Handbook of Virtual Environments - Taylor & Francis eBooks

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Design, Implementation, and ApplicationsHANDBOOK OF VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS

Second Edition

Second Edition

Hale•

Stanney

Second Edition

Edited by

Kelly S. Hale Kay M. Stanney

Design, Implementation, and ApplicationsHANDBOOK OF VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS

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“A key attraction of this text is the diversity of chapter offerings … A second aspect that is very important is the discussion and interplay of the science of learning and applications of virtual environments, as well as the underpinning of theory and research in each chapter. I find this interplay to be very important … as a means of informing both science and practice along the way.” —Dr Winston “Wink” Bennett, Jr.

US Air Force Research Laboratory, Warfighter Readiness Research Division

“… a comprehensive view of each of the elements impacting the design, implementation, and total cost of virtual environments. The list of authors features an all-star cast of simulation practitioners … well organized and describes each of the antecedents of good design in a pragmatic way, making it easy for novices or experts to find selected topics to gain knowledge from reading.” —Robert Sottilare, Ph.D.

Simulationist & Adaptive Tutoring Scientist

“… a comprehensive guide to the latest technology and ideas in the resurgent field of VE. The editors have brought together a distinguished list of expert contributors and covered a broad swath to provide a definitive guide of the current state of the art for students and experts alike.” —Scott S. Grigsby, Ph.D.

Ball Aerospace and Technologies Corp

A Complete Toolbox of Theories and Techniques

The second edition of a bestseller, Handbook of Virtual Environments: Design, Implementation, and Applications presents systematic and extensive coverage of the primary areas of research and development within VE technology. It brings together a comprehensive set of contributed articles that address the principles required to define system requirements and design, build, evaluate, implement, and manage the effective use of VE applications. The contributors provide critical insights and principles associated with their given areas of expertise to provide extensive scope and detail on VE technology and its applications.

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Design, Implementation, and Applications

HANDBOOK OF VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS

Second Edition

PUBLISHED TITLES

Around the Patient Bed: Human Factors and Safety in Health Care Y. Donchin and D. Gopher

Conceptual Foundations of Human Factors Measurement D. Meister

Content Preparation Guidelines for the Web and Information Appliances: Cross-Cultural Comparisons

H. Liao, Y. Guo, A. Savoy, and G. Salvendy

Cross-Cultural Design for IT Products and Services P. Rau, T. Plocher and Y. Choong

Data Mining: Theories, Algorithms, and Examples Nong Ye

Designing for Accessibility: A Business Guide to Countering Design Exclusion S. Keates

Handbook of Cognitive Task Design E. Hollnagel

The Handbook of Data Mining N. Ye

Handbook of Digital Human Modeling: Research for Applied Ergonomics and Human Factors Engineering

V. G. Duffy

Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Health Care and Patient Safety Second Edition

P. Carayon

Handbook of Human Factors in Web Design, Second Edition K. Vu and R. Proctor

Handbook of Occupational Safety and Health D. Koradecka

Handbook of Standards and Guidelines in Ergonomics and Human Factors W. Karwowski

Handbook of Virtual Environments: Design, Implementation and Applications, Second Edition,

K. S. Hale and K M. Stanney

Handbook of Warnings M. Wogalter

Human–Computer Interaction: Designing for Diverse Users and Domains A. Sears and J. A. Jacko

Human–Computer Interaction: Design Issues, Solutions, and Applications A. Sears and J. A. Jacko

Human–Computer Interaction: Development Process A. Sears and J. A. Jacko

Human–Computer Interaction: Fundamentals A. Sears and J. A. Jacko

The Human–Computer Interaction Handbook: Fundamentals Evolving Technologies, and Emerging Applications, Third Edition

J. A. Jacko

Human Factors and Ergonomics Series

Human Factors in System Design, Development, and Testing D. Meister and T. Enderwick

Introduction to Human Factors and Ergonomics for Engineers, Second Edition M. R. Lehto

Macroergonomics: Theory, Methods and Applications H. Hendrick and B. Kleiner

Practical Speech User Interface Design James R. Lewis

The Science of Footwear R. S. Goonetilleke

Skill Training in Multimodal Virtual Environments M. Bergamsco, B. Bardy, and D. Gopher

Smart Clothing: Technology and Applications Gilsoo Cho

Theories and Practice in Interaction Design S. Bagnara and G. Crampton-Smith

The Universal Access Handbook C. Stephanidis

Usability and Internationalization of Information TechnologyN. Aykin

User Interfaces for All: Concepts, Methods, and Tools C. Stephanidis

FORTHCOMING TITLES

Cognitive Neuroscience of Human Systems Work and Everyday LifeC. Forsythe and H. Liao

Computer-Aided Anthropometry for Research and Design K. M. Robinette

Handbook of Human Factors in Air Transportation SystemsS. Landry

Variability in Human PerformanceT. Smith, R. Henning, and M. Wade

PUBLISHED TITLES (CONTINUED)

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Edited by

Kelly S. Hale Kay M. Stanney

Design, Implementation, and Applications

HANDBOOK OF VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS

Second Edition

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vii

ContentsPerspective by Jaron Lanier ........................................................................................................... xiiiPreface.............................................................................................................................................xixEditors .............................................................................................................................................xxiContributors ................................................................................................................................. xxiii

SECTION I Introduction

Chapter 1 Virtual Environments in the Twenty-First Century .....................................................3

Kay M. Stanney, Kelly S. Hale, and Michael Zyda

Chapter 2 Virtual Environments Standards and Terminology ...................................................23

Richard A. Blade and Mary Lou Padgett

SECTION II System Requirements: Hardware

Chapter 3 Vision and Virtual Environments .............................................................................. 39

David R. Badcock, Stephen Palmisano, and James G. May

Chapter 4 Virtual Auditory Displays ..........................................................................................87

Michael Vorländer and Barbara Shinn-Cunningham

Chapter 5 Dynamic Haptic Interaction with Video .................................................................. 115

Nuray Dindar, A. Murat Tekalp, and Cagatay Basdogan

Chapter 6 Olfactory Interfaces .................................................................................................. 131

David L. Jones, Sara Dechmerowski, Razia Oden, Valerie Lugo, Jingjing Wang-Costello, and William Pike

Chapter 7 Perception of Body Motion ...................................................................................... 163

Ben D. Lawson and Bernhard E. Riecke

Chapter 8 Eye Tracking in Virtual Environments .................................................................... 197

Xuezhong Wang and Brent Winslow

viii Contents

Chapter 9 Gesture Recognition ................................................................................................. 211

Matthew Turk

Chapter 10 Avatar Control in Virtual Environments .................................................................. 233

James Templeman, Robert Page, and Patricia Denbrook

SECTION III System Requirements: Software

Chapter 11 Virtual Environment Models ................................................................................... 259

G. Drew Kessler

Chapter 12 Principles for Designing Effective 3D Interaction Techniques ................................285

Ryan P. McMahan, Regis Kopper, and Doug A. Bowman

Chapter 13 Technological Considerations in the Design of Multisensory Virtual Environments: How Real Does It Need to Be? ........................................................ 313

Brian D. Simpson, Jeffrey L. Cowgill, Jr., Robert H. Gilkey, and Janet M. Weisenberger

Chapter 14 Embodied Autonomous Agents ................................................................................ 335

Andrew Feng, Ari Shapiro, Margaux Lhommet, and Stacy Marsella

SECTION IV Design Approaches and Implementation Strategies

Chapter 15 Structured Development of Virtual Environments .................................................. 353

Richard M. Eastgate, John R. Wilson, and Mirabelle D’Cruz

Chapter 16 Cognitive Aspects of Virtual Environment Design ................................................. 391

Allen Munro, Jim Patrey, Elizabeth Sheldon Biddle, and Meredith Carroll

Chapter 17 Multimodal Interaction Modeling ............................................................................ 411

George V. Popescu, Helmuth Trefftz, and Grigore (Greg) Burdea

Chapter 18 Illusory Self-Motion in Virtual Environments ......................................................... 435

Lawrence J. Hettinger, Tarah N. Schmidt-Daly, David L. Jones, and Behrang Keshavarz

Chapter 19 Spatial Orientation, Way�nding, and Representation .............................................. 467

Rudolph P. Darken and Barry Peterson

ixContents

Chapter 20 Technology Management and User Acceptance of Virtual Environment Technology ......................................................................................... 493

David Gross

Chapter 21 Virtual Environments and Product Liability ...........................................................505

Robert S. Kennedy, Robert C. Kennedy, Kristyne E. Kennedy, Christine Wasula, and Kathleen M. Bartlett

SECTION V Health and Safety Issues

Chapter 22 Direct Effects of Virtual Environments on Users .................................................... 521

Erik Viirre, B.J. Price, and Bradley Chase

Chapter 23 Motion Sickness Symptomatology and Origins ....................................................... 531

Ben D. Lawson

Chapter 24 Motion Sickness Scaling .......................................................................................... 601

Ben D. Lawson

Chapter 25 Adapting to Virtual Environments ........................................................................... 627

Robert B. Welch and Betty J. Mohler

Chapter 26 Visually Induced Motion Sickness: Causes, Characteristics, and Countermeasures ............................................................................................... 647

Behrang Keshavarz, Heiko Hecht, and Ben D. Lawson

Chapter 27 Social Impact of Virtual Environments ...................................................................699

Sandra L. Calvert

SECTION VI Evaluation

Chapter 28 Usability Engineering of Virtual Environments ...................................................... 721

Joseph L. Gabbard

Chapter 29 Human Performance Measurement in Virtual Environments ................................. 749

James P. Bliss, Alexandra B. Proaps, and Eric T. Chancey

Chapter 30 Conducting Training Transfer Studies in Virtual Environments ............................. 781

Roberto K. Champney, Meredith Carroll, Glen Surpris, and Joseph V. Cohn

x Contents

Chapter 31 Virtual Environment Usage Protocols ..................................................................... 797

Kay M. Stanney, Robert S. Kennedy, and Kelly S. Hale

Chapter 32 Measurement of Visual Aftereffects following Virtual Environment Exposure: Implications for Minimally Invasive Surgery .......................................................... 811

John P. Wann, Alan D. White, Richard M. Wilkie, Peter R. Culmer, J. Peter A. Lodge, and Mark Mon-Williams

Chapter 33 Proprioceptive Adaptation and Aftereffects ............................................................ 835

Paul DiZio, James R. Lackner, and Roberto K. Champney

Chapter 34 Beyond Presence: How Holistic Experience Drives Training and Education ..........................................................................................857

Dustin Chertoff and Sae Schatz

Chapter 35 Augmented Cognition for Virtual Environment Evaluation .................................... 873

Kelly S. Hale, Kay M. Stanney, Dylan Schmorrow, and Lee W. Sciarini

SECTION VII Selected Applications of Virtual Environments

Chapter 36 Applications of Virtual Environments: An Overview ............................................. 883

Robert J. Stone and Frank P. Hannigan

Chapter 37 Use of Virtual Worlds in the Military Services as Part of a Blended Learning Strategy ..................................................................................................... 959

Douglas Maxwell, Tami Grif�th, and Neal M. Finkelstein

Chapter 38 Team Training in Virtual Environments: A Dual Approach ................................. 1001

Tripp Driskell, Eduardo Salas, and William B. Vessey

Chapter 39 Visual Perceptual Skills Training in Virtual Environments .................................. 1029

Meredith Carroll, Matthew Johnston, and Kelly S. Hale

Chapter 40 Virtual Environments as a Tool for Conceptual Learning ..................................... 1043

Robb Lindgren, J. Michael Moshell, and Charles E. Hughes

Chapter 41 Applications of Virtual Environments in Experiential, STEM, and Health Science Education ................................................................................ 1057

Angelos Barmpoutis, Benjamin DeVane, and James C. Oliverio

xiContents

Chapter 42 Design and Development of 3D Interactive Environments for Special Educational Needs .................................................................................................. 1075

