Healing and Dealing with Injuries –

Traditional Treatment Techniques in New Guinean Folk Medicine

Von

Heinrich DOSEDLA, Heidenreichstein

Summary

Regarding archaeological evidence of bodily injuries and applied healing condi-tions of prehistoric periods there are just hypothetical estimates concerning any medi-cal methods involved. On the other hand anthropological fieldwork among recent tri-bal societies of New Guinea during the last few decades could provide intimateknowledge about a vast variety of traditional healing techniques still in practical useuntil very recently ranging from amputations and other surgical operations to skulltrepanation accompanied by an intricate patterns of medical herbal lore having beencollected and documented by the author from 1970 onwards.

Zusammenfassung

Anhand archäologischer Befunde von Körperverletzungen und deren Heilungsum-ständen können bezüglich der angewandten medizinischen Methoden nur Vermutun-gen getroffen werden. Hingegen erbrachte beobachtende Feldforschung bei rezentenStammesgesellschaften Neuguineas vor wenigen Jahrzehnten noch eingehende Er-kenntnisse zu einer Vielzahl damals praktizierter traditioneller medizinischer Techni-ken, die von Amputationen und anderen chirurgischen Eingriffen bis zur Schädeltre-panation reichten und von reichhaltigen pflanzenheilkundlichen Überlieferungenbegleitet waren, die vom Autor seit 1970 gesammelt und dokumentiert worden waren.

Introduct ion

As a kind of by-product of archaeological prospecting and anthropological fieldwork in Papua-New Guinea during the early Seventies among tribal societies whichthen greatly still represented Neolithic standards I happened not only to watch severalcases of injuries but also experienced some myself thus also gaining considerable in-sights into traditional medical treatment methods.

Though at this time nearly every province had already at least one hospital runeither by the Australian government or some mission society (BARNARD 1991) as wellas several so-called aid posts where elementary medical treatment was offered for free,there was a considerable number of injury victims mostly from still rather frequenttribal fights which never would go there in fear of troubles with the police.

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The same applied to distinct injuries with a ritual background or to cases of injuryhaving happened in remote areas out of each of any hospital or aid post as well as tocases being considered of minor importance.

These were treated by local traditional healers who in fact owned a lot of surpri-singly effective skills (HEIDER 1970; PELLY 2012; TUDOR 1966).

Causes of injuries

The most common everyday injuries in fact are caused by thorns and needles ofplants, mostly affecting the sole of the foot, which without proper treatment may resultin inflammations. Though all adults due to permanently walking bare-footed have anextremely hard skin at the bottom of their feet this skin is mostly covered by numerouschaps which may provide a source of frequent minor but still painful injuries and in-flammation risks. Thorns having penetrated too far inside the flesh were treated withthe sap of a distinct shrub causing the particle gradually to get to the surface. The sa-me method was applied in the case of splinters having got stuck in an eye.

Other common injuries are cuts and scratches on various parts of the body happe-ning at work or hunting in the bush, but also burns from daily handling with fire and

Fig. 1. Tribal fighting. a-c Southern and Western Highlands Province. d Baliem Valley, West Iri-an, previous to 1975 (Photos: a-c Archive Lutheran Mission Oglbeng, d after GARNER 1968).

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eye injuries are quite frequent. Less frequent are sprains or wrenches caused by falling,whereas broken bones are very rare cases.

The same applies to hunting accidents, since in the highlands only attacks by wildpig, cassowaries, tree kangaroos or pythons and in coastal regions also by crocodilesare bearing some dangers, but then may result in severe injuries and even casualties.Besides snake bites or bites by other poisonous animals are apparently rare.

The most severe cases of injuries were and to some respect even today still are dueto fighting (CULOTTA 2012). While habitual tribal fights fought with traditional we-apons were gradually ceasing during the early Seventies due to governmental control.After that there were mainly fights of gangs now armed with pistols or guns (Fig. 1).

Injuries caused by traditional fighting weapons had a wide extent ranging from allkinds of cuts over shot wounds from arrows and spears up to smash wounds caused bycudgels and clubs (TUDOR 1966).

There are also injuries caused either by mere adorning or rather ritual purposes asin the case of pierced body parts, ornamental scarification, finger cutting and to someextent also scull trepanation.

