism of Chinese higher education (detailed below) may have also

exacerbated the drive to Western-based higher education. The internationalization of

education in China, driven largely by market forces, has impacted the development of

foreign university satellite campuses, the de rigeur requirement of university English

language learning, and the choice of university and familial decision making, framed in

tension with the traditional cultural values of education in China.

22

The literature review thus examines these factors and resultant educational

outcomes which have contributed to the largest educational exodus in history—from

China to universities throughout the world, principally the United States and Europe.

Chinese students and families have responded to economic, academic, and Chinese

familial values; pressures facing them and the Chinese national and provincial education

ministries; and the international business community in China, as exemplified by

employment, trade, and investment policies and practices.

Chinese Economic Ascendency and International Regulation

With the increasingly rapid development of the global economy, the

internationalization of finance and the consumer economy, and the globalization of

higher education, more Chinese are pursuing higher education, which is recognized for its

language arts and STEAM competency, transnational application, and ability to offer

international networks (Zhang, 2018). Arguably, the Chinese economy and particularly

Chinese manufacturing and the resultant export market have positioned China as the

world’s second largest economy (as measured by GDP) and, according to the

International Monetary Fund (IMF), the world’s largest economy by purchasing power.

Manufacturing is concurrently the primary domestic economic driver, which accounts for

40% of China’s GDP and is a cornerstone of the Chinese international trade (National

Bureau of Statistics of China, 2016); today, China is the world’s largest manufacturing

economy and exporter of goods. “Research by IHS Global Insight states that in 2010

China contributed to 19.8% of world’s manufacturing output and became the largest

manufacturer in the world that year, after the US had held that position for about 110

23

years” (GhafoorAwan & Ahmad, 2014, p. 47). For Chinese manufacturers to access

regulated international markets, Chinese manufacturers must abide by product

environmental and safety standards, which are traditionally governed by national and

international juridical systems and trade associations. The prospect of enhanced Chinese

student access to international education and global competence would develop greater

subject matter proficiency and expertise for international regulatory and product liability

compliance (GhafoorAwan & Ahmad, 2014). In 2017, a project called PISA Global

Competence Assessment came into existence, developed by the Harvard School of

Education and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) to

target evaluating current students’ global competence; this competence involves

“students’ abilities to engage with news articles about global issues, recognize outside

influences on world views, understand how to communicate with others in an

intercultural fashion, and identify and compare different courses of action to address

global issues” (Bayer, 2017, n.p.). To the future young generation, standardized tests will

not be the only instruments used to evaluate their academic performance. Moreover, it

will be their understanding and proficiency of different perspectives and how they can

process critical information on key sustainability issues that matter for the world

(Piacentini, 2017). To future Chinese generations, understanding international markets

with varying technical standards and related cultural values, as well as developing the

capacity to quantify and qualify differences, will assist domestic Chinese manufacturers

and businesses to compete ethically and competently in foreign markets. As

manufacturing, both traditional and mechatronics, is the primary domestic economic

driver in China, the Ministry of Education (MOE) has expressed the urgency for

24

educational establishments to understand and respond to changing international trade

regulations, treaties, and laws.

While a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) since 2001, the

Chinese government committed to increasing educational market access to other

signatory member countries; it was only in 2004, when the WTO General Agreement on

Trade in Services (GATS) established an aggressive posture of categorizing “education”

as a service, that China began to be subjected to international pressure to avail WTO

members with domestic university access. The GATS language included virtually all

institutionally sponsored education—namely, preschool service, middle school education

service, higher education service, and adult education service. For the purposes of this

present research, I focus solely on higher education.

Chinese Students within the International University Market

University study abroad, as a critical pathway to success, has thus increased

exponentially (Bodycott, 2009; Cebolla-Boado, Hu, & Soysal, 2017; Zhang, 2018).

According to the ICEF Monitor (2015), the number of international students enrolled

worldwide increased from 1.3 million in 1990 to 2.1 million in 2000 to 5 million students

in 2014. The 5 million students, who were enrolled outside of their home countries in

2014, represent a doubling of international students from 2000 and a tripling increase

over the 1990 enrollment.

Chinese international students exceeded a quarter of the total number of

international students (Wang & Miao, 2016). Recognizing the exodus of Chinese higher

education applicants, Chinese public universities are seeking to establish and strengthen

25

innovative platforms to increase the retention of Chinese nationals in domestic university

programming (especially those elite students who tend to study abroad), providing the

ancillary domestic benefit of enhanced acceptance of international curriculum,

recruitment of international faculty, and universalization of globally accepted standards

of research-based education.

According to the report from the OECD (2015) and the ICEF Monitor (2015),

Asian students comprised 53% of the total number of international students. As noted in

the ICEF Monitor (2015), China and India have joined the ranks of the top 10 strongest

economies in the world, while South Korea is in the top 15 of such nations, which affords

greater disposable income to pursue university education. While the Blue Book of Global

Talent, formally known as Annual Report on the Development of Chinese Students

Studying Abroad (Wang & Miao, 2016), cited one out of every four international students

as being Chinese, the ICEF Monitor (2015) stated that one of every six international

students is Chinese. Whether one accepts the ICEF or the Blue Book report, there is an

undeniable exponential increase of Chinese international students. The research literature

documents the historical trends of the upswing of Chinese students studying abroad. The

Institute of International Education (IIE) (2019) indicated that 369,548 Chinese have

studied in the United States, occupying 33.7% of the total number of international

students. Chen and Jordan (2016) cited China as the largest source of international

students in the United States. Among all of the study abroad destinations, English-

speaking countries/areas are still the first option or prior choice for most international

students.

26

The starkest factor contrasting British and American universities with those in

Chinese higher education is the sheer dominance of public institutions within China. The

national, provincial, and local governance, funding, and operations of university

education dominate every aspect of university administration—arguably some for the

better, namely public support; some for the lesser, the ability to develop entrepreneurial

higher education income streams. Unlike long-standing Oxbridge British or Ivy League

American universities and private religious institutes, Chinese universities are creatures

of the government, albeit permissibly incorporated at different levels of the governmental

structure. The development of U.S. higher education structure has yielded 1,672 public

universities from an aggregate of 4,495 universities nationwide, with public universities

accounting for 37.20% of higher education institutions (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011);

nonetheless, a limited number of private research-based American universities account

for some of the greatest financial endowments, namely Harvard, Yale, Princeton,

Stanford, MIT, Northwestern, University of Pennsylvania, and Columbia (Mulhere,

2016). The Chinese government, in contrast, has rigorously managed the totality of

higher education development from post-World War I to the present day, reflecting the

tradition of Chinese Imperial government support for higher education. The Chinese

MOE ensures that the government exclusively charters, funds, and licenses Chinese

universities. The MOE of the People’s Republic of China (2011) has repeatedly and

explicitly stated if an institution is authorized to grant a degree, that institution must be

public (including those institutions with the support of private funding); thus, the almost

synonymous equivalency of “degree granting” and “public,” while providing for

measured uniformity of acceptable standards, has arguably reduced the ability of Chinese

27

higher education to forge unique international university partnerships, as has been done

among U.K. and U.S. universities.

Modern Chinese Administration of Higher Education

Despite WTO membership and GATS agreements, concurrently the Communist

Party of China and the Chinese MOE had initially restricted international access to the

domestic university market. For an almost 8-year period, the State Council of the

People’s Republic of China was either agnostic or antagonistic toward the prospect of

foreign universities granting degrees within China, whether unilaterally or in conjunction

with Chinese universities. It was not until the Outline of China’s National Plan for

Medium and Long-Term Education Reform and Development (2010-2020) that the State

Council of the People’s Republic of China (2010) clearly set forth the need for foreign

university exchanges and partnerships when it articulated the need for: (a) enhancing the

international communication and cooperation (standards); (b) adopting the advanced

educational theories and educational experiences (processes) from abroad; (c) importing

high-quality educational resources (training); and (d) expediting and expanding the

educational globalization (global competence) in China. The MOE of the People’s

Republic of China recently emphasized at a press conference that China will support

higher education institutes, enhancing their cooperation with world-class universities and

academic institutes (MOE of the People’s Republic of China, 2020).

Domestic satellite campuses exist as a very important form of Chinese higher

education internationalization. The development of satellite campuses within the Chinese

public construct poses challenging questions; the most basic is the measure of control the

28

traditional Chinese MOE will relinquish. Any significant measure of control may accede

to a foreign university partner (e.g., NYU-Shanghai partner with East China Normal

University) in the operation of a foreign university domestic satellite campus partnership.

Satellite campuses incorporated as a result of higher education reforms ascribe to

formal WTO requirements. In addition to challenging the traditional public hegemony of

Chinese universities, the satellite campuses attract Western technology and practices and

partially ensure that Chinese students would be competent in terms of internationally

accepted marketplace norms. Satellite campuses have three distinct operational

components: (a) the establishment of a foreign university (typically British or American

university, which is recognized by Chinese National/Provincial Educational Ministries

(Wilkins & Huisman, 2012) campus, (b) with a domestic Chinese partner, (c) that

provides an international and a domestic degree concurrently.

Internationalization of Education in China

Altbach and Knight (2007) held that higher education is associated with an upper-

level internationalism due to the impact of globalization. Higher education institutions are

marketing the respective “educational product” to international students to entice

matriculation on main university campuses as well as recruiting foreign nationals to

attend university satellite campuses in their own nation or region (Spring, 2009). Higher

education has largely been redefined as a market service, and students have been

recognized as consumers of educational services (Goralski & Tootoonchi, 2015; Hartman

& Schmidt, 1995; Paswan & Ganesh, 2009; Russell, 2005). Different from physical

products, services tend to “be high on experience quality dimensions” (Paswan, Spears,

29

& Ganesh, 2007, p. 76). Therefore, customers/students rely heavily on their learning/

living experience during student life to assess the value of their received education

services. International students traditionally pay more than domestic students, and many

universities are expanding international recruitment in an effort to support university

operational expenses (Cowburn, 2018; Craig, 2018; Younger, 2018). The increasing

demands of a global marketplace have necessitated changes within higher education, as a

more flexible and regulatory competent workforce has required fundamental changes in

the training of labor market skills and the development of higher education curriculum

(Van der Wende, 2003). Industry as well as the university recognizes that workforce

development in an increasingly global market necessarily requires that students acquire

global competence. The OECD and Harvard’s Zero Project have enshrined this reality in

principle, curriculum, and value statements (Brustein, 2007; Soria & Troisi, 2014).

Therefore, the education of students within the context of internationalization (Huang,

2007) has offered Western universities the prospect of enhancing their financial position

through the attraction of international students, who have the capacity to pay higher rates

of tuition and living costs.

For the Chinese MOE to be responsible to Brustein’s (2007) admonition “to

prepare our graduates for the enormous global challenges of the 21st century” (p. 390),

there exists the significant ancillary benefits to be responsive to Chinese international

market demands regarding core technical competencies as well as maintaining significant

numbers of Chinese students within the public university system or a network of satellite

campuses under the governance of the MOE. Mansilla and Wilson (2020) of Project

30

Zero, Harvard Graduate School of Education, have underscored the importance of linking

global competence with the global marketplace:

In analyzing the educational landscape in China, Deputy Director of the

Institute of International and Comparative Education at Beijing Normal

University, Teng Jun, writes, ‘Global competence should not be seen as a luxury

good in the field of education…we must acknowledge, with the rise of China,

cultivating students’ global competence is a necessary trend, and a future

direction that China must take. The sooner we acknowledge this, will only be to

the benefit of students.’ (Teng, 2016, as cited in Mansilla & Wilson, 2020, p. 4)

The internationalization of education in China has resulted principally from the market

demands of an exponentially growing economy as well as a rising consumer class.

Ironically, it has been China’s economic dynamism that has driven both the need for

global competence to ensure access to foreign markets and the need for increased

academic institutions to educate the next generation of the consumer class in linkage with

the traditional Chinese public university.

This research focused on the convergence of several conflicting forces on the

need for global competence in Chinese higher education: (a) global competence in

education; (b) the satellite campus corporate structure and financing (in relation to the

domestic partners); (c) the traditional ‘English language” learning experience; (d)

Chinese societal and historical needs for higher education; and (e) Chinese familial

values, including academic achievement. All of these have spurred the pursuit of

enhanced international education and training in support of undergraduate and graduate

degrees.

31

Global Competence in Education

Global competence is a relatively new understanding in education, arising in 1996

from Lambert, who is commonly acknowledged as the “father of global competency”

(Hunter, 2004). With the advent of the global marketplace, connective technology, and

enhanced communication, educational institutions, trade organizations (namely OECD),

and international universities (including the Sorbonne and Harvard’s Project Zero) have

advocated the necessity of global competence.

That competence required substantive knowledge, but in addition, it closely

evaluated and set forth a critical thinking process, which was beneficial to informed

decision making and solution-based creativity. In addition to knowledge per se, students

ought to be able to communicate concepts clearly, which necessarily required the ability

to enshrine concepts in a clear and lucid manner. Further, global competence was an

active agent that necessitated an investigation premised on the scientific method that was

able to engage in critical evaluation against an objective set of criteria. Recognizing the

historic bias of academia toward a Western predisposition, the Harvard Zero Project and

the OECD took pains to encourage and facilitate the necessity to include diverse,

international approaches to thinking, exploration, examination, and critical review within

a process that respected the scientific method.

While language and its increased importance within cross-cultural exchanges may

have been the initial foundation for the concept of global competence, OECD’s PISA, the

Asia Society, the Harvard Kennedy School Government, Columbia University’s School

of International and Public Affairs (SIPA), and Georgetown University’s Walsh School

of Foreign Service have attempted to garner greater support for foreign language and

32

economic “best practices” within the context of cultural understanding, geopolitical

relations, and an effort to address long-standing systemic economic challenges, which

require proper assessment, analysis, planning, financing, and organization execution

across language, culture, geography, and currency.

Lambert’s (1996, as cited in Hunter, 2004) critique of the parochialism of

American educational frameworks implied that it was the narrowness of the American

educational experience which precluded thinking of international concepts crossing the

domestic equation. Lambert’s call was significantly embraced by American universities,

perhaps at the expense of primary and secondary education; yet his clarion call launched

an initiative for global competence that was buttressed by academia and an increasingly

global economy. While the PISA assessment standards are perhaps best known,

numerous business and educational coalitions and partnerships have developed across

functional and industry lines to advocate for global competence within the context of a

specific alignment of interests. Whether international and national partnerships or local

university initiatives—such as the New Jersey City University’s innovative work to draw

research to global research and to create parallel opportunities for students within the

Jersey City, New Jersey market, including the dynamic commercial impetus of the Port

Authority of NY and NJ (Olson & Kroeger, 2001), global competence is understood in

today’s “flat world” as goods that can readily travel from different places, under different

flags, employing different technologies, from manufacturer to consumer (Friedman,

2005).

While the definition of global competence can and has widely varied since

Lambert’s original declaration, a few noteworthy elements seem to have survived various

33

permutations. Global competence to travel beyond the appreciation of cultural differences

and subjective thinking requires an understanding of and adherence to certain principles

as well as skills. Suffice it to say that this learning is fluid and requires an active

participation in the collection and evaluation of data as well as the ability to think

critically and develop solutions that survive rigorous testing to produce beneficent results

for the benefit of a greater good—the community.

For the purposes of the present research, it is essential to recognize that global

competence is considered as active learning, with the knowledge, thinking, skill set, and

empathy to solve challenges. Global competence moves beyond a traditional notion of

education to a dynamic and engaged process, which enables the global citizen to marshal

ideas, skills, and insights to serve humanity better. Global competence has more in

common with the Chinese and American national than traditional education ever

afforded, as it focuses on teachable attributes and well-integrated learning opportunities

(Li, 2013, p. 129) to address the complexities of the postmodern world.

Satellite Campus Corporate Structure

After an initial period of permissibility during the administration of Deng

Xiaoping (1978-1989) in the aftermath of the Nixon-Premier Zhou Enlai (1949-1976)

relationship, though with arguably low-quality results, the Chinese MOE during the

administration of President Jiang Zemin (1989-2002) and the early years of President

Hu Jintao (2002-2012) generally restricted the ability of foreign universities from

incorporating and/or establishing Chinese domestic campuses. The latter years of

President Hu’s administration gradually witnessed the implementation of significant

34

reform efforts to ensure the internationalization of higher education, the attraction of

international capital investments, and the need to provide for international standards to

ensure the competitiveness of Chinese manufacturing.

Satellite campuses are understood in China to be the establishment of an overseas

campus with a domestic partner and are legally recognized as Sino-foreign universities by

Chinese educational ministries (Wilkins & Huisman, 2012). The partnerships for joint

ventures to develop satellite campuses in China, which have been reviewed, are: Ningbo-

Nottingham University (2004), United International College (2005), Xi’An Jiaotong-

Liverpool University (2006), New York University-Shanghai (2013), Duke Kunshan

University (2014), Wenzhou Kean University (2014), Hong Kong Chinese University

(Shenzhen) (2014), Shenzhen Beijing Institute of Technology (BIT) and Lomonosov

Moscow State University (MSU, known as MSU-BIT University) (2017), and lastly,

Guangdong Technion-Israel Institute of Technology (2017).

The phenomenon of the foreign satellite campus has been widely researched by

Chinese and Western authors, most notably Canadian Jane Knight (2008). It is

noteworthy that a satellite campus is fundamentally different from limited cooperative

programs, which are largely operated and governed by a domestic Chinese university. In

contrast, Chinese satellite campuses educate students with typically the same curriculum

as source countries, and students are awarded dual degrees (one from the Chinese

campus, the other from the source institution).

The traditional objective of domestic Chinese satellite campuses was to attract

Chinese students who have the academic and financial capacity to pursue domestic

undergraduate and graduate studies, but may not possess the financial wherewithal to

35

attend foreign universities or have parents who do not want their children to study away.

According to the Education International Cooperation (2014), those families with the

financial capacity to send their children to study abroad possess an earning income 6.7

times more than families who send their children to domestic universities. Chinese GDP

per capita has increased seven times, from $949 to $6,807, from 2000 to 2013 (Xu,

2019); however, Cebolla-Boado et al. (2017) argued that it is still financially difficult for

a Chinese middle-class family (average annual income per household $4,000 to $13,000)

to send their children to study abroad because the annual cost of study in the United

Kingdom is approximately $24,000 (Farrell, Gersch, & Stephenson, 2006). It is important

to keep in mind that the average annual tuition fee for Chinese First Tier Universities is

approximately around $700 USD to $1,000 USD.

Table 1. Annual Tuition Rate as of 2020 (USD）

University Chinese Satellite

Campus Rate

Foreign Host

Campus Rate

Nottingham University $13,000 $29,900

Hong Kong Baptist University $12.000 $18,000

Liverpool University $12,000 $22,000-$45,600

New York University $18,000 $54,880-$60,280

Duke University $33,000 $60,408

Kean University $9,500 $19,770

Hong Kong Chinese University $13,500 $18,800

Lomonosov Moscow State University $6,000 $7,000

Israel Institute of Technology $13,500 $15,000

36

With the increasing number of Chinese students studying abroad at private and

public foreign universities, domestic satellite campuses may be a viable alternative for

students in China who are not able to afford a foreign university. Foreign universities

partnering with domestic Chinese universities subsequently receive state-sanctioned

authorization to grant degrees. Moreover, Chinese parents have begun to examine the

financial advantages of cost (tuition, housing, and travel), familial impact, and the

cultural security of sending their children to satellite campuses of foreign universities

rather than abroad. With a British- or American-affiliated satellite campus in China, the

student has the prospect of studying in China with an imported curriculum, international

accreditation, a foreign faculty, and potentially lower tuition costs than in the United

Kingdom or United States. The concern for the MOE of the People’s Republic of China

(2003) has been the historical record of the partnering foreign university, the rigor of the

academic program, and the responsibility of the satellite campus’s curriculum to

legitimize local business needs.

Besides considering the financial aspect, “the one child policy” also plays an

important role in the decision to “study abroad.” Moreover, it is another reason for

parents seeking an alternative to receive foreign education without leaving China, thus

enabling them to stay closer to their children (Bodycott, 2009). Since the current

generation at high school or college was largely born under “the one child policy”

(starting in 1980) (Fong, 2006), parents are reluctant to send their children abroad for a

university degree because they are concerned with the likelihood of student return (Xiao,

2017). While Chinese parents may acknowledge the quality of foreign education

(international university rankings), Fischer (2015) emphasized that Chinese families

37

evaluate myriad factors to discern the appropriateness of international university

education. While financial considerations may be a principal factor, it is not the only

factor as familial and cultural considerations are also causes of serious concern. As the

first Sino-foreign university satellite campus established 15 years ago, Ningbo-

Nottingham University, virtually no research studies have been conducted on it either by

Chinese, foreign educational establishments, or university research centers on its student

performance or experiences at satellite campuses in China, in contrast with foreign

university programs or sites.

Zhang Xingsheng (2004), Former Deputy Minister of the MOE, emphasized that

China not only has an opportunity to import foreign higher educational resources into its

higher education market, but also faces a significant challenge to its higher education

institutions and government systems. The Chinese MOE formally established criteria

regarding cooperative programs in 1995.

From the initial two programs in 1995, the number of cooperative programs

substantially expanded to 45 in 2001. In 2003, the Chinese government officially

published The Regulation of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese Foreign

Cooperative Education. Due to recent changes in Chinese MOE regulations, the number

of such cooperative initiatives by 2016 increased exponentially to 2,400 programs (as

documented by research literature—an astounding 40-time increase in a 15-year period),

including the development of nine joint Chinese-foreign universities (Huang, 2005, 2007;

MOE, 2017). The research literature has tracked the numerical phenomenon of satellite

campuses as well as the performance of Chinese students abroad, as discussed below.

38

The performance of Chinese students abroad is set forth in broad survey literature, replete

with anecdotal insights but lacking in rigorous empirical research.

English Language Proficiency

Pursuant to a mandate by the MOE, English was initially taught in primary and

secondary schools throughout China in 2001. English language proficiency was

understood as a portal for China’s increased demand for global market share and

enhanced university competitiveness, and it was a precursor to the drive for “global

competence.” To arrive at global competence, a person would necessarily have the

substantive knowledge, communication skills, and understanding of the global world to

be able to navigate effectively within business, academy, or government (Olsen &

Kroeger, 2001). As English was the lingua franca of international commerce, the Chinese

MOE sought to enhance knowledge of English to better afford the potential to achieve an

international perspective of issues, dynamics, and decision making (Wilson, 1996).

Foreign language has been set as a compulsory subject in the Chinese College

Entrance Examination since 1983. There are six language choices on the language exams,

including English, Japanese, Russian, French, German, and Spanish; students can choose

one language from the six offered (Liu, 2018). However, in most middle schools and

higher schools, English is the only foreign language that is provided with classroom

instruction; if students want to take other languages on their language exam, they should

take them after school by themselves. China is one of the few countries setting foreign

language competency as a compulsory subject in the College Entrance Examination. The

New York Times (Dong, 2014) has reported that it is not easy for English to quit the

39

Gaokao. The argument about whether foreign languages should be eliminated from the

College Entrance Examination has never stopped. For either historical reasons or political

reasons, English plays a key role in the academic life of Chinese students. Of the nine

satellite campuses in China, seven are partnered with institutes in English-speaking

countries/areas.

Regardless of the country of origin for the higher education partners, the

aforementioned global marketplace demands English as the premier language on foreign

satellite campuses in China; research facilities, course lectures, assignments, and

publications need be performed in English (Crystal, 2012; Nunan, 2003; Pan & Block,

2011). Pursuant to satellite campus cooperative agreement, the Chinese MOE provides

that the curriculum design include Chinese courses to enhance students’ knowledge of

Chinese history and culture (based on individual agreements between a respective foreign

university and the individual Chinese host, different university curriculum plans have

been established). The Chinese MOE has issued regulations providing that no less than

10% courses but no more than 50% have to be lectured in Chinese; there is no restriction

on preferred language of courses, and both optional and compulsory courses may be

lectured in Chinese.

The primary purpose of foreign language lecturing is to develop an ability to use

the language to communicate and interact with others appropriately in the global

competing labor market. The goal of foreign language teaching and practice is to extend

to a wide range of communicative situations, focusing on meaning as well as form

(Littlewood, 1981). Improving language is a way to improve understanding ability

(Basturkmen, 1990). For most international students, the language barrier has ranked as

40

one of the most significant challenges both in their academic success and social

interaction (Mori, 2000; Yeh & Inose, 2003). Andrade (2006) found language proficiency

to be highly associated with adjustment problems among international students. Some

instructional texts, while providing good examples of English writing, are demonstrably a

“best practice” to learn vernacular English vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure

(Ali, 1995, p. 59; Lazar, 1993, pp. 15-19). Eagleton (1996) emphasized Saussure and

Wittgenstein’s claim that language situates both meaning and experience. If there is no

language, there is no place to have both meaning and experience. Language is a

foundation of learning, with the majority of courses at satellite campuses carried out in

the English language, thus prioritizing English over other courses. Nunan (2004) cited

language practice for completing communicative tasks; students are necessarily exposed

to rich and authentic classroom language material; and researchers, such as Nunan (2003,

2004), Willis (1996), and Ellis (2003), have accepted it as varied.

This understanding of language, language competency, and the learning ecology

of language has formed the underpinnings of Lambert’s (1996, as cited in Hunter, 2004)

foundation of “task performance” necessary for global competence, as well as Brustein’s

(2003, as cited in Hunter, 2004) “ability to communicate effectively across cultural and

linguistic boundaries and to focus on issues” (p. 10). As understood by Lambert,

Brustein, White, and Breslow and Hastings (2015) (ASEE Conference presenters at the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology [MIT]), the development of language is enhanced

with context, whether task or situated, and that context may be as pedagogically

important as the assignment per se.

41

Historical and Societal Needs

Impacted by Confucian philosophy for thousands of years, Chinese society has a

deep respect, indeed reverence, for education (Bodycott, 2009; Cebolla-Boado et al.,

2017; Zwart, 2013). Nonetheless, access to higher education was and remains all too

readily influenced by traditional gender stereotyping (Li, 2015). While this is beyond the

scope of this review, it is important to note this bias has had a detrimental impact on the

natural balance of Chinese higher education society, which may have been worsened by

“the one child policy” and resultant sex-selective biases. The Guardian (Sun, 2017)

projected that by 2020, there will be 20 million more young men in Chinese society than

young women. Despite the significant gender imbalance, the discrimination against

women is consistently enshrined in the Chinese cultural lexicon. In 2007, the derogatory

term of “leftover woman” (剩女) as an “unmarried women” over the age of 27 had been

officially added to the lexicon of the Chinese MOE, along with man as “bare branches”

(光棍) (Fincher, 2012; Ren, 2016; Sun, 2017). Zwart (2013) and Bodycott (2009) stated

that the Chinese society values and respects senior family members, which is known as

filial piety. As marriage is believed to be a duty within the Chinese societal and historical

context, not having children is seen as being an abrogation of traditional filial

responsibility (“不孝有三，无后为大”). For those Chinese graduate school students

who secure higher education degrees by the age of 25, fulfilling parental expectations of

marriage and children by age 27 necessitates a relatively rapid succession of marriage,

then children.

For Western cultural analysts, the Chinese preoccupation with family, lineage,

and offspring may seem unique. It is noteworthy to underscore that familial visits during

42

the Chinese New Year (called the Spring Festival Transport Season) of the lunar calendar

produce the single largest annual migration in the world, causing a number of passenger

journeys during this period to hit over 2.9 billion in 2016 (Wong, 2016) as children

observe their familial and ancestral obligations. To this point, Leichter (1975) argued that

“the family is always a setting in which important educational encounters occur” (p. 2).

Mead (1974) and Leichter (1997) both emphasized the significance of learning from

grandparents. As Chinese society values and respects senior family members within the

family, grandparents influence children and grandchildren and transmit their

understanding, such as the meaning of being a woman and what marriage and family are.

This may add to understanding the issue of obedience to the family and the importance of

family gatherings such as occur on the Lunar New Year.

While many Chinese students presently studying abroad are the “only child” in

their family, parents often do not want children to study in a different province, let alone

at a foreign university. Parents are concerned about the possibility that a child will remain

abroad and subsequently marry a foreign national, instead of returning to China post-

graduation (Cebolla-Boado et al., 2017; Xiao, 2017). Compared to the prospect of

studying at a foreign American or British university, satellite campuses are an ideal

educational compromise for some Chinese parents to avoid the emigrant risk, while

enabling their child to receive a foreign-credentialed higher education degree.

Chinese parents traditionally pay the entirety of student bills before college

graduation. While many Chinese families dedicate a measure of their disposable income

to their child’s higher education, foreign university studies may cost upwards of $500,000

for undergraduate study (including room and board) at elite American and British

43

universities (graduate education is a substantially reduced cost of approximately

$150,000 for average master-level studies). In contrast to staggering university costs, the

National Bureau of Statistics of China (2018) reported that the Chinese average income

was merely $11,000 in 2017 in urban areas, compared to $48,150 in the United States

(U.S. Census Bureau, 2018). In addition, not only is the core family heavily investing in

their children, but extended families are also putting their money in the only child in the

family.

It is noteworthy to underscore the present debate on access to U.S. higher

education, in part limited by exorbitant tuition and limited access to long-term affordable

loan programs which have been slashed by the current Republican Congress and the

Trump administration (Griffin, 2018; Heuvel, 2018). According to USA Today, the

average undergraduate American student debt was $30,000 in 2015-2016; it has risen

exponentially by tenfold in the last decade (Zelniker, 2018).

Thus, for financially disadvantaged Chinese families, the burden is ever more

problematic culturally and financially. While Premier Zhou Enlai’s adage may be “If

anything is to be impoverished, it is not education; if any people are to suffer, it is not

children (“再穷不能穷教育，再苦不能苦孩子”), ” Chinese access to private or public

capital is the greatest limitation to access to higher education, as it is in this nation. The

Chinese poor are challenged by their inability to access affordable capital as a means of

financing higher education. While there have been numerous reports in the Chinese and

American press on Chinese parents who have sold their home to support their child’s

study at an American elite institution, it is noteworthy, as reported in The Chronicle of

Higher Education (Fischer, 2015), that it is often the Chinese parents’ “American

44

Dream” to pursue wholeheartedly a premier education rather than simply the child’s

choice. As Confucianism has dominated Chinese culture, the pursuit of “the good

scholar” will bring honor, prestige, and success to students and parents alike (Zwart,

2013). Higher education is the instrumentality that is legitimized by traditional Chinese

culture, familial desire, and the demands of the modern Chinese economy; this

intersection has compelled the mass exodus of Chinese students to the most prestigious

international universities (Gu, 2016). However, for those Chinese families without the

financial means, the desire remains: Satellite domestic campuses may be that rough

compromise that satisfies both everyone and no one until the necessary longitudinal

studies are undertaken to measure the chasm between expectation and performance.

