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The University of Manchester Research
Exploring Chinaβs Investments and DevelopmentAssistance in Myanmar
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Citation for published version (APA):Tang, D., & Diane, T. LEE. (2013). Exploring Chinaβs Investments and Development Assistance in Myanmar. Inhost publication
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Download date:15. Jan. 2022
Contents
Ian Holliday Preface
Li Chenyang The Adjustment of Obama Administrationβs Policies towards Myanmar:
Promoting Democracy in Myanmar or Containing China?
Ashley South Governance and Legitimacy in the Peace Process
Kim Jolliffe The Role of Peopleβs Security in Peace Building
David Allan Business and Peace in Myanmar: Thoughts on Sector Risks, Related to
Peace and Social License to Operate Issues
Ian Holliday Thinking about Myanmarβs Citizenship Crisis
Matthew J. Walton Burmese Politics and the Pathology of Unity
Khin Khin Lwin The Displaced in Reform
John Bray Risk Assessment, International Investment and Responsible Business
Practice in Myanmar: What Has Changed?
Zhu Li Politicization of Chinaβs Economic Investment in Myanmar: Cause and
Impact
Zhu Xianghui Myanmarβs Oil and Gas Sector since 2011: Progress and Challenges
Adam Simpson From βOutsideβ to βInsideβ: The Transformation of Activism over Energy
Projects in Myanmar
Wang Zichang Amending Constitution: Focal Point of Myanmarβs Political Development
in 2013
Bi Shihong Cooperation and Competition between U.S. and Japanβs Policy towards
Myanmar
Yang Baoyun The European Union and Future Development of Myanmar
Pavin Chachavalpongpun Human Security in Myanmar: Critical Hurdles
Lei Zhuning Development of Transport Connectivity in Myanmar and the Prospect for
Regional Cooperation
Liu Xuecheng Myanmarβs Political Transformation and New Development of
ChinaβMyanmar Relations
Aung Aung ChinaβMyanmar Relations (2011β2013): Promoting Chinaβs Image in
Myanmar
Lu Guangsheng Chinaβs Investment in Myanmar under Its Political and Economic Reform
Nora Schlenzig State Transformation and the Geography of State Power: Exploring
Crossβborder Development between China and Myanmar
Diane Tang Lee Chinaβs Investments and Development Assistance in Myanmar
Khin Maung Nyo Challenges Facing Myanmarβs Migrant Workers
Kerstin Duell Exile or Return? The Diasporaβs Role in Myanmarβs Political Transition
Mung Don Transitional Justice in Myanmar: Assessing the Alternatives
Jacqueline Menager Cultural Elite: Situating Hip Hop in the Transition
Renaud Egreteau Soldiers as Lawmakers: In Search for a Legislative Role for the Tatmadaw
Wooyeal Paik Authoritarian Survival Strategies in Comparative Perspective: Myanmar,
China and North Korea
Joakim Kreutz Myanmarβs Economic Potential: Peace Making or Peace Breaking?
Andrew Selth Obstacles to Police Reform in Myanmar/Burma
Song Qingrun The Prospects of Myanmarβs Economic Reform and Development
Preface
Ian Holliday
On 17β19 June 2013, the University of Hong Kong hosted its seventh annual symposium on politics
and government in Myanmar. Previous symposia were held in Bangkok (2007), Xiamen (2008),
Kunming (2009), and Hong Kong (2010β12). For all seven events, the Singapore office of the
KonradβAdenauerβStiftung was a collaborating partner providing welcome financial support alongside
funding also provided by the Faculty of Social Sciences at the University of Hong Kong. For all five
events from Kunming forwards, Yunnan University was a collaborating partner bringing a full
delegation of scholars from Mainland China to the symposium.
At the 2013 symposium, forty scholars and practitioners made fifteenβminute presentations to
audiences of up to one hundred people. Soon after the conclusion of the symposium, thirty
presenters submitted brief summaries of their talks in English. All thirty were then translated into the
Myanmar language. This collection brings together the thirty summaries in both languages, with the
English versions grouped together first and the Myanmar versions following.
Grateful thanks for excellent administrative support are due to Florence Luk, Harold Tsang and Nikki
Wong in the Faculty of Social Sciences at the University of Hong Kong. For translation from English
into the Myanmar language, thanks go to Phyo Win Latt.
1
The Adjustment of Obama Administrationβs Policies towards Myanmar:
Promoting Democracy in Myanmar or Containing China?
Li Chenyang
Center for Myanmar Studies, Yunnan University
The Aim of Rebalance Strategy in AsiaβPacific Region of Obama Administration: Containing China
or Not?
Maintaining hegemony and dominance in AsiaβPacific region is the key aim of Obama Administrationβs rebalance strategy. USA will contain any major powers which can challenge its hegemony in this region, not only China.
After threeβdecade rapid development, China is rising. Maybe the U.S. government hasnβt issued the containing China strategy yet, but has taken many actions, particularly since 2009. Professor ZHENG Yongnian, the Director of EAI, NUS, pointed out that, Obama administrationβs policy towards China is the engagement under the containment. Professor HUANG Jin at NUS, a former research fellow at Brookings Institution, also thinks USAβs containing action upon China is very clear, as the U.S. made use of Taiwan issue before 2008, and now its interferences Chinaβs Tibet and Xinjiang affairs. Meanwhile, USA also instigates Chinaβs neighboring countries against China. We canβt ignore USAβs destructive role in the tension in South China Sea and East China Sea.
Due to the ChinaβUS structural contradiction and the growing of Chinese strength, the Obama Administrationβs policies towards China is no longer to pull China into the USβdominated international system and achieve Chinaβs peaceful evolution but to fully contain Chinaβs rise, mainly by nonβmilitary measures. USA makes full use of its domination of international regulations and political values to damage Chinaβs international image and limit Chinaβs international spaces through the interpretation of those regulations as well as the reports of Western media. By making use of its democracy advantages, Myanmarβs nationalist sentiments and concepts of CSR, EIA and SIA, the U.S has successfully made Chinaβs aids and investments in Myanmar serious obstacles for ChinaβMyanmar relations. Many evidences indicate that some NGOs from USA were involved in the movement against Myitsone dam, and the strong interests of USA in the coordination and negotiation of the conflict in Kachin State is also a good example of USAβs containing action upon China.
