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Applied Geomatics ISSN 1866-9298 Appl GeomatDOI 10.1007/s12518-011-0071-z

GIS and geomatics for disastermanagement and emergency relief: aproactive response to natural hazards

M. Giardino, L. Perotti, M. Lanfranco &G. Perrone

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ORIGINAL PAPER

GIS and geomatics for disaster management and emergencyrelief: a proactive response to natural hazards

M. Giardino & L. Perotti & M. Lanfranco & G. Perrone

Received: 30 April 2010 /Accepted: 30 November 2011# Società Italiana di Fotogrammetria e Topografia (SIFET) 2012

Abstract Geo-information and remote sensing are proper toolsto enhance functional strategies for increasing awareness onnatural hazard prevention and for supporting research and oper-ational activities devoted to disaster reduction. An improvedearth sciences knowledge coupled with geomatics advancedtechnologies is here proposed with the goal of reducing human,social, economic, and environmental losses due to naturalhazards and related disasters. Research activities lead to thecollection and evaluation of data from: global and nationalliterature for the definition of predisposing/triggering factorsand evolutionary processes of natural instability phenomena(landslides, floods, storms…) and for the analysis of statis-tical methods for the prediction of natural disasters; localand regional historical, geological, geomorphological studiesof mountain territories of Europe and Developing Countries.Geodatabases, remote sensing, and mobile geographic infor-mation systems (GIS) applications were developed to performanalysis of: (1) large, climate-related disaster (HurricaneMitch, Central America; Zambesi Flood,Mozambique), eitherfor early warning or mitigation measures at the national andinternational scale; (2) distribution on slope instabilities at the

regional scale (Landslide Inventory in the Aosta Valley, NWItaly), to activate prevention and recovering measures; (3)geological and geomorphological controlling factors of seis-micity, to provide microzonation maps and scenarios forcoseismic response of instable zones (Dronero, NW ItalianAlps); (4) earthquake effects on ground and infrastructures, inorder to register early assessment for awareness situations andfor compile damage inventories (2000, 2001, and 2003 Asti-Alessandria seismic events). The research results has beenable to substantiate early impact models by structuring geo-databases on natural disasters and to support humanitarianrelief and disaster management activities by creating andtesting SRG2, a mobile GIS application for field-data collec-tion on natural hazards and risks.

Keywords Natural hazards . Disaster reduction .

Geodatabase . Remote sensing .Mobile GIS .

Geothematic mapping

Introduction

Aims

The GIS and Geomatics Laboratory (GeoSITLab) was foundedat the Department of Earth Sciences of the University of Torinoto enhance the application of Geomatics technologies for geo-thematic mapping and for geological and geomorphologicalfield activities.

The Information Technology for Humanitarian Assistance,Cooperation and Action (ITHACA) center was foundedby Turin Polytechnic and Istituto Superiore sui SistemiTerritoriali per l’Innovazione in cooperation with theWorld Food Programme to conduct operational and research

M. Giardino (*) : L. PerottiGeoSITLab, Gis and Geomatics Laboratory,Dept. of Earth Sciences, University of Torino,Via Valperga Caluso 35,10125 Torino, Italye-mail: luigi.perotti@unito.it

M. LanfrancoDoctoral School in Strategic Sciences, University of Torino,Via Po 31,10124 Torino, Italy

G. PerroneDept. of Earth Sciences, University of Torino,Via Valperga Caluso 35,10125 Torino, Italy

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activities for analysis, evaluation, and mitigation of naturaland manmade hazards and for emergency management.

At the Doctoral School in Strategic Sciences of the Univer-sity of Torino (SUISS), a research program has been setup toevaluate the role of Civil Defence in the management andrecovery from natural disasters: remote sensing and geo-information are here considered as proper tools to enhancefunctional strategies, from civil–military cooperation to forceintegration during search and rescue activities.

Based on these premises, the aforementioned institutionsrecognized the proactive response to natural hazards as acommon aim, and an agreement between the GeoSITLaband the ITHACA centers was signed. So far, a joint researchprogram has been developed in order: (1) to substantiate earlywarning/early impact models by structuring geodatabases onnatural disasters with substantial earth sciences-oriented infor-mation, and (2) to support emergency relief and disastermanagement activities by creating a mobile GIS applicationfor field-data collection on natural hazards and risks.

The analysis of 2010 Haiti earthquake emergency responseshowed the humanitarian information-sharing gap: first reliefteams and home offices were unable to exchange field surveysand remote sensing data (HHI 2011). This drove to loss of dataintegration, increasing number of coordination meeting (timeconsuming), false perceiving of “on the ground” situation.This experience showed the necessity of a proactive responseto natural hazards since the early impact phase. Informationmanagement during disasters should be conducted as in mil-itary environment, involving procedures tested in recent NorthAtlantic Treaty Organization civil–military operations likeInternational Security Assistance Force (Rietjens et al.2009), with full integration of new data from field and sensorsin existing databases stored in safe places.

Reference framework and theory of emergency reliefand disaster management

A disaster is a sudden event bringing great damage (Quarantelli1998). Usually, disasters are distinguished in natural, as geo-logical, hydrometeorological, and biological ones, or inducedby human processes, as environmental degradation and tech-nological hazards (UN/ISDR 2004). Here, the voluntaryhuman-induced disasters (i.e., NBCR-E terrorist attacks) areexcluded.