Additional causes of injuries significantly increasing in the course of culturalchange are traffic accidents, domestic violence and criminal assaults mostly resultingfrom alcohol abuse.

Nature of injuries

Regarding puncture injuriesin – the minor case of stepping on thorns or needlesand in the worst case of an arrow shot – there is an essential difference whether thethorn or arrow head can either be pulled out easily or the removing demands some sur-gical effort. The latter essentially depends on the respective type of arrow head sincethey are extremely different in shape and efficiency.

There are needle shaped bone arrow heads causing round stabbing wounds whichcan be pulled out without major problems. Other arrow heads consist of a relativelybroad and sharp edged hard wood or bamboo blade causing rather severe wounds, butalso these may be removed without greater risks.

Fig. 2. Bone dagger, Asmat Cassowary (after TUDOR 1966).Fig. 3. Bone picks (after TUDOR 1966).

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The worst types are multi-pronged arrow heads from soft wood intended to breakinside a badly ragged wound. As removing of the broken part involves a difficult andpainful surgical operation the result is also a lot of bleeding and the danger of inflam-mation. Since the same applies to multi-pronged spear tips these weapons involvedspecial treatment by traditional healing experts skilled in rib surgery, but in mostcases were causing ethal injuries.

More or less circular stabbing wounds were also caused by daggers made of a cas-sowary femur (Fig. 2). Besides of arrows, spears and daggers there was another dread-ful fighting weapon used among Mendi, Tari and adjacent tribes of the Southern high-lands consisting of a handle shaped like an axe handle but mounted with a cassowarybone dagger instead of an axe blade (Fig. 3).

When fighting the intention was to hit the enemy´s eye or shoulder next to the col-lar-bone thus causing the most effective since most deadly injuries. Stone axes wereused as weapons in exactly the same way, since blows against the top of the scull suffi-ciently protected by a dense head covering used to be less effective.

Accidents like cutting oneself with a traditional bamboo blade, modern steel knifeor bush knife, but also with a stone or steel axe to some extent were part of life. Accor-ding to local belief such cases happened because the tool had become “angry”and ac-

Fig. 4. Stone club heads (after TUDOR 1966).

Fig. 5 a. Leprosy case; b Burning of Leprosy victim (after BARNARD 1991).

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cordingly was taken away and hidden from the in-jured persons by their friends and relatives untilthey had recovered from their accident. On the ot-her hand the same tools on other occasions wereas well used as fighting instruments.

Common fighting utensils (CULOTTA 2012;STRAUSS – TISCHNER 1962) were also diggingsticks either used – mainly by women – during oc-casional quarrels within the own tribal communi-ty or in addition to regular weapons in fights bet-ween different tribes, though usually not inflictinglethal injuries as in the case of purposely designedwooden fighting clubs. Sometimes they were

mounted with club heads made of stone sufficiently known also from prehistoric evi-dence (Fig. 4). Injuries caused by them mainly resulting in broken bones or skulls werelethal to a great extent.

Though most cases of burnings were results of accidents by handling with fire the-re are also cases of intentional burnings either as a means of torturing punishment orrevenge aimed at individuals, but also in cases when houses of sleeping enemies wereput on fire during night time in the course of tribal conflicts.

A cruel custom in the Southern highlands prior to European contact also involvedburning victims alive which was applied in cases of leprosy (BARNARD 1991). Infectedpersons in advanced stages of their sickness were kept in a distinct house which finallywas burned down together with the patients (Fig. 5).

A common practice throughout New Guinea was and still is piercing and partlywidening ear lobes, the nose septum or the sides of the nose (STRATHERN – STRATHERN

1971), which in some cases was part of initiation rituals but mostly was and still is do-ne for the sake of wearing various adornments as plumes, bones, tusks and shells butoccasionally also flowers or decorative kinds of colourful insects (Fig. 6). The methods

Fig. 6. Septum decoration(Photo: Ph. Hunter).

Fig. 7. Decorative scarification (Photos: Ph. Hunter).

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applied are apparently simple by using sharp pointed thorns or needles commonly ma-de of the bones of birds or bats. Bleeding is stopped by the application of variousherbs.