China also needs to realize the diplomatic faux pas in its relations with Myanmar during the past two decades. China did not paid enough attention to Myanmar ordinary people and only developed the relations with Myanmar military government; the economic cooperation mostly focused on natural resources exploring with less social responsibilities and not enough help to the improving of local livelihood. These shortcomings were optimized by USA. Therefore, China needs to adjust its policies and improve the behaviors of Chinese companies and citizens in Myanmar.
2
Is Promoting Democracy in Myanmar the Fundamental Goal of the Adjustment of Obama Administrationβs Policies towards Myanmar?
Although most American people respect democracy and human rights, promoting democratic value and political system is one of the three main foreign strategic objectives of the U.S. After the ending of apartheid in South Africa, USAβs democracy exporting is not merely for interfering in other countriesβ internal affairs, with democracy exporting as an important object as well. Thatβs to meet the need of domestic politics and foreign relations of USA. But U.S. government will undoubtedly give up democracy and human rights protection for national interest if promoting democracy collides with the seeking of national interest.
Thailand and Pakistan also have longβtime military rule, and even a military coup occurred in Thailand in 2006, but the U.S. didnβt impose sanctions upon Pakistan and its military cooperation with Thailand has never stopped. So some scholars are wondering why the U.S canβt lift its sanctions upon Myanmar. The U.S. never condemns Mubarak, the former Egyptian President who was in power for more than 30 years and tried to make his son as his successor. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Brunei are absolute monarchy nations, but the U.S. government never forces those leaders to carry out democratizations only because they are vital for USAβs national interest.
Democracy is the best political system for human, but itβs not omnipotent and canβt resolve all complicated problems in a short time in any countries. The Philippines is an allied country of the U.S. in SEA, but it does not have good governance after independence, and now is reaching the verge of failed state. As a responsible big country, the U.S. not only has to boost democratization, but also needs to help Philippines and Myanmar to improve administrative capacity and develop economics. The scholars donβt think the U.S. has done good jobs in this section. Although the efficiency of USAβs policy adjustment must be assessed by Myanmar people, an academic assessment can be given.
After the Obama Administration took office in 2009, it adjusted its main objective in Myanmar to hinder ChinaβMyanmar cooperation in order to contain Chinaβs rise. Its declaration that the development of USβMyanmar relations is not aiming at China is unbelievable for Chinese people.
The logical relation of the policies of Obama Administration towards Myanmar: As China did not kept good relations with Myanmar people since 1988, and the democratic regime must respect the peopleβs willing, so many cooperation projects between China and Myanmar cannot be implemented smoothly after the democratization happened in Myanmar. Myitsone dam, Latpadaung copper mine and ChinaβMyanmar oil and gas pipeline are the targets of USAβs action.
The Response of Myanmar to USAβs Policy Adjustment
Myanmar society has different response to USAβs policy adjustment.
Some Myanmar people hope USA can pay more attention to Myanmar. For example, Zaw Htay, a Myanmar government official, published an article titled βMyanmar and Washingtonβs New Strategic Choice in Southeast Asiaβ in the Washington Post on November 15, 2011. The paper said that βWhat the West must realize is that in todayβs geopolitical situation, particularly given the rise of China, it needs Myanmar. Washington and others must help facilitate Myanmarβs connection to the outside world at this critical juncture. My presidentβs suspension of the Beijingβbacked Myitsone Dam signaled to the world what he stands for. If the United States neglects this opportunity, Washington will part ways with the new order in the Indochina regionβ.
But some Myanmar people complain USA. For example, some Myanmar elites said, Myanmar has
3
done so much and USA responses less. Myanmar has done better job than Afghanistan, but USA can provide about several billions US dollars assistance to Afghanistan every year with no money but sanction to Myanmar, so they are unsatisfied with the USAβs action and response. Another official based in Naypyidaw pointed out, for Myanmar foreign relations, India and China are the most important partner. He hopes USA will not cause Myanmar any trouble.
According to the CSIS Myanmar Trip Report in September 2012, some Myanmar elites tried to balance between China and USA. The report said: βThe widespread belief that the Myanmar governmentβs concern about excessive dependence on China was a primary motivator in prompting military leaders to pursue reform appears to be overstated. In fact, the groupβs interlocutors stressed Chinaβs role as a traditional neighbor and encouraged the United States to avoid zeroβsum policies toward China. Given Chinaβs long nearβmonopoly on political ties, military sales, and trade with Myanmar during the decades of military rule, the countryβs rapidly warming ties with the United States are being greeted with suspicion in China and are stoking fears about imagined U.S. containment efforts. A proactive policy of consultation with China on the U.S. approach toward Myanmar could help mitigate concerns in Beijing about the United States using Myanmar to contain Chinaβ.
The Attitude of China on the Development of MyanmarβUSA Relations: Perspective from a Chinese Scholar
All nations must respect Myanmarβs right to develop relations with other countries. Chinese scholars fully realize the recognition from USA Myanmarβs political transition and its economic assistance will be of great significance for the modernization process of Myanmar. The U.S. also has the right to keep good relations with Myanmar, and China always supports that. In June 2007, China hosted a secret meeting between Myanmar ministers and U.S. officials in Beijing. After the 2008 Nargis Cyclone, China coordinated Myanmar military government and USA to ensure U.S military aeroplane to transport disaster relief materials to Yangon airport.
But Chinaβs national interest must be respected by USA and Myanmar. The stability and development of ChinaβMyanmar border areas and Chinese investment in Myanmar all are Chinaβs national interests, which are not allowed to be damaged. Unfortunately, they are affected by USAβs activities in Myanmar.
Conclusion
China and USA have the competitions in Myanmar, but both have to respect the sovereignty and the legal rights of Myanmar. No one can force Myanmar people to do anything against their willing. Itβs the right time for the U.S. to remove all the sanctions upon Myanmar now.