The natural disasters are generally subdivided into “slowonset ones” (famine, drought, pandemia) and “rapid onsetones” (floods, earthquake, landslide, storms, etc.). A completelist of disaster types and associated death tolls is provided bythe Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters(www.cred.be).

Disaster management is the process that is implementedwhen any type of catastrophic event takes place to overcomethe catastrophe and to return to normal life and function as

quickly as possible. The disaster management activities arelikely to address such as important matters as evacuatingpeople from an impacted region, arranging temporary housing,providing safe water, food, and medical care (Glass 2001).

The emergency relief focus in apply available resources tourgent problems in the most timely and efficient manner. Forthis objective “command and control”must be centralized andsupported by continuous information awareness (Alexander1993).

Real-time information from affected areas is provided bypersonnel operating on site or by satellite imagery. Only afterthe first rescue, personnel deploy is possible to obtain detailedand technical information provided by trained units and byaerial imagery (such as an unmanned aerial vehicle).

Geomatics for human security

The Human Security approach to humanitarian emergenciesfocalized relief effort on a people-centered recovery activitythat should guarantee not only the lives of affected people butalso their social ties and economic capacities (UN/OCHA2009). TheHyogoDeclaration (World Conference on DisasterReduction, hold during 2005 in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan) stressedthat the phases of relief, rehabilitation, and reconstruction arewindows of opportunity for the rebuilding of livelihoods andfor the planning and reconstruction of physical and socio-economic structures, in a way that will build communityresilience and reduce vulnerability to future disaster risks(UN/ISDR 2005). Faster relief will avoid not only the highesttoll of death but also the outbreak of famine and disease, therise of internally displaced persons (IDP), the fall of productivesystem. It is also to underline that, especially in developingcountries, the assistance must be highly impacting and shorttimed to prevent from creating dependency (USAID 2002).

Geomatics involves the integrated acquisition, modeling,analysis, presentation, and management of spatially referenceddata (i.e., any type of data that includes its location on earth), tosupport decision making (Gomarasca 2009). Since the mid-1990s, Geomatics played an important role in the data acqui-sition and communication about natural and human-induceddisasters around the globe: activities of media and humanitar-ian agencies have been increasingly dependent on satelliteimages, maps and three-dimensional terrain visualizations.Almost any report on the Darfur Crisis, Iraq War, or the IndianOcean Tsunami exploits a host of powerful geospatial technol-ogies. Historically, the primary domain of Cold War-era mili-tary agencies, geomatics has grown to include a thrivingcivilian user base, thanks to several key industry trends (Verjee2005).

In the last decades, substantial progresses in natural hazardsanalysis have been made worldwide by developing satellite-bearing methods. Remote sensing provides various informa-tion based on special capabilities of instruments or sensors on

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satellite: in the case of earthquake, the satellite observationshave the major advantage of covering almost all the areas ofseismic activity throughout the world in short duration. Usefulapplication can be developed both for early warning and earlyimpact purposes. Observations of the components/propertiesnecessary to register seismo-ionospheric effects can be used asprecursors of earthquakes.

As an example, ultra low frequency and extremely lowfrequency emissions were recorded by DEMETER micro-satellite on 7 January 2005, 7 days before the earthquake(Mb06.1) occurred on 14 January 2005 in the New BritainRegion (Bhattacharya and Gwal 2005)

Geomatics should boost relief effort in every field of disastermanagement: the integration of geospatial databases, globalpositioning system (GPS), and digital cartography led to acomprehensive view of affected areas from the “boots on theground” perspective. The possibility to link Pocket/Tablet PCto home servers, via mobile or satellite telecommunications,gives also to emergency operations director an immediateimpression of situation on the ground. Especially in largedisasters, which could evolve to complex emergencies, theknowledge management increases exponentially the successof the emergency relief (von Lubitz et al. 2008). Specialattention needs to be devoted to the problems of integratedemergency response for large disasters in the international area.When a major flood or earthquake causes a massive death tolland leaves survivors homeless and hungry, the United Nationsorganize relief effort that should provide some or all thefollowing actions (Fig. 1):

1. Search and rescue teams should be connected to eachothers to exchange information and to provide supportto major efforts; in wide urban areas (more and morefrequently hits by disasters), communications andmovement are strongly disturbed by ruins and aerialsurvey associated with GPS localizers is the only wayto guarantee C3I (command, control, communications,information).

2. First aid and health care facilities become strategicstructures that must be guarantee from new occurrences

(i.e., aftershocks), so their right position should studiedas soon as possible.

3. Food and drinking water supply chain could be betterorganized with the location of safe area for storage anddistribution; environmental pollution induced by disastershould be analyzed and consequences managementactivated.

4. A safe environment for refugee camps should be providedonly by deep analysis of hazards still threatening theaffected area; adequate access, space for warehouses, easysecurity are as important as healthy conditions.

5. Finally, first rebuilding should start at once, with partic-ularly attentions to local social structure; the strengthties that grow among hit people should be used toavoid IDP.

The role of earth sciences in geothematic mappingand description of natural hazards

Geology and geomorphology support regional or local studieson natural hazards assessment and management through thecollection and interpretation of Earth’s surface landforms,materials, structures, and processes.

Geothematic maps are synthetic ways of showing theaforementioned information: for example, geomorphologicalmaps (Goudie 2004) of flood plain are suitable both for naturalhazards studies and emergency management activities. Asstated by the Working Group on Applied GeomorphologicalMapping of the International Association ofGeomorphologists,geomorphological maps are, in fact, not only important as endproducts of scientific researches but also as tools for technicalapplications by professionals dealing with the landscape andlandforms (Pain et al. 2008).

