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Forty Years of Research inEducational Psychology in Finland: aselective overviewErkki Olkinuora a & Erno Lehtinen aa Department of Education , University of Turku ,Lemminkäisenkatu 1, FIN 2050 Turku, FinlandPublished online: 07 Jul 2006.

To cite this article: Erkki Olkinuora & Erno Lehtinen (1997) Forty Years of Research inEducational Psychology in Finland: a selective overview, Scandinavian Journal of EducationalResearch, 41:3-4, 273-293, DOI: 10.1080/0031383970410308

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Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 41,Nos3—4, 1997 273

Forty Years of Research inEducational Psychology in Finland: aselective overviewERKKI OLKINUORA & ERNO LEHTINENDepartment of Education, University of Turku, Lemminkäisenkatu 1, FIN 2050Turku, Finland

HISTORICAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL BACKGROUND

In order to better understand the traditions and the typical features of Finnisheducational research in general and educational-psychology research in particular,one needs to briefly review the history of the origin and development of theestablishments for educational research at our universities.

The first professorship in education was established as early as 1852 at theUniversity of Helsinki (Sjöstrand, 1967, pp. 38-39). The statutes defining the roleof the professor in education emphasized the applied, normative and practical natureof scientific pedagogy: the duties in giving advice and guidance to prospectivesecondary-school teachers (Iisalo, 1979, p. 34). The foundation of a training schoolin 1869 for practising teaching skills indicates, according to Rinne (1988), the closeconnection of university pedagogics to the practical teaching and the development ofteacher education.

Another line of development with similar influence was linked with the reformof primary education which was realized in the form of a statute in 1866. The firstseminar for training teachers for elementary schools was established in 1862 atJyväskylä. The status of the Jyväskylä Teacher-training Seminar was changed so thatit was enlarged into a higher-education institute called The Jyväskylä School ofPedagogy in 1934. Education then got its second professorial chair. The firstprofessorship in psychology in Finland was founded in this institute two years laterin 1936. Jyväskylä became another centre of the science of education, in addition toHelsinki. The significant position of the Jyväskylä School of Education and theactive initiative of certain persons working there created favourable conditions forofficially establishing at Jyväskylä the Institute for Educational Research in 1968.The research centre had already existed for some years (since 1957), supported bythe Society for Fostering Educational Research. It now received an administrativelyindependent status as a state-financed research centre outside the faculty of edu-cation.

Much of the research carried out at the Institute for Educational Research0031-3831/97/03-40273-21 © 1997 Carfax Publishing Ltd

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served practical interests. A typical application of this kind of research was theapplication of theoretical views and methods of psychology or of educationalpsychology for the purposes of evaluating the consequences of instructional oradministrative reforms in the areas of achievements, attitudes, aspirations, motiv-ation, self-concepts etc. By aggregating the results based on data collected bypsychological instruments of measurement at the group level, one continued toreceive useful follow-up-knowledge about educational policy and planning. The roleof the Institute for Educational Research was also important in bringing, translatingand adjusting some internationally well-known instruments of psychological measure-ment—like questionnaires measuring personality traits and different aspects ofself-concepts, achievement and ability tests, attitude scales—for research use inFinland. One should also mention its role in making possible the participation ofFinland in the huge International Evaluation of Achievements (IEA) comparativeproject, which has been very significant in assessing the quality of the Finnish schoolsystem and in adopting certain ideas and instruments of evaluation for later use innational projects.

A very important organizational reform from the viewpoint of educationalresearch was the formation of new faculties of education in 1974-75, which formedthe foundation for the renewal of teacher education in Finland. The training ofteachers now became concentrated in universities by combining the surviving teacherseminars and colleges as departments of teacher training with these faculties, intowhich the institutes of education already existing at universities were also transferredfrom other faculties.

The creation of the new faculties increased the number of professorships ineducation, which also lead to increased differentiation of educational research. As apart of this more differentiated development, some of the new professorships werealso directed towards the psychology of education. There has been a professor ofpsychology of education at the university of Oulu since 1981.

On the basis of the development described above we can present the followinggeneralizing statements.

(1) The roots of the Finnish science of education and its traditional instrumentalfunctions to serve the needs of practical teaching and teacher training, on the onehand, and the development of the educational system of the country, on the otherhand, has produced a kind of nationalistic orientation in educational research. As aconsequence, it has been thought that the results of empirical studies will be reportedmainly in Finnish. Thus, publishing research results in a foreign language has beenmore rare than in psychology or sociology, for example. This situation is slowlychanging towards a less nationalistic orientation.

(2) Theories and research methods were brought before World War II fromabroad to Finnish educational research for use in instruction, education and educa-tional research in the framework of national interests, from Central Europe, beforeWorld War II especially Germany, after the Anglo-Saxon influence became dominant.

(3) The majority of empirical studies have been carried out by single researchersand reported on in the form of large monographs (Remes, 1979). This is alsochanging: research projects are now more often realized by groups of researchers.