China needs a stable and harmonious environment for the modernization process. As USA is not a reliable partner, China needs to pay more attentions to the neighboring nations in Asia, and must develop the relations with neighboring countries independently. Anyhow, we hope USA will not play zeroβsum game with China in Myanmar or other regions.
4
Governance and Legitimacy in the Peace Process
Ashley South
Senior Adviser β Myanmar Peace Support Initiative
Ph.D. Candidate β Australian National University
Opportunities and Risks
β’ The peace process which emerged in Myanmar in late 2011 is the best opportunity in many
decades to address political, social, economic and cultural issues which have driven armed
conflict since independence.
β’ The recent halt to fighting between the government and Kachin Independence Organisation
means that for the first time all major nonβstate armed groups have agreed preliminary
ceasefires with the government.
β’ However, a number of serious issues remain unresolved. The peace process is unlikely to
succeed unless these are addressed. This will be difficult, given the long history of mistrust
among key stakeholders.
Ceasefires
β’ People living in conflictβaffected areas benefit from ceasefires between the government and
nonβstate armed groups (NSAGs): reduced fear, improved livelihood options, better
opportunities for travel.
β’ The primary concern of conflictβaffected communities is physical security.
β’ Many ethnic nationality communities continue to experience high levels of militarization. If
the Myanmar Army and NSAGs could withdraw from some nonβstrategic positions,
perceived as threatening by communities, this would provide a boost in confidence to ethnic
stakeholders.
β’ Preliminary ceasefires need to be consolidated, with concrete agreements regarding troop
positions and behavior of armed elements (ceasefire βCode of Conductβ).
β’ Need for ceasefire monitoring.
β’ Serious concerns regarding ongoing major clashes (e.g. Shan State). Questions regarding
whether Myanmar Army is following governmentβs peace agenda β or is this a case of βgood
cop, bad copβ?
5
Peace Process
β’ There is a need to move from the agreement of preliminary ceasefires, to discuss
longβstanding political issues which have structured armed and stateβsociety conflicts in
Myanmar. Government has agreed in principle to political negotiations, but these have yet to
start. The clock is ticking β 2015 elections.
β’ Ethnic stakeholders (NSAGs, political parties, civil society) need to ensure policy and tactical
coherence, in order to represent their communities effectively in political talks.
β’ Need to ensure participation of key stakeholders, including conflictβaffected communities,
civil society groups and political parties. This will be a logistical challenge, reflected in the
complexity of the βFramework Agreementβ (ethnic peace plan) presented to the government.
Outstanding Issues β incursion of unregulated business activities into conflictβaffected areas;
landβgrabbing; megaβprojects
β’ Most new business activities in conflictβaffected areas are extractive (logging, mining etc),
and often connected to local or national powerholders (e.g. Myanmar Army, NSAGs).
Business activities in newly accessible conflictβaffected areas are often associated with
landβgrabbing (e.g. for plantation agriculture).
β’ As well as the negative social and environmental impacts, such activities can undermine trust
and confidence in the peace process.
β’ Negative impacts of the2012 Farmland Act, and 2012 Vacant, Fallow and Wasteland Act.
β’ Concerns about major infrastructure projects (e.g. hydroelectric dams).
Outstanding Issues β local autonomy and politics of governance
β’ Government has committed in principle to negotiations regarding decentralisation in ethnic
nationalityβpopulated areas. However, in the absence of substantial political talks, no
progress has yet been made.
β’ Ceasefire process has seen the government pushing to expand its authority into previously
contested, conflictβaffected areas. This is not necessarily (or entirely) a conspiracy: it is what
governments do β apply governance to subjects.
β’ Expansion of government services into previously inaccessible, conflictβaffected communities
can be positive for vulnerable populations (e.g. improved access to health and education
services, provision of ID cards) β but can also be seen as threatening by local communities,
who continue to regard the state as threatening, and the Myanmar Army as violent and
predatory.
6
β’ Efforts to expand Myanmar government authority and serviceβdelivery systems should
therefore be undertaken in close consultations with the nonβstate armed groups and affected
communities, and relevant civil society groups.
β’ In many conflictβaffected areas, local organisations (working crossβborder, and from βinsideβ
Myanmar) have for years been the only agencies providing assistance to conflictβaffected
communities. Many NSAGs, and CBOs working in partnership with them, have developed
longβestablished, if chronically underβresourced, structures in the fields of education, health
and local administration.
β’ For many displaced and other communities in the conflict zones, NSAG and related civil
society structures and personnel are perceived as more legitimate and effective than those
of the state. It is essential that such individuals and networks enjoy a sense of ownership in
the peace process.
β’ There is a risk that international and state agencies entering these areas can undermine
and/or overwhelm existing local capacities, damaging confidence in the peace process.
β’ International actors should not undermine trust and confidence in the peace process, by
supporting an expansion of government authority into previously contested areas, without
consultation (βdo no harmβ).
Political Cultures
β’ Despite commitment to the peace process, government and Myanmar Army leaders still
seem to regard ethnic communities as βchildrenβ, whose lives must be developed/improved
by the government (with international assistance) β rather than seeing ethnic communities
(and NSAGs?) as primary actors in their own stories.
β’ As noted, in practice, this is often experienced by conflictβaffected communities as the
penetration of topβdown state services and governance structures into previously
inaccessible, conflictβaffected areas β which can undermine trust in the peace process.
β’ There is considerable risk that peace and political actors will avoid difficult challenges,
preferring selfβcongratulation to addressing the many difficult problems still affecting ethnic
communities and stateβsociety relations β in which case opportunities to build a better
Myanmar may be lost.
Convergence, and βFederalism from Belowβ
β’ There is a risk that eliteβlevel political talks will be drawnβout, topβdown and blueprintβdriven.
Negotiations could get trapped in legalistic discussions (e.g. around constitutional reform),
with key actors adopting βzeroβsumβ approaches β especially in the runβup to 2015 elections.