In a similar way, regional geological maps can play astrategic role in enhancing natural hazards studies, includingassessment, management, and planning for remedial measures.Regional maps can also represent an important support fordeveloping databases and GIS application devoted to landslideresearch (Dikau et al. 1996).

In the case of an earthquake-prone region, useful informa-tion can be synthesized by geostructural maps including highlyactive faults, as well as maps of historical seismicity (Yeats etal. 1997). Combination of points, linear and areal georeferencedinformation from these thematic maps with other parametricaldata (e.g., slope angle, rock strength, sediment granulometry…)may result in seismic zoningmaps in which different degrees ofhazards are delineated. Moreover, during emergency activitiesand specialized early impact studies related to a large earth-quake, detailed geological and geomorphological data can offera precise location of individual local hazards, such as liquefac-tion, earthquake-induced landslides, or tsunami runup.

Fig. 1 Disaster management timeline in complex emergencies (modifiedfrom UN/OCHA 2008)

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Better knowledge for faster relief

In order to improve in our societies the knowledge andcapacity related to prevention of natural hazards and risks,a strategic use of geo-information by geomatic techniques isproposed here. Both regional and local data are seen here asnecessary components to mitigate damages and human lossesby natural disaster and to strengthen effectiveness of risksmanagement.

A multiscale method has been developed and assessed inorder to enable administrative bodies and institutions to makeproper choices and decisions for the mitigation of naturaldisaster and adaptation to their effects. Better forecasting andwarning of natural hazards is based on the improved integra-tion of geological knowledge into disaster risk reductionresearches.

Methodology

Developing a multiscale method

Scientific community, decision- and policy-makers can accessa great variety of information on natural hazards. Availabledata can be of very different types by contents, quality, anddimensions, thus causing difficulties of management. Someproblems can also arise when original data are collected, eitherlocally or globally, by remote sensing or by field surveys: theyhave to be interpreted, summarized, and redrawn in order tocreate reports, base maps and/or more elaborated geothematicor statistical representations. Furthermore in the last 15 years,the use of computers and other electronic devices for collection,analysis, and distribution of data had a notable development inthe Earth Sciences and their applications to environmentalanalysis. Based on these effective improvements, a multidisci-plinary, multiscale method for collection, interpretation, andrepresentation of data on natural hazards is here proposed,including:

1. a relational geodatabase structure, for standardized collec-tion and storage of literature and remote sensing data onnatural hazards

2. a mobile GIS technology for geothematic mapping anddata implementation in the field

Geodatabases dimensions, GIS, and remote sensingsolutions

Modern GIS allows easy loading structures and complex datamanagement (Arctur and Zeiler 2004). Nevertheless, in acomplex geodatabase on natural hazards, these importantpotential capabilities can clash with the difficulty in the oper-ational data insertion. Therefore, a straightforward structure

and a rapid access to data must be offered to the users, foreasier data loading and consulting: geodatabase has to containan adjusted number of fields for the specific natural hazard tobe identified and characterized (Antenucci et al. 1991). Fur-thermore, a key of the success for natural hazards and risksperception, assessment, and management is the appropriateselection of remote sensing techniques and imagery, whoseaccuracy and effectiveness must correlate to the featuresincluded in the geodatabase (Crespi et al. 2007).

Based on the amount of details derived from fieldactivities and remote sensing investigations and storedin an inventory of data on natural hazards, it is possibleto separate four dimensional macroclasses of geodatabaseswhich names are related to organization level involved indisaster relief:

(A) Local (municipalities)(B) Regional (local governments)(C) National (state government)(D) Global (United Nation (UN) and other IO)

Their differences essentially consist in the scale of analysis,which has repercussions on the geodatabase structure and onthe total number and type of available fields and records. Incase “A”, the local geodatabase has to achieve the largestpossible amount of georeferenced data (geological and geo-morphological mappings, hazard and risk analysis, monitor-ing systems, …) of a single instability phenomenon or of asmall area involved in a natural hazard event. The mainpurpose of a local geodatabase consists in the search andstorage of all those possible data capable to define the mostunivocal model of the studied hazard, as well as the realizationof a possible zoning of the instability phenomenon or event,such as a landslide or a flood event, either from a geomorpho-logical/structural reconstruction (Giardino et al. 2004) or froma hazard assessment point of view (Luino et al. 2009).

Case “B” foresees a lower detail of the data collection,making greater attention to all the useful sources for a regionaldescription, individualization, and distribution analysis ofseveral types of natural instability. This type of geodatabaseloads data from historical files, newspaper information, tech-nical reports, and remote sensing studies. So, regional geo-databases consist of extremely heterogeneous data, from verydifferent sources, often compiled by inexperienced staff. Forthese reasons, their complicated operation sometimes dealswith problems of accuracy and precision (Brunsden and Isben1996). Nevertheless, proper regional geodatabases offer aunique possibility of individualizing “characteristic” hazardsof specific areas: as an example, the most significant earth-quake for a seismic zone, in term of magnitude and frequency(Schwarz and Coppersmith 1984). Moreover, detailed tempo-ral and spatial analysis of the collected information is possiblethrough regional databases. WebGIS technologies are some-times adopted to show the location of the sites historically

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affected by hazardous phenomena (e.g., landslides and floodsin Umbria Region; Salvati et al. 2009).