Sue Cobb, Tessa Hawkins, Laura Millen, and John R. Wilson

Chapter 43 Virtual Environment–Assisted Teleoperation ........................................................ 1109

Abderrahmane Kheddar, Ryad Chellali, and Philippe Coiffet

Chapter 44 Evolving Human–Robot Communication through VE-Based Research and Development .....................................................................................................1145

Stephanie Lackey, Daniel Barber, Lauren Reinerman-Jones, Eric Ortiz, and Joseph R. Fanfarelli

Chapter 45 Clinical Virtual Reality .......................................................................................... 1159

Albert “Skip” Rizzo, Belinda Lange, and Sebastian Koenig

Chapter 46 Modeling and Simulation for Cultural Training: Past, Present, and Future Challenges .............................................................................................................. 1205

Kathleen M. Bartlett, Denise Nicholson, Margaret Nolan, and Brenna Kelly

Chapter 47 Immersive Visualization for the Geological Sciences ........................................... 1231

William R. Sherman, Gary L. Kinsland, Christoph W. Borst, Eric Whiting, Jurgen P. Schulze, Philip Weber, Albert Y.M. Lin, Aashish Chaudhary, Simon Su, and Daniel S. Coming

Chapter 48 Information Visualization in Virtual Environments: Trade-Offs and Guidelines ......1265

Nicholas F. Polys

Chapter 49 Entertainment Applications of Virtual Environments ........................................... 1295

Adams Greenwood-Ericksen, Robert C. Kennedy, and Shawn Stafford

SECTION VIII Conclusion

Chapter 50 Virtual Environments: History and Profession ...................................................... 1323

Richard A. Blade, Mary Lou Padgett, Mark Billinghurst, and Robert W. Lindeman

Author Index............................................................................................................................... 1339

Subject Index .............................................................................................................................. 1397

xiii

Perspective by Jaron LanierThe public remains as entranced by a romantic ideal of virtual reality (VR) as ever. VR the ideal, as opposed to the real technology, weds the nerdy thing with the hippie mystic thing; it’s high tech and like a dream or an elixir of unbounded experience, all at the same time.

I wish I could fully convey what it was like in the early days. There was a feeling, in the early 1980s, of opening up a new plane of experience. Inhabiting the �rst immersive avatars, seeing oth-ers as avatars, experiencing one’s body for the �rst time as a nonrealistic avatar; these things trans-�xed us. Everything else in the world seemed dull in comparison.

The irony is that I cannot use VR to share what that experience was like with you. VR, for all it can do, is not a medium of internal states. There might never be such a medium. There is little need for me to make this point in an introduction to a book for VR professionals, but it’s a clari�cation that I’m sure many of the contributors and readers of this book have been called upon to give many times. What the public seems to want from VR is telepathic conjuring of arbitrary reality. It can be dif�cult to explain that VR is wonderful for what it is, precisely because it isn’t magic.

Eventually a new kind of culture, a massive tradition of tricks of the VR trade, might arise and that culture might allow me to convey something to you about how early VR felt, using VR-borne metaphors. I have spent many hours daydreaming about what a mature culture of expression would be like in VR. A cross between cinema, jazz, and programming, I used to say.

Even though we don’t know how expressive VR might eventually become, there is always that little core of thrill in the very idea of VR. Arbitrary experience, shared with other people, conver-sationally, under our control. An approach to a holistic form of expression. Shared lucid dreaming. A way out of the dull persistence of physicality. This thing we seek, it’s a way of being that isn’t tied just to our circumstances in this world.

Every few years a new wave of public VR mania rises, yet somehow very few people seem to realize how often it’s happened before. Long ago, a scrappy little startup called VPL Research seemed for a moment like a much larger company, a real force. The same kind of thing can still happen; it is happening once again at the time of this writing with a startup selling an HMD called Oculus Rift.

The actual experience of high-quality VR remains elusive, however. You really still have to have access to a top lab to experience the good stuff. By “the good stuff” I mean a system good enough to fool you, to engage your whole body, to include others as avatars with you in there, to be usable in the long term, and one that gives you enough to do to outlast the �rst few demos. There are remark-ably few places on Earth today where one can experience anything close to the whole package.

However, such places exist. This is well known to lucky students who work with Jeremy Bailenson at Stanford, with Henry Fuchs or Fred Brooks at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, or with Carolina Cruz-Neira at the University of Louisiana, Lafayette—or at any of the other �ne VR research labs. Then there is the even less accessible world of training and design centers that use VR. To my knowledge, no one has ever thought to maintain an atlas of VR systems, but there are still probably only a few thousand decent VR systems in the world as I write this Perspective in 2013.

The VR known to researchers is sometimes a little like what the public dreams of, but there is a colossal difference, because in research labs, VR is a practical, if expensive, tool. Researchers continue to learn more about the human organism by using VR as an experimental device to test hypotheses in cognitive science, biomechanics, and other disciplines. VR research continues to spin off useful technologies, such as motion capture suits, surgical simulators, and vehicle

xiv Perspective by Jaron Lanier

design simulators. From the point of view of pop culture, the realization of the dream remains elusive, while to practitioners, our progress has been satisfying.

Nonetheless, the cost of the parts we use gradually lowers, and a horizon comes into view. Over that horizon lies the long-anticipated popularization of VR, meaning a form of VR that would be complete enough to feel like a protean dream, at least a little like The Matrix, if you squint. The world waits for this.

Much of these could have been written at any time in the last thirty years. In earlier times, we might have mentioned Star Trek’s Holodeck instead of The Matrix, but the pattern was similar. We’ve been at work, while the public frets that what we do hasn’t reached its potential yet. The popular circumstances in which we work have remained about the same even as we have learned more, and successive generations of researchers have come to the fore. Journalists periodically write about how VR has “failed to deliver on its promises.” But this last year has been different.

Consumer devices related to VR are appearing with enough frequency that they no longer feel exceptional. The last few years have seen Microsoft’s Kinect success in the marketplace and Google’s Glass public trials, for instance. Neither device is a VR system, but both are consumer gadget versions of components that are cousins to what would be needed in full-on VR systems. Both have changed the public’s expectations of information technology.

It does appear that we are about to arrive at the long-anticipated threshold. Even so, it could still take some years for the details to come into alignment. Thirty years ago, my colleagues and I used to guess that a reasonably comprehensive form of VR would be popularized around 2020, based on Moore’s Law and related trends, and perhaps we will turn out to have been a little pessimistic.

Those of us who have worked on VR for many years wonder what it will be like once VR becomes both cheap and well-wrought, and the novelty factor has eroded to nothing. Will it be banal—like plumbing or ever new—like books? This is always the question with a new layer of digital capability.

So, a drama of anticipation builds. It is like wondering how a child will turn out. Have we been building something banal or beautiful? Reality can only be known empirically. We don’t yet really know what we’re building. We don’t know to what degree it will be a stream of vital passion and poetry, a banal waste of time, or a cruel gauntlet for manipulation and bullying. Any human medium will be all these things, but in what proportions?

I am currently feeling con�dent in our hardware and not so con�dent in our software. Hardware �rst.

Unsolved problems remain in VR hardware. Some of the problems are shared in common with other technologies. Most approaches to VR involve wearable components, but batteries still weigh too much, for instance. Therefore, VR components tend to either be heavy or need to be charged too often. Trends in battery technology are positive, so we expect this problem to be addressed.

But VR also poses some unique hardware challenges. What is the right haptic feedback design for general popularization? What is the best general scheme for reconciling the speci�c limited physical space a user can explore at a given time with the unbounded, beckoning virtual spaces that might be presented? Researchers have presented hundreds of good ideas for answers to both questions, but there is no consensus because there haven’t yet been adequate, widespread tests of the most promising ideas.

VR intrinsically presents conundrums. The best known one might be this: To �ll the human visual �eld with visual information, it is common to place a source of photons near the eyes, in the form of an HMD. But for people to see each other as avatars, the facial expressions should be measured so as to have an inªuence on one’s avatar. After all, we present ourselves visually using our faces most of all. But HMDs often obscure or interfere with facial expressions. To resolve this dif�culty, a clever combination of optics, industrial design, and graphics/machine vision will prob-ably be needed.

VR also intrinsically pushes requirements, for the simple reason that the human organism is remarkable. We are sensitive to minute latencies, and in some cases to tiny inconsistencies in our

xvPerspective by Jaron Lanier

sensory data. Fortunately, as everyone who works with it knows, VR is based on �nding ways to present what should by all rights be inadequate equipment in a way that somehow meets the expec-tations of the human nervous system. Our �eld can be considered as the study of highly advanced stage magic without the stage.

Even so, we sometimes �nd a challenge we must meet head-on. For instance, to obscure items in the real world in order to show virtual content instead (in a mixed- or augmented-reality presenta-tion), presents a healthy challenge to both optics engineers, machine vision scientists, and systems engineers doing battle with latency.

Fortunately, the public’s fascination with our work creates an interesting external laboratory that is not available in many other research �elds. The marketplace can support widespread testing of hardware components in the form of entertainment products. For instance, real-time human motion sensing in a form that would be suitable for VR systems has also been packaged independently in gaming devices like Matte’s Power Glove and Microsoft’s Kinect. With each market test we learn more about what a popular, complete VR system might be like. Fortunately, these tests have yielded positive results in many cases.

The hardware side of VR progresses reliably towards ful�lling the collective dream of VR, it seems. Each year, new and better optical and display strategies appear; same for new sensors and actuators. The mega-reorientation of consumer computing towards portable devices has resulted in vast improvements to components like microdisplays and inertial motion units, so VR researchers have lately been showered with hardware gifts.

But no one is helping us with our software, and there are two huge reasons for concern that our software might not turn out as well as our hardware. The �rst reason is that previous attempts to de�ne software architectures for VR have all turned out to be too specialized to support a broad community. The second is that as we approach our long-anticipated threshold, the world at large is entering into what might be called a surveillance economy that could render our dreams into creepy nightmares.

One problem with VR software architecture is that VR can hypothetically align with a huge variety of human experiences. Software on a personal computer was stuck on the screen, and the person using it was stuck on a desk, with a hand on a mouse. Every program would be reliably cir-cumscribed by those conditions, so it was possible to declare a signi�cant commonality between programs that otherwise had no relationship. Both Mathematica and Angry Birds can be scrolled in a window and pricked by a mouse. More recently, approximately the same kinds of rules have applied to mobile devices; now programs assume multitouch, for instance. But the background in which programs are de�ned is still the class of device, not the world at large.

VR isn’t de�ned on an artifact. The background is the human body and—if the system is pre-sented for mixed or augmented reality—the physical environment. Neither are human inventions, and both are still under study. We will never have complete knowledge of our physical environment or of our bodies.

So the �rst job of a VR architecture is to ignore almost everything about reality in order to choose a few hooks that can be used to align virtuality. But what should be the preferred blindness?

Different VR software architectures choose quite different emphases. A major divide can be observed between attempts to interface individuals as well as possible and attempts to interface large numbers of people.

Designs that emphasize increasing the number of participants typically do so at the expense of the interaction model. Examples are military ground combat simulators and popular network sites with a VR ªavor, like Second Life. In these systems, users move about, talk to each other, lob pro-jectiles, and so on, but there is little use for detailed hand tracking. You couldn’t conduct a dance lesson in such a system.

Then there are designs that take great care to measure and integrate human activity carefully. These include, on a professional level, surgical simulators as well as entertainment systems that use depth cameras or other means to measure human motion comprehensively in real time, like Kinect.

xvi Perspective by Jaron Lanier

Designers of these systems have their hands full, so to speak, and don’t deal with the many issues that come up with massive numbers of users distributed across large distances.