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Studies planned by groups of researchers seem to foster better scientific productivity(Remes, 1979) and the publishing of articles in international journals.

THE ROLE AND PROPORTION OF EDUCATIONAL-PSYCHOLOGYRESEARCH WITHIN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

The proportion of doctoral dissertations belonging to the category of the psychologyof education hovered at around 25% between 1975 and 1994. The qualitativemethodological paradigm has strengthened its position especially since the 1980s. In38% of the dissertations published between 1990 and 1994 mainly qualitative methodswere applied although in many cases quantitative methods were also presented.

The only dissertation targeted at domestic education during the forty years periodunder consideration is conspicuous (Heinonen & Kari, 1990; Heinonen & Kari, 1991,p. 26), although the Institute of Psychology at the School of Education in Jyväskylä hadcarried out research on child-rearing attitudes of homes from different socio-economicgroups (Nummenmaa, 1963). Heinonen & Kari (1991, p. 54) compared the thematicorientation of Finnish educational research reflected in doctoral dissertations to thatin other Nordic countries. They concluded that during the 1970s and 1980s thedominance of educational psychology and didactical (school pedagogical) topics ineducational research was a common trend in Finland. The development during the fortyyears period of educational psychology research in Finland can be described as follows:

The end of the 1950s and the whole of the 1960s together formed the era of rawempiricism, which was based on the dominance of the positivist paradigm and the ideaof methodological monism linked with it.

There was growing criticism during the 1970s of the one sidedness of theempirical-analytical philosophy of science, and possible alternative points of depar-ture for empirical research were sought from paradigms such as phenomenology,dialectic materialism and hermeneutics (cf. Kyöstiö, 1979).

However, the preference for qualitative methodology which was common to theparadigms challenging the positivistic methodology did not become truly embodiedin empirical research until the 1980s. This decade can be characterized as the periodof the rise of qualitative methodology as a competitor to or as a compensator for,quantitative approach in the spirit of methodological pluralism. Because the rivalrybetween these competitors is still unresolved, or has lead to a kind syntheticapproach, for example, in the form of methodical triangulation, the planning andperforming of educational research has become even more complicated. This statusquo has possibly triggered the more reflective and critical methodological orientationof researchers that can be perceived during recent years (cf. Ritari, 1996).

DEFINING THE MAIN AREAS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGYRESEARCH AND THE CRITERIA OF SELECTING STUDIES TOREPRESENT EACH OF THEM

The classification of research areas for this review is based on the idea that researchon development and on learning belong to the core areas of educational-psychology

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research. One has been especially interested in the effects of education and schoolingon learning processes as well as in the role of personality traits, intellectual abilities,behavioural dispositions of individuals and inter-individual differences as factorssetting frames for the means and possibilities of education. In our classification wehave also emphasized applications of educational-psychology research in a schoolcontext, for example, the utilization of psychological instruments for evaluating theprocesses and/or outcomes of instruction, learning and development at schools. It isfairly self-evident that the sample of studies referred to in this article cannot evenbegin to include all the significant studies or themes of educational-psychologyresearch, that is, it cannot be thoroughly representative of the huge target area.

Two main criteria were chosen for selecting the studies to be reviewed orreferred to. One was the international significance of the study. Studies were selectedwhich could be regarded as fulfilling the standards of quality typically set by refereesfor publishing a report or an article in internationally well-known forums, or offeringinteresting new results or perspectives to the readers of the report in other countries.The other criteria was the national significance of the study. The studies selectedrepresented the top level of Finnish research or they offered important new results,perspectives, applications etc. to the readers of the study report whether they wereother researchers or representatives of the practical field of education and schooling.Sometimes studies were referred to as a typical example of research carried out inthat sector. In addition to studies chosen on these criteria, some publications orstudies will be mentioned in order to describe how and when certain paradigms and/orthemes of research were brought and adopted to Finnish research.

Since the criteria mentioned above are of a relative nature and their applicationis possibly biased by the authors' subjective preferences, we interviewed some of ourcolleagues at the University of Turku in order to take into account their suggestionsof studies having national or international merits. (We interviewed emeritus pro-fessor Erkki Lahdes and associate professor Sirkku Aho from the University ofTurku. Erkki Lahdes has acted as a reviewer in connection with the appointment ofmany professorships in Finland and knows well the scientific production of most ofFinland's prominent researchers. Sirkku Aho has herself been a active researcher inthe area of educational psychology, which she has also concentrated on in heracademic teaching.) We found that most of the studies they suggested were alsoincluded in our own list.

DEVELOPMENTALLY ORIENTED RESEARCH

Development is a comprehensive and multifaced phenomenon; therefore, develop-mentally oriented research, which usually applies the typical designs of longitudinalresearch on an aggregate level (see, for example, Keeves, 1988) or the follow up oftrends between time points can be internally divided into subareas in many ways.Our grouping of developmentally oriented research is based on a content analysis ofbackground materials and it is naturally also dependent on which topics of researchhas been realized in Finland. First, research targeting of broadly realized develop-

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ment is reviewed, and, secondly, studies concentrated on more specific aspects ofdevelopment are reviewed.