National-scale geodatabases (case “C”) hold natural hazarddata characteristic of a whole nation. Usually they are con-trolled by governmental agencies, which setup common datamodels addressing specific aspects for different types of natu-ral hazards. Their original data being captured by differentresearch and territorial institutions, the success of nationalgeodatabases is proportionate to the ability of components ofthe contributors to work together in a common way by linkingdata, information, and processing tools between differentapplications, regardless of their underlying software, hardwaresystems, and geographic location. That is the suggested use ofa “networked service-oriented interoperability” (Osuchowskiand Atkinson 2008), which is able to connect disparate inven-tories into a single “virtual” national database; here, customfunctions allow the spatial data to be manipulated and queried:for example, to find all the residents of an area within anexposure zone for a potential environmental hazard (Trigilaet al. 2008). In short, national geodatabases are beingaddressed to territorial applications and are the standard refer-ence for developing socioeconomic analysis of natural hazardsand risk management policies.

Case “D” includes global geodatabases. These typesare generally associated to the Spatial Data Infrastruc-ture (SDI) project developed and managed by UnitedNations Geospatial Information Working Group since2000. The typical use is short-term emergency responsecapacities, long-term risk reduction, development andenvironmental protection activities. SDI is often usedto denote the relevant base collection of technologies,policies, and institutional arrangements that facilitate theavailability of and access to spatial data.

Accurate, easily accessible geographic information iscrucial to good decision-making in humanitarian operations.The main aim of the SDI project is the development andimplementation of a global database, with its related rulesand procedures to store, manage, and exchange geospatialdata for international organizations (e.g.,World Food Program).The SDI is an efficient tool for storing, querying, andmanipulating large amounts of global geographic informa-tion and spatial data for analysis and visualization purposes.The database integrates and updates data coming from multi-ple sources, providing each user with the latest datasets, thusavoiding duplications and mistakes. The data models areshaped according to specific needs and demands of the usergroups within the organization. SDI metadata are commonlydelivered electronically via internet (Ajmar et al. 2008;UNGIWG 2007a, b).

Recent GIS developments applied to natural hazards andrisks assessment and management introduced new possibilitiesfor the interaction of geodatabases from different dimensionalclasses. Modern relational database management systems

make it easier to store geometries, attributes, and behavioralrules for multidimensional data, from (A) to (D) macro-classes.

The integration of field-based and remote sensing investi-gation and the use of multiscale Land Information Systems(GIS devoted to territorial data management) for the develop-ment of Decision Support Systems suggest the opportunity toactivate stronger links between informative levels for regional-scale files management (geodatabases B) and detail analysis(geodatabase A).

Geomatics supports for field activities

Looking for faster and more suitable procedures for mappingand describing natural hazards in the field, applications ofGeomatics can help to share, compare, and exchange databetween researcher and users in unambiguous and accessibleways, possibly following codified standards for map produc-tion and user-friendly technologies for results communication.

Simplicity, precision, and rapidity of field survey techni-ques are some ingredient for achieving better results. In thisperspective, a key factor offered by digital techniques is thepossibility to organize a complete dataset during field activi-ties, avoiding time-consuming laboratory operations, such ascopying data from paper forms and/or repeated drawing ofmaps.

To develop a digital methodology for mapping and de-scription of natural hazards, different studies on computerapplications for field-based geological/geomorphologicalactivities have been compared, conducted by Universities,research centers, and technical institutions (e.g., Haugerud andThoms 1999; Walsh et al. 2000; Clarke et al. 2002; Embleton1988). Geomatics support to field surveying was also tested fordeveloping skills at an educational level (e.g., Internationalconference: “Supporting fieldwork using information technol-ogy”, University of Plymouth). As a common conclusion ofthe aforementioned works, light, easy-to-handle hardware anduser-friendly software have been selected, in order to offer aprecise, uniform standard technological path to be followedwhen collecting and processing data in the field.

The geomatics methodology suggested here consists in theintegrated use of digital pictures and maps from differentsources (topographic maps, hortorectified aerial photographs,other technical geothematic maps), which becomes either abase or an output for data collection and representation ofnatural hazards, by using dedicated forms for geomorpholog-ical descriptions and mapping. The equipment for such activ-ities consists in a pocket PC based on Windows CE, withdedicated GIS software and Bluetooth GPS for ground posi-tioning (Fig. 2). The use of palm/pocket PC is an innovativesolution with respect to the use of tablet PC as a field mappingtool proposed by other research teams. Juxtaposition of thetwo alternatives revealed that palm computers are more con-venient tools for supporting field activities, according to

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several criteria: size, weight, autonomy power of batteries,rapidity and simplicity of use, overall cost of instrumentation.

Applications and results

Overview on geodatabases, remote sensing, and mobile GISapplications

Research activities lead to the collection and evaluation ofdata on natural hazards and disaster events from differentsources:

& historical, geological, geomorphological, and hydrogeo-logical data on natural hazards from mountain territoriesof Europe and Developing Countries;

& reference papers and bibliographic data useful for the defi-nition of predisposing/triggering factors and evolutionaryprocesses of natural instability phenomena (landslides,floods, storms,…) and for the analysis of statistical methodsfor the prediction of natural disasters;

& remote sensing data for the application of geomaticstechniques in the management of emergencies relatedto geological and geomorphological phenomena.