While tattooing with charcoal or distinct dark plant saps was a rather new featurein the interior highlands obtained from Melanesian coastal people scarification markson the body as part of initiation rituals common among some tribes along the Sepik ri-ver is an old tradition (HEIDER 1970; 1996; PARKINSON 1907, STRAUSS – TISCHNER

1962; VICEDOM – TISCHNER 1943-48) (Fig. 7).An apparently quite archaic tradition mainly shared by several highlands tribes is

the voluntary act of cutting off a finger as a sign of mourning for a close relative (HEI-

DER 1970). This is demonstrated by individuals remaining nearly without any fingersafter a considerable number of casualties within the family (Fig. 8). This formerly wi-despread mourning custom gradually had ceased at the time of fieldwork in the earlySeventies, though numerous amputated fingers then were still a rather common sight.

Prior to the amputation the finger was tied tightly with string and after waitingfor fairly half an hour was cut off by an axe blow. In the Baliem valley of east Irian atraditional cutting blade was used instead. According to informants the same herbswere used to stop bleeding and to heal the wound without unbearable pain or inflam-mations as were used in cases of other injuries.

Besides of injuries in accidents or fightsthere were also rather exceptional cases of spi-teful mutilation as extreme acts of personal re-venge, e.g. women of the Enga tribe accused ofadultery lost their noses or nipples which hadbeen bitten off by their jealous husbands. A mis-sionary from the Mt. Hagen region reported amost painful act of punishment of a wife whosevulva was mistreated with a glowing charcoalby her jealous husband. Other though exceptio-nal cases of cruel revenge were blinding as wellas castration of enemies.

As in many parts of the world cranial trepa-nation has been practised in distinct regions ofNew Guinea since Neolithic periods (PARKIN-

SON 1907; ARNOTT et al., 2003; CRUMP 1901;SELIGMAN 1906; WATTERS 2007) (Fig. 9). Whileat the time of primary European contact thispractice was still observed in the Gazelle Penin-

Fig. 8. Mourning women, Dani tribe, West Irian (after HEIDER 1970).

Fig 9. Trepanated skull (afterPARKINSON 1907).

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sula of North Eastern New Britain and other parts of Melanesia , the only evidence forits recent use is the case of the remote Lihir Island near New Ireland. Here it is consi-dered as a treatment for a range of fighting injuries and actual or suspected fracturesof the crane as well as for other illnesses including persistent severe headaches, epilep-sy, mental illnesses with hallucinations or delusory states as symptoms.

Another tradition dealing with the crane is binding and elongating the skulls ofbabies (FITZSIMMONS et al. 1998; FRIESS – BAYLAC 2003) – which was not only practi-sed in New Ireland at least one to two generations ago, but as well in New Britain andthe New Hebrides (Fig. 10).

Surgical treatment of injuries

Prior to and apart from the availability of medical aid offered by government ormissions treatment by traditional methods always were and at the time of fieldworkduring the Seventies in many areas were still of great importance (DOSEDLA 1974).

According to several medical authorities working there at that time most of themin fact were surprised by the considerable amount of actual efficiency of many me-

Fig. 10. Skull elongation (after FRIESS – BAYLAC 2003).

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thods then in use by traditional healers, though to their opinion these were rather sur-rounded by a lot of ritual or mere superstitious paraphernalia.

Regardless of these opinions the following survey of representative material main-ly collected among the Ndemboka near Mt. Hagen and adjacent tribes of the Westernand Southern Highlands Province may give an account of a significant number of do-cumentary cases of injuries and applied healing methods obtained by fieldwork duringthe last few years before Papua-New Guinea faced national independence in 1975. Ac-cording to regional conditions there were three types of traditional healers.

* The overall type may be defined as a reputed herbalist and skilled surgeon. Sincesuch persons could be found in nearly every village their assistance towards ownclan members did not involve special payment.* Apart from these there was another type of surgery expert whose skills whenneeded in extremely difficult cases had to be rewarded by considerable gifts like apig, pearl shells or other valuables.* A third type of traditional healer bearing the vernacular title of a “ritual expert”could be best defined as some kind of shaman, since their healing methods as wellas their education apparently bears distinct shamanic features including signifi-cant trance techniques.All three types of usually male healers belonged to distinct lineages having inher-

ited their abilities from their fathers, whereas exceptionally there were also femalehealers.