Comprehensive Long-term Follow up of an Age Cohort

The professor of psychology at the University of Jyväskylä Lea Pulkkinen (formerPitkänen) investigated, in her doctoral study, the social behaviour of eight-to-nine-year old pupils living in the Jyväskylä area (Pitkänen, 1969). This study formed thebasis for subsequent longitudinal follow-up study. This age cohort has been followedby repeated measurements for thirty years. Recently, a large summative report inFinnish, including reviews by different researchers during the last ten years of thedevelopment from early adulthood to middle age, has been published (Pulkkinen,1996a). The last phase of the follow-up offered, according to the authors, anexceptional opportunity to analyse the effects of the deep economic recession, whichbegan about six years ago in Finland, on the experiential reality and lifestyles of thetarget persons and especially on those who remained unemployed during that timeperiod.

According to Pulkkinen (1996a) the original research model has proved rel-evant for later follow-up research and it has a predictive value. It has been enlargedupon and transformed into a model of the regulation of emotions and behaviour.This study has been reported in many English publications (for example, Pulkkinen& Rönkä, 1994, Pulkkinen, 1996b). Its main merits from the point of educationalpsychology are:

(1) it furnishes us with a psychologically and educationally relevant back-ground knowledge on the development of an age cohort in recent Finnishconditions during a 30 years span.

(2) it offers knowledge about the effects of education at home on the differentforms of social behaviour of children (including their behaviour at school)and the consistency and continuity of these behavioural dispositions in thelong run.

(3) it helps to provide more detail than was possible before in Finland on therole of school achievements and attitudes, and also what role the level ofeducation plays in the formation of life careers.

Research on the Development of Values, Attitudes and Worldviews

During the 1960s and seventies, 1970s researchers carried out many attitudestudies, for examples, on the attitudes of pupils (Ruoppila, 1967), prospectiveteachers (Karvonen, 1971; Kyöstiö & Vilkkijärvi, 1971), and educators (both teach-ers and parents, for example, Nummenmaa, 1963; Karvonen, 1970). Karvonen's(1967) doctoral dissertation reflected the international trends ofthat time on theoryformation and the technology of measurement in attitude. His study indicated anability to further develop the multicomponent theory and measurement of attitudes.The research on attitudes represented a restricted and narrow approach to develop-ment linked to the affective domain of educational objectives.

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A study on value development among Finnish schoolboys was performed earlierby Toukomaa (1969), the professor of the psychology of education at the Universityof Oulu. Later, Rauste-von Wright (1987) carried out a cross-disciplinary-oriented,longitudinal study of the worldview (including values and beliefs) of Finnish adoles-cents. Her research project enlarged the perspective of research in a more holisticdirection, which meant that there was an attempt to simultaneously relate to eachother, within a broadened framework, many of the phenomena studied in earlierresearch as distinct targets. This type of change in the orientation and interest ofresearch seemed to necessitate the adoption of qualitative methodology to therepertory of methodical approaches.

The comparative part of Rauste-von Wright's study included two regionalsamples of adolescents, one from the Helsinki urban area and the other from therural districts of North Karelia. Those areas were thought to represent extremeconditions of primary socialization. The main points of departure were based onthe idea that certain factors linked with physical reality, social environment andpersonal history (Rouste-von Wright, 1987, pp. 9-18) influence the worldview of anindividual. Rauste-von Wright partitioned the worldview into three sets of beliefs forher study, assuming that the main areas between which the child gradually learns todifferentiate are the physical world, the social world, and the self and its relations tothe environment. The concept of self was divided into three components: theself-image, the ideal self-image and the normative self-image.

Although the main aim of the study was to comprehensively describe adoles-cents' worldviews and their development between 15 and 18 years of age, the studyis also relevant from an educational psychology point of view. Educational valuesand the aspiration levels of adolescents and their relations to their occupationalinterests and values concerning work were also measured (Rauste-von Wright,1984). This study also revealed a connection between a differentiated worldview anda balanced primary socialization with good adaptation to school life. This wasindicated, for example, by the correlation of 'the maturity of thinking' of 15-year-oldgirls and boys (assessed from the reasons given for answers to questions about theirbeliefs) with school achievements, teachers' ratings, information-seeking activitiesand the acceptance of 'nontraditionaF values (Rauste-von Wright, 1983)

Research on Social, Moral and Self-development

Takala (1981) has studied the social, ethical and cognitive development of 1711comprehensive-school pupils based on a cross-sectional design with samples fromgrade levels (Grades 5, 7 and 9) and interpreted developmental trends based on thecomparisons of results from these samples. It was methodically unique, at least inFinland, to use pupils' essays written on given topics for these purposes. The levelof social, moral and cognitive thinking was assessed by content analysis of the essays(cf. Rauste-von Wright's index of maturity of thinking). In addition to essayssosiometric measures and attitude scales were applied as instruments for collectingdata. It was interesting that the percentage of pupils mastering (even partially) theapplication of theoretical concepts (about 21%) by the final grade of comprehensive

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school was much lower than the percentage of pupils (about 50%) actually continu-ing their school attendance at upper secondary education.