Chinese Family Values of Higher Education and Academic Achievement

With the increasing number of Chinese international students (Cebolla-Boado et

al., 2017; Fox, 2016; IIE, 2019), there have been increasing negative reports on the low-

quality and faulty academic achievement of Chinese students, including plagiarism,

cheating, and fraudulent applications. This has been exacerbated in part by language

barriers, culture shock, and other obstacles (Bartlett & Fischer, 2011a; Harris, 2012; Lu

& Hunt, 2015; Shu, 2008). As the Western college entrance application process is itself

fundamentally different from the Chinese national examination and is offered only in

English, many Chinese students use private education agencies for assistance in their

applications to foreign universities (Chiu, 2016; Hagedorn & Zhang, 2010). Many of the

students who petition for and utilize such services were themselves unsuccessful in

securing admittance to an ideal Chinese university, as their examination scores were

45

insufficient—the sole criterion of admittance being examination proficiency (Hagedorn

& Zhang, 2010; Li, 2016). Zhang and Hagedorn (2011) also found in their study that

more than half (57%) of their participants used agent services in their American college

and university applications. In contrast, as noted earlier, even the highest-performing

students who seek admittance to the world’s most elite universities also utilize private

agencies to facilitate the admissions process.

“How Many Parents Make Their College Decision for Their Children?” (2018),

“Who Makes College Decisions?” (Ifeng, 2013), and “The Chinese Mother’s American

Dream” (Fischer, 2015) are populist headlines from major publications that are seemingly

repeated annually before the application process. The Chinese press, both state-sponsored

and non-state-sponsored, underscore familial involvement in the university admission

process. Indeed, the majority of Chinese parents are assisting their children with the

application process as well as participating in the decision over which college and which

major are the most suitable for the prospective university student (Bodycott, 2009; Gu,

2016; Zhang, Sun, & Hagedorn, 2013). Unlike the American SAT or the British A-level

examinations which are offered several times annually, the Chinese College Entrance

Examination is held simply once a year. If the student “fails” the examination (does not

meet the minimum admission score), the student loses the opportunity to attend

university for the entire following year. The student will have to wait until the subsequent

year to retake the examination. In the interim, the student may no longer be enrolled in

secondary school since all public secondary schools have limited seats that serve junior-

year students, unless a student’s family possesses the financial capacity to afford a

46

focused study—namely, a specialized school only for retaking students called the

“Gaofu” School.

In contrast to the Chinese college application process, the Western university

application process is comparatively more complicated, as Western universities typically

require supporting materials, including personal statements, recommendation letters, and

other documentation. As most Chinese families are unfamiliar with the academic

performance and reputation of Western universities, except those international academic

elites such as Harvard, Cambridge, Oxford, and MIT, international university ranking has

a great influence on Chinese families during the university application process. With the

Chinese higher education institutions’ reputation being strictly associated with admission

scores as well as the Chinese government’s categories of school tiers and elite

universities within tiers, parents highly rely on university ranking while choosing for

their children (Qiang, 2011). Domestic Chinese critics may criticize the fairness and

objectiveness of university ranking, perhaps as best exemplified by Liu (2016) from

Wenhui News, who “identified” the degree of substantive business involvement/support

as the determinative ranking criterion rather than objective academic evaluation (Liang,

2013).

Most recently, the national Chinese government and the MOE have responded in

part to the collective yearning for excellence in higher education. As such, the MOE has

labored to officially define an elite university cohort among national universities,

including aggressive efforts labeled as “985 Project,” “211 Project,” and “Double Top

University Plan” (MOE, 2017; Qiang, 2011). As this literature review has revealed, the

Chinese government has established three categories of distinct university ranking tiers as

47

well as subject and principles ranking, which can assist Chinese parents and students to

determine the competitiveness of provincial rather than traditionally nationally ranked

universities. The national ranking system has also provided guidance on the

competitiveness of individual schools and majors within the respective institutions, thus

encouraging families to consider a regional second-tier school that may excel at an

academic program of interest to the student. For the past 4 years (2016-2019), the average

number of students participating in the College Entrance Examination has been 9.7

million. According to the MOE, the admission rate for undergraduates is approximately

44% nationwide and the first-tier admission average rate is 19.7%. Take the “985

Project” universities as an example: The admission rate can be as low as 3.5% in one

province (Tencent News, 2019). The uniqueness of the Chinese college admission is

related to the candidates’ residency registration (户口). Each university has to receive

permission to recruit in the other provinces or provincial-level cities such as Beijing and

Shanghai. University seats are allocated to different provinces and provincial-level cities

differently, depending on each university’s own decision. Moreover, College Entrance

Examination candidates will compete with their peers with the same residency

registration within the same province or provincial-level cities. This is particularly well

documented among those strong provincial universities where a major is directly

responsive to a regional industry cluster. As Harvard Professor Michael Porter (1990,

1998) has frequently noted, these regional industry clusters may be important drivers of

regional economic planning as well as academic infrastructure to sustain and engender

increased private capital investment in the cluster economy.

48

For Chinese parents with available disposable income, the ready answer for

university excellence must be to subscribe to the existing status quo, namely the

international ranking of universities (Cebolla-Boado et al., 2017; Zwart, 2013). As such,

the exodus of Chinese students to Western universities has been driven by the need to

achieve recognition and a university degree from an internationally acclaimed university.

While English is mandatory in China from primary school through the pedagogy and

teaching methodology, as previously cited, Chinese students are typically not prepared to

succeed at the university baccalaureate level (potentially in contrast to graduate

university pursuits). It is important to recognize that the unpreparedness of a significant

cohort of Chinese related to university students has been met with the recruitment and

enrollment of Chinese national students for admissions to struggling private American

universities. Both The Chronicle of Higher Education (Bartlett & Fischer, 2011a) and

The New York Times (Bartlett & Fischer, 2011b) have highlighted the many aspects of

the “China Conundrum.” As largely second- and third-tier private non-research-based

American universities are struggling due to the shifting market of higher education and

thus inevitably exacerbating university financial considerations, international students

from China are a prominent and typically somewhat ready source of students and income

(Craig, 2018; Li, 2016). The American educational concern is to underscore that these

students graduating from provincial secondary programs with low academic performance

are jeopardizing the strength of the accepting universities, potentially quickening the

academic demise of the small independent private college.

Bartlett and Fischer (2011a) have cited the substantial challenge that Chinese

students face with academic and admissions misrepresentation: “Opening the Door to

49

American Universities with Lies” (Hathaway, 2011); “Chinese Students, Too Qualified to

Be True” (Schmitz, 2011); and “Fake It Till They Make It: Chinese Agencies

Manufacture Phony Applications to US Colleges” (Wozniak, 2012). Reminiscent of the

present federal indictments of admissions consultant singers, athletes, and academic

officials in U.S. higher education (Baker, 2019; Barrett & Zapotosky, 2019), Chinese

educational consultants frequently operate in a “no-man’s land” between the academic

cultures, laws, and institutions of the United States and China (Chiu, 2016).

Leichter (1975, 1997) argued that the importance of family presence has a

positive influence on children’s academic performance. As most Chinese students study

abroad without having their family with them, their academic outcome may be impacted.

The commentary and criticisms of Chinese student performance must be understood

within the context of the enormous influx of Chinese students—literally one out of every

four international students being Chinese. For Chinese students pursuing university in the

West, there exists in contrast an almost exclusively positive commentary on student

satisfaction. Many factors influence Chinese students’ level of satisfaction, including but

not limited to access to uniform faculty strength, technology, classroom size, cost of

study and living, and facilities, among other features (Coles, 2002; Ward & Masqoret,

2004). Chinese student satisfaction has also had a not insignificant impact on sustained

university recruitment, given the documented nexus between student satisfaction and

loyalty to the institution (Douglas, Douglas, & Barnes, 2006). As the majority of Chinese

students studying abroad indicated a relatively high level of satisfaction (Coles, 2002),

student response has generally focused on traditional elements of university education—

namely, fairness of academic grading and academic and university services. Yet, Chinese

50

students have also sought academic and social support that was uniquely available and

mindful of language and cultural requirements (Cong, 2017). Shu (2008) found that

although the participants recognized their study abroad experience was “meaningful” and

“worthwhile,” they encountered various challenges and difficulties such as language

barriers, integration with domestic students, and unfamiliarity with the American higher

education system.

Presently, while broad satisfaction surveys are being taken among Chinese

international students, the general consensus is the principal desire of Chinese students

for linguistically supportive academic services. As the number of Chinese international

students increases (although the trajectory is leveling), Curtin, Stewart, and Ostrove

(2013) noted the necessity to evaluate the educational outcomes and academic

experiences of said students. With sustainable and culturally responsive academic

support, as has been necessary for American students of historically disadvantaged

communities, students have stated that satisfaction was approximately linked to academic

support and an improved academic experience (Trice & Yoo, 2007). The importance of

faculty serving as a core source of academic and cultural support cannot be

underestimated in contrast to academic support personnel, who were understood to be

remedial in design and purpose. As faculty-student contact has been studied for over 60

years (Cole, 2007), the most recent studies have indicated a positive correlation between

faculty-student contacts and student achievement; as Mook (2002) claimed, “high

achievers interact more, and high interactors achieve more” (p. 159). Kim and Sax (2009)

also revealed a positive relation between the frequency of faculty contacts and learning

outcomes, as did the research of Curtin, Stewart, and Ostrove (2013) and Glass, Gesing,

51

Hales, and Cong (2017). Even though multiple studies have revealed positive relations

between faculty-student contacts and student achievement, there is no clear explanation

for how these interactions lead students to their academic success.

Contrasting with the increasing literature, commentary, and examination of the

satisfaction of Chinese students in pursuing international university education, relatively

sparse commentary exists on Chinese students who seek a university degree from foreign

satellite campuses in China. While these innovative university partnerships have been

widely accepted in China (in part due to the competitive nature of the GaoKao or College

Entrance Examination and limited university enrollment capacity), the focus on their

educational outcomes by the MOE or the Chinese higher education community has been

limited. While foreign satellite campuses are increasingly a new university option for

middle-class parents, only limited studies have demonstrated the outcomes or academic

achievement of Chinese students who have attended foreign satellite campuses. In being

mindful of this increasing Chinese higher education phenomenon, it is important for

researchers to measure whether graduates of these satellite campuses are as well prepared

as their Chinese counterparts who attend Chinese national universities or foreign

universities. The research literature gap resides largely in the inability to compare and

contrast the academic experience of Chinese students matriculating at foreign universities

with those who receive the “benefit” of an international curriculum at satellite Chinese

domestic campuses.

52

Summary

It is noteworthy that as the Chinese economy continues to ascend in dominance,

the percentage of Chinese students who both study abroad and subsequently return home

is increasing. As Forbes reported, 82.23% of Chinese students who studied abroad

returned to China in 2017, an increase of over the 72.38% of Chinese students who

returned home in 2012 (Rapoza, 2017). Ma (2013) of The China Daily reported that the

retention rate of elite Chinese students is increasing, especially in the fields of science

and information technology.

This literature review has narrated an overview of the traditional direction of

Chinese higher education, the relevant and compelling market and international business

influences on Chinese higher education, the bureaucratic response to these pressures, and

the resultant limited entrepreneurial innovations offered in response to the Chinese

economic ascendency. For our purposes, the educational research question focused on

academic experience within the domestic (Chinese) and foreign university context, while

recognizing that university and MOE governance does invariably impact on a wide array

of university instruction, academic focus, and ability to be entrepreneurial, e.g., to be

responsive to global competence requirements. This study allocated substantial

importance to the long-term success of partnerships establishing satellite campuses, the

regulatory impact of Chinese students attending foreign universities, and the need for the

Chinese government and business community to impact educational policy. The Chinese

business community may embrace global competence as a threshold objective to ensure a

technologically proficient and critical thinking workforce that can competently operate

within the context of Western business methods. Yet, both Chinese and American

53

educational establishments have not systemically provided for university administrations

to supplant traditional academic requirements with global competence targets; namely,

processes and skills that ensure technical proficiencies, including definitions,

measurements, and operations.

The purpose of this mixed-methods research, then, was to examine whether there

is an experiential difference in global competence (and the resultant academic and

cultural benefits) between Chinese students who attend a domestic satellite campus with

the same students who subsequently attend a foreign host campus. A corollary to this

research process was to evaluate and critique how families’ decisions about their

children’s studying impacted the decision-making process on campus site determination.

54

Chapter III

METHODOLOGY

The study thus far has reviewed the nexus between the limited research on

satellite campus models, the academic theoretical framework, and higher education

design within Chinese higher education models. Despite an increased interest in the study

abroad experiences of Chinese students (Sánchez, Fornerino & Zhang, 2006; Tian &

Lowe, 2009; Wang, Taplin, & Brown, 2011; Yang, Webster, & Prosser, 2011) and the

Chinese model of satellite campus (Altbach, 2015; Lane, 2011; Markie, 2019),

surprisingly few and limited studies have compared and contrasted the learning

experiences at Chinese satellite campuses and their host campuses as well as the core

family (parental) dynamic towards their children’s college and academic decision

making. The main research study on this was conducted by Wilkins, Balakrishnan, and

Huisman (2012), who found that students who studied at satellite campuses in the United

Arab Emirates had similar satisfaction levels compared to their peers who studied at host

campuses.

Thus, the purpose of this study was to gain deeper understanding of this issue by

reviewing, assessing, and exploring Chinese students’ study abroad experiences,

especially the academic and experiential differences at one university but at two different

campuses as satellite campuses in China. In addition, it is important to explore the role of

55

the parents in university, academic major, and career decision making. This study has the

characteristics of a case study because it is focused on one school, but it also contains

elements from a mixed-methods research paradigm. Schifferdecker and Reed (2009)

stated that a mixed-methods study embodies both qualitative and quantitative data in one

study through data collection, analysis, and integration. Creswell (2009) also stated that

the interdisciplinary nature of research as well contributes to the formation of research

teams with individuals who have diverse methodological interests and approaches. As

satellite campuses are a relatively new phenomenon in Chinese higher education (the first

satellite campus was established in Mainland China in 2004), it is essential to utilize both

interviews and surveys to understand the students’ perspectives of their learning

experience while studying abroad, and parents’ perceptions of college and academic

decision making. This chapter presents a discussion of the methodological support of this

study and the design of this research.

Background of the Study

The first satellite campus was established in China in 2004; presently, there are

nine established satellite campuses. The Chinese Ministry of Education (MOE) has

informally indicated that it will review longitudinal outcomes of this new model before

establishing the satellite campus as a preferred template. As both the number of Chinese

students who study abroad and the enrollment of Chinese students at foreign satellite

campuses in China have increased exponentially, there are presently no systematic

academically governed studies on English language proficiency, global competence,

and/or professional employment placement that compare and contrast students’

56

experiences at foreign satellite campuses in China with those same Chinese students who

have subsequently studied at foreign host campuses.

In this study, I evaluated and examined the experience of a single cohort of 313

students who attended Wenzhou-Kean University (WKU) and subsequently Kean

University in the United States from 2015 to 2017. The cohort has uniquely experienced

the advantages and vicissitudes of studying at a foreign (American) satellite campus in

China, as well as the unique experience of studying at Kean University in the United

States. There would seemingly be a plethora of learned and derived lessons from the

academic and cultural interactions at a Chinese campus of a foreign university and the

subsequent contrast with the academic experience of matriculating at the host foreign

university American campus. Yet, it is important to challenge what would be an evidently

reasonable supposition on the part of families, administrators, the students themselves,

and Chinese officials. The cohort is especially well positioned to evaluate the different

student experiences at the two campuses, which have a mission to offer an American

(Middle States) accredited university experience with the attendant academic and cultural

benefits at two distinct geographic locations. This chapter presents a discussion of the

data collection process, namely sampling, methods used to collect data, and subsequent

analysis.

Lastly, mindful of the unique role the family plays in Chinese student college

decision making, I collected data through Chinese interviews with students on the

influence of families in their decision to attend a foreign university. Chinese parents play

a disproportionate role in the selection process, as contrasted with American students;

most importantly, parents are largely the sole source of funding for higher education

57

(although Chinese higher education, which is almost an entirely test-based selection, is

relatively inexpensive). For score-based admission, applicants are required to apply to

universities, including foreign satellite campuses, before admission scores are released;

thus, parental support, engagement, and funding are essential if a student is to attend a

foreign satellite campus or a foreign university.

Background Information of Research Sites

Kean University is a state university governed by the laws of the State of New

Jersey and nationally accredited in accordance with the Middle States Commission on

Higher Education. The Commission is recognized by the U.S. Secretary of Education

and the Council on Higher Education Accreditation to conduct accreditation and pre-

accreditation for institutions of higher education. The university is principally located in

Union, New Jersey, and has 13,000 undergraduate students (50-plus undergraduate

majors) and 3,000 graduate students (60 plus graduate programs). Kean University was

the first public postsecondary institution in New Jersey. The original purpose of the

university was to educate prospective teachers to serve in elementary and secondary

schools; the university was inaugurated as New Jersey State Teachers College in 1937.

Kean University earned university status in 1997, becoming Kean University of New

Jersey, the third largest higher education institute in New Jersey.

In 2006, Mr. Xi Jinping (President, People’s Republic of China) visited Kean

University as Secretary of the Communist Party, Zhejiang Province, and formally

recognized the establishment of the Sino-U.S. cooperative, creating Wenzhou-Kean

University (WKU). In 2011, WKU received approval from the Chinese MOE to establish

58

Wenzhou-Kean University, cooperatively governed by Wenzhou University and Kean

University. WKU presented a proposed curriculum, campus site development plans, and

faculty, and subsequently commenced student recruitment in 2012. In December 2013,

the WKU Board of Directors received recognition by the Chinese MOE to be jointly

governed by a Chinese and American board. Reflecting on the broader mission and

collaboration between the United States and China, WKU’s mission statement sets forth,

“As a province-state friendship cooperative project between Zhejiang and New Jersey,

Ministry of Education regards the establishment of the University as one of critical

projects that enlarges the scope of Education Open-up while enhancing education reform

in return” (WKU, 2019).

Research Design

Creswell (2009) stated that mixed-methods studies utilize the strength of

qualitative and quantitative approaches. In this study, the priority method was a

qualitative approach and the quantitative approach served a secondary role. Morse (1991)

stated that one characteristic of qualitative research is “...a need exists to explore and

describe the phenomenon” (p. 120). Creswell and Plano Clark (2018) suggested that

research decision making ought to be weighed uniquely from different methodologies.

This study employed a litany of research mechanisms/designs—namely, a Likert scale

and multiple-choice mixed survey and two sets of semi-structured and open-ended

interview questions—in an effort to yield a more thorough understanding of Chinese

students’ study abroad experiences and their parents’ perceptions of their children’s

college decision making. Barriball and While (1994) stated semi-structured interview as

59

“best method to explore perceptions” (p. 334). I invited the alumni to complete the survey

and invited a cohort to participate in a set of interview questions. For those alumni who

completed the first set of interviews, I subsequently invited their parents to participate in

another set of appropriately designed interview questions. The survey instrument was

designed based on previous studies; the empirical research literature; my own academic/

work experience in China, the United Kingdom, and the United States; and my

professional experience as a Chinese university administrator.

The research design was a three-step process:

1. The first step was an online survey for students from classes in 2016-2019

who studied at the American host campus. Students received an online survey

inquiring about their study abroad experience, cultural learning, and college

decision-making process. Shapley (2008) and Weston and Bain (2010) found

positive benefits in using online surveys for certain data collection.

2. The second step was the administration of individual “face-to-face” online

interviews with a cohort selected from those who previously completed the

online survey. The interview was originally designed with a face-to-face

in-person format, but because of the COVID-19 pandemic, face-to-face

interviews were suspended as a safety concern. The purpose of the interviews

was to gather in-depth data and anecdotal observations bolstering student

observations. Apart from the endemic uncertainty of the response rate of the

interview questions as well as the unknown quality of reflection from the

survey questions (Austin, 1981), face-to-face interviews ensured that the

interviewer can probe questions that have been answered (mindful that the

60

interviewee is not obliged to answer any question) (Bailey, 1987). Richardson,

Dohrenwend, and Klein (1965) and Smith (1975) also recommended semi-

structured interviews as being well suited for studying motivation and belief

systems.

3. The third step was individual family interviews. I invited the parents of

students who participated in Step 2 to expound on the familial college

decision-making selection process. As Merriam (1988) stated, “There are no

set procedures or protocols that one follows step by step” (p. 37). This

interview process had a rational development from student to family

interviews, yet no definitive defined procedural development exists. Research

data collection, assessment and evaluation, and preliminary conclusions about

outcomes were formatted in this phase.

Research Methodology

I distributed one comprehensive survey to all qualified alumni participants and

conducted two subsequent interviews to selected cohorts of alumni and their parents in

China.

Online Survey (see Appendix A)

The survey in this study consisted of 48 questions, including dichotomous, Likert,

and frequency scale questions. In addition, the survey offered open-ended response

questions soliciting additional comments. All questions were voluntary and could be

ignored without penalty. I designed the survey for Chinese language speakers. The survey

took approximately 10 minutes to complete.

61

Given the lack of empirical studies on the study abroad experience of Chinese

students, including those exchanged from Chinese satellite campuses, I based the

questionnaire on a review of existing comprehensive studies. The studies utilized

instruments aiming to understand international students in the United States, including

“Are U.S. higher education institutions (HEIs) meeting the needs of international

students?” This instrument was developed by the World Education Service (WES, 2020),

a leading educational service company in the United States to “evaluate and advocate for

the recognition of international education qualifications” (n.p.). The Institute of

International Education (IIE), in conjunction with the Academic Cooperation Association

(ACA) and Project Zero at Harvard University, participated in the review and analysis of

the appropriateness of this template. Although these instruments targeted “degree-

earning” university students worldwide as opposed to only Chinese students, the

instruments provide a lens and framework for developing the survey. Also, for data

validity purposes, I added two attention check questions to the survey to examine the

participants’ attention while filling in the survey.

The survey was used to discern student input in a number of social life, academic,

experiential, familial, and cultural factors. Most importantly, based on the same students’

experiences at two distinct campuses, the survey helped to elicit the students’ awareness,

impressions, and experiences at foreign academic and cultural environments (Kean in the

United States) in contrast to a Chinese domestic environment (WKU in China). The

survey engaged in active questioning to stimulate cognitive reflection of the comparison

of the students’ cultural adaptation at their respective campuses. As Creswell (2009)

62

suggested, surveys/questionnaires offer an effective way to study the opinion of a certain

population. The results can yield data on a student’s cultural learning (noting that

domestic Chinese satellite campus students may have yielded significantly increased

Asian cultural awareness), English language proficiency (including “task-based”

language learning), OECD/Harvard Project Zero “global competence,” and the four

principal dimensions. With this survey, I attempted to understand better students’

learning and experience, maximize their input, and stimulate their thinking and

involvement in evaluating the respective learning process at the two campuses. To

supplement the data, I was able to understand parents’ involvement in the college

decision-making process.

The survey strategies gathered a larger perspective of study abroad learning

experiences at the two selected campuses; general feedback was instructive for each

program. The survey was distributed online through Qualtrics. Online survey also helped

with avoiding writing errors, according to Caeyers, Chalmers, and Weerdt (2010);

moreover, data “can be accessed easily and analyzed nearly instantly” (Bebell, O’Dwyer,

Russell, & Hoffmann, 2010, p. 31). The plan for the survey responses period was 1-2

weeks from the initial survey invitation, during which time I sent WeChat notices weekly

to stimulate student interest. An additional petitioning notification was sent 2 days prior

to the closing date to students who were interested in academic and experiential

improvement, could provide a source of information for this research, and could respond

to the challenge of answering questions that they had about their own and others’

experiences.

63

Interviews

Two interviews were subsequently administered after the survey data had been

collected. I selected a cohort from those participants who responded to the original

survey; it was critical to integrate the personal narrative into the expounded survey

answers. The alumni and their parents were invited to participate in a protracted

subsequent semi-structured interview. Robson (1995) and McKernan (1996) defined

semi-structured interviews as an interview type with a set of certain questions, but

without a rigid order of asking questions; the interviewers have the flexibility of asking

additional questions based on the answers. As Creswell (2003, p. 181), Rossman and

Rallis (2016, p. 8), and Veltri (2019, p. 62) all emphasized, qualitative research is

“emergent” rather than “tightly prefigured.” The semi-structured interview questions in

this study provided prompt questions, which led the interviewees to respond. The

following questions detailed below (also see Appendix C) revealed data in part based on

interviewees’ answers to the prompt questions. Again, the interview questions were in

Chinese Mandarin as students’ and parents’ primary language was not English but

Chinese. Holbrook, Krosnik, and Pfent (2007) suggested that using a familiar language

also may improve response rate. All Zoom interviews were recorded to provide an

opportunity for subsequent review. Barriball and While (1994) suggested that the

replication of interview content facilitates analysis. I recorded and maintained interviews

on a password-secured Cloud account per recommendation and accepted protocol.

Alumni interview (see Appendix B). The first semi-structured interview was

conducted with a cohort of alumni who replied affirmatively to the survey as well as their

parents who subsequently agreed to participate. The purpose of this inquiry was to yield a

64

more detailed understanding of the unique learning experiences of students at the

American host campus, in contrast with the environment of the domestic satellite campus.

I began with a short informal conversation to establish a casual atmosphere; my follow-

up questions were then premised on the interviewees’ responses. In addition to

comprehensive student interview questions was a broad survey consisting of queries

examining students’ study abroad experiences, cultural learning, global competence, and

critical decision making. Data from the interview and survey were collected, assessed,

and evaluated for analysis and discussion.

Parent interviews (see Appendix C). Chinese parents were welcomed, assured of

the academic nature of the inquiry, and offered gratitude for this collaborative effort to

improve Sino-American educational endeavors. I initiated each interview with parents

with several short-answer questions which served as a prompt because many Chinese

parents were unfamiliar, if not uncomfortable, with the interview process. The prompts

eased parental concern, if not anxiety, with the prospect of yielding more research data.

As Patton (1990) argued, “the quality of the information obtained during an interview is

largely dependent on the interviewer” (p. 279). A comfortable, relaxed, and confidential

environment helped to promote data collection and gather insights.

As I was investigating Chinese students’ study abroad experiences and their

parents’ role within the decision-making process, I deemed a mixed-methods design as

most appropriate for this research. Table 2 indicates the selected methods chosen and

approved by my dissertation sponsors for the specific research questions.

65

Table 2. Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods

Research Question Survey Alumni

Interview

Parent

Interview

1. To what extent did students’ perception of global

learning outcomes align with perception of

achievement of study abroad goals? Did students’

experience at Wenzhou-Kean University (China

foreign satellite) and/or Kean University (U.S. host

campus) enhance awareness of global competence?

☑️ ☑️

2. How did Chinese students’ experience at

Wenzhou-Kean University compare and contrast

with their experience at Kean University regarding

academic, cultural (an element but not the entirety

of global competence), and professional and

technical preparation?

☑️ ☑️

3. What are the roles of Chinese parents in college

and academic decision making? ☑️ ☑️

Participants

After being introduced to the alumni cohort by the exchange program coordinator

at Wenzhou-Kean University, I contacted the alumni who subsequently participated in

the study through “group chat” messages. As the group chat originally served as a

notification for school announcements and conversation tool, the coordinator had

suggested that would be preferable for notification purposes rather than alumni emails.

This research was focused on comparing and contrasting the Chinese student

academic and learning experience at the foreign satellite campus of Wenzhou-Kean

University (WKU) campus—which is certified to grant baccalaureate degrees in China

(Kean University received the Chinese MOE approval to grant licensed Chinese degrees

66

as Wenzhou-Kean University degrees) as well as licensed American degrees (Kean

University accreditation)—with the Chinese student experience at Kean University.

The added benefit for the consistency of this applied research methodology was

that WKU recruits Chinese students based on the rigorous Chinese College Entrance

Examination (GaoKao), which provided me with statistical data enumerating the range of

universities for which a student is competitive. The administration of the GaoKao

provides a uniform benchmark for Chinese students’ performance and their relative

academic strengths within a framework of permissible universities for which the students

can be competitively placed. Students would have been admitted pursuant to an

acceptable GaoKao enrollment score, aware of the competitive nature of the domestic

Chinese undergraduate university market. The MOE (China Education Online, 2020)

has stated that 10.71 million students are participating in the 2020 College Entrance

Examination. Unlike the administration of the SAT or ACT in the United States, which

provides the ostensible probability of academic success and thus admittance, it is worth

noting that GaoKao proscribes the specific universities to which a student may apply. In

turn, evaluating those university options available to a student and the subsequent

parental and candidate’s decision-making process will readily inform me of the

expectations parents and candidates have of the value and merits of the foreign influence

of their higher education experience.

The sampling was administered as follows:

1. A survey was administered to 313 alumni from WKU classes of 2016, 2017,

2018, and 2019 who subsequently participated in the Kean University

exchange program between 2015 and 2017. The entire number of students

67

who participated in the exchange programs was 340, and according to the

contact information provided by the WKU Alumni Association, 313 alumni

were available to contact in the Group Contact Cohort, as some may have had

unsubscribed notifications or quit the group chat. The Chinese MOE-

sponsored WKU degree requires Chinese students to complete the majority of

required Chinese academic work at the domestic campus in the initial 2 years

(the policy at that time); thus, students apply to Kean University for their

“exchange program,” subsequently enrolling in undergraduate university

courses on the Kean University (U.S.) campus.

There were 91 responses. Two of those respondents did not wish to participate in

the study. The other two respondents did not qualify for this study due to early

termination of their exchange program; both returned before the fall semester started.

They intended to participate in both the summer immersion program and the fall semester

exchange. Due to personal reasons, however, they withdrew from the fall exchange

program. One respondent failed both attention check questions and, based on time

tracking, the person spent less than 3 minutes to complete the survey versus the average

time of 10 minutes. After discussing this situation with my dissertation sponsors, I

removed this student’s survey as an invalid data sample. Six respondents made one

mistake in the attention check questions; subsequently, we held a closer inspection to

determine their data validity. After a closer review of these six survey responses and

consultation with my dissertation sponsors, I elected to include these six responses; we

believe they made a mistake on a specific question. In sum, there were 86 valid responses

from the survey.

