ASSESSJVIEN'REHOLE AND WELL WATER QUALITY IN LUG-BE, FEcAPITALTERRITORY,ABUJANIG-ERIA

BY

ULEFO, Grace Chinwe

REG. NO.16492033)

Disserta1::ion sublthe Post Graduate School,University oC Ahuja. in partia.l Culfilne requirement for the Award of Masters in Enviironmen1::=tgand Protection(MEPP) in Geography_

MAY, 2019

DECLARATION

I declare dissertation entitled: "Assessment of Borehole and Well

WaTer QLugbe, Federal Capital Territory Abu.j a." is written by me

and it is ~f my research. It has not been presented for the award of a

degre~ inversity. All sources of information used have been duly

ackn_owlec

u ••••• ~ ••••••••••

...... _-------- l~ G ULEF(~hinwe Dat:e

ii

CERTIFICATION

"T'In i s, is 11:hat this dissertation title "Assessment of Borehole and Well 'Vater CLugbe, Federal Capital Territory, Abuja Nigeria." has been read and for its contribution to knowledge and literally _presentation as m cering rement of the regulations governing the award of Masters in En,Tirol'"lllnning and Protection (MEPP) degree 1ll Geography of the LJTli-versija. .<

«~~~~

- -:--.: - ~ - - - - .1;;:- ••••••• PROF'_ I_~LO

Super"

--=::-:~-:-<':-:~< ~.______.__. . .... ~ ... - PROF _ J'vIASSAN I-Iead oftment

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1?'ROF'::~a • .:c _~~_

'I::r~an <::) ±~ 1:1 Date

.eo •.••• _ .••• '" _ ••. ,., '" _ '" ••••••••• ._-- .. _------_ . PROF _ 1<10 Agber Dea1L." Po~:e School

Date

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DEDICATION

This Diss'as been dedicated to our Mother of Perpetual Help, my

beloved h:yril E. Osita, John-Appolos and John-Bosco the twins.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I highly apiod Almighty for keeping and enabling me achieve success

in .. this pro~wish to extend my warmly gratitude and appreciation tothe

entire Geo,d Environmental Management staff ofUniversit:y of Abuja

for their jal assistance throughout the period of the programme.

Special tho to my able Supervisor, Professor 1. I_ Y _ :M:allo whose

fatherly dr:advisory helped me to scale through the research work.Iam

so appreci;ofessors Adakayi, P. E. Alhassan, M. :M:: __ P _ Hasssan,;S.p.

Ej aro", 1'v1:. rd C. D .. Chup for their good advices and Professional

imparts. I thankful to the Doctors in the Department.The PG

coordinatoA,dekiya, and S. P. Dakyes. Others include S. Ishaya ,A.

lu<ambi", J A. Edicha and N. Ebehikhalu for their edizying instructions

and directimmense gratitude also goes to S. C. Okafor the Associate

Professor iemistry Nnamdi~ Azikiwe University", .A_ wka, for his l'

profession~ce and positive suggestions.my loving husband CyrilOsita

E. for his to Mrs Aminat and Silas Faith of Abuj a environmental

n::1anagemeArmy War College Asokolo who assisted in the laboratory

analysis co nnples used for this research work,as well as Dr Samuel

Adams 0 is department, University of Abuja for his statistical

analysis. L<:sh to thank the management of NOSDR.A. for granting me

tlhe opportun this programme. May the Almighty God bless and keep

allofus.

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ABSTRACT

,Pollovving,sant outbreaks of water borne diseases in Lugbe Federal Capiral TJJuja Nigeria,this study tends to assess rhe quality of water consun-zed~ resident in Lugbe. The study was in a bid rc» ascertain the safety andy of water consumed in Lugbe. Ten boreholes and ten hand­ dug vvells ndomly from both Federal housing and Lugbe across areas l~ere san-z1th dry (February) and wet (Juiytseasorzs . The pnysical and chen-zical ic indices investigated include- the ren-zperature, pH, (~onducrivv,Dissolved oxygen. Turbidity, Total dissolved solids, .J.~luoride, ilphate.sulphites, iron, chloride, calcium, n-zagnesium, COD, BOIJ, Tor4ss, Aluminiumfree chlorine, cadmium, Lead and Arsenic. ~rhe resulr: were comparedwith the guideline levels recon-zmended by the ~I£O iral ministry of Environment.Result obrained snowed that r.naJority 0le in the area suffer water scarcity and insecurity. Most of the paran-zes were within the WHOIFME standard level, vvhile others such as oride, total hardness,magnesium and Calciunz showed ren-zarla::zbl4)n.The microbiological result indicated rhar both water sources p.; the wells are contaminated with parhogenic micro­ organisn-zs_lies that water particularly the well sourceunless well treared is for human consumption. The t- test srarisrical analysis shovved p-= 0.38 for the chemical parametric analysis~ p=0.34for m i c.r-cs lo i a.I ~on,P- value = 0.7,9 ,comparing the two areas and p=0.42 comparing ole and well water, All values obtained is greater than level of signific~, thus, the null hypothesis is accepted, and the conclusion reached is is no significant different between parameters compared. Thesrudy rrecommends that environmental stakeholders rrz-ay wish to use poli( continuous monitoring to curb environmental pollUTion, irate refuse dumping and siting boreholes and wells far ayvay fron-zvay, and dumpsites.Researchers are also encouraged to e,n-zbark on assessment of drinking water in dtfferenZparts of the counrr:,y TO' that safe wholesome water is provided for rhe people.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

l~itle Page 1

U.eclaration ' _ . ii

C 'fi . ... ertl lcatlo" __ .. _ . 111

Dt e die at ion, _ _ __ . . . _ . _ iv

A_ckno-wled _ . __ .. __ . _ v

A,bstract " vi

Tab 1 e 0 -t=- C c _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ..; vii

Lis t O"r ~r a b 1 __ . _ . xi

L ' f F' ... ] st 0 " 1 gL . • _ .. Xl11

List of A.bb and Acronyms .. xiv

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1. BackgrolStudy __ .. 1

I. 1 Water Csessment _ . . _ . _ .. _ 2

1, 1.3 Type~pollution _ .. __ . _ . _ . _ 7

1.2 StatemearchProblem __ .. _ .. 12

1. 3 Aim 0 If the Study _ . .. . _ 13

1. 5 S c <:) p e cy ................................................•..••.•••......••......... 14

1.6 Justi:fic:e Study _ 14

I. 6. 1 T~ i m i te Study ' , _ .. _ .. _ _ 14

1. 7 Descrip Study Area ,· .. ; _ .. _ .15

1. 8 Ratiol""lachoice of the Study area _ . _ _ 16

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2. Conceptwork .............................................•.............. 19

2. 1 Origin .rence of Groundwater ......................•................. 21

2. 1 . 1 Dug vorehole _ 22 2. 1 .2 Sub S urrence of Underground water ..................•.•......... 22

2. 1 .3 Maj onfGround water"1 It •• , •••• '" "'1-1' ... It. I •••••••••••• 11 ..... 23

2. 1.4 Type~gical Formations and Aquifers 24

2. 1 .5 F actog Ground water occurrence 26

2.2 N a tu re ment of Groundwater. .. . . .. . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . ..•.......... 27

2.3 Compol-roundwater ......................................•............. 27

2.4 Groundution · 28 I •

2.5 Water sd insecurity .........................................•.......... 30

2.5.1 Causescarcity _ 30

2. 3 Remed~r scarcity problems 30

2.4 ~rhreatsResources Development in Nigeria _ .. _ 32

2.5 Gr<?undtamination: sources, causes and prevention. _ .. __ 35

2.6 Processlffect the rate of contamination transportation thIough

an aqui , 41

2.7 Imp 1 icalderground water pollution and over-exploitation .41

2.8 Water management in Nigeria .43

2. 8. 1 Key i .ater resource supply ; . .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . _ .44

2.8. 2 ~ iger.source management: Way forward ............•........... .44

2.9 Water c 46

2.9. 1 Watendicators _ _ 46

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2.9.2 Testirs 47

2.9.3 Harnxalparameters •. _ .48

2.9.4 ~jcrdparameters • .48

CHAPTER THREE ,

METHODOLOGY

3. 1 Data ::;ources and collection • __ • _ •• _ 53

3.1.1 J'\/[ethccollection .....................................• _ •.•• __ 53

3.2 Proceample collection and the rationale for adoptrng ea.ch

proce __ . __ 54

3.3 Justifthe choice of sample size and site •... __ 55

3.4 :I'\I1eth.:tanalysis __ .. . _ 56

3.5 1\v'f eth(er analysis . . _ 58

CHAPTER FOUR

rA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4. 1 Data pr and analysis )}.: __ . .. _ 61

4. 1 Data fr()nnaire ........................................•... _ . __ . __ 61

4.2 Result cmetric analyses in Federal Housing area . 63

4.2. 1 Resulbiological analyses in Federal Housing area 66

4.2.3 Resulrametric analyses in Lugbe across . _ . 68

4.2.4 Resulbiological analyses in Lugbe across _ . 71

4.3 Result cstical analysis on dry season water samples __ . 72

4.4 Result cal analysis on wet season samples _ . __ . 80

4.6 Inferen1cs T- test analysis and their Interpretatiomzs 89 4.7 Discussonclusion t;::., .........•.............•....•.. - - - - - - _. _ •• - -.- - •..•....•. 95

l.lS

4.7. 1 COI"rethe study ~~;., . • _ ;96

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CHAPTER FIVE

sur CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENI>.A TI<:>NS

5. 1 SummaJ. 97

5.2 Conclus _ 98

5.3 Recomn : 99

REFEREN( _ 101

APPE~DI:>;

x

LIST OF ,. Page

Tab Ie 3. 1 cal Methods Employed 57

Tab Ie 4. 1 5fthe questionnaire data . _. _ 61

Tab J e 4-.2 'ry Season's Result of Physical and Chemical

P'aramet:ers?;round Water in Lugbe Federal Housing Area 63

Ta b 1 e 4.2. L' Microbiological Analysis of Federal Housing Water

Samp les . _ 65

Table 4.2 .3)ry Season's Result of Physical and Chemical

Parameters zround Water in Lugbe Across Area ofFCT _ .• _ 67

Tab Ie 4.2 ~4 Microbiological Analysis of Lugbe Across Water

Sam pIes " _ •...•.... _ 70

Tab Ie 4-.3 Rtatistical Analysis of Different Water Samples .• _ 72

Table 4.3. 1 Water Samples (1-5) From federal Housin..g Area 73

Table 4.3.2 :6-10) Well Water Samples from Federal Housin..g

Area _ .......................................................••.. _ .. __ 74

Table 4.3.3 Water Samples (A-E) from Lugbe Slum _Area 75

Table 4-.3.4 :ross Well Water Samples (F-J) _ .. _ . __ 76

Tab Ie 4.3.5 A-E) Borehole Sample Lugbe Across _ .• _ •.. 77

Ta b Ie 4.3.6 Microbiological Analysis result ofUndergronnd

Wrat eer- in FesingArea _ •• _ •... _ 78

Tab Ie 4.3.7 Samples (1-5) from Federal Housing _ _ ..... __ 78

Tab Ie- 4.3.8 ogical Result of Borehole Water Samples (A-E) from Ll~gbe Acro _ •.... 79

Table 4.3.9 l Water Samples from Lugbe Across _ . _ ...•. _ 79

Table 4.4. 1 ; Analysis of Borehole Water Samples (A-E) Lugbe Across __ . _ • . _ 80

Tab Lee 4-.4.2 a -5) Statistical Analysis of Borehole Water in.. Federal Hou , __ . _ ~ _ .. _ . _ 81 Table 4-.4.3 ')les (6-10) from Federal Housing Area. . 82

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Table 4.4 . "logical Analysis of Un Ierground Water, sample in lPederal H<. .....................• i,,;, • _ 83

Table 4-.4.zSamples (1-5) fromFederaIHousing .. . . __ 83

Table 4.4.mples(6-10)fromFederaIHousing _. . 84

Table 4.4.'e Samples (A-E) from Lugbe Across • _. _ 85

Table 4.4. mples (F-J) from Lugbe Across , _ .. .. 86

Table 4.4. 'Iogical Analysis of Underground Water Samples 87

Table 4.5 Samples (1-5) from Federal Housing Borehole_ 87

'Table 4-.5.e Samples (A-E) fromLugbeAcross __ . _' .. 88

Table 4-.5 .mples (F-J) from Lugbe Across . __ . __ 88

'rab Lee 4-.6. mit of Physical and Chemical parameters between Dry Artd Wet ~: Water Samples .. . _ 89

'T a b I e 4.6. esult of Physical and Chemical parameters between .,~

lDry and V;l for: Well Water Samples 89

'T ab Lee 4-.6 _ esult ofbacteriologicai Analysis between Dry and \ ~

'W- ee t Sease .. _ ." __ . _ 90

'T a b 1 e 4.6. esult of Physical and Chemical Parameters between

F edera 1 :I-I.gbe and Lugbe Across (Slum Area) _ 91

'Table 4.6 .esult of bacteriological Analysis Sample between Federal Hgbe and Lugbe Across _ 92

'T a b Ie 4-.6. esult of Physical and Chemical Parameters between Well Watt'ehole Water samples _ . 93

'Table 4-.6.esult of bacteriological Analysis between Well Water .A.n.rl Borelr Samples . 94

.'~ : . \

oj

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FIGURE

LIST OF FIGURES

PAGE

FI GURE .f the study area _ .. _ . _ .. _ 18

FIGURE .Cycle 21

Jt :

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1. Sa d of the Study

\N at:e r is amponent of life without which there may be n a life (Hazony, 2015 ).It: i sal compound which consists of Hydrogen and Oxygen in the ratio of 2 :is one of the essential requirements for all forms of life and it: is eonsiintegral part of the living organisms life; and God has gifted au r un ivebulk of this valuable substance in different forms such as: rive r , I a kE springs, rain, snow, glaciers, aquife rs and others(Jamal, 2017). Livisms cannot survive longer than few days without adequate vv a t:e r , as! need to ensure that individuals get access to clean water cannot beAlepu, 2016 ).The oceans and seas occupy over 70% of the e art: h" s s U3ning that about 29% of the earth's su rf ace is occupied by the land .. O. S. 2008). Water is a natural resource that is both in val u a b I EXistence of all living organisms, but th is va I u e d resource is inc re a sin ghreatened as human population grows and demand more vvater of Ity for domestic purposes and economic activities (Yakubu, 2013). \lVa-! most important nutrient essential to the survival of all h U IT! ani ty it is involved in every bodily function, and makes up about 75-80% otfy weight of every organism(Offei-Ansah,2012; Haruna and S a 10m on .. ~an needs water for drinking and in his d a i Iy domestic a ct:i viti e .s , ornestlc cooking, bathing and cleaning; agri cu Itu ral activities like irrigaJstrial processes and transportation activities ..• therefore, extensive d local efforts to provide clean and reliable water for the in ere as i ngm of the world is vital (Singh and Math u r, 2005).There are tvvo main of water- the surface (lake, stream, river, pond), and the gro u n d vv!lls and boreholes) (Oko et.al,2014).Wate r is polluted by e i 1: her C) r lral and anthropogenic factors. Surface vvate rs a re generally I" a re vu I r pollution because of easy prone to conta min ations from va ri C) use ntal sources ranging from effluent disch a rge fro m domestic and in d us tiles. Direct discharge of untreated abatto i r vva stes into open d ra i n ages .. h flows into nearby water body constitute a maj or source of poll u t: ion trface and underground water

1

(JV1agaji a 2012). Pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizer contaminations fro mag rdon also result to the presence of path age n i c bacteria in both su r f aderground water. Other water contarn inants could be as a resu It of iinate dumping of wastes, poor well construction, poor eonstrueti latrines and septic systems and siting of graves near bo re ho I esmake underground water unfit for h u ma n consumption I e a din g ted water quality. Thus, contaminations ca n m a ke borehole and vve II 'suitable for domestic use as a resource (H 0 1m es,2007).The qua I ity ole and well waters is determined by testing various pa ra mete irest on which result is compared with the standard qua I ities lor water intended for human consumption a nd use {Appelo and Postrr

I'J i ge r i a is t populous country in Africa .. growing at th e rate of 2%, I'J i ge ri a h stlmated human population of over 170 mill ion people. I'J eve r t h e (need to ensure Nigerians have access to safe and clean

most of the drinking rmot be over-emphasised even tho ugh co m m unit: have access to potable water supply.

:L.1 VVa1:ty Assessment

\Nater qucsment provides the baseline information on water safety, s i nee vvatEin any source of water at the point of use can change with tim e t h us" JS monitoring is essential. Water quality is a fu n damental in assessi ng water is good or bad depending on usage: for drinking, clgrieu Itu rEic uses or for industrial Purposes (NS\N, 2017). Assessing vvater qucves comparing measured chemical concentrations with nat:u ra I bancentrations and with guidelines established to protect hum a n he .ological communities. Thus, water qu a I ity is described by th e can ee r different chemicals of interest (Alberta, 2010).

The eonditquatic resources known as water quality indicators which are eatego conditions and vulnerability indicators, and they include: ass e ss e d V\Ces meeting all designated uses as estab lis h e d bV

2

inte rna t ion a J tion for water standard, qualityfor d ri n kin g V\Iater syste III S ..• co ntl sediments; and Ambient water qua I ity data, aquatic spec i e sat r' is ant loads discharged above permitted lim its, urba n i z at ion ... ral run-off, potential population chan ge, h yd rologic mod ificat:ion)"d estuarine pollution susceptibility index respective Iy( t002).

In 1\1 i ge r i a ... Str Agencies (SWAs) are responsible for the sup ply of wate r j n u r b amd in charge of establishing and mainta in in g rural water infra s 't. r u ct u rEiigerian rural communities depend on bore holes and hand dug vve lir water supply, and there is no guara nte e a bout the hygie n e of t: h ources. Thus, many people in these re m ate a reas suffer seve ra 1 \/Vat:e rliseases ranging from diarrhoea, chole ra, typhoid and guinea \/va rm ins,

At ru r a 1 level ... pply and monitoring systems are still ina de q u ate follo vv i n g t: he ofthe civil society to access relevant info rm a't ion needed by th e gave r rembark on proper establishment of vvate r supply system in so tTl e co m rhowever, some states are now undergo in g reforms by enha n ci ng bo and private participation in developing a nd managing wate r sup ply within their respective states (Alepu, 2016) _ Ground wate r vu' n e r enollution is due to the nearness of the vvate r table to the so i I surf a crmeability of the layers, topping the vv ate r ta ble coupled with different:al pollution sources numerous around the vvater table(Singh et1.

Avail a b i I ity a nbility to water resources reduces the effo rts a nd time input in V\/ ate nn and brings about increase in the qu ant ity of daily per cap it a \IV ate r cions there by increasing production act i v it i e s such as industria I and ral production. Aceo rd in g to TIf Minh (2011), water insecurity and s ca rc ity can stifle a natio n s' e co n -gs about conflicts and unrest among use rs, even as the enviro n rJl e nt: ielv impacted. Improved socio-econorn i c a ct,ivities of a count: ry ca n b -d through water security which can be d escri bed as the conse que n ce ationship between the availability, access i b i I i t.v and wate r usa ge r ep (Calow et aI, 2011).Many factors affecti ng residents access to b 0 rEer and pore water volume consumpti a n h ave been

3

descri bed to ligh charges, distance, increasing popu lation, bad envi ro n me nt' leadership (Toyobo, 2013).

There is a s e rir scarcity in Lugbe where the inhabita nts d a neither have access t e pipe borne water nor safe surface vvater justasitis com tI'I 0 n in rY areas in Nigeria. Thus, people tend to resC) rt to ungr ci un d vv a~ir main source of water for drinking and oth e r domestic uses.

Stan d a rd san qes in water quality is a prerequisite in safegu arding wate r resou r crose from the need to protect human hea Ith from the impacts of vvct:ion (Minh et al, 2011; UNICEF, 2010). Natu ra I water since J_ 8 th ce nbeen discovered to contain many disso Ived substances and co nta m i ruding bacteria, viruses, heavy metals nitrates, salts, arse nics ~ cya rwaste components (Likambo, 2014). D i ox in h as been foun din a q u anment attached to solid particles sue has so i I colloids and or g ani c rrixin leaches into deeper zones of gro u n d vv a ter only on mob i , i z a t jon i sence of lipophilic solvents, dioxins (P C D Dan d PCDe) gets into the cent through combustion processes, it is th e by- product of all co m b u s-esses and pose strong adverse effects to the enviro n men t I in ground water where they occur a s eo II aid al and disso I ve d ph a iotis, 2004).Nitrates can be derived fro m a va riety of natu r a I and a tenic sources, such as septic systems, ani m a I rrianure ,and at m 0 s p lus its. Intense application of nitrogen fe rti I i ze r leads to nitra te co n ta rnf ground water aquifers, nitrate conta min a ti on is found to be the mos-eadcontaminantaffectingthewater quality of the world s' a q u if~l, et aI, 1999)

Wate r re sou rco be monitored to ensure that sustai nab i I ity, safety, nationa i and i nal standardsintaste, colour, and appea ra nee are prom oted. Th and safe water quality could be achieved and mainta in e d b':rS to the set national and internationa I e rite r i a and guide I j n es estfor water quality standard (WHO, 20DS). Pro moting effici en cyan d ble use of water as infrastructure inve st men twill improve s u s t eater use, minimizing rate of pollutions (A \N E, 2018).Toxic substa nee s f r ooint and non-point sources. Sources of va I at i Ie organic comp c> u n d s ('V:cted in groundwater could be from n b n - poi nt

4

atmosphelescing sources, VOCs enters the groundwat:er posing more pro b I e m 11ity water supply(USGS, 2012).

1. "I .• 1 ~ution

Water polhe contamination of any body of water (lakes~ groundwater, oceans )bjust, micro-organisms. Some examples of water pollution:

a. Ra'funning into lake or streams b. In d 'ste spills contaminating groundwater c. Radls or nuclear accidents d. I Ile,ng of substances or items within bodies of water e. B i <rntamination, such as bacteria growth I. F armto nearby bodies of water

Soil Q'-tal'aterQuaIity

Soil quali increase environmental as well as production costs. Soil degradatiooth direct and indirect degradation ofvvater quality.

So i I degram erosion leads directly to water quality degradation through the deliveiiments and agricultural chemicals to surface water. Soil degradatiag from compaction, salinization, acidification, or loss of biological can increase the vulnerability of soils to erosion and exacerbate quality problems associated with Sedimentation.

Soil degratds directly to water pollution by sediments and attached agriculturals from eroded fields. Soil degradation indirectly causes ,;y- ater pol] ricreasing the erosive power of runoff and by reducing the so i l ' s a b iIi tor immobilize nutrients and pesticides.

T'I-i e- inclireofsoil quality degradation may be as important: as the direct dUITl.uges r rom sediment delivery, but they are often overlooked. Soil degradatio; the capacity of soils to regulate water flow through 'vatersl-"}ed~ysical structure, texture, and condition of the soil surface determ i ne m of precipitation that runs off or infiltrates soils. In the process, t11, energy, and timing of seasonal stream flows and recharge to ground~ determined. Soil erosion and compaction degrade the capaciti es reds to capture and store precipitation.

5

The i ncreasecifrunoffwater causes stream channels to erode, adding to sed i 11-' en t 1 c,zgrading aquatic habitat for fish and other vvildlife. Chanr ie- 1 crc~s i cimated to contribute soil degradation that leads to the loss 0 t a so 'il ' S :0 buffer nutrients, pesticides, and other in. puts accelerates theion of surface water or groundwater quality _ Erosion not only r e-ss i.i l ts i m . transport of sediment, nutrients, and pesticides to surface '\/Vaters 'educes the nutrient storage capacity of soils_ A reduced nutrient storagq may lead to less efficient use of applied 1j_utrients by crop p] allts anc potential for loss of nutrients to surface vvater and groun d "\Vater _ "Tides held by soil organic matter or clay 1j_j_ay become more m 0 1-:> i 1 e i renvironrnent as erosion reduces organ i C 1-:11 a tter levels and d~anges t l ixture. Reduced biological activitrcan slc::>~ the rate at which pes tic i d eraded, increasing the likelihood that tlJ_e l-:>esticides will

, I ' •

6

be trar"lsporte'l.e soil to surface water or groundwater _ Cornpaction in com b iII a ti a rr r soil degradation processes can reduce tlj_e health of crop root systern s., a less efficient nutrient use and increasing the pool of resicl t.i a I r'i t.i tr i can be lost to surface water or groundwater_

1.1.2 Soil Q.IWaterQualityAreLinked

Soil de g ra d at B in both direct and indirect degradati on 0 f surface water and gro u n. d w <:y. Soil quality is a fundamental step to vv ards i mproving the en vi ro n lTl «irmance of agricultural ecosystems. Cha1j_ges in farming systo r ra ss that cc address the loss of nutrients, pesticid ee ss , salts!, or other polh.i r e.r i t es wi Is effective unless soil quality is also protected or imprco-v c.cl ,

Soil q Ll aJ i t.y i r-nt alone, will not be sufficient to address all vvater quali ty prc~ l'J 1 e;; other elements of the agricultural sy ss t.ee rm are addressed. Soil <I Ll al i ty i rmt alone, for example, will not solve the pro bi em of nitrate contarrfsurface water and groundwater ifex..cessive nitrogen is appli e-el to t]j_e system. If nitrogen applications are e:x..cessive~ changes in so i 1 qua 1 i ty .ige the proportion of nitrates delivered to s'Ll..rfacewaters rather t}1..811 tc---, ater, but total nitrate losses may remain.. tl",e sarne

1.1.:3 Types r pollution

There a re m aof water pollution because water corn e s fro m many soure e s _ Here f types of water pollution:

1. N~Jtrients P

Some vva steV\.:ilizers and sewage contain high levels of nutrients. If they end up indies, they encourage algae and weed grovvth in the wate r _ Th is vv i ie water undrinkable, and even clog fi Ite rs _ Too much algae vv i II a Iso I the oxygen in the water; and other \IVa te r 0 rganisms in the\vater vvill foxygenstarvation.

2. Surface 'VVa1ion

Surfa ce vv ate r natural water found on the earth's s'u rfa ce, Ii ke rivers, lakes" I a go 0 n s ns. Hazardous substances coming into co nta ct with this surface vvat:er"gormixingphysicallywiththewater can be called surface \N' a t:e r .