The self-concept and especially the development of the so-called school-selfhave been rather popular research themes in Finnish educational-psychologyresearch. A low level of self-concept has been regarded as a special problem inFinland not just among school pupils but also amongst the adult population. Onthe other hand, the strengthening of one's self-confidence has been internationallyregarded as a very important area of schools' responsibilities (cf. OECD 1995,p. 51). An interesting result was, however, that Finns did not place much in thepossibility that schools would fulfil this function well. In fact, the results of Aho(1993) are, to some extent, in agreement with this view. Even in the case of highachievements, the maintaining of a high level of self-confidence is sometimesproblematic. Although the level of the functional reading skills of 9 and 14-year-old Finnish pupils are according to the IEA Study of Reading Literacy internation-ally at the top of the scale, only about 10-11% of pupils regarded themselves asexcellent readers, which was exceptional when compared to the results of othercountries (Linnakylä, 1993). This may be due to the discouraging atmospherelinked to the traditional emphasis of teaching in Finnish schools, which has beendescribed recently by a group of foreign evaluators as 'A few teachers had wellestablished ways of organising and managing individualised and student centredlearning in their classrooms, and had developed the necessary skills for dealingeffectively with the varied and immediate needs of individual students' (Norris etal, 1996, p. 64).

Self-regard and self-confidence linked to school learning, as well as to schoolmotivation, was recently found, in a study of the pupils of comprehensive schools,to diminish throughout school attendance at the upper stage of the comprehensiveschool (Korpinen, 1990) However, when Korpinen compared the results from a1979 study with a 1991 study based on the same items, she found that theself-concept concerning school-self had clearly improved during this period(Korpinen, 1993, pp. 20-22). The assumed development had been especiallyfavourable for girls. Korpinen (1991) thought that this was due to certain factorslinked to the development of schools (for example, abandoning of streaming incore subjects, changes in assessing pupils) and also to factors outside the schools.

The changes taking place in pupils' moral thinking, self-concept, social relation-ships and school attitudes during the primary-school period were studied in twoschools in the town of Rauma and then followed up during the six years from thebeginning of children's school attendance until the final grade of the lower stage ofthe comprehensive school (S. Aho's, 1993). S. Aho also analysed whether themoral-development stage was connected to the pupils' behaviour and which dom-estic variables explained the development of the children's moral thinking. Thetheoretical starting points of the moral-development aspects of the study were thePiaget and Kohlberg moral theories, and the phenomenological self theories ofRogers and Burns for the self-concept aspects.

The research showed that the pupils' self-concepts were rather positive whenthey entered school but became more negative during the following six years,

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particularly during the first, fourth and fifth grades. Also the pupils' attitude towardsschool was quite positive in the first few classes but became increasingly negativeduring the course of the school career. To some extent the changes in attitude wereconnected with the changes in self-concept. S. Aho's longitudinal study was care-fully carried out and it produced valuable information on certain developmentaltrends during the early years of schooling. As yet, the main results have not beenpublished internationally.

Some researchers, especially the proponents of the so-called alternative peda-gogics, have assumed that pupils studying in schools whose curriculum is based onalternative ideologies have fewer problems with their self-confidence as learnersthan pupils studying in 'ordinary' schools. Scheinin (1990) compared, in hisdoctoral dissertation, the self-concept of pupils of typical comprehensive schoolswith those of pupils from Steiner schools, which represent the only 'official'alternative in Finland to ordinary schools. He concluded that the level of self-concept and self-confidence did not differ much between these groups, althoughthe mechanisms and problems of self-concept behind these similar-looking resultsmay differ from each other.

Developmentally Oriented Studies Revealing Certain Aspects about the Nature of Schools'Functioning

The studies reviewed have empirically described some aspects of the development ofpupils during their school years and seem to give indirect evidence about how theyare possibly affected by school life. The development of pupils is, however,influenced by a lot of different factors. The following studies focus on the capabilityof schools to maintain pupils' interests and motivation and to realize in practiceequality goals set for education from the 1960s onwards.