β’ Ethnic political actors should identify issues for priority, βfastβtrackβ negotiations with the
government. Government needs to make some symbolic and practical concessions/gestures,
7
in order to demonstrate good faith and awareness of ethnic grievances (e.g. in relation to
language use, land rights).
β’ Support local activities which help to address urgent concerns and needs of ethnic
communities. Concrete and sustainable attempts to build peace βon the groundβ are
particularly important, given the likelihood that political negotiations will not produce a
deliverable settlement until late 2014 (if we are lucky β and there remains the outstanding
question of whether any such agreement will be acceptable to Myanmar Army or other key
stakeholders).
β’ Government and donors should undertake peacebuilding needs assessments in partnership
with NSAGs, civil society and conflictβaffected communities β in order to build common
understandings of needs, and a joint agenda for addressing these.
β’ Promote activities which help to build trust and confidence on the part of key stakeholders,
testing the peace process. Seek out and support good practice (βappreciative enquiryβ
approach) β e.g. in fields of education, livelihoods.
β’ Support βconvergenceβ between state and nonβstate governance regimes and service delivery
systems, in ways which empower and build on local practice. Importance of demonstrating
to communities (and NSAGs, civil society) that the peace process can create spaces to
support local agency.
Key Questions
β’ Will the current round of ceasefires see NSAGs continue to control autonomous βliberated
zonesβ (like the ceasefires of the 1990s) β in which case, what will be the status of these areas,
and how/will such issues be addressed as part of political negotiations?
β’ The peace process has seen NSAGs enter a (no doubt, long and contested) transformation
from insurgent groups, towards β what? State and international actors mostly assume that, if
a political settlement can be negotiated that is acceptable to key stakeholders, NSAGs will
disarm. Some NSAGs may eventually lay down arms, and become political parties; others
may prefer to retain their weapons β perhaps as part of a transformed Myanmar Army.
β’ NSAGs have been illegal (according to the Myanmar government, which itself has been
regarded as illegitimate; also, lack of recognition for NSAGs under international states
system). The President has promised to rescind laws criminalizing contact with NSAGs. What
is the status of NSAGs, for the Myanmar government and Army, and international actors
(diplomats, donors, aid agencies)? How should nonβstate governance and service delivery
regimes relate to (be integrated with?) state structures?
β’ Does government understand ethnic grievances and aspirations? Are Myanmar government β
and Army β willing to address ethnic concerns substantively in political negotiations?
8
β’ Will government and international partners be willing to ensure that activities to build peace
and bring development to conflictβaffected areas are undertaken jointly, in partnership with
key stakeholders?
β’ The status of NSAGs as political representatives of ethnic groups is problematic β BUT they do
have (varying amounts of, often contested) legitimacy among minority communities. The
peace process has brought NSAGs into partnerships with government and international
actors, and provided opportunities for NSAGs to organize among previously inaccessible
communities (e.g. in governmentβcontrolled areas). Where does this leave other ethnic
political actors (e.g. political parties which contested the 2010 elections)?
The Peace Process, and the βAntiβpolitics Machineβ
β’ βThe Antiβpolitics Machine: Development, Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in
Lesothoβ, by James Ferguson (1990): βdevelopmentβ deβpoliticises contentious issues, by
framing these as amenable to technical solutions β to be implemented by government, in
partnership with aid professionals β rather than sites of political struggle.
β’ Is the same thing happening to ethnic grievances and political agendas, as part of the peace
process?
β’ If ethnic concerns are addressed through political negotiations, it might be appropriate to
transfer some issues from the political agenda, onto the development agenda (e.g. language
and land rights).
β’ Otherwise, international assistance to the peace process may serve to reβframe ethnic
communities and leadersβ concerns and struggles, as technical problems to be βfixedβ by the
delivery of aid and economic development.
9
The Role of Peopleβs Security in Peace Building
Kim Jolliffe
Kingβs College London
The Role of People in Peace Building
Peace building is essentially the process of consolidating ceasefires signed between armed political
actors by strengthening institutional capacities and rebuilding conflictβaffected societies to foster an
environment for lasting and inclusive peace.
It is a liberal intervention, usually from the West, and thus peace itself β normatively understood as
the absence of fighting β is not the only goal. Many totalitarian states for example have achieved that
through brutal suppression and decisive military victories. Liberal βpeace buildingβ initiatives can
easily become broader stateβbuilding projects, aimed at producing a certain type of peace, one that
goes handβinβhand with the fostering of democracy, law and order, development, human rights and
free market capitalism all with an emphasis on state centralisation and global integration.
There is a prevalent understanding that civil conflict arises where there are divides along ethnic or
other lines and real or perceived disparities between those closest to the state and others. Therefore,
peace building theory posits that the state must reach out to conflictβaffected populations, providing
them with a tangible benefit from the peace, known as a βpeace dividendβ, to get them behind the
process and to alleviate grievances and tensions.
Focusing mostly on the peace process between the Myanmar Government and Karen National Union
(KNU), this paper will argue that such a focus on the needs of populations is particularly important in
Myanmar, where for decades the state and competing ethnic armed actors have essentially been
fighting over people. However, while the nature of conflict in Myanmar appears to have been
misunderstood, a number of βpeace buildingβ projects linked to the stateβs broader pseudoβliberal
economic stateβbuilding project appear to be in fact threatening the endeavour for lasting peace.
Peopleβs War. Peopleβs Peace?
People are the primary object that armed actors in Myanmarβs decadesβlong conflicts have been
fighting over. Therefore, at the heart of a programme for peace, must be a peaceful consensus on
how, and by whom, people should be governed.
The Tatmadawβs Peopleβs War Doctrine developed in the 1960s in essence renders people a
mobolisable resource that needs to be managed in order for leaders to achieve their political aims.
The doctrine was developed to make the entire citizenry exploitable for military goals, especially in
the event of a foreign invasion. Though this has never happened, the doctrine has arguably shaped
successive regimesβ approaches to governance significantly and has certainly impacted
10
counterinsurgency strategy.