7

3,Oxygen De

Wa'te r bod i e~cro-organisms. These include aerobic a nd anaerobic orga n is III S _ VVnuch biodegradable matter (things th ate as i I y decay) end u pin vv a tourages more microorganism growth" and they use up more oxyge n Iter. If oxygen is depleted, aerobic orga n is ms die, and anae ro b i C 0 r grow more to produce harmful toxins such a s ammonia andsulphide5

1.1.4 ~ ~~ t-e]1 indicators

_Water q LIc:d i t yysical, chemical and biological characteristics of water. It is a n:-:leasLlrondition of water relative to the requirerrlents of one or more bi otic sp or to any human need or purpose. It is rrrost frequently used by re fer6et of standards against which compliance can be assessed. ~rll_enmon standards used to assess water quality relate to healt.ln or ecc:lsafety of human contact and drinking water (Elser, 2007)

Water q 1...1-31 i tyiescribed by the concentration of different cl,_emicals of interest. Dete:vhether water quality is "good" or "ba.cf'" depends on the purpose of t.ln cent-v-for example, water with naturally elevated conc ee rr tratiorl: metals may not be suitable for drinking water, but may be sui tat.:> le io:ll uses. Assessing water quality generally involves comparill_g rra diemical concentrations with natural, bacl<ground, or basel i r i e- corle, and with guidelines established to protect hU1nan health orecological ties.

Gene r-sa.l l y , t e-sedures and parameters may be grouped into pbysical, cherra i c a I.., b a -ical and microscopic categories.

I. P //}_),/s icdicate properties detectable by the senses. II. C l?-erJ-? icetermine the amounts of mineral and orgarlic substances

t)l_at a 1-1- quality. III. B ClC re:»: rests show the presence of bacteria, charcLcteristic of

faecal r Physical t:est

Colo t.i r-, turbicsolids, dissolved solids, suspended so Li clss , odour and taste are reCOl

8

Colo uri TI VV3.Je caused by the presence of minerals SLl-ch as i1'on and man sz.at r i ese 0 lances of vegetable origin such as algae a_n_c..l weeds. Colo i.i r tests i Ie efficacy of the water treatment systeerm ,

Turb i d i t-y in iccausc of suspended solids and colloidal IT1utter. It may be due to eroGused by dredging or due to the growth of TT1icTO­ organ i Sl-rlS _ I-I iity makes filtration expensive. If sewage solic.:ls are present., patllC'] be encased in the particles and escape the action of chlor i ri e- d uri r ction. (FM RIVER)

Odou ran cl t:~sociated with the presence of living n~icrosco:pic organ i S TTl s; 0 r; organic matter including weeds, algae; or industrial wastes conta i nonia, phenols, halogens, hydrocarbons. This taste is imparteci tC) i=J. ring them unpalatable. While chlorination dil t.t tes odour and taste CCl t.i esne contaminants, it generates a foul odoL1r itselfwhen added t c» ,,;va ted with detergents, algae and some other vvastes.

CheITl. i ea I t:cs

pH, h3rc..iness., ofa selected group of chemical pararm e-t.e-r-ss , biocides, highl yo tCYX icc] and B.O.D are estimated.

pH is a ITleascrogen ion concentration. It is an indicator of relative acidit:y cyr c-t11<cwater. Values of9.5 and above indicate l,_igl,_ alkalinity while val Lies celow indicate acidity. Low pH values help in effective chlor i nation Io iroblems with corrosion. Values below 4 geneTally do not SL1 P 1-' 0 r1: Li viisms in the marine environment. Driri lc i rr gg -water should have a p }-1 l~et'and 8.5. Harbour basin water can vary between 6 and 9.

_ pI-I is a measure of how acidic or basic . (alkaline) the water is (the terrn p ~I comes from the French: "puissance d'Hydro ge:ne" which means strength of the hydroge:n). It is defined as the negative log of the hydrogen lOll

concentration.

°1 '1 I. acid ~ ~Ulce

: I'=~~~-=I 5{ :[ , ( 8 [soda, 9 Cer

-1 0 [Magnesia 1 1

[ia [ I

9

Neutr f:ll The pH scale is logarithmic a:nd goes from 0 to 14. For each whole number irlcrease (i.e. 1 to 2) Incn~ asing

alkalinity

12

13

1 4

the 1-1)7 d ro g enentration decreases ten fold and the water becomes less acid i c..

Adajo t e-c l FI-C:)J~, (2015)

Term pc ra t-l_1 r

.rature is a measure of the average energy (kinetic) of molecules. It is measured on a linear scaJe of degrees or degrees Fahrenheit.

e of the most important water quality pararneters. affects water chemistry and the fLlncti OTIS of

~ organisms. It influences the:

1. a J"T1. 0 U t i tn that can be dissolved in water, 2. rate or thesis by algae and other aquatic plants" 3. l-rl eta bo)f organisms, 4. sen sit i "~anisms to toxic wastes, parasites and di seas e es , and

t i]!:)_ i n g uction, migration, and aestivation of aqL.l.ati c orgamsms.

Elect:rical Coty/Salinity

.,,~i~~;Ig'~S~'ca.n be found in I:ature in. ': dissolved forrI~.. Salts that .~ ;i~;;""' .• ,~:d;·j;·" 'e in water break into positively and negat1vely charged

_~:~ onductivity is the ability of water to cond-uct an electrical " , and the dissolved ions are the conductors. The major

ely charged ions are sodium, (Na+) cal ci L1TI1.. (Ca+2), urn (K+) and magnesium (Mg+2). The rr1aj or negatively

charged ions aie (Cl-), sulfate (S04-2), carbonate (C03-2)" and bicar lo co rrra t ee (f-.Jitrates (N03-2) and phosphates (P04-3) are'rninor contr i l:JLltors tcivity, although they are very important biologically.

Salin i ty is a rn'the amount of salts in the water. Becra.uus ee dissolved ions increase salir1 il as conductivity, the two measures are related. The salts in sea 'V-JaTer ally sodium chloride (NaCl). However, otl"1cr saline waters., sueli a,ake, owe their high salinity to a combination of disso 1 ved i CHi Ss sodium, chloride, carbonate and sulfate.

B.O.r> _: ltd e rirnount of oxygen needed by micro-organi S1T1 s for stabil i zati on 0 nsable organic matter under aerobic conditions. High

10

B.C)_T~_ rY1eaJ~re is less of oxygen to support life and Lrrcl i c.ert.es organic pol li.i t i CJ n _ .

Met-a Is: watis for heavy metals must consider soil particles suspended in the water ~'hese suspended soil particles may cora.t.sa.i ra rn_easurable arnci t.r t t t es of rhough the particles are not dissolved ir1 the water, they may be co 1-""1 s neople drinking the water. Adding aci d to a water sample to pre v ell t I C) olved metals onto the sample container may dissolve more meta Is ero ITI d soil particles. Filtration of soil particles frorn_ the water sam j» I e 1-:> e Fo clition, however, may cause loss of disso 1 ved .rmctals onto the f i l t ee r .

Nutri en t:s., i rnitrogen and phosphorus, are essential for plant and anirrr a l gro'7\/tJrishment, but the overabundance of t ln.ee ss ee m.i.rt.rients in water CCLlj_ cC'l"Lber of adverse health and ecological effects. Although nitrogerL is ataturally in the environment, high levels are cOlnmonly due sevvage" ,cleaning solutions, animal manure, acid ra.irl" decc» ITl po sit i cil erosion. Commons sources of phosphorus include ferti I i ze r zs , TTL svage, industrial effluents, and soil erosi 01-:1.

Amm .:>.-. ia is nitrogen present in fertilizers and clea.rli1~g solutions, and is a deCC)lTiPO{_iuct of urine. It can be toxic to fish am cl 1-'1'L1Tn_a.l1s at certain leve 1 san dis -ndicator of human sewage in urban areas.

COI1l d 1.1 ct-i v i ~lfic conductance, is a measurement or tl-'1e stream's ability to carry an e I urrent. In streams, this is related to the c01:"lcerltration of inorga n i C dis did ions present in the water. This may i ra cl "Llde a number of m.r t.r i e-ri t.es , r other compounds. Geology as well as pollutants can cont rib LIt e t. (_') urement, but high measurements can rn al<e conditions unfit f<_yr certa~ organisms.

Diss<>Jvcd ox:measure of the amount of oxygen available 11-:1 streams. These oxy- ge ne essential in order for aquatic life to "breatl'1e." High levels of- d i sscgen are typically good for aquatic life , a1-:1d lovv levels may caLl s e s Ll .or death to aquatic organisms. In condi ti 01~S where aqua tic lJ 1 a 11 t.ssdant, low oxygen levels and impairme:n t to streams may occu 'r , 1-J art i C i.iight,

Bact e- ri <> J ogic

For tee h 11 i cal ornic reasons, analytical procedures for tl'_e detection of harm iu I orgarimpractical for routine water quality s'Llrvei 1lance. It must be apprec 13 techat bacteriological analysis can prove is that" at the time of ex ra III i rl_a t i co iination or bacteria indicative of faecal ·1-=>011 u tion, could

11

or co~u I d llo-mstrated in a given sample of water u s i rr g; specified culture me tho d s. F<~ cl rural supplies, sanitary surveys may 0 fte1"1 be the only fOIT1! 0 f~ ex C1 that can be undertaken regularly (FM RIVER).

The reco gn imicrobial infections can be waterborne has led to the deve I 0r:HT1 e riods for routine examination to ensure that water intended for 11 U 1--"1' a n con is free from excremental pollution. A rrlore logical apprc:) Clcb_ is :ion of organisms normally present in tl~e faeces of man and (_y 1: her w ded animals as indicators of excremental I~ 0 Ll t.i tion, as well as <0 E tl~e e t1vater treatment and disinfection. The presence of such org.a.ra i s ITl sine presence of faecal material. The us e 0 f Tlorrnal intestinal org ei r i i ss rmrs a~rs of faecal pollution rather than the patl~ogens themselves is a un iversated principle for monitoring and assessing tl-"1e microbial safety c") f "v-a es.

1.2~ State mesearch Problem

1. U rln: the increase in the migration of pe c> pie fro rn different p a rcbuntry including the heart of the FeT to Lu g be area is of g r ee-n considering the pressure the popu I at ion ex plosion has on onmental resources, particularly wate r reso u rce. This i rr t esure coupled with high birth rate poses i nte nse challenge on sion of adequate water quality and qua ntity in Lugbe. T h €led water crises in Lugbe has resulted to inc rease in the p r coborehole and wells as alternative wate r sou rce to satisfy the st for water from the ever increasing hum a nand Ii veJUlations, and other anthropogenic act iviti e s.

2. Th eeks to investigate the population size t hat h as no access to c~r and whichasa result is exposed to the ri s ks of water b a • es such as cholera, typhoid, diarrhoea, and at hers.

3. Th eo seeks to find out the areas in Lugbe vvith vvater stress, the und water consumption pattern s an d vv h et her the VV H nended minimum daily amount of wa te r per perso'n (tha'es,/day) is being met by the inhabitants.

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:1..3 Ai njectives of the study

Aim

To assess role and well water quality and to determine some physical and chemlcteristics of water consumed from these sources and to cam pa re teters with the WHO and FME standards in 0 rde r to evaluate 21ny hearthlconsumers

IDbjeC1:iv~

:1. • The s aimed at assessing borehole and han d -d u g well water qua J ieople's water consumption pattern and rate in Lugbe, Fed EI Territory, Abuja.

2. To if' and determine seasonal variation in bo re hoi e and well vvatEn Lugbe, Abuja.

3. To ie the level of micro-organisms and other chemical cant'in consumed water which could pose serious health risks on c, also the poor physical conditions of \Nate r in terms of tasteolour might render water undrinkable and rejected by end use r sitlnuous assessment and monitoring is deemed necessary to c oter insecurity as well as water-born- diseases such as c h a I Eid, malaria fever outbreak in Lugbe loca I ity_

1 .. 4 HypTesting T his s e crtattempt to investigate the water quality co n s u rl1ed by the pea p J e agree of availability of the water to the reside nts of Lugbe. For th is vo hypotheses have been set to examine both the quality and the <{ of safe water to the people.

i Th e re ataminants in the water consumed by Lugbe resi dents i i Th ere lificant difference in the concentration s of co ntaminants p rese nt bnsumed in Federal housing and in Lugbe sl u m areas.

The 0.0'= significance will be used to accept or reject the null hypothe!:

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1.S Scope;tudy

U n d e rg rter samples taken randomly from the st u d y a reas were s u bj ectesico-chemical and microbiological ana lyses _ The analysis \l\/a s ca r roth in dry and wet sea-sons, and para m e-te rs investigated inc f u de: :ure, pH, conductivity, turbidity, salin ity" DO" TDS, BO D .• CO brdness, fluoride, chloride, residual ch lorine" nitrate, nit:rit:e .• s uhosphate, magnesium, manganese, lead .•. arsenic, cad rn i u ITI, copper, nickel, iron, total coliform, E _ co l i , salmonella, s h i ge II a ao-bacter organisms. In-situ analysis 0 nth e te mperature, pH .. co n chnd turbidity was taken immediately afte r sa rnple colJectiol

1.Ei Just ifi c the Study Th e hi g h ~ and the increasing human populatio n in Lu gbe need to be s u sta j 'ovision of good quantity of quality wate r _ Th e rate of \l\/a te r co In varies with season due to some infi ftrati 0 n s that could lead to sunge in water taste, odour, and colour" justify_ing seasonal \1\/ ate ran aetermine water quality.

The stu d Y \1\/1 create awareness on water quality and s e cu rity in Lugbe Incl us i ve of vne diseases the inhabitants may be vu I n era b I e to.

The stu d y vvoffer recommendations that will help edify a nd guide rese arc hers" tentalists, and relevant government age n c i e s to develop strate g i c nor es and infrastructural framework toward sen suring the provi s ion of stv and accessible water resources to N ige ri an s.

1.6.1 Lim itahe Study

Th e stu dylenged with so many limiting factors so m e of which inc' ude:

L Hi g h c.c.earch and sample analyses, between te n to twenty tho usa per sample.

14

If. Po 0 nent financial encouragement, and in access i bility of go ve esearch grants and funds for Post Gra d u a te Research Progr

III. D iffi c:onveying the water samples from po i nts of collection to the L'es for analysis

1,'7 Descri [the study area

The stu d y "\Nj out on the major zones across lugbe s ett I e ment area, Ab uj aNi ge r is located between the Latitude 8° 25 and gO 25' North of the e qua to r utude of 6° 45' and 7° 45' East of Gree nvvich meridian It oce u pie sap alv 8000 square kilometre and is surra un d e d by Kaduna, Kog i 7 N i ge r c'awa states, Lugbe is a small satellite tovv nun der Abuja Mu n i ci pa I C~a, Lugbe is located between the longitu d e 7° 20.40' and 7°24. 23'; a de gO 00 42' and 8° 5631', it is about five ki I a rTletres off the city gatelongAir-portroad,Abuja, Lugbeismade up of two axes: the fe de r: a f gnt approved and Lugbe village which is) occu pied illegally by ~ 0 vv inc 0 rrs. The two axes were studied, and th e s p e c ifi c area of stud yin the ent approved settlement area is betvve en the landmarks­ Gua rd ian A ndic Church (Police Chapel), and Goverri me nt Secondary Scho 0 I (0 ff Pv.ugbe, and the lugbe across which is sect ion a I ised into zones (zones

1.7.1 Geolc

The ge 0 fogy is made up of Basement Complex Roc ks of P recanbrian Age vvh ich a r igneous and metamorphic rocks along vvith these are sed i nJ e n 't a ry ich were derived by weathering and era s ion.

1.7,,2 Topof§

The to pog ra pbe is undulating, it is characterised by s 10 py terrain and gran it i c ins e I tdot the landscape, Some small strea m s a I s a flow across the t err a in d it to form valley side slopes, The eleva t ion of Lugbe range s fro til /30m according to the GPS samples th at vve re recorded in the a rea.

15

1.7.3 S.

The so j I snly Tropical Ferruginous characterise d by brownish to re d dis h <ong the stream=valleys (fadama) the re a re a Iluvial soils t hat vv e red by the streams along the flood pia ins _

1.~7 aLI- Vege

The vegetat! settlement has been completely clea red. However, only fevv t re e sari for shade within houses. In areas pe ri p hera I to the town, a sa van n a h ~getation made up of grasses and sca tte re d trees forming a par k-I and the terrain

1.~7_S Clime

Th e c lim ate is Aw-type according to Kopper's clim at icc I a ssification. Aw tv p e of ccharacterised by two distinct seasons of d rv a nd wet wea the rca r-he dry season lasts from November to Apr I l , while the rain V 5 e a 5 a ntarts in May and ends in October. Hu mid ity is higher during the rC)nupto80ormoreinJulyandAugust the peakofrainy sea so n _ Te rrs are moderately high ranging from 27°C to 36°C in the COLI rse of th E

1.7' _6 The F

Lugbe as panalCapitalTerritoryhasdrawnmany people bothwithin and c:> u 1=5 Ide nee the inceptionof Abuja as the Fed e ra I Ca p ital Territo rv. Th ianv residentsin Lugbe, mainly Gbagi , Ko r c», lbo, Yoruba, Hau 5 a.}' Gad e ny others. Some of the people are civi I s e rva nts, some bus in e 5 5 me tome are farmers. According to 2006 Ce n 5 U 51 the Proj e cte d P oCensus of Abuja Municipal Council un d e r \.N hi ch exists Lugbe tovvn ied to contain aboutl.3 million people. , .

1.8 R a 1: i c> n ae Choice of Study Area

The re are p csystems (bucket and open toilet syste m s) ins ome part of Lugbe pa r t i cn.re slum/village areas. Some households on cleaningtheir

, , soak a vv a y pi.,e night soil unpacked only for rain to dis p e rs e it around

16

the a re a ~ t hved to contribute to pollution of the many bo re-holes and We l l s .

The in d iscri .imping of household wastes including ha rmful wastes fro rn the n elth centre in Lugbe across gave rise to the pre sumption that there ceepagesfromtheseopendumpsites into the und e rg ro u nThe study was carried out on the majo r zo n es across lugbe set t, I erne n t <ja Nigeria. The map of the study area (s) \IV it h sampling poi n ts iss h cure 2.1 below.

17

Figu re 2.1 Ie Study Area

7"22'30"E

8"57'30"N

9"0'0"N

• Sample Point • Settlement:

""'" Major Road ~Minor Road

~Lugbe o 0.3 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4

Kilometers -- - --- -

N

A 8<S1'30"N

'O'O"N

7"22'30"E

Sou rce: IVI oclgle Earth Map, 2016

18

Ct-IAPTER

LITERATURE REVIEW'

2. Concf'amework

The co n ce pt: quality originated from World Health 0 rga n isation, WH c) ( ]__ 9 9 3 ~ )7) because of its quest for sustainab Ie hum a n health. Hea Ith a ceo rlHO is a state of complete physical, me nta I a nd social well- be i n g 01md not merely the absence of diseases and infirmity. Thu s, th e co rhuman health brought about the conce pt of "standard" that: is the a cscientific standard of water quality fo r safe human cons u ITt pt i 0 ncept of water quality does not apply to hum a ns only beca use the rtous criteria of water quality standard s J inc I u ding- water qua Ii ty s tan d afety of potable water, for industries sue has cooling wate r; vvat:e ragricultural aquatic ecosystem{Maga ra,,2019)

This vv 0 r k is fn assessment of water quality for hum a n co n sumption. Wate r qua J it}:! for human consumption sets the leve I th at does not caus e any h a arnan bodies and or any limitation on \IV ate r u sage as

. dete r min e d t:cientific information. Latest informat ion ca n be obtained only 't: h ro ugh :ion of the constituents of any given \/Vate r _ Thus, brings in th e co n ce ptoring which is conducted to examine th e co rnpliance with sta n d a rcelines. Practical implementation .of d ri n ki ng vvater qual it:y sta n d aideline values which can be compared to \.tV H 0 safety stand a rd s 0 r -eria requires collection and analysis of sa m pies.

A key co nee pi quality is that different beneficial uses have different need s _ f'VI os t plieve that good water quality means t hat the water is pure and c J e a s is only partly true when applied to p ata b Ie vvater. Howeve r ... fi s hid wildlife generally have much more qua I ity requ ire ITt en 't . nstance source their oxygen and nutr i e nts fro m water, so fo r fi s h~ go~should contain enough quantities of oxyge nand nutri en ts ... \IV h !JI pollutants should be absent. Becau se of va riations in the re qui re meter standards for various uses, the co n ce pt. of water· quality ca n n oi;defined (Apec water, 2019).

19

/4..s s u rfa CE)ws on the land surface, a lot of subst:a nces a re conveyed

from farnrban waste water, industrial wastes and so on that conta min a Contaminants in water does not only i ncl ude substances necessary iorting the life of living organism s such as nitrogen, phosphorcon but hazardous substances such as arsenic and mercury, vv hi C hare unnecessary for living creatures but a I so cause health problems _

Fu r t he rm 0 sites and infectious micro-organis m san d chemical su bsta n ceslgricultural chemicals which may cause hea Ith problems to humans oratures are also carried bv watertfvlaga r-sa , 2019) containing phys ica I ..• chd biological substances. So water quality is often assessed in te rm s of of physical, chemical and biological constitue nts contained in the vvate

In terms of actors determining water quality concepts such as physical pa ra mete rsg: specific or electrical conductance , tata I suspended so lid S (TSS) ... ncy/turbidity, total dissolved solids(TDS) I sa lin itV, odour of water ..• tastEand colour of water.

In terms 031 parameters in the assessment of water quality, the quantity of,emicals such as chloride ion, ammonial nitrite, nitrate, ph os ph 0 ru ssrdness, pesticides, surfactants, heavy m eta I SI dissolved OKY ge n ( DO) oxygen demand(COD), biological oxyge n de m and(BOD), PH and S 0 o~ys analysed.

When ana iyr quality in terms of its biological properties, the following con ce pts a Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Molluscal Trichoptera, Escherichia liform bacteria Pinephalespromelas (fathead minow), An.., e ri ca n n Y11ysid shrimp), and sea urethin

These physial and biological properties are measured in water in ter-m s of co Ins in relation to recommended WHO sta n d a rd S for safety con sum pti 0 rare too much, the water quality is rated poa r by WHO's sta n d a r ci , s c the conclusion when these paramete rs a re too low. Hovveve r ..• if with WHO's quantities of concentration, th e water is said to be safe ..• a rd as good quality water.

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:Z_20rigi r:urrence of underground water

Un d erg ro L,surface water,atmospheric and spring wate rare the main s.ou rces ofaliliving organisms. The chief source of underground water is the preqs shown in the figure 2.2 below.The quality of these water hod ies va I depending on the location and envi ron mental factors (j~detunde,l).Waterfound in the pore spaces, cracks and fractures in rDcks, cre~ath the soil surface in the form of grou nd water, sub SIU rfa ce a rranean water is termed underground wate r', 'This water origi nates ; or snow and moves through the soil and rocks into the gl ..... ou nd w~m, it eventually makes its way back to the surface water.Grou occurs everywhere beneath the earths- surface but is usually reto depths less than about 750meters"beneath the unsatu rate(~ area between the surface and the top of the ground water syste! all the open spaces between the fractured rocks are filled with wate re water has a pressure greater than the atmospheric pressu re (H cater, 2014). Fossil water may be originated from climate phenomencntrapped water may be brackish and are normally saline be~ing entirE! from sea water. All ground water is located at the depth of 7S0m to )f the earth's surface just as the Kola Peninsula of Russia (Tiwa r i , P _ 2C

Figure 2.2 \4e Source: from PNG Image

2.2.1 0 ug vv eorehole

Adug vvell is ctioncreated intheground aquifers, it: is usuallydugby hand and; oft Etith concrete bricks, many go dry duri ng dry season since it is d i ffi ells below the water table without usi n g m C) re sophisticated ~s. The shaft of an improved dug well has a concrete lining a b ave t; hson water table sand and a series of co n crete rings know n as ca i s ~ the levels to ensure a year round su p ply of vvater, this lining acts b o1tect the shaft from collapse and to preve nt surface wate r fro rn i ninto the well at shallow depths .Immed i ate Iy the well is comp I ete d J it ~ cleaned with chlorine to control micro-o rga nisms in well vvate r . Ccropes and bucket attached is used to d ra vv vvater from the vve II J in dives and buckets shou Id be banned to a va i d conta nI ina t i 0 mater. Wells should be closed when nat in use to avoid grou n d \JV ate r . Well can vary greatly in depth, wate r va I u me and may requi re treatn:>ften the water (Yakubu, 2013).

Bore h 01 es a rE10les drilled into the ground water, th ey ca n be drilled using rn oto ri zierated by trained staff. As the boreh 0 lei s d ri lied, a lining of p I a st n is sunk to protect the hole from colla pse, gravel is place d a ro un com of the lining to improve flow and p rovi de filtration Bore hoi e p ro'.CI quality water, but the water someti m es co ntaihs harrri f u I c h e rnI heavy metals such as Fluoride, arsen i c, i ro n and others. Sinki n g bore heal communities at low costs can be a chi eve d by drilling by ha n d us in g, or by forcing water into the ground un de r pressure,' this is knovvn " Depending on the depth of the grou ndvvater, a hand pump may be.tobringupthewaterfromthedepth of 4S meters beyo n d vv hi c hzed pump (diesel, electric, or solar p ovve re d) I may be used. Ce rta i n /hich may enhance borehole yield incl u de: th e geolo g i ca I a n ~phy setting, dykes regional tectonics vve a the ring thick n e s san dy to surface water drainage.(SEPA, 20:1 0)

2.2.2_ The see occurrence of ground water

This may be do zones of aeration and saturation Th e Z 0 n e s of aera t ion co n serstices occupied partially by water and pa r t; i ally by air.

22

In the zo n e of In all interstices occupied by air or waLe rare under hydra u sta tic r=ln the zone of aeration (unsaturated zo n e), vadose water occurs" ralzonesmaybefurthersubdivided into threethesoil wate r zan e" t t--ediate vadose zone and capillary zone

The sa t:u ra tedends from the upper surface of saturatio n d O\Nn to unde r Iy in g i rn Ie rocks. In the absence of overlying i rn perm e able strata" 1: h e \IV a (phreatic surface) forms the upper su rfa ce of the zone of sat u rat ion" fined as the surface atmospheric pres sure and appears as th e I eve I a t:ater stands in a well penetrating the a q u ife r _ Saturation exten d sst i g h t:the water table due to capillary attra ct ion, v\/ ater is held here at: less thphericpressure. Water occurring in the .zone of satur at ion is rJ as ground water or phreatic water.