Uusikylä & Kansanen (1988), applying the same kind of design as Takala(1981), wanted to study how satisfied pupils react towards different aspects ofschool life and wanted to receive a better differentiated picture of the experientialworlds of school pupils than could be achieved by the traditional and ratherundifferentiated measures of school attitude. They used samples of pupils represent-ing each of the six grades of the lower stage of comprehensive schools, they foundthat dissatisfaction was highest in the sixth grade in those elements and instrumentsof school life (such as school books, exercises, certain ways of teaching etc.) whichare most clearly linked to the basic intellectual task and formal aspects of the school.They also found that the decrease in the level of satisfaction from grade one to sixwas biggest for these same elements. The satisfaction correlated significantly andpositively with pupils' success level, and social background correlated rather stronglywith the latter already from the first years onwards.

This study (Uusikylä & Kansanen, 1988) also showed that the inequality of theeducational achievements of pupils with different social background had not van-ished, although the factors producing it were not as linked to economic factors asbefore, rather, they were linked to cultural factors operating within the processes ofschooling and instruction. Kuusinen conducted an interesting longitudinal research

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from this point of view. During the 1970s he collected standardization data for theFinnish version of the Illinois test of psycholinguistic abilities (ITPA, cf. Blåfield &Kuusinen, 1974), for 700 children from three to nine years old, with 100 in eachcohort in order to study the predictive validity of the ITPA for school achievement(Kuusinen, 1991). He found that the ITPA measured during childhood predictedrather well the school marks of the final (ninth) grade of comprehensive school.Kuusinen also analysed the role of gender, social background and abilities inpredicting the probability of continuing school attendance after comprehensive schooleither in upper secondary education (gymnasium), vocational school or enteringdirectly into working life. He found that in addition to gender, both the psycho-linguistic abilities measured by the ITPA and the social background clearly dictateadolescents' selectivity into different streams of schooling. However the effect ofparents' social status on the student's transition to upper secondary school seemedto be stronger than that of psycholinguistic ability. Thus many pupils who, in the lightof cognitive measures, would not succeed in continuing their school attendance togymnasium do, however, go there if they have a middle-class background. Kuusinen'sanalyses indicate further that in spite of their level of psycholinguistic abilities, thesepupils did not usually have special problems of achievements in comprehensive school.

The longitudinal study of A. Hautamäki (1986) described some aspects of themechanisms behind the correlations between social class and both level of success atschool and the level of educational aspirations of pupils. The study sample consistedof 95 pupils and their parents. A. Hautamäki carried out semi-structured interviewsof parents dealing with the family's activities when the children were 11-12 years old,and with the parents and children separately when the children were 16-17 years old.The children were tested for cognitive maturity, achievement motivation, perceptionof time perspective, and their standing on social variables was assessed. In her analysesshe found the following four homogenous groups in regard to the child's masteryof voluntary learning and the family's related modes of activity in learning: elite,autodidacts, cultural underachievers and nonacademic working-class youth. Thegroups illustrate how adolescents from the two social classes proceeding alongdifferent educational paths differentiate themselves, first, in their learning activi-ties and, secondly, in their social activities from their family's common activitystructure.

Research on Skill Acquisition and Cognitive Development

The research on cognitive and skill development in the 1950s and 1960s was mainlyof the differential psychological type. The most prominent figure using this approachwas Professor Veikko Heinonen. His studies very extensively covered such fields ofdifferential psychology as handiness, motor skills, general intelligence, personalityand school achievement (Heinonen, 1957). In many studies Heinonen integrateddifferential and developmental approaches (Heinonen, 1963). Heinonen's influenceremained mainly national.

Apart from Heinonen there were a few other Finnish researchers who also dealtwith developmental questions from the differential psychology point of view, including

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Lehtovaara. He also dealt theoretically and educationally with the relationshipbetween inherent and environment-dependent aspects of cognitive development(Lehtovaara, 1963). In addition there were studies on other developmental topicsincluding interesting research on the relationship between abstract and concretethinking by Saarinen (1961, 1962).

In the 1970s and 1980s many research projects focused on the differentaspects of cognition and development. The theoretical approaches also becomemore versatile and comprehensive. A most influential figure in this new researchapproach was Annika Takala. Several researchers from educational science andpsychology joined in her project on the development of the mental picture of theworld (worldview), and conducted empirical studies of the development of con-ceptual systems and emotional and ethical interpretations in different domains.The main domains of this research were geographic, biological, physical andsocietal pictures of the world (Takala, 1982, 1980; Takala & Vepsäläinen, 1982,L. Aho, 1979).

The influence of Piaget and Vygotsky has been notable. All Finnish textbookson educational psychology widely describe the developmental stages of Piaget.However, there are only a few larger empirical research projects which systematicallyfollow Piagetian ideas of development. Hautamäki (1984) and Kallonen-Rönkkö(1984), in particular, have carried out important work in this field. Hautamäkiintegrated Piagetian ideas in his research with vygotskian approaches, moderncognitive-intelligence studies and the psychometric tradition. According to theresults of Hautamäki (1984) only 30—50% of 15 year olds were capable of thinkingthat was in line with the Piagetian stage of formal operations. Most of the universitystudents indicated features of formal operations in their problem solving but onlyone-third of them systematically and permanently used completely developed formaloperations in solving complex tasks.