These two schools are not the end of it. There are also designs that emphasize representing the physical world and presenting that to users, but are poor at measuring the users or allowing users to interact. This stream of design might even be the largest. It started long ago with forgotten attempts at standards like VRML and Java3D, and continues today with cloud services that integrate street view, satellite, and other image sources to generate streaming models of the world. It is never ele-gant to inhabit a virtual world driven by an architecture that is focused obsessively on data rather than on the experience of data.

Here we �nd another example of how our �eld can sometimes seem to stand still for decades, even though we’re all working very hard. For decades there has been endless talk about combining the different approaches to networked VR software architecture. Wouldn’t it be grand to be able to have dance lessons over a service resembling Second Life, using something like Kinect, in a simula-tion of a historic dance studio, gathered by something like Photosynth?

I have been involved in all three projects, and the simple truth is that just to get those out the door well involved total devotion, total exhaustion, really, for the teams who had to get the jobs done. There was no further energy or time left to �gure out dreams of integration or generalization. We don’t know how hard it will be to “get it all” in one network VR architecture, but we know it will be hard.

I hope we do it in the next few years. I don’t want to have to be carrying four different headsets with me in ten years, each specialized to a different sort of task.

This brings up a correlate to the unbounded nature of VR. Everyone understands that not every Android app will run on an iPhone. But are we ready for a world where certain customers can see certain augmentations of physical reality while others cannot?

Will we enter into a situation in which people walk down the street and see entirely different augmentations of the world depending on which vendor they bought their headsets from? Sherry Turkle wrote a book called “Alone Together” about how people can become oddly insulted by using network technology, which was certainly not the intent of the designers. I worry that mixed reality systems used in public could result in an “Apart Together” situation, in which people are adjacent, but not able to experience much in common, even when they are trying to.

This eventuality could be the result of cloud service rivalries, carrier wars, or—and this becomes our problem—architectural specializations that corral users into disjoint communities. Quests for perfection in computer architectures tend to back�re, but that doesn’t mean we have to resign our-selves to worst case scenarios. If the research community can prove that an architecture can come into existence that supports a wide range of scenarios, then the political �ght over whether the vari-ous companies will play nice with each other can at least have a chance to play out.

Finally, the rise of creepiness must be addressed. VR is the most intimate communication tech-nology. In order to work well, VR instrumentation senses the saccade of the eyes and the turn of the lip. What we do is interface intimately with the human organism.

It happens, however, that as we approach the day when the fruits of our labors become inexpen-sive enough for everyone to enjoy, another commercial trend is on the rise that would use these data against our users, our customers.

It is now commonplace for people to accept constant surveillance in exchange for so-called bargains or convenience. Most people have accounts on social networks and trust companies to keep track of many of their life memories, for free. We have also recently learned that governments routinely piggyback on these arrangements to maintain their own surveillance. The data derived from surveillance are used commercially to power big data systems that, in turn, micromanage some of the options placed in front of people in the form of paid links. Some feel this is a helpful economic arrangement, while I do not. In any case, everyone should be concerned that the surveil-lance economy is creating astonishing potential for abuses.

xviiPerspective by Jaron Lanier

It is one thing for remote corporations or governments to have access to the metadata about who one has been in touch with or one’s recent purchases. But it is another entirely for remote powers to compile information about how your body responds to stimuli. There is then a potential for neo-Pavlovian manipulation, for instance, where a person might not realize that a manipulation had even taken place.

Many new consumer products will not function if a user does not “click through” an agreement sending their experiences to the company’s servers. In general, all tech companies, and all govern-ments, have come to expect people to click through such agreements and accept surveillance.

I had always thought I could keep politics and VR research separate, but that is no longer true. Our community has to consider how to protect our eventual users. Should sensors of the most important signals in the human body encrypt their results as part of the measurement? Should we be baking in privacy at the lowest level to make man-in-the-middle attacks harder? I’d rather not have to think about such questions, but I do, we all do.

This is a wonderful, but challenging time for the VR community. I have lately become more excited than ever to meet new students who have decided to enter our �eld because I know their careers will be �lled with delightful surprises and thrills. I also worry. Will they come to feel that they were part of the problem instead of a solution to the mounting wave of cyber-creepiness?

The story unfolds. Our time has arrived.

Jaron LanierInterdisciplinary Scientist

Microsoft Research

xix

PrefaceThe �rst edition of the Handbook of Virtual Environments was published in 2000. A lot has changed since that time. Virtual environments (VEs) have always presented in�nite possibilities for extend-ing the interactivity and engagement of an ever-expanding variety of applications in the areas of entertainment, education, medicine, and beyond. But now, with the technology advancing at rates exceeding conventional laws, the possibility to create VEs that provide true-to-life experiences has never been more attainable. We thus felt it was time to assemble a second edition of the handbook to summarize the current cutting-edge research and technology advances that are bringing these truly compelling virtual worlds to life.

This second edition includes nine new as well as 41 updated chapters that reªect the progress made in basic and applied research related to the creation, application, and evaluation of VEs. Leading researchers and practitioners from multidisciplinary domains have contributed to this sec-ond edition to provide a wealth of both theoretical and practical information, resulting in a complete toolbox of theories and techniques that researchers, designers, and developers of VEs can rely on to develop more captivating and effective virtual worlds.

Section I consists of two chapters. Chapter 1 provides a thorough summary of VEs in the twenty-�rst century, while Chapter 2 provides an updated glossary of terms to promote common language throughout the community. Section II focuses on system requirements, both hardware and software. Individual chapters are provided for various modalities of presentation, highlighting known tech-niques for eliciting and manipulating visual (Chapter 3), auditory (Chapter 4), and haptic perception (Chapter 5), as well as perception of body motion (Chapter 7). This second edition also includes a new contribution examining olfactory perception and display design (Chapter 6). In addition, interaction methods that support optimized human–system collaboration are reviewed, including eye tracking (Chapter 8), gesture (Chapter 9), and locomotion systems (Chapter 10). These chapters highlight advances in hardware design and capabilities to support natural interaction that increases presence and human performance within VEs. Four chapters in this section focus on software design of VEs, including development of VE models (Chapter 11), designing effective interaction techniques from the software perspective (Chapter 12), simulating and optimizing VE realism where and when needed (Chapter 13), and design of embodied autonomous agents (Chapter 14).

Section III focuses on design approaches and implementation strategies for VEs. Each chapter in this section has been updated to reªect advances made in the last decade and provides a solid foundation for new and experienced designers. Chapter 15 summarizes the VE development structure, a standard-ized process for designing and developing VE technology. Design implications for human cognition (Chapter 16), modeling multimodal interaction (Chapter 17), illusory self-motion (Chapter 18), spatial orientation and way�nding (Chapter 19), technology management for user acceptance (Chapter 20), and product liability (Chapter 21) round out this informative section regarding design of VEs.

Section IV focuses on health and safety issues, which have been observed since the earliest VE systems were created. The chapters in this section examine the direct effects of VEs on users (Chapter 22) and provide a thorough review of motion sickness symptomatology and origins (Chapter 23) and methods to measure motion sickness (Chapter 24) within a VE. The section also includes a review of adaptation effects and their implications (Chapter 25), as well as discussions of visually induced motion sickness (Chapter 26) and the social impact of VE technology (Chapter 27).

Section V focuses on evaluation of VE systems. It begins with a review of usability evalua-tion techniques for VEs (Chapter 28), summarizing how traditional usability methods may be adapted and extended to evaluate 3D spaces and experiences. Chapter 29 summarizes methods for measuring human performance within VEs, while the addition of Chapter 30 provides guidance

xx Preface

on evaluating the effectiveness of VE training systems. VE usage protocols are summarized in Chapter 31, which outlines methods to minimize negative impacts of VE exposure. Methods to evaluate visual aftereffects from VE exposure (Chapter 32), proprioceptive adaption and afteref-fects (Chapter 33), presence experienced while in a VE (Chapter 34), and a new chapter highlighting the potential of utilizing an augmented cognition system to evaluate VE systems (Chapter 35) round out this section of the handbook.

Section VI, which focuses on the application of VE technology, has been substantially updated to reªect the tremendous progress made over the last decade in applying VE technology to a growing number of domains. Chapter 36 provides an overview of application areas, while follow-on chapters discuss applications in national defense (Chapter 37) and various training and learning domains, including team training (Chapter 38), perceptual skills training (Chapter 39), conceptual learning (Chapter 40), experimental, STEM, and health sciences learning (Chapter 41), special needs educa-tion (Chapter 42), and cultural training (Chapter 46). Additionally, reviews of VEs in the application areas of assisted teleoperation (Chapter 43), human–robot communication (Chapter 44), clinical settings (Chapter 45), geology (Chapter 47), information visualization of big data (Chapter 48), and entertainment (Chapter 49) are provided.

The handbook concludes with Section VII, which provides a review of VE research and advances made since the inception of the technology, as well as a list of references that can provide additional information for VE professionals (Chapter 50).

We are very pleased to have the opportunity to bring together the vast expertise and knowledge provided in this handbook. We trust you will �nd this compendium a valuable resource in the advancement of VE applications as you take them from the laboratory to the real-world lives of people everywhere.

Kelly S. HaleKay M. Stanney

xxi

EditorsDr. Kelly S. Hale is senior vice president of technical operations at Design Interactive, Inc., a woman-owned small business focused on human–systems integration. Her research and development efforts in human–systems integration have examined virtual environment design and evaluation, aug-mented cognition, multimodal interaction and haptic interfaces, and training sciences.

Over the past 10 years, Dr. Hale has guided Design Interactive, Inc. to be a leader in developing advanced performance metrics and diagnostic capabilities, including behavioral, physiological, and neural metric suites for capturing traditionally unobservable behavioral data to evaluate perceptual skills and cognitive processing in real time by synchronizing data with system events/areas of inter-est dynamically throughout simulated scenarios. She holds a patent for a tactile display language and serves on the editorial boards for the International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction and Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science. Dr. Hale received her BSc in kinesiology (ergo-nomics option) from the University of Waterloo in Ontario, Canada, and her master’s degree and PhD in industrial engineering, with a focus on human factors engineering, from the University of Central Florida.

Dr. Kay Stanney founded Design Interactive, Inc. (DI) in 1998 and serves as president. She pro-vides executive leadership and strategic direction, formulating and driving key business strategies across DI’s three business units. Dr. Stanney is recognized as a world leader in virtual environment (VE) technology, especially as it relates to training. During her more than 25 years of carrying out research in the area of VE training, she has led numerous efforts involved in furthering adaptive VE training techniques. She is the recipient of the 2013 Women Who Mean Business Award, 2012 and 2011 Top Simulation & Training Company for innovation, and the IEEE VGTC Virtual Reality Technical Achievement Award.