2.2.3 F 0 U r rurces of ground water

1. Co n nate \.!Vas water trapped in the interstices of sed i me ntary rocks at the 't i III e ofnation.

2. Mete 0 r i c \.!V originates in the air, falls as rain and beco rn es the majo r pa r t. of ater by infiltration.

3. Juv en i Ie \.!V aJriginates from the earth's interior an d re a c h es the uppe r I aye rs cths surface as magnetic water (Tiwa ri, 2014)_

4. Co n den s a 1: i sr: this is the prime source which rep len ish e s water in dese r t.ss and S crt areas During hot season the atmos p he ri c: vvater vapour pene1:lrocks and get converted into water due to falling tempe ratu re «apour, these four sources are mixed ala ng complex wate r rn i g rat i i.

Wate r be n e at:und is available in four zones - the so i I zan e, interm e d i a 1:e olllarv, and saturated zones. Zone wh e re water is availa b lei s ca of aeration. Zone of aeration is furth e r s u bd ivided into three ! aye rs -loisture zones, intermediate, and cap i II a ry zo nes which are a I so ca II eczone.

23

Some of \IV a t: e tie zone is used by plants as water move s u pw ards from capill a ry Z 0 n e .IIary condition is temporary disabled vvith· heavy rainfa II s" in co I the ground water body is replenished by recharge.

Thezone of sathegroundwatertablewhichisalso called Phreatic zone I; e s bel 0 ve of aeration and harbours the groun d vv ate rs. The groun d \/Vat:e r regates the zones of saturation and satu ratio n. The maxim u mel e xwater in a well which penetrates the g ro u n d vvater zone is knovvn as Piicwatertable. The water table is highest beneath hills and lovvest be leys. Thus, a geological structure fully satu rated by wate r ca p a b I ecing sufficient quantities of water for eco nomic and deveJ 0 p til e nt: own as Aquifer (Oko, et. al; 2014 and \/\Ii ki pedia, 2017).

2.2.~1- TV pes -gical formations and aquifers

Ther,e are bas r types of geological formations: Aqu i'fe rSI Aquitard, Aquiclude, an~e

Aquifer

An Aq u ife rs is water reservoir composed of geologi ca I fo rm ations units t: hat: are i with water and sufficient permeable to yi e I d water in a usable qua nt:i1S and springs. Sand, gravel deposits, sa ndstone, limes t: 0 n e" f I a d crystalline rocks are examples of ge 0 log i ca I units that form a qui f e IS

Funct ion s of Ahey transfer groundwater from area s of re charge to areas of dis c h {also provides storage medium for use a b I e quantities of gro un d vv a L4nount of water a material can hold de pen d s upon its poros i t:y ~ t: h e siegrce of interconnection of those open i n gs ( pel n determine the material's ability to tr a n s mit fluid(\Ni ki ped i,

Aquife IS a re C3S confined, unconfined systems depe n din g 0 n the prese nee 0 rae a water table, while a leaky aquifer re pre sen ts a comb ina t: ion cd and unconfined aquifers.

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Unco nfi n ed An unconfined aquifer is that in which- a \Nate r table varies in u n d u J at in gi in slope, depending on area of rech a rge and discharge, purn page frcand permeability. Rises and falls on the vvatertable corre spa n d s es in the volume of water in storage vvit hi nan aquifer. Exa rn p J e of ud aquifer of is perched water bodies - vv hie h occur whe reve r grer body is separated from the main grou ndvvater by a relative IV i rn Ie stratum of small areal extent and by th e zone of aera t ion a b cain body of groundwater. Wells tapp in g the s e sources yiel don IV te ( small quantities of water.an aquifer

Con fi ned (p r\quifer: This occurs where groundwate r is co rrflned under pre s sure g re atmospheric pressure by overlying re I ative Iy imp e r rn e a b 11 a well penetrating such an aquifer, the vv a te r level will aris e a b ave -m of the confining bed. Water enters th e co nfined aqu if e r ina r-ete the confined bed rises to the surf ace -' but where the cori fi n i n g b e1derground, the aquifer becomes unco n fi ned. A region supp JVi ng vv;::onfined area is known as a recharge a rea. Rises and falls of \Iva te r i n xetrating confined aquifers results prim a r i I y from changes inpressure nn changes in storagevolumes(Jamal_, ,2017).

Lea ky Aq 'u ifccurs more frequently than confined and unconfined aqu ife rs. It in in alluvial valleys, plains or lake bas ins vvh ere a per rn e a b I e 5 overlain or underlain by a semi pervi c> usa q u itard or semi con fi n i n g I a »lng a well in a leaky aquifer removes vva te r either by ho r Lz cx rn t.ea l fhtheaquiferorbyverticalflowthrough the aquifer.

Aq u i c Iud e: ude is composed of rock or sediment t hat a cts like a barrier to gtterflow,theyaremadeupoflowporosity and low pe r rn e a b i I i trd sediments such as shale, Aquicludes have normally goo d sto ra gy, but low transmitting capacity (Tiwa ri .• 20 1S).

Act u ifuge: ~s a geologic formation which doesn't have interconnected pores. j 't; is)orousnorpermeab'le,thus,itcanneither storewaternor tra ns IT) it it:. include-basalt, and granite -rocks with 0 ut fi ssures (Elsevier_, 2C

25

Gro un d vv a t~ly prevented from going downwards by: th e molecular attra c.t; jon b e3ter molecules, the rocks and the eart:h 's rn aterials; as well as the r+attractlon between the water particle s.

2.2.5 Fa cto:ing ground water occurrence

Clinn ate: g r cxr is readily available at great depths ina ri d re gions while it eK i sts ins hJths in humid regions. Water table rises in ra i ny season and shrinks i son.

Top ogra p hV :bles tend to higher near the hilltops and I ovver near the valleys vvate IS into nearby streams, rivers, swamps and la kes causing descending xle.

Poros i1:V I an dbility of underground materials: Poras ity (rr) refers to the pe rce rr t a total volume of rock with voids, it det:e rrn i nes the volu rIl e of vv:kbody can retain. The larger the pore spa ce s , the greater the i r n U rIl b e5her the porosity and larger the wate r h c> I din g capacity. The re are fo)f pores- spacesbetween mineral gra i hs; fra ctures; solu t ion ca v vesicles. Effective porosity s the volum e of pare spaces betvv e en t h Elts or rocks which are interconnected and vv hi ch would allovv g ro uno flow from one location to another

Por cx s i t x> ( n ) 00

Wh ere V y j sme of void spaces Vis t hlurne of earth material including both <r c» ids a nd solid.

Perm e a b i I it:fers to the capacity of a rock body to t:ra n s tTl it water, for insta n ce _, s 2and conglomerate are highly permea b I e because of the pre sen ce of erconnected spaces between the gra ins (VV e hcmann, 2007 ).

Spe c i fi c Vi e Is is the volume of water that will dra infra III s oil or rock unci e r the i nf gravity. It represents the amount of vv a t:e r 1:: hat can be ava i I a b I e fa rnd consumption. Specific yield deper't d sup c> n grain size, sha p e _, sort i actingand time of drainage.

S - \. y-

26

Whe re Sy is tic yield as a decimal fraction

V g is ne of water drained by gravi V y i 5 t/olume.

2.3 IN at u r e cement of ground water

The u n de rg ro r movement occurs through spaces at s I ow rate, the flow vel 0 city (water is expressed in meter per day, vv a·te r percolates from a re a 5 of er table to areas of lower table. Grou n dvvate r percolates throu g h the 5 <after being activated, thus, permeabi I ity decreases down V\/ a rd 5 a ssoll lavers are compacted due to exerte d vve ight by the overlyi ng 50 i I. decrease in the vertical infiltration of vvate rand if the soil is 5 it u ate cbpy zone, the groundwater deflects do vv n s lope as thoro ugh fl o '\I\.U re of ground water at shallow depth s reve a I s that it acts a 5 re 5 e rvel as conduit, ground water also forms a sma II but integ r a I part crological cycle (Koegel, 1985).

In hu mid re g i orge areas are found everywhere exce pt st re ams and flood p I a ins), vv arid zones recharge areas encornpas son I y the moun ta ins an ng alluvial fans and also the major stre am s underlain by poro U 5 a II u v i ~h which water percolates and recha rge g ro U nd water. As gro un d vv a t through soil, sediments and rocks, many imp urities includ in g dis e <1g organisms are filtered out. If the pe rm e a b i lity of the grou n d V\/ ate r uniform, the velocity of water flow inc re as e s vvlth an incre a sin g g r zi.lope of the water table-hydraulic gra die nt (V\Ieich, et al; 2005 )

2.3.:1 Co m P of ground water

Grou n d vv ate r .ion differs from location to location, it 0 cc u rs in assoc i at ion V\/ i~ical materials containing various natu ra I metallic subst o n ce5 5 un, manganese, calcium, magnesium. Li m ey rocks and soils re I e as e en into the underground water as mate ria I s co ntaining iron sui phi de Iron. Granites releases Fluoride, while co n nate and fossil wate r re I e as e into water. Groundwater zones with high va I ues of disso I ve d 0 XYE nitrate ion(N03), and variable chlorid es (C L-) are

27

chara cte r i s e chfined aquifer conditions while zones. vvith I owvalues of nitra te and c his are characterised by confined aquife r co n d itions(Hwe, 2014) .

2.3.2 G ro u n pollution

This is the p rEwaste and other unwanted harmful rn ate ri a I. inside the unde rg ro un d item. Itis the seepage of industrial che mica I s and other haza rd 0 U S r'rr zo underground water. The key envi ro n rn ental proto I ern 0 c a result of landfills emissions into g roi.r n d \.IV a t (hates (the liquid that d rai ns 0 r 'I e a q hes' from a la n d f i II) i sa ngerous a nd is associated wit h the leakage of a I a rg e rof toxins into fresh water wate rvv a ys, which ultirn a te I y en homes as drinking water or vv ate r for everyd a y u pollution often goes undetected _ Th e toxic corn po un d srge to the ground water becom es inevitable to h U nI a n aact his drinking water tables, th e po lIution is also seve relful to animal and plant life(US EPA, 2002).

Grou n d \IV a t.eminatlon may result from lea ka 9 e· of very sma II ani 0 ueachate into water. TeE is a ca rei n ogen tvplc.zs II y ro l:lndfill leachate, it renders wate run drinkable. SOIT) e s u rv E:lucted have shown that 82% or the landfills haves lea ks. onsored research shows that b u ryi n 9 house hoi d ~ in the ground poisoned the 9 r.o un d water, that, eve n ~ double liner landfills, the pro ba b i I ity of leaking is Vl.

2.4 \lVa1:er send insecurity

Wate r iss aid tce when water as a resource is not ab un d a ntly available so as to fu I 'y 5! needs of consumers. Water availabi I ity rn a y be impaire d due tng demand from the rapid population g rovv": h, lndust: ri a lis a t i ce change which affecttheHimalayan gl a ci a I rYlelt and rising: of sea Ie h increase salinity inaquifers, and uns u sta ina hie groun d VI.! ate r 'als resulting to water famines. Water· s h a rta ges occur

28

in spve ra I \N alg from natural and man-made factors a nd pollution (Idu, 2015) .

The eve r inc later demand due to urban populatio n inc re a se (urb ani z a t i 0 rlJairment of available water resources fro m both natural and man - m a ( contribute immensely to water scare ity and insecurity. The 10\N s e r v if water has been found to account fo r p reva fence of wate r bo rn e which could get to epidemic scale if not atte nded to prom pt I y (I s h~).Pollutions and drought in severe CCl S e s a re not exern pte d. \/Vurce wastefulness, poor conservation ca n not be over­ emp has is e d ... tinsclousness about the economic val u e s of vv ater is one of th e re a son uitous waste and inefficient use of wa te r (H a nasz, 2014) . F r us t: r displacement could trigger water sca rc ity" fa r instance the in te rna 11 y j persons in different parts of Nigeria have been found to ha ve Ie s s a idequate water quantity when compa re d to the non­ displa ced 0 Th Eer consumption (less than 151itres pe r pe r s cs n per day) was a tt r i b ute <aving enough containers to carry and sto re vvater espec j a II y d u r iasons, thus, leading to scarcity and p a or h yg i ene (Reach lnltla 't: ive s". 2 0 .equentlv, the combined effects of grovvi n g po pulation, rising in co m e~nding citieswill see demand for wate r resou rces rising expo rn e nt:i a fly )ply becomes more erratic and uncerta i n (\/\/0 rid Bank". 2016) .

Asclcs s e f y e:> b s 'Hanasz (2014), the problem with the pro b Ie m of scarcity is not lack of water or lack of access to water" but rathera probl ern of p ri::ompeting interests. Hydropower may co m petewith the re qui re rYl ewnstream fisheries, industrial uses, wa te r qua lity needs of dam est; c can" environmental flow and so on. Th e p ra ctice of suppa r t: in g Ii v Grough subsidizing farmers' electricitv has led to severe groun d vv a t:e r cthrough unregulated use of electric \IV ate r pumps and spurre d a g re:> V\et in water selling by local pump own e rs _ Th is market i z a ti 0 n has reinforced inequalities in agrarian stru ctu re, as well as ave re x pi 0 it: cnderground water as drilling of boreh a Ie sin creases.

The IN 0 r l dis in .rlsis, one that will grow more severe in the coming decacl e ... and vv tage will lead to increasing political in sta b i I ity,

29

disp I a ce rn e n lations, and more likely political unre s t s and wars (Haz 0 n Y. 2 O]_ crisis is a crisis of understanding, and neVe r just about wate r but: a r snterconnected with other social, politiea I, eeonomicand envi ro n me nt such as: the degree of conflict alrea dy present; the stre ngt: h of t:. law; and economic Conditions(Hazony ..• 20 1S)

AceD rd i n g to er Indian Water Minister; Ramaswamy Lye r " vvater confl i cts a r i S eof scarcity but gross mis-management in res ponse to unlitll it e d de iwater.This conflict is mainly attribute d to inequitable wate r reso u roution as well as weak governance wh ieh trigger resource scar

Wate r ins e c ul multiply the risks of latent conflicts and vi 01 ent betvv ee en co rr and countries, and could drive migrati 0 n d Li e to spikes in fo 0 d prj c e sy episodes of drought and floods (W 0 rid Ban 1<, 2016)

2.4.1 . Ca u sa:er scarcity

The vvo rl d vvaems'iscaused by multiple simultaneo u s fa eto rs such as redu ce d ra in fdevelbpmental activities: rural-urban m igrati on; envir c» n me ntcwhich is induced by man and which res u Its in decline in the qua ntit:y cesources; population growth- which b ri ngs a bout redu ct: ion in p:a availability of water resources; une qua I distribution of wate r res 0 U r cisults in the concentration of water re s au rce s in the hand s of t: he feconomic growth; wastefulness and in effi e i e nt use of wate r reso u reI! as poor governance (Hanasz,2014).1 n crea se in urba n i z a 1: jon" 1 lifestyles, agricultural and various hu man a etivities have inc re a s elution of both surface and ground wa te r ..• fa r people to have safe a nd:lrinking water various treatment methods havetobe adbpted to ra ralltv of drinking water and all the po II uta nts (organic, inorg ani c: , he <35, pesticides) and all parameters shou I d be vv i thin their perm iss i b I eli rile et.al.2012)

2.4.:Z. Rem e cvater scarcity problems

Wate r sca rcit:'}ls can be ameliorated by the following nI eeh a nlsrns:

30

i. Inc re a~r production through additional wate r infra structure t hat c r rpplv-side response to the growing de man d.

ii. S a I uti creached by changing the way people fi n dan d use water p reve nefulness of water resources. Governm e nt 5 h auld invest an vv a tncy infrastructures ( AWE, 2018).

iii. Ta til aJPply stays ahead of demand, people need to talk about vv here Iter, how to use it, and what happens to it afterwards'

iv. Th ere )r procuring usable water not only fro m I a ke5" rivers, s t rea rrin but also from the sea and waste wa te r re cycling. In 5 arne cwith severe water shortage like Spain and 15 real, water re cove waste water and sewage purification and recycling is P U til per household uses, agricultural activiti e5" to increase river flovv a rt forest fires(Hazony, 2015)

v. Th e reo have farming methods that require much I ess water, sin ce aegetation requires and transpires ma 55 ive a mount of vv a te r owing season, meaning that about 800 m m of rainfall per he cta •• is required during the growing season (U NICE F, 2010) . -lY countries have queued into the us e of g en etically rn ad i f i I which require less water for cultivati on" the reby can 5 e r water resources.

vi. P-o II ut iment: all hands should be on deck in 1::h e vva r against \Mater .l all parts of the world, particularly in Nigeria where­ vva stespillages have caused deterioration of au r \Nater bodies

vii. G a a d &e and the use of environmental polie i e 5 and regulations til a V b ckeep-ln check the exploitation of wa1::e r re 5 au rces by the gave r r-igation and enforcementshould also be used to pro s e cders.

viii. To a vO:Jn of borehole, it should be located a vva V upslope and at least: 5 sources of contaminants such as septi c" pac> rly drained a re as xeive contaminated runoff and slurry pit; i1: 5 h auld be locat:eG possible from the coast, and anywetla nd" stream, s p r l n g r abstractions.

ix. IV1 any t become contaminated due to poor eo n s1: r u crtlon, which a II ovvs rated run-off entering directly into the be re h·ole. Apart

31

fro rn plstruction, care must also be taken to a va i d borehole co n 1:a I1)Y the use of inappropriate drilling flu ids

2.5 Th reats~r resources development in Nigeria

Waite r resou de up of both surface and ground wate r co III pOhents which are hyo/ connected. Threats to water resources cut:s across both nat ion a rnational boundaries with a general bel i ef that threats arcs e fro m t\.,S: the natural and anthropogenic wh i chi III pact on both the qua n 1: j 1:v .ty of water resources in Nigeria.

Accci r cl i ri g; to 5),thenaturalsourcesofthreattowat:er include: adve rs e fa 110 climatechanges &hydrological extrem es, vve II failures in shal l cs vv a q u ifo imbalance in seasonal precipitation a nd a bstraction in the Sa he I, s e <e with attendant salt water intrusion in t:h e coastal aqui f e r ss , and!d discharge rate of surface waters du e t:o so i I moisture deficits. I d u enunicipal and industrial wastes and effl u e nts; oil spilla ge s; sa' i )f surface and underground waters th ro ugh irrigation; and fe r t I , i ze r In as man-made threats to water resou rces.

2.5., 1 T h re a:> climate change

Clim ate c han l as a result of both natural and anthro po ge n i c phen 0 men a I burning, deforestation, volcanic erupt ion s, to rnadoes and 0 cc u r re n I fires could trigger rise in climatic tern p era t u re which could I e ad 1:0) evapo- transpiration and attendant m 0 i stu re loss, decre as i n g p nn, accompanied with lowering of wate r I eve I s in shallow aquifers and cg surface flow leading to droughtin most cases. Heavy rainfa II s co u I cncreased coastal floods and saline wat:e r I ntrusions into UpPE~ r co as ta I. Rise in sea lev~ls and flooding due to r-rJ e It:i n g of arctic ice a re a' I co res of climate change impacting water secu rity. Sahel regia n is 10 ea 1 Northern part of Nigeria and is chara ct:eri sed by scanty rainfa II, sea n1:ion, and extreme high temperature. The ground water systE:=-rn sin 1: he such that the aquifers, the basemen tor sed i mentary rocks a r ee u n d. Depleted soil cover exposes the soil to den u dation and moist u re d efi

32

2.5.2 T h re a 'J poor Agricultural practices

POOI- a g r; c u I t. Lices and poor land management like bus h bur ning, ioggi n g .... ave r-nd deforestation result to sea water d efi c its a nd affects sedirrt e rr t; loa <rface water, cause water logging and sa' i n ization prob 'e rYl S - Sa' occurs as a result of poor irrigation pra ct i ce in

agric u , t: u r' a r a ras a result of abstraction which induce s s a lin e intrusion. Salin i z a 't ion c aeduced naturally, but by electronic in t:e n s ive desal ina t jan aion processes, Salinization leads to un s u st:a in able water resou rce de ve The impoundment of surface water fa r Irrigation purpo s e san d ganic fertilizers as farm inputs impacts the vvetland hydro' agy af dim areas thereby affecting the aquati c ecosystem, The use of in 0 rg a n~rs as farm inputs, pesticides and herb i c ides for the contra f af pest'bs to achieve agricultural bumper ha rvest ha d remain the rn aj or sa u rate and phosphate pollutions of surfa ce vv ate L

Agricu It:u ra I ru n fertilizers, pesticides plants and anima I vvast:es are major- co ntri b Uces of pollution to water bodies in Nigeria_

2.5.3 T h re a t saver-exploitation and overcons u m pt: ion of grout, dvva1:e r

Misma nag e til e ~ive exploitation of water resources, and vv as 1:efulness of, wate r a s a r~lave led to fast fall in the ground wate r 'eve I and could result ta t: here (f the available water resources, bore h 0' e y i e Id, saline intrusi 0 nan d s l~. Water wastage, every- house diggin g of b C) reholes and we l I s_, ave r-id use of chemicals gamalin, over-min i ng of crude minera Is_, a II Ie a,tion, unsustainable development and g ro un d -water depleti an - Th e cf Hyporheic zone (a point wheresurfa ce and ground water m j x) is u s::ly the interaction between surface and un d e rground water, as vve II a rstand the pollution of aquifers throu gh po I f u tion of over flovvi ng s u rer

2.5.4 -rh rea1:s nunicipal and Agricultural solid wastes

Indiscri m j n a t:e d If municipal solid wastes into water bod i e s co nstitutes a major fa r til af . Most people dump their solid waste sin sid e drainage systems .... at: her "''''S and at un-designated areas. During ra i nfa II" these

33

wastes are bed down to nearby water bodies byfloods vvherethey deca y 0 r / an <ising] water pollution. AGRICULTURA L \/Va 5te5 such as left ove r C 10 P s a wastes like maize stands rice husks, t:a 55 a va peels, bana n a C h u rther left overs in farmlands are mostly ca rried into nearby strea vers by floods during heavy rainfall. There could be conta III; nat; derlying aquifers by agricultural and entre p re neurial activit j e s

2.5 .. 5 Th re aD domestic and industrialleachat:es

Dom e sti can al effluents are most frequently disch a rge d into water bod i e sun t r e asehold effluents, such as effluents fro mea 55 a va proce s sin g pl.r and cocoyam processing, used wate r co n ta i ning chern ica Is" a n~, these are often discharged on open la nds, a nd water ways" d uri n g lese wastes through storm water flovv and through the poor- d r a ina g E3re channelled into our water bodies, the s e urban run­ off poses sevem to both surface and underground vvate r . \Naste wate r fro rYl c hdustries, textile, plating, pulp and pa pe r in d ustries is often toxic d lVy metal components such as Cadmiu m, Ch romium, Nickel" Lead" Find others, which if not removed by pre=treatment before dis c h a water bodies make water unsuitable fo r man, aquatic lives, fa r d r in kestlc, and agricultural purposes. Oil s p i I I a ge from oil industries caused by natural (mystery spill) or man....;.made factors, man- rYl a dec ald be as a result of operational and/o r e qui p rnent failure .s , van d a, artisanal refining and oil bunkering. 0 i I I e a c hate into surface 0 run d water system when contaminate the food chain brings about imp air rr-h as organ failures, cancers, etc) and de p J eti on of water resou rce 5)' m a I consumer being the most vulnerabl e.

2.6 (i ro u n d vntamlnants: sources, causes, an d p rev€'ntion

GroUI! d vv ate r ration occurs as a result of chemicals use d by man enteri n g the a (he chemical concentration is elevate d, the vv ater may be fou n d ve ry Ir consumption (IDAHO, 2015).

Source s of un d! water contaminants include:

34

a. septic b. sma II clts, c. deicin~ d. sto rag4,

e. un d e r girage tanks, f. agricu hts, g. I and a r:::s (sludge and waste water) h. ha za rd rials, i. vvells, j. ina ct i v sites. k . animal I. urban r

m. can s t r: L:avations, n. ce m etenimal burials, o , at rTl 0 s r=lutants, p , n atu ra I:es.

1. Septic [dSystem:Thisisaleachfieldusedto dispos~ household vva ste Vl the ground. Causes-

I. if the s -em is not properly installed and main ta in e cl , it can fail and in t nntaminants like bacteria, viruses and oth e r harmful a rga n is Ihe ground water.

II. If c he rn baintthinner, carbide are poured dovvn th e septic system.

III. Ove.1 oaSepticsystem with garbage disposal units. IV. Too rTl a ISystems in limited areas.

a. Pn

V. Pro p e. in and maintenance, regular inspectio nan del eaning. VI. Sto p d i slousehold chemicals and hazardous cl ea n i ng additives

j nto th e stem VII. Pub l i c i rn and education should not be over-sa m'p has i zed VIII. D eve 10 pocal septic codes and public sewer.

35

2, Sma II dis p

The p it:s are urmplng, or burning waste in business pre m i ses and in som e h 0 use hese pits introduce contaminants such ass pe nt oil, toxic chern ica Is ... pEmd other harmful substances into the grou nd water. Corrt a min a t i <nces include: detection of petroleum" co lou r change and odo uri n \/\Ie II well as detection of chemicals in well \Nate r tests.

causes:

I. I rn pro r=;al of chemicals, pesticides, and spent: 0 i Is II. La c k 0 ffacilities for small hazardous wastes.

Pre'vention:

I. Pro vis i oosal facilities for small hazardous wa ste s. II. Use of nish offenders on improper waste dis posa I. III. Pub lie Ei and risk awareness should be encou ra ge d .

,3 V\Jaste sgoons

This sou rce h CJus contaminants such as those comi ng fro m industries, minin g 0 pe ra tcultural activities, municipalities, oil and ga s facilities,

Evide n ce of cction are: spills, changes in the odour and co lour of well wate r ... un he a I ad vegetation around the lagoon, and d ete ct i on of bacte r l a and c in well water tests.

I. Poor in sand maintenance, II. see pagerflovys, III. liner fail IV. structure, V. i rn pro p Ei at ground water area.

36

Prevention: _

I. Pro peron and maintenance of the lagoon, II. lac at in away from sensitive ground water are as.

4. Un de r ito rage tanks:

Thes e a re ta n underground which are used to store ga sol i n e, diesel fuel, a c ids", sad heating oil which on seepage conta min a te s the ground wate r .

Conta min a t i a :e: petroleum odour in well water, sp ill ss , ta n k inventory, detect ion of I €

Causes :

I. po 0 r in sand maintenance, II. corrode III. non tes1mk leaks, IV. po or in xontrol, V. n a I e a k ontainment, VI. d ete rio nbandoned tanks.

Preve nt ion:

I. pro per i In and maintenance, II. leak testnventorycontrol, III. permit <.e. IV. use of Ie p containment, removal of abandoned ta n ks or filling it

vvith inellis

5"Deicing salts

Salts sue has s CDride! Calcium chloride, and additives co nta m inates ground vvate r e:>f which include, salty taste of well wate r , and high chlorid e I eve Is eter tests.