RESEARCH ON SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT

The space allowed for here does not permit any detailed analyses of the numerousstudies dealing with the charting of achievements in different subjects at differentpoints of time. From the point of view of applying psychological instruments ofmeasurement in surveys for evaluative purposes and for analysing interindividualdifferences in achievements one needs to mention as benchmarks two books writtenby Heinonen: one on school achievement tests (Heinonen, 1961) and the other ondifferential psychology (Heinonen, 1964). Many of the achievement studies havebeen carried out by the Institute of Educational Research, University of Jyväskylä,which was also responsible for realizing the Finnish share of the IEA studies carriedout in different phases. Institute of Educational Research studies have been ofdecisive importance in evaluating the level of attainments of the Finnish schoolsystem in cross-sectional international framework hand and as comparative databases for national surveys in which changes in the level of achievements betweendifferent time points have been analysed.

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In 1979 an extensive national survey of achievements of the pupils of the newcomprehensive system were realized within so-called anchoring items, that is, itemsalready applied in the IEA six-subject study of 1970-1971. After about a decade, asecond large national survey, The Assessment of the Comprehensive School 90, wascarried out and the main results were compared to earlier surveys by Linnakylä &Saari, (1993). Some roughly generalized statements about trends from the surveysmentioned are as follows:

(1) According to the IEA study of reading literacy (Elley, 1992; Linnakylä,1993), the achievements of Finnish 9-and 14-year-old pupils reading different typesof texts are at a very high level.

(2) The achievements in mathematics of comprehensive school-pupils havebeen modest, that is, close to the international average. But the achievements ofFinnish students from the final grade of the upper secondary level have been verylow, especially in chemistry and physics.

(3) The level of achievements in reading, mathematics, science and foreignlanguages did generally improve after the reform of basic education during the 1970saccording to the national survey of 1979 in comparison with the level of achieve-ments in the so-called six-subject study of the IEA, and also during the 1980s, whenthe trends in data collected in 1979 were compared to trends in national datacollected in 1990 and 1991.

(4) The variance between schools in the levels of achievement has been verysmall in Finland, possibly due to the rather standardized way of teaching, instruc-tional arrangements aimed at supporting slower learners, the high quality of teach-ers, etc. However, the significant correlation of pupils' achievements with their socialbackground was not eliminated.

Two longitudinal evaluation studies of achievements based on follow-ups of thesame age groups are worth mentioning. Kyöstiö initiated a research project inNorthern Finland consisting of a six-year follow-up study of (originally) 767 pupilsof the lower stage of comprehensive school during 1970-1976, starting from the firstgrade (Karjalainen & Kyöstiö, 1986). One of the main results was that the generallevel of development of children in this area clearly lagged behind the developmentallevel of children in the southern part of Finland in the first years of the study, butduring the final years the pupils of the northern areas gradually caught up with theircounterparts from other areas.

Julkunen (1991) carried out a nine-year follow-up of the reading skills of asample of comprehensive-school pupils {n = 519). Measurements took place whenpupils were in the first, second, sixth and ninth grades. It turned out that the methodof teaching reading in the first grade was not a good predict or the level of laterreading skill, whereas the average reading skill in the ninth grade of those pupils whocould read when they started school was significantly higher than that of those pupilswho could not read when they came to school.

Two large assessment reports published and edited by the National Boardof Education illuminate the present state of comprehensive schools (Jakku-Sihvonenet al., 1996, cf. Norris et al, 1996) and upper secondary schools (Jakku-Sihvonen& Blom, 1994) from different perspectives by different methods. For example, the

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book edited by Jakku-Sihvonen et al. (1996) includes an evaluation of the latestdevelopment in achievements by a comparison of measurements in 1991 and 1995.

RESEARCH ON TEACHER TRAINING AND TEACHER EXPERTISE

As mentioned earlier, there has been some research concerning the training ofteachers in seminars or colleges before the formation of the new faculties ofeducation. This research was based on the positivist tradition and covered rathernarrow aspects of development. Typical of that time was the study of the develop-ment of attitudes during teacher training by, for example, (Kyöstiö & Vilkkijärvi,1971). However, prior to that, Kyöstiö (1968) had conducted research on teacher-role expectations. Later on, when the new training programme for form-teachertraining was implemented from 1979 onwards in the new faculties of education, theprofessors responsible for this new training carried out research on howthe students experienced the different parts of their studies or developed duringtraining (for example, in practice sessions rather than theoretical studies) (S. Aho,1986, Lahdes, 1987, Uusikylä, 1990). They were also interested in the role ofthe master's thesis as a new scientific element in the development of professionalreadiness (Niemi, 1995). Teacher-training departments have been reformingthe procedures for student intake and have studied their functionality (Kari, 1993).