68

2. A second stage qualitative semi-structured online interview was conducted via

Zoom. As health restrictions for COVID-19 precluded the originally planned

“face-to-face” interviews, I deemed Zoom as an appropriate replacement. The

interviews were conducted in Chinese Mandarin, the primary language of the

students. Student interview participants and their parents were selected with

the support of the WKU Administration, the Kean University International

Student Office, and the Kean Alumni Association.

Among those 86 valid responses, 21 participants agreed to participate in the

second stage interview: I chose 10 from the 21 participants, based on various factors

including diversity of background, experiences, professions, academic training (e.g.,

academic major), graduate study destination, and graduate class. The interview length for

Stage 2 was approximately 90 minutes. The shortest interview was 45 minutes, the

longest was 2 hours. Table 3 provides a summary of the interview participants.

3. In the third stage, I conducted similar qualitative semi-structured online

interviews via Zoom. Among those above referenced, 10 alumni participants

(designated in Stage 2), parents of 6 student alumni (1 father, 5 mothers),

agreed to participate in the Stage 3 interviews.

Before I initiated all the individual interviews, participants signed a consent form

in Chinese Mandarin. Parents were informed of the purpose of this study and their

potential contribution. During the interview, I introduced prepared questions and probes

approved by the dissertation committee members to stimulate conversations. Parents

were offered the opportunity to ask me general questions as well as any specific questions

on any premises they did not understand. According to Institutional Review Board (IRB),

69

I informed parents that they may refuse to answer any question and were free to terminate

the interview at any time. The parents’ interviews were approximately 35-40 minutes,

with the shortest being 15 minutes and the longest being 75 minutes.

Table 3. Summary of Interview Participant (Pseudonyms)

Name Gender Major Exchange

Length

Graduate

School

Intention for

WKU

Graduation

Year

Parents

Interview

Wanzhen Female Accounting 1 semester USA Family friends

recommended 2017 No

Tao Male Graphic

Design 1 semester USA

Parents and

myself 2019 Yes

Wenzheng Male English 2 semesters USA Parents and

myself 2016 Yes

Haoyuan Male Graphic

Design 2 semesters USA Parents 2019 Yes

Yuwei Female Accounting 2 semesters USA Myself 2017 No

Cong Female Accounting 1 semester USA Parents 2017 Yes

Tingting Female English 2 semesters USA Parents and

consultant 2016 Yes

Xian Male Accounting 1 semester N/A Family member

(uncle） 2017 No

Lyv Male Computer

Science 1 semester UK Myself 2018 No

Yan Male Global

Business 1 semester USA

Family friends

recommended 2018 Yes

70

Pilot Study

I originally undertook a pilot study with interviews in January 2020 with five

WKU alumni from the classes of 2016, 2017, and 2018; there was one alumni interview

and five surveys of students who participated in the exchange program during their

undergraduate study. The interviewees’ parents did not participate due to the Lunar New

Year holiday period. I discussed with the pilot study participants the methods and

organization of the query process to improve “user experience” and to examine the

criteria included or not included in the survey and interview.

Data Analysis

Because I employed a mixed-methods research study, I began the data analysis

the last day of survey responses. The data analysis framework was adopted from

Creswell, Plano Clark, Gutmann, and Hanson (2003). The ability to categorize survey

questions into distinct themes/domains substantially assisted in quantifying, compiling,

and analyzing the responses to the research questions. I categorized the survey questions

into general theme rubrics. As noted previously, the interview served as a secondary-level

stage of the study, providing a lens with which to explore the data in depth. The interview

process served as a mechanism for discerning those reasons why the students decided to

enroll in a satellite campus. In addition, the sequential second step of the interview

provided an opportunity to validate the first step of survey results because the parents’

interview offered triangulation for evaluating the data on collegiate decision making.

Researchers have commonly cited this research technique as cross-validation

confirmation (Greene, Caracelli, & Graham, 1989).

71

The alumni interview was a heightened step of engaged inquiry after the online

survey responses were submitted. As Merriam (1988) stated, “Data collection and

analysis is a simultaneous activity in qualitative research” (p. 119). As the qualitative

approach was the priority, the deliberate, careful, and unbiased reading of interview

transcripts was vital to determine if the interview data indicated a similar pattern of

observations and insights as did the online survey. As the interview questions were

designed to complement and mirror, if not replicate, similar themes/domains as from the

online survey, I found the evaluation of the interview data to be critical not only for the

substantive nature of responses, but for the alignment of the interview responses with the

online survey responses. The interview data were transcribed for coding and analysis and

all transcripts were returned to the interviewees for their review. As per IRB protocol,

participants were permitted to edit their interview language (in Chinese) to clarify their

responses (the original coding was maintained). Esterberg (2002) observed that data

themes and patterns would appear upon coding. A data evaluation of the comparison and

contrast of the two sets (survey/interview) of data was conducted subsequent to data

collection, cleaning, and organization.

The third step, the interview process with parents, followed a similar process to

the alumni interviews. As parents were not administered a survey prior to their interview,

there was no comparison/contrast alignment with the survey response. Parental interview

data, however, were compared and contrasted with their children’s responses for

questions with which they had experiential knowledge. As Patton (2002) intoned,

“Qualitative analysis transforms data into findings. No formula exists for that

transformation” (p. 432). Alumni and parental observations, experiences, and insights

72

into foreign and satellite campus experiences served to provide a context for

contemporary university selection as well as the character of the respective academic and

nonacademic learning experiences, including language, culture, critical thinking, broadly

global competence, and a delineated set of observations of both positive and negative

attributes of the foreign satellite campus university model.

Once analysis was completed, the findings and interpretations of the data were

synthesized in regular patterns, aligned with the research methodology, and referenced to

the appropriate research theories. This yielded reasonable answers to the research

questions and addressed adherence to IRB guidelines and ethical research practices.

Validity and Reliability

To ensure reliability of information, WKU Chinese alumni were instructed that

there were no “correct” answers to questions, as the survey was experiential in design.

Alumni anonymity was ensured from the outset because anonymity enhances reliability

and validity. The research was academic in design, with anonymity enhancing the

accuracy of the research in its mindfulness of Chinese cultural awareness and adaptation

(Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2011). The survey and interview were offered in Chinese

Mandarin, which assisted alumni and parents to appreciate the design, purpose, and

comparative nuances of the investigative process more fully as well as to participate more

vigorously. Wolf (1994) suggested that participants’ language proficiency is a core factor

which may affect research reliability. Additionally, attention check questions served as

validity assurance to help participants avoid filling out the survey without paying specific

attention to the questions.

73

Researcher’s Position

As a Chinese national who has studied in Canada and received graduate degrees

from recognized universities in the United Kingdom and the United States, I have

previously administered an English language program in China. With that perspective,

the prospect, promise, and performance of foreign (United States and United Kingdom)

satellite campuses in China comprise an intriguing academic model; yet the model is

largely under-evaluated for proficiency and benefit of academic, cultural, and global

competence within the context of the university experience. While the Chinese MOE has

restricted the advent of “diploma mills,” engendered in large measure by private

entrepreneurs seizing on the scope of the Chinese market against available university

undergraduate seats, the advent of satellite campuses contracting with respected Western

universities has offered a business and academic model which, while seemingly affording

a standard of academic achievement, has also been largely untested in longitudinal

surveys. Of note is that the primary language of satellite campuses is of the foreign host

university, typically English, as the United Kingdom and the United States dominate this

domestic satellite market.

This research is of great interest both to me and to Chinese university academics

because it: (a) compares and contrasts the study abroad experience with that of the

satellite campus; (b) discusses the impact of the experience of attending a foreign satellite

campus and a foreign university on professional development and academic

development, English language proficiency, and global competence, as measured by the

OECD/Harvard index (as against a domestic Chinese university, whose entrance is

strictly proscribed); and (c) explores Chinese parents’ participation, biases, and studied

74

direction of university selection, academic major, and career making for those students

who have studied at the foreign university satellite campus and foreign university.

In addition to varied academic and employment experiences, I have worked with

Chinese and international students in multiple environments, witnessing various degrees

of cultural adaptation and global competence, and observing the relative strength and/or

lack thereof of “critical decision making” within university curricula. Participating as a

researcher and convocation presenter with the Society for Research into Higher

Education (United Kingdom), the European Higher Education Society (EAIR), and the

Children’s Global Competence Education (CGCE) Research Committee, I was provided

with the opportunity and ability through these three distinct research institutions to

conduct and submit research on educational policies and practices. This has impacted my

understanding, competency, and evaluative analytical capacities to conduct comparative

research on foreign education practices in China.

Ethical Considerations

Before I administered the survey and interviews, I distributed consent forms to the

participants in accordance with the IRB rubric; participants were required to sign consent

forms in order to provide their permission prior to participating in this study. “Obtaining

permission before starting to collect data is not only a part of the informed consent

process but is also an ethical practice” (Creswell, 2003, p. 179). Additionally, certain

participants had expressed concerns about the acquisition of personal information, data

protection, and other related matters; they were given information and research protocols

to ensure that their privacy would be protected.

75

The Teachers College, Columbia University IRB reviewed the dissertation

proposal, consent forms, research instruments, and other required documents; IRB

approval was received on April 6, 2020. Because the survey data collection was

completely anonymous, no personal information was required to be submitted. Contact

information was asked only if survey participants agreed to participate in interviews. The

names used in the dissertation are all pseudonyms, with the expressed direction and

permission of the dissertation sponsors. For the safety of both the participants and the

researcher, pursuant to concern over the global COVID pandemic, all surveys and

interviews were conducted online through Qualtrics, Zoom, and technological platforms.

Member Checking

Member checking is described by “the provisional report (case) is taken back to

the site and subjected to the scrutiny of the persons who provided information” (Lincoln

& Guba, 1985, p. 236). Member checking with interview participants was administered

after transcription and summarization were completed. A full interview transcript was

submitted to each interviewee. The dissertation sponsors decided that transcript review

permitted the interviewees to review, edit, and clarify proffered material. The process

provided a better opportunity for the participants to contribute to the research. The

participants either agreed or disagreed with the summaries of their observations/

viewpoints, perspectives, and feelings, and offered appropriate editing, which improved

the data’s accuracy and credibility (Creswell 2007; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Member

checking serves to reduce the possibility of incorrect data and the subsequent incorrect

interpretation of data; the purpose of this strategy is to increase the authenticity of the

data (Creswell, 2007; Moustakas, 1994). The additional benefit of member checking is

76

that it provides the researcher with a second chance to verify the accuracy and

completeness of the findings, thereby improving the study’s validity (Cohen & Crabtree,

2006).

Summary

This chapter presented background information to the study, its rationale, and the

scope of work (as proscribed and approved by the dissertation committee members)

through its design, participants, and research methodology. The critical components of

the research procedures, in accordance with IRB protocol, included data collection

methods, analysis, and the validity and reliability of the data. The nature and scope of the

pilot study, the role of the researcher, and ethical considerations to enhance the validity

and reliability of the research were set forth. Lastly, member check and triangulation

were explicated. This chapter provided the guidance and rationale for data analysis and

interpretation for the following chapter.

77

Chapter IV

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

This chapter provides the results of the data analysis and findings of the study.

Both qualitative and quantitative data were used consistently for analyzing purposes. For

a clear understanding of the results and findings, this chapter is divided into five sections.

The first section presents the findings and an analysis of the background information of

these participants and their rationale for attending Wenzhou-Kean University (WKU) and

subsequently participating in the exchange program. The second section provides the

themes that emerged from the data analysis on participants’ cross-cultural learning; sense

of global competence; and personal experiences and feelings towards the exchange

program, foreign culture, and academic environment. The third section addresses the

participants’ academic experiences with the rigor of the academic offerings, English

language learning, explicit global competence teaching, faculty relations, and other

related aspects, followed by the findings and an analysis of their social interactions and

experiences with American students. The final section reports the parents’ view of their

role and involvement in their children’s college selection, academic major selection, and

career choice decision-making process.

78

Broad Overview of Cohort Survey Results: Who Are They?

As noted earlier, 91 of 313 alumni responded to the survey (this excluded 5 “pilot

study” participants who took a draft survey prior to the actual survey); 86 of 91 (5

participants had invalid survey forms) were considered valid survey responses for data

analysis. I reviewed the sufficiency of answers for the purpose of examining student

experiences at Kean University (KU) in the United States, as compared and contrasted

with their experiences at Wenzhou-Kean University (WKU) in China. Since WKU

initially recruited in China in 2012, all alumni interviewees confirmed that the student

exchange program authorized students to participate in the junior year. The first-time

exchange program was initiated in the 2015 Spring Semester. For responders, the survey

responses accounted for approximately one-third (n = 91) of those students who

participated in the exchange program from 2015 to 2017. Excluded from consideration

were 2 participants who terminated their exchange program in the beginning of the

exchange program, 1 respondent who did not maintain “attention check” queries, and an

additional 2 respondents who were rejected because of their decision not to participate in

the survey. Table 4 summarizes the background information of valid participants’

responses.

For students in the class of 2016, participation was synchronized to a different

time schedule than for students in later years, as the exchange program was launched in

the spring semester of 2015. Ninety-three percent of the participants (n = 80) enrolled in

the exchange program during junior year. The majority (47.67%) of students (n = 41)

chose to participate in the exchange program for one semester, followed by a high

79

Table 4

Background Information of Valid Participants’ Responses

Characteristics N %

Gender

Male 28 32.56

Female 58 67.44

Initial Exchange Term

Fall Semester of Junior Year 52 60.47

Spring Semester of Junior Year 28 32.56

Fall Semester of Senior Year 6 6.98

Exchange Length

One Semester 41 47.67

Two Semesters 35 40.70

Three Semesters 7 8.14

Four Semester 2 2.33

Other 1 1.16

Year of Graduation

2016 10 11.63

2017 18 20.93

2018 35 40.70

2019 22 25.58

Other 1 1.16

Major

English 11 12.79

Computer Science 3 3.49

Economy (Finance or Accounting Direction) 59 68.60

Marketing 5 5.81

Global Finance 4 4.65

Graphic Design 2 2.33

Other 2 2.33

Study Abroad Experience

First time 79 91.86

Other 7 8.14

Overseas Traveling Experience

None 19 22.09

1-2 times 39 45.35

3-4 times 22 25.58

More than 5 times 6 6.98

80

percentage (40.70%) of students (n = 35) who participated in the exchange

program for a full academic year (two semesters).

The factors of length of study, initial term of exchange, graduation year, major,

and previous overseas study and travel experiences were evaluated within the

demographic composition of the survey respondents. For purposes of comprehensiveness,

men comprised one-third (n = 28) of the participants (n = 86) and women comprised over

two-thirds (n = 58) of the sample. The majority of respondents participated in the

exchange program at the first offering of eligibility.

For survey participants, respondents’ participation as factored by graduation in

year roughly corresponded to class size: class of 2016 (187), class of 2017 (224), class of

2018 (438), and class of 2019 (487). From class 2016 to class 2019, the participant

involvement was 11.63%, 20.93%, 40.70%, and 25.58%, respectively (2019 was an

anomaly as study abroad travel to the United States was largely limited to junior year

students). The one exception was a student who transferred to KU after the exchange

semester.

The largest cohort of participants majored in Economics (68.6%), while the

smallest cohort was in Graphic Design (2.33%). English major participants (n = 11)

ranked second, but only at 12.79%. Seventy-nine (91.86%) respondents stated that it was

their first time studying abroad. Of the entire cohort, 8.14% (7) respondents stated they

had international academic experiences prior to WKU; 2.33% (2) had experienced the

Summer Camp at KU at the end of their freshman year in Wenzhou, China, while 5.81%

(5) did not specify any study abroad experience. As for overseas traveling experience

distinct from foreign study, 22.09% (n = 19) of the participants stated they had not

81

traveled abroad before the exchange program. Additionally, 6.98% (6) respondents stated

they had traveled more than five times abroad prior to the exchange program.

How and Why Wenzhou-Kean University?

Parents and Tier Ranking

A major focus of the research was to examine the experiential differences of the

same students between the two Kean campuses. From the outset, it was important to

understand the reasons why participants chose to attend WKU. In the survey, participants

were asked about the source of their initial consideration for their application to WKU.

Reflecting Chinese cultural patterns and mindful that WKU was then seen as a Chinese

first-tier ranked institution, almost half or 48.83% (n = 42) of participants responded that

it was their parents’ considered suggestion to apply to WKU. Five (5.81%) participants

stated it was their high school teachers’ recommendation to apply to WKU. Of note is

that more than half of participants did not initially intend to apply to WKU. Only 40.70%

(35) participants stated it was their personal initiative to apply to WKU. Further

investigation and follow-up survey questions on the application process to WKU revealed

the “decision-making process” to be heavily influenced by parental direction. While

mindful of the applicants’ GaoKao/College Entrance Examination score results, it was

clear that student competitiveness was prominent within the Chinese university

(including foreign satellite campuses) application process.

For example, Cong, an Accounting major, stated:

My exam results were quite embarrassing. At that point, the choices among

first-tier were very limited. After my mom read the College Admission Guide

[guidebook providing generalized collegiate information, previous year admission

scores, university/collegiate ranking with tiering of most schools in China/

82

worldwide], she found WKU from the guidebook. We contacted the school. To be

honest, I feel deflated and depressed with my score on the standardized test. There

weren’t many choices available for me to apply at that point, so we gave it a try.

Wanzhen, also an Accounting major, stated:

I found Wenzhou-Kean University in the College Admission Guide. My score

and my provincial ranking at that time was [were] fairly close to the previous

year’s WKU admission score and ranking, so my family, mostly my parents,

asked their friends about the school. They all recommended WKU, So I applied.

Lyu, a Computer Science major, explained that his score was low (among Chinese

first-tier universities), but he could meet the admissions standards at WKU. Additionally,

computer science was attractive to him as a potential career direction. While he preferred

not to be educated in English, his testing score was a limiting reality to university

admissions. He considered his decision to attend WKU to be his most prudent choice.

Yuwei, an Accounting major, noted she had been contemplating studying abroad

since secondary school; thus, she only considered international satellite campuses. Upon

receipt of her collegiate test score, she promptly applied to WKU. Yuwei stated that

WKU offered the opportunity to study abroad while meeting the admission criteria,

which indicated her probable acceptance.

Major thematic narratives emerging from the interviews related to the students’

reasoning for applying to WKU are as follows.

First, “score and tier,” as understood within the context of a single qualifying

university admissions grid, was perhaps the dominant factor in applying to WKU. This

was best elucidated by Yan’s comment, “If WKU was at the second tier, I would not have

considered applying for WKU.” Also, Wenzheng felt embarrassed with his score at that

time: “If I am correct, I had the lowest admissions score of any admitted student when I

was admitted into WKU. At the time, there were the ‘leftover’ majors for me to other

83

colleges and universities. So, I took the opportunity, as WKU promised that we could

change majors once with no expressed penalty. That commitment made me willing to try

a brand-new university.” Tier and Chinese ranking were almost universally given as

primal or secondary factors by the cohort. Within the university tier, ranking of majors

within respective tiers was also a priority of consideration.

As discussed previously, the GaoKao National College Entrance Examination

was typically the single greatest factor for Chinese university admission; therefore, a

student’s test score was determinative with regard to tier. Haoyuan, a Graphic Design

major, stated that WKU was (then) ranked in first tier, and if he could be admitted into a

first-tier university (even at the bottom of the tier range), why should he choose a second-

tier university?

The second major theme to emerge was parental involvement. Leichter (1975)

noted that parents and grandparents have great influence on education in traditional

societies, and this was consistent with these findings in appraising parental influence on

college attendance decisions. While 68.60% of respondents (n = 59) claimed they made

the final decision for applying to WKU and 31.40% (n = 27) reported their parents made

the final decision, the role of parental involvement was almost a universal refrain in the

participants’ survey responses. Augmented by the earlier discussion of university costs in

the literature review (see Chapter II), familial resources and traditional familial “decision

making” weighed profoundly on final university selection. The interview results

indicated that Chinese parents substantially influenced their children in many ways, both

direct and nuanced—even the students who contended they made the final decision

themselves. Tingting, an English major, stated:

84

My mom’s opinion is important to me. I made the decision that WKU was

to be my third choice, behind my first choice and second choices, instead of

listening to my mom to list WKU as my first choice. However, my test score did

not meet the required cutoff of my first two choices; automatically, I was admitted

to Wenzhou Kean University as my third choice.

Tao, a Graphic Design major, noted he and his mother discussed college choices, but he

made the final decision. However, his mother did suggest choosing from Sino-

Cooperative programs or universities, which narrowed the university choices from

thousands to dozens. Haoyuan had the same general experience. His parents suggested

WKU at the very beginning of his college “decision-making” process, even though the

university was unknown to him because it was recently created. Ultimately, his parents

decided to send him to WKU.

Other familial connections beside parents also influenced decisions for some

participants. Yan said, “Although my mom did not directly interfere with my choice, a

high school teacher is her good friend. Her friend suggested that I should choose from a

first-tier rather than a second-tier university.” Xian recollected that he added WKU as a

late fourth choice after his uncle, who was working in the provincial education system,

had suggested adding WKU to the application list. Xian was admitted to WKU, but his

score did not meet his first three preferred university selections (students may apply to up

to six universities and within each university, students may apply up to five majors—each

major potentially requiring a different score).

In sum, while participants may have had varied reasons for choosing WKU,

including an English-speaking environment, foreign exchange opportunities, and global

competence, most students were restricted by their GaoKao score and WKU’s attraction

as a first-tier school. Although most of the respondents asserted they made the personal

85

decision about university selection, a large majority did recognize that family dynamics

to a significant degree influenced the initial contemplation of WKU and/or the final

decision-making process. Substantial parental and familial participation was reflected

broadly and deeply in survey question responses as well as query prompts. See Figure 1

for a depiction of participants’ influences on their final decisions.

Figure 1. Initial Idea and Final Decision

University Costs/Familial Revenue Sources/Influence

As discussed in the previous chapter, the foreign university satellite campus

tuition and room/board are exponentially more expensive than traditional public Chinese

universities; at its most egregious, foreign university expenses are 10 times the cost.

Unlike American student loan programs that are financed publicly through federal and

42

5

35

4

27

0

59

00

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Parents Teacher Myself Others

Initial Idea and Final Decision

Initial Idea Final Decision

86

state agencies and private banking, university and philanthropic financial aid/grants, and

“public service” and military forgiveness policies, Chinese university students rely

heavily on the financial support of parents or extended family. The necessity of familial

financial support creates another reason for parents to become involved in their children’s

academic and college decision-making process. Almost every participant (n = 84)

reported that parents provided the necessary funds for tuition and living costs. Only one

student received scholarship funding, while one student paid for the tuition. All

participants (n = 86) confirmed that their parents paid the “study abroad” fees (remaining

academic costs to attend KU, plus books and fees).

For example, Tingting stated that her primary reason for participating in the

exchange program extension was that KU offered “in-state” tuition rates for Chinese

nationals enrolled in WKU but attending KU in the United States. Furthermore, while

Tingting had effectively negotiated university costs with her parents for tuition and

expenses, her ability to secure off-campus university housing in the United States served

as a mechanism to increase her discretionary spending allowance: “As long as expenses

were controlled and within budget, I could manage all else.”

Mindful of academic reputation, Wenzheng found the exchange program entirely

too expensive, despite KU offering in-state tuition. “I changed my dormitory room three

times to secure a lesser price. To be honest, it was not a small amount of money. While

my parents covered the entirety of my costs, I was not convinced that I wanted to attend

Kean University.” While he sensed that he was privileged to have his parents pay all

university expenses, he recognized the staggering total amount of university costs in

87

proportion to the value that the KU education would provide (contrasted with Chinese

public universities).

Unlike the relatively low indebtedness of Chinese students, American students

frequently incur substantial debt, as reported by CNBC: “According to the Federal

Reserve, over half of young adults who went to college in 2018 took on debt. About 69%

of students from the Class of 2018 took out student loans, graduating with an average

debt balance of $29,800, according to Student Loan Hero” (Hess, 2019). As American

students assume an ever-increasing percentage of debt in the absence of governmental,

private, and familial support, the Chinese Ministry of Education (MOE) instead

articulated thresholds by which universities had to commit themselves to the percentage

of students who would incur debt. The MOE of the People’s Republic of China (2014)

promulgated relatively stringent regulations requiring that the percentage of university

students who have obtained loans cannot exceed 20% of the entire full-time student

university population. Thus, by design to limit aggregate student debt and/or federal

contributions to university support, students who were not able to receive student loans

had a single de facto source of university support: the family. As noted previously, the

linkage between tier status, family financial support, and the then first-tier status of WKU

provided a relatively condensed, if not quickened, decision-making process by which

Chinese nationals enrolled in WKU in significant numbers, despite it being a relatively

young Sino-American university experiment.

Decision of University Major Area of Study

In the survey, participants provided their initial reason for their academic major

selection (as noted above). In contrast to the traditional Chinese university norm, WKU

88

offered one opportunity to transfer majors in freshman year without being academically

penalized. This represents the same percentage (n = 29) of participants who indicated

their parents’ direction and familial future career orientation as the principal reasons for

their major. Lastly, 24 participants stated they possessed a long-term personal interest in

their respective major. Only one participant reported thinking the selected major was

relatively non-competitive and “easy to graduate.” Another participant selected the major

because friend(s) also chose the same major (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Rationale for Choosing a Major

For example, Lyu described, “I wanted to study science and engineering-related

majors, such as computer science. Wenzhou-Kean University has a Computer Science

major, so I simply chose that major.” Yan confided that he chose his major “blindly”: “I

was born into and raised in a city famous for exporting commercial goods. My home is

the major city in China for international trading. Global business is business, I thought I

27.91%

33.72%1.16%1.16%

33.72%

2.33%

Rationale for Choosing a Major

I am interetsted in this major. My parents thought it was the best.

My friend chose this one as well. I think it is easy to graduate.

I think it is easy to find a job. Other reasons

89

could open my own business or secure employment in business at home.” Wanzhen and

Xian claimed it was their parents’ suggestion to choose an Accounting major because

their parents contended that accounting was a better major with which to identify

employment opportunities. Xian added:

I was very young and uninformed at the point of high school graduation. I did

not know what “Accounting” entails means. I vaguely knew it had something to

do with money management and maybe operational budgets. I would strongly

recommend the major for undecided candidates. I recommended the major to my

younger cousins [when they are applying for college].

While they ought to have some background knowledge regarding their

respectively focused industry, accounting crosses almost all industry sectors. I

blindly followed my parents’ direction. I was too uninformed to make such a

significant career-shaping decision. While it worked out, I knew nothing as to the

consequences of my major upon my career.

As for Wanzhen, her pursuit of accounting was not within her range of

professional interests and did not prepare her for an interesting career goal. Wanzhen

stated, “I did not think that my undergraduate studies adhered to my interest in the needs

of the industries with which I was interested. I changed my academic focus in graduate

school.” By virtue of their age, lack of substantive work experience, and desire to secure

pragmatic employment, the Chinese participants largely permitted or acquiesced to

parental decision making for their university undergraduate majors. Wenzheng succinctly

captured the unique Chinese cultural bias toward deferential parental influences:

I didn’t know what university, what major, to choose at that point in my life.

My father is a professor of English at a prestigious Chinese College. As to our

family’s heritage, the tradition of my father’s employment, it was almost as if I

should do what my father had done; like father, like son. I almost chose English

as my major first because it was our family’s way, our family’s business.

Ultimately, I know I had to make a decision as to career goals, but not having any

specific ideas, I deferred to my family’s history. I was also frustrated about

making such a decision. These individual decisions are very American. I had

never made such a decision before. I didn’t like it.

90

In contrast, only a few interviewees revealed their parents did not aggressively

involve themselves in the decision-making process. Typically, such a lack of involvement

may have come less from a lack of sincere interest than from the economic and

educational circumstances and abilities of the parents, particularly those residing in a

rural or remote village. Yuwei noted, “I’m from a rural village.” Her parents had received

few educational opportunities and lacked even a rudimentary understanding of higher

education. She said:

I made all the major decisions by myself with limited consideration with my

mom’s thoughts…. My parents paid almost no attention to my college and major

selection. They had a very limited education. Despite this, my parents were very

supportive with my decisions. My parents operate their own business. They

wanted me to join them, so I chose a business major.

In short, a full one-third of participants reported that their parents decided on the

major or raised the major as a subject for serious consideration. Another third stated they

chose their major simply because they believed it would enhance employment prospects,

while slightly less than one-third claimed the decision of major was premised on personal

interest (a distinctly un-Chinese approach to decision making). Participants opined that

GaoKao, the National College Entrance Examination, was designed for high school

graduates who were at the age of 18 years. Selecting a university may be appropriate at

this age, but considering the historic lack of flexibility, if not intransigence, of Chinese

university system registrars, the selection of a major ought to be deferred. The

participants repeatedly intoned the need to create more flexibility in switching majors and

universities, or to provide a later decision-making point for decisions of consequence.

Limited knowledge of the major, its learning content or skill development, and related

91

career opportunities make such decision making fraught with parental overinfluence due

to the lack of thoughtful, analytical, and rigorous decision making.

Participating in the Exchange Program

Previous studies have indicated that “study abroad” by Chinese students may be

the one area where students realize their own voices and intentions. Participants in the

survey largely entered the exchange program because of personal interest; 76 of 86

(88.37%) declared that it was their idea to participate in the exchange program, while

only 9 (10.47%) said it was their parents’ desire that they join the exchange program.

One participant was encouraged by a friend.

Given the nature of the satellite campus, Haoyuan emphasized that the exchange

opportunity was available to all students. Wenzheng, Yan, and Yuwei stated they were

interested in traveling and each had aspired to study abroad in a university, learn how

other nations work, and improve their employment prospects. Yuwei added she applied to

schools that offered opportunities to study abroad. However, in contrast, Tao was

suggested, if not encouraged, by his parents to participate in an exchange program. He

stated, “My mom was considering a Sino-Germany program versus Sino-US [Wenzhou

Kean] prior to submitting my college applications. My mom felt English was more useful

to my career.”

In short, unlike the topics of university and major selection, participants were

largely intrigued, if not attracted, by the prospect of participating with a study abroad

exchange program. The majority of participants wanted to participate in a university

exchange program during their collegiate career, to see America, and to be more

knowledgeable of the world even before applying to WKU.

92

Rationale for Studying Abroad

The unique structure of WKU attracts students and parents in significantly

different ways. As the previous question noted, somewhat atypically, the majority of

participants made their own decisions to participate in the exchange program. Thus, a

further question was asked to understand their purpose and intentionality for their

participation. As a single reason may not be controlling, participants were permitted to

choose up to three reasons, including one “open answer” where they could state their own

reason which was not listed on the survey.