Geodatabases, remote sensing, and mobile GIS applicationswere devoted to the analysis of:

& large, climate-related disaster, either for early warning ormitigation measures at the national and internationalscale

& distribution on slope instabilities at the regional scale, toactivate prevention and recovering measures

& geological and geomorphological controlling factors ofseismicity, to provide microzonation maps and scenariosfor co-seismic response of instable zones

& earthquake effects on ground and infrastructures in orderto register early assessment for awareness situations andfor compile damage inventories

Application of remote sensing to climate-related naturaldisaster

Two recent examples of applications of remote sensing, devotedto themitigation of environmental hazards connected to climate-related disaster are summarized here.

The first case study concerns a remote sensing applica-tion for processing satellite images performed during theUN-funded project “Rural indigenous communities andmitigation of disasters—The Polochic Valley of Guatemala”(Perotti 2002). The project had a pilot site for areas of highvulnerability to extreme weather events in the basin of RioMatanzas, central Guatemala (Fig. 3), a tributary of theRio Polochic, a W–E river flowing to the Gulf of Honduras(Caribbean Sea).

The aim of the work has been the study of the environ-mental effects of Hurricane Mitch that struck this area in 1998by multitemporal analysis of satellite images acquired beforeand after the catastrophic event. Flooding related to HurricaneMitch occurred onOctober to November 1998. The area of theRio Polochic confluence was flooded in several populatedplaces. Comparison of pre- and post-event images with topo-graphic maps (year 1991) shows fluvial diversion downstreamof the confluence. General changes in vegetated areas havebeen also reported. Remote sensing also individualizedclimate-related landslides (triggered by Hurricane Mitch)and other tectonic controls to the stability of slopes by thestructural discontinuities belonging to the regional systemChixoy–Polochic (Figs. 4 and 5), sometimes associated withlower forest cover due to deforestation.

The second application concerns the development ofan early warning system for flood events based onprecipitation analysis and related historical flooded areadetection (Fig. 6). The methodology is based on theindividuation of critical precipitation events in the last10 years on worldwide extent and the evaluation of relatedfields effects in terms of flooded areas; these are extractedfrom satellite images using suitable classification procedures

Fig. 2 Geomatics supports for direct digital mapping and descriptionof natural hazards

Fig. 3 Hurricane Micth 1998 from remote sensed image GOES-8. TheRio Polochic area (red)

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and analyzing geomorphological features to identify thepotential floodable areas (e.g., application to the Zambesibasin, Mozambique; Fig. 7). Pluviometric thresholds, de-termined by different analysis (hydrological and statistical),executed on historical rainfall data, are stored in a databasestructure where they can be compared with real-time rain-fall values. This early warning system allows monitoringnear real-time rainfall values, creating an alert for criticalvalues and producing a map with a flood scenario referredto the past event with similar rainfall fields (Albanese et al.2008).

A regional geodatabase on landslides

For a best landslide hazard assessment of the Aosta ValleyRegion (NW Italy), a three-stage program of landslide inven-tory has been completed in February 2007, combining fieldand remote sensing surveys and historical data analysis. Theactivities are part of the IFFI project (Inventory of LandslidePhenomena in Italy), carried out by ISPRA and the localgovernments (regions and autonomous provinces).

The activities performed in the Aosta Valley are summa-rized here:

& as a first step in defining geometry of landslide areas,multitemporal aerial photo-interpretations were conductedover the region territory, not only for mapping stillunknown landslides, but also for verifying other case–history maps (Ratto and Bonetto 2003). The scale usedto compare this data has been 1:10,000.

& As a second step, data have been compared to the up-to-date information from the municipalities’ hazard mapsconducted over the whole region for land planning restric-tion. The analysis has been extended also to the other areasclassified with the flood and landslide risk maps (hydro-geological asset plan) produced by the River Po BasinAuthority in 1999.

& More detailed local field studies has been conducted inselected localities to identify processes and factors relatedto major present-day natural instability phenomena.

& All data have been finally organized in a GIS and usedto improve statistical analysis for understanding how thegeological and geomorphological factors can influenceon the landslides distribution.

With the aim of homogenizing the classification and glos-sary (i.e., type of movement, state of activity, intensity, velocity,distribution), at the regional, national and global scale, themethodology of the National Landslide Inventory of Italy(Trigila et al. 2008) have been applied. The following interna-tional classification standards have been adopted: Cruden andVarnes (1996), Recommendations of the International Associ-ation of Engineering Geology (IAEG 1990), International Geo-technical Societies UNESCO Working Party on WorldLandslide Inventory (WP/WLI 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995).

SRG2: an application for digital mapping and descriptionof areas affected by natural hazards

Looking for faster and more suitable procedures of field map-ping and data collection on natural hazards, either for scientificresearch and technical management, an application called“SRG2” (acronym for the Italian: “Supporto al RilevamentoGeologico/Geomorfologico”—Support to Geological/Geo-morphological Surveys) was created, as an extension forArcPad (GIS-ESRI for palms) developed in Visual Basic. Intothe ArcPad environment, the SRG2 application adds a toolbar,vectors and tables made up of several functions for a usefulmapping and classification of geological and geomorphologi-cal features (Fig. 8). ArcPad software generates vector shape-files of large use in GIS project and of great utility inassessments and management of any type of field activities.