People are central, too, to the motivations and pursuits of the countryβs myriad ethnic armed groups
(EAGs), the majority of which claim to be fighting for the selfβdetermination and other interests of
their people. As a result, in many cases far better services have been provided to people by EAGs
than the Government. In these areas traditional hierarchies based largely on respect for elders,
patrons, protectors and providers have translated into dedicated support by ethnic populations for
their respective EAGs.
In turn, since the 1960s the Tatmadaw has responded with populationβcentric military strategies
most popularly characterised by their βfourβcuts strategyβ, which aimed to cut off all relations
between ethnic populations and EAGs to starve the latter of sanctuary, funds, intelligence, recruits
and other provisions, and turn the populations on them. Beginning as a multiβfaceted popular
support campaign, the strategy has manifest most vividly over the decades in mass displacement
operations, centering on the total decimation of entire communities and forcible relocation of
millions of people, out of EAG territories and into Government controlled pacified areas. To varying
degrees, such operations have come handβinβhand with a wide range of intimidation methods
including burning of villages; destruction of food stores; laying of landmines in residential areas,
fields and pathways; extrajudicial killing; arbitrary arrest and torture; as well as sexual and other
forms of physical abuse.
Empowering People for Peace
Three reasons a focus on people is crucial to lasting peace in Myanmar:
1. Akin to the broader struggle for democratisation in Myanmar, an evolution away from dependence
on armed actors will take years and depends primarily on the emergence of a capable and
empowered citizenry, with an established educated middle class, to open up new spheres of
influence from below. Capacity building at a grassroots level is key, with the civilian population as the
primary focus.
2. At present, large swathes of ethnic populations are trapped in a vicious cycle of marginalisation,
whereby state oppression and abuse has kept them withdrawn β or in extreme cases, on the run β
from the state, strengthening their dependence on and allegiance to EAGs. As a result, such
populations are then persecuted further by the state, subject to populationβcentric military strategies
described above and the abuse by soldiers acting with near impunity. I refer not just to those who
have at times lost their homes and gone on the run, but to millions of people who have never had a
real home, such as overβ60s I have interviewed that have been on the run since they were toddlers.
3. Finally, judging by research I conducted in 2012 on the involvement of underβ18s in Karen EAGs
and Tatmadaw Border Guard Forces, for many young males passively enduring such hardship and
subjugation is not an option. While Government initiatives over the years pacified or even coopted
EAG leaderships, desire for direct military action at a local level β not to mention widespread
dependence on antiβpersonnel explosives to protect schools, clinics and other local service structures
β have remained central to survival. No matter what gains are made today between political elites at
the negotiation table, these highly militarised areas, fraught with insecure and hopeless populations
11
will not see peace until people are able to envision a future where peace means promotion of their
everyday existence and ability to determine their own futures.
Aspirations for Development
Assumptions are often made about what a βpeace dividendβ would look like in a given warβtorn
community. Typically, international actors work alongside or back the state to target key
development indicators, thus building the societyβs confidence in the peace building process. In
Myanmarβs case, as well as the provision of basic supplies to IDPs, governmentβlinked and NGO
initiatives have begun probing a number of issues, including demining and economic development,
both of which remain extremely contentious issues with EAGs and associated civil society networks.
Other projects receiving overseas development backing, many loosely in the name of peace, have
focused on broader centralisation efforts such as building roads and government schools, particularly
in areas where EAGs have lost leverage as a result of the ceasefires. Meanwhile, the state itself, has
to date seemingly dedicated negligible government funding to such initiatives, while it continues to
spend over USD 2 billion per year on the military.
In the case of the Governmentβs ceasefire with the KNU, research I conducted in April β June 2013
found that inchoate peace projects have done little to outbalance the perceived greater insecurity
stemming from the Tatmadawβs relentless growth and everβaggressive posture, and in some cases
have in fact heightened such fears significantly. While the numbers of Tatmadaw outposts are
increasing and bamboo fortifications are replaced with concrete, the burgeoning Myanmar Air Force
is repositioning machineβgun mounted combat helicopters and test dropping bombs from its jets, all
within clear sight of local communities.
Through initial consultations with locals and ground troops of the Karen National Liberation Army, I
have found that, for example, while the Norwayβbacked Myanmar Peace Support Initiativeβs pilot
projects have been well received, their limited scope thus far has allowed only minor confidence
building among locals. The positive influence had by such projects is also in competition with that of
vigorous advances into the region by extractive and industrial agricultural business ventures, and
overseas development projects focused on the building of roads and other infrastructure conducive
to state centralisation. Roads in such areas have direct strategic consequences at a time there are no
guarantees ceasefires will hold and while villagers are seeing the Tatmadaw gain unfettered access to
all villages for comprehensive reconnaissance operations. Further, even nonβmilitary related
development projects introduced in coordination with state mechanisms with limited
acknowledgement of existing governance structures (particularly schools) have been treated with
great skepticism, as either part of a broader Bamanisation agenda or as subversive to local societal
structures. Indeed, such schemes are clearly a direct effort to undermine structures tied to
alternative power structures and boost the stateβs influence, while attempting to win the hearts and
minds of EAGβlinked populations.
While stating such fears, consulted locals stressed that their societiesβ own development aspirations
had been obstructed only by the persistent decimation of their villages, farms and transport routes,
by the military they see growing around them unhindered. As one man said, βif we had not had to
rebuild every house in every village so many times in our lives, we would have developed very far.β As
12
is often heard, another explained, βwe have no plans to build strong homes yet, because they will just
burn them down within 2 or 3 yearsβ¦ their development is just for their power.β In essence, to feel
the benefits of peace, people donβt need token development projects, they need security assurances,
so they can start developing for themselves. The failure of numerous initiatives to build projects
around this indicates a greater emphasis on building a centralised economy than on fostering an
environment conducive to lasting peace. In the process, such endeavours risk severely undermining
efforts made to this end and strengthen state plans to eliminate popular forms of opposition through
force and coercion.