Eighty-one of 86 (94.19%) participants selected cultural exchange and cross-

cultural learning as the prime reasons for attending the exchange program with KU; 23

(30.23%) said it was to fulfill their graduation requirements. As WKU is a relatively new

university (2012), course offerings at WKU were limited in terms of curriculum

requirements, yet alternative options existed for students abroad at KU. Apart from those

listed options, participants shared untraditional responses such as “to improve my GPA,”

“curiosity,” “to experience an authentic American university education,” “to better

understand American business,” and “to better prepare my English and enhance my

graduate school application.” One response gave a more detailed explanation: “WKU had

very few robust subject matter/major educational departments. My major at that time was

my parents’ choice and I did not like it. I wanted to go to Kean University USA to

explore other possibilities. Maybe, I could find what I would like there.”

Haoyuan gave a further explanation for his reason:

In my field of Industrial Design/Graphic Design, the U.S. is well ahead of

China. The USA is infinitely more diverse and open as to technologies, creative

design, and experimentation. After I came to the USA, I sensed how advanced

America is, at least in my field of interest. New York is traditionally the first or

93

second stop for major international exhibitions, museum shows, and international

or domestic headquarters for major companies.

Haoyuan’s yearning for excellence, as evidenced by his desire to attend the U.S. campus

because of his appraisal of New York City as the locus of creative graphic design, is a

testament to his desire for recognized global competence in his subject matter area.

Yuwei gave her reasons as “I have wanted to study abroad since high school. It

seems very cosmopolitan, very cool to study abroad, and people may envy you. I felt that

the other side of the world, the United States, must be very different. I really want to see

it, experience it, and learn from it.” Tingting was jealous of other students who had

studied in the United Kingdom or United States. She wanted a non-Chinese cultural

experience, “to live outside of the box, to live in the world.”

To experience and learn from those seemingly indomitable conflated forces of

American culture and business were personal priorities for many students. Indeed, many

of the students sought to participate in businesses closely aligned with the culture, media,

design, marketing, and international apparel trade. Academic satisfaction and exploration

were significant factors during their exchange study period. The seemingly American

cultural hegemony, which had so influenced Chinese culture and consumption patterns to

an ever-increasing degree, was also an attraction, if not a phenomenon, to be intently

studied in order to enhance a greater bandwidth of understanding of the global

competence of markets, finance, marketing, and legal systems of product quality

management and production.

Ironically, Haoyuan and Yuwei sensed Leask’s (2009) admonition that

opportunities for global engagement were beyond the structured curriculum of KU and

they needed to be fostered by the university. The personal interests, aspirations, and

94

career goals of the participants ought to intersect with a dynamic campus environment,

which would prompt strategic interactions within the global context. The unspecified

objective of the exchange program should be the fostering of a globally competent

professional who demonstrates competence and skill levels. The KU experience, while

placing the participants within a “global context,” did not engender a collective sense of

global competence among students, as the curriculum and student experiential learning

failed to focus on transnational issues; critical decision making; and innovative,

ecumenical solutions that “transcend cultures and continents” (Brustein, 2003, as cited in

Hunter, 2004, p. 10). See Figure 3 for students’ rationales to join an exchange program.

Figure 3. Rationale for Exchange Program

As this study was an attempt to gain a more comprehensive understanding of this

“special” cohort of Chinese students’ study abroad experiences and cultural learning and

understanding, it was essential to discern if their experiences met their original intentions,

81

7

23

9 9

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Cultural Exchangeand Learning

Parents Desire CurriculumRequirement

Faculty at KU Other

Rationale for Exchange Program

95

and whether and how these experiences enhanced global competence (including more

traditionally related English proficiency) as well as subject matter expertise for

operational processes and management. The next section explores these findings.

Cultural Exchange and Learning

What Is Culture and Why Do We Need to Learn about It?

English anthropologist Edward Tylor (1871) brilliantly identified culture as “that

complex whole, which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any

other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” (p. 1). For Chinese

young persons who travel from their ancestral homeland to the dynamism,

unpredictability, and raw energy of the United States, there is an unavoidable collision of

cultures, if not confrontations, over what constitutes culture and behaviors rooted in

culture. Zhao (2010) of the National Academy of Education emphasized in his book

Catching Up, or Leading the Way that the future involves educating persons with a global

perspective and cultural competency. Concomitant with an appreciation of global

competence is the creative tension of applied technologies; nonetheless, as our

participants revealed in large measure, their appreciation of global competence and their

associated requisite “expertise” was more a product of cultural curiosity than a subject

matter skill development. While substantial parental influences were focused on the

employability of their children, the lack of awareness of global competence and

international trade was apparent from the participants’ responses. While Chinese

manufacturers seek markets for international trade and required regulations adherent to

international market access, there is a seeming disconnect between the parochial parental

96

structure and the regulatory and core competency required of international business. It

was ironically the cultural appetite of Chinese students, who yearned to experience

American culture, that may have inadvertently increased the competitiveness of the

Chinese WKU students. “Even small businesses need talents that can help them navigate

the cultural and linguistic differences when they enter the global economy” (Zhao, 2010,

p. 112). This section develops an in-depth understanding of these students’ desires and

acquisition of cross-cultural learning, knowledge, and understanding. If global

competence is to be thoughtfully considered a four-dimensional learning endeavor, the

students at WKU had a rudimentary inkling of its importance, as did the MOE in

permitting satellite campuses; yet, neither WKU nor KU provided an expressed,

transparent, and knowing curriculum to pursue this four-part dimensional competency.

Global Competence, Participant Aspirations, and Responses

In conversations with group participants, the most direct Chinese impression of

the American experience was developed from cinema, television, and the media. Half of

the participants stated that their impression of the United States was almost exclusively

from movies, American TV series, and/or online video platforms. Despite the required

curriculum in global and American history, the participants’ mindset of what was “real”

was cinematic as opposed to literature, texts, and classroom learning. Wenzheng

described it as follows:

My sense of America was something that I cannot easily verbalize. Of course,

I had seen people of different races on the movie screen. Being at Kean with a

majority of people who were not Chinese and from a variety of different races,

whether on the street or campus and walking around you, was a feeling that is

difficult to describe. While I was at Kean University, I would prefer to say

“different” peoples rather than merely “diverse,” which is related to economic,

social composition, and racial composition. New York was interesting to me for

97

so many reasons. I could readily get on the train and go to New York and stand on

Broadway Avenue within an hour. To a Chinese student from Zhejiang, who

barely went to Shanghai, it was a very different and awakening experience.

Perhaps, NYC is different because of the diversity of persons and its international

status. Chinese cities do not have the diversity or difference of peoples. NYC

made sense of American television. I don’t know if all of America looks like

American television and movies. I found it when watching American TV and

films in China, like Modern Life or Friends, that NYC was somewhat similar to

what I knew from television.

Tingting and Xian shared similar thoughts, suggesting that while American television

was invariably more dramatic than daily American life, the “authentic America” was

seemingly more complex and varied than the far greater homogeneous Chinese culture.

Overall, participants shared their impression of the United States from their

parochial perspective and individual experiences, but it is important to note that these

observations are almost universally premised on pre-existing notions for “good or bad”

(culture as non-value-laden, postmodernist contextuality) derived from cultural

experiences. In evaluating answers and reviewing subsequent conversations, it was

striking that while the Chinese students may have been awestruck by the dynamism of

Broadway, there was very little, almost negligible awareness of the financial marketplace

which is New York, despite proximity to Wall Street, the financial markets, the Port

Authority of New York and New Jersey, and the Freedom Tower. Of note is that culture

is the gateway to understanding both behavioral norms and traditions directly and perhaps

business and finance accidentally. While there may have been a scintilla of awareness of

the importance of global competence affixed to the needs of Chinese manufacturing and

international export standards, there was a sense that the Chinese students did not

vigorously enlarge the platform of their economic and financial understanding.

Participants in large measure merely confirmed pre-existing understandings without

98

necessarily rigorously evaluating those assumptions or seeking independent

documentation or a factual review to embark on a different direction or insight. While

American culture is dominant, the apparent failing of the exchange program was to

simply acknowledge culture as the portal for Chinese understanding of the West and

global economies, but to deliberately teach to the four-dimensional strengths necessitated

by the OECD/Harvard platform. The WKU students “learned” American culture by

accident through osmosis, but, sadly, the curriculum did not expressly provide for the

subject matter expertise and academic and operational outlines set forth by the OECD.

If KU was to impart and implement the strategies of global competence, MIT

holds arguably the premier model for the implementation of the OECD/Harvard template.

MIT understands and underscores the importance of creating, writing, and participating

in teams, yet it seized upon the OECD definition and selection and captured its spirit

explicitly, stating that dimensions are beyond knowledge and skills. The competencies

enshrine and evoke the ability to address complex demands by thinking, appropriate

utilization of resources, planning, IT skills, and communication; it is in the doing that

global competence begins to be realized. However noteworthy the participants were in

recognizing the importance of American cultural artifacts and their mythology, the KU

exchange students did not “do”; they did not engage in active, dynamic thinking and

problem solving, which would have been valuable steps in mobilizing their resources,

thinking, and creativity to address demands within the American context (White,

Breslow, & Hastings, 2015).

99

“Superpower”

Zhao (2010) has acknowledged repeatedly that the United States is and remains a

“superpower,” particularly within the spheres of science and technology. In contrast,

Zhao identified shortcomings in primary and secondary education and suggested that

these shortcomings—three decades in the making—are becoming endemic to the

educational system in terms of access, standards, and opportunity. While the KU student

participants understood the image of the United States as a superpower largely derived

from the media, as distinct from the fact-based, objective Global Competitiveness

Report/Index, most interview participants reported they thought the United States was a

very advanced country for largely cultural reasons.

“The United States is very good, excellent, at exporting its own culture, maybe

the best in the world,” Haoyuan commented.

Such as movies or TV series, it changes the young generation’s perspectives

and our ideology almost unconsciously. When we were watching American

movies or TV series, we already had a feeling of the United States from those

images. Whether technology or military force, we want what the Americans have.

I want to know what they know.

Xian claimed his cultural impression of America was derived from American TV series,

movies, and social media.

Before I went to the United States, I had the feeling that everything was better

in America, even the moon was rounder in the United States than it is in China.

The flourishing styles and Hollywood economy of Beverly Hills, the endless

national transportation systems, and the sleepless vibrancy of New York City,

these images offered me the impression of the richness and caliber of American

life and resources. I wanted to study abroad because I thought the Americans

might have better educational resources, know-how, and cultural inclusiveness, no

matter race, occupation and ethnicity.

Lyu said he majored in Computer Science and thought that because the United

States was advanced in technology, he believed that studying in the United States would

100

be most helpful for his major, skill set, and career. Tingting echoed the strength of the

United States, its technological achievements, and the desire to learn of technological

platforms and systems. “I went to KU for American medical service. My mom believed

from television that the United States is advanced in the medical field, so she urged me to

attend.” Tingting recalled, “Also, we read about the U.S. as a ‘superpower,’ so I had

anticipated that their cities must be very well developed with smart technologies.”

Participants recognized the United States as a major developed superpower from

different perspectives, albeit almost always through the portal of popular cultural

communications. That is, most people know the United States has excellent medical

technology because the media reflect that “reality”; they do not learn it from available

medical journals and peer-reviewed literature.

It may be of merit to be mindful of the Chinese intellectual criticism of the United

States as a superpower. While the United States may have preserved science, technology,

and university educational preeminence in respective fields, there is a sense that the

American experiment may be fraying, or as Zhao (2010) posited, there may be an

increasing lack of shared understanding of American values and virtues, which may be

amplified within the 2020 presidential election and broader discussions of race, criminal

justice reform, and economic and educational opportunity. If OECD/Harvard suggested

that global competence requires the four dimensions of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and

values, then KU ought to have taught students constructively about the development of

these dimensions and their applicability for the benefit of constructive action and

collective well-being. That is, while Chinese students may have their initial impressions

formed through media platforms, there is an obligation for the university partner to

101

impart knowledge that may be culturally based, which would enhance labor conditions

and development outcomes, and promote the social and economic harmony of the greater

community. These lessons require more than simply openness by the Chinese students;

the university itself is required to have a global mindedness, which imparts knowledge,

cultural awareness, skills, perspective, and the values of human dignity.

“The American Freedom”

“Freedom” is recognized as a core value in American culture and the participants

noted that value repeatedly. The comments by the Chinese participants are seemingly at

odds with how Americans understand freedom, whether that “freedom” translates to

effective or even minimal governmental change, and whether freedom is at the expense

of the greater sense of community—or the “greater good.” To the participants, the

discussion, confusion, even bewilderment about “freedom,” its purpose, and its value

were reflected against very Chinese Taoist values of community. Nonetheless, the

comments and insights were surprising, honest, and thought-provoking about this very

American notion of freedom as a cultural underpinning and what its impact is on

university education, daily life, and societal interactions among people in the ordinary

course of life, school, and behavioral norms. As Haoyuan said:

I was envious of “free speech,” until I came here. I realized we have different

kinds of “free speech.” For example, you might not be able to publicly criticize

the Chinese government, but in America there are plenty of items that you cannot

publicly criticize. It is not “free speech” where the shortcomings of society can be

openly examined.

Xian shared a similar sense:

I realised that American democracy is merely like a jacket covering society.

You can criticize the jacket, but not necessarily the book. People have the illusion

of free speech, but their words have minimal impact. Americans might share their

102

democracy in small ways, but for the big changes, major reforms, voices are not

heard. No matter how much the “freedom of speech” or “freedom of protest”

exists in theory or in principle, this speech or protest changes very little. I haven’t

seen any significant impact of speech or protest upon the current administration.

In addition, participants also confused the notion of freedom with communal

responsibility to one’s community. In addition to the narrow impact of free speech and

protest, participants were again and again struck by how freedom seemingly absolved

persons of what was understood to be a shared communal responsibility. As Yan said:

I am not sure if this was their sense of freedom or just their being selfish. I

think they tend to be more individualistic. The Americans think more about

themselves. I had two foreign [American] housemates in my dormitory. They did

whatever they wanted without considering others, whether time, noise, food, or

rest. There was no sense of obligation to the room, the floor.

Tingting stated similarly, “I remembered there were students from WKU who had

conflicts with their housemates as they were partying at the dormitory. My housemate

often partied in our dorm till 3 a.m. It was quite selfish, which may have been impacted

by their understanding of freedom.”

The other aspect of freedom that participants had the strongest feeling about in

their surroundings was “non-judgmental.” Participants shared their own experiences in

China of being criticized from different persons with different perspectives. However,

they had less judgmental experiences of being discussed in the United States, not only

about themselves but also about others they saw. As Lyu said:

I did smell the flavor of freedom. There were some rebellious or deviant

actions in our society, which were common in their country. I was in New York

one day, and I saw someone was dancing right in front of the traffic and blocked

the entire traffic. People around me looked quite normal and seemed very

common to what’s happening, which made me feel that they have less restrictions

on one’s own actions.

103

Female participants shared that their behaviors were often guided by their parents.

There are certain rules respectable young women should follow. For example, Yuwei was

shocked, culturally, to see people were freely dancing:

I felt I was released spiritually from inside to outside. I come from a

countryside family, and people were judgmental. I was told by my parents that I

should not do this or I should not do that. It makes me feel like I’ve never lived as

myself. I am happy here so I tried very hard to stay. I feel there is something that

attracts me, but I don’t know what exactly it is.

Tingting confirmed what Yuwei said: “I was told not to do this, not to do that by my

parents. However, people around me in the United States would encourage me to ‘go for

it.’” Cong also shared, “It might sound old-fashioned or out of date, but it actually is

diverse and free. Nobody judges you. Nobody cares what you wear, what is your

hairstyle, or your appearance. Unlike China, sometimes, there are people who stare at

you. I hate that feeling.”

An LGBTQ participant, Wenzheng, shared his perception of life in the United

States as being less judgmental than in China. “As I identify myself as queer, I desired to

come to the United States. When in Wenzhou, I thought that life in the U.S. would

probably be easier, not exceedingly judgmental. Although being queer at WKU was not

difficult, I still felt that American society might be more welcoming.”

These participants had mixed feelings about their understanding of “freedom,” the

inferences of which included: selfishness, non-judgment, and political purpose of

freedom. Although these observations might be a fraction of how Americans understand

freedom and its derived ideology, it is noteworthy that American “freedom” and

“exceptionalism” are close to being diametrically opposed to the ancient Chinese

Confucian belief system. The “Doctrine of the Mean” is an essential understanding of the

104

Chinese self among these participants before they came to the United States. As core

values in Chinese culture are Harmony, Ancestor Veneration, and “Respect to Seniors,” it

is difficult for young Chinese students to consider it acceptable to exercise unilateral

decision making about attitudes, behavioral norms, and choices.

“Open My Eyes”

Enhancing cultural and international experiences as well as understanding global

systems were major purposes for participating in the exchange program. The interviewees

almost universally viewed their studies at KU and in the United States as instructive.

In a conversation with Xian, he said the exchange experience gave him a more

comprehensive perception of his understanding of the United States and society, yet the

experience, while positive, did not seemingly expand his capacity to learn of issues of

international and national significance. In addition to not “knowing” about significant

issues of economic interdependence, conflict resolution, and global issues, Xian did not

benefit from the purposeful skill development necessary to take action. While KU offered

this young Chinese student an increased capacity to observe and understand people, there

was in the curriculum no explicit or deliberate effort to impart knowledge, enhance skills,

or develop attitudes and values that are were clearly designed to enhance global

competence, even at the expense of accredited regulatory required context. As Xian said:

The experience opened my eyes. If I did not go, I would never have a chance

to take such a long flight, to travel abroad. I would not know what the United

States looks like, and I would not know the differences between my imagination

and reality of the United States. I have the experience of knowing the real

America. I talked to my roommate, classmates, and even homeless people on the

street. I realized my past imagery is not realistic. Had I not had a chance to meet

those other people, but only my friends around me, who have been to the United

States or studied there or my perceptions through the media, I would not know

what I know now. The United States is just another normal society and has its

105

own issues as well, such as the education inequity and inequality, the cost of

education, medical service, et cetera.

Lyu shared that his purpose of participating in the exchange program was to

“open his eyes” and “to gain more experience. You cannot always stay in the same place.

You need to go out and see the outside world, to learn about other people, other

countries.” Tingting and Yuwei supported Lyu’s opinion as they said they came from a

small city in China, which necessitated the value and experience of “seeing the outside

world.”

Wenzheng acknowledged that the exchange program “opened his eyes,”

especially towards his future career. “My vision was very limited as an English major

student at WKU and it would have probably resulted in my having a teaching position.

Kean University opened my career path of which I would never have dreamed.” Instead

of pursuing the original career path recommended by his father, after graduating from

WKU, Wenzheng changed his graduate school major at the University of Chicago to

sociology for his graduate and postgraduate school study, where he discovered his

passion.

Participants acknowledged that the experience of participating in the exchange

program broadened their horizons, “opened their eyes,” and provided an expansive

cultural opportunity which was revelatory. Nonetheless, the students’ narratives, even

upon prompting, did not reveal a substantial amount of learning as to global issues and

unique challenges that the United States confronts. The students’ responses are worthy of

examination for their meager knowledge acquired as well as their relatively unsuccessful

efforts to acquire an enhanced global competence. The students greatly enjoyed the

experience of being in the United States, but as for the OECD/Harvard global

106

competence dimensions, there was little sense that the students grappled with these

serious public policy issues within the classroom or in the community to learn, critique,

and examine them. Thus, the exchange program provided them with the opportunity to

see a different part of the world, which they usually only understood from others. Yet,

having them physically present in an American university context offered them the

opportunity to examine at close range the “global challenges” confronting America. That

opportunity was perhaps lost, either from adherence to necessary national, state, and

accreditation requirements or the interplay between American and Chinese educational

institutional requirements; nonetheless, pursuant to global competence, the mission

would have instead, or in addition to, fostered the need for self-critical diagnosis, careful

policy solutions, and engagement with a greater audience to build consensus around

solutions. Global competence is awareness and knowing, but it also requires thinking;

that thinking about America’s many strengths and weaknesses was not readily apparent.

“The American Dream”

Another theme generated after the conversation with participants was “The

American Dream,” which was defined by American writer James Adams (1931) as “life

should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according

to ability or achievement” (p. 404). It has been understood as a national ethos, a national

narrative. After having extended conversations with participants, the sense was that

participants understood life to be difficult for almost everyone. As they understood at this

juncture, not least for themselves, the American Dream is an idea, not a pragmatic reality

for most. While Yuwei felt America has significantly more flexibility in social mobility,

“It is very stable in China for people from different classes. But not here, it seems you

107

could move towards ‘upper class’ or ‘lower class,’ depending on how much effort you

exert. As I stayed longer, I felt that American society wasn’t that great, as I originally

thought when I landed. It is another society just like China. It has its good and bad.”

However, Xian had very different views toward his experience:

I felt the social class is very stable, if not somewhat rigid. Persons on the upper

end of the spectrum were secure, even if these people did not have a dream.

Especially for those fulfilling prestigious positions or senior positions, there’s an

insurance guarantee, that the position has been reserved for someone. Also, the

expensive cost of tuition has stopped many people from fulfilling their education

dreams. Comparatively, a better famed school, a higher tuition, costs a great deal,

which is the opposite to Chinese experience, where universities are public and

affordable.

Wenzheng’s opinion supported Xian’s; he found discourses and palliatives for “Land of

the Free,” “equal opportunities,” or “The American Dream” quite disturbing, even false,

particularly for the poor.

After I studied at KU, my deepest feeling was for whom? To some people, this

is American dream. But for most, the overwhelming numbers of poor and

working poor, it is not. At least I can’t agree. It doesn’t make sense with what I

have seen. It is difficult for me to imagine myself in their place. On the one hand,

I can live a life that is possibly good and fulfilling as a queer person; on the other

hand, this is a land where there is so much injustice with people because of so

many factors, including race, ethnicity, education, and social status. All of which

translates to money and those with less privileged backgrounds.

The participants shared their impressions and experiences from interactions with

and observations of social classes, financial capabilities, and identity perspectives

regarding “The American Dream.” The loss in these observations, however valid their

impressions, would be to explore more rigorously the validity and underlying reasons for

the causes of these phenomena, to test the accuracy of assumptions, and to develop

strategies to resolve systemic issues. While understandably the United States and China

both exhibit cultural strengths and weaknesses, albeit in different places to different

108

degrees, it is the challenge of the university to bring fresh observations to the place of

“critical thinking” for the benefit of the observer and the observed. That was not done.

While it may have been difficult for WKU students to envision themselves in American

society for the long term and to imagine how they could possibly fulfill their lives within

such a society, an opportunity was lost to construct a framework to explore their

observations and conclusions and to submit an application to determine legitimacy and

policy alternatives to address substantiated wants and needs—in effect, to drive global

competence for the benefit of the observed, the United States, as well as to strengthen the

thinking of the observers, the WKU students.

“Unsafe”

Safety issues were also a paramount concern to both interviewees and their

parents. A major difference between the United States and China is the legalization of

guns. Although guns are ostensibly illegal in New Jersey, KU is in a region with a

relatively high crime rate, significantly higher when compared to the entire state of New

Jersey.

Lyu worried about his personal safety before he came to KU. He stated he had

learned of the crime and societal uncertainties from news accounts on the internet.

One day, I witnessed a squad of fully equipped police come to campus, which

corroborated the news reports that the region was unsafe. After that episode, I

never left the school campus after 10 p.m. Also, there were very few people

walking the outskirts of the school perimeter. Unlike China, there are many

people outside at midnight. It is probably common for American students to see

the police fully outfitted, however it is rare for a Chinese student, maybe never;

especially, since it occurred shortly after I had arrived.

Tao’s mom travelled with him to the KU campus before the academic year

commenced to explore not only the natural and academic environment of the campus, but

109

also the societal community environment around the campus in Union, New Jersey. “My

mom brought me to Kean University for a visit before I participated in the exchange

program. My parents were concerned about the gun violence, but I felt the campus was

all right and reasonably safe.” However, Tingting lived off-campus, unlike other

participants who only stayed for one semester:

I lived off-campus during the second semester in the U.S. I was often

frightened on the way back home in the evening. The rows of abandoned houses

looked like those in horror movies, and I imagined that I might be kidnapped and

kept there. I know these images were imaginary, but still you could not stop

thinking about those images when you were there at that moment. Even in the

daytime, when I went to see my primary doctor, I would have someone travel

with me.

Although participants and their parents shared a concern for safety, students

participated in the exchange program. The safety concerns, which individuals would not

have typically had in China, were a potential source of examination as crime and policing

is an all too relevant policy area, yet these public policy questions were not examined;

instead, they were largely experienced and understood, perhaps ironically, through the

lens of popular contemporary culture.

Academic Experience

Participants voted academic experiences as the second major reason for

participating in the exchange program. They were coming to the United States for

studying purposes; thus, the academic experience comprised a big part of their study

abroad experience. This section investigates the academic experience at KU, as compared

and contrasted with WKU.

110

Curriculum Requirement

As noted above, WKU in 2012 was a joint program with Wenzhou University,

and subsequently developed as an independent university in 2014 with four majors. At

inception, the breadth and depth of course offerings at WKU were not comparable to KU

with its comprehensive selection of majors and courses. As the curriculum requirement

adhered to the Middle States Commission accreditation requirements, as prescribed by

the New Jersey and U.S. Secretaries of Education, the design of the 4-year academic plan

was stringently proscribed. As for WKU students, mindful that WKU provided a limited

selection of courses to fulfill graduation requirements, the exchange program provided an

academic venue to enroll more thoroughly in courses of interest and to fulfill academic

requirements required by Middle States. Haoyuan, for example, extended his stay at KU

for one additional semester as he enrolled in industrial design courses that WKU did not

offer. “I wanted to apply to an American graduate school specializing in Industrial

Design, but WKU did not have the required undergraduate major and courses to prepare

me. As Kean University has a fully equipped Maker Space/Studio, which is not available

at WKU, I chose to stay at Kean for one more semester to expand and strengthen my

portfolio.”

The diversity of the selection of courses was the reason Lyu participated in the

exchange program. “When I was selecting my courses, I found there are some courses

that were only available at KU. Although we could graduate at WKU, if we choose other

WKU courses, some courses you would not choose because you may not perform well in

the class, diminishing your GPA.” Yan had a similar reason for enrolling in the exchange

program: “I did not want to choose from the limited courses at WKU. Courses that were

111

not available at WKU were readily available at KU.” Wenzheng added, “It was very

limited, especially as I am the first class (class of 2016), which is why I cherished the

opportunities at KU…. I felt studying liberal arts in college was essential. The

coursework at WKU and KU were both practically oriented. It was precious to me to be

exposed to liberal arts courses, which were not easily available at WKU.”

Although participants shared different reasons for their unique course selections,

the variety of course selection and improved academic satisfaction as reasons for

enrolling in the exchange program was endemic to their decision making.

English Proficiency

Zhao (2010) noted that “An effective way to develop a global mindset is to

understand others as human beings” (p. 173). As language embodied in the “other

culture” is arguably the most direct means of communication, participation in English

language study, contextual experience, and general university-wide English language

experience at KU was instructive. A majority of the participants (67.44%, n = 58) said

they were now more confident speaking in English after their experience at KU.

However, only slightly less than half of the participants, 41 (47.67%), expressed that they

were more confident in writing in English as well (see Figure 4).

Most of the participants sensed improved verbal command of the language and

confidence in accuracy and expressiveness, yet also experienced reluctance, if not

anxiety, in their written proficiency of the English language. Increased verbal command

yielded to increased class participation and confidence. Yan shared his experience in

class, “I dare not raise my hand to answer questions at WKU, nor do any of my

classmates raise their hands at WKU. But here, everyone seems to want to say something,

112

which encouraged me to express myself. It’s a major difference between the two

campuses.”

Figure 4. Confidence Level at WKU and KU

To this query, Tao said, “At least we were required to speak English, as our

classmates were not Chinese, as at WKU, which I think was the best part of the exchange

experience. I passed my GRE exam, which met the requirements of the graduate school

that I apply for.” In contrast, certain students who took their language proficiency very

seriously were reluctant to share their rudimentary English. Cong was very stressed when

speaking English before native speakers:

Before I came to Kean, I had thought my English was not bad, maybe decent.

But things changed when I arrived at Kean, as everything was in English, English

became a big challenge to me. I found it very difficult when I hung out with

friends, attended class, or even worked at the admissions office. I am a very

outgoing person, but I was very introverted for a time when I was at Kean

9

31

1816

6 6

0

7

15

1922

17

6

00

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

StronglyAgree

Agree Slightly Agree Neither Agreenor Disagree

SlightlyDisagree

Disagree StronglyDisagree

Compared to your experience at WKU, you were more confident at KU

USA.

Speaking in English Writing in English

113

University. I was afraid my classmates would laugh at me if I made mistakes in

class.

Cong was among several who shared these experiences. Lyu shared a similar concern,

but within a social context: “My English improved a lot at the beginning, but later, I

chose to stay in my comfort zone instead of bringing myself troubles.” In a later

conversation, Lyu explained it was partially because of the language barrier that he

thought he was not familiar with the content of friends’ and housemates’ conversations,

so he preferred to stay quiet instead of joining them and making errors in language form

or syntax.

Compared to Chinese public universities wherein lectures are delivered in

Chinese except for foreign language courses, this unique WKU population was mostly

lectured in English, with limited course offerings in Chinese as required by the MOE. To

WKU participants, the most substantial language difference at KU were the environment,

which required them to speak English, and the resultant opportunities from an English-

speaking environment. Both qualitative and quantitative data indicated that the

environment promoted the use of the English language, which improved the participants’

English language capacity, skill set, and eventually confidence.

Faculty-Student Relationships

Positive faculty interaction was another reason for participants to enroll in the

exchange program. In the survey, participants were asked about their interactions with

faculty members at KU, compared to their experience at WKU; 61.63% (n = 53) agreed

that it was easier to interact with KU faculty than with WKU faculty, while 20

participants reported it was more difficult to interact with the faculty members at KU

114

rather than WKU. An additional question probed the relative ease of faculty support

when students have difficulties: 31.40% (n = 27) of participants thought it was easier to

request assistance at KU when they having difficulties, yet 40.70% (n = 35) of

participants did not agree, and the remaining 24 participants neither agreed nor disagreed

(see Figure 5).