In order to catalog geomorphological features relevant forearly warning analysis of hazardous process (landslides,floods,…), the SRG2 application was structured into different

Fig. 4 False color RGB 754 from Landsat 7 ETM+AFTER HurricaneMitch. A new meander zone (yellow)

Fig. 5 Rio Matenzas Micro Basin (yellow). The Landsat mosaic imageshow the structure of regional cross-junction formed by two majorfaults: ChixoyPolochic and Motagua fault. The pattern certainly clarifiesthe evolution of the basin structures

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layers and with a simple geodatabase structure (Fig. 9):erosional and depositional landforms and related deposits,characteristic processes of different morphogenetic environ-ments; lithological and structural elements; anthropic featuresand infrastructures; location points for sampling and pictureviews.

During field activities, as a first step, distinct elements areclassified by geometry (points, linear, and areal features).Drawing elements in the map can be manually operatedthrough visual recognition in the field, or automatic, bymeans of GPS tracking option. Then, the surveyed featuresare classified by typology: (1) genetic environment andrelated process, either endogenetic or exogenetic, are inter-preted (“glacial”, “fluvial”, “gravity-induced”, “tectonic”,“complex”, etc.) or left unknown; (2) further alphanumericdata (morphometrical, chronological, lithological, etc.) arerequested to complete description and to support interpreta-tions. Each typology of classified elements has a dedicatedlist of selectable attributes (Fig. 9), useful both for achievinga complete scientific description of the surveyed features andfor indicating natural hazards to be considered by technicaloperators, for planning and management purposes.

As an example, by using SRG2 application, geologicaland geomorphological features were mapped in seismicareas; their full description allowed not only selection ofelements to be considered in the interpretation of processesand extent of natural hazards, but also in a proper manage-ment of their effects in a dynamic environment interactingwith human activities and infrastructures.

Application of geomatics to seismic microzonation

Seismic microzonation involve a series of studies includinggeology, geomorphology, geophysics, geotechnics, and engi-neering geology, aimed to the subdivision of an area into zonescharacterized by an homogeneous seismic shaking during anearthquake. Detailed geological and geomorphological maps areparticularly important, especially in areas characterized by highgeological and geomorphological complexity, as basic tools fora proper planning of geophysical and geotechnical investiga-tions needed for detailed seismic microzonation (Perrone et al.2008). Different types of geomorphological and geologicalfeatures have been considered for the realization of seismicmicrozonation maps. These features are mainly related to:

– the amplification phenomena of seismic waves generatedby an earthquake (Idriss and Seed 1968). This phenome-non, that strongly increases the ground shaking,may occurwhen seismic waves propagate in scarcely cohesivesuperficial deposits with limited thickness overlying arocky substratum. Amplification phenomena may be alsoinduced by particular geomorphological conditions,known as topographic effect, like ridges, crest lines,scarps, and fluvial terraces

– the liquefaction phenomena, that may be induced by thesudden shaking of saturated noncohesive deposits likesands and gravels (Perucca and Moreiras 2006)

– the activation or reactivation of landslides, which includethe mapping of trenches, slope-related scarps, and land-slide deposits (Keefer 1984)Fig. 7 Example of Zambesi geomorphological interpretation

Fig. 6 Early warning architec-ture (Albanese et al. 2008)

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– the occurrence of buried landforms– characterization of the activity of the faults in the ana-

lyzed area; geomorphological indicator of recent activityof faults are therefore particularly important (seeMcCalpin 1996 for a detailed description)

In Fig. 10, an example of a detailed geological–geomor-phological map of the Dronero village (Italian Western Alps),aimed to the seismic microzonation, is shown. Geological–geomorphological mapping was carried out at 1:5,000 scaleusing the ArcPad software with the SRG extension. TheDronero village is located at the mouth of an Alpine valley

(Maira valley) and is characterized by a complex geomorpho-logical geological setting (Perrone et al. 2008).

The geological mapping was mainly aimed to characterizethe superficial Quaternary deposits. Parameters like lithologyof the clasts, texture, composition of the matrix, and thicknessof the deposits were therefore considered. Different superficialdeposits were distinguished, including eluvial deposits, recentfluvial deposits, landslide deposits, slope deposits, stream andalluvial fan deposits, and ancient fluvial deposits.

Even if the bedrock was constituted by metamorphic rocks,roughly characterized by similar physical–mechanical proper-ties, the different lithologies were differentiated in order to

Fig. 8 SRG2 shapefiles andtoolbar into ArcPad (left). Listof the 16 layers used in testsites (right)

Fig. 9 Example of forms devel-oped for ArcpPad to check trailsoperability and theircharacteristics

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locate the trace of the major faults dissecting this area. Faultsand fracture systems were moreover characterized on the basisof their geometry (strike, dip) and sense of movement. Thegeomorphological mapping was aimed to the characterizationof the different landforms characterizing the analyzed area.

Slope-related and fluvial landforms were distinguished.Slope-related geomorphological features include landslidesand gravity-scarps; fluvial geomorphological features includefluvial terraces and alluvial fans. Scarps and fluvial terraceswere subdivided, on the basis of their height, in two mainclasses (more and less than 10 m). Landslides were differenti-ated on the basis of their activity (stable, quiescent, and active).

On the basis of the integration between surface geological–geomorphological informations with stratigraphic boreholesand geophysical investigations (electric tomography, seismicrefraction, and seismic downhole), it has been also possible todetect a buried fluvial bed beneath the fluvial deposits of theMaira river.