Dr. Stanney has an MS and PhD in human factors engineering from Purdue University and a BS in industrial engineering from SUNY Buffalo and is a Certi�ed Human Factors Practitioner.

xxiii

Contributors

David R. BadcockSchool of PsychologyUniversity of Western AustraliaCrawley, Western Australia, Australia

Daniel BarberInstitute for Simulation and TrainingUniversity of Central FloridaOrlando, Florida

Angelos BarmpoutisDigital Worlds InstituteUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Kathleen M. BartlettDSCI MESH Solutions, LLCOrlando, Florida

Cagatay BasdoganCollege of EngineeringKoc UniversityIstanbul, Turkey

Elizabeth Sheldon BiddleHuman Systems DepartmentNaval Air Warfare Center Training Systems

DivisionOrlando, Florida

Mark BillinghurstUniversity of CanterburyChristchurch, New Zealand

Richard A. BladeIPI PressAurora, Colorado

James P. BlissDepartment of PsychologyOld Dominion UniversityNorfolk, Virginia

Christoph W. BorstEmerging Markets and Technologies DivisionCenter for Advanced Computer StudiesUniversity of Louisiana at LafayetteLafayette, Louisiana

Doug A. BowmanCenter for Human-Computer InteractionVirginia TechBlacksburg, Virginia

Grigore (Greg) BurdeaDepartment of Electrical and Computer

EngineeringRutgers, The State University of New JerseyPiscataway, New Jersey

Sandra L. CalvertDepartment of PsychologyGeorgetown UniversityWashington, DC

Meredith CarrollDefensive Solutions DivisionDesign Interactive, Inc.Oviedo, Florida

Roberto K. ChampneyMedical Innovations DivisionDesign Interactive, Inc.Oviedo, Florida

Eric T. ChanceyDepartment of PsychologyOld Dominion UniversityNorfolk, Virginia

Bradley ChaseDepartment of EngineeringUniversity of San DiegoSan Diego, California

xxiv Contributors

Aashish ChaudharyScienti�c Computing DivisionKitware, Inc.Clifton Park, New York

Ryad ChellaliIstituto Italiano di TecnologiaGenova, Italy

Dustin ChertoffIntelligent Automation, Inc.Atlanta, Georgia

Sue CobbVirtual Reality Applications Research TeamUniversity of NottinghamNottingham, United Kingdom

Joseph V. CohnHuman and Bioengineered Systems DivisionOf�ce of Naval ResearchArlington, Virginia

Philippe CoiffetNational Academy of Technologies of FranceParis, France

Daniel S. ComingGoogle, Inc.Mountain View, California

Jeffrey L. Cowgill, Jr.Department of PsychologyWright State UniversityDayton, Ohio

Peter R. CulmerSchool of Mechanical EngineeringUniversity of LeedsLeeds, United Kingdom

Rudolph P. DarkenDepartment of Computer ScienceNaval Postgraduate SchoolMonterey, California

Mirabelle D’CruzVirtual Reality Applications Research TeamUniversity of NottinghamNottingham, United Kingdom

Sara DechmerowskiMedical Innovations DivisionDesign Interactive, Inc.Oviedo, Florida

Patricia DenbrookDCS Inc.Washington, DC

Benjamin DeVaneLearning SciencesUniversity of IowaIowa City, Iowa

Nuray DindarCollege of EngineeringKoc UniversityIstanbul, Turkey

Paul DiZioAshton Graybiel Spatial Orientation LaboratoryVolen Center for Complex SystemsBrandeis UniversityWaltham, Massachusetts

Tripp DriskellInstitute for Simulation and TrainingUniversity of Central FloridaOrlando, Florida

Richard M. EastgateVirtual Reality Applications Research TeamUniversity of NottinghamNottingham, United Kingdom

Joseph R. FanfarelliInstitute for Simulation and TrainingUniversity of Central FloridaOrlando, Florida

Andrew FengInstitute for Creative TechnologiesUniversity of Southern CaliforniaPlaya Vista, California

Neal M. FinkelsteinUS Army Research LaboratoryOrlando, Florida

xxvContributors

Joseph L. GabbardGrado Department of Industrial and Systems

EngineeringVirginia TechBlacksburg, Virginia

Robert H. GilkeyDepartment of PsychologyWright State UniversityDayton, Ohio

Adams Greenwood-EricksenDepartment of Game StudiesFull Sail University Orlando, Florida

Tami Grif�thSimulation and Training Technology CenterUS Army Research LaboratoryOrlando, Florida

David GrossLockheed MartinMarietta, Georgia

Kelly S. HaleDesign Interactive, Inc.Oviedo, Florida

Frank P. HanniganDesign Interactive, Inc.Oviedo, Florida

Tessa HawkinsVirtual Reality Applications Research TeamUniversity of NottinghamNottingham, United Kingdom

Heiko HechtDepartment of PsychologyJohannes Gutenberg UniversityMainz, Germany

Lawrence J. HettingerCenter for Behavioral SciencesLiberty Mutual Research Institute for SafetyHopkinton, Massachusetts

Charles E. HughesDepartment of Electrical Engineering and

Computer ScienceUniversity of Central FloridaOrlando, Florida

Matthew JohnstonEmerging Markets and Technologies Division

Center for Advanced Computer StudiesDesign Interactive, Inc.Oviedo, Florida

David L. JonesMedical Innovations DivisionDesign Interactive, Inc.Oviedo, Florida

Brenna KellyMESH Solutions, LLCOrlando, Florida

Kristyne E. KennedyCSK LegalOrlando, Florida

Robert C. KennedyDepartment of Game StudiesFull Sail University andRSK Assessments, Inc.Orlando, Florida

Robert S. KennedyRSK Assessments, Inc.Orlando, Florida

Behrang KeshavarzResearch Department (iDAPT)Toronto Rehabilitation InstituteToronto, Ontario, Canada

G. Drew KesslerSRI InternationalPrinceton, New Jersey

xxvi Contributors

Abderrahmane KheddarCNRS-AIST Joint Robotics LaboratoryCentre National de la Recherche Scienti�queNational Institute of Advanced Industrial

Science and TechnologyTsukuba, Japan

and

Interactive Digital Human GroupCentre National de la Recherche Scienti�queMontpellier, France

Gary L. KinslandSchool of GeosciencesUniversity of Louisiana at LafayetteLafayette, Louisiana

Sebastian KoenigInstitute for Creative TechnologiesUniversity of Southern CaliforniaPlaya Vista, California

Regis KopperPratt School of EngineeringDuke University Durham, North Carolina

Stephanie LackeyInstitute for Simulation and TrainingUniversity of Central FloridaOrlando, Florida

James R. LacknerAshton Graybiel Spatial Orientation LaboratoryVolen Center for Complex SystemsBrandeis UniversityWaltham, Massachusetts

Belinda LangeInstitute for Creative TechnologiesUniversity of Southern CaliforniaPlaya Vista, California

Ben D. LawsonUS Army Aeromedical Research LaboratoryFort Rucker, Alabama

Margaux LhommetInstitute for Creative TechnologiesUniversity of Southern CaliforniaPlaya Vista, California

Albert Y.M. LinQualcomm InstituteUniversity of California, San DiegoLa Jolla, California

Robert W. LindemanWorcester Polytechnic InstituteWorcester, Massachusetts

Robb LindgrenCollege of EducationUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignChampaign, Illinois

J. Peter A. LodgeDepartment of Hepatobiliary and Transplant

SurgerySt James’s University HospitalLeeds, United Kingdom

Valerie LugoMedical Innovations DivisionDesign Interactive, Inc.Oviedo, Florida

Stacy MarsellaInstitute for Creative TechnologiesUniversity of Southern CaliforniaPlaya Vista, California

Douglas MaxwellSimulation and Training Technology CenterUS Army Research Laboratory Orlando, Florida

James G. MayDepartment of PsychologyUniversity of New OrleansLakefront, New Orleans

Ryan P. McMahanDepartment of Computer ScienceUniversity of Texas at DallasRichardson, Texas

xxviiContributors

Laura MillenVirtual Reality Applications Research TeamUniversity of NottinghamNottingham, United Kingdom

Betty J. MohlerMax Planck Institute for Biological CyberneticsTübingen, Germany

Mark Mon-WilliamsSchool of PsychologyUniversity of LeedsLeeds, United Kingdom

J. Michael MoshellSchool of Visual Arts and DesignUniversity of Central FloridaOrlando, Florida

Allen MunroUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos Angeles, California

Denise NicholsonDSCI MESH Solutions, LLCOrlando, Florida

Margaret NolanDSCI MESH Solutions, LLCOrlando, Florida

Razia OdenAMTIS, Inc.Oviedo, Florida

James C. OliverioDigital Worlds InstituteUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Eric OrtizInstitute for Simulation and TrainingUniversity of Central FloridaOrlando, Florida

Mary Lou PadgettLife Senior Member, IEEEMarietta, Georgia

Robert PageUS Naval Research LaboratoryWashington, DC

Stephen PalmisanoSchool of PsychologyUniversity of WollongongWollongong, News South Wales, Australia

Jim PatreyHuman Systems DepartmentNaval Air Warfare Center Aircraft DivisionOrlando, Florida

Barry PetersonDepartment of HistoryUniversity of Nevada, RenoReno, Nevada

William PikeSimulation and Training Technology CenterUS Army Research LaboratoryOrlando, Florida

Nicholas F. PolysInterdisciplinary Center for Applied

MathematicsVirginia TechBlacksburg, Virginia

George V. PopescuNational Institute for Laser, Plasma and

Radiation PhysicsBucharest, Romania

B.J. PriceDepartment of EngineeringWalt Disney WorldOrlando, Florida

Alexandra B. ProapsDepartment of PsychologyOld Dominion UniversityNorfolk, Virginia

Lauren Reinerman-Jones Institute for Simulation and TrainingUniversity of Central FloridaOrlando, Florida

xxviii Contributors

Bernhard E. RieckeSimon Fraser UniversitySurrey, British Columbia, Canada

Albert “Skip” RizzoInstitute for Creative TechnologiesUniversity of Southern CaliforniaPlaya Vista, California

Eduardo SalasDepartment of PsychologyInstitute for Simulation and TrainingUniversity of Central FloridaOrlando, Florida

Sae SchatzDSCI MESH Solutions, LLCOrlando, Florida

Tarah N. Schmidt-DalyMedical Innovations DivisionDesign Interactive, Inc.Oviedo, Florida

Dylan SchmorrowSoar Technologies, Inc.Vienna, Virginia

Jurgen P. SchulzeQualcomm InstituteUniversity of California, San DiegoLa Jolla, California

Lee W. Sciarini Operations Research DepartmentNaval Postgraduate SchoolMonterey, California

Ari ShapiroInstitute for Creative TechnologiesUniversity of Southern CaliforniaPlaya Vista, California

William R. ShermanPervasive Technology InstituteIndiana UniversityBloomington, Indiana

Barbara Shinn-CunninghamDepartment of Biomedical EngineeringandCenter for Computational Neuroscience and

Neural TechnologyBoston UniversityBoston, Massachusetts

Brian D. SimpsonAir Force Research LaboratoryHuman Effectiveness DirectorateWright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio

Shawn StaffordDepartment of Game StudiesFull Sail University Orlando, Florida

Kay M. StanneyDesign Interactive, Inc.Oviedo, Florida

Robert J. StoneSchool of Electronic, Electrical and Computer

EngineeringUniversity of BirminghamBirmingham, United Kingdom

Simon SuBall Aerospace & Technologies Corp.Dayton, Ohio

Glen SurprisDefensive Solutions DivisionDesign Interactive, Inc.Oviedo, Florida

A. Murat TekalpCollege of EngineeringKoc UniversityIstanbul, Turkey

James TemplemanUS Naval Research LaboratoryWashington, DC

Helmuth TrefftzVirtual Reality LabUniversidad Escuela de Administración,

Finanzas y TechnologiaMedellín, Colombia

xxixContributors

Matthew TurkDepartment of Computer ScienceUniversity of California, Santa BarbaraSanta Barbara, California

William B. VesseyEnterprise Advisory Services, Inc.Johnson Space CenterHouston, Texas

Erik ViirreDivision of NeurosciencesSchool of MedicinePerlman Ambulatory Care CenterUniversity of California, San DiegoLa Jolla, California

Michael VorländerInstitute of Technical AcousticsRWTH Aachen UniversityAachen, Germany

Xuezhong WangEngineering DivisionDesign Interactive, Inc.Oviedo, Florida

Jingjing Wang-CostelloYahoo, Inc.Sunnyvale, California

John P. WannDepartment of PsychologyRoyal Holloway, University of LondonSurrey, United Kingdom

Christine WasulaCSK LegalOrlando, Florida

Philip WeberQualcomm InstituteUniversity of California, San DiegoLa Jolla, California

Janet M. WeisenbergerDepartment of Speech and Hearing SciencesThe Ohio State UniversityColumbus, Ohio

Robert B. WelchAmes Research CenterNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationMoffett Field, California

Alan D. WhiteDepartment of Hepatobiliary and Transplant

SurgerySt James’s University HospitalLeeds, United Kingdom

Eric WhitingIdaho National LaboratoryIdaho Falls, Idaho

Richard M. WilkieSchool of PsychologyUniversity of LeedsLeeds, United Kingdom

John R. WilsonVirtual Reality Applications Research TeamUniversity of NottinghamNottingham, United Kingdom

Brent WinslowDesign Interactive, Inc.Oviedo, Florida

Michael ZydaDepartment of Computer ScienceUSC GamePipe LaboratoryLos Angeles, California

Section I

Introduction

3

1 Virtual Environments in the Twenty-First Century

Kay M. Stanney, Kelly S. Hale, and Michael Zyda

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Whatever I have up till now accepted as most true I have acquired either from the senses or through the senses. But from time to time I have found that the senses deceive.