Figure 5. Faculty Members at WKU and KU

Wenzheng recalled his experience with faculty members at KU and compared and

contrasted his experiences with the faculty members at WKU:

Faculty members at WKU and my present graduate school professors at

University of Chicago Graduate School may be required to write recommendation

letters for dozens of students every year. But faculty members at KU probably

write one letter every other year or even less. WKU professors are sometimes

overwhelmed with student requests. Kean professors in contrast talked to me,

while taking personal observations and notes and tailoring letters for me.

Wenzheng continued: “Sadly, I received a recommendation letter from my previous

WKU advisor with whom I developed research materials and jointly published. He sent

1

7

12

13

17

29

75

9

13

2425

10

00

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Strongly

Agree

Agree Slightly Agree Neither Agree

nor Disagree

Slightly

Disagree

Disagree Strongly

Disagree

Compared to your experience at WKU, faculty members at KU were ___

More Difficult to Interaction with Easier to Ask for Help

115

my recommendation letter to a graduate school with another person’s name on the

heading, which frankly made me angry at his callous disregard.” Wenzheng stated a

reason for him to stay at KU were the faculty members. While he had originally thought

he would have been supported by WKU faculty, many of the strongest WKU faculty had

departed while he was matriculating at KU; faculty members at KU had been most

supportive of his graduate school application process in the United States.

Tingting commented on her experience regarding KU faculty members; she was

expecting greater academic rigor from KU faculty and excellence in their teaching

quality, yet the reality disappointed her. While teaching did not meet expectations,

“faculty members were supportive of student engagement by offering teaching assistant

positions or directly helping in addressing the needs of students.” Wenzheng and

Tingting stayed for two semesters and completed their graduate school applications

before they returned to WKU.

Lyu preferred to interact with faculty members through emails. “I don’t think my

speaking language ability is necessarily that poor or limited, but I was afraid of

misunderstanding or not understanding what the professor was stating. It was quite

embarrassing.” Students like Lyu who were afraid of making verbal mistakes were less

willing to approach faculty members “face to face,” which ironically reduced

opportunities for learning from faculty. For exchange program students who were willing

and had the opportunity to approach KU faculty, students tended to have a positive

response to their interactions with faculty members.

Students may have originally thought it was difficult to approach KU faculty

members because of their limitations with language and culture. Nonetheless, for those

116

who stayed longer than one semester, each of the four students stated they established

personal constructive relationships with faculty. It was the subsequent interaction with

faculty members, particularly for those remaining at KU after one semester, that

produced the greatest dividends academically, socially, and culturally. Dynamic

interaction with faculty members ensured the most fertile and productive interactions,

which offered the prospect of questioning, critical thinking, and evaluation—specific

dimensions enshrined by the OECD/Harvard project within the framework of global

competence (OECD, 2018).

Administration-Student Interactions

Unlike domestic students, international students face additional administrative

tasks such as immigration regulations and laws. It is practically unavoidable that

international students have to seek assistance from administrators on campus. In fact,

36.05% (n = 31) of participants reported that it was more difficult to communicate with

the administrative staff at KU than at WKU, while 47.67% (n = 41) thought it was easier

to work with KU administrators than those of WKU. The latter number was significant

because it recalls the existing language barriers that most students experienced to some

degree on the KU campus.

Cong worked at the KU Admissions Office while she was studying at KU. She

said, “Although I was working at the admissions office at Kean and people were friendly

colleagues, my sense was that we were acquaintances rather than friends. I tried to

approach as friends, but it did not work. I was a student ambassador while at WKU and

the staff members were like friends, real friends.”

117

Yuwei confirmed her experience was similar to Cong’s, adding, “I was close to

WKU staff members, as I am a very outgoing person. However, while I was at Kean,

although they treated me well, I knew I was not the same.” Xian felt it was easier to

become friends with WKU staff members, but at KU, work was work, with no additional

emotional attachment. Lyu also recalled:

Kean’s staff members seemed more experienced as to facilitate the

arrangements for incoming students like me. It was all very smooth with the

reception work. But I do not know whether it is because of their systems or style;

when they were off work, no one responded even in an emergency, which

suggested employees do not have a strong sense of responsibility. I was always

able to reach WKU staff members when they were not working.

Wanzhen confirmed Lyu’s comment that KU had more systematic and organized

administrative processes than WKU, given that WKU, as a new university, was

“immature” in the processes of administration. Yuwei and Wanzhen applauded KU’s

staff members’ patience and understanding; as Yuwei said, “Compared to my present

graduate school experience, I recently realized how good they were.”

The participants enjoyed different roles while attending KU. As for the needs of

participants, KU provided a more dynamic faculty and staff interaction than had occurred

at WKU. Yet, due to language limitations, the benefits of the English environment

benefitted all students to a discernible degree, but for participants who remained for a full

academic year, the benefits substantially and appreciably improved. If the benefits of

global competence are to be realized, the purposeful incorporation of the four dimensions

need to be incorporated into the curriculum and practiced experience. The reality is that

students accidentally developed proficiency in developmental areas. See Figure 6 for

participants’ communication experiences with administrators at the two universities.

118

Figure 6. Communication with Administrators at WKU and KU

Academic Support

Aside from the academic support of faculty members, other forms of academic

support were also questioned in the survey. Positions included Teaching Assistants (TA),

course assistants (CA), and assistants at the academic support center, e.g., English

Language Center and Writing Center (see Figure 7).

3

11

17

14

8

26

7

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

StronglyAgree

Agree Slightly Agree Neither Agreenor Disagree

SlightlyDisagree

Disagree StronglyDisagree

Compared to WKU, it is more difficult to communicate with

administrators (e.g. staff members at student affairs) at KU.

119

Figure 7. Helpfulness at KWU and KU

As delineated in Figure 7, the number of “Not Applicable” to the two questions

reached 31.40% (n = 27) and 36.05% (n = 31), respectively. This indicated that almost

one-third of the participants did not used academic support services, and this

parenthetically aligns with the interview results. Thus, the qualitative data supported the

quantitative data. Participants reported there were few teaching assistants. As participants

were from the classes of 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019, no senior students served as

teaching assistants to facilitate classroom instruction. As for the academic support

services at the language or writing centers, participants noted it was easier to make an

appointment online with a paperless KU transaction, compared to then WKU paper-based

requests. However, for those who benefited from “one-on-one” in-person service,

participants believed the WKU academic support staff were more patient and

5 6

3

26

86

1

31

4

8 7

17

14

8

1

27

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

StronglyAgree

Agree SlightlyAgree

NeitherAgree norDisagree

SlightlyDisagree

Disagree StronglyDisagree

N/A

Compared to WKU, ____ at KU is more helpful.

TA or CA Academic Support Center

120

comprehensive in assisting their unique “Chinese to English” language questions rather

than KU’s general approach to English language and writing support.

In further conversations with interviewees who received academic support, Tao

commented:

The WKU staff members, who provided academic support, were willing to

spend time to help with academic details. And staff at Kean University would

provide an overview, a more general picture, but not engage in the “one-to-one”

scrutiny of your work product. As a student, I definitely prefer the WKU staff,

who would engage with me in greater detail.

Tao stated that as a Graphic Design student, most of his attention was on his work

portfolio rather than on language classes such as ESL/ENG class, which necessitated that

he acquire “additional support from staff at the English Language Center (ELC).”

Tingting supported Tao’s comments, as she expressed that she had a close,

positive relationship with WKU staff members at the ELC: “WKU is more personal;

however, KU provides more of a general oversight, general review. I remembered the

WKU staff members, who helped me with my writing at English Language Center were

‘line by line.’ Their involvement was very detailed and helpful.”

The academic support promotes the staff-student relationship, which encouraged

students with their language learning and academic satisfaction. The closeness,

frequency, and exactitude of the contacts established a more trusting relationship; thus,

the dynamics of the academic support services assist with subject matter or language

competency, not merely their presence per se.

121

Academic Atmosphere

As KU requires a Grade Point Average (GPA) for graduation of 2.5 to 3.0

depending on the major, all exchange students were required to obtain a minimum GPA

of 3.0 to be qualified to participate in the exchange program. Given the competitive

nature of Chinese students historically, several themes emerged through conversations

with these participants.

“Competitiveness”

The library is an essential place for students to study, discuss, and focus on

scholastics. The library as metaphor demonstrated to the Chinese participants the

seriousness of academics, competition, and commitment to excellence. During their

interviews, participants expressed their use of the library as a centering focus as well as

an observation post for other students and general university dynamics.

Wanzhen shared her observations of the library: “Students seemed willing to

spend more time at library study at WKU compared to Kean. Students at KU were not

focused on study. Kean students were on their phones, chatting with their friends, or

staying at the library for an abbreviated time.” Cong interpreted the KU library’s social

phenomenon as being partially influenced by the campus and library size differences.

WKU is comparatively smaller than Kean. There was no actual library, it

consisted of several reading rooms. At WKU, it was difficult to find a seat to

study at WKU. In addition, a significant percentage of Kean students live off-

campus, so there were less students on campus for the limited resources available.

Despite the limitations of WKU, there was a greater sense of purpose to study, to

learn. There was an understanding of the cost and the need to make the best of it

for your family, as well as yourself.

122

In addition to utilizing institutions such as the library as well as academic support

services, administration, and faculty support, the Chinese sought “perfect” grades as the

one and perhaps only opportunity to demonstrate worthiness for graduate school. As

Yuwei said, “I found my Chinese peers were more substantially engaged in studying at

WKU; the school is very competitive, everyone wants an ‘A’ grade. Kean was more

relaxed. We seemed to like the nature of competition. Students from WKU would talk

less about their study at Kean, simply to fit in with fellow students.” Yan shared his

experience at KU compared to WKU:

If you want to learn more and have solid teaching, I would recommend WKU.

But for the overall academic experience, I would say Kean is better. It was

difficult to secure an ‘A’ at WKU, however, it was not difficult at Kean. I earned

straight ‘A’s” that semester, which would have been difficult for me at WKU.

In sum, participants found that KU had a less competitive environment,

engendering a reduced academic performance among classmates. Due to their academic

performance at WKU, participants were concerned to a substantial degree about their

grades at KU. Eight participants (9.30%) claimed that the pursuit of good grades and the

resultant achievement enhanced their study abroad experience.

Academic Anxiety

Perhaps concomitant with the competitive nature of Chinese students, academic

anxiety emerged as an academic challenge for some interview participants. Thirty percent

of alumni interviewees acknowledged they experienced considerable pressure and

resultant anxiety because of English language proficiency and historic academic

performance in English language teaching. The constant comparison between Chinese

123

international students and domestic students was identified as an ongoing challenge for

the international students (Trice, 2003). As Cong said:

Before I came to the US, I thought my English was not too bad. In contrast, in

the U.S., I became depressed, self-conscious, and anxious when speaking before

my American counterparts. While I was confident with my English presentations

before my Chinese classmate in China, in the U.S., I became strangely quiet,

withdrawn, if not afraid. It was a strange reaction for me. I thought my classmates

would laugh at my English, as I am not a native speaker and my English is poor. I

cared a great deal, probably too much. At some point, I stopped wanting to go to

class and my experience only worsened.

Tingting shared similar concerns with her experiences at Kean:

Before I went to Kean University, I was very concerned about my academic

performance, particularly that it might impact and lower my GPA. My spoken

English was not good, since we did not speak English, except in class. I took one

biology class. I was the only Chinese student in class. The professor spoke very

fast. I was nervous. I was very worried about my grades and thought I might fail

the course. Eventually, I overcame my anxiety and secured an A, but I still

remember that anxiety, if not sinking feeling.

Tingting’s anxiety was at almost at direct odds with the MIT template for the ideal

learning experience to enhance global learning (White, Breslow, & Hastings, 2015).

While the Kean professor may have engaged in explicit instruction and Tingting secured

meaningful feedback in her letter ‘A’ grade, global learning would ideally recommend

“best practices” in communication. Tingting’s English proficiency ought to have been

scaffolded to permit her to “foster her self-sufficiency” and the communication skills

required of her. As Tingting was rigorously committed to subject matter expertise,

explicit language arts instruction for biology terms would have provided meaningful

support for her goal of meeting the classroom’s language needs. Whether for the MIT

engineers of 2020 or the biology course at KU, effective communication includes

education and training within the context of task performance and perceptual

understanding. Intercultural communication skills to interact effectively and efficiently—

124

indeed, global competence—requires language “process competence” within educational

institutions to prepare persons to function within the global environment.

KU was less demanding in academics when participants compared it to WKU; yet

it was arguably predictable, if not unavoidable, that academic anxiety would be generated

due to the almost exclusively English language environment. As the Chinese participants

may have adjusted to a competitive WKU environment, the KU campus which was

uniquely American would offer psychological discomforts, while Chinese students were

working assiduously to meet the academic expectations they had established.

“Not Strict”

It was surprising that participants who shared their experiences with their

coursework stated that it was insufficiently challenging in contrast to WKU. Lyu shared

his experience with the science courses required for his WKU major in Computer

Science:

To be honest, I think the professors at WKU had higher academic

requirements. I took Math and Biology classes at WKU. Both professors grew up

in China, they have “Chinese Math and Biology standards,” which was “Hell”

level to me. And. their teaching style fitted better to Chinese students, maybe

because of their Chinese background. However, I felt the Kean courses were easy.

Tingting said she expected higher standards or requirements at KU because the

university represented “authentic” American education, which was comparatively easier

than at WKU. Wenzheng had a similar experience as Tingting did: “The coursework was

not difficult for me. I was invited to take graduate courses, which encouraged me. I was

making a solid connection to my professors.”

Participants found less academic pressure while studying at KU. As the data

revealed, the individual personal experiences with professors, administration, and

125

academic support services translated into the greatest academic gains and benefits.

Moreover, the teaching assistants who labored individually with English language spoken

and written expression yielded the greatest improvements.

Academic and General Experience

There are distinct differences in the academic environments of any two countries

or any two campuses. That said, China and the United States have substantial differences,

which are arguably appreciable within any cultural context. To solicit thoughtful

participants’ responses to their respective experiences, impressions, and deductions, I

asked participants a set of three questions about academic and general experience toward

the two campuses. As noted previously, the majority of the participants had only one

semester at KU, which may have made it difficult for them to develop an informed

opinion. The conversation with the interviewees also relied on their general university

experiences; they were given the opportunity to proffer more detailed explanation with

their survey answers.

The questions on general student experience and satisfaction were focused on

three aspects: grading, learning atmosphere, and learning experience (see Figure 8). All

three aspects demonstrated a high agreement of satisfaction. The rate of satisfaction was

95.35% (n = 82), 80.23% (n = 69), and 94.19% (n = 81), respectively. Only one

participant was not satisfied with grades while being at KU. Three participants were not

satisfied with their learning experience at KU. Compared to the first and third aspects,

more participants (n = 11) were not satisfied with the learning atmosphere at KU.

126

Figure 8. Academic Satisfaction at KU

Participant interviewees offered a detailed description of their relative satisfaction

and dissatisfaction with the three focused areas. They agreed they were satisfied with

their academic experience at KU. Tingting, Wenzheng, Tao, and Haoyuan each suggested

that their academic performance and academic activities at KU helped to ensure their

placement in their desired graduate school upon graduation. Tingting and Yan said their

academic performance definitely impacted their academic experience at KU.

As Yan said, “No one wanted to spend triple the amount of money to earn a ‘C’

on their transcripts.” Tao said he was very satisfied with his academic performance; his

GRE score met graduation and admission placement requirements, which made every

penny well spent. Wenzheng had a similar feeling when he received his offer letter from

42

33

63 0 1 0

19

34

16

64

61

35 35

11

2 2 1 00

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

StronglyAgree

Agree Slightly AgreeNeither Agreenor Disagree

SlightlyDisagree

Disagree StronglyDisagree

You were satisfied with the ________ at KU.

Grades Learning Atmosphere Learning Experience

127

graduate school with a full scholarship: “Everything I’ve been through at KU was well

worth it when I received my offer letter.”

Qualitative and quantitative data indicated that the participants’ satisfaction rate

was exceptionally well correlated with their academic experience. A majority of

participants (n = 65) continued their study outside of China, in part predicated on their

academic performance and experience at KU. Based on interview conversations,

academic satisfaction was highly associated with academic performance, either via

academic grades, standardized test scores, or acceptance of graduate school applications.

Social Life

Cross-cultural awareness as an element of global competence has been repeatedly

affirmed as the ability to experience and interpret human behavior from an insider’s

perspective. Bennett (1993) and Stohl (1996) underscored that the experience of reality

beyond one’s normative traditions requires an awareness and an understanding as a

participant. That understanding is a necessary prescription for interpersonal relationships,

which reach beyond language and accepted social cues for normative introductory

behavior.

As cultural learning was noted as an articulated priority for global competence, it

is important to know how the participants identified, learned, and understood culture

through human interaction. This section presents the participants’ social life experiences

at KU in contrast to their experience at WKU. In evaluating the ordinary course of

university interpersonal dynamics, namely peer interaction, campus activity, and campus

dining aspects, the objective is to undertake a rudimentary evaluation of the social impact

of intercultural communication and global competence.

128

Peer interaction. Understanding the participants’ social circle was very important

as these potential cultural factors impact learning. Seventy (81.40%) of the responses

indicated the participants had close friends during their exchange period at KU. However,

less than half (n = 36, 41.86%) of the respondents said they embraced Americans as

friends, while 18 (20.93%) participants stated they had other international students as

friends. Among the participants, only two claimed that their primary friend group was

composed of Americans. Only one participant claimed that international students

constituted the primary friends group. The remaining (n = 83, 96.51%) participants

remained closely affiliated with their Chinese friends and compatriots (see Figure 9).

Figure 9. Friendship at KU

Forty-three participants found it relatively easy to introduce themselves to others

at KU, while 31 expressed difficulty in introducing themselves to others. While the

language barrier has been traditionally considered the most common barrier for

86

36

180

83

2 1 00

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Chinese American Other Int Students Others

When you are at KU, your friends/major friends were ______.

Friends Major Friends

129

international students studying abroad (Sun & Chen, 1999; Yuan, 2011), that was not the

sense at KU. Less than a quarter of the participants (n = 20, 23.26%) felt they were

unable to communicate effectively with their classmates; this percentage may have been

impacted from the students’ previous 2 years of English language instruction at WKU. As

noted above, the majority of WKU participants possessed an element of confidence in

speaking English at KU. The WKU English language experience established a baseline of

English proficiency, setting the students apart from those non-English-speaking students

of significant previous studies (e.g., Findlay, King, Stam, & Ruiz-Gelices, 2006; Stroud,

2010; Yan & Berliner, 2010) (see Figure 10).

Figure 10. Sense of Self at KU

A combination of data from surveys and interviews was collected, and the

qualitative data confirmed the survey results. The majority of participants said they found

significant difficulty in establishing a true connection with their classmates at KU.

9

15

31

11

13

7

02

10

19

12

1820

5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

StronglyAgree

Agree Slightly Agree Neither Agreenor Disagree

SlightlyDisagree

Disagree StronglyDisagree

When I was at KU, I felt______________.

easily to communicate with my classmates difficult to introduce myself

130

Although language was not the sole prime concern based on their feedback, participants

still found it difficult to make friends with their American classmates. As Tao said:

You would not become friends with Americans. You become “acquaintances.”

It is difficult to know them. I didn’t think language was an issue. Even though you

may speak English well, Americans did not hangout with me. I invited Americans

to cook dinner, but not everyone likes Chinese food. I felt my invitation was

somewhat superficial. The Americans did not have any significant curiosity about

China or the Chinese, and they believed that America is the best, so they needed

nothing from you. Most of the time, I sensed this attitude. We didn’t share a sense

of shared curiosity as to learning or culture or history.

Xian’s experience supported Tao’s experience. Similarly, Lyu explained “even the sense

of identity” in the “other” is a “common, almost universal topic”:

First, I did not expect to make good friends in the U.S., but it was also difficult

to have foreign (non-American) friends. It’s not easy to join a conversation with

non-Chinese. It’s difficult, although I do not think it was my language

proficiency. Chinese students and American students are very different in their

conversation topics. Americans seem only interested in politics. After some time,

I would rather stay in my comfort zone.

The female participants shared a similar feeling. Tingting said:

I think most of my classroom students left school immediately after class.

Unlike us, we were only there for study, Americans had social, family

engagements, and responsibilities, including part time jobs, taking care of

children. It was difficult to meet American students outside of class. The majority

of students commuted to Kean, but at WKU everyone lived in the dormitory.

Yuwei reminisced that her friends were mostly WKU exchange students: “I didn’t have

any American friends. They are very friendly, but they would not establish any close

personal relationships. Students talked to me when we needed to complete group work at

class. We were ‘acquaintances,’ not friends.”

Cong explained this from the perspective of an Admissions Office employee: “I

was trying to make friends. I did try to socialize with the Americans, but it seemed not to

be the quick way we Chinese become friends.” Additionally, Wanzhen shared that “I

131

mostly stayed with my friends from WKU, although I had some foreign acquaintances

through part-time employment, but we were not close friends.”

Yan, Xian, Haoyuan, and Wenzheng stated that they had non-Chinese friends

when they were at KU, but those friends were previous exchange students from KU to

WKU. Xian added, “We arranged to become friendly when those Americans were at

WKU, so I think they remained friends with us and did not expand their own social

circle.” Yan confirmed with Xian, “I arranged to help visiting exchange students from

Kean for a school event at WKU. That’s how we got to know one other.” Wenzheng was

concerned because he imagined he would have made good foreign friends but did not. He

did not have common interests with his housemate, which encouraged him to leave his

dormitory room. Eventually, he developed some good friendships with fellow Chinese

students who are still in touch. Wenzheng made good queer friends, which gave him a

sense of belonging with the queer community rather with international students, as he had

originally anticipated.

In conclusion, most participants experienced substantial difficulties establishing

connections, let alone friendships, with their foreign classmates. Those who did have

American friends were able to do so mainly as a result of previously established

relationships, in that Americans had visited WKU. Although participants did not find the

language barrier insurmountable (which is a classic reason intoned from previous

studies), the cultural inaccessibility of the American students was a far greater

challenge—that is, the nature of the American student population, their commuting

tendencies, and the relative accessibility of the WKU Chinese

132

Campus Activity

Campus activities promote a vibrant campus life experience, which contributes to

the enduring memories of university life. These activities provide students with

opportunities to practice their language, social skills, as well as, to increase one’s social

network. In the survey, participants reported the frequency of their participation in

campus activities. Eight participants noted that they participated at least once a week; 38

participated in social activities at least once a month. Approximately one third (n = 29)

claimed they joined a campus activity once a semester, while 5% (n = 4) attended campus

activities once a year. Another seven alumni reported they had never participated in any

campus activities.

With an increasing number of exchange students from WKU (approximately

180 students in fall 2019), Kean University organized designated activities for Chinese

students at Kean for traditional Chinese holidays, as Lunar New Year, Mid-Autumn

Festival, and the annual Dragon Boat Festival. As Yuwei expressed it:

I was very excited and looking forward to the parties that the KU organized.

Upon reflection, it was boring, but at that moment, it was fun and interesting.

When I saw those American students doing something that we would not do,

dancing so “crazy,” I was very happy to join them. Culturally, those parties and

activities that Kean organized was a big shock to me, in a very positive way.

By contrast, Wenzheng said he was depressed, despite having opportunities to attend

“American” school activities. He had more opportunities than most as he was working

with and representing the university student government.

Maybe because my English skills are comparatively better than my peers,

I was invited as a “trophy” student to several events. Although I had these

opportunities, I was saddened. I knew I was not making significant connections

with anyone. I knew that every social meeting was an end, that none of my

introductions would go beyond the initial introduction. My sense was the

133

Americans either did not care or were not interested. I really wanted to return to

China in the beginning.”

Similarly, Tao recalled:

It was very difficult to join some of the activities that were hosted by different

clubs as we were exchange students. We were not at Kean for long. School

activities are a big part of college life. I did attend several clubs at WKU and also

engaged a lot in the activities.

According to the interviewees, KU’s efforts to host a variety of Chinese-related

activities for WKU were appreciated, yet students attended almost from a sense of

obligation. Frustrating the university’s intentions was the lack of American students to

share in the celebrations and cross-cultural activities, which would have fostered

fledgling friendships, greater social interactions, and the dynamic nature required for

global competence.

Overall Satisfaction with the Exchange Experience

Survey questions and interviews revealed that participants overall had a positive

exchange experience. When participants were asked to rate their satisfaction with their

campus life, 79 (91.86%) expressed they were satisfied with their campus life at KU.

Only one (1.16%) participant disdained the peer interactions and expressed personal

dissatisfaction. The remaining respondents were unclear about their experience at KU.

Participants shared how they encountered difficulties in making American friends, social

anxieties, and uninviting campus activities. In general, participants found and employed

their own unique strategies while coping with parochial challenges. Both the qualitative

and quantitative data indicated that participants were satisfied overall with social life at

KU, which enhanced their cultural learning and understanding.

134

Professional Preparation

To understand the development of WKU as an expression of Sino-American

friendship and cooperation is to underscore what Cendant Mobility (2002) found: in a

global market with multinational corporations, entities, and interests, cross-border

ventures will require and benefit those who are globally competent. Employment and

working in America were understood to have value in experience and knowledge and

were a testament to one’s competency.

In the original WKU pilot study, those participants expressed their desire to have

an American working experience if they could while they were at KU. Thus, questions

about professional preparation by KU were added to the survey; 34 (39.53%) confirmed

that KU provided some assistance and guidance with job searches and interviews.

However, almost one-third (31.40%) of the participants did not agree with their peers. The

rest, 29.07% (n = 25), were not certain about the service offered at KU (see Figure 11).

For the majority of the participants, 48 out of 86 (n = 55.81%) participants

expressed that they preferred to work in China after their graduation and 18 (n = 20.93)

noted that the United States would be their first choice as a career location. The

remaining 19 (n = 22.09%) were not certain about their decision. Fifty-five participants

(63.95%) confirmed that American culture and society have impacted their future career

choices, while 24 (n = 27.91) confirmed that they altered their career path after the

exchange program (see Figure 12).

135

Figure 11. Career Preparation Support at KU

Figure 12. Work Destinations after Graduation

Strongly Agree4.65% Agree

15.12%

Slightly Agree19.77%

Neither Agree nor Disagree29.07%

Slightly Disagree5.81%

Disagree24.42%

Strongly Disagree1.16%

Do you agree that Kean University has provided career preparation

support?

Strongly Agree Agree Slightly Agree

Neither Agree nor Disagree Slightly Disagree Disagree

Strongly Disagree

45.71%

17.14%

0.95%

36.19%

Where do you want to work after your graduation?

China the U.S. other destination Not Sure

136

To this topic of employment, Haoyuan made the following comment:

Kean did provide employment opportunities, job fairs, field trips and limited

lectures. The career center is within reach, but it was not for me. I planned to

apply for graduate school study. I did, however, change my thoughts as to my

future career. I originally wanted to remain in the US for work, but I now realize

China might be better. It is difficult for Chinese nationals to be successful in the

United States.

Haoyuan was planning to return home, contemplating that his English proficiency and

American experience would make him a more attractive employment prospect. The

Chinese workforce will become increasingly globally competent in order to maintain an

international footprint that has the potential to expand the reach of Chinese products,

skills, and services. To accomplish that objective, Haoyuan and his generational peers

will be required to communicate cross-culturally with business, nonprofit, and

governmental leaders utilizing the four-dimensional strengths enshrined in the

OECD/Harvard Zero Project template. As MIT has encouraged in fields requiring

technical competence, such as graphic design (for Haoyuan) or computer science (for

Lyu), global competence requires workforce leaders to communicate with the general

public, policymakers, and each other. The comprehensive PISA communication mandate

is a far cry from Lambert’s (1996, as cited in Hunter, 2004) straightforward call for

foreign language competence. As Lyu said:

I went to see how the industry in my field (computer science) and employment

environment like. I was thinking about my future path when I was there which

turned out to be not my desired place. I remembered that they offered lectures for

career development, but I was young and I was planning to apply to graduate

school, so I did not go.

Tao shared that KU was supportive and encouraging but did not push very hard.

In general, participants did not actively seek advice or support from the Career

Service Center. Some of the participants felt it was not for them as their future plans

137

included attending graduate school instead of looking for jobs; others blamed themselves

for being unmotivated to reach out to the Career Service Center. Visas were also another

challenge for participants who wanted to practice off-campus because off-campus

practice requires the candidates to have stayed in the United States for at least two

semesters. However, these exchange students stayed no more than one semester, making

it difficult for them to practice if they wanted to be paid to cover their travel expenses.

“Global Issue Awareness”

Participants reported after the exchange program that an understanding of

American culture and thinking was an important takeaway for them, followed by English

language learning. The third and fourth takeaways were, respectively, understanding

global and international affairs and an understanding of global competence. The last was

solving global issues solving (see Figure 13). As academicians, business leaders,

government leaders, and intellectual elites have joined the almost universal refrain of a

globally interconnected world (Rajala, 2012, as cited in Flammia, Sadri, & Mejia, 2019);

a flat world that has the potential for point-to-point manufacturing, distribution, and

receipt (Friedman, 2005); and a world that requires responsible global citizenry (Hanson,

2010, as cited in Flammia et al., 2019), it is incumbent on national educational leaders

and university leadership to embrace the principles of global competence for the purpose

of educating the next generation of global leadership. This generation will need to be

technologically knowledgeable of and practiced in the scientific method, and to value

diversity and inclusivity in order to make sound, rational, and compassionate decisions in

the interests of a global citizenry.

138

Figure 13. Important Issues after Exchange Program Experience

As with the prior query to the KU exchange program cohort, participants were

subsequently asked to identify the global issues of greatest concern. Participants reported

that the exchange experience initiated an awareness of global topics and issues.

Education resources, environment issues, and the economy drew the most attention,

followed by income and wealth inequality, religious diversity, human rights, and

feminism. Participants raised American criminal justice problems and race-related issues

of educational access, healthcare delivery, mass incarceration, and policing that directly

impact the lives of African Americans.

Wenzheng shared his experience of a friend at KU who had worked as a graduate

assistant. The person had informed Wenzheng that the majority of students at Kean were

significantly in debt, whereupon Wenzheng realized that he was privileged to have

graduated without appreciable debt. Additionally, participants reported the exchange

6962

4032

17 00

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Theunderstanding

of the U.S.culture and theWestern way of

thinking

Englishlanguagelearning

Theunderstanding

of theinternational

affairs

Understandingof application ofwhat I learned

in the globalenvironment

Solving globalissues

Others

After the exchange program, what is more important to you?