The recent national and partly international assessment of the Finnish teacher-education departments (Buchberger et al, 1994, H. Niemi & Kohonen, 1995)aroused a new wave of reforms in teacher education. As a consequence of all of this,there is some ongoing research on prospective teachers' or working teachers'professional and personal development in practically every faculty of educationin Finland. The scope of research has been enlarging all the time to includemore holistic and, at the same time, more differentiated approaches. The use ofmore qualitative methodology and methodical triangulation has increasedin studies of teachers' reflection, thinking and development (Kansanen, 1991;H. Niemi, 1996).

The departments of teacher education have naturally been interested in theresearch-based development of the procedures of student selection and intake(Kari, 1996, pp. 28-39, 81-92). For example, Heikkilä-Laakso (1995) has car-ried out research based on Jung's typology and Myers-Briggs' instrument based onit. The aim was to see how the composition of personalities of those who wereaccepted into teacher training is due to the selection process. She also carried out atwo-year follow-up study of those selected.

RESEARCH ON LEARNING

Post-war Research: turning from Germany to America

Learning research was not the main field of educational research until the late 1970s.After the Second World War, Finnish research on learning was mainly focused on

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learning outcomes, and the dominating approach was influenced by the scientificideals of differential psychology. The Finnish educational community was, however,very aware of international, especially US, theoretical development of learningresearch.

In the middle of the 1950s Väinö Heikkinen (1957) carried out studies on themotivational factors of learning processes in classroom situations. His intention wasto investigate the relationship of motivation and learning by paying attention to thesocial situation in the classroom. Heikkinen's work was mainly based on themotivation theory of Atkinson and McClelland and on the work of the followers ofKurt Lewin. This research, however, remained isolated since the main stream ofresearch on learning took totally different lines. The influence of behaviourismbecome dominant and lasted until the beginning of the 1980s. There were severalindividual studies on the effects on reinforcement, operant conditioning and otherbehaviourism-style experiments, but they mostly remained distinct without creatingany empirical research tradition. One of the few larger attempts to apply be-haviouristic approaches in developing an experimental-education programme was astudy by S. Aho (1978) on methods of classroom management. Several behavioural-control strategies were used to reduce students' behavioural problems. In additionto behaviourism some of the behaviour-modification strategies were also based onthe ideas of humanistic psychology. S. Aho carried out a series of empiricalexperiments in natural-classroom situations in which she systematically explored theeffects of different treatments like operant conditioning and model learning (forexample, S. Aho, 1981)

Learning Strategies and Study Styles

Since the mid-1970s research on learning has adopted new methods and theoreticalapproaches. The focus of research was diverted from quantitative analyses ofproducts towards qualitative analyses of processes. The most dominant figure in thischange was Johan von Wright (professor of psychology at the University of Turkuand at the University of Helsinki). Von Wright's research in the late 1970s and early1980s focused on action strategies in text comprehension and learning in order todetect individual differences in the use of strategic activity and in the constructionof new schemata. The studies established a basis for research on learning skills (VonWright, 1992). Many of the later projects at the University of Turku researchinglearning skills and learning disabilities partly originated from the research of VonWright and his colleagues (Von Wright et al, 1979; Vauras, 1991). Von Wright'sresearch was, in part, parallel to the studies of Ference Marton and his colleagues inSweden, but it adopted from the beginning a closer connection to the cognitive andconstructivist tradition and then separated quickly from the phenomenographictheoretical stance.

In the early 1980s research on learning and cognitive styles was popular inFinland (Leino & Leino, 1990). This research was related to strategy research andcognitive theory, but it dealt with the qualities of learning preferences in terms ofdifferential psychology.

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Pekka Niemi, professor of psychology at Åbo Akademi University carried out along-lasting research project on the development of different levels of reading skills(P. Niemi, 1990). The study, originating in the early 1980s, concentrated, first,on problems in learning to read, aiming at the development of process-orientedmethods for the diagnosis and correction of reading difficulties. Secondly, it aimedto examine comprehension processes during reading among skilled readers. Onlinemeasurements, an eye-movement recordings in particular, were applied to monitorthe reading process, and the effects of how the microstructure and macrostructureof the text affect the online reading processes were studied.

The aim of several other research projects was to analyse teaching-learningprocesses and learning outcomes in the Finnish school and university system fromthe point of view of modern learning theory (Lonka et al, 1994). On the basis of theresults of these projects many experimental programmes have been developed, theytypically focus on the quality of the learning activity and on the general and contentspecific strategies used by students.

During the last decade there have been a great number of studies on computer-based education. In the early 1980s, the studies in this field were often theoreticallyweak, but they gave important general information about how computers could beutilized in teaching. Today, more ambitious research is being carried out on theeducational influence of new information technology. Attempts have been madein several projects to put into practice general ideas of modern learning theory withthe help of computers. On the other hand, a number of projects are focusing on thenew challenges posed by computers to the concepts of learning and knowledge(Enkenberg, 1994; Järvelä, 1996; Lehtinen & Rui, 1996).