13
Business and Peace in Myanmar:
Thoughts on Sector Risks, Related to Peace and Social License to Operate Issues
David Allan
Spectrum Yangon
Myanmar is embarking on βa triple transition from an authoritarian military system to democratic
governance; from a centrallyβdirected economy to marketβoriented reforms; and from 60 years of
conflict to peace in the border areasβ.1 While the courageous reforms being undertaken in βclean
government and good governanceβ areas deserve the international acclaim they are getting, many
difficult and intractable issues remain. Setbacks in any and all of the transition areas affect the others.
Without real focus on embedding reforms, changes will remain as a surface veneer and many of the
issues that have in part led to decades of civil war and conflict will continue. The context remains an
extremely fragile one. The expectations for real results and quality of life improvements to be
delivered to impoverished are clear, yet currently largely unseen.
A Plethora of Difficulties
President Thein Sein characterized some of the difficulties in his speech of 10 Jan 2013. βRegardless
of β¦ reforms, the country has experienced a plethora of difficulties and challenges during the
transition period. Drawing on lessons learned from the experience in dealing with the problems
associated with the Letpadaung Taung project, land rights, riots in Rakhine State and the breakdown
of peace in Kachin state, the Government will continue to try to improve its management skills in the
future.β A breakdown shows that many of the factors behind the problems have business links:
Lepadaung Taung (mine) β compensation issues, use of force, land loss, community rights, pollution;
land rights β land grabbing, uplands, inappropriate laws, cadastre issues, competing uses; Rakhine
State riots β general absence of rights for groups, continued lack of development dividend; Kachin
State peace/war β lack of autonomy, no resource benefit sharing, centrally decided projects. Business
and investment are currently more linked to conflict than they are to peace. John Ruggie, who led
the process for development of the UN Guiding Principles for Business and Human Rights,
highlighted that in Myanmar, βheightened due diligence is going to be required.β2 The βProtect,
Respect, Remedyβ framework, or the State Duty to Protect Human Rights, Corporate Responsibility
to Respect Human Rights and the need for greater Access to Remedy for victims of businessβrelated
abuse, will help.
Key Public Concerns about Projects
Various seminars and analyses come up with similar lists of concerns about impacts for projects in
1 World Bank, Myanmar Strategy 2012.
2 Responsible Business in Myanmar: Operating Context, Sanctions and International CSR Standards, Webinar, FOLEY HOAG LLP, 18 August 2012.
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Myanmar. Fifteen key public concerns brainstormed by a mix of government, industry and public
interest groups: poor consultation processes; no support for future livelihood; lack of proactive
engagement by corporate culture; lack of responsibility to communities (safety, environment);
operating standards are poor and need raising; cultural heritage impacts not considered; projects
impact way of life; no budget for reasonable compensation; human rights β no proper enforcement;
lack of community input (what are community needs?); loss of land β cultural and economic aspects;
lack of ability for tripartite consultation β government, business and communities; no continuous
monitoring; ethical and cultural change and rise of crime; health and safety impacts and
environmental pollution. This list is remarkably similar to the list of concerns published regarding the
Letpadaung Taung project.3 The similarity of problems in projects shows a degree of βforeseeabilityβ.
This highlights the importance of risk assessment and industry sector risk profiles.
Rapid Risk Assessment on Business and Peace Issues
A rapid risk snapshot on business and peace related factors by industry class was prepared. Ten
sectors and a total of sixty four business activity types were assessed from the perspective of effect
on the development direction and peace processes and how risk is perceived in these sectors. Basic
energy, infrastructure, agriculture and food production, consumer goods, light industry, education
and services were considered to have lower risk and be more likely help development. Some
examples of the 64 subβsectors considered are village based renewable energy, vocational training,
healthcare, community based tourism, communications, community forestry activities.
Extractives sectors and heavy industry were considered higher risk and more likely to hinder
development. Little work has been done in Myanmar on the differences between sectors and
industries, with βbusinessβ often tending to be considered as homogenous from a risk perspective.
This work is introductory and ideally it should be backed up with a large scale perception study or
rigorous risk practice assessment. Such work should prompt interest in the sectors with lower risk.
Investors taking higher risks to achieve higher rewards are externalizing the impact at the cost of
communities. Forseeability of risks seems critical, and as a result of the elevated risks in some sectors,
additional complications in the peace process can be expected.
Examples of More Detailed Sector Studies: Mining
Recent global research by Franks and Davis looked at 50 cases of mining company/community
conflict.4 The research showed that the main costs of conflict to a company were found to be
management and staff time, fines, compensation, design modification costs and production loss
issues, with 50 percent of the issues dealing with problems in the areas of: pollution; distribution of
benefits; access or competition over resources; consultation and communication; community health
and safety; vulnerable and marginalized groups; culture and customs; consent issues; population and
demographic change issues. The International Council for Mining and Metals analyzed
company/community conflict issues resulting in reports of human rights abuse in the mining and
minerals sector with similar conclusions.
3 Finalized Report of Special Investigation Commission, Mirror Newspaper, 12 March 2013.
4 Davis, Rachel and Franks, Daniel M., The costs of conflict with local communities in the extractive industry, 2011.
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Seven Joint Recommendations for Positive Development in Extractive Industries
Seminars on CSR, Social Impact and Business and Human Rights, developed the following seven
principles for improving practice in the extractive sector in Myanmar to address foreseeable risk.5 (1)
A tripartite dialogue improvement between government, business and the public offers improved
communication, understanding and many opportunities to facilitate further national development.
The seminar focused on CSR and human rights issues shows a possible route forward in improved
understanding between groups on these issues. (2) Community participation and consent in the
processes of decision making would overcome many of the issues currently resulting from the
operation of extractives projects (Free Prior and Informed Consent or FPIC). (3) Attention to land,
livelihood, environmental, gender, cultural heritage, benefit sharing, safety, community harm and
community protection issues are considered particularly important. (4) The βProtect, Respect,
Remedyβ Business and Human Rights Framework offers input towards improving government,
business and community relations. (5) Best Practice Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), and
specifically a focus on Respect for all human rights under the Ruggie Framework, will greatly reduce
the negative impacts. (6) Positive social license to operate will be gained by business respecting and
following the various standards and codes relevant to various industry sectors. (7) Ongoing
monitoring and improved legal and nonβjudicial mechanisms for remedy through valid grievance
mechanisms and compensation offer many avenues in helping resolve issues. While prepared for the
extractive industries these principles are considered applicable to many industry sectors.