Meditations on First Philosophy, Descartes

As Descartes suggested, there is no de�nitive truth; reality emanates from that which is present to our senses, and these senses we trust to distinguish reality from illusion can be deceived. It is this capacity to fool the sensory systems that we attempt to capitalize on when building a virtual world. More than cinema, which can evoke emotion even without relying on identi�cation with psychologi-cal characters (Eisenstein, 1987), virtual worlds can provide a direct and egocentric perceptive of an imaginary world within which it is dif�cult to distinguish the virtual from the real. The goal of this experience is to deceive us and represent a truth that can educate, train, entertain, and inspire. In their ultimate form, virtual environments (VEs) immerse users in an alternate reality that stimu-lates multiple senses, providing vibrant experiences that are so veridical they fundamentally trans-form those exposed (e.g., via training, educating, marketing, or entertaining).

When the �rst edition of the VE Handbook was assembled over a decade ago, visions such as The Matrix (1999) IMDb, had elevated the status of VE to the level of pop iconography, and some of those associated with the technology arguably had risen to star status (e.g., Jaron Lanier [2013], who coined the term virtual reality and is still inªuencing the technology of tomorrow):

Virtual Reality was, by the end of the 20th Century, destined to have helped computer users abandon the keyboard, mouse, joystick and computer display in favour of interfaces exploiting a wide range of natural human skills and sensory characteristics. They would be able to interact intuitively with virtual objects, virtual worlds and virtual actors whilst “immersed” within a multi-sensory, 3D computer-generated world. As is evident today, this brave new world simply did not happen.

R. Stone (2012, p. 24)

CONTENTS

1.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................31.2 Technology ................................................................................................................................4

1.2.1 Human–Machine Interface ...........................................................................................41.2.2 Computer Generation of Virtual Environments ......................................................... 101.2.3 Telerobotics ................................................................................................................. 121.2.4 Networks ..................................................................................................................... 12

1.3 Psychological Consideration ................................................................................................... 121.4 Evaluation ............................................................................................................................... 141.5 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 15References ........................................................................................................................................ 15

4 Handbook of Virtual Environments: Design, Implementation, and Applications

Technology has been invested in, academic centers of excellence have been stood up, national ini-tiatives have been launched, yet widespread adoption of VE technology has proven elusive. So why embark on the second edition of the VE Handbook? Because the promise is still alive! This promise is evidenced by the fact that the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) has identi�ed the goal of enhancing virtual reality as one of the 14 grand challenges in need of solutions in the twenty-�rst century (National Academy of Engineering, 2008). As we journey forward, however, rather than being seduced by the technology, we need to take a deliberate look at what has been achieved and which hard problems still stand in the way of providing veridical virtual experiences that can trans-form those exposed, leading to gains in education, training, entertainment, and more. In this regard, the agenda set forth by Durlach and Mavor (1995) in their seminal National Research Council (NRC) report Virtual Reality: Scienti�c and Technological Challenges still provides an appropriate yardstick by which to judge the current level of maturity of VE technology and associated applica-tions. This report developed a set of recommendations that, if heeded, should assist in realizing the full potential of VE technology. In the �rst edition, when reviewing this agenda, we found that much progress had been made with regard to improved computer generation of multimodal images and advancements in hardware technologies that support interface devices; however, there was con-siderable work remaining to realize improvements in the general comfort associated with donning these devices. In revisiting this agenda, it is evident that substantial further progress has been made from a technological perspective over the past decade, yet advances in the areas of psychological considerations and evaluation continue to lag behind (see Table 1.1).

1.2 TECHNOLOGY

The technology used to generate VE systems has rapidly matured over the past decade, driven pri-marily by the gaming industry, which desires greater realism, more natural and intuitive interaction, and enhanced usability. According to Moore’s law, there has been multiple doublings of computer power in this time span and signi�cant advances in massively parallel graphics processing brought about by the widespread adoption of graphical processing units (GPUs) (Mims, 2010) and �eld-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) (Inta, Bowman, & Scott, 2012). In fact, GPUs and FPGAs have exceeded traditional Moore’s law trends; whereas central processing unit (CPU) have doubled in speed every 18 months, GPUs have increased by a factor of 5 every 18 months (Geer, 2005; Luebke & Humphreys, 2007) and FPGAs promise to be faster than GPUs for some operations (Thomas, Howes, & Luk, 2009), while not for others (Cope, Cheung, Luk, & Witt, 2005). The increased speed, programmability, and parallelism brought about by these specialized circuits allow for high-perfor-mance, visually and aurally rich, interactive 3D virtual experiences. Beyond processing capability, technology advances have come in many areas, including human–machine interfaces, the hardware and software used to generate the VE, electromechanical systems used in telerobotics, as well as the communication networks that can be used to transform VE systems into shared virtual worlds.

1.2.1 HUMAN–MACHINE INTERFACE

Human–machine interfaces consist of the multimodal display devices, including visual, auditory, haptic, and olfactory displays used to present information to VE users, and multimodal user input devices used to control movement throughout a virtual world, including the mouse, touch screen, haptic gloves, cameras (to capture gestures, eye gaze, facial expression, etc.), and microphones (to capture voice; see Popescu, Burdea, & Trefftz, 2014, Chapter 17). Advances in this area have been substantial.

A virtual world aims to be as information rich to our eyes as the real world in order to create visual immersion. The state of the art in visual immersion has been driven in large part by the state of the art in real-time computer graphics, which has progressed in terms of detail from ªat polygons to smooth shading to texture mapping and on to programmable shaders, the latter of which provide

5Virtual Environments in the Twenty-First Century

TABLE 1.1Status of Durlach and Mavor’s (1995) Recommendations for Advancing VE Technology

Area Recommendation Status

Technology: human–machine interface

Address issues of information loss due to visual display technology shortcomings (e.g., poor resolution, limited �eld of view, de�ciencies in tracker technology, bulkiness, ruggedness)

S

Improvements in spatialization of sounds, especially sounds to the front of a listener and outside of the sweet spot surrounding a listener’s head

S (see Chapter 4)

Improvements in sound synthesis for environmental sounds S

Improvements in real-time sound generation M

Better understanding of scene analysis (e.g., temporal sequencing) in the auditory system

M

Improvements in tactile displays that convey information through the skin M (see Chapter 5)

Better understanding of the mechanical properties of skin tissues that come in contact with haptic devices, limits on human kinesthetic sensing and control, and stimulus cues involved in the sensing of contact and object features

M

Improvements in locomotion devices beyond treadmills and exercise machines M (see Chapter 10)

Address �t issues associated with body-based linkage tracking devices; workspace limitations associated with ground-based linkage tracking devices; accuracy, range, latency, and interference issues associated with magnetic trackers; and sensor size and cost associated with inertial trackers

M (see Chapter 7)

Improvements in sensory, actuator, and transmission technologies for sensing object proximity, object surface properties, and applying force

S (see Chapter 5)

Improvements in the vocabulary size, speaker independence, speech continuity, interference handling, and quality of speech production for speech communication interfaces

S

Improvements in olfactory stimulation devices L (see Chapter 6)

Improvements in physiological interfaces (e.g., direct stimulation and sensing of neural systems)

M

Address ergonomic issues associated with interaction devices (e.g., miniaturization, weight, cost, power consumption, and integration methods)

M

Better understanding of perceptual effects of misregistration of visual images in augmented reality

M

Better understanding of how multimodal displays inªuence human performance on diverse types of tasks

M (see Chapter 29)

Technology: computer generation of virtual environments

Improvements in techniques to minimize the load (i.e., polygon ªow) on graphics processors

S (see Chapter 11)

Improvements in data access speeds S

Development of operating systems that ensure high-priority processes (e.g., user tracking) receive priority at regular intervals and provide time-critical computing and rendering with graceful degradation

M

Improvements in rendering photorealistic time-varying visual scenes at high frame rates (i.e., resolving the trade-off between realistic images and realistic interactivity)

S

Development of navigation aids to prevent users from becoming lost M (see Chapter 19)

Improvements in the ability to develop psychological and physical models that drive autonomous agents

M (see Chapter 14)

Improved means of mapping how user control actions update the visual scene M (see Chapter 12)

Improvements in active mapping techniques (e.g., scanning-laser range �nders, light stripes)

S (see Chapter 7)

(continued )


unprecedented ªexibility (Dionisio, Burns, & Gilbert, 2013). Beyond improved processing power derived through GPUs, improvements in visual displays have also been driven by advances in dis-play hardware, driven today primarily by the gaming industry. In terms of visual displays, the head-mounted display (HMD), which in the past has been looked at as a potential showstopper for virtual worlds, has seen some level of resolution in recent years with regard to its technological hurdles (see Badcock, Palmisano, & May, 2014; Chapter 3). For example, a newcomer to the �eld targeted

TABLE 1.1 (continued)Status of Durlach and Mavor’s (1995) Recommendations for Advancing VE Technology

Area Recommendation Status

Technology: telerobotics

Improvements in the ability to create and maintain accurate registration between the real and virtual worlds in augmented reality applications

S

Development of display and control systems that support distributed telerobotics

M (see Chapter 44)

Improvements in supervisory control and predictive modeling for addressing transport delay issues

M (see Chapter 44)

Technology: networks

Development of network standards that support large-scale distributed VEs M

Development of an open VE network M

Improvements in the ability to embed hypermedia nodes into VE systems S

Development of wide area and local area networks with the capability (e.g., increased bandwidth, speed, reliability, reduced cost) to support the high-performance demands of multimodal VE applications

S

Development of VE-speci�c application-level network protocols M

Psychological consideration

Better understanding of sensorimotor resolution, perceptual illusions, human-information-processing transfer rates, and manual tracking ability

M

Better understanding of the optimal form of multimodal information presentation for diverse types of tasks

M (see Chapter 13)

Better understanding of the effect of �xed sensory transformations and distortions on human performance

M

Better understanding of how VE drives alterations and adaptation in sensorimotor loops and how these processes are affected by magnitude of exposure

M (see Chapters 31 through 33)

Better understanding of the cognitive and social side effects of VE interaction M (see Chapters 16, 27)

Evaluation Establish set of VE testing and evaluation standards M (see Chapter 28)

Determine how VE hardware and software can be developed in a cost-effective manner, taking into consideration engineering reliability and ef�ciency, as well as human perceptual and cognitive features

M (see Chapter 20)

Identify capabilities and limitations of humans to undergo VE exposure M (see Chapters 23, 24, 26, 31 through 33)

Examine medical and psychological side effects of VE exposure, taking into consideration effects on human visual, auditory, and haptic systems, as well as motion sickness and physiological/psychological aftereffects

M (see Chapters 23, 24, 26, 31 through 33)

Determine if novel aspects of human–VE interaction require new evaluation tools

M (see Chapter 28)

Conduct studies that can lead to generalizations concerning relationships between types of tasks, task presentation modes, and human performance

L (see Chapter 29)