CauSE~: ru n off storage piles, and highways.

37

Pre\le ntion:

I. Pro per In of salt storage piles, II. fVl in i rn i .alt usage

III. f nLrod u"native deicing materials.

6. A~~ri cu Itu ra

Grou n d \/Va te r iants resulting from agricultural activities in cf ude: fertilizers)' he rld pesticides. High level of nitrates, and pesticide in well water te s ts . P E:ause ill effects on humans and anima f s d ri n king water from a n e a rby pact plants growing nearthe contam i nated vv ater and death of a qua t

Causes;

I. excess 03pplication, II. ave r-fe r t

III. irnprope, IV. rea ch i ng the soil,

V. ; rn pro pel of excessive pesticides and rinse wate r ,

Prevention

I. Ca refu I a 't of fertilizer application to plant's ne e d san d timing for m a x i rvth benefits

II. 5to ra ge cmanure to facilitate land spreading at a p p re> p r iate time.

."

III. s tic kin g tcructions, IV. co m p I ian (~sticide certification requirements. V. re d U ce P E;e in recharge areas for water wells, VI. a Ite rn ativntrol methods should be adopted. vn. Pub lie in fcand education should be encouraged _

7. Wells:

Wells are p ote n trays for contaminants to enter ground \IVa te r , Contarn ; nat ion <enclude detection of high levels of bacte ri a and other contam ina n ts i n ~r tests

38

Causes: No "g or leaky casing, well cover not wate r tight, open aban don e d vvndwater movement from contaminated to un co n t a nI ina "1

Preve nti on: U er tight well cover and tight well casing; tight plumbing conn e c t: ion s a ntifying and sealing open abandoned vve II .s ,

8.lnact:ive fVlh

Conta nI ; nat i a r e: dumping of wastes in active mining pits_

Cause s: Rap i d n of contaminants due to loss of tops 0 i I fi Ite ring capac ity. Th is <irevented: by closing a" unused mini n g p its, by restor in g top S I, and by keeping vigilant against dum pin g of vvasta in such pits.

9. Anima I 101:s:

There is evi den, bacteria and nitrate levels in we" wate r tests.

Cause-s inc Iud emal density; shallow depth to water 1:a b Ie; poor lot drainage; and fdean lots regularly.

Preven t ion: p r-q and design,; control of animal density; and regular cleaning of lot.

10. Urban Rune>

Contann ina t ion Einclude: detection of metal, chemical, nit ra 1::es, petrole u nI and <vell water.

Causes: S p i I Is; rC1st~ disposal, abandoned commercial and in d ustrial sites, rn oto r ve h emission fires.

Preven'tion: pub ation and education, anti-dumping codes street sweeplri g .... ve get -ction and infiltration basins for stree 't; run offs, clean­ up of ab and CJ n e dl, commercialand fire sites.

11. Construc1:ionon

Contami nat ion e »clude: spills, change in odour, colour, ta ste, turbidity of water in nea r to : .

39

Cau s e s: f u e ~mical spills, road dust control runoff', ex ce s s i ve and improper u~icals

PrE~ve nt: i on: :ainment and clean-up measures; use of th e reco rY1 rYl end Ie of chemical, fuel and other hazardo us s u bst:dnces

12. Ceme"'terjmal Burial

Evid en ce of <stion include high levels of bacteria in vve' I vvater tests.

Causes: h; g h iles.

Preve nt ion: ter high tables for burial sites, and the U .s e of \Nater tight caskets in ce rNith high water table.

13 .• -1 a z a rd 0 ulIs:

Corrt a rY1 ina t i Cce include: The contaminant evidence a re s pills; detect; 0 if 0 f nemical solvents, nitrates, and other c hem j ca 1 s in well wate r tests.

Causes

impro per p r a <oropsr storage, handling, use and dis pas a I; spills and leaks. P reve nt ~er storage, handling, use and disposa I. s pill prevention and co n 't. a in rn elres, compliance with laws and regula 1: i c> n s, zoning to locate he a vy u ~zardous materials away from sensitive g ro un dwater areas" pub lie inn and education.

14. Atrnospherints:

Eviden ce of co n)n-detection of elevated levels of sulp hates, nitrates, heavy rn eta I s" a lydrocarbons, in well water test.

Causes ; em iss I Onotor vehicle} power plants and industri es.

Preven t jon: Fe d:;tate emission control.

40

15. Natural SLi

This con s t: i t: u t: ste odour in well water, stains On wate r fixt u res, all arising fro m ri.rrces.

Prevention: areas where groundwater problems exist, \/Vater treat men t de vd be used, changing to public water sup ply if possible.

2.7 ProceSSEl affect the rate ofcontamination transportation throlugh an .

1. Advection :ocess which allows the contaminants to I'Tl igrate along with t: he g ro u at the same velocity

2. Dis p e rs ion ocess which results in contaminants s p re ad i n g out away from t:he sou r

3. Retardatiolrocess bywhich the contaminants migrate slower than grou n d vv at: e roe ma ny processes that affect reta rda t ion, but the most signifi ca n t: p rorption, which allows contaminants to ad here to the aquife r sed i minstance, contaminants made of catio n s ca n be sorbed onto c I a y min e clay minerals have negative charge _ Ch.e m i cals such as benz en e fa u nline can be sorbed onto organic carbo n sin the soil, slow in g d ovv runtand reducing dissolved concentra t I a ns_

4 Degradat:iorrocess by which contaminants breakdovvn vvith time into s imp I e r cis the degradation process can occur c he III i ca !ly or facilitated by 'biodegradation], Contaminants may dissc>fve in

grou n dvvate r ransported down gradient, while un-d issolved ones knovv ri as non phase liquids wil] float on ground wate'r be i ng less dens e t: han vv I are called light - non aqueous phase l i qui d (L NAPL). Others t:hat: a i than water will slnk to the bottom of the aquiferand are ca II e d De rvqueous phase liquid (DNAPL).

2.81 rn pi i c a 1: underground water pollution an dave r­ exp I c> i 1: a 1: i <> r

Poilu 1: ion 1: h rces, leakages or seepages makes both s u rfa ce and grou n d \IV ate rdrinking, irrigation and aquaticlife su rviva I

41

thus I e a din g t CNater stress, in-sufficiency and unava ; (a b i I ity_

2. Ove r- e x p I a i ground water could lead to fast fall of' g ro un d water level \IV hie h co I to reduction in water resources, bore h a I e yields and saline ;n"trus;ar

3. Dri n kin g a n cption of contaminated water, crops an dan i m als could trigge r so rn e d ld health risks ranging from cholera, dY5e nte ry, diarrh a a r r , tv r:::laria, mathemoglobineamia, Organ fa i lure 5 and cance rs. 4-. D e c~cted organism

2.8.1 H a use her treatment and purification mea sure s to prornote vva1ty-

Sedirnentationl application): isthe process by which tu rbid muddy water a nap p Ii c:hemical alum is allowed to stand for 50 met; me for dissolve d rn a 't t: Etle at the bottom of the container lea vi n g c I e a n water on top ~ 1: her e s cer is not fit for drinking but for wash in gs and other domestics.

Boiling: Th is j s simple and effective method of wate r p u rifi cation, though it doe s nate toxic metals, it will kill many wate r born e bacteria throug h the in t(, Water is allowed to boil rapidly for 3 -S min utes especia II y at hi gde, allowed to cool before drinking.

Distillat i c> n: Th i ~ involves condensing water vapour afte r he a ting waterabove thE)Qint. The steam is cooled and collected in a pot, covered fa r d ri rrillation is capable of getting rid of heavy 'm et<3ls, fluorine co m po tcan remove a broad range of micro-o rga n i 5 m s from the wate r sou r c.-arao, 2017).

Filtratio n: t his i stechnique to remove water contamin an t5 especially solid co nta til ina urninlum, fluorine, arsenics which are ca rei nogens from dr ink in g vv atlon methods like reverse osmosis, U 5e of fi Itering candles. F j n e - s a:harcoals can be used.

42

Chlo ri n a1:i 0 n :!mergency water purification method vvh e re water can be mad e safe ng by remedying with liquid househo Ide hi 0 ri ne bleach, which is narrneen{5-6}%chlorineltisadvisableto use thos€ones witho u t: p e rfu 5 and other additives{AIl about Water F i Ite r-s , 2018}.

2.9 'Nate r rEI management in Nigeria

Based 0 n ava i 9, Nigeria has adequate surfaceand grou nd \/Vater resou Ice s ta rant demand for portable water, but, the te m poral and spatial distlibllaterhas led to scarcity in some state s . This disparity has Ie d to ra p ian of groundwater especially in far no rth e rn states due to wa te r s h a r timon in the area. There is potential \Va te r co nflicts in the so uth vv e=s vater transfer between states is necessa ry, and in the Niger Delta re!toinsufficientcontrolofwaterpollution due tooil spills, and s e r j on problems (Lahvis, 1998).

The l:::j ave rn rYl (eloping a Water Resources Managern e nt Strategy (WRM S) \IV hie hide a sound basis for developing a co m pre h ensive framevvo r lc f co r g Nigerian Water Resources in a susta ina ble manner. The fr arne \IV 0 r lonsider water and environment in a bra ad m ulti­ sectoria I" i ntegrspective (FGN, 2000).

Out of a b aut 8 people living in urban and semi urba n a re as, f ess than half have re a s ccess to reliable water supply, many po 0 rho u seholds endup purcha:rfromprivatevendorsathighprices_ \Nater supply services "\IVh e ret areunreliable and of low quality, an dare not sustai nab feb e difficulties in management, poor opera ti C) nan d pricing, and fa if u re to nsts. More so, many water supply syste m s show extens j ve d ete land poor utilization of existing capacit i e s, due to under- til a j n te ti lack of funds for operation{FGN, 2000),

In Nige I i a \IV at e::Jevel'opment is a three tier responsib iii ty b etvveen the Federa I" State" I Governments. The responsibility for u rba nand rural portab 1 e "\IV a t:e I entrusted to State Water Agencies (S \IV As) p resent in the wlh a I e 36 5ile Federation. The 774 Local Governm e nt Authorities in Nige r i a are r-e forthe provision of rural watersupp Iy and Sanitation faciliti e sin the iive areas (AM COW, 2015)

43

Niger iaN aLi 0 r Supply and Sanitation policy approve din 1: h e year 2000 enco u ra ges p rtor participation in water policy reforms at state levels, it wa son Iy- L2Jna, Cross- river, and Ogun states that i ntrod uced publi c., p r iva 't. Eships (PPP) in the form of service can 't; ra cts. I n 2003, the Presi den t: i a I \/\ative 'Water for people, water for life' vv as initiated and laune he d vv i 1: hJ increase access to water supply by a tie a 51: 75% in urban cities .. 661 areas and 100% in state capitals but little has been done to i In pIe initiative and targets has not been rn et (A M COW, 2015) .

Healr him p Ii c avater supply deficiencies in Nigeria a re n u me rous, as many d i se a se ~ throughout thecountry are generally associ ated with unsafe and u n)ry drinking water supplies. Detection of pa th ogenic bacteria in cl r i rer is an important issue inwaterutili1:ies becausethey pose c r i t: i ca I i npublic health leading to high rate of end em i c acute gastro- in te s t j r cases such as: malaria, diarrhoea, gastro-e n teritis, hookvvo r r'rr , gum, dysentery and HIV proliferation (5 am end ra,et.a!. 2014).

2.9.3~ Key is srater resource supply

Issues of pay rJ'2S of metering and levels of service co m pa red to afford a b i I ity.. i r.y of finance, sen/ice to peri-urban are a s , Ie ga f consid era 't i c> n sto private sector operations, the capa city of intern a tic> n a' eto manage, capacity of local technicia n s 1:0 ru n systen.s" the ciexternalsupportagenciestosupport home agencies , through a refosspollutionproblems,noeffectiveregula1:ion of service provid e r s.. no scement on offender

2.9.2, N i ge ri a'esources management- way forvva rd

From the key n ess delivered by the Honourable Minis1:e r of \/Vater Resou rce s .. En §an Adamu during a consultative confe re n ce on Water on wa te r use r is, compliance, monitoring and enforce me nt Framevvo rk th egulating water resources for sustaina ble Development inNig e= r i a. Th e stated that even though some ageh ci es of the gover n men t t h'1andates related to water resources man age ment

44

have ave r - I a p tions, which over the yea rs has cause d the m unne c e s s a ry rd confusion, they should come toget her to have a robus tag en cywhere all stakeholders will come toget her and ensure thatvvater re9.ctor of our country is managed inthe most efficient and effe ct ive [his will result to sustainable water d eve lop m ent plan which in t urn 'Nigeria to achieve its vision of increa sin g a ccess to safe and p at: a b I e 'v"vdl users and also reduce to the barest min i m um water insec uri t:y and between users (Adamu 2018).

Natio n a lEn vi rl Regulations and Enforcement Agency (N ES REA) has form u I a te d m Ina I Environmental regulations on wa te r po II ution contr co f to ens rotection of Coastal and Marine envi ro n me nt from land based and in d urces of pollution and degradation. N ES REA is already emba rke don ion, inspections, compliance monitori ng and enforce til en t ht parts of the country to protect the vvet I and sand minir"""ll i z e fre s lollutlon, thus, there is need for harm ani z a ti a if of overl a p pin g a rdinated efforts among regulators, im p ro ve d synergy amort g st:a ke hr sustainable management of water reso u rces{Anukam, 2018)

The e s ta b lis h nigeria Integrated Water Resources Man age m ent Comillission (risapt,and a critical success factor to realise the agenc v sob j e cpends on the cooperation with and the co II a boration of all sta ke h a Ide tr resource management. Agencies like N ES REA, NOSD RA ... N A F ionallnland Waterways Authoritv and oth e rs that have one fu n cLi a n cer that relates to water should amalga mate., cooperate and co II a bo rate water Commission in order to effective Iy implement the m and ate s ::Jeral government towards proper ma n a ge m e nt of wate r re sou rc fd, 2018).

Prorrt ot: in g e ffnd sustainable use of water as infrast ru ct u re lnves t; men 't. a rug in Water and E.nergy programmes co u I d c reate not only b a a s tan nomy, but could create new jobs whi Ie s a vi n g several galoc> n s of vv a i2018).lnvesting in water efficiency novv vvi II over the longe r te r rn e ranufacturing, help to advance nation a lEn e rgy policy, prom ot:e s u st:ansumption, contributes towards GHG em iss ion

45

redu ct ion" a n mounting regional conflicts over wate r re sou rces(AWE, 2018) .

2.9.3 \N'at:e r

Wate r qua I it~o with water suitability for a specific use .•. th at is, the wate r qua I ity the needs of the use (Yakubu, 2013). VVate r quality is comrn only de he physical, chemical, biological and a esth eti c chara cte ri sti Cf, and a healthy environment is one in vvh I ch the water quality sup p a and varied communities of organisms .•. and protects publi C he a It h (l7). It is a measure of the condition of vv ate r relative to the re qui re In EJe or more biotic species and or to an y hum a n needs or purpose. \N a t ssential component of life, and, the nee d fa r vvater in the day t:o days of man is an essential source of vita f min e rals absence of wh i c h can J rious implication such as hypertensio h _ Hi g h cholesterol, and he art dis e of water could also cause headaches .•. a rth ritis and heart bur n (A dol, 2015).Therefore, providing safe d ri h kin g vvater is one of the co rllenges in the African Continent parti cu I a rly in Nigeria rural co m rn u nh advances in space science and the i n crea sing use of comp ute rap p and increased computing powers, rem ate sen sing techn i que s In csible to monitor and identify large sea Ie re g Ions and wate r bod i e s 'tr from qualitative problems in a more effe ct I ve and efficie n t man nent sensors mounted on satellites an d at her platforms, such a s aero pi asurethe amount of radiation at vari a u s vva velengths reflecte d fro m!r surface, these reflections can be used directly and indire ct I y to d €rent water quality indicators such as: TSS .•. 0 i ssolved Organ i c Ca r b a rmperature, salinity, turbidity, Total ph as p h ate and so on (G h a liz ad e J-"J16)

2.9.1 \IVa t e r indicators

Water qua J i ty .iamental for good river health, it s u sta ins ecological

processes that nature, fish production, vegetation .•. vvetlands, and

birdlif ee , th us" rnce of contaminants and the characteristics of water

are us e d to in d quality of water (NSW, 2017).

46

Water qua J i ttors include the physical, chemi ca I and biological

meas u re nI en terve as data that are used to describ e the co ndition and

charza crt ee r i s t i c.odv of water, to help understand why thai: condition

exists _ Th e vv ity data also provides some clues 0 n h O'\N poor water

cond it ion can iorated. Water quality may also incl u d e the amount of

disso Jve d 0 xYH1e levels of algal growth, pollutants pre sen t a nd the PH.

Wate r qua I it':! by reference to a set of standards agajnst which

comp l i ance cc~ssed. The most common standards used to assess water

quality re I a t i olth of ecosystems, safety of human contact and drinking

suitab i Li ty i s terived by Standard organization of Nigeria (SON, 2007)

and, W orl d I· -I;anization(WHO, 2001).

2.9.2. Testing

Test a n a Iys is crried out both in the field (at the po i nt of use, or at its

source), and i.oratorv using suitable and portable testing kits. Visual

exam ina t ion avation are used to assess physical par am ete rs

Physical parcThis .parameter can cause rejection of '\Nater, they

includ e: t u r b i dJctivity, colour, odour and taste.

Colou r: is tI'l f through visual observation only '\N hi r e qua ntitative

assess nI e nt reight box or a spectrophotometer.

Odou r: \IV ate r lave no odour, any change in odou r: might indicate a

water qua I itV ialltv, problem that requires further investigation, just

likechange in

Condu ct ivity: es the presence of dissolved solids in '\Na te r , but it does

not p rovi de i lin about any specific chemical, and its ch a nge might

indicate vvate r roblerns that might require further investigation.

47

Turb i d ity: Th i Jed in microbiological testing kit and assess m ent can be eithe r t h ro u g Hty meter or use of turbidity tubes (U N ICE F.I' 2010).

2.9.:3 H a rmfical parameters

The rnaJo r c parameters that are generally included in water

assess m e nt a loring programme which were determ i ned at the rapid

Wate r Qu a I i t vient Meeting held by WHO, and UN ICE F at Bankok in

2002 ... inc u des;, fluoride, lead, cyanide, selenium:, i ro n, a rsenic Metals

(cadnJ i u r'rr , c r Aluminium, copper, magnesium, me rcu r v). organics

(pest i c ide s... d it bye products, alkalinity and corros iv itV) _ -rh e chemical

pararrt ete rs c2ed through one of the following:

Test Strips: (Jiant), they are kits from Merck com pa fly vvhich can be

used to assessnge·ofparameters.

Photom ete rs re available from different manufa ctu re r s , there are

porta b I e B a c-al field test kit 2 (50000567) and vvater quality

assessment ki40005828).

Laboratory bchods- they are standard laboratory ana ly1:ical mrthods

which j n c Iud e If Spectrophotometer and Absorption s p e crt; ro scopy.

2.9.ll- IV1 i c ro bl parameters

The rn i era b i a I cminatlon of drinking water emphasiz. e s ass e s sment of the hyg i en i c q :he supply. It requires the isolation an den u m eration of organ j s m s t h a the presence of faecal contaminatio n Th e rm a-tolerant coliforrns" a gncteria that grows at 44oC, and fecal stre ptc>cocci.lt is impo rta nt to k both physical and chemical paramete rs such as turbid ity" PH cht residuals affect the microbiologica I qua I ity of water (UNIC E F.I' 2 a .L at can provide immediate qualitative and qua ntitative result rs of the rogical parameters are available in the m a rket_ There are

48

thre e tv pes cial indicators, process indicator- a gro up of 0 rganisms that de rn a n s -efficacy of of a process such as total h ete rot rophic bact e ria art crm for chlorine disinfection; faecal in d i ca1:o r, a group of orga n is rn s t h es the presence of faecal contaminat ion sue h as thermo tole ran Leo J j fh only infers that pathogens may be pre sen t; Index and model organ:hisagroup indicative of the pathogens presenceand beha via u r r e s; such as, E. coli as a n index for salmc» nell CT and F-RNA colip h age s a sof human enteric viruses (Ashbolt et.cr I: 2006).

Resii d u a I chi dng: chlorine residual occurs as a resu I t of dis infection of drin kin g \IV a tES which is an important barrier against \IVa te r borne dise as e s. chi cmore advantages than others in that it is c heap, has high effica cy? and ieasurernent both in the field and labo r-ato ry .Chlorine leave sad is i rnsidual that assists in preventing conta min ati on during wate r dis L r j b insport and household storage of wate r , a b s e nee of the resid u a I rn a y :he possibility of post treatment conta rn ina t i of,2010).ln the laboratory, 3 types of chI 0 ri n e may be mea sure d: f r eelhvpochlorous acid); combined chlo ri n e (I ess reactive but n. 0 re p e necie formed when chlorine reacts wit ham m onia or orga nics); t:ote(the sum of free chlorine and combi ned re s i duals).ln drink in g \IV a 1:6 residual chlorine is analysed usingN N -d iethyl-p-pheny ened i a rn i n e (!

Elect:rica I Con, it is a.measure of dissolved solids in tl1.e vvatei", and the water" s abilit~an electrical current. In streams, this is relcLtecl to the conc ee n tra t i ontnic dissolved solid, ions present in the water. "This may inch 1 d calL t.r r r.trients, metals, or other compounds. G eo logy as well as poll u t ;:-1 It ts c z-l rite to this measurement, but high meas Ll relTl e 11. ts can make cond it i orIS U II tain aquatic organisms. It is measured. u.si:rtg conductivity meter.

Disscs I ved OX~.): is a measure of the a mot tnt of oxygen a"vailable in wate r . -T-l~ese evels are essential-in order for aquatic life to c c breathe." High 1 eve 1 s C) Jd oxygen are typically good for aquat i c 1 .i f'ee , a.nd low level Slit z-ly7 ca:ation or death to aquatic organisms. 111. coridi tions where aqua.t i c plalTtsdant, low oxygen levels and impairment to streams may occur" particLl~ght. Cold water holds more oxygen t1'1a.1'1 WarTYl water. DO is th.e cri t ator ofa water body's ability to support healthy

49

ccosy es t e rri . L~(_~)fdissolved oxygen can be a sign that too T1TL1Ch organic mater i a lis in cldy. Different forms of pollution can trigger decline in DO, t l i ere is a lonal DO cycle in which concentration are greater in the colde r , '\.vi t1_ter nd lower in the warmer, summer montI"1s(UNICEF, Lexington.., 2 ()

Nutri (.~n t:s~ i TI citrogen and phosphorus, are essential for plant and animal grovvtl--rishment, but the overabundance of these nutrients in water C cUi caLl ser of adverse health and ecological effects. Al though nitrogen is al-:>l.turally in the environment, high levels are cOITlmonly due sc'\.Vage., Fecleaning solutions, animal manure, acid rain" decorn_pc_,)s i ti co rl erosion. Commons sources of phosphorus include fertilizers., nlc:llage, industrial effluents, and soil erosion. In "\.Vater, prese n ceo r 11 i se an .increase in algae growth which in turn robs the water 0 E d i sso~en and eventually destroys aquatic life. Nitrates exceed i ng 1 () rie more toxic nitrite exceeding l.Omg/l in public drinking water can be Omans and have been linked to serious ilLness death in infants( {J S C3 Sd Kolpin, 1999 ).

pH is a r11eas1..C) indicate degree of acidity or alkalinity of a "\.Vater soluti on.., lovv s are found in natural water rich in dissolved corganic matter . Tlt_e reannic acid into water as a result of nat.urr-sa.I decomposition of vegetation e tea colouration of the water and low p.I--I:. Photosyr"l. thes res carbon dioxide during the day, wh i c.In res"Lllts in a rise in pl-L, E:<:x tren~less than 6.5 or greater than 9), can be to:xic to aquatic life. 1'VI i r i i ng c:lunoffs cause changes in pH.

Water Te l-rt pMany. of the physical, chemical and bic:>lqgical characteri sti c::esses of water and water organisms are depCl"1dent on temperature. 'ure affects the solubility of oxygen in water" the rate of photosynthesie, the metabolic rate ,and the activities and sensitivity of orga.ri is ILl S to :tes are affected by temperature. Temperature 'ed in degrees Fahrenheitor degrees Celsi"Lls. "Water temperatLlre i l by the season's weather, discharging coolil"1g" and storm water all_ci by rater influx. '

Tot a 1 S '-I S pc ids (TSS): is a measurement of small p arti c 1 e s, often called s i 1 t c~r .ch are.floating or suspended in the water and not settled on tll_e bottOll.Hty is the measure of light scattering by su.spended part i c 1 e sin t 1-.6lumn, it provides measure of how far 1 igl"1 t can penetrate water" tl~at is;lrity, Turbidity is measured by comparing tl~e visibility of an 0 bj ect tIl rer water compared to cloudy water. Organic paliicles like mic ro 1:) e sal g oarticles and animal detritus cause tur bid i ty· c> f water.

50

Suspe rac.I e cl so I iog fish gills, reduce the ability of aquatic vegetation to grow" and V"V1 II ,y settle 011 the stream bottom covering places where aquati c bu gs c)lht live. TSS is measured by an instruD_-:lerrt called nephe lorn_eter vnit=-N'I'Us. TSS differs fromturbidity in that it is a measi.i re 0 r tIl ematerial suspended in rather than light transr:ni Hance throusz li a ,"~fa te(Lexington, 2012)

Fecal co lifo rrn: they are present in the digestive tract and fe ces of all warm b 100 de dincluding man, their presence in surfa ce 0 r underg ro un d xn indication of presence of dangerou s m i ero bes that can pose r i s ks ;e health effectst). When fecal coliform cc>u nts are greater than 2ies/l00mlofwatersample,thereisa greater chance thatdisease c~anismsarepresent,andcontactwith the watershould be avo ide d fa r disease like typhoid fever, hepatitis, g a st ro enteritis, dysente ry" svvich, and ear infection are carried by su ch water(UNICEF, 2010).