The geological, geomorphological, and geophysical infor-mation were utilized to realize the homogeneous microzonesmap. In this map, the investigated area is subdivided in three

main classes (see also Gruppo di lavoro MS 2008), qualita-tively characterized by a homogeneous seismic shaking: stablezones, zones susceptible of local amplifications, and zonessusceptible of instabilities. Stable zones (zone 1) include theareas where bedrock outcrops, widespread on both the slopesof the valley. Zones susceptible to local amplifications includefive subclasses (zones 2–6) distinguished on the basis of theirlocal stratigraphic characteristics. Zones susceptible to insta-bilities include areas where potential reactivation of quiescentlandslides may occur. Geomorphological features (fluvial terra-ces, landslides, gravity scarps, and alluvial fans) where instabil-ities during the seismic shakingmay occur and the trace ofmajorfaults were also indicated on this thematic map.

The homogeneous microzones map represents a fundamen-tal tool for the understanding of the behavior during the seismicshaking. This map, integrated with further geophysical andgeotechnical investigations that allow to characterize quantita-tively the seismic response of these zones, also may allow toforecast the zones affected by the major coseismic damages.Besides speeding up the realization of microzonationmaps, theuse of a GIS mobile software may also allow a faster and

Fig. 10 Geological–geomorphological map of the Dronero village(NW Italy). Quaternary deposits: 1 eluvial-colluvial deposits, withthickness ranging on average between 1 and 2 m; a sometimes stronglyalterated in the shallower part (red soils); 2 recent and current bottomvalley fluvial deposits constituted by well-rounded gravels, sands, andcentimetric to metric blocks; 3 landslide deposits constituted by angu-lar blocks with variable dimensions, ranging from decimetric to metric,in a sandy–gravelly matrix; 4 debris and slope deposits, stable, consti-tuted by decimetric to metric blocks; 5 stream and alluvial fan depositsconstituted by polygenic pebbles, sometimes well-rounded, and blockswith dimensions ranging from centimetric to metric, alternated to silty,

locally clayey intercalations; 6 ancient fluvial deposits constituted bygravelly–sandy levels alternated by silty–sandy levels, usually thesedeposits are cemented (conglomerates) in the shallow part. Pre-Quaternary substratum: 7 dolomitic marble and dolomites; 8micascists,sometimes phylladic, with minor metabasities. Structural elements: 9fault. Hydrography-related elements: 10 fluvial terrace less than 10 mhigh; 11 fluvial terrace more than 10 m high; 12 deeply incised valley;13 buried river bed and its hypothesized prolongation. Slopedynamics-related geomorphological elements: 14 scarp less than10 m high. Other symbols: 15 borehole, 16 village boundary, 17geophysical investigation

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precise location of hazardous situations in areas struck byseismic events.

Damage inventory and management of a seismic crisis

The last geomatics application presented here is aimed toimprove emergency relief in developing countries. In theseareas, geomatics for post-seismic disaster management shouldbe tested in early assessment for awareness situation and indamage surveys to check habitability. The application of geo-matics to early operations as Urban Search and Rescue isexcluded due to the long time needed by rescue personnel toreach the affected area; entrapment involve short survivaltimes: most victims will be dead within 8–12 h and therescuers arrived during a time window of 36–72 h after themain earthquake.

European Macroseismic Scale (EMS-98; Grünthal 1998)should provide International Organisations, like UN, EuropeanUnion (EU), and large nongovernment organization (NGO),with a first situation table to activate humanitarian relief. AnArcPad extension was developed on the base of intensity scaleguidelines as tested in earthquakes that struck Piedmont (north-western Italy) in recent years (Asti-Alessandria 2000–2001–2003 events).

As described before, the software generates vector shapefiles based on point geometries with associated databasepositioned by GPS or direct location on orthophotos. Build-ings vulnerability classes and the classification of damagesuffered by every structure are supported by image abacusand example sketches.

The data collected are suitable to be easily sent viasatellite to a Local Emergency Management Authority orto a foreign coordination center (like MIC at EU in Brusselsor to UN/OCHA in Geneva). Here, they should be organizedto better understand the severity of induced damages andcoordinate the relief actions. Digital images help a second-

level data interpretation and should be used to comparesituations in case of aftershocks.

For the building damage inventory, an earthquake dam-age assessment inventory form was developed in 2000 bythe Italian National Seismic Survey as a first-level damageform (AeDES), utilized with minor revision until the recent“l’Aquila” earthquake (officially edited July 4, 2009 onGazzetta Ufficiale della Repubblica Italiana). The aim ofAeDES is to certify the practicability of building struck byearthquakes, to define the measures to secure the building.This chart is composed of three paper pages (A4 format) andit was always completed on paper for documenting the mostrecent seismic surveys in Italy (Asti-Alessandria in August2000, Asti in July 2001, Molise in October 2002, Alessan-dria in April 2003, Desenzano in November 2004, andL’Aquila in April 2009). The GeoSITLab translated theform in English and modified some issues to adapt it todeveloping countries buildings and structures. Basically, thefirst page identifies exactly the building, the second pagereports damages that occurred, and the third page gives therisk situation and the needed assessment. A section of thefirst page of the form is presented in Fig. 11.

By using SRG2 for geographic positioning and avoidingto give assessment notices, a really simple geodatabase isderived, which define the amount of houses suitable forbeing reused. The derived inventory, when transmitted asEMS-98 database, offers a better shot of the postseismicsituation on the ground.