Determine areas in which VE applications can lead to signi�cant gains in experience or performance

M (see Chapters 36 through 50)

Note: L, limited to no advancement; M, modest advancement; S, substantial advancement.


for the gaming industry, the Oculus Rift virtual reality headset, has a wide �eld of view (110°), very little visible optical housing, and low-latency head tracking (due to Oculus’ 1000 Hz adjacent reality tracker, which uses a combination of three-axis gyros, accelerometers, and magnetometers), with issues still remaining in terms of resolution (though they are prioritizing improvements in this area; Shilov, 2013), motion sickness, bulkiness, and untested ruggedness (Bruce, 2013; Hester, 2013). To foster widespread adoption, Oculus is aiming for an affordable consumer price point (under $500; Newman, 2013), and with Facebook’s recent acquisition of Oculus VR (Zuckerberg, 2014), visually immersive applications are positioned to expand widely. Other HMD options are available, including Carl Zeiss Cinemizer, Sensics zSight, Silicon Micro Display ST1080, and Sony HMZ-T1/HMZ-T2 (Road to VR, 2013). While gains have been made, and low-to-mid cost options are available, remaining issues with HMDs (Boger, 2013) have likely stymied user acceptance. Perhaps for this reason, wearable displays, which may be more opportune for mass adoption than persistently cumbersome headsets, are making their way into virtual reality applications, including Google’s Glass (Rivington, 2013), castAR (Lee, 2014), metaglasses (Ramirez, 2013), Atheer Labs’ 3D mobile computing technologies (Tweney, 2013), Vuzix’s M100 smart glasses (Bohn, 2013). Lumus’ optical engine (OE) displays (Wollman, 2012), and Innovega’s iOptik contact lens display (Robertson, 2013). Yet, whether it is head-mounted or active goggle displays, none of these solu-tions create a visual display that arouses the senses in the same manner as one’s natural environment. Toward that end, there are attempts to build virtual data displays directly into the physical environ-ment through 3D mapping techniques that are still in their infancy (Jagadeesh, 2013; Lawler, 2013). These nascent technologies, which recently saw a breakthrough in terms of an optical chip based on waveguide-based platform technology (Smalley, Smithwick, Bove, Barabas, & Jolly, 2013), may someday bring holograms in motion (i.e., 3D holographic video displays that are generated by a computer on the ªy) and other glass-free 3D displays (Fattal et al., 2013).

A virtual world is not created by visuals alone. The ability to produce ambient audio cues also inªuences immersion, providing important positional and spatial cues that contribute signi�cantly to one’s sense of placement within a VE. There have been gains in the area of virtual auditory displays (see Vorlander & Shinn-Cunningham, 2014; Chapter 4). While early spatialized audio solutions (Blauert, 1997) were expensive to implement, it is currently feasible to include spatialized audio in most VE systems. (For an excellent source on spatialized audio, see Kapralos, Jenkin, and Milios [2008].) On the hardware side, stereo speakers, surround-sound speakers, speaker arrays, and headphone-based systems, along with 16-bit stereo soundcards, can deliver near real-life binaural sound (Chang & Jacobsen, 2013; Fazi & Nelson, 2010; Poletti, Fazi, & Nelson, 2011; Schobben & Aarts, 2005; Seo, Yoo, Kyeongok Kang, & Fazi, 2010). From the software side, many options are available, including Sound Lab (SLAB3D), a software-based real-time virtual acoustic environ-ment (VAE) rendering system (Miller, 2012); SPAT, a real-time modular spatial sound processing software system and an associated semantic and syntactic speci�cation for storing and transmitting spatial audio scene descriptions (Peters, Lossius, & Schacher, 2013; Wozniewski, Settel, Quessy, Matthews, & Courchesne, 2012); SoundScape Renderer (SSR), a tool for real-time spatial audio reproduction (Geier & Spors, 2012); Scatter, a dictionary-based method based on sound diffusion and particle-oriented approaches, which provides an alternative to time–frequency signal repre-sentations (e.g., short-term Fourier and wavelet analyses approaches; McLeran, Roads, Sturm, & Shynk, 2008); and Auro-3D, a 3D audio technology suite that provides tools to create sound in three distinct layers—surround, height and overhead (Van Baelen, Bert, Claypool, & Sinnaeve, 2011), and strati�ed approaches (Peters et al., 2009). These software solutions support the design of com-plex spatial audio scenarios through control of a variety of signal processing functions, including sound source allocation, speci�cation of reªections, frame-accurate callback con�guration, sound output destination selection, and speci�cation of acoustic scene and renderer parameters, as well as allowing for normal head-related transfer function (HRTF) processing (see Vorlander & Shinn-Cunningham, 2014; Chapter 4). Recently, parametric methods have been developed to capture per-ceptually relevant information from HRTFs, which allow for binaural rendering to be performed at


lower complexity compared to conventional HRTF convolution (Breebaart, Nater, & Kohlrausch, 2009; Dal Bó Silva & Götz, 2013). The use of parametric spatial processing provides a more con-vincing spatial reproduction for conventional stereo signals, and the combined process of spatial decoding and HRTF parameterization reduces processing requirements and increases perceived quality. Given the typically large computational requirements associated with spatialized audio, it is no surprise that the general-purpose GPU is being used to support spatial sound generation and audio processing compiling in VEs (Hamidi & Kapralos, 2009). These approaches can support ef�cient implementation of complex and computationally costly software-based spatial sound algo-rithms, although slow data transfer between GPU and CPU remains a bottleneck even with the use of a Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe) bus (Inta et al., 2012).

Haptic display technology aims to allow those who traverse a virtual world to manipulate and interact with the virtual objects they encounter (Dindar, Tekalp, & Basdogan, 2013, Chapter 5) and some are using haptic displays to communicate via tactile languages (Fuchs, Johnston, Hale, & Axelsson, 2008). The realization of such naturalistic physical interaction is still largely an area of research found in laboratories. Haptic research and development to date has generally been application speci�c, with many applications focused on the �eld of medicine (Demain, Metcalf, Merrett, Zheng, & Cunningham, 2013; Kawasaki, Endo, Mouri, Ishigure, & Daniulaitis, 2013). Some work aims to provide means of integrating haptics into existing platforms, such as Second Life (de Pascale, Mulatto, & Prattichizzo, 2008). Methods for capturing, modeling, and reproduc-ing touch-related object properties have also been an area of research. To create virtual interaction, haptic interfaces can be used to measure the motion of the human hand, map these movements onto the VE, and trigger haptic device actuators to provide users with appropriate force and vibra-tion feedback, thereby converting virtual contacts into physical interactions. Recently, this map-ping has moved from the use of surface models that require extensive and subjective hand tuning via simple parametric relationships to haptography, which bases tactile models on haptic data recorded via a handheld stylus that is used to capture haptic properties of items in the real world (Kuchenbecker, 2008). From these data, a haptograph is produced, which is a haptic impression of an object or surface patch, including various haptic properties (e.g., shape, stiffness, friction, and texture). Using the haptograph, the feel of an object or surface can then be recreated via a hap-tic interface. Haptography aims to provide a generalizable approach to designing authentic virtual touch—much as a camera lens provides a means of reproducing the visual world—through the speci�cation of haptic sensations (i.e., determining how to mimic the human’s afferent nervous systems), understanding of haptic distillation (i.e., developing algorithms that can automatically reconstruct these haptic impressions), and enhanced haptic rendering (i.e., developing haptic devices that increase the bandwidth of current ampli�ers and mechanical linkages). In terms of the latter, considerable research has focused on the design of haptic devices (Bullion & Gurocak 2009; Folgheraiter, Gini, & Vercesi, 2008; Withana et al., 2010). This has evolved into various device options, including electrical tactile systems, vibromechanical systems (both electrome-chanical [e.g., rotary inertial, linear actuators] and pneumatic tactors), static low-frequency tac-tors (e.g., pin-based tactile displays, hydraulic), piezoelectric-based devices, and burgeoning approaches such as electroactive polymers and microelectromechanical systems (McGrath et al., 2008). Initially, linear actuators were the most commonly used; however, rotary inertial tactors have become more popular in recent years. Each solution has strengths and limitations and thus the best option is application dependent. Before such technology is embraced by the masses, advances are needed in many areas including miniaturization, weight, cost, power consumption, and integration methods (i.e., means of incorporating tactors into clothing, seats, harnesses, etc.).

Until recently, most virtual worlds did not include stimulation of senses beyond the big three—visual, auditory, and haptic. Advances in olfactory displays and interfaces are making the inclusion of virtual odors a possibility (Nakamoto, 2013; also see Jones, Dechmerowski, Oden, Lugo, Wang-Costello, & Pike, 2014; Chapter 6). Currently, similar to haptic displays, olfactory display techniques have not moved much beyond the research laboratory. There are various scent generation methods


and scent delivery methods being explored. In terms of scent generation methods, advances are needed in the areas of vaporization/atomization techniques, scent switching techniques, and for-mulation techniques (Yanagida & Tomono, 2013). There are various scent delivery methods being explored, including odor releasing vents, aroma chips using functional polymer gels, inkjet printer trigger mechanisms, and projection-based systems (Kim, 2013; Matsukura, Yoneda, & Ishida, 2012; Nakaizumi, Noma, Hosaka, & Yanagida, 2006; Sugimoto & Okada, 2013). Perhaps one day, not too far away, it will be possible to travel through a virtual world with tantalizing smells wafting toward us from various virtual objects.

Since the initial edition of this handbook, touch-based input device technology has expanded in the commercial marketplace beyond conventional control interfaces (e.g., keyboard, mouse, game controller) to realize more natural interaction techniques (e.g., via touch screens, haptic devices, motion tracking, gestures) (Turk, 2014, Chapter 9). The widespread use and adoption of the Nintendo Wii®, released in 2006, and the iPhone®, released in 2007, transformed user expectations regarding acceleration and touch interfaces. Subsequently, gesture (e.g., Microsoft Kinect®, Leap Motion®) and integrated gesture and natural language interfaces (e.g., Creative Senz3D™ Interactive Gesture Camera) have provided touchless interactions that are “disrupt[ing] user experience, from the heuristics that guide us, to our design patterns and deliverables” (Pagan, 2012, p. 1). The primary sensing methods for capturing gestural interaction include movement based (e.g., touch interfaces, glove based, and acceleration based) and vision based (e.g., camera systems) (Dardas & Alhaj, 2011; Rautaray & Agrawal, 2012). The gaming industry and interaction researchers have developed ges-tural libraries for speci�c needs (e.g., in operating rooms; Ruppert, Reis, Amorim, de Moraes, and Da Silva [2012]) and gesture ontologies for individual users within VEs (Lanier et al., 2013) and multiuser applications (Roman, Lazarov, & Majumder, 2009). There remains a need for gesture-based interface standards, which minimize instances where the same gesture is used to represent differing meanings/actions across platforms or applications, which should, in turn, facilitate learn-ing while minimizing user frustration and errors.

Advances in motion tracking are needed to extend gestural interaction to full-body motion, which would allow virtual images to be calibrated to the head and/or body position of the individual traversing a virtual world. There are several possible approaches to motion tracking including opti-cal, mechanic, magnetic, and inertial. The most popular approach seems to be outside-in optical tracking systems. Advances in tracking technology have been realized in terms of 9DOF microelec-tronic mechanical system (MEMS) sensors, inertial measurement unit (IMU)-enabled GPS devices, emitter tower constellations, and independent acoustic source positioning (Park, 2013; Sun, Ma, Han, Ross, & Wee, 2013; Zou, 2013). The future of tracking technology continues to trend toward hybrid tracking systems, with a hybrid optical–inertial approach recently developed that uses the inside-out concept of the InterSense VisTracker technology (acquired by Thales Visionix), coupled with a tiny high-performance NavChip IMU (Atac & Foxlin, 2013) and several others in research labs (e.g., magnetic inertial, optical magnetic, radio frequency inertial). In addition, ultrawideband radio technology holds promise for an improved method of omnidirectional point-to-point ranging (Venkatesh & Buehrer, 2007).