Total DissolveTDS): High concentrations ofTDS may ea use adverse taste effe cts _, heralized water may cause deteriorati 0 n of domestic plum bin g .... a n des, It is recommended that any wate r eo nta in ing more than 500 rn g/ I 'ed solids may be avoided for other \IVa te r sou rces.( IWI, 2015 )

Total Hard n esthe property which makes water form san insoluble curd vv i t h s C) a JS primarily due to presence of calciurYl and magnesium. Very hard vv a 1) known adverse health effects ,but it re qui re s more soap for effecling, forms scum and curds,causesyellowing of fabrics, tough ens vegmd forms scale on boilers, heaters, pi pes a nd cooking utensils. The t--ofgood qualitywatershould not exceed 270rng/1. ,

Chern i ca I C>xyand (COD): This is a measure of the oxyge n equivalent of th e 6 rg ani content of a sample that is susceptible to ox i dation by a chenn j ca I ox i dJresents potential consumption of o)(yge n within the receivi ng vvat~

Heavy I'V1 et a I strations of cadmium, chromium, copp e r , I e ad" mercury, and n i c ke lin "\ very dangerous.' These metals occur nat u ra II y in the

..' .

enviro n me nt,,:! essential trace elements for plants a nd ani mals (UNI C E F _, 2 a l (1 activities such as land use changes, in d u stri al and

agricu l t i.r ra I p nave increased the high influx of heavy meta Is from land to wa te. bod i E contaminated with nitrate when con sum e d can pose organ rn a lfu n dults and methemoglobinemia in infa nts be I o VII six mont h s vv hie h to death {Spalding and Exner,1993; 1<0 I pin _, et aI1999}. Meta I s a.e .e I 0 the atmosphere during combustion of foss i I fuel (such as ga 5 0 lin e)' cae by- product of all combustion process: d i ox ins seep into the g r c» u ny adsorbing to some soil lipophilic so I ve n1:s (Deriziotis, 2004) vv a ste 5 (industrial, and municipal); and organ i c mate ri als, Via rainfa 11th e til E1 the atmosphere are deposited on la n dan d \Naterways wher-e they a tarticulates and are washed down wate r bod i es from wher-e they cato groundwater table. Human activities such as mining and in dust r i a I,' are the major source of heavy metals and even the small e 5 t co n Cf of these metals is very toxic in aqLiati c en vi ro nrnent. Mereu.v and re the most common and cause severe hea l1:h risks to man V\/ hen t h gin is contaminated. Concentrations of n atu ra!ly occu r r in g a'5 Eiund water vary regionally due to a co m bin a t ion of clima tea n d g ,rsenk tan enter underground water t h ro ugh reactions of ira n 0 xi de xral or anthropogenic (petroleum prod u cts) 0 rganic carbo r'i , i ro n cilsic volcanic rocks, and alkaline aqulf ee r re I e a sing arsenic to a I k a l i neg r:er(WHO, 1997}

52

CH,APTEEE

VlETHODOLOGY

3.11:>at:a reqources and collection

I. In fo r mat i 0 'ate at which bore holes, and wells are d ri II ed and dug wit:hin t:he a.

II. Th e n u m b eand borehole present per 1000 square mete r within the study a rea.

III. Hovv housEtwaterfordrinking, cooking, and for other domestic uses.

IV. Th e n u til b ceholds that depend on borehole and vve II vva"ter as the sou rces of .ource,

V. Bo re h C) I e a/ater use patterns by different house h a Ids in both dry and rainy s

VI. Th e s i z e of households and the quantity of wate r co n s u rned daily. VII. Oi ffi cuI t: j e s ered by households in course of acces sin gsa fe water.

3.1.:1. IV) et: h cata collection

Both Prj mary adarv sources of information were ern p I aye d in this studv .

Primary source: -

Pers c» n a I s u rvmonitoring and evaluation of the freq u en cy of unde r g r 0 u n d ~ by households within the study area,

Use of vve II-st:questionnaire as a data collection tool; the - ques t i 0 n n a i re stributed to 100 households to gathe r info rm ation abou t the i r h cwater use and per capita water cons u m pti on,

Enga gem en t nolds and some borehole owners in 0 ra I dis c u sslons quest ion and assion on the rate of water consumpt i a h ~ c h a Ileriges susta ina b Ie", t r-and management of borehole and we I'.

Inter-vi ewi n g sribers of borehole committee, and so n, e vvater vendors on th e ira ct: i vi now people patronise them.

53

Interv i e \N i n g vvs to find out if there has been ill-healt h 0 r ot her negati ve jill P a cistained as a result of water consumpt ion_

Secorldary Da1:;:

By con sui tin g s::lemics who are professionals in wate r re s c> U rces management

BY rea din g pro articles and academic works posted by p rofe ssionals on wa te r re S 0 uugh the internet

By liste n i n g to news and commentaries, reading of n evvs pa pers and newsl ett:e rs

Atten din g s e III conferences organised by water rescs U rce s regulators.

3.2Sample Cl

Watf2 r sa rn p J i one from ten boreholes and ten hand -d u g vve 115 across the stu d yare a -reholes and five wells were sampled fro m both authorised fedingarea and unauthorized slum area (Iugbe across)for each of t: her a i IY seasons water quality analyses.

Thus, a tota I of I) water samples were analysed

3.2.1 Pro c e d sample collection and the ration a I -fa r adopting each procedw

Sampl e vve re 1::1 reserve tanks at different random sites

Polyet h y len e b751} were used for sample collection, p I a st i c material is prefer re d 1:0 glJse some water contaminants like cati c> n s rea dily adsor b to the \,le glass containers.

The sa III pIe co were-not picked from .waste bin, instea d fro m a house hoi d t: h a"es bottled water for drinking. This is 'to a va i d numerous chance s of co ron.

One \AI e e k prj {piing process, the bottles were wash e d \IV it h a pinch of deterg en t us i n orehole water, emphasis was la id on the rn a uth of the bottle san d 't: h rensure dirt ... and othercontaminants especi a fly the

54

heavy rn eta I cction associated with lip-sticks and lips gl ass are elimin ate d .

Want! vvater xto rinse the bottle before sterilizingthem vvithsolution ofmet:hylated makethem micro-organismfreetoan extent:.

The 5 a III pie s V\cted directly from the tap through wh i c h vv a ter is distri b ut:ed froorehole, and with the communal well t:u bes through which vvater i sorn each we!l.

The s a III pie S V'lcted using hand gloves to ensure no co nta m i nation by hand co nta ct (the point of each sample collection.

Each s a III pie Is rinsed vigorously for four times with th e vvater sample it will co nt:a i n Ie sample was collected, this is to ens u re t:h at it is the main s a III pie tolly collected and that contaminant vvere vva rded off. Each s a III pie vj against its sample point to ensure easy ide nt:ification.

The s a III pI i n g ied out bet~een 8.30 am and 10 OOa man d vvere trans fe r re d t:cratory placed in a lightproof contain e r co ntaining melt in g ice t:03pid cooling, precaution was taken to ens u re that time betwe ens a nt ction and analysis does not exceed si x h c> u rs 1 this is to preve nt sa nt pJration.

PH, te m pe ra)idity and conductivity were tested fo rim mediately as they vv ill c h a r~ storage. After the preliminary in situ te 5t:SI t: he samples were reffi ge rle temperature of 4° C in the dark.

3.3 ..J u s1: ifi c a:he choice of sample size and site

Mar) ping of t area and sampling points:The Globa I Pas iti 0 ning syste III (G P S ) I to take the coordinates of the samp lin gpo in ts.

The Sa nt pIe Smited to 20 per season with a sample d ra vv n from each 900 s qua r e r+lvsis to represent all the zones in the stu d y a rea.

3.3. 1 The c I sample sites

the a re a and tudy were chosen due to the followin _g c h a ra cteristics: No des i g n a teJr waste disposal and collection, there is in dis criminate

55

dump in g of \N alost every corner of the area, there we re no drainages instea d loa d s cor waste water disposal, there is no ce rvt r a I septic svsterrr , the s h zage pits when full in some part of the a rea vvould be excavate dan d eked only for rain to disperse it aroun d - Eve rv available space cove re d sn vegetation in the area is used by 0 ka d a pe ople, roads ide beg g <shiners, and some commercial drivers fa r 0 pen toileti n g" I a C k orne water supply for the increased hum a n population.

3.4 ".11 et h c> d s analysis

Questi ann a ire Nas used to determine the frequency vvi1:h \N'hich house h a Ids fet)f1sume underground water in Lugbe, th e rate of diggin g vv ell s ag boreholes in the area.

Infor nt a t ian gvith questionnaire tool was analysed us in g descriptive statts tics s u C h -ncv counts, percentage, and use of ta b I e s to affirm the degre e af a cCEof borehole and/or well to residence. Th e va I ues of the laboro t cs rv a n ere compared to the standard value lim it:s give n by World He a It:h .ion (WHO) and Standard Organizatio n of Nigeria (SON).

The par a met r idetermined include -temperature, pH, t: u r bid ity, condu ct iv i t v , coxygen, salinity,TOS, fluoride, chlorid e. CO D, BOD, nitra·te .. n i t r i t e=rm, manganese, magnesium, Heavy meta Is (lead, arsen i cs" ca d rr copperl ; and mlcrobial analysis Aest h eti cpa rameters like tu rbid it:y" dour, and taste were detected and ana lysed by use of sense arga ns. employed in pararnetric analvses aree sho\N'n intable 3.1as shavvn I

3.5 ·'VI e1:: hod -er analysis

Table3_1: rvI e analyses used as employed by Abuja Environmental

mana ge til e nt: Il.nalytical Laboratories, Asokoro/Za bso n I

Laborstories

Servi ce s.

56

-----------~- ... -----. -------

Table 3 . 1 A n a I yhods employed

--.------~-

SIN PAR ---~--

1 TerYl

2 pH ...

can

3 Fluo

chlo

pho ---

4 Iron ...

rYlan - _ _ --- - _ .. ---'-~ ---_-

5 Tota

mag

6 Che

dem

7 Bioi

dem ---

8 Tota ---~---

9 l'v1icr

coli

Ente _------ -_-_

AIVIE

pera

sa lin

ducti

ride".

ride_,.

spha

gane

neSIL

mica

and(

ogica

and(

I col

obio

Sa

ro-b

----_-- METHOD

Thermometric

Resistivity, Electrometric

\ -- , nitrite, Colourimetric - ,

cyanide,

niurn

copper, Spectrometric

:admium --

calcium, Titrimetric

I oxygen Reflux

oxygen Incubation

-- I Fermentation

Iicator- E- Culture and streaking

I shigella,

eptoccocus

57

3.5.2. A n a I yt: i rods

Therrnomelod

Therrn 0 rn et ri c is used to carry out the in-situ mea sure m ent of the

temp era t: u re oamples

Electrometric

This is a rn et: h! an electronic apparatus can be used in-s itu to measure

certa i n par a rike PH, Salinity, Dissolved oxyge rv, Res i stivity and

Cond u ct iv ity 1::5 the apparatus inside the water sam pie _ Spectrometric!

Photometric I

Thes e met h 0 .ed to detect the presence of parana ete rs - Fluoride and

chlori de _ A bo: the reagents F- and one pack of DP D tota I chlorine are

added in diffE:tubes, add aboutSmlofwatersample in eachtubeand

solu b iii sed b \ .Allow to stand for about 3 minute s the n read off the

conce n t rat i 0 Ninlab 'spectrophotometer. For meta I like i ron, copper

nlck re l , lead~ se and cadmium, atomic absorption spectrophotometer

is use d to r:he concentration of the water sam pie, th e sample is

aspirated by11atic analytical nebuliser transformed into an aerosol

which is i ntrcto a spray chamber where it mixes with fla me gases such

tha-t fi n e a e Iplets enter the flame. The determin e d co n centration is

disp I a ye d 0 nscreen and compared to the standard _

Reflux lVleth

This met h 0 etc)· determine the Chemical Oxygen De man d (COD).About

. SOrn I of sa r-ainlng not more than 1 bing/I dissolve d c> rga nic matter in

100 rn Ius in g er as blank Erlenmeyers flask, put an d he at in water bath

to ~OOCJC_ Ac· both KI and KMn04, add 10 ml of H2so4 a nd titrate with

58

0.1 N a S203 a rthe solution has become pale yellow, add 1ml of starch

solut:ion and~ the titration until blue colour disappears. Sample can

also be inc u the vial of COO reactor for two hours and CO 0 measured

usin g s p e ct: r c~ter.

COD m gil = (g.1000/1l1 sample Whe re a = mliosulfate for the blank

b = rT1 I iosulfate for the sample

8 = c' ~I =5Jle ~ = Nofthe thiosulfate

Incu b ati 0 n I' This is a rn led to measure the biological oxyge n de' m and (BOD) it

lnvc» Iv e s rT1 e50ml of water sample into a conica I fl ask, add lml of

ma g n e s i U til and stir, add 1 ml of conc.H2S04.ad d :1. m I c>f Na-I-N3 and

add a d ro p 1. Fill the biuret with 0.022564 sodi u m th ic>sulfate, then

titrat:e the stilthecolourchangesfromyellowto cc>lc>urlessthenread

off t:he valuebiuretasOOl.

Me as u re a n)ml of sample'into the conical flask add 1 m I of MnS04 and

mix" add ~ nL2 and mix, add ml of FeCL3 and mix , th en incubate for 5

day afte r vvte' with sodium thibsulfate, Read off 1:h e b i Li ret value and

reeD rd as D .alculate the BOD as -

BO 0 III gj I =2;i where,

n

001 is the initial dissolved oxygen 005 is the final dissolved oxygen % dilution is the dilution factor

S9

Ferrn e ntati 0 tI

This is a met: l ich the sample is is introduced into a Ii qui d b roth and

incu bate d fo nours is used to detect total coliform by n ot:i ng the most

proba b J e n u nN} of bacteria. 15 bottles of the lactose b rot:h are

requ i Ie d .. 10 rrtple is dispensed into 5 bottles, 1ml of sa rn e sample into

anot:h e I 5 bo~ O.lml each is dispensed into the rerna i n i ng 5 bottles,

glass Dr u han serted in all the tubes before incubat ion fa r 24 hours,

after \1\/ hi c h t: lntration of bubbles formed in the test: t:u bes vvould be

corre I a t:e d t:o lards

Cultu ri ng an og Method

This rn et:h ad j calculate the colony forming unit of bact:e ria ... the colony

forrn in gun it: (measure of viable bacterial and fung a I ce II s p resent in a

speci men" it: i o determine the microbiological load and rn agnitude of

infect: i c> n in b Isamples. The procedure involves calcu I at:i ng the number

of ba ct:e ria p E2 or gram of sample by dividing the n u m be r of colonies

by th e d i I u 1: i 0 Ifhe number of colonies per ml reporte d s h auld reflect

the pre cis i c> n sthod and should not be more than tvvo sign ificant

figure s.

CF U / m I ( rf colonies dilution factor) volume of cui tLJ re plate

60

CH,L!~PTER Fe

RESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Data "frotionnaire

The q u estio n n collected revealed that even though wate r seemed to

be in a bun d a rery expensive and relatively unavaila b lei n desired quantity. IV1 cs sihabltants being civil servants and se If-em pi oyers do not have! be> re h c> I els of their own rather, they resort to vvate r ve ndors for supp IV. Pea p I (lave access to tap water supply as the gave rn ment has noProvision yle borne water resource in the area as shovvn in table 4.1belovv.

Table4.:1. Sum he questionnaire data

s/ Data Percentage of Responders n 1 Occu pathding Civi I se rva nt Self- Un e rnployed

Va 40% employed 10% 30%

2 Source c> ill Borehole 60% Vendors Tap water drinking 35% - vvater

3 S c> u rce foil Borehole Vendors Tap vvater house- 20 20% - vvashings

4 Dista nee im 100 20m =::;; :1. 0 ,.,., cove red 1:'10 10% 30% 50% ·fetch vvat

5 Method cling Disinfecting Filtering N 01: at all vvater 10 40% 10% 20% ·treatmen

6 \/\/ate r bo)lera Dysentery Diarrhoea IVI a fa ria/typhoi diseases 10 10% 10% d fever ever 60% suspect:ec

7 \/\/ell 'ehole2 Well Both Non IOvvnershi 30% 10% 4-0%

61

4.2 Dry and:.son's parametric analytical results "from Federal Hou sin g a n across areas

The dry and vns analytical result in Federal Housin g a rea s flowed that

most of the p: values lie within the WHO/FME guidelines except the pH, calcium, ium, nitrate, turbidity, fluoride, COD,BOD and total hardness of siples which are relatively higher than the permissible value s as sho\ies4.2below

In tat b Ie 4-.2. .Liows the result of the microbiologica I a n a lyses for both seasons in Fe41sing, the value of total coliform in borehole samples is withi n lim it( <~Ie well samples showed high values ra ngi ng from(2.9- 4.5 x ~OS) cft Other microbes -E. coli, shigella, enterobacter, and salmo ne II ash ceased concentrations in both dry and vvet seasons'

In table 4- 2.25 the result of both dry and wet season .... s parametric analys es ca rri Et borehole and well water samples so u reed from Lugbe across. VV hi I E chemical parameters were belovv 0 r \Nithin the international fie value, others like pH showed slight acidity (4.84- 6.27) in dry s 4t normal in wet season. The turbid ity va I u e is within limits in bo re hvery high up to 12.05 NTU in well sa m pies especially in dry se a son. "Tillght increase in the values of cal c i u m, magnesium, manga n e s e, toess and fluoride in some borehole and vve II samples of both d ryan d vvis as shown below.

Table 4.2.3 shaicrobiological result of both seasons in Lugbe across. It could be d ed u samples from borehole and well sou rces all contain different level:"obial contaminants with well samples having higher concentrations

62

Table4.2 Wet and dry seasons Result of physical and chemical parameters of underground water in Lugbe Federal Housing area of FeT

sIn ! Jtj f~t ~AKAMHm ! wn ~~~ ~~~ ~m~N'~ ~mMtml~ A~U ~~I~ ~t~~l1l~ rmmAl H~~~mb

(m~/I) I l'~B~~~tH~~lt----------------------~I\~~Hl------~--------------~

SAMPLE 1

77 Rn I ~n.6 28.20 S.S8 3.SS S.21 IS90.0 35S 242.0

4.93 3.06 S.20 0.01 -- 1-[01- r--o:os 845 183 .. - 'l23Jj5 7.19 13.03 I 6.43 5.30 0.473 5.48 14.28 0.10 9.30 0.14 001 0.27 n ns I Nn 0.03

--- 34.04

SAMPLE 4 I SAMPLE 5 \ SAMPLE 6 I SAMPLE 7

J L~yanidp. I NO. I NO I 0.01 I NO NO NO NO I n n~ I Nn I n m I un I n ru I Mn I un I un , ,: ". I.". - '<:' .. I"~"," ?~ r; I R4 H [7 ~ I rJ ~9 I 39 - ...

"' I /' I I Q I (. . . : : . . 3.[ l~ I 'It'~'1 ' I I LI II ' \ I 1 I I ------ -'-- ---

,~I"" II.i~ I ~.I~ I J'JI 1 J. b I .Lli i L ... I·JI i I L.III ! IJ.UU I U.uII I U.UI jilU"UI ,,"" ~II"'"'''' '1--- 'I II _____ __ . _._ L .. -- __ . ._, ----- .. - -.-,-~----.-'-.. '-- .. ' .------.-------.----,------.-, . --.-.-----f-----.-.-.' .---- . --- ----.- -·r--·----I---·---·----- .. ·-··-

I!~ : ~'r!!i[J8i' : 11I~ I U.UL 11m ~~~ I II ~~ I ~,~~q I rJI~ J~~~-~- II.~~ ! [I % : ~.~I ~,~~ II.!.! ~,b~ I.~~ IUK~ I ~.L4 i ~ u~u i I.J ; (~~; "I;",~IDri;E ]0~=- 1 ~.~~ -T~~] ~~~-T ~ ~~ 1!~\~ I c~]!~i E!l!~ I ~.~m jvmil~ i ~.~~J ~~~~ J~~~] ~ ~ml ~]Uq ~~~~I~i]~l- [-;b---~~.·::~~: J~~_. __ -_~-:------ ~~ ~,~L __ I_:!? _ _j_II~~_II~_I~~-_ ~~ ~.L~.I ~J_ .. _ I ~.Li ~w __ LJ~~~._I ~~ ~n I ~~ I ~,~~~ il ~.~I I r18- -._t,a:a: hardness 85.S0 410.~8 171.20 102.72 138.98 15~ ... 8 _.'.1 f;348 P2B 20S.44 [0221 23Q.CH _~4SJL 241.4 1~4.m i !~4 ~b.· -iml ~ __ J '_"ICIUln 68.48 239.68 154.08 51.36 102.27 107.72 J~448 I 239.68 119.3 65.48 188.32 1.73.92 238.68 85.6 I 85Ic

63

SAMPL 8 N08D58.518 ED7021.813 »=: 0 27.90 31.0 6.70 8.28 1558.0 IS8

5.03 6.47 0.04 0.D3 780.0 84 L... ___ l--- I 8.11 8.11 4.84 0.540 7.47 2.47 0.58 0.05 0.01 NO 411~ 35.7

SAMPLES SAMPlf 10 5 N8U58.425 N08u58.448 [07°21.689 ED7021.842 IV 0 IV 0 28.10 28.4 27.7D 311 T <40 S.32 7.58 5.81 8. .. 54 I S.5-8.5 72LOD 178 28S.0 95 I 1000

I 700 I 7.25 I 7.5 I 0.03 I 0.02 -TO-.1- ]144.0 I 4S I 2000 I S.07 4.13 5

4.15 0.502 1.5 ~ -NO-- To 0.81 1.10 I

I I I

I JJO.O~ ~~.b~ 1~4.~ L~~.~4 In I L~~- 8 1 204.55 51.36 1D2.72 119.84 I 118.84 I 150

- -------_- -- ._- I \1.12 . ~ i7Tf~1I7.12-- r-5[36 -31aill51.36 21 Magnesium NO 188.32 85.6 34.24 51.36 171.2 102.72 68.48 68.48 171.2 34.24 51.36 85.60 68.48 50

23 Manganese I 0.08 0.70 0.12 0.336 0.30 0.256 1.02 0.S8 0.S6 0.536 1.64 oASo 0.S5 0.863 2.04 0.415 1.38 1 0.381 0.83 0.326 0.2 24 Chloride I 2.01 1.00 ' 4.22 32.S 6.08 . 1.24 L50 4.48 ' ~.18 I 1.00 2S.2 31.0 21.01 31.10 13.40 34.0 22.80 I 25.01 IS.06 5.0 I 250

L~ CD~ 1A~ 4.0 II.L~ 1,0 ~A~ l.b~ ~,~~ J.L 4.~1 ~.~~ I~,m m 11,J~ JJ.I I~,I~ ~~ ID.~J J~} IL.JJ oA JbW·

I ~~~ .J_

LO Lacmium ~.~~ ! ~ [ .. : ~.~J ~.~~o ~.~L ~,~m ~.m ~.~b~ ~m ~;~L1 ~.~o 44.~ I ~.~~ ~.m ~.I1 ~.~LL ~.~~ ~~~L ~.m ~.~m <I i ".~I

L1 ~Iuminium ~.~~4 n ~.~~L ~.~m ~.~L ~.~b~ ~m ~.~m ~mb I ~.~~L l.oL ~,~b~ ~.~~4 ~,~m ~,1~L ~.~I~ ~.I~~ I ~.~~ ~.J~I ~.LJJ <I !

28 BOO 27.41 2.81 33.09 1 7.B2 2315 11.0 20.08 3.45 18.45 I 8.95 42.05 191 49.94 14.0 37.27 13.3 4S g~ 1912 I 4nO g.~O m~~~ 29 Ilead 0.04 0.0 NO 0.00 0,00 0.10 NO 0.02 I 0.02 0.01 0.81 0.08 0.90 0.06 0.29 0.01 0.06 0.0 I 0.91 0.00 <1

1 02 2 1 5 o 11 0 0 8 3 54 2

129 I Arsenic 0.005 ND 0.00 NO NO I NO NO NO I ~.01 NO ~.08 I 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 i 0.0 I 0.00 NO <1 2 5 6 4 3 9 01 3

64

TABl~ 4.2.1 R~~UlT O~ MICROBIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS O~ ~EDERAl HOUSING WAiER SAMPLES BOREHOLE WELL

400

SAMPLE I SAMPLE 7 8 M~PEC'E (du/ SEAS SAMPLE SAMPLE SAMPLE SAMPLE SAMPl SAMPl

N 100ml) ON 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 TOTAL WET 1.8Xl04 2.0 X 2.3Xl07 2.0 X 1.5 X 3.0 X 3.0 X 2.8Xl06 2.7 X 12.9 X COLIFORM 107 , 107 107 106 105 105 ! 106

1.3x102 1.82 X 1. 5~2.:1x 3.5 x 2.9 x 3.0 x 3.3 x-t1.2X 102 102 1102 105 105 io' 105 102

2.24 X 5.54 X 5.0 X 14.3 X 12.6 X 4.18 X 2.0X102 2.10 X 4.19 X 10.0 104 104 104 104 104 104 102 1104

SAMPl 9

SAMPl I FME 10

DRY 1.26 X 102 5.0Xl04 2 I E. COLI WET

DRY I trace I 0.45 x Jr~ce trace I 0.5 x 1. 8 x 2.3 X 12.2X105 1.9 Xc-W;.5 x 102 102 105 105 105 102

r-r-----~r--4----4---- I 1 ~- --"" IIU _-_ .. __ J 11] 'I-~~" iJ.Y~" Ill" 'i~ rOo'" 11u"''' I"'''''' +:--n . 'oTsH!GElln, -- WET-' [~D· -j6.7Xlli' (OXl0f6.08iTi.34X-+io9X- 3.0 X 12.51 X-3.38 X 14.8X-' 0.0-1 i 4 I I I : 102 102 104 104 1104 104 1104

._"__ . -------"--.-".. --f-------- ... ".""-~.--.--

DRY I trace 1 Trace. 1i O .. 5xl02 trace 1.0 x 1.GO X 2.g X ll1.27 X 111.9 X D.Q){ 1 __ L__ __l _ ____j____j__ _ 102 103 103 103 103 102

65

5 ENTEROBAe WET 1.07x10 4.21x10 I 2.24x10 I 4.1x10 I nd 11.01X1 5.0x10 r I 6.7x10 6.02x 0.0 TER 3 4 3 i 3 I

103 3 I 3 103 i . I

DRY 2,2xl04 0.5x104 2.10 X 11.6xlO l,21x 13.3x 3.3x 4,2xl03 I 3.5x 1.15x 104 14 104 103 103 103 104 i

2.11X i

6 STAPHllOCC WET 1.45xl0 NO ND O,63Xl ND l,08X1 l,25Xl 1.85X1 l,94X 03 oj 103 103

I

oeus 2 02 03 I I

DRY NO NO ND ,ND ND 1.3X10 1.0X10 1.lX103 1.4X1 1.0X1 I

3 3 03 03 -

7 STREPToeeo WET NO TRACE 0.86X1 NO NO 2.14Xl 3.53Xl 2.70Xl 1.15X TRACE eus 02 02 02 02 102

DRY NO NO ND I ND TRACE 0.8XIO 0.65Xl 1.3X102 1.1X1 ND I 1 I 2 02 02 i

~. __j L ______

66

Table 4.2..3. Wet and dry seasons result of the Physical and Chemical parameters of underground water in Lugbe

across area of FeT.