Discussion

The case histories reported in the previous chapter suggestdifferent directions where geomatics can play a crucial rolein enhancing potential of single domain aspects of disasterrisk reduction and relief efforts.

Fig. 11 Section 2 of the first page of the form utilized in the recent seismic surveys in Italy

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Since 2004, Google Earth and web 2.0 concepts providedan alternative way to official mapping (Goodchild 2007):Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) came to play agrowing role in supporting humanitarian relief, while in thelast year, activities have been focused on opportunitiesoffered by Volunteers Technical Communities (VTC) forbase or thematic mapping through collaborative systems(cloud mapping). How to integrate VGI and VTC data intoSDI is a major challenge that requires tactics, techniques andprocedures, but this is not within the objectives of this paper.On the contrary, based on the results of our studies, we canstress the role of academic research as an “elite activities”that should be integrated with technical ones. Academicsactivities range from field surveys to satellite monitoring,from pure research to applied geomatics, and can play animportant role as humanitarian support or as improvementsto business. University of Turin explored all the possibilitiesoffered by these domains of development and reportedstrengths and weakness.

The direct digital mapping reached full maturity by usingdifferent software, either professional (ArcPad andOziExplorer) or Open Source (QuantumGis), mappingactivities, data collection, queries, and data management havebeen performed in the field. Commercial GPSmodules offeredmetrical level accuracy and centimeter accuracy with postprocessing. Extensive tests carried out with palm PCs withinternal GPS antenna, palms and smartphones coupled withexternal Bluetooth-connected GPS receivers and smartphonesbased on different OS (Windows, Android, iOS) have providedconsistent accuracy for geological and geomorphological sur-veys. New smartphones showed PC-level computational power,allowing large bulk memory space, the use of geotagging appli-cations, and internet connectivity. Windows-based smartphonesare fully compliant with ArcPad extensions and SRG2 worksgreat on last 4″ screens.

Aerial and satellite photo interpretation is not any more a“heavy task” mainly supported by large, breakable instru-ments: three-dimensional view is now supported by simple3D binoculars linked to any computer device. This allowsdrawing features directly on digital maps, orthophotos, orDEMs.

Remote sensing products are still pervasive and are improv-ing their resolutions and performances in monitoring activities:multispectral images and radar interpherometry data should beprofitably integrated to show topographic deformations relatedto natural disaster, while information from innovative micro-satellite electromagnetic sensors should be fully explored forearthquake early warning. The effectiveness of PermanentScatterer SAR Interferometry (PSInSAR methodology) forsupporting landslide hazard studies has been proven in severalresearch activities in various mountain regions (Colesantiand Wasowski 2006; Ferretti et al. 2009). Exploitation ofhistorical satellite SAR archives enhanced mapping and

monitoring activities of slope instabilities conducted inthe Alps within the presented study at the regional andlocal scales.

The challenge is to link these different remote sensingtechniques to field-based geomatics applications in order toget “quasi-real time” updates on the effects of natural disaster.The way ahead is to experiment different technologies andapplications in current research activities to achieve an ade-quate amount of data in order to properly perform tests of datacollection, classification, management, and interpretationactivities.

Conclusions

Geodatabases researches led to the collection and evaluationof global and national literature on natural disaster. Local andregional studies on a variety of natural hazards events havebeen supported by the collection and classification of histor-ical data from archives, technical data from professional andadministrative reports, geological and geomorphological datafrom field-based and remote sensing activities. The integrationof mobile GIS technologies and remote sensing applicationsproved to be successful for disaster management and emer-gency relief in several case studies, mostly on mountainterritories of Europe and developing countries. Informationon predisposing/triggering factors and evolutionary processesof natural instability phenomena (landslides, floods, storms,earthquakes) has been interpreted both for the analysis ofstatistical methods for the prediction of natural disasters, andfor mapping and describing effects of natural hazards in thefield, following codified standards in order to share, compare,and exchange data between researcher and users.

The presented case studies include applications for differentorganization level involved in disaster relief. In the cases oflarge, climate-related disasters, the Hurricane Mitch (CentralAmerica) and the Zambesi Flood (Mozambique) case studiesoffered useful results either for early warning or mitigationmeasures at the national and international scale. Distributionanalysis and maps of slope instabilities at the regional scale(Landslide Inventory in the Aosta Valley, NW Italy) have beenmade available to the local regional government to activateprevention and recovering measures. Interpretation of geolog-ical and geomorphological controlling factors of seismicityprovided municipal government and local town planningauthorities of microzonationmaps and scenarios for co-seismicresponse within unstable zones (Dronero, NW Italian Alps).The earthquake effects on ground and infrastructures havebeen studied either from a theoretical and an actual approachin order compile damage inventories (Asti-Alessandria earth-quakes) and to enhance early assessment by InternationalOrganisations and NGOs to activate humanitarian relief afterseismic events in developing countries.

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The whole research results has been able to substantiateearly impacts models by structuring geodatabases on naturaldisasters and to support humanitarian relief and disastermanagement activities by creating a mobile GIS applicationfor field data collection on natural hazards and risks.The researches accomplished the aims to create a tightenedcollaboration between academic research centers (ITHACA,GeoSITLab, SUISS) and humanitarian agencies, as the generalrequest of UN Agencies for a proactive response to naturalhazards by changing the way of approach to disaster preven-tion and the emergency preparedness.

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