Due to the fact that local herbal lore (GILLI 1978) knows of various plants withapparent antiseptic powers which are everywhere within convenient availability clea-ning and disinfection of wounds as well as blood stopping is effectively applied inmost kinds of injuries including several cases of my personal experience (DOSEDLA

1974). Smoke from burning distinct herbs is used to purify the atmosphere and to keepaway flies and other insects.

The same applies to plant saps promoting the dislocation of harmful particles -in-cluding arrow heads - from the eye, the feet or other body parts. In cases of inflamma-tion affected parts may be cut or burnt away after which likewise suitable traditionalsaps and herbs are applied.

For soothing unnecessary pain also distinct plants are either chewed, consumedinternally or burnt for the sake of their analgesic smoke. In the same way other plantsare used in order to calm down fever.

The most crucial medical operation in fact is thoracotomy (FINGLETON 1987;WALLACE – THARION 1995) locally known as “native rib surgery” which was mostlyperformed by distinct traditional healers in the South Western highlands and the EngaProvince. It was applied in the case of severe fighting injuries to remove broken partsof spears or arrows and in order to let out the “bad blood”and pus from belly or chestbelieved to have accumulated within the body cavities. Instead of sewing techniquesgradual closing of wounds is only arranged by the application and frequent exchangeof layers of distinct herbs.

In spite of a significant complication rate according to Western medical authori-ties there still was a comparatively low number of casualties.

Bone fractures were successfully treated by using splints made of the two halves ofa hollow bamboo stem of suitable diameter, with additional layers of distinct soft lea-ves and medical herbs, which were hold together by strings.

Cranial trepanation locally referred to as “burring”, accompanied by a pig offeringritual, involves cutting through the skin with a sharp edged piece of a coconut shelland exposing the skull. This is considered as a means of allowing the “bad blood”andother harmful fluids which are wiped off by leaves of “powerful”plants and water mi-xed with ginger to escape for the sake of pressure reduction, When the bone is scrapedoff fairly towards the fibrous membrane covering the brain the patient may use a piece

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of a banana stem to bite on it to stand the pain, though some expert surgeons are repu-ted to be skilled enough for a nearly painless operation. Since the cleaning proceduremust be repeated at intervals during several days the wound is kept open by inserting aleaf of some Psychotria species which is removed when the healing of the wound iscomplete.

Medicamentous treatment of injuries

In consequence of fieldwork with a wide range of plants of traditional local rele-vance resulting in the collection, documentation and botanical identification of seve-ral hundreds of indigenous plants some of them unidentified before, the newly identi-fied plants were officially included in the scientific nomenclature naming them aftertheir finder e.g. Selaginella Dosedlae, Rubus rosaefolius Dosedlae or Solanum papua-num Dosedlae as well as several others. Among them an abundant number was not on-ly locally considered as healing herbs but also turned out as in fact bearing medicalvalues in a pharmaceutical sense.

Own to the abundance of collected plants these were dealt with in some prelimi-nary reports (DOSEDLA 1974; GILLI 1978) though more detailed information must stillbe preserved for further publications by the author.

Conclusion

Though there are just hypothetical estimates concerning medical methods of Pre-history it may be concluded that technical skills of these periods were of similar stan-dards as among contemporary archaic societies until recently still presenting StoneAge level as in the case of New Guinean highlands tribes according to anthropologicalfield work results from the early Seventies dealing with traditional healers and theirintricate herbal lore.

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South Pacific: 1919-1950. Edited by Arthur J. Ferch. Wahroonga, NSW: South Pacific Divisi-on of Seventh-day Adventists, 128-146.

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CULOTTA, E. (2012): Turning from war to peace in Papua New Guinea. Science Magazine, vol. 337,Sept. 28, 2012.

DOSEDLA, H. (1974): Ethnobotanische Grundlagen der materiellen Kultur der MountHagen-Stämme im zentralen Hochland von Neuguinea. Tribus, Veröffentlichengen des Lin-den-Museums für Völkerkunde, Stuttgart.

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Anschrift des Autors:Dr. HEINRICH DOSEDLA, CINDIS – Center of Interdisziplinary Studies and Research, Mot-hen 33, A-3860 Heidenreichstein (E-Mail: hdosedla@yahoo.com).