- -_-_ --~---_ -_- ------------- ---

51 PARAMETER \ ANALYSIS RESULT IN LUGBE ACRO~5 ~ME

n (mgjl)

I BOREHOLE WELL SAMPLE A SAMPLE B SAMPLE C SAMPLEDl SAMPLE E SAMPLE F SAMPLE G I SAMPLE H SAMPLE I SAMPLE J

ELEVATION N8oS8.259 N08°58.326 N8058.246 N8°58.058 N08058.187 N08°58.296 N08°58.280 N08°48.135 N08°58.041 N08°58.042 E07021.9S E07°22.026 E07°22.164 E07°n.292 E07°22.383 E07°21.293 E07022.091 407°22.251 E07022.302 E07022.375

SEASON W D W D W D W D W D W D W D W ID W D W D , 1 TEIViPERATU 27.3 32.0 27.3 31.8 26.9 30.9 27.1 30~1 \27.0 30.7 27.7 29.9 27.4 1;f.1271 29.6 27.0 29.9 <40

RE I --

2 PH !7.66 4.84 7.84 5.04 7.29 5.16 7.55 5.26 7.30 6.27 7.99 6.06 8.01 6.00 8.06 !6.00 1.98 6.00 7.70 5.55 6.5- 8.5 -- I-.

3 Conductivity I 338 280 512 264 4J9 221 330 133 1104 181 1691 188 1695 200 828 200 559 205 140. 273 1000

(us/ern) L 6

4 Oissed oxy 7.20 5.34 7.38 6.02 7 .. 64 6.81 8.27 6.98 6.94 6.94 6.02 4.30 4.70 5.86 7.73 5.86. 7.23 6.87 5.57 7.05 7.5

5 Salinity(%) 0.1 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.1 0.01 0.9 0.02 0.90 0.03 0.60 0.0 0.30 0.20 0.8 0,03 0.1

6 TOS I 170 135 258 128 209. 105. 165 71.5 552 100 840. 95.0 847 105 416 103 273 107. 70.5 118 2000

U 10 I 2 2 _J 4 e- 9 I ; 4 I _~__ I ~ 0 ) I ~ b L

~£_--J ~ --.-.-- ... ----- !- r--"-'- -- .-.- ·1·_ ---- __ L ___ _j ____ ._ .- .---- _ __ 1 _

:z~I12.0- ,

9 Nitr2~ .12.07_[_~ 230_ 3.75 12.5 3.58 J.7.0 2.47 23,0 3.07 l.48 1.89 2.48 I 5,09 1.57 5.46 30.0 20 0 I

, 1------- ---- -_,.--_.--. _.---' -----j- ---- _-- -- -.-

10 Nitr'ite I 0.50 0.98 0.20 0,06 0.14 0.18 0.28 0.42 0,44 0,01 0.88 0,05 0.96 0,05 0,82 ~,50 I 0.67 0.50 0,93 0.12 1 I

3 3 7 " j ~ 11 Cyanide ND ND ND ND NO NO NO I NO 0.00 ND 0.01 NO 0.03 NO 0.02 NO 0.00 NO 0.00 ND <i

1 0 2 6 67

5.60 I 23.6 I ~7.2 12'71'8'71~6~714 29150 1'43 1,,·0 I~' 1 ~9 7 15.8 38.0 122.7 212 1:63 1139 I ~64 13 I sulphite I 0,01 0,00 0,08 0,30 0,00 0,00 0,03 0,051 0,UlO,01 0.19 0,00, 0,25 0,00 0,21 0,00 I 0,51 1 0,00 I 0,7Z

6 8 5 2 6 7 4 I 0 5 15 8 3 8 \8 \8 16

12 I Sulphate 53.6 I 500

0.23 5

0,00 I ,1

18 14 I Phcsphate 1.66 1 0,01 1 1.64 1 0,03 1 1.93 I 0,02 1 1.68 1 0.40 12.80 1 0,01 1 3.49 1 0,04 1 3.63 1 0,07 13,21 I 0,01 14,29 1 0,01 I \,6:

8 7 4 15 1 Iron 0.32 ~.29 I 0.26 I ~.12 I 0.39 I 0.10 I 0.71 I 0.10 I 0.16 I ~.04 1 0.13 1 ~.62 11.061 ~.47 11.31 I ~.14 I O.£b I ~.21 1.22 I O.b1 I l.S

16 Copper ~ 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.01 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.05 I 0.01 0.05 0.11 I 0.08 I 0.05 0.50 I 0.06 0.43 0.25 0.45 0.29 I 1.5 177 4 08051 83902

17 Free chlorine 0.89 0.05 0.54 0.06 0.32 0.09 0.43 0.06 0.13 0.05 0.06 0.00 I 0.0510.00 0.02 I 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.04 0.00 1 0,2 I

o 1 9 4 3061035171 2

18 I Nickel ND NO NO ND NO 0.01 I NO NO I ~.OO NO I ~.01 NO I 0.03 I NO ~.02 NO ~.OO I NO ~.OO I NO I <1

19 ! Total 85.5 205. 1712 205. 136. 68.4 I 68.4 85.6 205. 85.6 1239 222. 342. 188. 154. 1.19. 85.6168.4 205. 1188. ! hardness 44 44 9 8 8 4 ... 68 56 4 32 03 84 8 44 32

20 i ~alcium 68.4 154. I 154. 154. 102. 51.3 68.4 51.3 119. 51.6 1188. 188. 239. 136. 85.6 85.6 51.3 151.3 119. 1154 .. I 150 08 08 7 6 8 6 54 32 3 68 96 6 6

1

1

08 8 54 108 21 I Magnesium 17.1 51.3 17.1 51.3 34.2 17.1 NO 34.2 85.6 34.2 51.3 34.2 102. 34.2 68.4 34.2 34.2 17.1 85.6 34.2 I 50

262642 4 464742442 4 I--- 22 I Manganese 0.21 0.24 1,31 0.34 0.30 0.28 0.63 0.30 0.32 0.70 1.21 0.35 1.09 0.56 0.68 0.49 0.91 0.01 0.86 0.53 1 0.2

1 1 6 8 2 3 5 8 7

200

?~ I rhlnriti"" _L r" I "n "7 rn RJ dA 7 nn 1d n R_]~qR '7nu ~7 n I" h 17'" 17" n I no 7" l " , 1'0 n ,," "" 1:8 f-25 I Cadmium 10,0[1 0,01 0,00 0,00 0,01 10,01 0,61 0,01 O,OJ 0.00 o,ntJ~008tomt048- o,oi --t- J -- . 1-_1_. __ __lL- 5 2 13 .]_1 ~ v ; I ~ _ 7 5 2 2 16 17 7 19, 26 I Aluminium I 0,89 TG.Ol . 0.89 I 0.03 0.09 fomt.29 1 0.40 1 0.83 1 0,01 110l0:06To.99 1 0.04 11.01 0.03 TO.75 I 0.01 I 0.g2 I 0.01 I <1

6.30 I 5.20 I 6.30 I 3.00 I 9.25 I 6.16 I 7.50 I 5.20 I 4.82 I 6'71 I 11.2 I 22.1 I 13.0 I 19.2 I 12.6 I 17.1 I 14.5 I 12.5 I 16.0 I 15.4 I 7.5G 7 4 4 2 4

27 I BOD

68

I ---

iSl3 15

10 12

10 I I :~O. 0 0 a

!

0,01 I 70,0

I i 0813 I WO

128 lead 0.41 I ~.oo 0.41 0,00 0.13 0.00 0.2 0.03 0.1 0.02 0.90 ~.oo I 0.90 0.13 0.60 0.00 0.32 ~.Ol I 0.85 0.00 <1

5 1 1 23 8 6 29 Arsenic NO I NO NO NO 0.00 NO 0.00 NO NO ND 0.10 0.02 0.01 0.00 NO 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.01 0_01 <1

I 1 1 5 5 5

Table 4.2.4: RESULT OF MICROBIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF LUGBE ACROSS WATER SAMPLES

RESULT OF fViICROBIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF LUGBE ACROSS WATER SAMPLES

5 SPECIE(cfu/ SEAS SAMPL~ SAMPLE SAMPLE SAMPLE SAMPl SAMPL SAMPLE SAMPLE SAMPLI SAMPL I rME

N 100ml} ON A B C D IE F G H E J

1 TOTAl DRY 'll.10xlO 1.18xlO 1.65xlO l,2xlO 2,23xl 4.5xlO 3,5xl0 3.6xl05 3,Oxl0 4.2xl0 COLIFORM 2 2 2 2 05 5 5 5 5

WET 6.01X1 6.01X1 5.13X1 2.09X1 5.23X1 5.07Xl 5.08X1 4.1X10 3.0Xl 4.2Xl 02 02 02 02 05 05 05 4 04 04

2 E. Call DRY TRACE 0.8XIO 0.6XIO TRACE 0.95X1 1.67X1 2.10X1 3.2X10 1.7X1 2.9X1 2 2 05 05 05 5 05 05 --

WET 2.72X1 1.43X1 1.3X10 1.0X1 4.32X1 4.0X10 2.9X10 2.2X10 2,1X1 3.01X I 0

10 02 2 2 2 02 104 I 3 SALMON ElL DRY 0.9X10 1.01X1 1.2X10 TRACE 1.32Xl 1.8XI0 2.7X10 2.2X10 1.5X1 1.18X

A 2 02 2 05 3 3 3 03 103 WET NO 1.53Xl 2.09X1 1.10X1 3.4X10 6.0X10 3.13X1 2.22X1 5.5X1 5.5X1

~

02 02 02 4 4 04 05 04 04 1----

4 SHIGELLA DRY 0.6X10 0.6X10 1.0X10 TRACE OA5X1 2.6X10 1.65X1 4.2X10 2.3X1 3.1X1 "/ ? "/ n~ ~ ()~ ~ n~ 10~

i I

TER i I~ Is 03 '03 103

I

I~ __ - 4 4 4 3 3 ___ I , ,--

I \NET '6,OX102 r--- --.------t-----

4.19X I 3,OXI0 4.28Xl 2,80Xl 2.24Xl 26.8X1 2.59Xl 3,44Xl 4.19X 2 02 02 02 103 03 03 103 103 , 1

~ I STAPHILOCC I DRY I NO IND I ND---rND NO 1.5X10 11.0X10 11.4X103 11.2X1 11.1X1 I I 70

I lOCUS i

I I J 3 03 03 WET 10.77Xl NO TRACE NO TRACE 11.79X1 1.7XI0 2.6Xl02 1.2X1 TRACE 102

I 102 2

02

7 STREPTOCCO DRY NO NO TRACE NO NO 0.75Xl , 1.6XI0 0.95Xl 1.5Xl 1.0Xl I

12 CUS 02 02 02 03 WET O.72X1 O.4SXl O.b~Xl TRACE 1.0Xl0 4.32Xl 4,QX 2.9Xl02 2.2Xl 2.1Xl

02 102 02 2 02 102 02 02

4.3RESULT OSTICALANALYSISOFDIFFERENT 'VVATER

SAMPLES TABLE 4.3 DRY ;SPHYSICALANDCHEMICALPARAIVI:E·:.a._-ERS OF

UNDERGROLTD -;AMPLES

SIN PARAlVIE~rER

(un its In mg/I) MEAN SO MIN MAX RANGE TOTAL

I I TEMPERATUr 30.22 1.31 4.7 27.3 32 332.4

2 PH 5.1 1.33 4.68 3.86 8.54- 56.13

3 CON 1-=:>1 J CT j '/ I 253.18 84.9 251 95 346 2785 4 RES IS~! I V,J'Y 5.64 2.63 7.52 2.98 10.5 6'/.02

5 DISSOLVED C 7.03 0.83 3.06 5.34 8.4- 77.28

6 SA LI N I~r')f 0.01 0.01

~

0.03 a 0.03 0.16

7 TDS 125.68 40.69 122.5 46 168.5 1382.5

8 TURBIDITY (: 2.18 1.1 3.6 0.53 4~ 13 23.98 9 FLUORIDE 2.47 2.25 4.7 0.45 5.15 27.14 10 NITRATE 12.54 10.49 29.94 0.06 30 125.36 11 NITRITE 0.46 0.46 1.09 0.0 I 1 . 1 5.03

I 12 CY AN I I=:> E a 0 0 0 0 0 13 SULPHATE 16.75 24.38 83.4 1.5 84.9 1 84.3

14 SU LPl-I I'TE 0.05 0.09 0.3 0.0 I 0.31 0.53

15 PHOSPI-IA --1'E 0.08 0.13 0.39 0.01 0.4- 0.9

16 IRON 0.14 0.07 0.25 0.05 0.3 I.S

I 17 COT::>pER 0.08 0.14 0.5 a o.~ 0.9-

18 PR E E7_ r> L_T L~c) n 0.78 2.4 7.96 0.04 8 c- I 8.55

19 NICI<" EL 0 0 0.01 0 0.0 I 0.01 - --- - -

185.21 ~?8 -- 20 T(::J--!~A L I 11"- rz J 126 359.52 68.48 2037.28 ---

21 CALC-::IUiV1 116.75 72.54 I 188.32 51.36 239.68 1 '/84.24

22 I'v1 A G N l~S! l_J r-, 68.48 56.78 171.2 17.12 188.32 753.28

23 I'v1ANGANES 0.46 0.24 0.73 0.25 0.98 5.02 24 CHLORIDE 14.03 17.56 56 1 57 ~-=-- 1 54.32

25 COD 3.5 1.81 5.6 0.8 6.4- 38.55

26 CADMIUM 0.01 0.01 0.03 0 0.03 0.14

27 ALUMINIUl'v 0.08 0.13 0.39 0.01 0.4- 0.9

28 BOD 6.05 2.49 8.19 2.81 1 1 66.6

29 LEAD 0.03 0.04 0.12 0 0.13 0.33

30 ARSENIC a 0 a 0 0 0

72

TABLE 4_3s::i BLEWATERSAl\1PLES (1-5) FR01Vl: FEDERAL

HOUSING AI<

SIN PAR.t'I:..IV1

MEAN I I (un its 11' SD RANGE MIN MA.X AL , 1 Tbl\/lPERA TU 27.94 0.31 I 27.3 28.3 ! 279.4

.- I 2 PH 9.76 9.35 I 30.51 5.81 36.32 97.56 I

3 CONDUCTIV 788.05 575.45 1553.5 136.5 1690 7880.5

4 RESISTIVI i Y 6.36 3.93 10.98 1.09 12.07 63.58

5 DISSOLVED 1 6.55 0.95 2.98 4.93 7.91 65.49

6 SA L n",) J l~Y 0.02 I 0.02 0.05 a 0.05 0.23 I ! 7 I ie!s 394.82 287.61 775.5 69.5 845 3948.15 ,---_--- - - -' .- -- - --- -- - -- --_--

I 4.39 3.03 6.93 1.27 I 8.2 8 TURSI.OITY ( 43.94

--~-- ---~ 37.9-- 9 FLl.JORI I:JE 3.79 1.26

I 3.8 1.68 5.48

---_-_ 76.75- 10 NI~I~RA-rE 7.68 3.96

I 11.54 2.74 14.28

II N I-TRITE 0.28 0.31 r 0.8 0.01 0.8 1 2.82

12 CYANIDE 0.01 0.02 0.05 a 0.05 I 0.13 I

I 13 SU LPI-IA-rE 29.87 11.13 38.86 10.1 48.96 298.71

14 SULPHITE 0.18 0.22 0.6 0.01 0.6 1 1 .76

15 PHOS PF-I_p.~-t E 2.84 1.05 3.27 LOS 4.32 28.37

16 IRON 0.77 0.58 1.66 0.04 1.7 7.65 -j

17 COPPbR 0.63 0.47 , 1.22 0.05 1.27 6.29 I

18 FREE CI-ILOI 0.03 0.Q3 0.08 0 0.08 0.33

19 NICI<EL 0.08 0.1 0.23 0 0.23 0.8

20 TOTAL HAR 169.49 83.66 273.92 68.48 342.4 1694.88 ------- -- --

21 CALCiUTVl 119.44 59.7 188.32 S 1.36 239.68 1 194.4 -.-------~----

496.4~: I 22 I ~/1/\.C::; N f':':S T U:' 49.65 34.67 102.72 0 102.72 '--23 ~-_- __ -.-------- ----

0.93 0.64 1.96 0.08 2.0<1- 1'\/1 /'\,_ N G /"\.. N E S 9.33

24 CfILORII-:JE 12.25 10.16 27.71 1.5 29.21 ! 1 ?2.4~: . i 25 COL) 11.71 5.13 14.34 4.81 19. I 5 1 1 7.13

26 CADI'v1IU rvi 0.06 0.05 i 0.17 0 0.17 0.55

27 A L U l'v1 IN I U T'\ 0.26 0.5 , 1.62 0 1.62 2.59

28 BOD 34.08 11.34 31.49 18.45 49.94 340.84

29 LEAD 0.3 0.4 0.91 0 0.91 3.03

30 AIZSENIC 0.02 0.03 0.08 0 0.08 0.19

73

TABLE, 4_3_2 S~~l'rlO)WELLWATERSAMPLESFROMFEDERAI-, HOUSrr<r G _A T-;~JLL-",

SIN PARAIViJ

(units in MEAN SD RANGE MIN IV1:AX TOTAL

1 TEIVIPERAl 27.94 0.21 0.5 27.7 28.2 139.7

2 PI- 12.34 13.4 1 30.51 5.81 36.32 61.68

3 CONDUCTIV 899.4 689.03 1448 242 1690 4497

4 RESISTIV 4.24 3.03 7.46 1.09 8.55 21.22 -

5 DISSOLVEC 5.97 0.94 2.07 4.93 7 29.83

6 SALINIT" 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.14

7 TD 450.43 344.07 72 1.95 123.05 845 2252.15

I 8 TURBIDIl 7.2 0.96 2.13 6.07 8.2 36

9 FLUe)' 4.74 0.68 1.54 3.94 5.48 23.71 -

10 ['..! } {'r::z I 10.67 3.09 6.81 7.47 14.28 53.33 I -----

II NITI~ 0.51 0.29 0.67 0.14 0.8 I 2.53 -- 12 CY /\.1' 0.02 0.02 0.05 0 0.05 0.1

- 13 SULPI 34.88 11.5 28.76 20.2 48.96 174.38

14 SULP 0.32 0.24 0.58 0.03 0.61 1.61

15 PI--IOSP 2.95 1.2 I 3.27 1.05 4.32 14.73

16 IRe 0.59 0.56 1.25 0.04 1.29 2.94

17 COP 0.9 0.4 1.03 0.24 1.27 4.49

, 18 FREE CH 0.01 0.01 0.01 0 0.02 0.03 , 19 NICi 0.15 0.1 0.23 0 0.23 0.77

20 TOl~AL I-L 205.44 96.09 256.8 85.6 342.4 1027.2 i

21 CA_LC 136.96 76.56 188.32 51.36 239.68 684.8

22 IVIAGN 68.48 27.07 68.48 34.24 102.72 342.4

23 1'vlANG 1.37 0.5 1.21 0.83 2.04 6.85

I 24 CJ-i LC 2 I.I 5.75 15.8 I 13.4 29.21 105.48

25 C( 16.03 2.48 6.6 12.55 19. IS ---S~_

26 C ./~, -C:""i 0.09 0.05 0.12 0.05 D. I 7 0.46 ---------- 1.54 0.08 1.62

-- 27 /\_LU i'v~ 0.51 0.64 2.53

28 Bt 43.73 4.65 12.67 37.27 49.94 218.66

29 Ll::, 0.59 0.39 0.85 0.06 0.91 2.97 I

30 ARS 0.03 0.04 ! 0.08 0 0.08 0.17 L.

74

TABLE ..:__·L3 ~3.:: ~-:, D' WATER SAMPLES (A-E) FROM LUGJBE SL U1VIl AREA

! SIN --

j PARAP,-4:E ~_ E 'T~ FME i I (un its i !-"1 n. g/!) STD MEAN SD RANGE MIN IVIAX ! TOTAL i ______j

I TE 1'\,.-1 FER .>, __ T \_ j r <40 27.38 0.33 0.7 27 17.7 I 136.9 I I

2 PH 6.5-8.5 7.95 0.14 0.36 7.7 ~1.06 I 39.74 I

! 3 CONDUCTIVI' 1000 982.72 693.12 1554.4 140.6 1695 4913.6

4 RESISTIVITY NS 2.99 3.78 8.75 0.95 9.7 I 14.93 I 5 DISSOLVED C 7.5 6.25 _L 1.23 3.03 4.7 7~ 31.25 6 SALINITY ( 0.1 0.7 I 0.25 0.6 0.3 0.9 I 3.5

7 TDS 2000 489.4 345.99 776.5 70.5 847 i 2447

8 TU RB lOrry (1 5 5.92 1.41 3.81 4.1 1 7.92 i

29.61

9 FLUORIDE 1.5 0.91 0.54 1.22 0.53 1.75 , 4.54

10 NIo-rRA 1 E 20 3.6 1.59 3.57 1.89 5.46 17.98

11 NITRITE <1 0.85 0.11 0.29 0.67 0.96 4.26

12 CYANIDE <1 0.01 0.01 0.03 0 0.03 0.07

13 SU L P I-I /'\..-1 E 500 28.69 11.53 30.59 15.8 46.39 143.44 --

14 SULPHITE <1 0.38 0.24 0.54 o . ] 9 0.73 1.91

I 15 PI-lOS PI-I AO-T-E 5 4.05 0.98 2.44 3.21 5.65 -I 20.if-

i 16 [IRON 1.5 0.92 0.47 1.18 0.13 I~ 4.58 I 17 COPPER <1 0.3 0.22 0.45 0.05 0.5 1.51

18 FREE CI-I LOR 0.2 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.25

19 NICI<EL <1 0.01 0.01 0.03 0 0.03 0.07

20 TOTAL l-IA Rr:: 200 205.44 ! 96.09 256.8 85.6 342.4 1027.2

21 CA LC I U I\./1 150 136.9 -t- 76.58 188.32 51.36 239.68 684.5 -

22 MAGNESIUM 50 68.48 27.07 68.48 34.24 102.72 342.4

23 M_A N Ci- AN l-:_:_S E 0.2 0.95 0.21 0.53 0.68- 1.21 4.75 24 CHLORIDE 250 31.61 8.01 19.27 22.23 41.5 158.06

25 COD 30-GW,80-

SW 26.73 5.72 14.4 19 33.4 133.65

26 CA D1'V1 I U rvt <I 0.57 0.32 0.86 0.09 0.94 2.87

27 ALUfV1 IN IU-i'/I <I 0.96 0.17 0.44 0_76 1.2 4.78

28 BOD 7.5-

GW,30·SW 13.48 1.82 4.75 I 1.25 16 67.42

! 29 LEP,,-l::J <I 0.71 0.25 0.58 0.3"/ 0.9 1_3~ I 30 I A RSl.:oN Ie <1 0.01 0.0 1 0.02 0 0.02 -I 0.05

75

TABLE 4~3 .. 4; JACROSSWELLWATERSAMPLES (F-J)

i SIN I iF' /\. 7.:0:-./". 1'-/:': '-<.- ~ FM E

(!;_:! ~~ ! 'ts ;, ~~ ". STD MEAN SO RANGE MIN IVIAX TOTAL

1 T E T\/j P r= r<~ »; or L <40 27.25 0.28 0.8 26.9

0-' 27.7 272.5

2 PI-I 6.5-8.5 7.74 0.29 0.77 7.29 8.06 77.38

I 3 COl'.l D U C'T I V J 1000 761.66 560.63 1554.4 140.6 1695 7616.6 I 4 IZESISTIVI~ NS 3.01 2.74 8.75 0.95 9.7 30.12

5 DISSOLVED C 7.5 6.87 1.1 3.57 4.7 8.27 68.68

6 SALINITY 0.1 0.38 0.38 0.88 0.02 0.9 3.8

7 TDS 2000 380.15 279.39 776.5 70.5 847 ::; 801.5 -

8 TURBIDITY 5 3.45 I 2.8 7.49 0.43 7.92 34.48 i I

I 9 FLUORI 1.5 0.74 0.4 1.24 0.5 1 1.75 7.45

10 NITRA~ 20 3.14 1.32 3.74 1.72 5.46 31.41

11 NITRI"T <1 0.58 0.31 0.82 0.14 0.96 5.82

12 CYANII <1 0.01 0.01 0.03 0 0.03 0.07

13 SULPHA 500 20.36 12.49 42.1 4.29 I_ -

46.39 203.59 ~r--- SlJLPIII' <I 0.22 0.24 0.72 0 0,73 2.16 I I 5.6--:;-- ----_. 15 P }-I C) S P I--:I / 5 3 1.33 4.01 1.64 29.98