Summary and Conclusions
Projects and overall risk levels are assessed from the perspective of whether they are likely to help or
hinder peace and development. Different sectors have a different risk and benefit profile and while
some sectors have higher risk, there are many sectors of business providing services that
communities are likely to welcome without similar risks. These sectors are more likely to have a
positive effect on the overall development direction and peace processes. Land issues, transparency
over land use and community consent over land use issues are critical for managing social license to
operate. Benefit sharing and high quality resource management are key issues to ethnic groups.
Recommendations for improving of extractive and other sectors in line with Guiding Principles are
available. To help peace, more work on agreement between all parties of the priority of sectors for
development and sectors to avoid, delay or take special precautions for is recommended.
Community led development project approaches are more likely to have lower conflict. Many
business tools are available to help in quality projects.
Considering business and human rights will help show how investment may help or hinder peace.
Ideally investors and planners can then focus on lower risk options, improve risk mitigation and
involve the public more.
Closing Thoughts on Community Voice
During government, industry and public seminars some highlighted the concept of community right
5 Spectrum Seminar, βSharing on Corporate Social Responsibilityβ, 7β8 October 2012.
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of choice, or citizen led development with comments like: βGood standards are followed by
companies like ββββββββββββ. Yet only ##### companies come in here. Shouldnβt we have the right to
invite the best practice companies like βββββββββββ to come in and work in Myanmar? We donβt want the
bottom quality companies coming here! We would like to invite the best companies to come.β If
citizens are in a position to choose, a more harmonious basis for business and peace would result.
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Thinking about Myanmarβs Citizenship Crisis
Ian Holliday
The University of Hong Kong
Citizenship comprises a bundle of civic rights and duties that together generate a civic persona or
identity. In 1949, T. H. Marshall classically argued that civic rights have three main elements. The civil
component comprises βthe rights necessary for individual freedomβ. The political component
comprises βthe right to participate in the exercise of political powerβ. The social component
comprises βthe whole range from the right to a modicum of economic welfare to the right to share to
the full in the social heritage and to live the life of a civilised being according to the standards
prevailing in the societyβ. More recently, scholars have added a fourth element to capture the
considerable racial and ethnic diversity of many contemporary societies. The cultural component
comprises the right to assert and cultivate oneβs cultural heritage. Today, then, while practice differs
considerably across distinct societies, it is nevertheless common to hold that citizenship rights are
multifaceted, spanning the civil, political, social and cultural domains. They are balanced by civic
duties captured in the obligation of allegiance to a state, and any additional duties flowing from that.
When these many elements are pulled together, the result is a civic persona or identity. One key
issue facing any state is the extent of uniformity or diversity to be fed into civic identity.
In Myanmar, there is currently a citizenship crisis with four main dimensions. In a general sense,
there is a broad curtailment of citizenship generated by provisions in the 2008 Constitution and
additional legislation. Civil rights are not wholly secure, political rights are circumscribed by direct
military appointments to elected assemblies at the national and provincial levels, social rights are
often close to nonβexistent, and cultural rights are highly variable. Within this context, the crisis has
three more specific aspects. One is a targeted denial of citizenship focused on the Rohingya
population in Rakhine State and increasingly having implications for other Muslim groups in other
parts of the country. Another is a targeted restriction of citizenship affecting all official national
minorities notably through limitations on rights to cultural expression. Still another is somewhat
different in nature. This is a broad arrogation or appropriation of citizenship undertaken by the
dominant Bamar majority within the country, and shown by Matthew J. Walton to be similar in many
core respects to white privilege in the United States and other western societies.
When examining Myanmarβs citizenship crisis, it is possible to look inwards through an historical
approach highlighting unique features of national history, or to look outwards through a comparative
approach that searches for commonalities with other national experiences. Looking inwards in this
case tends to generate a focus on imperialism and authoritarianism. Ethnic markers were solidified
during the colonial period, and borders were opened to inward migration of South Asian people
often seen as uniquely alien. An extreme, dogmatic chauvinism was a feature of the authoritarian
interlude that opened in 1962 and only formally drew to a close in 2011. From this perspective,
citizenship issues appear to be uniquely difficult in Myanmar. By contrast, looking outwards in the
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Myanmar case draws attention to the common macro challenge faced by many modern states in
piloting a shift from racial or ethnic hierarchy to democratic citizenship. In this sense, although
Myanmar of course has many specific and contingent features, it is by no means unique or alone in
the issues it currently faces, and can certainly learn from comparative experience. At a time when
many Asian states are only just starting to grapple with issues of intercultural dialogue, and with
linked questions of recognition and accommodation for minority groups, such experience tends to be
most extensive in developed western states. It is Englishβspeaking settler states such as Australia,
Canada, New Zealand and the United States, and European states with highly diverse populations
such as Belgium, the Netherlands, the UK and Scandinavian countries, that have traveled farthest
down this road. Together, they have helped to set international standards that are monitored by the
United Nations and other key bodies. While this disconnect from Asian settings necessitates greater
sensitivity in undertaking comparative analysis, it does not render it impossible.
Broadly, many western states have moved in recent decades through successive stages of civil rights
equality, multiculturalism, and civic integration. For civil rights equality, leadership came above all
from the United States in the 1950s and 1960s. For multiculturalism, Australia and Canada were
notably important from the 1970s onwards. For civic integration, a wide range of developed states
have made key contributions. Today, multiculturalism is the most controversial among these broad
initiatives, with significant popular backlashes witnessed in many western nations since the turn of
the millennium. In 2010β11, German Chancellor Angela Merkel claimed multiculturalism had βutterly
failedβ, French President Nicolas Sarkozy pronounced it βdeadβ, and British Prime Minister David
Cameron made similar remarks. However, in 2010 the Multiculturalism Policy Index reported modest
extensions of multiculturalism in most major nations, and registered only one major backlash in the
Netherlands. In the same year, the Migrant Integration Policy Index released similar results. Thus,
though undeniably controversial, the attempt to accommodate diversity and build safeguards for
minorities that is core to multiculturalism remains a key feature of public policy in many states.