If those who traverse and interact in virtual worlds are to become truly immersed, they will need to have the ability to seamlessly converse with the virtual agents they encounter. The quality of speech recognition (natural language processing) and synthesis systems is thus of paramount impor-tance. Fluent speech-to-speech applications, fueled by real-time, speaker-independent, automatic speech recognition software and systems, are coming closer to reality (Aggarwal & Dave, 2012; Picheny et al., 2011; Seide, Li, & Yu, 2011). The accuracy of such systems has been substantially improved through recent advances in graphical model–based machine-learning techniques, with computationally tractable training algorithms, and advanced neural-network modeling techniques (e.g., context-dependent deep-neural-network hidden Markov models). Once issues associated with acoustic and language modeling algorithms are fully resolved, the possibility to develop speech recognition systems that can read voice intonation and integrate with body language and facial


expression recognition systems so that emotion and intent can be better understood will likely become the holy grail.

Taken together, these display and user input technological advancements, along with those poised for the near future, provide the infrastructure on which to build complex, immersive multimodal VE applications.

1.2.2 COMPUTER GENERATION OF VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS

So what exactly is a virtual world? Gilbert (2011) identi�ed �ve essential characteristics of contem-porary state-of-the-art virtual worlds, including the following:

1. A 3D graphical interface and integrated audio (not text based) 2. Immersion derived through spatial, environmental, and multisensory realism that is capa-

ble of producing a sensation of presence 3. User-generated activities and goals (not prescripted) with the ability to create content to

personalize the VE experience 4. A persistent world that continues to exist even after a user exits it 5. Simultaneous, massively multiuser remote and distributed interactivity

Thus, several elements are involved when generating VEs, including graphics and audio generators, software for effective and ªexible content generation, and networks that support online environ-ments. In terms of graphics and audio generators, computer generation of VEs requires very large physical memories, high-speed processors, high-bandwidth mass storage capacity, and high-speed interface ports for input/output devices (Durlach & Mavor, 1995). Remarkable advances in hardware technologies have been realized in the past decade that support generation of simultaneous, massively multiuser virtual worlds. While Moore’s law may be nearing its end (theoretical physicist Michio Kaku posits that Moore’s law has about 10 years of life remaining; Paul, 2013), the semiconductor industry is working feverishly to solve this problem by introducing trigate (3D) transistor technology, heterogeneous system architectures (HSAs) that use parallel computing schemes (e.g., accelerated processing units [APUs] that couple CPUs with GPUs, FPGAs, or other such specialized process-ing systems), and a possible future of other-than-silicon-based transistors (e.g., gallium arsenide processors, molecular transistors, quantum computing) sometime between 2018 and 2026 (Chacos, 2013; ITRS, 2011). When using parallel computing schemes, GPU path tracing can be accelerated by an order of magnitude compared to the CPU, which in turn supports near real-time frame rates that enable rendering photorealistic time-varying visual scenes (Rahikainen, 2013). In addition, the �rst dedicated ray tracing hardware—Caustic Series2 ray tracing acceleration boards—has been released, although its current use is not intended for real-time execution but rather for accelerating lighting, look development, and design visualization workªows (Imagination, 2013). One caveat: While such advances needed to support real-time generation of virtual worlds will keep making sub-stantial gains, power and resulting heat may become limiting factors. As the NRC has noted, “even as multicore hardware systems are tailored to support software that can exploit multiple computation units, thermal constraints will continue to be a primary concern” (Fuller & Millett, 2011, p. viii).

From a software perspective, over the past decade, it has become possible to rapidly build and render complex virtual worlds. Virtual reality software toolkits (e.g., Vizard, Goblin XNA, Demotride); server platforms (e.g., Open Cobalt, Open Wonderland, OpenSimulator, Solipsis); standard application program interfaces (APIs) (e.g., OpenGL, Direct-3D); cross platform scene graph-based 3D APIs (e.g., Java-3D, H3DAPI, Ardor3D, jMonkeyEngine, Espresso3D, Jreality); 3D modeling languages, toolkits, content generators, and photorealistic rendering tools (e.g., AC3D Modeler, Autodesk 3ds Max, Cobalt, CyberX3D, Java 3D VRML Loader, LightWave 3D, Maya, MMDAgent, Modo, Photosynth, Presagis Creator, Raster3D, Remo 3D, SimVRML, VRML, X3D ToolKit); and real-time image processing libraries (e.g., OpenCV, VXL, IVT) are all accelerating


the development process. Using these tools, commercial application developers can build a range of VEs, from the most basic mazes to complex medical simulators and from low-end single-user PC platform applications to massively online collaborative applications supported by client–server environments. Further, today’s VE software toolkits support integration with most VE hardware (e.g., HMDs, goggles, 3D projection systems, motion trackers, 3D sound systems, haptic interfaces, datagloves), readily import 3D models and sounds, and provide the ability to build VE applications as executables, and with scripting languages (e.g., Python, OpenSim, Linden, GAML), it is now pos-sible for even nonprogrammers to develop virtual worlds. One aspect of VE content creation that is lagging behind is advances in agent arti�cial intelligence (AI), especially with regard to techniques to develop emotionally responsive agents and other nonplayer entities (NPEs) (Slater, Moreton, Buckley, & Bridges, 2008). There are tools available to develop visually lifelike human avatars (e.g., CoJACK, DI-Guy; see Feng, Shapiro, Lhommet, & Marsella, 2014; Chapter 14); however, their expressive behavior comes nowhere close to their photorealistic visual �delity. There have been considerable advances with regard to integration of telerobotic techniques (see Kheddar, Chellali, & Coiffet, 2014; Chapter 43) into autonomous agent design, which is leading to a new breed of social interaction (e.g., virtual humanoid U-Tsu-Shi-O-Mi, Jeeves, and MiRA) that is supported by a com-bination of robotic and virtual components (Holz, Dragone, & O’Hare, 2009). Interactions with the Kinect®, Wii, and other more naturalistic interfaces are further breaking down the barriers typically found in third person representations of human interactions. The next step may be integrating elec-troencephalography (EEG) and other neurophysiological measures of human emotional state and rendering these onto virtual agents (Kokini et al., 2012).

When moving about a VE, research has shown that travelers plan ahead, using a spatial map of the environment (Tyson, 2013). Thus, to enable user-generated way�nding within virtual worlds, navigational techniques should foster the development of spatial maps. Several such techniques have been investigated, including maps, landmarks, trails, and direction �nding (see Darken & Peterson, 2014; Chapter 19). Many of these techniques have been perfected by the game industry.

Some informal guidelines to support traversing virtual worlds have evolved. For closed VEs (e.g., buildings), tools that demonstrate the surrounding area (maps, exocentric 3D views) are recommended if training or exposure time is short, while internal landmarks (i.e., along a route) are recommended for longer exposure durations (Stanney, Chen, & Wedell, 2000). For semiopen (e.g., urban areas) and open environments (e.g., sea, sky), demonstrating the surround is appropriate for short exposures, while the use of external landmarks (i.e., outside a route) is recommended for long exposure times. For navigation to far away virtual places, image plane interaction, scaled-world grabbing, steering-based multiscale navigation, target-based multiscale navigation, and World in Miniature (WIM) techniques may prove effective (Kopper, Ni, Bowman, & Pinho, 2006). In addition, Microsoft Kinect–based tech-niques, such as footpad and multitouch pad controllers, offer an alternative to purely virtual navigation aids (Dam, Braz, & Raposo, 2013). Brain-controlled navigational interfaces provide another alterna-tive to virtual aids, where an individual navigates a virtual world using only their cerebral activity (Lécuyer et al., 2008; Vourvopoulos, Liarokapis, & Petridis, 2012). Any such VE navigational tech-niques should carefully consider the fact that spatial orientation and navigation in natural environments rely heavily on locomotion and associated activation of motor, vestibular, and proprioceptive systems; thus, the impact of the absence of these motion-based cues in VEs is important to consider when evalu-ating the ef�cacy of navigational aids (Taube, Valerio, & Yoder, 2013). More work is needed in the area of navigational aiding because becoming lost or disoriented in a virtual world has been found to be one of the most common usability issues experienced (Sawyerr, Brown, & Hobbs, 2013).

The NRC report (Durlach & Mavor, 1995) indicated the need for a real-time operating system (RTOS) for VEs; however, while it used to be the case that supporting VEs required an RTOS, this no longer holds true. Due to the aforementioned multiple doublings in processing power, the cor-responding need for an RTOS has been obviated by the utilization of a common OS (e.g., Windows, Linux), which can be used as a proxy for a realistic VE. This increase in capability of the computer OS is in part due to the increase in popularity of computer gaming, which requires signi�cant


processing power in both the processor (to handle relevant computations) and the GPU (to handle rendering of complex VEs). The combination of these technologies has led to the popularity of mas-sively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs), such as World of Warcraft, Rift, and Lord of the Rings online. These MMORPGs are, for all intents and purposes, the latest incarnation of a VE in that they share the concept of a shared virtual world, a representation of the player as an avatar, and ways to mitigate latency and jitter that were commonplace in older OSs. These have become the de facto standard in deploying this type of software.

1.2.3 TELEROBOTICS

Beyond the advantages to autonomous agent design discussed earlier, there are many areas (e.g., sensing, navigation, object manipulation) in which VE technology can prosper from the application of robotic techniques. Yet, if these techniques are to be adopted, issues of stability and communica-tion time delay (i.e., transport delay), link ªexibility, and real-time control architecture design (e.g., object recognition and pose estimation, fusion of vision, tactile, and force control for manipulation) must be resolved (Ambrose et al., 2012; Atashzar, Shahbazi, Talebi, & Patel, 2012). Chapter 44 dis-cusses a number of techniques for addressing these issues.

1.2.4 NETWORKS

The NRC report (Durlach & Mavor, 1995) suggested that with improvements in communica-tions networks, VEs would become shared experiences in which individuals, objects, processes, and autonomous agents from diverse locations interactively collaborate. This has occurred with a number of virtual worlds currently actively populated with online communities (e.g., Call of Duty, Active World, Second Life, SimCity, World of Warcraft). As these virtual communities grow and online demand increases in general (e.g., crowdsourcing), shortcomings with regard to performance, reliability, scalability, and security are being explored through Future Internet research efforts, which are ongoing around the world (e.g., the United States, Global Environment for Network Innovations [GENI] and Future Internet Network Design [FIND]; Korea, Future of the Internet for Korea [u-IT839]; European Union, FP6 and FP7, Network of Excellence [Euro-NGI, Euro-FGI], and EIFFEL; Japan, Collaborative Overlay Research Environment [CORE]; and Germany, IKT 2020). These efforts are working toward advances in networks (e.g., application-centric multinetwork service and edge-based intelligence [i.e., boundary between providers and users is disappearing; Peer-to-Peer (P2P) content delivery networks]) and service evolution (e.g., overlay and self-organizing networks, changes in user traf�c behavior, functional versus sto-chastic scalability [e.g., Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) signaling platform with an overlay network]). Signi�cant challenges remain with regard to transitioning the focus from quality of service or quality of experience and charting the evolutionary path to the Future Internet (e.g., PlanetLab test bed support of GENI) (Tran-Gia, 2007). In addition, commercial successes such as Google Fiber, which aims to provide 1 Gbps networking to residential clients, mean that net-worked VE applications will become more ubiquitous as time goes on.