Response

139

experience enhanced their knowledge with the cultural, social, and geopolitical issues and

topics. Most participants (n = 82-85) premised their responses to the topic prompts set

forth in Figures 14 and 15. The majority of the participants also reported awareness was

raised regarding Education Resources, Environment, Religious Diversity, Human Rights,

and Poverty/Criminal Justice Reform.

Figure 14. New Interests after Exchange Program

44

36

31

30

28

27

26

26

22

13

11

4

4

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Education Resources

Environment

Economic System

Gap between the Rich and the Poor

Religions Diversity

Human Rights

The Power of Media

Feminism

Morality and Ethics

Poverty

Health

Others

Indigenous People Rights

After the exchange program, I had a new interest on_______

140

Figure 15. Enhancement of Understanding after KU

Figures 14 and 15 above share a similar trend: correlation existed between new

interests and enhance knowledge; namely, the participants found they had developed new

interests, which seemingly mirrored the cohort’s growth in awareness, understanding, of

those same topics. As for global competence, the Figures 14 and 15 reflected almost

precisely the indicators required for revelatory awareness that is a precursor to global

awareness. Figure 16 presents a comparison between new acquired awareness and

enhanced awareness.

75

69

66

61

57

56

47

45

38

29

27

23

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Education Resources

Environment

Religions Diversity

Human Rights

Economic System

Gap between the Rich and the Poor

The Power of Media

Feminism

Morality and Ethics

Poverty

Health

Indigenous People Rights

Upon the experience at Kean University, it enhanced my

understanding of_________

141

Figure 16

Comparison between New Acquired Awareness and Enhanced Awareness

General Experience

The quantitative data indicated that the majority of students (n = 53) suggested

KU was more supportive than the WKU community. Seventeen participants disagreed

with their peers and an additional 16 participants stated their lack of certainty (Neither

agree nor disagree) as to the question response. One-quarter (n = 19) of participants

considered it was their best educational experience, while 61 participants noted it was a

comparatively good experience. Five participants thought it was only average and one

evaluated his/her tenure as the worst experience. Apart from those few participants who

were unsatisfied with the exchange program, the majority of participants had a

constructive, positive experience at KU.

7569 66

61 57 5647 45

3829 27 23

4436

28 27 31 30 26 26 2213 11

401020304050607080

Comparison between New Acquired Awareness and Enhanced Awareness

Enhanced New

142

Surprisingly, some participants used “life-changing” as their summation of their

experience with the program. Several interview participants expressed their gratitude to

Kean for the opportunity for an exchange program. As Yuwei commented, “If I did not

participate in the exchange program, then I would have probably studied abroad at

graduate school. I now have experienced America, I made my plan and executed it as I

desired.”

Tingting, Haoyuan, and Wenzheng said they would not have been admitted to a

top-tier university. As Wenzheng “remembered very fondly” his experience, he

continued, “At one point, suddenly everything made sense to me as to why I was there at

Kean, what I was studying, and who I was meeting.” Haoyuan described the exchange

program as a pathway to his current graduate school, which provided opportunities in

industrial design.

The participants highly evaluated their exchange experiences because Kean

fulfilled expectations. The participants who remained in the United States longer than one

semester were the most successful; every additional semester enhanced their educational

and employment prospects, as their testimonies confirmed.

“Trial for Future”

According to the WKU Annual Report, over 70% of graduates choose to continue

their studies, the majority being in English-speaking countries. Many participants

acknowledged the KU exchange program was an important experience as a premise to

discern their destination for their graduate school study. Lyu said it helped him gain

experience with the Western world: “You’ve had the NYC experience, and you would no

longer panic as when you first started studying abroad.”

143

Yan said, “I came in September and I decided to continue my graduate school

studies in October…. I made this decision because I realized that I can successfully adjust

to this environment. I decided to apply to graduate school in the United States.” The

exchange program encouraged them to determine their next step. Haoyuan and Tingting

shared that the exchange program helped them adjust to the States prior to their graduate

school study. As Haoyuan said, “I know how to use Uber, where the pharmacy is.

Without Kean, I would know nothing. The exchange program helped me to adjust into

this environment.” Tingting provided equally compelling examples as she continued her

studies in New York City. “I saw my classmates in graduate school asking questions

about vaccines, doctor appointments, and insurance. I would not know if I came directly

from China. I knew the college applications process and required documentation. I did

everything by myself including the visa application and certification.” To these young

Chinese, the exchange program enabled them to explore, step out of their comfort zone,

and pursue their passion.

Interviews with Parents

Six parents agreed to participate in the interview process (see Table 5 for the

relationships between parents and children). Given their relative familiarity with Zoom

technology and logistical arrangements within the Chinese time zone, three parents chose

an audio interview, two parents chose a video interview via Zoom, and one parent

proceeded via text message. All the interviews were conducted in Chinese Mandarin.

Among the six interviewees were one male parent and five female parents. The purpose

was to understand how Chinese parents influence their children’s academic and college

144

decision making. It was necessary to listen to the parents rather than merely the

children’s arguably self-interested opinions and perspectives.

Table 5. Relationship Chart

Mrs. Wang Cong’s Mother

Mrs. Chen Tingting’s Mother

Mr. Li Yan’s Father

Mrs. Xu Tao’s Mother

Mrs. Zhao Wenzheng’s Mother

Mrs. Huang Haoyuan’s Mother

Mrs. Wang

Cong’s mother, Mrs. Wang, acknowledged that she helped Cong with her

application after her daughter had “failed” the National College Entrance Examination.

Overall, we have a huge population, which makes competition very severe.

Everyone wants to be first-tier, people are ashamed of being enrolled at a second-

tier school. I am presently involved with the WKU parents group chat. Parents are

very anxious, and they do not want their children to fall behind others. This is a

current Chinese societal phenomenon. Shadow education, after school training, is

started among kindergarten kids.

Mrs. Wang revealed the competitiveness was not only among students themselves, but

also among parents. According to Mrs. Wang, children shoulder the reputation of the

family, adding to the burden of the children. Chinese Mandarin has a term for when

children do not do their homework: “你给我把作业写了” (You do your homework for

me!).

Second, Mrs. Wang supported Cong’s idea for participating in the exchange

program:

145

She is my only child, and all my savings will be hers eventually. Compared to

sending her directly to study, I also prefer to have her participate in an exchange

program, so she will have a sense of the outside world, instead of sending her

alone for graduate school studies…. I wasn't concerned about her safety.

Although I saw the news, movies and read novels, I thought it can’t be that bad as

movies or TV.

Mrs. Chen

Tingting’s mother, Mrs. Chen, paid a consultant to assist Tingting with her

application. She wanted Tingting to apply to a traditional Chinese university; it was

WKU’s first academic year to recruit students. Tingting applied to KU to join the

exchange program, as her mother explained: “The US is the ‘superpower.’ All the top

schools are in the United States. At least, Tingting would broaden her horizon and

improve her English.” Mrs. Chen had a concern for safety, but it was also an opportunity

for her daughter to be independent.

Mr. Li

Yan’s father, Mr. Li, gave credit to Yan’s classmates, teachers, and Yan’s mother.

He insisted that Yan should apply to KU and the exchange program. “It is the most

advanced country. It has both its beauty and ugly.” Mr. Li believed the beauty of the

country is the intellectual advancement of technology, finance, and education. Also, he

was concerned with the “ugly” aspects of American society such as casino gambling,

sexual promiscuity, and crime/safety. Mr. Li gained his impression of these aspects

largely based upon his own visit to California and Las Vegas with friends. Mr. Li trusted

his son’s own decision making to understand and act responsibly about “good and bad.”

146

As China ended “the one child policy” in 2015, the current young generation is

the only child in a family; many parents wish to have their only child to be a resident

among Chinese nationals.

Mrs. Xu

Tao’s Mother, Mrs. Xu, proposed that her son apply for WKU. It was her wish to

have Tao participate in the exchange program. Mrs. Xu works in international trading,

which allows her to travel around the world frequently. “I wanted him to see the world,

have the opportunity to receive an international education, which made WKU the best

option.” Additionally, Mrs. Xu shared, “I wish he could open his mind to thoughts and

ideas. I was upset with the academic side of WKU, as faculty members did not always

lecture in English. The exchange program was a good opportunity for him to learn,

improve his English, and acquire skills in the United States.”

Mrs. Xu was the only parent among all the interviewees who visited Kean

University before having Tao participate in the Exchange program (evidently the only

parent among all of the exchange students as well). Her visit to KU offered a positive

impression of both the campus and the environment, which confirmed her decision about

Tao pursuing the exchange program. Mrs. Xu strongly recommended the exchange

program.

Mrs. Zhao

Wenzheng’s Mother, Mrs. Zhao, recommended Wenzheng apply to WKU and

participate in the exchange program in his junior year. Mrs. Zhao remembered the WKU

program was young, but KU had more than 100 years of history, so she had confidence

147

the program would be of sufficient stature. Mrs. Zhao works in higher education with Mr.

Zhao, both of whom desired to have Wenzheng expand his horizons. “We both appreciate

Western education as a student-centered versus Chinese way that is teacher-centered,”

stated Mrs. Zhao. Mrs. Zhao deeply appreciated that WKU and KU shaped Wenzheng in

his current form as a young scholarly researcher, which she had never contemplated. She

told me that Wenzheng was historically not a “good” student and his secondary school

academic performance was comparatively poor.

Mrs. Zhao’s persistence turned Wenzheng “old” and she is most grateful. Mrs.

Zhao assists with the WKU “recruitment fair” yearly.

Mrs. Huang

Haoyuan’s mother, Mrs. Huang, stated it was Haoyuan’s teacher who

recommended WKU. “The priority for applying to WKU was its English environment. It

would help him with his ‘study abroad’ in his future. The Kean exchange program would

provide an opportunity, which may help him with graduate school.” Although Haoyuan’s

application to WKU as an exchange program was attractive, Mrs. Huang expressed

concern about his return. “While during the exchange program, I was not that worried as

he has to return to WKU to finish his undergraduate studies. Yet, I told him for his

graduate school study, he has to return home right after his graduation.” Mrs. Huang

added, “The news reports all the negative sides of the United States, including robbery,

gun violence, and racist actions to Asians. How could you not worry to have your child

there?”

It was not difficult to realize Mrs. Huang’s parental struggle and the dilemma of

having Haoyuan studying in the United States. She acknowledged that the quality of

148

higher education in the United States persuaded her to send Haoyuan to the United States.

The exchange program would assist him to determine whether he liked the United States

or not. Overall, Mrs. Huang wanted to have Haoyuan learn advanced skills in his field;

however, as a mother, she did want her son to return to China ultimately.

Parents claimed they provided university tuition expenses and living costs for

their children’s education. They also expressed their concerns about the likelihood of

their children’s return and several societal issues. Yet, as the exchange program requires

compulsory dormitory for the first semester, anxiety was significantly ameliorated.

Comparative Analysis

A comparative analysis was drawn through a comparison between parents’

interviews and children’s interviews. The comparative analysis enables a closer

examination across all interview data. The purpose of the comparison was finding a

common theme or understanding between these two groups. Two themes emerged

through this comparison.

Self-awareness emerged as an interesting phenomenon among the Chinese WKU

cohort. In protracted conversations with participants, students described an interesting

sense of psychological liberation while attending Kean. Yan and Wanzhen shared a

similar feeling of awareness, that “no one can ‘control’ me.” With the spatial distance

between New York City and Zheijiang, the resultant time difference, and an opportunity

to chart one’s own education, students had a new sense of behavioral freedom. Students

contended their parents “controlled” their behavior less rigorously when they lived in the

United States than when they resided in China. For most of the interview participants, it

149

was the first time they lived in another nation. It offered an opportunity for them as

individuals rather than as “someone’s daughter or son” since Chinese students’ behaviors

are influenced by their parents to a substantial degree.

“Elite Education”

Through the interviews, it was possible to see that elite education was understood

as the best education recourse a student could obtain. Xian said:

I feel like Chinese parents want their children to be somebody or make a

fortune when they grow up. If I told my parents that I wanted to own a sneaker

store when I was five years old, they would have probably said I am a loser. In

China, we received the ideology of “elite education” and you have to be an “elite”

when you grow up. Everyone wants to apply to Tsinghua University or Beijing

University, but not in the United States.

Cong remembered her world collapsed when she “failed” the National College Entrance

Examination, having earned such a low score and risked attending an “elite” education.

The alumni participants were the only children of parents. As Fong (2006)

described, these children were born as the “only hope.” Both Cong’s and Tingting’s

mothers, Mrs. Wang and Mrs. Chen, respectively, expressed that they would

unequivocally support their child, whereas this was interpreted by Mr. Li, Yan’s father,

as “Children’s success is the greatest hope, no matter where they are on the economic or

social spectrum.” Chinese parents provided support to have their children succeed.

Echoing what Xian said, most of the parents believed that the U.S. experience would

foster their children’s further development not only in cross-cultural learning, but also in

graduate school applications, acceptance, and beyond.

150

“My Mom”

After reviewing the transcripts from the interviewees, the frequent citing of “my

mom” was much more evident than the citing of either “my parents” or “my father.”

Later conversations with parents supported the finding that mothers exhibited closer

attention to their children’s education. It is also interesting to note that my invitation

yielded five out of six parents—all five being mothers. “The major reason for me to

return was my mom enrolled me in a winter GMAT program to prepare for the GMAT

exam. The program helped make the decision to return,” according to Yan. “My parents

also decided my graduate school major, which I am still not interested in as of now. But

they are paying.”

Tingting echoed the sentiment: “My mom’s opinion is more important. She

thought that I could take a chance. As I was the first class (class of 2016), WKU must

succeed. If they fail, it impacts future admissions.” He also discussed with his mother the

school and academic major.

Most mothers in this study showed major involvement with their children’s

education. Mrs. Wang, Mrs. Zhao, and Mrs. Xu were all deeply involved with their

children’s college decision making, choice of academic major, and participation with the

exchange program. All children followed their mothers’ academic and college

suggestions.

Previous studies have shown that mothers’ role and their expectations have a

significant influence on their children’s development, education, and even earnings

(Flouri & Hawkes, 2008; Juang, Qin, & Park, 2013). Although this study did not focus

151

exclusively on the study of the mother’s role, it is clear that mothers have been strongly

involved in and influence their children’s academic progress.

Summary

This chapter presented the results and findings from the collected quantitative and

qualitative data. The data analysis provided the following descriptions: the background of

the survey participants, the rationale of attending the school and the exchange program,

and financial costs. This chapter also examined the in-depth reasons for the participants’

rationale to attend WKU and the exchange program. The qualitative and quantitative data

were compared, and themes were generated under the major topics of cultural learning,

academic requirements, professional preparation, and global awareness. A generalized

portrait of the participants’ study abroad experience was provided through both the

survey and interview data. Finally, interviews with six parents about their involvement in

their children’s academic and college decision-making process and their attitude towards

study abroad offered a comparative analysis lens to understand both parents’ and

children’s perceptions of education.

152

Chapter V

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The purpose of this study was to gather, evaluate, and extrapolate from interviews

and surveys the benefits of Chinese students’ study abroad experiences by comparing and

contrasting foreign universities’ satellite campuses in China with foreign host campuses.

A secondary purpose was to examine the parents’ role in their children’s academic and

college decision-making process.

While conducting this research, I used both qualitative and quantitative research

methods for the data collection. The research design provided a unifying common lens

while situating students at both campuses and examining their parents’ involvement in

the process. The study sought to understand how undergraduate students grappled with

foreign language, culture, and the nascent concept of global competence.

For this research, I used mixed methods while collecting data, including different

types of data, to support research with an integrated design. Alumni participants revealed

fascinating stories and experiences that were deeply rooted in their understanding of

foreign countries—indeed, a global experience. The quantitative data (surveys) served a

generalization purpose, providing a general direction for the story, while the qualitative

data (interviews) added personal details of feelings and experiences which enhanced the

overall story. Alumni participants compared and contrasted their experiences with their

153

previous impressions of American culture derived from previous differing personal

sources of information; their experiences had refreshed and altered their understanding of

Western societal norms, perceptions, and global competence (Lambert, 1996, as cited in

Hunter, 2004).

The summary of findings and discussion are presented in the order of the research

questions that guided this study.

● To what extent did students’ perception of global learning outcomes align

with perception of achievement of study abroad goals? Did students’

experience at Wenzhou-Kean University (China foreign satellite) and/or Kean

University (U.S. host campus) enhance awareness of global competence?

It is noteworthy that Zhao (2010) stated 37% of U.S.-owned businesses in China

said their biggest challenge was finding talents, and 44% of senior management at

Chinese companies reported it was challenging to find employees with global ambitions.

In fact, it is important for employees to have international experiences that would

cultivate their global understanding with their careers. The Committee for Economic

Development (CED, 2006) claimed that global awareness is vital for different aspects of

a country’s development and growth, such as economy, national security, and societal

cultural diversity.

Among the fledgling steps toward multidimensional global competence as set

forth by the OECD and Harvard Project Zero, the priority of the participants was to

embark on cultural, linguistic, and geopolitical learning as one kind of educational

achievement. In the survey, the majority of participants acknowledged that learning and

understanding American society and culture are the functions of global competence and

154

the under-realized aspirations of the exchange program—functions that are specifically

aligned with Hunter’s (2004) conversation with William Brustein, president of the

Association of International Education Administrators, who advised “communicat[ing]

effectively across cultural and linguistic boundaries and [focusing] on issues that

transcend cultures and continents.”

During the interviews, common themes were generated and aligned with the

literature. Most participants’ experiences echoed Curran (2003, as cited in Hunter, 2004),

who suggested the need for the ability to develop an appreciation of people and, perhaps

more significantly, the ability to interact, as did the WKU students in the United States.

While the majority of interviewees claimed that their image of the United States came

from the media, these images created persistent gaps with the reality they experienced.

Nasir (2009, as cited in Sealey-Ruiz, 2011) pointed out that the “media images reinforce

the stereotype[s] of these people,” thereby reflecting that participants acknowledged

certain media impressions.

Until participants experienced the foreign environment, it is clear from the

evidence that their previous learning about cross-cultural phenomena might be

insufficient (Zhao, 2010); thus, global competence needs to be understood not as a luxury

of misperception, but rather—as Teng (2016) suggested for the future direction of an

emerging and strengthening China—as a necessary trend for the Chinese and the peoples

with whom they share skills and knowledge.

Students at Wenzhou-Kean University (WKU) students may have completed their

Kean University (KU) studies without developing global competence, proficiency in a

foreign language, or in-depth knowledge of any culture outside the United States

155

(Brustein, 2007), yet students would have practiced the key competencies enshrined

within the framework of global competence with an emphasis on the large global issues

(Mansilla & Wilson, 2020). The challenge for the host university is not merely to mimic

the foreign educational curriculum in China or simply offer the same program to Chinese

nationals, as would be done to domestic students, but instead to outline global

competence as a core educational aim for the WKU students (OECD, 2018). Despite

acknowledging the interdisciplinary nature of the Sino-U.S. relationship, the Kean

initiative and the standalone exchange program have been criticized for not aligning

studies with expertise in a particular discipline (Brustein, 2007).

The space between expectation and reality was recognized through the

conversations with these participants. It is in this space that students ought to have the

learned ability to acquire data, analyze, and evaluate information. This space or skills gap

is not merely the responsibility of the person seeking global competence, but also the

university’s charge—namely, to teach as to the need to think critically and solve practical

learning problems (American Council on Education, 1997, as cited in Hunter, 2004) that

we extend our access to learn the unknown and provide learning opportunities.

Participants indicated their uncertainty with Western cultural definitions.

Although it may be difficult to ascertain clear boundaries in distinguishing changing

perspectives, participants’ recognition of such definitional issues needs to be

acknowledged. In raising awareness of cultural understanding and learning, the cohort

raised an awareness of their shift in perception (regardless of how meager). Participants

identified themselves as having a level of raised global issue awareness, which aligns

with the goal that OECD/Harvard established of “examine local, global and intercultural

156

issues, understand and appreciate different perspectives and worldviews, interact

successfully and respectfully with others, and take responsible action toward

sustainability and collective well-being” (OECD, 2018, p. 4).

For WKU students, English language versatility was a part of the American

culture, used to interpret the media culture; the English language facilitated their

understanding of the Kean experience (Zhao, 2010). If English fluency for the WKU

Chinese and language mastery, skills, and knowledge are considered a format of global

competence, participants are to be acknowledged for their proficiency as a precondition

to interact with others and experience their time at Kean. Mindful of the plethora of

approaches to global competence, Recommendation of the European Parliament and of

the Council of the European Union (2006, as cited in Zhao, 2010) suggested foreign

language communication ability, cultural awareness, and expression as being three of the

eight key competencies.

● How did Chinese students’ experience at Wenzhou-Kean University compare

and contrast with their experience at Kean University regarding academic,

cultural (an element but not the entirety of global competence), and

professional and technical preparation?

Based on the survey results, most participants (n = 80) in general acknowledged

that they had a comparatively good experience. This question was investigated through

academic activities, social life, and professional preparation.

Academic activities were selected as the second important reason for participation

in the exchange program. Approximately a quarter of the participants claimed course

157

selection was a principal reason to go to KU. WKU was able to provide only minimal

courses to fulfill graduation requirements.

Survey results indicated that another significant reason to participate in the

exchange program was to garner improvement of English language proficiency. The

interview participants stated they were satisfied with their language learning experience,

as demonstrated by standardized test results, the success of graduate school application,

or even personal feelings. Participants stated that peers and classmates, the campus

environment, and the societal environment provided them with opportunities to be

exposed to an English environment. These participants had benefited from English

lectures during their freshman and sophomore years, enabling them to adapt more readily.

Participants had mixed feelings towards faculty members at both campuses.

Those who remained beyond one semester had a more productive and personal

relationship with faculty members. Previous studies (Aveni, 2005; Zhang, 2001) have

noted that foreign language proficiency impacts students’ study abroad anxiety. Saito and

Samimy (1996) found that the anxiety of foreign language impacted students’ academic

performance. While the academic requirements of KU were not as severe as WKU’s

requirements, Chinese students found KU to be a better learning experience and

environment.

It was challenging for participants to make friends with domestic students due to

cultural differences and personality. More than 95% (96.51%) of survey responses

indicated the participants’ major friends were Chinese. Participants reported that they

have tried to make new friends in different ways but failed. An objective reason may be

that the majority of classmates commute to school, thus not allowing them to have extra

158

time to interact with their classmates. Again, global competence would have encouraged

the importance of cultural knowledge in response to cultural desire, empathy, and

identity. Building tolerance, as Green and Olsen (2003, as cited in Li & Xu, 2016)

suggested, would have significantly expanded the Kean campus’s willingness to learn

about the Chinese culture without confusion and uncertainty. Planned Chinese cultural

events were an opportunity to learn and work with people from diverse linguistic and

cultural backgrounds, thereby improving interdependence.

● What are the roles of Chinese parents in college and academic decision

making?

The results for this question showed that Chinese parents were deeply involved in

all aspects of their children’s college decision-making process. The qualitative data from

both parents and children supported the quantitative data as the results indicated

approximately one-third of participants reported the decision was their parents’ choice.

Since the qualitative sample size was comparatively small, the data collected spoke for

those participants, offering insight into the Chinese parents’ role in the college decision-

making process. Zhao (2010) claimed that Chinese parents value external educational

indicators such as university ranking; the indicator of success is measured by their

academic performance, namely standardized test scores.

The Chinese higher educational process, including the administration of the

National College Entrance Examination, strictly governs public university admissions.

Participants stated that their parents impacted their college and study abroad choices.

Additionally, while parents did not believe they had unjustifiably interfered in their

children’s college decisions, they contended it was for their children’s benefit if they

159

joined the process. During conversations with parents, they stated that they felt at ease

and very natural while helping with their children’s application process, which they

understood to be a part of their parental duty.

This finding supported previous research (Bodycott & Lai, 2012) that

substantiated parents were understood to be the authority; obedience, as rooted in the

family culture, offered surety, financial support, and employment guidance. The study

demonstrated that the cultural role of Chinese parents was influenced by financial

support, cultural Confucian values, and employment considerations, including global

competence and international markets.

Recommendations for Program Revision/Implications

This study has several significant implications for the study abroad program.

First, adherence to the OECD/Harvard standards of four-dimensional global competence

should be a required objective for the WKU degree and particularly for the Kean

exchange program. The Council of the European Union (2018) defined “the set of key

competences needed for personal fulfillment, health, employability and social inclusion”

(p. 3); that is, it is incumbent on the respective universities to produce compelling studies

such that the university experience advances the importance of developing global skills.

As Reimers (2009) succinctly stated in Leading for Global Competency, several

noteworthy institutions in the vanguard of international education—namely, the National

Research Council (2007), the Committee for Economic Development (2006), and the

Asia Society (2008)—have made an effective case for global education. It is insufficient

to merely enhance the exchange experience and participants’ understanding of U.S. work

160

culture without providing knowledge, skills, and integrated understanding across cultures,

disciplines, and events to think and engage in problem-solving skills across the cultures

of other nations.

Second, based on the interview data, the participants perceived differences

between the academic rigor of the two campuses. The students’ expectation was that

education at Kean would be deliberately interconnected, interdependent, and

internationalized, as set forth by Flammia et al. (2019) in the International Journal of

Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. According to Brustein (2007), the objective

of global education if do not provide “a comprehensive internationalized curriculum that

is available to all students, we will ‘fail to prepare our graduates for the enormous global

challenges of the 21st century’” (p. 390, as cited in Flammia et al., 2019, p. 332) Even

providing for the distinct traditions, economic interests, and political challenges between

China and the United States, responsible university administration ought to link courses

and curricula critically, not merely based on the perspectives and/or requirements of

accreditation bodies, but on those “key aspects of what it means to be a globally

competent individual” (Brustein, 2007; Hanson, 2010; Rajala, 2012; Soria & Troisi,

2014, as cited in Flammia et al., 2019, p. 332). The WKU and KU curricula must not

only embrace the necessity of global competence, but, importantly and by design of the

governing Sino-American agreement, underscore and strengthen the interconnectedness

and interdependence of the curriculum of both university campuses. Again, as Friedman

(2005, as cited in Flammia et al., 2019) acknowledged, market-driven perspectives

“would also emphasize the fact that developing global competence will allow

professionals to understand consumer tastes and therefore succeed economically”

161

(p. 332); thus, the tensions between nations over varying states of economic status and

differing rising value structures, whether social, transformative, and/or economic, are not

necessarily incompatible. Indeed, the survey literature has compellingly argued that the

tensions act to advance the self-interests of both—indeed, all—parties. Appiah-Padi

(2001, as cited in Flammia et al., 2019) has commented directly and in dialogue with

global competence commentators that differing perspectives and resultant actions are

within “the interest of people elsewhere in the world by understanding the

interconnection of all living things” (p. 332). WKU and KU should include an awareness

of and sensitivity to their host cultures, yet a profound, purposeful, and integrated design

of the two campuses must underscore a grounded understanding of the

interconnectedness and interdependence of the two campuses.

An abysmally small percentage of American students study abroad, compared to

the percentage of students enrolled in higher education in the United States; according to

the National Association of Foreign Student Advisors (NAFSA, 2014, as cited in

Flammia et al., 2019), that percentage was slightly above 1.5%. That standalone statistic

contrasts with the previously discussed exodus of Chinese students to American and

British universities, indicating two profoundly distinct courses of global engagement and,

arguably, global focus. While American and Chinese students on domestic campuses may

complete their respective studies without developing global competence, foreign

language proficiency, and critical thinking skills to become globally responsible citizens,

it is still vital to agree that the internationalization of Chinese higher education studies

has increased interaction with Chinese students and their host countries outside of the

162

formal curriculum, thus permitting students to develop relationships premised on

interests, aptitudes, and aspirations.

As a result of the significant imbalance between the number of WKU students

visiting Kean in contrast with the few Kean students trickling in to visit WKU, the

university campuses are a missed opportunity to provide for an innovative curriculum,

pedagogy, and academic experience that would realize the significant cultural and

linguistic contributions of both respective student cohorts. Cultivating global and

intercultural competency at both the American and Chinese campuses would require the

Chinese administration to recruit American international students aggressively to

facilitate interactions strategically. It was those few American students who had

previously traveled to WKU who befriended the Chinese WKU students at Kean,

accelerated friendships, and engaged in activities. As Astin (1985) stated, “The amount of

student learning and personal development associated with any educational program is

directly proportional to the quality and quantity of students’ involvement in that

program” (p. 136). Creating a robust balance between the respective campuses would

benefit students in their academic and cultural learning (Lin & Yi, 1997; Liu, 2009),

improve professional collaboration, and enhance cultural diversity and awareness (Gabb,

2006).

Recommendations for Future Studies

This study provided a lens with which to study graduates from a Sino-U.S.

university as an emerging higher education institution in China. By comparing and

contrasting the study abroad experience and engagement of global competence between

163

campuses as well as the Chinese parents’ role in exercising influence over college and

academic decisions, I examined the tensions of traditional decision making within the

context of a university which, in principle, is dedicated to cross-cultural understanding, if

not global competence.

First, because this research focused on a small group of graduates from one

institution, future research should move aggressively beyond this limitation. Researchers

should examine students at multiple institutions, not merely graduates, which may allow

for greater and more diverse cohorts of subjects. Of note, the variety and diversity of

Chinese international students enrolled in numerous foreign satellite programs and

cooperative ventures would enable researchers to gain better insights into the

comparative strengths and weaknesses of the two distinct academic tracks, as well as

their ability to transmit global competence within the defined OECD/Harvard metrics.

Second, future research should explore and examine the different types of Sino-

Cooperative Universities, such as Sino-British University (e.g., Ningbo-Nottingham

University), Sino-Russia University (e.g., Shenzhen MSU-BIT University), and Sino-

Israel University (e.g., Guangdong Technion-Israel Institute of Technology). The

uniqueness and relative strength of each institution’s commitment to global competence,

as evidenced in their global curriculum design, educational mission, and internationalized

academic structure, would provide a scholarly perspective of these respective standalone

programs and the degree to which these partnerships align with the expertise and skill

sets required of global competence.