16 IRON 1.5 0.64 0.45 1.18 0.13 1 .3 I 6.42

17 c-: C) ~JP l~ <I 0.17 0.2 0.5 0 0.5 1.72 --

18 FREE CF-I LC 0.2 0.26 0.29 0.87 0.03 0.89 2.58

19 NICIZE <1 0.01 0.01 0.03 0 0.03 0.07 i 20 TOTAL I-IAR 200 169.49 83.66 273.92 68.48 342.4 1694.88

21 CALCIL 150 119.78 59.31 188.32 51.36 239.(iS 1197.8 22 1'V1 /\. G i'-J E S 50 49.65 34.67 102.72 0 102_72 <;96.48

23 l'VIANGE"\.N 0.2 0.75 I 0.39 1.1 0.21 1 .3 1 7.52

24 CI-ILORI 250 22.49 11.43 33.06 8.44 41.5 224.87 , 25 COD 30·0W

80-SW 21.23 7.08 21.35 12.05 33.4 212.25

26 Cr"DIVl I L <1 0.36 0.36 0.94 0 0.94 3.57

27 ALUIVlINI <1 0.74 0.35 1.11 0.09 1.2 7.35

28 B 0 I'J 7.5-0W I 30-SW 10.08 3.96 11.18 4.82 16 iOO.8 I

-- 29 LEL'\_D <I 0.44 0.34 0.87 0.03 0.9 4.44

/\.RSENl <I

30 0 0.01 0.02 0 0.02 0.05

76

TABL1E 4.3.5: S(A-E)BOREHOLESAMPLELUGBEACROSS

SIN PARAIVIE

(u n its in FME,STD MEAN SD RANGE fVIIN MAX TOTAL

J TE TVI P E R/~\_ '-r I <40 27.12 0.18 0.4 26.9 2~~ 135.6

2 Ph 6.5-8.5 7.53 i 0.24 0.55 7.29 7.84 37.64

3 CONDUCTIy' 1000 540.6 323.43 774 330 1104 2703 i 4 RESIS lIVITY NS 3.04 1.61 3.91 1.59 5.5 15.19

5 DISSOLVED ( 7.5 7.49 0.51 1.33 6.94 8.27 37.43

6 SALfNIT"yr 0.1 0.06 0.04 0.08 0.02 0.1 0.3

7 TDS 2000 270.9 161.52 387 165 552 1354.5 .

8 TURBIDITY C 5 0.97 0.59 1.42 0.43 1.85 4.87

9 FLUOR.IDE 1.5 0.58 O. I 0.23 0.5 I 0.74 2.91

10 NITRATE 20 2.69 0.92 2.04 1.72 3.76 13.43

I I NITRITE <I 0.31 j 0.15 0.36 O. 14 0.5 1.56

12 CYANIDe <I 0 I 0 0 0 0 0

13 SULPHATE 500 12.03 6.68 14.41 4.29 18.7 60.15

14 SULPHITE <I 0.05 0.05 0.11 0 0.11 0.25

IS PHOSPHATE 5 1.94 0.49 1.16 1.64 2.8 9.71

16 IRON 1.5 0.37 0.21 0.55 0.16 0.71 1.84 ----

'17 COPPER <1 0.04 0.03 0.07 0 0.07 0.2

18 FRbt=., CH LOR] 0.2 0.47 I 0.28 0.76 0.13 0.89 2.33

19 NICI<EL <1 0 0 0 0 (l 0

20 TOTAL I-IARD 200 133.54 57.29 136.96 68.48 205.44 667.68

21 CALCIU]'vI 150 102.66 36.28 85.6 68.48 154.08 513.3

22 MAGl'JESIUi"v'l 50 30.82 32.93 85.6 0 85.6 154.08 _- 23 MANGANESE 0.2 0.55 0.45 1.1 0./1 1.31 2.77

24 CHLORIDE 250 13.36 4.64 11.36 8.44- I 9.8 66.81 ! 25 COD ID-GW,80-

SW 15.72 I 2.09 5.05 12.05 I 7.1 78.6

26 CA D]'vI I U l'v1 <I 0.14 0.27 0.61 0 0.62 0.69

27 ALUrvIINILJ;v1 <I 0.5 I 0.34 0.8 0.09 0.89 2.57

28 BOD 7.5-

iW,30-SW 6.68 1.75 4.43 4.82 9.25 33.38

I 29 LE,c-...O <I 0.17 0.15 0.38 0.03 0041 0.87

30 ARSENIC <I 0 0 0 0 0 0 j

77

TABLJE 4_3~6;; T?~if MICROBIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS RESUL~r OF UNDERG RC> UN~ INFEDERAL HOUSING AREA

S SPECIES ME N TD MEAN SD RANGE MIN lVIAX TOTAL 1 Total CalifonTl 100 924180 907641

(CFU/l00r-nL) 0 4 22982000 18000 23000000 924liOOO 2 E.Ca Ii (C r~ U/ J 00.0 3309J 20135 55200 200 55400 330?_lQ_ 3 SAI:_'_ l'v1 ON ELI.~ /\).0

(CFU/l OOn. L) 4461 I 8693 28900 0 28900 446l_Q__ 4 SHIGELLPL ).0

(CFU/l OOn! L) 13244 14688 33800 0 33800 132~~ 5 ENTEROBP>cC'r).o

(CFU/ I OOrn L) 3035 2489 6700 0 6700 303.50 6 STAPI-IILOCCa.O

(CFU/l OOm L) 829 907 2110 0 2:1 10 82f8 7 STREPTOCOCG.O

i (CFU/ I OOnlL) 104 132 353 0 353 10:8 :_:__

TABLE 4·_ 3 _ 7: B <0 R 8PLES u-s) FROM FEDERAL HOUSING ._

SN SPECIE STD MEAN SD RANGE MIN IVIAX TOTA_ l TOTAL

COLI FOR.1\/1 0

(CFU/IOOmL) 149.67 40.25 110 100 2~0 8~J8 ._ 2 E.Ca I i

(CFl .. J/ I OOn'1 L) ) 25.83 28.71 60 a 60 1:,5 .~--

1 SALl'v10N ELL/, -'

I (CFU/l OOlTl. L) ) 72.5 70.98 190 a 190 4:5 -----.---_

4 SHIC_T I~ L L/\.

(CFU/ lOOn, L) ) 40 46.9 100 0 ~OO 2(·0 --

5 ENTEROBACl~ 6414.0

(CFU/ I OOmL) ) 14600 5 17000 5000 22000 876CJO , 6 STAPI-J ILOCCC

USCCFU/I00IT1L) a a a a 0 a ._ 7 STREPTOCOCC

(CFU / I 00 OJ L) I a a a a 0 a

78

TABLE 4_3~8: IVIJLOGICAL RESULT OF BOREHOLE WATER SAMPLES (A-E), l~ROlVI L Ll0SS

Is SPECIE I!: RANG

N I MEAN SD E MIN rvr ~"'"X TOTAL

1 TOTAL COLIFC -----

(MPN/I00rn.L) 113055 207270 506791 209 507000 113C554 --

2 E.COLI 3172 9463 30090 10 30100 31717

3 SALJ'v10NE L LA 45788 66754 222000 0 222000 457876

4 SHIGELLA 25960 27689 62000 0 62000 25%00

5 ENTEROBPLCT'I 1892 1693 3966 224 4190 18912

6 STA PH I LC')C OC

(CFU/l OOrn L) 101 98 260 0 260 8C7 --

7 STKEPTOCOCC

(CF1U/IOOmL) 183 152 432 0 432 18:)2

TABLE4.3 _9: SAr'v'l PWELL WATER SAMPLES FROM LUGBE ACROSS

! S SPECIES ViE RANG ! N rn MEAN SD E MIN lVIAX T01AL

1 TOTAL COLIF(

(J'v1PN/l00rnIOO 224680 255945 477000 30000 507000 1123400

2 E_COLI .0 6244 13336 29890 210 30100 312.20

3 SAL1V10N ELLO 84660 77584 190700 31300 222000 423300 --

4 S I-I lG E L L.L'\.O 42944 24910 61380 620 62000 214120

5 ENTEROBAC-,O 3418 778 1600 2590 4190 17C~ --

6 STI-' DI-{ILCCOC.O

(CPU/l00p,L 146 96 260 0 260 730

7 srREPTOCOC.O

CCFU/I00n-.L 310 102 222 210 432 1552

79

4.4"?ET SEJTATISTICALANALYSISOF ~ATER

SAMPLES TABLE 4_4_1: P AIC ANALYSIS OF BOREHOLE WATEI~ SAlVlPLES (A­

E)LUGBE ACR

~A~_A~/1 E~'C~." i I

(Ll n ic.s ! n. iT} gl I. MEAN SO MIN MAX RANGE TOTAL

1 TEJ:V1PER./'\.. Tt. 30.22 1.31 4.7 27.3 32 332.4

2 P I--I 5.1 1.33 4.68 3.86 8_54- 56.13 I

.. I

3 CON I.::>U C'l'I '-.) 253.18 84.~ ~ 251 95 34-6 2785

4 RES 1 S~rlv-} 1" 5.64 2.6.) 7.52 2.98 10_5 62.02

5 DISSOL'vED 7.03 0.83 3.06 5.34 8_4- 77.28

6 S'/\'LINI~rY 0.01 0.01 0.03 0 0_03 0.16

7 TDS 125.68 40.69 122.5 46 168_5 1382.5

8 TURBIDI l~""l- 2.18 l.l 3.6 0.53 4_13 23.98

9 l~LUOR.IDE 2.47 2.25 4.7 0.45 5_15 27.14

10 l'-JITRA TE 12.54 10.49 29.94 0.06 30 125.36 ;

11 NITR.ITE 0.46 0.46 1.09 0.01 1 _ I 5.03

12 CYANIDE 0 0 0 0 0 0

13 SULPI--IA 1 E 16.75 24.38 83.4 1.5 84_9 184.3

14 S U L P I-I I i~ E 0.05 0.09 0.3 0.01 0_31 0.53

15 P" 0 S P I-i p~ "'r 0.08 0.13 0.39 0.01 0_4- 0.9

16 IR.ON 0.14 0.07 0.25 0.05 0_3 1.5 :

17 COPPER. 0.08 0.14 0.5 0 0_5 0.9 I

18 FREE C1 I L~C 0.78 2.4 7.96 0.04 8 8.55 -----_

0 0.01 0 ._ -.--.----~----,

19 NIC1<.EL 0 0.0 I 0.01

20 TOTAL I-I /~ 185.21 126 359.52 68.48 428 2037.28 I 21 C.!'''\. LC~ I U wi 116.75 72.54 188.32 51.36 239.68 1284.24

22 l'vlAGNESIl.. 68.48 56.78 171.2 17.12 188.32 753.28 !

23 IVlANGANE 0.46 0.24 0.73 0.25 0_98 5.02 i I

24 CHLOR...IDi= 14.03 17.56 I 56 1 57 154.32 I i

25 COD 3.5 1.81 5.6 0.8 6_4- 38.55

~ CADI'vlIUM 0.01 0.01 0.03 0 0_03 0.14

27 ALU rvr IN IL 0.08 0.13 0.39 0.01 0_4- 0.9

~ BOD 6.05 2.49 8.19 2.81 1 1 66.6

~ LEAD 0.03 0.04 0.12 0 0_13 0.33

30 ./' ..... R.SENIC 0 0 0 0 0 0 I

80

TABLE .:1.~.c~.~:~ ~ :3 /-',J- 5) STATIST][CAJ__, ANALYSIS, OF BOP P,";-fLOT___, 1U, WATER II~ FED)USINGAREA

.. - SIN PARAI'VIETEI

(units in mg/i.) MEAN SD MIN MAX RANGE TOTAL

1 TET'vlPERATU 29.16 1.05 2.5 27.3 29.8 145,8 .-

2 PH 4.2 0.29 0.73 3.86 4-.59 21,1)2 .-

3 OONDUCTIV 322.2 20.75 52 294 34-6 16 .. 1

4 RESISTIVITY' 3.7 1.07 2.52 2.98 5.5 18.:)1

5 DISSOLVED 7.59 0.59 1.54 6.86 8.4- 37.~'4 .-

6 SALINITY 0.01 0.01 0.03 0 0.03 0.()7

, 7 TDS 159.3 10.73 26.5 142 168.5 796.5

8 TUr.zBIDITY ~ 2.06 0.92 2.23 0.95 3.18 10.::8

r 9 FLUORIDE 1.43 2.02 4.59 0.45 5.04- 7.:.5

.- 10 NITRATE 13.39 15.25 29.94 0.06 30 66,S5

.-. .- II N1TRI~rE 0.46 0.5 1 0.01 1.01 2.:-,2

.- 12 CYANIDE 0 0 0 0 0 0

-- 13 SULPHA~rE 23.32 35.43 82.4 2.5 84-.9 llE.6

14 SLJLPHITE 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.05 0 ... 5 .-

15 PHOSPHATE 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.01 0.08 O. _8 .-

16 IRON 0.15 0.05 0.11 0.1 0.21 O. :3 .-

17 COPPER 0.12 0.21 0.5 0 0.5 0.,j2 ~ .-

18 FREE CI-ILO 1.64 3.56 7.96 0.04 8 8, .8

, 19 NICKEL 0 0 0 0 0 0 .-

20 rC'TAL !-IAR 239.68 165.54 325.28 102.72 4-28 1192.4 .-

21 CALCIU1'vi 140.38 92.51 188.32 51.36 239.68 701.!J2 .-

22 IVlA.GNESIU 99.3 74.03 154.08 34.24 188.32 496.,~8 --_._--

23 l'V1ANGANE~ 0.56 0.29 0.72 0.26 0.98 2.,;1 -

! 24 CHLORIDE 8.12 13.93 31.9 1 32.9 40.;;2 .-

2S COD 2.36 1.53 3.8 0.8 4-.6 12.8 .-

26 CAI'J:'v1IUl'/l 0.02 0.01 0.03 0 0.03 O. )8 --

27 ALUr-VlINIUJ 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.01 0.08 0.';'8 .-

28 BOD 6.37 3.34 8.19 2.81 11 31 .. ;3 .-

29 LEAD 0.05 0.06 0.12 0 0.13 0 .. ~6 .-

30 ARSENIC 0 0 0 0 0 0

81

TABL~~,'<;·_"-'L..3: ~ \1PLES (6-10) FROM FEDERAL HOUSING AREA

I SIN PARArvIET FME

I SO I (u n it:s in STD MAX TOTAL rug J\1EAN RANGE rvr r r-;

i I TE1VfPERf"., 1 <40 27.38 I 0.33 0,7 27 27.7 136.9 I

2 PH 6.5-8.5 7.95 0.14 0.36 7.7 8.06 39.74

3 CONDUC 1 I 1000 982.72 693.12 1554.4 140.6 1695 4913.6

4 RESISTIVIT NS 2.99 3.78 8.75 0.95 9.7 14.93

5 DISSOLVEr:: 7.5 6.25 1.23 3.03 4.7 7.73 31.25

6 SALINiTY 0.1 0.7 I 0.25 i 0,6 0.3 0.9 3.5

7 TDS 2000 489.4 345.99 776.5 70.5 847 2447

8 TURBIDITY 5 5.92 1.41 3.81 4. 1 1 7.92 29.61

9 I~LUORIDE 1.5 0.91 0.54 1.22 0.53 1.75 4.54

10 1'-J IT R_,r-'\.. T E 20 3.6 1.59 3.57 1.89 5.46 17.98

~'T I t P: I.~_'l~ <I 0.85 0.11 0.29 0.67 0.96 4.26 I <1 0.01 0.01 0.03 0 0.03 0.07 12 eY"q i,-! 1 LJ ._:

13 SULPI-IA ~ 500 28.69 11.53 30.59 15.8 46.39 143.44 .•. _'._1

14 SULPJ-Ili E <1 0.38 0.24 0.54 0.19 0.73 1.91 -I -_--._

15 PHOSPI--IATL: 5 4.05 ·f

0.98 2.44 3.21 5.65 20.27

16 IRON 1.5 0.92 0.47 1.18 0.13 1.31 4.58

17 COPPER <1 0.3 0.22 0.45 0.05 0.5 1.51

18 FREE CI-fLOl 0.2 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.25

19 NICKEL <1 O.O! 0.01 0.03 0 0.03 0.07

20 TOTAL I-IAR 200 205.44 96.09 256.8 85.6 342.4 1027.2

! 21 CALCIU1v1 150 ,

136.9 76.58 188.32 5 I .36 239.68 684.5 I

22 MAGNESIUl'-. 50 68.48 27.07 68.48 34-.24- 102.72 342.4

23 MANGAN ES 0.2 0.95 0.21 0.53 0.68 1.21 4.75

24 CHLORID.c.. 250 31.61 8.01 19.27 22.23 41.5 158.06

25 COD 30-GW,80-

SW 26.73 5.72 14.4 19 33.4 133.65 ; 26 Cf·~\.. C> l'vr : i_] t·v~ <1 0.57 0.32 0.86 0.09 0.94 2.87

27 ALUTVIINIUIV1 <1 0.96 0.17 0.44 0.76 1.2 4.78

28 BOD 7.5-

GW,30-SW 13.43 I 1.82 4.75 1 1.25 16 67.42 i -+ 29 LbAD <1 0.71 I 0.25 0.58 0.32 0.9 3.57 i 30 ARSENIC <I 0.01 0.01 0.02 0 0.02 0.05

82

TABLE 4.4&6,:; 3..JLOGICALANALYSISOFUNDERGROUND WATER SAMPLE XN FE~OUSING.

S SPEClTES "ME N HD MEAN SO RANGE MIN lVIAX TOTAL 1 Total Co 1 i Torn. 400 924180 907641

(CFU/} OOniL) 0 4 22982000 18000 23000000 9241ilOOO 2 E.Coli (CPU/l CO.O 33091 20135 55200 200 55400 330-'~ 3 SA L rvt ON ELL"O.O

(CFU/lOOlnL) 4461 8693 28900 0 28900 44(10 4 SHIGELLA 0.0

(CPU/100rnL) 13244 14688 33800 0 33800 132M2 5 ENTEROBAC' 0.0

--

(CFU/ I OOnl L) 3035 2489 6700 0 6700 30~50 6 ST API-II LOCC 0.0

--

(CFU/lOOlnL) 829 907 2110 0 2110 82)8 -- 7 Sl REPTOCOC 0.0

I (CFU/100niL) 104 132 353 0 353 1038 i

TABLE 4_4 • .5: B {~::MPLES (1- 5) FOrvl FEDERAL HOUSING

i S RANG I I N SPECIES vlE STO MEAN SO E MIN lVlAX TO'l'AL

1 Total Co l i 101'n- 400 1560360 2298200 2300000 780' 800

(CFU/lOOrnL) 0 9173858 0 18000 0 0

2 E.Coli (CFU/l 0.0 44160 12936 33000 22400 55400 220800

3 SAL1'v10NELl 0.0

(CFU/1 OOm L) 6430 12630 28900 0 28900 3:: 150

SI-IIGELLA 0.0 ---

4

(CFU/} OOlnL) 1568 2878 6700 0 6700 -1842

5 EN~lEROI3r-'\._C 0.0

(CFU/1 OOIT1L~ 2324 1850 4210 0 4210 1 i620

6 S'rAPHILOC4 0.0

(CFU/100mL: 22 30 63 0 63 108

7 STREP'TOCC 0.0

(CFU/l OOi11 t • 17 38 86 0 86 86 --_

83

TABLE 4·.4.6: vr-r E LL(6 ·10) FROM FEDERAL HOUSING

I S N SPEe1r ES !:'STD MEAN SD RANGE MIN IVIAX TOTAL

1 Total ColiYodOO --

288000 270000 300000 144()00

( C _~ ~ l__j I j 0 0 1 1'. 1 0 I 130384 300000 I 0 0 00 I

--~- 2 E.Coli (CFU/1).O 22022 20941 i 41700 200 41900 110110

3 SALI'v10N ELJ.O

(CFU/l00rnl 2492 900 2330 1670 4000 12460

4 SHIGELLA)'o

(CFU/I00rn] 24920 11675 29000 4800 33800 124600

5 ENTEROBACU.O

(CFU/l OOrn 1 3746 3041 6700 0 6700 18730

6 STAPHILOCCCO.O

(C F U I 1 00 ITl : 1636 469 1080 1030 2110 8130

7 STREPTOCOO.O

(CFU/l COn, 190 137 353 0 353 952

84

TABLE 4.4.7: I30]SAMPLES (A -E) FROM LUGBE ACROSS PAIRAIVl Ei~ER

(uni ts 1."1 H-:.g/I) MEAN SD MIN MAX RAN TOTAL

TErv1PERATUR 31.1 0.79 1.9 30.1 '::>2 155.5

2 PH S.31 0.56 : 1.43 4.84 6.27 26.57 I

3 215.8 60.29 147 133 280 [079 I

4 6.6 2.09 4.66 4.48 9.14 33.0 [ I 5 D[SS 0 LV r=:_ i:::> 6.42 0.72 1.64 5.34 6.98 32.09

6 SALIN1TY (0 O.O[ 0.0 [ 0.01 0.01 C.02 0.07 , /

7 TDS 108 25. [6 63.5 71.5 135 540

8 TURBIDITY (l-..J 1.9 I 1.06 2.91 0.53 3.44 9.57

9 FLUORIDE 3.9 1.91 4.65 0.5 5. 15 19.49

10 NITRATE 11.68 3.63 9.71 7.29 17 58.4 [

NITRITE 0.32 0.38 0.92 0.0 I 0.93 1.61

12 CYANIDE 0 0 0 0 0 0 --- -

13 SULPI-IATE 13.1 10.35 22.1 1.5 23.6 65.5

14 SULP1--I liE 0.08 0.13 0.3 0.0 I 0.31 0.38

15 PHOSPI--IA ~rE 0.1 0.17 0.39 O.O[ 0.4 0.48

16 IRON 0.13 0.1 0.25 0.05 0.3 0.67

COPPER 0.05 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.07 0.23

FR.EE CH!~ORJl'~ 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.09 0.31

19 NICJ<r:::'L 0 a 0 a 0 0

20 TOT/\.. L H /\. P, I:::;N 130.11 69.12 136.96 68.48 205.44 650.56

2[ CALC-=: I U l',-/'{ 92.5 56.22 [02.72 51.36 154.08 462.48

22 MAGN ~S I U I'v1 37.66 14.32 34.24 17.12 5 I .36 I 88.32

0.38 0.18 0.45 0.25 0.7 1.88

LORIDE 21.74 20.95 50 7 57 108.7

4.07 1.31 3.2 2.8 6 20.35

26 CAD l'v1 I U I'v1 0.01 0.0: 0.02 a 0.02 0.06

ALU l'v1 IN I U l'v1 0.1 0.17 0.39 0.01 0.4 0.48

BOD 5.25 1.42 3.71 3 6.7 I 26.27

LEAL) 0.01 0.01 0.03 a 0.03 0.06

ARSEN r c: 0 0 a 0 0 0

85

TABLE 4.4 _ 8: 'V ELL ~.(i' - J) FROM LUGBE AS CROSS

SIN PAr ..••... AIVlETERS FME

(units in rn gil) STD MEAN I SD

27.38 0.33 0.7 27 27.7

RANGE MIN lVlAX TOTAL

TEM PEI~A-CU R I <40 136.9

Ph 6.5-8.5 2 7.95 0.14 0.36 7.7 8.06 39.74

4913.6 3 CONDUCTIVrr 1000 982.72 693.12 1554.4 140.6 1695

4 RESISTIVITY (~ NS 2.99 3.78 8.75 0.95 9.7 14.93

5 DISS C~ LV E IJ CY:> 7.5 6.25 1.23 3.03 4.7 7.73 '---:--t-".-.,--,--- -------- ----- c--~--~--;:-::;---I------::;---;:--=-t---::--::---I--=~~---l------:::--::--+----::--:--I 6 SALIN ITY C> 0.1 0.7 0.25 0.6 0.3 0.9 3.5

TDS 2000 ,189.4 345.99 776.5 70.5 847

5.92 1.41 3.81 4.1 I 8 TUR BID I T"/ (N' 5 7,92

31.25

2447

29.61

9 FLUORI DE 1.5 0.91 0.54 1.22 0.53 1 .75 4.54

10 NITRATE 20 3.6 1.59 3.57 1 .89 5.46

11 NITRITE <1 0.85 0.11 0.29 0.67 0.96

12 CYANIDE <I 0.0 I 0.0 I 0.03 0 0.03

13 SULPI-I ATE 500 28.69 11.53 30.59 1 5.8 46.39

17.98

4.26

0.07

143.44

14 SULPl-IITE <1 0.38 0.24 0.54 O. 1 9 0.73 1.91

15 PHDSPI-IA TE 5 4.05 0.98 2.44 3.21 5.65 20.27

16 IRON 1.5 0.92 0.47 1.18 O. 13 I .3 I 4.58

17 CO.PP ER <1 0.3 0.22 0.45 0.05 0.5 1.51

18 FREE CI-I LORI! 0.2

19 NICI<EL <1

20 TOTAL HARL:n 200

0.05 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.07

0.0 I 0.0 I 0.03 0 0.03

0.25

0.07

1027.2

684.5

342.4

239.68

I 02.72

4.75

342.4

24 CHLORIDE 250 31.61 8.01 19.27 22.23 41.5 158.06

205.44 96.09 256.8 8 5.6 ~-+-_-.---------------~----~---_-+----~-- 21 CALCIUM 150 136.9 76.58 188.32 51.36

22 MAGNESIl_JIVl 50 68.48 27.07 68.48 34.24-

23 MANGANESE 0.2 0.95 0.21 0.53 0.68 1.21

25 COD 0·OW,80-

:W 26.73 5.72 14.4 19 33.4

0.57 0.32 CA 0 fv1 1 U 1\.-1: <1

0.76

133.65

0.86 0.94

4.78 0.44

4.75 I 1.25

0.09 2.87

27 ALUfv1INIUfv1 <1 0.96

13.48

0.17

1.82

1.2

16 67.42 28 BOD .5-

:;W,30-SW

29 LEAD <1

30 AR.SENIC <I

0.71

0.01

86

0.25

0.01

0.58 0.32

0.02 o 0.02

0.9 3.57

0.05

TABLE 4_4_9: ~~_"'\.._iJOGICAL ANALYSIS OF UNDERGROUND VV ATER

SAMPLES S SPECIE STO RANG

N MEAN SO E MrN IVIAX TOTAL

1 TOTAL , COLI FO RJ'vl ) I

I (CFU/IOOrnL) 141.1 35.1

I 110 210 1411 , 100

2 E.Col i

I (CFUI I 00 m L) ) 29.5 32.4 80 0 80 295 ! ------~

3 SALI\/IONELLA

(CFU/l DO III L) I 75.5 61.8 190 0 190 755 --~--

4 SHI(T E i. L/'.

(CFUI I OOrn L) I 46 43 100 0 100 460

5 ENTEROBACTE

CFU/l OOrn L) I 15260 6280.3 20000 5000 25000 I 52600

6 STAPHILOCCO(

S(CFUI j OOr11 L) 0 0 0 0 0 0 -

7 STRI::::,_PT-C;COCC

I I (CFU/ I OOrn L) 0 0 0 0 0 0 --

TABLE 4.5: B 0 R E H CES (1-5) FROM FEDERAL HOUSING BOREHO LE

SN SPECiE ;TD MEAN SD RANGE MIN IVIAX TOTAL TOTAL

COL I PO RJ'v1 (CFU / 1 00 i 11 :_~) 149.67 40.25 110 100 210 89g

--- 2 E.Coli

(CFU/ 100111 L) 25.83 28.71 60 0 60 155 3 SAL l'v1 ON ELLA

(CFU/ 10011. L) 72.5 70.98 190 0 190 43~) 4 SHIGELLA

(CFU / 1 00 1).l L) 40 46.9 100 0 100 24D 5 ENTEROBACT[

6414.0 (CFU/l OOn. L) 14600 5 17000 5000 22000 87600

6 STAPHILOCCO'

US(CFU/1 001T1 L) 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 STREPTOCOCC

(CFU/l 00111 L) 0 0 0 0 0 0

87

-----------------

TABLE LL 5 _::i...: B 02. 2PLES (A - E) FROM LUGBE ACROSS

STD I --

SN SPECIE RANG

MEAN SD E MIN IViAX TOTAL - --

I TOTAL

I CO LI FO Rl"'''}

(CIC,'U/ 1 OOiT1I~) 0 128.25 I 24.88 55 110 165 5 3

2 E.Coli

(CFU/l 001'-1 L) 0 35 41.23 80 0 80 lLO

3 SAL1'v10N ELL.!' --

(CFU/IOOlnL) ) 80 I 54.77 120 0 120 3:;0 i ~--- --

4 SHIG EL I~A_ !

(CFL]ll 00 'I, L) ) -=J 41.23 100 0 100 2=0 -------

5 EWi ;~ ROB /'I._ (__~ - I

(CFL]ll OOn'1 L) ) 16250 6898.07 16000 9000 25000 650(0 --

6 STA PI-I I I ~OCC(__

US(CFUI 10011, U 0 0 0 0 0 0

7 STREPTOCOC<

(CF U I I 00 In L) ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 --

TABLE 4.5 _ 2.: ....•. /V E LL F- J) FROM LUGBE ACROSS

TOTAL COLfFO

(IVI PNI I OO1"n LO ~~----~=-~~~=---~--~------~-----+------+-----~--_----------~ 2 B_COl,1 6244 f---t---.,------ --- - ---- -----------+---

3 SA I .J r-,-r 01'-: '=: 1 . I J) 84660 I

f---:-+----=---=----=-::=-=----:------~---+__---__l___-----; ------1-----.1------------1

f--4-t- __ S 1-1 I GEL L /_~ __ l __ 1-_4_2_9_44---+_2_49_1_0_1 __ 6_1_3_8_0_1-- __ 62_0_J __ 6_2_O_~_O ~_14 ~=- 778 1600 2590 4 I 90 17090

S N

507000

SPEC! ES fE RANG

222000

SD E MIN IVIAX D MEAN

224680 255945 477000 30000

210 30100 13336 29890

77584 190700 31300

5 ENTEROT~/"CT) 3418

432

-------------------f-------I----I--------I----------l-------------__+__ STAPI-I r LC':':>COCO

(CFU/1 OOITi L) 146 96 260 o 260

7 STREPTOCOC()

(CFU/I00rnL) 210 310 102 222

88

TOT/.L

730

4.6 IN!l::{'E J~~ ~ i~T~<\ TISTICS: T - TEST ANALYSIS

)Compa rison b~t and dry seasons

Table 4.6. 1. : -1.-:.eofphysical and chemical parameters bet'vveen dry

and we t season ehole water samples

30

DRY SEASON WETSEASOlV T-T.l~ST AfvA

Mean 28.56633333 56.07466667 Variance 3784.594948 25221.91056 Obser-v ert i cr.r.i ss 30 Pooled ~arianc 14503.25275 Hypothes ize d 1'. Differee rr c e Df

o 58 '----- ----------- ------ ---If---------·-------------·------·------·--~

t Stat -0.884661648 ---------f---

P(T<~!) 012~-t_3_-i_-r_O._l_8_99_9_5_9_6_7_f--------------- tCritical OT1e-ta l.671552762 -----~~~~~--I-----------~ P(T<=t) tvvo---'caj 0.379991933 ---------+------~--------~ t Critical tvvo-t:21 2.001717484

In terJ ofT-test result

Comparison of ical and chemical parameters between dry- and wet

seasons sl-"l(Y\.A/ede mean value of the parameters for vvet season,

56.07466667 is Em that of dry season 28.56633333.This could be as a

result 0 f vvasl-"l .ie industrial, household and agricultural chemicals

dischargg e-cl OIl. t.Irunent by rainfall into the underground aqui fers P­

value = 0 _ 3 8 is gn level of significant 0.05, thus, the null llypothesis is

acceptecl all d tIl cion reached is that; there is no signi fiCall_L difference

between dry allo m.