1.3 PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATION

There are a number of psychological considerations associated with the design and use of VE sys-tems. Some of these considerations focus on techniques and concerns that can be used to aug-ment or enhance VE interaction and transfer of training (e.g., perceptual illusions, design based on human-information-processing transfer rates), while others focus on adverse effects due to VE exposure. In terms of the former, we know that perceptual illusions exist, such as auditory–visual cross-modal perception phenomena, yet little is known about how to leverage these phenomena to reduce development costs while enhancing one’s experience in a VE. Perhaps, one exception is


vection (i.e., the illusion of self-movement), which is known to be related to a number of display fac-tors (see Table 18.1 of Hettinger, 2014; Chapter 18). By manipulating these display factors, design-ers can provide VE users with a compelling illusion of self-motion throughout a virtual world, thereby enhancing their sense of presence (see Chertoff & Schatz, 2014; Chapter 34) often with the untoward effect of motion sickness (see Keshavarz, Heckt, & Lawson, 2014; Lawson, 2014a, 2014b; Chapters 23, 24, and 26). Other such illusions exist (e.g., visual dominance) and could likewise be leveraged. While current knowledge of how such perceptual illusions occur is limited, it may be suf�cient to know that they do occur in order to leverage them to enhance VE system design and reduce development costs. Substantially more research is needed in this area to identify perceptual and cognitive design principles (see Munro, Carroll, Sheldon, & Patrey, 2014; Chapter 16) that can be used to trigger and capitalize on these illusory phenomena.

Another psychological area in need of research is that of transfer of training (see Champney, Carroll, Surpris, & Cohn, 2014; Chapter 30). Stanney, Mourant, and Kennedy (1998, p. 330) sug-gest that

To justify the use of VE technology for a given task, when compared to alternative approaches, the use of a VE should improve task performance when transferred to the real-world task because the VE system capitalizes on a fundamental and distinctively human sensory, perceptual, information process-ing, or cognitive capability.

But what leads to such transfer? VEs provide the ability to reconstruct similar conditions to those in the operational world, which would otherwise be too risky, costly, or cumbersome to reproduce, which imparts them with high face validity. While face validity is important, there are still limited data-grounded best practices that can be used to direct the design of VE training solutions such that they optimize skill acquisition and retention (Burke & Hutchins, 2008). Despite this lack of knowledge, transfer of training from VEs to real-world tasks has been demonstrated across a range of applications from simple sensorimotor tasks (Kenyon & Afenya, 1995 [see refuting evidence in Kozak, Hancock, Arthur, & Chrysler, 1993]; Rose et al., 1998; Rose, Brooks, & Attree, 2002) and procedural tasks to ones that are more complex, both procedurally (Brooks, Rose, Attree, & Elliot-Square, 2002) as well as cognitively and spatially (Foreman, Stanton, Wilson, & Duffy, 2003). While these examples demonstrate the potential of achieving training transfer with VE systems, there is a need for better understanding of the types of tasks or activities for which the unique characteristics of VEs (i.e., egocentric perspective, stereoscopic 3D visualization, real-time inter-activity, immersion, and multisensory feedback) can be leveraged to provide signi�cant gains in human performance, knowledge, or experience.

In contrast to the limited knowledge concerning perceptual and cognitive design principles that augment or enhance VE interaction, more is known about identifying and controlling the adverse effects of VE exposure. Adverse effects are of particular concern because they can per-sist for some time after exposure, potentially predisposing those exposed to harm. These effects are both physiological (see DiZio & Lackner, 2014; Keshavarz, Heckt, & Lawson, 2014; Lawson, 2014a, 2014b; Stanney, Kennedy, & Hale, 2014; Wann & Mon-Williams, 2014; Chapters 23, 24, 26, 31 through 33) and psychological (see Calvert, 2014; Chapter 27), with considerable effort cur-rently focused on the former and less on the latter. With regard to the latter, some are concerned that exposure to VEs that portray violent content, as is often found in entertainment venues, could lead to aggressive, antisocial, or criminal behavior (see Calvert, 2014; Chapter 27). Thus, a proactive approach is needed that weighs the physiological and psychological risks and potential consequences associated with VE exposure against the bene�ts. Waiting for the onset of harmful consequences should not be tolerated.

Taken together, the research into psychological considerations of VE exposure indicates that more research is needed to derive perceptual and cognitive design strategies that enhance VE inter-action and that there are risks associated with VE exposure. However, usage protocols have been


developed that, if successfully adopted, can assist in minimizing these risks (see Stanney, Kennedy, & Hale, 2014; Chapter 31). Thus, VE technology is not something to be eschewed as it has many advantages for enticing and didactic experiences; it is rather something to leverage wholly yet vigi-lantly, taking care to address the associated risks.

1.4 EVALUATION

Most VE user interfaces are fundamentally different from traditional graphical user interfaces, requiring that their design address unique input/output (I/O) devices, perspectives, and physiologi-cal interactions (see McMahan, Lopper, & Bowman, 2014; Chapter 12). Thus, when developers and usability practitioners attempt to apply traditional usability engineering methods to the evalu-ation of VE systems, they �nd few if any that are particularly well suited to these environments (see Gabbard, 2014; Chapter 28). There is a need to address key characteristics unique to VEs (e.g., perceived presence and real-world �delity, multidimensional interactivity, immersion, spatial navigation, orientation), for which existing usability methods fall short in their ability to assess VE systems (see Table 1.2). Several have sought to �ll this gap.

Stuart (1996) provided basic methods for evaluating general usability components of VEs. Salzman, Dede, and Loftin (1995) developed formative usability evaluation methods for assess-ing virtual worlds. Bowman, Koller, and Hughes (1998) developed usability techniques speci�c to the evaluation of various VE travel techniques. Gabbard and Hix (2000; see Gabbard, 2014; Chapter 28) developed a taxonomy of VE usability characteristics that can serve as a foundation for identifying usability criteria that existing evaluation techniques fail to fully characterize. Stanney, Mollaghasemi, and Reeves (2000) used this taxonomy as the foundation on which to develop an automated system, the Multicriteria Assessment of Usability for Virtual Environments (MAUVE), which organizes VE usability characteristics into 2 primary usability attributes (VE system usability and VE user considerations), 4 secondary attributes (interaction, multimodal system output, engage-ment, and side effects), and 11 tertiary attributes (navigation, user movement, object selection and manipulation, visual output, auditory output, haptic output, presence, immersion, comfort, sickness, and aftereffects). Similar to the manner in which traditional heuristic evaluations are conducted, MAUVE can be used at various stages in the usability engineering life cycle, from initial storyboard design to �nal evaluation and testing. It can also be used to compare system design alternatives. The results of a MAUVE evaluation not only identify a system’s problematic usability components and techniques but also indicate why they are problematic. Such results may be used to remedy critical usability problems as well as to enhance the design for usability of subsequent system development efforts. Sawyerr et al. (2013) developed a hybrid evaluation method that combines a three-cycle (task action, navigation, and system initiative) cognitive walkthrough method and VE-speci�c usability

TABLE 1.2Limitations of Traditional Usability Methods for Assessing Virtual Environments

Traditional measurement techniques only capture point-and-click interactions, which are not representative of the multidimensional object selection and manipulation characteristics of 3D space.

Quality of multimodal system output (e.g., visual, auditory, haptic) is not comprehensively addressed by traditional evaluation techniques.

Means of assessing sense of presence and aftereffects have not been incorporated into traditional usability methods.

Traditional performance measurements (i.e., time and accuracy) do not comprehensively characterize VE system interaction (e.g., spatial navigation, orientation).

Traditional single-user task-based assessment methods do not consider VE system characteristics in which two or more users interact in the same environment.


heuristics organized into three categories (i.e., design and esthetics, control and navigation, and errors and help) (Munoz, Barcelos, & Chalegre, 2011; Rusu et al., 2011).

Beyond usability, the cost-effectiveness of VE systems should also be evaluated (see Gross, 2014; Chapter 20), as well as the potential for any product liability concerns (see Kennedy, Kennedy, Kennedy, Wasula, & Bartlett, 2014; Chapter 21). With these aspects considered, developers can evaluate if VE technology offers �nancial advantages as well as acceptable risks over current prac-tices or technologies. This is an essential determination if VE technology is to thrive both commer-cially and in research domains, which is looking possible as applications have grown in both areas (see Chapters 36 through 50).

1.5 CONCLUSION

With this second coming of virtual reality, we are more hardware and software capable than ever before. The biggest difference this time, though, is that it is the game industry that is getting us the better graphics hardware and low-cost HMDs, as opposed to the mid-1990s Department of Defense (DoD) VR agenda. The 1997 NRC study entitled Modeling and Simulation—Linking Entertainment and Defense (Zyda & Sheehan, 1997) predicted this trend. The largest networked VEs today are coming straight out of the game industry—the Call of Duty and World of Warcraft series of games have networked infrastructures better architected than anything ever conceived or built by the US DoD; DoD may thus be ceding their leadership in the hardware and software base underlying this second coming of VR. These games de�nitely move toward the ultimate form of VEs, where users are immersed in an alternate reality that stimulates at least the visual and aural senses and captures them effectively enough to garner hours and hours of their attention. Imagine when the same powers of immersion are brought to the classroom! As olfaction and gesturing are added, the future is destined to bring a Matrix-like experience to the virtual world. Thus, while the VEs to date have yet to meet with expectations, we anticipate the second go around will ful�ll many of the early fantasies.

Some of the things we will be looking for as this new VR push goes forward are perhaps solving some of the harder issues with respect to populating our VR worlds—how do we create AI char-acters or other NPEs that both perceive and display cognition and emotions? We imagine not just a visual display, say from an Oculus Rift HMD, but also a low-cost, hybrid EEG device that reads our emotional state and transmits that to the core virtual world such that our emotionally cognoscent AI characters can appropriately interact with us more subtlety than is currently achieved through the �ring of a virtual weapon. The real question then is: who will fund this careful and hard melding of cognition and emotion such that we can achieve these great, next-generation VEs? Our guess is that the entertainment industry will recognize the value in building AI characters that perceive and display emotions as they turn toward generating interactive VR stories imbued with the emotional subtleties currently only found in the cinema.

So, there are lots of great VR research works ahead with this game industry–driven second coming, and it is going to move us toward Descartes’ vision—virtual sensory experiences that are so deceiving we take them as truths from which we may have little desire to withdraw.

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24 Chapter 24: Motion Sickness Scaling

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38 Chapter 38: Team Training in VirtualEnvironments

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“A key attraction of this text is the diversity of chapterofferings … A second aspect that is

very important is the discussion and interplay of thescience of learning and applications of

virtual environments, as well as the underpinning of theoryand research in each chapter. I

find this interplay to be very important … as a means ofinforming both science and practice

along the way.”

—Dr Winston “Wink” Bennett, Jr.

US Air Force Research Laboratory, Warfighter ReadinessResearch Division

“… a comprehensive view of each of the elements impactingthe design, implementation, and

total cost of virtual environments. The list of authorsfeatures an all-star cast of simulation

practitioners … well organized and describes each of theantecedents of good design in a

pragmatic way, making it easy for novices or experts tofind selected topics to gain knowledge

from reading.”

—Robert Sottilare, Ph.D.

Simulationist & Adaptive Tutoring Scientist

“… a comprehensive guide to the latest technology and ideasin the resurgent field of VE.

The editors have brought together a distinguished list ofexpert contributors and covered

a broad swath to provide a definitive guide of the currentstate of the art for students and

experts alike.”

—Scott S. Grigsby, Ph.D.

Ball Aerospace and Technologies Corp

A Complete Toolbox of Theories and Techniques

The second edition of a bestseller, Handbook of VirtualEnvironments: Design, Implementation,

and Applications presents systematic and extensive coverageof the primary areas of research

and development within VE technology. It brings together acomprehensive set of contributed

articles that address the principles required to definesystem requirements and design,

build, evaluate, implement, and manage the effective use ofVE applications. The contributors

provide critical insights and principles associated withtheir given areas of expertise to provide

extensive scope and detail on VE technology and itsapplications.

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