Third, Beijing Normal University published in 2016 a comprehensive set of key

global competencies within a framework that the Ministry of Education (MOE) has

164

subsequently adopted. The reforms articulated the need for enhanced bureaucratic

flexibility to accommodate the demands of global competence, while recognizing the

already somewhat overburdened educational strictures of Chinese universities. The call

from Beijing Normal replicated in significant measure the elements of the OECD PISA

and Harvard Project Zero, while being mindful of the well-being of Chinese society, the

emergence of China in the global economy, and arguably the reality that technologically

based universities in China had already achieved a significant degree of liberalism to

engage in entrepreneurial creativity that maximizes subject matter expertise. Thus, a

future study should be conducted in collaboration with the Chinese MOE to examine the

key competencies framework against the proposed national reform. That is, to achieve

global competence, the educational system must preserve an element of flexibility unique

to each collaboration, be it American, British, Israeli, or Russian. International activities

at the initial stage may be at the surface level, yet the knowledge and skills—which the

MOE understands are critical for global competence within the marketplace—

necessitates that a future study must develop a fairly advanced, indeed mature, system of

educational practices that form a template of educational practices distinct from China’s

historical and cultural underpinnings.

Limitations

An aspect of this research’s neutrality was its mixed-methods design;

interviewees were selected through the availability of alumni data forwarded by WKU in

conjunction with KU. The length of the participation of each individual exchange also

necessarily impacted the derived lessons offered by personal experiences.

165

There exists the concern for subject matter differentiation, teaching methodology,

and pedagogy among Chinese and American course offerings. Respective required

degree courses may differ in the scope of subject matter reviewed as well as their design,

critical thinking processes employed, and teamwork required for course completion. The

distinction of pedagogical practices may impact the outcomes of the research project, as

course development and practice may yield to cultural and educational bias, practice, and

predisposition. In addition, some of the participants participated in the exchange program

5 years ago and their memories of their time there may not reflect their real-time

experience.

Conclusion

The research engaged here represents a lifetime of dedication and focus on

intercultural education, language instruction, and enhanced efforts toward global

competence. While academia intones the necessity of enhancing

global competency from political, economic, and cultural perspective, the

pragmatic reality is for university systems to grapple with the serious and

somewhat tedious curriculum implementation efforts to ensure,…policy

implementation perspective, implementing global competency assessment can

provide sufficient approach to assess global curriculum and instructions in

response to fostering global communication collaboration and partnership with

international institutions and organizations. (Li & Xu, 2016, p. 157)

Thus, while we may discuss the necessity of global competence, the contrast of university

experience and learning in differing national venues, and the role of parents and families

in decision making, the assessment of these three phenomena argue for a call to action, a

plan, to do the hard work of implementing a more global educational marketplace. The

166

research and analysis of the universities conducted revealed three basic realities, which,

while existing presently, are subject to change.

The first is that the foreign satellite campuses of China and respective exchange

programs offer a new and arguably more expansive way of learning and thinking. Despite

best efforts, global competence was at best an unarticulated hope; at worst, it was an

accidental semi-occurrence. For the sake of the students, the educational bureaucracies of

both nations, and the state of the global economy, global competence must be a focused,

living, and dynamic footprint inherent in the curriculum and experience of students at

both campuses. Simply put, global competence is not merely an ephemeral and

aspirational lofty goal, but a tangible list of skills, subject matter areas, negotiation

strategies, and values. Global competence is almost a universal benefit. Yet, it has

traveled a long circuitous path from Lambert’s first musings; we know what works and

what does not, and its design and implementation cannot be accidental, but rather

purposeful, measurable, and within an accepted pedagogical framework.

Second, while WKU may have benefitted from certain domestic strengths, the

unfortunate lack of an American presence at WKU minimized any sense of a global

university experience. As a result, there were missed opportunities for the capacity to

innovate curriculum and pedagogies; while Kean had the benefit of realizing a significant

WKU presence, there was yet the inability to realize the full measure of unique

contributions culturally and linguistically. There was, however, a substantial benefit to

those Chinese students who remained at Kean for a protracted period, who in a sense

designed their own curriculum to muster global competence. The few Chinese WKU

167

students who had a protracted tenure at KU were able to bring their diverse strengths to

KU while cultivating global and intercultural competency (Siczek, 2015).

Lastly, the research confirmed Chinese parental involvement with their children’s

academic and university decision making. While parents believed that it was their

responsibility to navigate their children’s future, children largely acquiesced, particularly

considering traditional mores and the significant financial burden being shouldered by

families to fulfill educational expenses. These findings granted insight into the priority of

parents and their families to facilitate their children’s international experiences, cultural

learning—indeed, global competence.

This study suggested the need for the Chinese government to support targeted

high-quality international satellite campuses to stimulate Chinese higher education;

reform Chinese higher education accreditation to achieve the critical benchmarks of

global competence; and cultivate the next Chinese generation with an understanding of

global markets, global culture, and global education. Although Chinese education may be

understood as being traditional, maintaining the long-accepted tier system and

standardized testing, the Chinese MOE well recognizes the critical importance of global

competence to ensure China’s competitiveness in the global marketplace of goods and

intellectual property.

This research examined a national response, a university response, and even a

parental response to a yearning for global competence. Understanding the importance of

and necessity for global competence is an essential first step. Thus, nations and

universities must do what parents and students have done; that is, to wade into the waters

of global competence, trusting and learning, but with the ability to experiment, measure,

168

and experience new skills and knowledge, while maintaining adherence to those sound

pedagogical practices that have sustained civilization, country, and culture.

169

REFERENCES

Adams, J. T. (1931). The epic of America. Boston, MA: Little Brown.

Ali, S. (1995). Teaching literature in a Malaysian ESL context: Reflections and

recommendations. English in Education, 29(1), 53-65.

Altbach, P. G. (2001). Reviewed work(s): Universities and globalization: Critical

perspectives by Jan Currie; Janice Newsom, The Globalization of Higher

Education by Peter Scott. The Journal of Higher Education, 72(2), 254-256.

Altbach, P. (2015). Chinese higher education in an open-door era. International Higher

Education, 45, 15-17. doi: 10.6017/ihe.2006.45.7929

Altbach, P. G., & Knight, J. (2007). The internationalization of higher education:

Motivations and realities. Journal of Studies in International Education, 11(3-4),

290-305. doi:10.1177/1028315307303542

Anaya, G. (1999). College impact on student learning: Comparing the use of self-

reported gains, standardized test scores and college grades. Research in Higher

Education, 40(5), 499-526.

Andrade, M. S. (2006). International students in English-speaking universities:

Adjustment factors. Journal of Research in International Education, 5(2), 131-

154.

Astin, A. W. (1985). Achieving educational excellence. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Astin, A. W., & Astin, H. S. (1992). Undergraduate science education: The impact of

different college environments on the educational pipeline in the sciences. Final

Report to the National Science Foundation. Los Angeles: The Higher Education

Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles.

Austin, E. K. (1981). Guidelines for the developing of continuing education offerings for

nurses. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Aveni, V. P. (2005). Study abroad and second language use: Constructing the self.

Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Bada, S. O. (2015). Constructivism learning theory: A paradigm for teaching and

learning. IOSR Journal of Research and Method in Education (IOSR-JRME),

5(6), 66-70.

Bailey, K. D. (1987). Methods of social research (3rd ed.). New York, NY: The Free

Press.

170

Baker, V. (2019, March 15). Celebrity parents and the bizarre ‘cheating’ scandal.

Retrieved April 8, 2019, from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-

47585336

Bartlett, T., & Fischer, K. (2011a, November 3). The China conundrum. The Chronicle of

Higher Education. Retrieved March 5, 2017, from http://www.chronicle.com/

article/the-chinaconundrum/129628

Bartlett, T., & Fischer, K. (2011b, November 3). The China conundrum. The New York

Times. Retrieved March 5, 2017, from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/06/

education/edlife/thechina-conundrum.html

Barrett, D., & Zapotosky, M. (2019, March 12). FBI accuses wealthy parents, including

celebrities, in college-entrance bribery scheme. Retrieved April 8, 2019, from

https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/fbi-accuses-wealthy-

parents-including-celebrities-in-college-entrance-bribery-scheme/2019/03/12/

d91c9942-44d1-11e9-8aab-95b8d80a1e4f_story.html

Barriball, K. L., & While, A. (1994). Collecting data using a semi-structured interview: A

discussion paper. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 19(2), 328–335. doi:10.1111/j.

1365-2648.1994.tb01088.x

Basturkmen, H. (1990). Literature and the intermediate language learner: A sample

lesson with Hemingway’s “Cat in the Rain.” English Teaching Forum, 28(3),

18-21.

Bayer, C. (2017, December 12). PISA 2018 test to include global competency

assessment. Retrieved March 5, 2019, from https://www.gse.harvard.edu/

news/17/12/pisa-2018-test-include-global-competency-assessment

Bebell, D., O’Dwyer, L. M., Russell, M., & Hoffmann, T. (2010). Concerns,

considerations, and new ideas for data collection and research in educational

technology studies. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 43(1),

29-52. doi:10.1080/15391523.2010.10782560

Becker, G. S. (1993). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis, with special

reference to education (3rd ed.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Bennett, M. (1993). Towards ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural

sensitivity. In R. M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience

(pp. 21-71). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.

Bodycott, P. (2009). Choosing a higher education study abroad destination. Journal of

Research in International Education, 8(3), 349-373. doi:10.1177/147524

0909345818

171

Bodycott, P., & Lai, A. (2012). The influence and implications of Chinese culture in the

decision to undertake cross-border higher education. Journal of Studies in

International Education, 16(3), 252-270. doi: 10.1177/1028315311418517

Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of

learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42.

Brustein, W. I. (2007). The global campus: Challenges and opportunities for higher

education in North America. Journal of Studies in International Education,

11(3/4), 382-391.

Caeyers, B., Chalmers, N., & Weerdt, J. D. (2010). A comparison of CAPI and PAPI

through a randomized field experiment. SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/

ssrn.1756224

Callan, H. (2000). Higher education internationalization strategies: Of marginal

significance or all pervasive? Higher Education in Europe (UNESCO), 25(1),

15-24.

Cebolla-Boado, H., Hu, Y., & Soysal, Y. N. (2017). Why study abroad? Sorting of

Chinese students across British universities. British Journal of Sociology of

Education, 39(3), 365-380. doi:10.1080/01425692.2017.1349649

Cendant Mobility. (2002). New approaches to global mobility. Human Resource

Executive, 1.

Chen, T., & Jordan, M. (2016, September 1). Why so many Chinese students come to the

U.S. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved March 5, 2017, from https://www.wsj.

com/articles/why-so-many-chinese-students-come-to-the-u-s-1462123552

Chen, Z. (2002, January 9). Study on the educational impact and strategy of China enter

WTO [“我国加入 WTO对教育的影响及对策研究”]. China Education Daily, p. 1.

China Education Online. (2020). Ministry of Education: 10.71 million participants of

2020 “GaoKao.” Retrieved July 9, 2020, from https://news.eol.cn/yaowen/

202003/t20200331_1719242.shtml https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/families/

article/1941676/why-parents-hong-kong-and-china-use-consultants-find-us-

college

Chiu, V. (2016, May 27). Why parents in Hong Kong and China use consultants to find

US college places for their children. Retrieved March 5, 2019, from

https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/families/article/1941676/why-parents-hong-

kong-and-china-use-consultants-find-us-college

Choudaha, R. (2017, Summer). Are international students “cash cows”? International

Higher Education.

172

Cohen, D., & Crabtree, B. (2006). Qualitative research guidelines project. Retrieved

from http://www.qualres.org/

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2011). Research methods in education (7th ed.).

London, UK: Routledge.

Coles, C. (2002). Variability of student ratings of accounting teaching: Evidence from a

Scottish business school. International Journal of Management Education, 2(2),

30-39.

Cole, D. (2007). Do interracial interactions matter? An examination of student-faculty

contact and intellectual self-concept. Journal of Higher Education, 78, 249-281.

Combs, A. W. (1982). Affective education or none at all. Educational Leadership, 39(7),

494-497.

Committee for Economic Development (CED). (2006). Education for global leadership:

The importance of international studies and foreign language education for U.S.

economic and national security. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED502294.pdf

Cong, C. (2017). International students’ satisfaction with educational service augmenters

and their adjustment to the U.S. higher education institutions (Unpublished

doctoral dissertation). Old Dominion University. doi:10.25777/remy-qy23

Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP) Freshman Survey. (2018). The

future-orientated freshman. Higher Education Research Institute and Cooperative

Institutional Research. Retrieved on January 26, 2020, from https://www.heri.

ucla.edu/infographics/TFS-2018-Infographic.pdf

Council Recommendation of 22 May 2018 on key competences for lifelong learning.

(2018). Official Journal of the European Union. Retrieved on January 29, 2020,

from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:

32018H0604%2801%29

Cowburn, A. (2018, January 11). Benefits of international students to UK are ‘10 times

greater than costs’, shows study. Retrieved April 8, 2019, from https://www.

independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/international-students-uk-brexit-costs-

benefits-non-eu-university-immigration-figures-a8152151.html

Craig, R. (2018, October 24). International students are key to continued American

economic leadership. Retrieved April 8, 2019, from https://www.forbes.com/

sites/ryancraig/2018/06/28/international-students-are-key-to-continued-american-

economic-leadership/

173

Creswell, J. W. (2003). Mixed methods approaches. In J. W. Creswell (Eds.), Research

design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (pp. 208-227).

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five

traditions (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods

approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting mixed methods

research. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Creswell, J. W., Plano Clark, V. L., Gutmann, M., & Hanson, W. (2003). Advanced

mixed methods research designs. In A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Eds.),

Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research (pp. 209-240).

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

University Press.

Curtin, N., Stewart, A. J., & Ostrove, J. M. (2013). Fostering academic self-concept

advisor support and sense of belonging among international and domestic

graduate students. American Educational Research Journal, 50(1), 108-137.

Dong, Y. (2014, June 7). English in “Gaokao,” it is not easy to quit. The New York Times.

Retrieved March 5, 2019, from https://cn.nytimes.com/education/20140607/

cc07gaokao/

Douglas, A., Douglas, J., & Barnes, B. (2006). Measuring student satisfaction at a UK

university. Quality Assurance in Education, 14(3), 251-267. doi:10.1108/096848

80610678568

Eagleton, T. (1996). Literary theory: An introduction. Minneapolis, MN: University of

Minnesota Press.

Education International Cooperation. (2014). Study abroad when you are young.

Retrieved from http://www.eic.org.cn/special/eic_research_report_2014/

Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language teaching and learning. Oxford, UK: Oxford

University Press.

Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the United States of America. (2020).

Official Announcement of Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the

United States of America. Retrieved from http://www.china-embassy.org/chn/lszj/

zytz/t1765432.htm

174

Esterberg, K. G. (2002). Qualitative methods in social research. Boston, MA: McGraw-

Hill.

Farrell, D., Gersch, U. A., & Stephenson, E. (2006). The value of China’s emerging

middle class. McKinsey Quarterly, 2(1), 60.

Feldman, K. A., & Newcomb, T. M. (1969). The impact of college on students. San

Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Fincher, L. H. (2012, October 11). China’s ‘leftover’ women. Retrieved March 6, 2019,

from https://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/12/opinion/global/chinas-leftover-

women.html

Findlay, A., King, R., Stam, A., & Ruiz-Gelices, E. (2006). Ever reluctant Europeans:

The changing geographies of UK students studying and working abroad.

European Urban and Regional Studies, 13(4), 291-318. https://doi.org/10.1177/

0969776406065429

Fischer, K. (2015, July 6). The Chinese mother’s American dream. Retrieved March 5,

2019, from https://www.chronicle.com/article/The-Chinese-Mothers-American/

231239

Flammia, M., Sadri, H., & Mejia, C. (2019). An internalization project to develop global

competency across the disciplines. International Journal of Teaching and

Learning in Higher Education, 31(2), 332-345.

Flouri, E., & Hawkes, D. (2008). Ambitious mothers—successful daughters: Mothers’

early expectations for children’s education and children’s earnings and sense of

control in adult life. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 78(3), 411-433.

doi:10.1348/000709907x251280

Fong, V. L. (2006). Only hope: Coming of age under China’s one-child policy. Stanford,

CA: Stanford University Press.

Fox, J. (2016, June 30). How Chinese students saved America’s colleges. Bloomberg

View. Retrieved March 5, 2017, from https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/

2016-06-30/how-chinese-students-saved-america-s-colleges

Friedman, T. (2005). The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century. New

York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

Gabb, D. (2006). Transcultural dynamics in the classroom. Journal of Studies in

International Education, 10, 357-368.

175

GhafoorAwan, A., & Ahmad, W. (2014). Role of policies in economic growth: A case

study of China’s economic growth. Global Journal of Arts Humanities and Social

Sciences, 2(8), 45-64. Retrieved April 2, 2018, from http://www.eajournals.org/

wp-content/uploads/Roleof-Policies-in-Economic-Growth-a-Case-Study-of-

China---s.pdf

Glass, C. R., Gesing, P., Hales, A., & Cong, C. (2017). Faculty as bridges to co-curricular

engagement and community for first-generation international students. Studies in

Higher Education, 42(5), 895-910.

Goodman, D. S. G. (2004). The campaign to ‘open up the West’: National, provincial-

level and local perspectives. The China Quarterly, 178, 317-334.

Goralski, M. A., & Tootoonchi, A. (2015). Recruitment of international students to the

United States: Implications for institutions of higher education. International

Journal of Education Research, 10(1), 53-66.

Greene, J. C., Caracelli, V. J., & Graham, W. F. (1989). Toward a conceptual framework

for mixed-method evaluation designs. Educational Evaluation and Policy

Analysis, 11(3), 255-274. doi:10.3102/01623737011003255

Griffin, R. (2018, October 17). The student loan debt crisis is about to get worse.

Retrieved March 5, 2019, from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-

10-17/the-student-loan-debt-crisis-is-about-to-get-worse

Gu, M. (2016). My reflection and vision on Chinese education. Beijing, China: People’s

Education Press.

Hagedorn, L. S., & Zhang, Y. L. (2010). The use of agents in recruiting Chinese

undergraduates. Journal of Studies in International Education, 15(2), 186-202.

doi:10.1177/1028315310385460

Harris, D. (2012, January 11). Chinese students in America. It’s bad out there. Retrieved

from http://www.chinalawblog.com/2012/01/chinese_students_in_america_

Why_do_they_even_bother.html

Hartman, D. E., & Schmidt, S. L. (1995). Understanding student/alumni satisfaction from

a consumer’s perspective: The effects of institutional performance and program

outcomes. Research in Higher Education, 36(2), 197-217.

Hathaway, T. (2011, September 7). Opening the door to American universities with lies.

Retrieved from http://www.danwei.com/opening-the-door-to-american-

universities-with-lies/

176

Hess, A. J. (2019, May 20). Here’s how much the average student loan borrower owes

when they graduate. Retrieved August 04, 2020, from https://www.cnbc.com/

2019/05/20/how-much-the-average-student-loan-borrower-owes-when-they-

graduate.html

Heuvel, K. V. (2018, June 19). Americans are drowning in student-loan debt. The U.S.

should forgive all of it. Retrieved March 5, 2019, from https://www.washington

post.com/opinions/americans-are-drowning-in-student-loan-debt-the-us-should-

forgive-all-of-it/2018/06/19/82565218-7314-11e8-9780-b1dd6a09b549

_story.html

Holbrook, A., Krosnik, J., & Pfent, A. (2007). The causes and consequences of response

rates in surveys by the news media and government contractor survey research

firms. In J. Lepkowski, N. Tucker, J. Brick, E. DeLeeuw, L. Japec, & P. Lavrakas

(Eds.), Advances in telephone survey methodology (pp. 499-528). New York, NY:

Wiley.

How many parents are making their college decision for their children. (2018, May 18).

China Youth Daily, p. 7.

Huang, F. (2005). The growth and development of transnational higher education in

China. In K. H. Mok & R. James (Eds.), Globalization and higher education in

East Asia (pp. 170-184). New York, NY: Marshall Cavendish Academic.

Huang, F. (2007). Internationalization of higher education in the developing and

emerging countries: A focus on transnational higher education in Asia. Journal of

Studies in International Education, 11(3-4), 421-432. doi:10.1177/10283153

07303919

Hunter, W. D. (2004). Got global competency? International Educator, 13(2), 6-12.

ICEF Monitor. (2015). The state of international student mobility in 2015.

http://monitor.icef.com/2015/11/the-state-of-international-student-mobility-in-

2015/

Ifeng. (2013). Who is making “Gaokao” decision? Retrieved March 5, 2019, from

https://talk.ifeng.com/topic/special/gaokaozhiyuan/

Institute of International Education (IIE). (2019). Open doors, annual release.

http://opendoorsiie.wpengine.com/annual-release/

Jones, P. (1998). Globalisation and internationalism: Democratic prospects for world

education. Comparative Education, 35(2), 143-155.

177

Juang, L. P., Qin, D. B., & Park, I. J. K. (2013). Deconstructing the myth of the “tiger

mother”: An introduction to the special issue on tiger parenting, Asian-heritage

families, and child/adolescent well-being. Asian American Journal of Psychology,

4(1), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032136

Kim, Y. K., & Sax, L. J. (2009). Student-faculty interaction in research universities:

Differences by student gender, race, social class, and first-generation status.

Research in Higher Education, 50(5), 437-459.

Knight, J. (2003). Updated definition of internationalization. International Higher

Education, 33. https://doi.org/10.6017/ihe.2003.33.7391

Knight, J. (2008). Higher education in turmoil: The changing world of

internationalization. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers.

Knight, J., & Morshidi, S. (2011). The complexities and challenges of regional education

hubs: Focus on Malaysia. Higher Education, 62(5), 593-606.

Lane, J. E. (2011). Importing private higher education: International branch campuses.

Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis: Research and Practice, 13(4), 367-381.

doi:10.1080/13876988.2011.583106

Lazar, G. (1993). Literature and language teaching. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

University Press.

Leask, B. (2009). Using formal and informal curricula to improve interactions between

home and international students. Journal of Studies in International Education,

13(2), 205-221.

Leichter, H. J. (1975). Some perspectives on the family as educator. In H. J. Leichter

(Ed.), The family as educator (pp. 1-43). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Leichter, H. J. (1997). Learning from families. In R. L. Sinclair & W. J. Ghory (Eds.),

Reaching and teaching all children: Grass roots efforts that work (pp. 61-83).

Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Li, C. (2016, January 19). Chinese students and U.S. universities connect through a third

party. Retrieved April 8, 2019, from https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/20/

world/asia/china-us-college-application.html

Li, H. (2015). Political thought and China’s transformation: Ideas shaping reform in

post-Mao China. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.

178

Li, J., & Xu, J. (2016). Investigating causality between global experience and global

competency for undergraduates in contemporary China’s higher education: A

transformative learning theory perspective. International Journal of Higher

Education, 5(3). doi:10.5430/ijhe.v5n3p155

Li, X. (2019, June 11). We must support Chinese international students. Inside Higher

Ed. Retrieved June 28, 2020, from https://www.insidehighered.com/views/

2019/06/11/colleges-should-stop-viewing-chinese-students-merely-threats-or-

cash-cows-opinion

Li, Y. (2013). Cultivating student global competence: A pilot experimental study decision

sciences. Journal of Innovative Education, 11(1).

Liang, Y. (2013, April 13). 誤信教育排名榜如盲人瞎馬 (Do not trust educational

ranking). Retrieved March 5, 2019, from https://paper.hket.com/article/97562/

梁亦華-誤信教育排名榜如盲人瞎馬

Lin, J. C. G., & Yi, J. K. (1997). Asian international students’ adjustment: Issues and

program suggestions. College Student Journal, 31, 473-479.

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. A. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Littlewood, W. (1981). Communicative language teaching: An introduction. Cambridge,

UK: Cambridge University Press.

Liu, H. (2016, November 18). Commercial university ranking: A business for outsiders.

Wenhui Paper. Retrieved March 5, 2019, from http://wenhui.news365.com.cn/

images/2016-11/18/7/71118.pdf

Liu, M. R. (2009). Addressing the mental health problems of Chinese international

college students in the United States. Advances in Social Work, 10(1), 69-86.

Liu, X. (Ed.). (2018, November 1). Beijing: 2019 General Gaokao Foreign Language

Oral Test Information. Retrieved April 8, 2019, from http://www.moe.gov.cn/

jyb_zwfw/zwfw_gdfw/gdfw_bjs/201811/t20181101_353326.html

Lu, S., & Hunt, K. (2015, July 15). Chinese seek U.S. college admission at any price.

Retrieved April 8, 2019, from https://www.cnn.com/2015/07/12/asia/china-

education-agencies/index.html

Ma, Y. (2013, June 6). The number of top talents lost in China ranks first, and the foreign

retention rate is 87% in the field of science and technology. ChinaDaily.

Retrieved February 05, 2019, from http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/qiye/2013-

06/06/content_16596742.htm

179

MacNeil, A. J., Prater, D. L., & Busch, S. (2009). The effects of school culture and

climate on student achievement. International Journal of Leadership in

Education, 12, 73-84. doi:10.1080/13603120701576241

Mansilla, V. B., & Wilson, D. (2020). What is global competence, and what might it look

like in Chinese schools? Journal of Research in International Education, 19(1),

3-22. doi:10.1177/1475240920914089

Markie, C. (2019, June 13). International branch campuses in China and the United Arab

Emirates. Retrieved December 15, 2019, from https://wenr.wes.org/2019/06/

international-branch-campuses-part-two-china-and-the-united-arab-emirates

McKernan J. (1996). Curriculum action research: A handbook of methods and resources

for the reflective practitioner (2nd ed.). London, UK: Kogan Page.

Mead, M. (1974). Grandparents as educators. Teachers College Record, 76(2), 240-249.

Merriam, S. B. (1988). The Jossey-Bass education series, The Jossey-Bass higher

education series and The Jossey-Bass social and behavioral science series.

Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San Francisco, CA:

Jossey-Bass.

Miao, D. (2010). Study abroad 60 years. Beijing, China: Central Literature Publishing

House.

Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2003). Regulations of

the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-foreign cooperation in running

schools. Available online: http://www.crs.jsj.edu.cn/index.php/default/news/

index/2 (last accessed at 15 April 2019).

Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2006, February 7).

Views of the Ministry of Education on several issues concerning the current

Sino-foreign cooperation in running schools. Retrieved April 9, 2019, from

http://202.115.22.199/hezuo/swf/4.pdf

Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2008). Introduction of

“Project 211.” Retrieved June 30, 2015, http://old.moe.gov.cn//publicfiles/

business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_846/200804/33122.html

Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2011a). Introduction of

“Project 985.” Retrieved June 30, 2015, http://old.moe.gov.cn//publicfiles/

business/htmlfiles/moe/s6183/201112/128828.html

180

Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2011b). People’s

Republic of China. Agreement between the Government of the People’s Republic

of China and the Government of Malaysia on framework agreement to facilitate

MUTUAL recognition in academic higher education qualifications.

http://www.moe.gov.cn/s78/A20/gjs_left/moe_857/201301/t20130115_146812.

html (last accessed at 9 March 2019).

Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2012). Implementation

opinions of the Ministry of Education on encouraging and guiding private funds

to enter the field of education and promoting the healthy development of private

education. Retrieved April 9, 2019, http://www.gov.cn/zwgk/2012-06/28/content_

2172286.htm

Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2014). Interpretation of

the four departments/ministries to adjust and improve the relevant policies and

measures of national student loans. Retrieved May 19, 2020, http://www.moe.

gov.cn/ jyb_hygq/hygq_zczx/zczx_cjwt/201508/t20150807_198624.html

Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2017). The evaluation

and assessment report of national higher education institutions principles.

Retrieved April 8, 2019, from http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/gzdt_gzdt/

s5987/201712/P020171228506450281540.pdf

Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2020). Opinions of

eight departments including the Ministry of Education on accelerating and

expanding the opening up of education in the new era. Retrieved July 15, 2020,

from http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/gzdt_gzdt/s5987/202006/t20200617

_466544.html

Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, Ministry of Finance of the

People’s Republic of China and National Development and Reform Commission.

(2017). Notice from the Ministry of Education and other national governmental

departments announcing the list of double first class universities and disciplines.

Retrieved July 15, 2020, http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A22/moe_843/201709/

t20170921_314942.html

Mook, L. (2002). Exclusion and inclusion in student-faculty informal interaction: A

critical perspective. Current Issues in Comparative Education, 2(2), 154-169.

Mori, S. (2000). Addressing the mental health concerns of international students. Journal

of Counseling and Development, 78, 137-144.

Morse, J. M. (1991). Approaches to qualitative-quantitative methodological triangulation.

Nursing Research, 40(1), 120-123. doi:10.1097/00006199-199103000-00014

Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

181

Mulhere, K. (2016, January 27). 10 richest colleges ranked by the size of their

endowment money. Retrieved April 02, 2018, from http://time.com/money/

4194424/richest-colleges-2015-endowment-report/

National Bureau of Statistics of China. (2016). National data. Retrieved April 8, 2019,

from http://data.stats.gov.cn/ks.htm?cn=C01

National Bureau of Statistics of China. (2018, May 15). The average annual salary of

urban non-private units employed was 74,318 yuan in 2017. Retrieved April 14,

2019, from http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/zxfb/201805/t20180515_1599424.html

Nunan, D. (2003). The impact of English as a global language on educational policies

and practices in the Asia‐Pacific Region. TESOL Quarterly, 37(4), 589-613.

Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

University Press.

Olson, C. L., & Kroeger, K. R. (2001). Global competency and intercultural sensitivity.

Journal of Studies in International Education, 5(2).

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). (2001). Glossary of

statistical terms. Retrieved from http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=1264

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). (2015). Education at

a glance 2015: OECD indicators. Paris, France: OECD.

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). (2018). PISA:

Preparing our youth for an inclusive and sustainable world: The OECD PISA

Global Competence framework. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/education/

Global-competency-for-an-inclusive-world.pdf

Pan, L., & Block, D. (2011). English as a “global language” in China: An investigation

into learners’ and teachers’ language beliefs. System, 39(3), 391-402.

Paswan, A. K., & Ganesh, G. (2009). Higher education institutions: Satisfaction and

loyalty among international students. Journal of Marketing for Higher Education,

19(1), 65-84.

Paswan, A. K., Spears, N., & Ganesh, G. (2007). The effects of obtaining one’s preferred

service brand on consumer satisfaction and brand loyalty. Journal of Services

Marketing, 21(2), 75-87.

Patton, Q. M. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury

Park, CA: Sage.

182

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage.

Piacentini, M. (2017, December 12). Project Zero at Harvard Graduate School of

Education helped create the new framework, which will focus on assessing

students’ global competencies and seek to inform how educators and schools can

better cultivate these skills [Interview by C. Bayer]. Retrieved April 14, 2019,

from https://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/17/12/pisa-2018-test-include-global-

competency-assessment

Porter, M. E. (1990). The competitive advantage of nations. New York, NY: Free Press.