Table 4~.6.2: 'li '-it of physical and chemical parameters be~veen dry

and wet: seaSOTl j water samples

T-TEST AATALY, DRY SEASON WETSEASOAT Mean 30.435 53.82166667 Variance 3473.999998 23642.80033

89

Obser v es t i o-~ s 30~ 30 .c: ..... L Jl .; .!_...._ ---~---. -

Pooled V 2~1-'] cL11C 13558.40016 --

Hypotl i e size d 1:'- Difference 0 Df 58 t Stat I -0.777874852 P(T<=t) one-ta] 0.219902223 t Critical one-t2 1.671552762 P(T<=t) tvv-o-ta: 0.439804445 t Critical tvvo-t::: 2.001717484

tation of result

The mean val L1 ephysiochernical parameters is lower (30.435) in well

water SalT1.1Jles ry season when compared to the vvet season va.ue

(53.822 ~) "T'l» i s rrributed to little or no rain water to cause ir1.fi 1 trations of

chemicals cll~cI c.he underground waters. Thus, well w-ater is cleaner in

during d ry .s c:::::::::o: s -=-= wet. P- value = 0.44 is greater than level o:f" S1 gnificint

= 0.05, tb.e n 1..111 is is accepted and the conclusion reac-In e-cl is that; there

is no sigr1.ifi CaT"l.t e between dry and wet season.

Table 4 a 6 .. 3: T-lt of bacteriological analysis betwee n dry a nd wet season;

WET DRY T-TEST A.l,7AL SEASON SEASON Mean 677622.5 41929.65

---- Variance 6.07687E+ 12 10353677839 Obser-v es.t i crm rs 14 14 Poolecl Varianc 3.04361E+ 12 Hypotl"lesized 0 Differ c.r i C C 0

-_---------_- ---_.

Df 26 t Stat 0.964054714 P(T<=t) o.n.e--ta 0.17195007 t Critical one--tc:: 1.70561792 P(T<=i) t:-vvo-t-: 0.34390014 t Critical t vv- G -- 1.. c I 2.055529439

90

I £~ 1:: ~ r I of T -test result val:,_~<::::: cial contamination of underground water IS higher in

wet season (6776n in dry season (41920.65) the rcaso r i cCH . .i l cl be that

some of 1:J'"1e orga_rld not easily multiply and be transported in dry harsh

conditions Tlj_ost amain inert until wet season.

p_ value = 0.34· i than level of significant = 0.05, the r11. ... 1.11 hypothesis is

acceptecl and tl'_e 111 reached is that; there is no significa.nt di fference in

bacteriological ad:ween dry and wet season.

(2) COM-P AR._IS0 I"'EN FEDERAL HOUSE AND LUGBE ACROSS

Table 4.6.4: T-1::.t of physical and chemical parame-ters b,etwe~n

federal I""lO~ISi fig id Lugbe across (slum area)

I T-TEST A~4 L.J· \Mean - - - -

J LUGBE ACROSS FH LUGS E ~ 43 .618L_t4 __ 4_44_, __ -3 ~. 077 66 § 67_

Variance 17829.32412 9713.237351 ---_-~---+---------- __ . I Observ8.tic)l"1._~_- 90 90 I Poolc_d_V '0_1._-i_c_,-1_'_C (; 1-----137-71- .2807 4 ----=---==~ Hypotbesizccl 1"'/ \ Differen.ce 0 I---------------I-----~---~_- j---------------

Df 178 _____ ----+-~--.-------------l---.------- 0.259566917 --------_._-_ .. _--_._-----------_. 0.397748912 I -'t---~--:~-~f~~mH -- =------

:Iatioll of result

The meaT!.. -val l...l.(1hysico-chemical analysis comparison bet.ween federal

housing ariel SlLl!howed that bothareas are polluted vvith I...JLl.gbe across

having bigiJ.Cl- if 43.61844444 while federal housirlg area has

39.07788887 s that indiscriminate dumping of cll.er1.""1.ical wastes,

increased l"lUTrlclvestock population that generates 11.igh_ househOold

wastes discharg,re, P - value = 0.79 is greater than level of significant

91

= 0.05, the llLlll is is accepted and the conclusion reached is that; tbere

is no significanlce in physical/chemical parameters between Lugbe

across and F edeng Lugbe.

Table L'1,~·S_.::_:.·:: "--:-c~-It of bacteriological analysis sample belt-ween federal

hOI IJI: sin and Lu be across

I T- TEST AJVA" FH LUGBE LUGBE ACROSS

, Mean 886095.9524 18896.15476 Variance 1.17641E+ 13 Obsen7ations 21 I Pooled V arial--:tc~ 5.88335E+ 12 Hypothesized Iv LPiffererlce 0 I Dfs 40

2621985279 21

t Stat 1.158514435 P(T<=t) one-tai] 0.126762147 tCritical ol!.e-tai 1.683851013 IP(T<=~) ~~o-~2~ __ 4- 0_.2_5_3_5_2_4.2_9_d_,~ ~ ; t Critical 1_'v-'VC)-Lct i 2.02107539

--~--------------~----------------~

-:- T;11t'on of result

It is expected t.li aies of bacterial contaminants in Lugbe sl U1-:rl should be

higher, lo t.r t it t:urne less (18896.15476) than that of the federal housing

area (886095.95:: The high value perhaps may be that 1-:rlOre water

vendors patroniZ~10using boreholes than in slum area, also~ tIle federal

housing area terr;re slopy while the slum area is relat i -vely flat. Thus,

undergro t.z.ri ci f1ov,arry contaminants from distant areas to the federal

housing area dLle 1. P - value = 0.25 is greater than level of significant

= 0.05, the ri t.r Ll h is accepted and the conclusion reached is that; there

is no sigri ~ Fi C::C1:r~ ~~ c; in the bacteriological analysis betweee m L ugbe acrcss

and Federa} I-Iou S~.

92

(3)CO}'\/J[P A_R:._ ?L TWEEN BOREHOLE AND WELL WATER SAIVIPLES

Table 4_6_6:: r-:=C-dt of physical and chemical parameters between well wa -tee r a ~1!. d~ water samples

T T~' .~~ f. "~I I FVELL ;F ATER BOREHOLE - _I~~, .', _ __ .l '/

Mean 48.82441667 i 36.24408333 i ------ ---

I Variar r c-ee 19742.92395 9649.433883 ~ Observ o.r 10'" s 120 120 : C~L__ __,.__It",-_

-----

Pooled Variarlc 14696.17892 Hypothesized ]'

Differen c e 0 Df 238 t Stat 0.803832495

; P(T<=t) one-taj 0.211147923 t Critical one-ta 1.651281164 P(T<=1:) Tvvo-lt:z 0.422295845 t Critical tWO-t2 1.96998153

----

In tc n of result

The mean val ueic-chemical analysis of well water(48 _ 82441667) is

higher -t1J a rJ -;~_,) e borehole water samples(36.2440833 3):> th e different

could be a t.t r i b:__l ullow nature of the wells, most of the V'\7ells are open

without cover 8Pl1ts from the environment and house Ia.co Lcl SOL:rrces can

easily get: in_to t:bJalue = 0.42 is greater than level of sigI1i fi cant = 0.05,

the null hypotl'"le epted and the conclusion reached is that; there is no

significant di t-telthe physical and chemical parameters between well

water and urlciergter sample.

93

Ta ble 4-.6. 7: T -tIlt of bacteriological analysis betwe e n "~ty~ e I I and bo re h <:) I e ")-~ les

-water

WELL-WATER BOREHOL_E Mean 560979.5089 184231 .9524

I Variance 8.69124E+ 12 3.90064E+1 1 Observations 28 21 Pooled VariaTlc 5.15882E+ 12 Hypothesized r, Differe:nce o Df 47

I t Stat 0.57460018 0.284151014 1.677926722 0.568302028

t Critical tvvo-ta 2.011740514

In t:E:)n of result

The mean val ue cteriological analysis in well samples (560979 _ 5089) is

greater than tl-")e borehole samples (184231.9524), it shovvs that well

samples harbour .iogenic bacteria than boreholes' and this could be as a

result ot opeT1 l<eFllowness of most wells which allow infiltrations from

nearby d t.r rra psi te s: -away pits.

P - value = 0 - 57 than level of significant = 0.05, the nL.III l-"lypothesis is

accepted 8_l-:l d 1::1-:; e ill reached is that; there is no significsa.m t di fference in

the bacteriolo::::_ica, between well water and borehole water sarrLples.

94

4.7 Di scuss i <::) nnclusion

The questionnc analysis indicated that people inhabit;ng the study areas ex per i e r. ( water stress mostly in dry season, th ey spend more money p u rc h a sr from vendors and borehole owners fa r d ri riking and cookin gas t h eto wells which are still regenerating vva te r for house washings and fnany people embark on water econo my un like in wet season "\ivhen -L!-gh amount of rainfall unless for some households that lack \flla-tel- s-tor3iners. The increase in digging of wells and drilling of boreho l e s i ~--, '-- ~cause of government's inability to p rov ide pipe borne water fa!- L he gJman and livestock population .This d eve lop ment leads to water sea rc:ress as the population exerts demand pressure on the scarce reso u rc~jdresses hypothesis ii, and research q u esti 0 ns 1 and 2 of the stu dy

High co n ce nt raathogenic organisms from the findings of th is stud" is higher in vvet md higher in weI! samples .this p rovi des answer to research q uest:tingthe null hypothesis i, accepting hypothesis ii.

From ~c here s u lstudv, it could be inferred that there iss i g n ifi cant inter­ seasonal 'varicthe physico-chemical and microbial parameters of boreh 0 j e and \.X in the study area as stated in researc h pro b I em 2.

Thoug h III any I result values fall below or within per m iss i ble range, other pa ra:r-r-; eJ(; fall within permissible limits. Values of sa m pies in dry seaso n 'Ie! r i ,::::.:in wet season, with higher values(3.2 2 -S ~48) recorced in well san-,plHty value increases in dry season(S_2 12,05 Ntu) particu I a rly in ales

Manga n ese a trace amounts in concentrations a bit higher than permissible vC)th borehole and wef samples both seasons with well samp I e s po sin /alues.

Nitrate va i u e .low the permissible value except fa r tvvo samples indica tin g 1: h a -iy areas apart from the area of the tvvo sa rn pies are of no serious ag activities. Magnesium is in concentration little higher

95

above i: he d i i cit in borehole samples and was obv i a U s 0 nly in wet sea so n - Ca Ie f u :; are high in borehole samples during dry season, chis may bed u e tel rnponents of certain underlying rocks _

Total hard n e S'::5 high in some Federai housing bore hoi e and v/ell samples (>200)asol1,buthighervalueswererecorded in vvellsamples during dry seas

4.7.1 Correia-thestudy

The in c re as e drilling of water borehole and digging of vve (I in Lugbe has been d isco'this study to be as a result of population explosion in that are=, '\/\.r:--:c~~rted intense pressure on the scarce vvat:er- resources leading t::c:' '-,-; '-:;" .excavatlons to satisfy the high quest fa r' V\/ater, and in return +: his 2 c s pave vvay for contamination an d dim i n ishing of undergro un d 'vvurces. This finding is in correlation with th e d iscoveries of Yaku b u (20 :l2Je(2014); Idu(2015)

The ris ks of v-ated diseases, such as cholera, typ h 0 l ci , d vsenterv, diarrho e a... ill a i zvphoid fever have ~een inferred fro III the fi ndings of this stu d y to red by some indicator pathogenic 0 rga n is III S such as Shigellza , EscheJi, Entero-bacter, Streptoccoci, Staphyloccocus, ..nd Vibrio c hoi e r d .f the pollution menace is not arreste d III a y lead to severe e pi de rI. ions in the area. This is in agreement vv it h the findi 19S of Sam end ra e1= .lshaya(2009)

Poor san ita L! 0 mg from indiscriminate discharge of household, industr i a j F h :_=::;=;; ; ;:1stes as we!! as abattoir wastes es p e cia II y in some unauth cs r i s-e ci .s ieen discovered by this stud)! to pose severe adverse effects 0 n our ent, in fact a major contributing facto r 1::0 po Ilutior. of boreho l e and vv in the study area. Presence of heavy m eta I s such as traces of m a II g2ected in some water samples analysed co u I d be as a result cs f seepaJ refuse dumpsite. The high values of turbidity, ?H, calcium and 11"'1 a discovered from this study especially in vvet season calls fo r the a ttf borehole managers This findings co r: re I a te that of Yakubu (2 013)... J'\..] Chup (2012); Oko et.al( 2014);Adeko I a et _ a I (2015;

SU iV] rv1.tlNCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION (5)

5.1 SIU iV1 NiAF

The m a j n pur r:his research following the intermitte n 't; b re akouts of water b 0 j- Ii e ddysentery, typhoid fever, cholera m a I a ria fever end others in Lugb\buja was to assess borehole and vv ee l I \/Vater qua.itv which serve as ater sources in that area to evaluate th e possibility of any ad ve rs e he <cations on the consumers

The research ':Iucted by collecting data using both primary and second a ry sou re· structured questionnaire distributed ra II d a r'rilv to 100 person s res i d ce study area was used. Water sam pies wv e: re drawn randorr- i y -fro rrl s and well available in the area for la bo ra to ry analvsis, both aes-the-tic: .. and microbiological parameters and indicators \NNe

investiga-ted .. a neas -Lugbe federal housing and lugbe across(slum) were st; u die d

Five bo re hoi e S CNell from each study location were sam pie d for both dry and vv ca t se~king it a total of forty (40) samples a na lysed in the

From the q uestiresponders responses, it could be ded uced that abcut 95% of the in r are facing serious problem of wate r s ca rcity and insecurity in Lu g:hough there seemed to be proliferati a II of vvells and borehol es .. co u p Ihe commercialization of water by som e bo re hole and well ow n e rs at h of twenty naira per twenty litres co n ta ill e r of water. This co n 1: rib;_' L '2 ny households being unable to con sum e a dequs te amount of '--"J a -te rnight require. Some households that are n at used to drinking h 0;:--:2 '-~ .::::; 1 and since there was no government p rov i s ion of pi oe born wa t: e r j n -t h nbarked on patronising water vendo rs fo r p ackagad water.

From th e c he IT! i cicrobiological parametric analysis, it co u i d be deduce that the co II ce n -d chemical in underground water sa rn pie din l.ugoe are very i OV'J a ;:ible and my not provoke any ha za rd unless on

97

accumula-tior--- e nitrate detected in some samples vvhich may be e s a result a g i- i c U ;-;: \__i,'ies going on in that particular axis.

From L he fi n d i lis study, three out of every house h c> I d vi sited were found to h a '.Ie orehole or dug well, Thus, it could be de d uced t.iat waterscarcity zuritv was due to peoples in ".:cessto portableands3fe water \.N hi c h h eople to excessive digging of well san d drilling of boreho f e sin )f water thereby leading to ove r-e x pi 0 i t ation of underg r c» un d 'VV urces.

The "vater soere readily polluted by wastes emanating from househ a J d .s , p r tvh-care centres, and open defecation inc! u ding several shallow latrinesak away pits seen around them and -from where seepage is be i i e'3in into the water sources.

The wa t ee r Lo;-res which often hit the area could be attributed to unsafe and po 1 i er consumed in the area as well as poor sa nitation. Evidence ~ s the rnicrobiologlcal analysis result of wate r sam pies where both bo re h o! e water showed some levels of co n ta min ation by pathoge n i c m i c r eis

From th e re s u J -t sal parametric and t- test analyses, it \IV as dis covered that ma n y bore I well water samples contain eleme n ts of chemical agents and lots )ial organisms. This could be an ind i ca -t ion of water pollution due to 31 formations and or human activities. Th us the nJII hypothe sis is a ceO.OS level of significance or 9S% confi den ce I eve!.

In view of the findings, it is imperative that the gave rnment envlronrrr e rrta ~ rE, sanitary inspectors and community I e ad e rs head together ins ':f n '2 it up measures that will curb down 't: he p r evailing water cr i s e s r. CY!::: c~be, Abuja but in all other vulnerable pa rt of Nigeri3.

98

5.3Re~comme

Nigeria n i n 1:: e g r eN Resources Management Corporatio n (I'J! \N RMC) may wi s h -'co P i-a ion to alarming water crises in Lugbe and at h er part; of Nige r i a by in crater production and availability thro ugh add itional waterinfrasLl-:uctwouldcreatelargersupply to meet up \/vith the

growing \IV a 1: e r c+icreased water supply infrastructure vv ill 2 I s a improve the soc iing of the increasing population as we II as re ducing the deg; re e of co eady generated for better access to 5 a fe and potable water can relievhesame total burden of water born e diseasesasdJ improve men 1:5 i iealth care.

The gov ee rn ni e nt::lp out designated points in any comrn unity that desire to have ccborehole and use fine against defaulte rs ~ Th is will drastica i Iy red u C~ at which borehole and well are drilled, th is \lVill hel» toavoid land tre incidentswhichoccursasaresultof excessiveland excavati on 5 _ ;h l scheckmate the 'Hasting of the underg ro ~ ,I n d vvater which su p p os e d .servoir for future use should any waLe r fa n'l i ne: attacks.

Water Res au rce 5)rs may also wish to regulate ground vv a t::e r depletion through u n reg 1..1 i of electric water as well as marketiza t ion of vvater by househc- i d s-, sin CEe reinforced inequalities in the agrari an stru cture. Inefficie nt use a iulness of water have been tagged to the lovv consciou s n e 5 s a bconomic value of water, thus, regula to rs m a V wish to introduce sen sit i rnpalgn and public education to enligh te nth e increasin g h u n"l a rion on the importance of changing th e vva y vve find and use b o-t h 5 U runderground water to ensure that su p p IV sta VS ahead of de ma n c

Nigerian leg i s I a 1:ommunity heads may wish to synergiz:e us i ng the strength of -t},:= r Lthrough imposition of stiff fines, at least twenty=fo Ll 1- d 2-1-:8 other punishments to stop the high rate at vvhich pollutants are f! u: the environment particularly the waLe r bod i es. Tr.2 Environrn en to I f\/i nt Board of each state may put in pia ce so m e specialise d h a z a rite drop off sites for proper disposal of h a rmfu I and special V\f '3 S L e s i i k care wastes

99

Apart fro m co r/arietv of investigations through pu bl i c co n s u Itation.J and co n S La n t e mtal sample analysis to monitor the qua I i1:y of water consurri e d by- p~ government should provide safe and p ota b Ie water for the gro\.,l\Ij n g, and also provide support for research vvo rk to enable re sea -'-c hp environmental investigations.

In sorn e Z 0""-; --::::: S cvhere water scarcity is intense, the gave rn m ent mav adopt the n e'vv for procuring usable water from used \IV ate r , sea water and s evv aploying waste water recycling, sewage p u rifi cation The recycled vva be reused to increase river flow, fight forest fires and for agr i cu fLU ra i

Nigeria n s nee d king water that meets health quality sta n d a rd 5 and aesthe t: icc h a r a 4 thus there is a calion the governme n t to provide s.ife and wh c> I esc> rTl El Lugbe and other satellite towns surra u n din g Abuja where 't; re in e n cioer of the populace inhabit. This will a Iso he I p to save the und e rg ro :_; ruirs from overexploitation

100

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, j

APPENDIX I

.. Department of Geography and

Environmental lVIarlagcll1ent

University of Abuj a" ~ igeria.

LETTER OF INTRODUCTION

I" .A.gul eTa inwe a post graduate student in the above" l~a1T1ed university

vvish La so bompliance in answering the questions arl tl~e water quality ara cl. conSL1.J your area. I promise that every, inforl~~ation whatsoever disclos~d viidentially treated.

Th.a:.nl<:: y, c> u

1

APPENDIX II

?UESTlE ON UNDERGROUND WATER ASSEESSMENT , .

1.~a1~e - - q - •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Sex . , , d.

2.qccLlpatic ResidentialArea _ .•. __ .••. _ . I

3. ~oL]_!-Ce c: A(Civil Servant), B (Trader), C (Self- E111ployed)~ , DCAl-=>prer1tient), F(No Work Yet)

4. Your salElevel is: a(Oi- 06) , b (07 -09), c(10 -13), d( 14- - 17)

5 -W-hat is rry range? a (below 20,000), b(below 50",000) c(below 70;OOO~ del .d above),

I . I

6. Wh¢l~e cIrce your drinking and cooking water? a, well b _ borehole i

c. s-treab_-:l orne i

7" S OL1.rCe c)r household chores like bathing, flushing", and cleanings

a. vv~11 b. c. stream d. pipeborne ,

8. I-IoV"\{ lon.g been using this source/s) of water .

9. AIJ art Erc>1~ and well do you have acces to other water sources like

a. tap 'fYater(er ( ), c. lake ( tick.

),d stream ( ), d. pon.d"",( ),please

10. . Do have borehole : or well a of your I OWIl? - - - - -_ - - - - - - ' ~ i _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ." . 1 L, IE iy 0 Ll. cIe access to water through ahy of the so-urces in 9 above,

i how : t:l~e1'"'1 you get water for.! your . housel~old daily use? __ ..; . __ ' ' : .

. ·'2 .

. ;' ,

,r

'; . .. 1. " . .1 ."

do ILot her supply source close' to your residem csca, -w11a:t

do you. COVl water? about a .20 meter, b. 50 meter. C_' 100

d. 150 n.""l.eter ~.

3. lWhat is t b .. e 1"l'urt'l,ple in your househpld? : .•• ~ _

4. .How- rnany f

litrter do 'you use in your household each da.:,)T?

•••• ~ •••••••••• _ •••••••• ~ _ •• _ ••• _ •••• _ ••••• _ •••••••••• 11 ••••••• : •••••••• : ••• ~ ••••

5 What m eth 0 cl of -fication do you use inyour household?

boilinp b , usc of aration d chlorine and others e, none ...

.. ' J, . 1:Jorel"101e IU source your drinking water treated to rei-:t.'l..ovc

uw •• u,,+ ••.• r:t·ts Cl· ., • .

a. result elf

i 8 If yes 'RhH.i: type ,was diagnosed? _ •••• __ . .

;

9. Di~ yen .. 1- relYOrlJent to any health or environmental auti"1ority?

•••••••• ~.';, .•• .." .••••. - ••••• - ••.••.••• a a a •• a •••••••••••••••••• 11 •••••••••••• , •••••••••• _ •• '" • _

Whai: ~Tlet]of treating water source/a) do you

.. : _ _ .......•.......... _ , , .

m1..1cl"l. how regular do you pay for "Water , , "

•••.•••••..•••..• ,.. .••.••..•.•.• - .••••• " ••••• , •• a.l •••••• , ••• " ••• ; ••••••••••••• 1.1 "" " •••• _ , .

, a. mom th .. ly l~ _ y.:.:ce in two years d. once in five years e. not at all

have nent water board that monitors the suppl")-r aTl.d treatment of poi~ab leyour area? L ~~ .

3

,) .~. . '.'