Learning Disabilities

The field of learning disability (LD) research is now going through a period ofsubstantial change. Increased efforts have been made to construct more comprehen-sive theories and diagnostic-remedial models which would take into account andintegrate research on motivation and emotion, as well as systemic conceptualizationof development and person-situation interaction (Olkinuora et al, 1988; Olkinuora,1988b). An extensive research programme carried out since 1981 at the Departmentof Education and at the Centre for Learning Research, University of Turku, is oneexample of such development. Based on case analyses and intensive observations ofwell and poorly performing children's behaviour-in-context in varying demandsettings, this research aimed at constructing theoretical and 'interaction-dynamic'diagnostic models for person-situation transactions (that is, socio-emotional copingstrategies) leading to cyclical accumulation of (mal) adaptive motivational orienta-tions and ineffective cognitive functioning (Olkinuora, 1988a,b; Olkinuora &Salonen, 1992). When integrated with the cognitive-learning-strategy research tra-dition of the Department of Psychology at the University of Turku, this approachhas been the basis for large follow-up and intervention studies on learning disabili-ties (Lehtinen et al, 1995).

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Activity Theory, Expertise Theory and Learning in a Work Context

Thanks to scientific co-operation between Finland and the former USSR, theSoviet activity theory (as conducted by Vygotsky, Leontiev, Luria and Rubinstein)became well known in Finnish psychology and education long before these ideasbecame popular among researchers in other Western countries (Häyrynen &Hautamäki, 1973). An especially powerful figure in this tradition has beenEngeström. His numerous theoretical writings and empirical studies on collectivelearning processes in the workplace have very much influenced the formation ofthe activity-theory tradition on an international level (Engeström, 1990,Engeström et al, 1996).

Not all of the learning research on work situations is based on activity theory.There is also an active research tradition which makes use of the theoretical ideas ofcognitive novice-expert research in the learning of higher-order skills (Eteläpelto,1997). In addition there are larger projects dealing with the development of complexskills in industrial work (Vartiainen, 1986). One part of this research concentrates onthe area of traffic psychology. The subject's activity in traffic, the factors affectingthis activity as well as the skills required in traffic, and the learning and teaching ofthese skills are being investigated.

Current Development on Learning Research

New trends are emerging in Finnish research on learning and instruction towardsthe end of the 1990s. First, systemic research on cognitive processes, applyingmultiple online methods in different contexts, has been promoted in order to studythe development of complex skills. Secondly, a methodological reorientation hasemerged in field studies focusing on learning and instruction in natural settings.Innovative new methods have been developed in many research projects in order toobtain qualitative data about the learning processes during classroom instruction,work processes, or problem solving. Thirdly, in many studies of different topicsthere is a joint aim to analyse more deeply the transactions between cognitive,emotional and social processes in learning and development. Fourthly, the focus oflearning research is shifting towards domain-specific knowledge acquisition andlearning strategies. Finally, research on learning and instruction is no longer limitedto institutional schooling. New research is also interested in learning in variousinformal situations.

SUMMARIZING REMARKS

Although the share of educational-psychology research of educational research hasbeen rather large, its position in departments of psychology and education has notbeen very firm. For example, within psychology there are no professorships dedi-cated to this area. Perhaps this is why most professors of psychology have notindicated a permanent interest in conducting educational-psychology research.

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When the new faculties of education came into existence during the 70s theinteraction between the sciences of psychology and education become weaker still,and the responsibility for taking care of educational psychology remained, to a greatextent, in these new faculties. However, they did not take this responsibility 'tooseriously'. For example, the international review team of teacher education inFinnish universities expressed in its commentary the following opinion (Buchbergeret al., 1994, pp. 14-15): '... that this absence of a more systematic and robustpsychological input in the Faculties of Education, as well as the lack of collaborationwith the Psychology departments are major shortcomings that impair to some extentthe research as well the teaching in education and in teacher education. Therefore,this is certainly an important issue that should be addressed in the continued effortsto improve the activities of the Faculties of Education in Finland.'

It seems that faculties of education have paid attention to this criticism and havebegun to strengthen the position of the psychology of education. For example, somenew full and associate professorships have been directed to this area, and in somefaculties the psychology of education has been made a new major or minor subject.For example, in the University of Turku the teaching is based on the co-operationof the Faculty of Education and the Department of Psychology. Of all the depart-ments of psychology in Finland only the University of Turku has conductedsystematic and long-term research on learning, including learning at school. Thiswas initiated during the 1970s by professor Johan von Wright. Because of the closeresearch interests and activities of researchers in psychology and education theco-operation between them has been stronger in Turku than in other FinnishUniversities. As a result of this co-operation a common research unit, the Centre forLearning Research, was introduced in 1986. By the kind of means described aboveand by clearly strengthened international orientation, Finnish researchers are hopingto raise the quality of educational-psychology research.

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