Porter, M. E. (1998). Clusters and the new economics of competition. Harvard Business

Review, 77-90.

Power, J. (2020, February 4). ‘We’re like cash cows’: Stranded Chinese students upset

after Australia’s coronavirus travel ban. South China Morning Post. Retrieved

June 28, 2020, from https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/economics/article/

3048769/were-cash-cows-stranded-chinese-students-upset-after-australias

Qiang, Z. (2011). Study abroad fever among Chinese students. International Higher

Education, 69, 15-17. doi:10.6017/ihe.2012.69.8635

Rapoza, K. (2017, April 17). China’s ‘best and brightest’ leaving U.S. universities and

returning home. Retrieved April 6, 2019, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/

kenrapoza/ 2017/04/17/chinas-best-and-brightest-leaving- us-universities-and-

returning-home/#1130c0321d41

Reimers, F. (2009, September). Leading for global competency. Educational Leadership

(Journal of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development), 67(1).

Ren, Y. (2016, April 11). China’s ‘leftover women’: What it’s really like being

unmarried at 30. Retrieved April 8, 2019, from https://www.telegraph.co.uk/

women/life/chinas-leftover-women-what-its-really-like-being-unmarried-at-30/

Richardson, S. A., Dohrenwend, B. S., & Klein, D. (1965). Interviewing. New York, NY:

Basic.

Robson, C. (1995). Real world research: A resource for social scientists and

practitioner-researchers. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

Rogers, C. R. (1969). Freedom to learn. Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Rogers, C. R., & Freiberg, H. J. (1994). Freedom to learn (3rd ed.). Columbus, OH:

Merrill/Macmillan.

183

Rossman, G. B., & Rallis, S. F. (2016). An introduction to qualitative research: Learning

in the field (4th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Russell, M. (2005). Marketing education: A review of service quality perceptions among

international students. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality

Management, 17(1), 65-77.

Saito, Y., & Samimy, K. K. (1996). Foreign language anxiety and language performance:

A study of learner anxiety in beginning, intermediate, and advanced-level college

students of Japanese. Foreign Language Annals, 29(2), 239-249. doi:10.1111/

j.1944-9720.1996.tb02330.x

Sánchez, C. M., Fornerino, M., & Zhang, M. (2006). Motivations and the intent to study

abroad among U.S., French, and Chinese students. Journal of Teaching in

International Business, 18(1), 27-52. doi:10.1300/j066v18n01_03

Schifferdecker, K. E., & Reed, V. A. (2009). Using mixed methods research in medical

education: Basic guidelines for researchers. Medical Education, 43, 637-644.

Schmitz, R. (2011, November 9). Chinese students, too qualified to be true? Retrieved

from http://www.marketplace.org/topics/life/chinese-students-too-qualified-betrue

Schultz, T. (1961). Investment in human capital. The American Economic Review, 51(1),

1-17. Retrieved October 20, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1818907

Sealey-Ruiz, Y. (2011). The use of educational documentary in urban teacher education:

A case study of Beyond the Bricks. Journal of Negro Education, 80, 310-324.

Shapley, K. S. (2008). Evaluation of the Texas Technology Immersion Pilot (eTxTIP):

Year 2 results. Paper presented at the 2008 Annual Meeting of the American

Educational Research Association, New York.

Shu, H. (2008). Sojourners in transition: Chinese women undergraduate students at an

American University (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Arkansas,

AR.

Siczek, M. M. (2015). Developing global competency in US higher education:

Contributions of international students. The CATESOL Journal, 227(2), 5-21.

Smith, H. W. (1975). Strategies of social research: Methodological imagination. London,

UK: Prentice-Hall International.

Soria, K. M., & Troisi, J. (2014). Internationalization at home alternatives to study

abroad: Implications for students’ development of global, international, and

intercultural competencies. Journal of Studies in International Education, 18(3),

261-280.

184

Spring, J. (2009). Globalisation of education: An introduction. New York, NY:

Routledge.

State Council of the People’s Republic of China. (2010, July). The International Institute

for Educational Planning (IIEP–UNESCO). Retrieved April 12, 2019, from

http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/en/2010/outline-chinas-national-plan-medium-

and-long-term-education-reform-and-development-2010-2020

Steiner-Khamsi, G. (2004). The global politics of educational borrowing and lending.

New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Stohl, M. (1996). Global competence and the training of area studies and international

relations specialists: Educational exchange and global competence. New York,

NY: Council on International Educational Exchange.

Stroud, A. H. (2010). Who plans (not) to study abroad? An examination of U.S. student

intent. Journal of Studies in International Education, 14(5), 491–507.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315309357942

Sun, W. (2017, September 28). “My parents say hurry up and find a girl”: China’s

millions of lonely ‘leftover men.’ Retrieved April 8, 2019, from https://www.the

guardian.com/inequality/2017/sep/28/my-parents-say-hurry-up-and-find-a-girl-

chinas-millions-of-lonely-leftover-men

Sun, W., & Chen, G. M. (1999). Dimensions of difficulties mainland Chinese students

encounter in the United States. Intercultural Communication Studies, 9(1), 19-30.

Tan, E. (2014). Human capital theory: A holistic criticism. Review of Educational

Research, 84(3), 411-445. doi:10.3102/0034654314532696

Tencent News. (2019, November 5). Average admission rate for the first tier university is

18% in 2019. What is the admission rate of “985” Project University (2019年高

考全国一本批次平均录取率是 18％，各地 985大学录取率多少). Retrieved

February, 26, 2020, from https://new.qq.com/omn/20191105/20191105

A0D9DM00.html

Teng, J. (2016). ‘全球胜任力’ (Global competency). 上海教育 (Shanghai Education).

Tian, M., & Lowe, J. (2009). Existentialist internationalisation and the Chinese student

experience in English universities. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and

International Education, 39(5), 659-676. doi:10.1080/03057920903125693

Trice, A. G. (2003). Faculty perceptions of graduate international students: The benefits

and challenges. Journal of Studies in International Education, 7, 379-403.

185

Trice, A. G., & Yoo, J. E. (2007). International graduate students’ perceptions of their

academic experience. Journal of Research in International Education, 6(1),

41-66.

Tylor, E. B. (1871). Primitive culture: Researches into the development of mythology,

philosophy, religion, language, art and custom (Vol. 1). London: J. Murray.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2011). Higher education—Institutions and enrollment—Census.

Retrieved April 5, 2019, from http://www2.census.gov/library/publications/

2011/compendia/statab/131ed/tables/12s0278.xls

U.S. Census Bureau. (2018, August 16). PINC-01. Selected characteristics of people 15

years and over, by total money income, work experience, race, Hispanic origin,

and sex. Retrieved April 5, 2019, from https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-

series/demo/income-poverty/cps-pinc/pinc-01.html

Van der Wende, M. C. (2003). Globalisation and access to higher education. Journal of

Studies in International Education, 7(2), 193-206.

Veltri, G. A. (2019). Digital social research. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.

Wang, H., & Miao, L. (2016). Blue book of global talent: Annual report on the

development of Chinese studying abroad. Beijing, China: Social Science

Academic Press.

Wang, Q., Taplin, R., & Brown, A. M. (2011). Chinese students’ satisfaction of the study

abroad experience. International Journal of Educational Management, 25(3),

265-277. doi:10.1108/09513541111120105

Ward, C., & Masgoret, A. M. (2004). The experiences of international students in

New Zealand: Report on the results of the national survey. Retrieved from

http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/_data/assets/pdf_file/0006/15288/040604fina

l-report-for-printers.pdf

Wenzhou-Kean University. (n.d.). Retrieved December 15, 2019, from http://www.wku.

edu.cn/en/wku/

Weston, M. E., & Bain, A. (2010). The end of techno-critique: The naked truth about 1:1

laptop initiatives and educational change. Journal of Technology, Learning, and

Assessment, 9(6),1-26. Retrieved December 2, 2019, from http://www.jtla.org

White, C., Breslow, L., & Hastings, D. (2015). Understanding curricular approaches to

communication as a global competency: An interdisciplinary study of the teaching

and learning of communication. ASEE Conferences, 26.1621.1-26.1621.11.

186

Wilkins, S., Balakrishnan, M. S., & Huisman, J. (2012). Student satisfaction and student

perceptions of quality at international branch campuses in the United Arab

Emirates. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 34(5), 543-556.

doi:10.1080/1360080x.2012.716003

Wilkins, S., & Huisman, J. (2012). The international branch campus as transnational

strategy in higher education. Higher Education, 64(5), 627-645.

Willis, J. (1996). A framework for task-based learning. London, UK: Longman.

Wilson, A. H. (1996). The attributes and tasks of global competence. In R. D. Lambert

(Ed.), Educational exchange and global competence (pp. 37-50). New York, NY:

Council on International Educational Exchange.

Wolf, D. (1994). New approaches to language teaching: An overview. Dublin, Ireland:

Center for Language and Communication Studies, Trinity College.

Wong, M. H. (2016, February 03). Thousands stranded in train station in China.

Retrieved April 20, 2019, from https://www.cnn.com/2016/02/02/travel/china-

guangzhou-railway-station-chunyun-crowds/index.html

World Education Service (WES). Retrieved June 17, 2020, from https://www.wes.org/

about-wes/

Wozniak, A. (2012, July 27). Fake it till they make it: Chinese agencies manufacture

phony applications to US colleges. Retrieved from http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/

headlines/2012/07/fake-it-till-they-make-it-chineseagenciesmanufacture-phony-

applications-to-us-colleges/

Xiao, H. (2017, April 17). Selling a house to support only daughter to study abroad, but

marry to a foreigner. Parents collapse: We are old and who cares (Q. Li & H. Gao,

Eds.). Retrieved April 8, 2019, from http://sc.people.com.cn/n2/2017/0418/

c345459-30045187.html

Xu, T. (2019). International standing of China’s cultural industry. In Development of

China’s cultural industry (pp. 103-143). Singapore: Springer.

Yan, K., & Berliner, D. C. (2010). Chinese international students in the United States:

Demographic trends, motivations, acculturation features and adjustment

challenges. Asia Pacific Education Review, 12(2), 173-184. doi:10.1007/s12564-

010-9117-x

Yang, M., Webster, B., & Prosser, M. (2011). Travelling a thousand miles: Hong Kong

Chinese students’ study abroad experience. International Journal of Intercultural

Relations, 35(1), 69-78. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.09.010

187

Yeh, C. J., & Inose, M. (2003). International students’ reported English fluency, social

support satisfaction, and social connectedness as predictors of acculturative stress.

Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 16(1), 15-28.

Younger, J. (2018, December 17). Attracting top international students helps all of us:

Here’s why it matters. Retrieved April 8, 2019, from https://www.forbes.com/

sites/jonyounger/2018/12/14/attracting-top-international-students-helps-all-of-us-

heres-why-it-matters/

Yuan, W. L. (2011). Academic and cultural experiences of Chinese students at an

American university: A qualitative study. Intercultural Communication Studies,

20(1), 141-157.

Zelniker, N. (2018, June 30). How some students are lowering or avoiding college tuition

and student loans. Retrieved March 5, 2019, from https://www.usatoday.com/

story/money/2018/06/30/how-some-students-lowering-avoiding-college-tuition-

and-student-loans/377678002/

Zhang, L. J. (2001). Exploring variability in language anxiety: Two groups of PRC

students learning ESL in Singapore. RELC Journal, 32(1), 73-91. doi:10.1177/

003368820103200105

Zhang, S. (2018, April 1). Chinese student number of studying abroad first time

exceeding 600,000. Retrieved April 8, 2019, from http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/

2018-04/01/content_5278951.htm

Zhang, X. (2004, December). Entry WTO and higher education in China. Retrieved

January 19, 2018, from http://www.moe.gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/

moe/moe_303/200412/3086.html

Zhang, Y., & Hagedorn, L. S. (2011, Summer). College application with or without

assistance of an education agent: Experience of international Chinese

undergraduates in the US. Journal of College Admission, 212, 6-16.

Zhang, Y. L., Sun, J., & Hagedorn, L. S. (2013). Studying overseas: Factors impacting

intention of female students in Mainland China. Journal of International Students,

3(2), 140-154. Retrieved April 8, 2019.

Zhang, Z., & Brunton, M. (2007). Differences in living and learning: Chinese

international students in New Zealand. Journal of Studies in International

Education, 11(2), 124–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315306289834

Zhao, Y. (2010). Catching up, or leading the way: American education in the age of

globalization. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum

Development.

188

Zwart, J. (2013). Study abroad choices of Chinese students: Factors, influences and

motivations. Quarterly Journal of Chinese Studies, 2(2), 68-90. Retrieved April 8,

2019.

189

Appendix A

Survey Questions for Alumni Participants

Protocol Title: The Foreign University Satellite Campus Experience in China

Principal Researcher: Mr. Junjian Gao

1. 性别

Gender _________________

2. 你在第几个学期去美肯做了交换生？

In which term(s) did you study abroad?

A:大二 下学期 Sophomore Spring Term

B:大三 上学期 Junior Year Fall Term

C:大三 下学期 Junior Year Spring Term

D:大四 上学期 Senior Year Fall Term

E:大四 下学期 Senior Year Spring Term

F:其他 Other

3. 你做交换生的时间有多久？（几个学期？）

How long have you studied abroad? （number of semesters）

A: 一个学期 One Semester

B: 两个学期 Two Semesters

C: 三个学期 Three Semesters

D: 四个学期 Four Semesters

E: 其他 Other

4. 你的专业是什么？

What is your major?

_______________________

5. 你的毕业年份是？

Year of Graduation?

6. 这是你第一次参加海外交换项目吗？

Is this the first time you participated in a study abroad program?

是 Yes

不是 No

如果不是，请列出你之前的交换经历？

If "no," please list previous program(s) and time abroad.

190

7. 在参加海外交换项目之前，你有过出国旅行的经历吗？

How many times have you travelled outside of China?

A: 无 Never

B: 1-2 次 1-2 time(s)

C: 3-4 次 3-4 times

D: 5 次以上 5 or more times

你是否同意以下描述？请按照同意/不同意的程度选择对应的数字。

Do you agree with the following description? Please select the corresponding

number according to the degree of agreement / disagreement.

8. 与在温州肯恩大学相比较而言，你在美肯的英语表达更自信。

Compared to your experience at Wenzhou-Kean, you are more confident speaking

English at Kean USA.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

9. 与在温州肯恩大学相比较而言，你在美肯用英文写作更自信。

Compared to your experience at Wenzhou-Kean, you are more confident writing

English at Kean USA.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

10. 与在温州肯恩大学相比较而言，你觉得在美肯与教授之间的沟通更困难。

Compared to your experience at Wenzhou-Kean, it is more difficult to

communicate with Kean professors in the USA.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

**本题为注意力测试，请选择“非常不同意”。

Attention Check: Please choose “Strongly Disagree”.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

11. 与在温州肯恩大学相比较而言，你觉得在美肯与学生事务及行政人员的沟通

更困难。

Compared to your experience at Wenzhou-Kean, it is more difficult to

communicate with Kean USA student services staff and administrators.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

12. 与温州肯恩大学的教学助理(教学教授的助理)相比较而言，美肯的教学助理

对你帮助更大。如果你没有寻求过教学助理的帮助，则不需要回答这一题。

Compared to your experience at Wenzhou-Kean, the teaching assistants (TA) at

Kean USA were more helpful.

DO NOT ANSWER this question if you have not been assisted by a TA.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意 N/A

191

13. 与温州肯恩大学的助教（如：语言、写作等辅导中心的助教）相比较而言，

美肯的助教对你帮助更大。

Compared to your experience at Wenzhou-Kean, the tutors at Kean USA were

more helpful.

如果你没有寻求过教学助理的帮助，则不需要回答这一题。

DO NOT ANSWER this question if you have not been assisted by a tutor.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

14. 与在温州肯恩大学时相比较而言，你觉得美肯的社区环境能给予你更多的支

持。

Compared to your experience at Wenzhou-Kean, you felt more supported by

Kean USA community.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

15. 在美肯时，你有非常要好的朋友。

At Kean USA, you have close friends.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

16. 在美肯时，你能跟你的同班同学自如交流。

At Kean USA, you were comfortable conversing with your American classmates.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

17. 在美肯时，你的朋友都是（多选）？

At Kean USA, you have friends who are: (check all that apply)

A. 中国人 Chinese

B. 美国人 American

C. 其他国家的国际学生 International student from another country

D. 其他 Other: _____________________

18. 在美肯时，你最主要的朋友群体是？

A majority of your friends at Kean USA are: (only choose one)

A. 中国人 Chinese

B. 美国人 American

C. 其他国家国际学生 International student from another country

D. 其他 Other: _____________________

19. 与在温州肯恩大学时相比较而言，你觉得在美肯向他人介绍自己会更困难。

Compared to your experience at Wenzhou-Kean, you found it more difficult to

introduce yourself to people at Kean USA.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

192

20. 与在温州肯恩大学时相比较而言，你觉得在美肯能更自如地向教授寻求帮

助。

Compared to your experience at Wenzhou-Kean, you felt more comfortable

asking professors for assistance at Kean USA.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

21. 你曾参加过美肯组织的社交活动，包括其宿舍楼里的活动。

You attended social events organized by Kean University USA, including events

at your residence hall.

A. 每周至少一次 At least once a week

B. 每月至少一次 At least once a month

C. 每学期至少一次 At least once a semester

D. 每学年至少一次 At least once a school year

E. 从不 Never

22. 你对你在美肯时的学习成绩感到满意。

You were satisfied with your academic grades at Kean USA.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

23. 你对你在美肯时的学习氛围感到满意。

You were satisfied with your learning atmosphere at Kean USA.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

24. 你对你在美肯时的学习经历感到满意。

You were satisfied with your academic experience at Kean USA.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

25. 你对你在美肯时的校园餐饮感到满意。

You were satisfied with your campus dining at Kean USA.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

26. 你对你在美肯时的校园生活感到满意。

You were satisfied with your campus life at Kean USA.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

27. 在参加美肯交换时，你希望毕业后能在哪里工作？

Where do you want to work upon graduation?

A. 中国 China

B. 美国 America

C. 我不确定 I am uncertain.

D. 其他 Other: ______________

193

28. 你认为美肯为你的求职和就业提供了辅导。

You feel that Kean USA has provided preparation to you for your exposure to

labor market?

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

**本题为注意力测试，请选择“非常同意”。

Attention Check： Please Choose “Strongly Agree”.

强烈不同意 strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree 强烈同意

29. 你选择这个专业的原因是？

You chose your major because:

A. 你对这个专业感兴趣。You are interested in the topic.

B. 你父母认为这个专业最好。Your parents thought it’s best.

C. 你的很多朋友也选择了这个专业。Many friends have the same major.

D. 这个专业比较容易毕业。The major is an easy academic program to

graduate.

E. 这个专业比较容易找工作。The major is an academic program from which

to readily identify employment.

F. 其他 Other: _________________

30. 美国的社会文化对你未来的就业选择是否产生了影响？

Has American culture/society impacted your future profession?

A. 是 Yes

B. 否 No

31. 如果第 30 题回答“是”，那么决定改变你就业方向的原因是因为美国文化对

你目前行业造成了冲击？

If you answered "yes" to question 29, was the knowledge of the impact of

American culture upon your previous profession a deciding factor in your

decision to change professions?

A. 是 Yes

B. 否 No

C. 不适用 N/A

32. 如果第 30 题你回答“不是”，是否表示你认为美国文化给你的行业所带来的

是积极和正面的影响？

If you answered "no" to question 29, are you delighted with the impact the United

States has had in your profession has had on United States?

A. 是 Yes

B. 否 No

C. 不确定 Not sure

D. 不适用 N/A

194

33. 在你参加完交换项目后,你有计划改变就业方向吗？

After the exchange program, do you plan to change your profession?

A. 是 Yes

B. 否 No

34. 当你听到全球问题的时候, 你会想到哪些词？

When you hear “global issues,” what would be the first word that you could think

of?

__________________________________

35. 在美国肯恩大学的经历，使你对下列这些话题有了更多的了解。

The experience at Kean University enhanced my understanding with these topics.

主题

Topics

是的，有更多了解

Yes，I did learn more.

并没有觉得

No, I don’t think

so.

贫困 Poverty

健康问题（艾滋病、疟疾等）

health (HIV, malaria, etc.)

人权 human rights

教育资源 Education Access

环境 environment

国家之间的贫富差距 economic

disparity between nations

女权 feminism

原住民权益 indigenous or native

people's rights

道德伦理责任 ethics and/or moral

responsibility

宗教多样性 religious differences

媒体的影响力 influence of media

经济体系 economic systems

195

价值观变化（多选）Changing Values (check all that apply)

参加海外交换项

目后，以下哪些

选项对你来说更

重要了：

After your study

abroad experience,

the following has

become more

important to you：

英语学习

English

language

acquisition

对美国文化

和西方思维

方式的认知

Knowledge

of the

American

cultures and

Western

ways of

thinking

对国际事务的

认知Knowledge of

global events

对你所学专

业在国际大

环境中的认

知Knowledge

of your

academic

discipline in

a global

context

解决全球问

题，例如贫

困、女权、人

权、环境恶

化、健康（艾

滋病、疟疾

等）问题Solving global

problems such

as poverty,

famine, human

rights abuse,

environmental

degradation,

health issues

(HIV, malaria,

etc.)

36. 全球问题能力（多选）Global Issue Competency (please select all that apply)

参加海外交换

项目后，你对

右侧哪些话题

产生了新的兴

趣？Please

select specific

world issues

that you have

developed a

new found

interest in as a

result of your

study abroad

experience：

贫困Poverty

健康问题（艾

滋病、疟疾

等）health

(HIV, malaria,

etc.)

人权

human

rights

教育资源Education

Access

环境environment

国家之间

的

贫富差距economic

disparity

between

nations

女权

famine

原住民权益

indigenous or

native people's

rights

道德伦理

责任

ethics

and/or

moral

responsibi

lity

宗教多样性

religious

differences

媒体的影响

力

influence of

media

经济体系

economic

systems

其他 Others_____________________________

196

37. 在填报志愿时，主要是谁向你提出了填报温州肯恩大学的建议？

Who suggested applying to Wenzhou-Kean University?

父/母 Father/Mother, 老师 Teachers, 我自己 Candidate, 其他人

Others______

38. 主要是谁向你提出了去美国肯恩大学交换的建议？

Who recommended participating in the Exchange program?

父/母 Father/Mother, 教授 Professors, 我自己 Candidate, 其他人

Others______

39. 最终主要决定你填报温州肯恩大学的人是谁？

Who made the final decision regarding to applying to Wenzhou-Kean University?

父/母 Father/Mother, 老师 Teachers, 我自己 Candidate, 其他人

Others______

40. 你去美国参加交换项目的主要原因/目的是什么？（最多可选择 3 项）

What is your major purpose of studying abroad? (Please select no more than three

options)

(e.g. 文化交流 Cultural Exchange/ 父母要我去 Parents want me to / 课程需求Minor Requirements/

美肯的教授 Professors/其他 others___________)

41. 你就读温州肯恩大学的费用是由谁承担的？

Where was your financial recourses come from for attending

Wenzhou-Kean University？

父/母 Father/Mother, 奖学金 scholarship, 我自己 self-funded, 其他人

Others______

42. 你去美国参加交换项目的费用是由谁承担的？

Where was your financial recourses come from for participating the

exchange program？

父/母 Father/Mother, 奖学金 scholarship, 我自己 Candidate, 其他人

Others______

43. 你从温肯毕业后，是否计划继续深造读研？

Did you continue your graduate school study?

A. 是 Yes，如果是，请问你希望在哪个国家继续你的研究生学习

__________ (国家)

if yes, Where did you study? _____________________

B. 否 No

197

44. 请对你

海外交

换项目

的整体

经历做

个评

价：Please

rate your over-all

study

abroad

experi-ence:

最差的

经历

Worst

experi-

ence

最差的

经历之

一

One of

the worst

experi-

ences

一般

Average experi-

ence

最好的

经历之

一

One of

the best experi-

ences

最好的

经历

（没有

之一）

Best

experi-

ence

差

Poor

一般

Fair

好

Good

非常好

Very

Good

极其好

Excellent

45. 如果将美肯

的交换经历

与之前的学

习经历相比

较，你觉得

美肯的这段

经历是：

If you had to rank

your study

abroad

experience

against previous

academic

experiences

where would it

fall:

最差的经历

Worst

experience

最差的经历

之一

One of the

worst

experiences

一般

Average

experience

最好的经历

之一

One of the

best

experiences

最好的经历（没有

之一）

Best experience

46. 关于美肯的交换学习，你还有什么评价或想法想和我们分享吗？

Please use the space below for any additional comments

47. 如果您对参与下一阶段的个人采访感兴趣，请留下您的联络方式，谢谢。

Please leave your contact information if you are interested in participating in the

individual interview.

Thank you.

感谢您完成这份问卷调查

Thank you for completing this survey!

198

Appendix B

Interview Questions for Alumni

Protocol Title: The Foreign University Satellite Campus Experience in China

Principal Researcher: Mr. Junjian Gao

1. 在众多的大学中（在同分录取的情况下），是什么因素让你决定

选择温州肯恩大学？

With so many choices for higher education, what were the

determining factors in attending WKU? （ Among those

Universities requires similar admitting score）

2. 在你申请来美国参加交换之前，你对美国的印象怎么样？你的这

些认识都是从哪些信息渠道获得的？你来了之后，觉得有什么不

一样的吗？还是有别的想法？

What was your impression of the USA prior to submitting your

application at WKU? Where did you receive the bulk of your

information? Does your impression remain the same after you

came to the USA?

3. 你在选专业的时候，是如何做的决定？你学在学校里学到和你想

象中的一样吗？你对你所学的专业是否抱有热情？为什么？

How did you select your major? Did your studies result in your core

academic competency of the major? Do you continue to have a

professional interest in your major? Why?

4. 是什么原因让你参加去美国肯恩大学的交换的？你的学业和就业

目标是什么？你觉得交换项目有达到你预期的目标吗？

What was your purpose, academic, and professional expectations

with participating with the Exchange program? Were your

expectations fulfilled?

199

5. 你觉得在美肯交换最好的是什么？你觉得这次交换经验，会使你

对不同文化有不同认识吗？会使你对不同文化的认知有了什么改

变吗？

What was the best aspect of studying at Kean USA? Did you

enhance your appreciation of global cultural differences?

6. 你觉得交换项目总的来说有好处吗？你觉得这段在美肯的交换经

历对你个人发展（未来深造和就业）有什么帮助吗？有，为什么？

/没有，为什么？美国肯恩大学对你在就业计划有提供指导吗？

Do you think the Exchange program was beneficial? Did your

experience at Kean bolster your personal and/or professional

development?

Yes/No, why/why not?

7. 在你参加完交换项目以后，你会推荐学弟学妹们参加这个交换项

目吗？就你个人而言，你更偏向于哪个校区？为什么？

After your experience at both campuses (WKU and Kean), would

you recommend participating in the Exchange program? Which

campus did you prefer? Why?

8. 关于美肯的交换学习，你还有什么评价或想法想和我们分享吗？

Additional Comments

Please use the space below for any additional comments. Thank you

for completing this survey!

200

Appendix C

Interview Questions for Parents

Protocol Title: The Foreign University Satellite Campus Experience in China

Principal Researcher: Mr. Junjian Gao

1. 请问您有出国旅行过吗？如果有的话，有几次？ How many times have you travelled outside of China?

从未出过国 Never

1-2次 1-2 time(s)

3-4次 3-4 times

5次或 5次以上 5 or more times

2. 请问当初您的孩子填报志愿的时候，是谁建议填报温州肯恩大学的？ Who suggested applying to Wenzhou-Kean University?

父/母 我（们）Father/Mother (myself)

老师 Teachers

孩子自己 Candidate

其他人 Others______

3. 请问当初您的小孩填报志愿的时候，最终又是谁决定要填报温州肯恩大学

的？ Who made the final decision regarding to the application to Wenzhou- Kean

University?

父/母 我（们）Father/Mother (myself)

老师 Teachers

孩子自己 Candidate

其他人 Others______

4. 请问在当初，是谁建议您的小孩去参加美肯的交换项目的？ Who suggested participating in the Exchange program?

父/母 我（们）Father/Mother (myself)

教授 Professor

孩子自己 Candidate

其他人 Others______

201

5. 又是谁做的最终的决定？ Who made the final decision regarding to the Exchange program?

父/母 我（们）Father/Mother (myself)

教授 Professor

孩子自己 Candidate

其他人 Others______

6. 当初您的小孩填报温州肯恩大学的时候，您的目的是什么？ What is your purpose of having your child in applying to Wenzhou-Kean

University?

7. 让您的小孩申请去美肯参加交换项目，您的目的又是什么？

What is your purpose of having your child in participating with the Exchange

program?

8. 在参加美肯的交换的时候，您对您孩子的学业目标是什么？ What is your academic expectation to your child of participating in the

exchange program?

9. 在参加美肯交换的时候，您对您孩子的专业目标（就业方向）又是什么？ What is your professional expectation to your child of participating in the

exchange program?

10. 除此之外，参加美肯交换项目的时候，您对您孩子是否还有其他的个人目

标？ What is your personal expectation to your child of participating in the

exchange program?

11. 在送您孩子去美肯参加交换项目前，您对美国的印象怎么样？这些印象是

如何形成的？ What is your impression about the USA before you send your child to

participate in the exchange Program? Where were these pieces of news from?

12. 您对您孩子去美国交换是否有什么顾虑或担忧呢？ What are your concerns of sending your child to be studying in Kean USA?

13. 同时，您孩子去美国，您觉得又有什么有益的地方呢？ What is your gratitude of sending your child to be studying in Kean USA?

202

14. 您觉得这个交换项目是否对孩子有益呢？ Do you think the Exchange program was beneficial?

是/不是 Yes/No, 为什么/为什么不？why/why not?

15. 在您孩子参加完交换项目后，您是否推荐现在的家长也送他们的孩子参加

美肯的交换项目呢？

After your child experienced both campuses (China and US), would you

recommend participating in the exchange program?

16. 回想当初，在有那么多高校可以选择的时候，为什么最终选择了温州肯恩

大学？（基于录取分数相当的情况下）

With so many choices, how do you make a decision as to which institution to

engage?

17. 又是什么因素，让您决定送您的孩子出国学习的？

What are the factors that influenced your decision of having your child to be

studying abroad?

18. 关于您孩子在美肯的交换学习的经历和体验，您还有什么评价或想法想和

我们分享吗？非常感谢您的参与。

Additional Comments

Please use the space below for any additional comments. Thank you so much

for participation!