Moreover, while civic integration has been promoted as an alternative, triggering more
assimilationist attempts to facilitate adaptation to the majority culture, it retains many features in
common with multiculturalism.
Underlying these policy initiatives is a tripartite categorization of minority groups that is widely
accepted in western states. Again, this may not be directly transferable to Asian contexts, but it can
help to order and perhaps stimulate thinking. The three groups are immigrant minorities with only a
limited history inside the borders of the state, indigenous peoples in settler states that have histories
stretching back into the mists of time, and national minorities with a claim to some element of
suppressed nationhood. As Myanmar is not a settler state, the second of these three categories is
unlikely to be directly applicable. By contrast, the other two categories appear to have considerable
relevance to its current circumstances.
The Multiculturalism Policy Index tracks eight policies linked to immigrant minorities: political
affirmation; revision of school curricula; media sensitivity; dress code and other exemptions; dual
citizenship; funding for cultural activities; funding for language training; affirmative action. It tracks
six policies focused on national minorities: federalism; official language status; political
representation; funding for language training; political affirmation; international visibility. All of this
material is readily accessible on the Internet, and available for broad debate and analysis. Examining
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Myanmar in this context, it is clear that much could be learned. The country does not yet have basic
civil rights equality. It has very few of the policies implemented by other states with a diverse racial,
ethnic or cultural mix. Thus far, it has made little attempt to develop a diverse national identity.
However, the political reforms presently taking place generate an opportunity to do that as a means
of building democratic citizenship.
Thinking about ways to address Myanmarβs citizenship crisis remains difficult. Zero tolerance for
racism would seem to be a prerequisite, though it will need to secure visible public support from the
entire political spectrum, including not just democratic elements but also religious and military
leaders. In parallel, it is necessary to institute civil and political equality for all citizens. Linked to this
could be full political affirmation of intercultural diversity. Moving beyond this core agenda would be
still more problematic, as it would require constructive policy change in key areas such as education,
the media, and culture. Nevertheless, initiatives have been taken in many different global settings,
and are available for analysis by Myanmar policymakers. There is nothing to be lost, and potentially
much to be gained, by taking a look.
Most of the work in addressing Myanmarβs citizenship crisis will need to be undertaken domestically.
It is from inside the country, at both elite and grassroots levels, that leadership on racism, rights and
a more diverse national identity will have to come. At the same time, however, the international
community can support domestic efforts by signaling robust ongoing support for diversity, and by
helping to fund policy initiatives in the spheres of education reform, media training, cultural renewal,
and global engagement. Unless committed attempts are made to move from vertical forms of racial
and ethnic hierarchy to horizontal forms of democratic citizenship built on intercultural diversity, it is
hard to see how progress with the wider transition can successfully advance.
20
Burmese Politics and the Pathology of Unity
Matthew J. Walton
George Washington University/St Antonyβs College, Oxford University
Myanmar is reaching a point in its current political transition where people inside and outside of the
country have begun to express fears about reforms moving too quickly. These fears are often directed
at demands for recognition (if not increased political autonomy) from various marginalized groups;
most commonly in Myanmar these are the ethnic minorities that have been seeking political
recognition of their disadvantaged position in Burmese society for decades.
The common response from many (mostly Burman) political leaders (and more than a few foreign
observers) is that expressing these types of grievances too loudly during this fragile transition could
jeopardize the entire process by damaging national unity at a critical moment. Thus, these grievances
should be deferred until a point where the country is more politically and economically stable.
Whereas General Aung San hoped for βunity in diversity,β I would argue that in Myanmar the
discourse has been more akin to βunity through hegemonyβ and this construction of unity will
continue to ignore and alienate nonβdominant groups in the country.
Unity has been a consistent theme among Burmese political figures, from the colonial period,
through military rule, to the present period of transition. Of course, some calls for unity have been
for strategic or psychological reasons but in this paper I am interested in the way the Burmese
Buddhist conception of unity functions an indicator of correct moral practice or orientation. I argue
that this conception of unity is actually an antiβdemocratic impulse that inhibits the incorporation of
diverse voices and perspectives into the Burmese political sphere and is an impediment to national
reconciliation. Furthermore, it isnβt merely a disciplining tool of former military governments, itβs also
been effectively used by members of opposition parties and groups supposedly committed to justice,
equality, and democratic development.
As a moral concept, unity represents devotion to a common purpose and loyalty to a group or
community; it requires subsuming oneβs own interests for the benefit of the whole, something that
encapsulates the Buddhist practice of rejecting the selfβcentered ego. In a late 19th century treatise of
advice for a king, the minister U Hpo Hlaing clearly explained the moral dimension of unity, drawn
from the Buddhaβs advice to a group of princes. He claimed that, in an effort to achieve unanimity on
an important matter, the discussion must leave out individual preferences. Disunity, then, is the
result of a group of individuals committed only to their own benefit; it is a result of moral failure.
Later in the text, he warned about the four agatis (biases). The failure of a political body to act in a
unified way would indicate that some or all of its members are under the influence of these biases
and, as a result, acting according to their own narrow interests. A unified assembly, on the other
hand, has overcome divisions precisely because its members had developed their moral practice to
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overcome the agatis and act according to the ideal of selflessness. Unity then depends on individual
moral development and the ability to move beyond selfβinterest in making political decisions.
Contemporary uses of the idea of unity also stress its nature as a moral concept. In an article in an
underground journal circulated in Myanmar in the months prior to the 2007 βSaffron Revolution,β a
monk connected unity to correct moral practice and control of oneβs actions. βIn a united people we
can see that the conduct of their body and mind is honest, their moral conduct is good, and the
strength of their mental qualities is great.β He went on to state that, βunity needs control/restraint
through proper moral conduct and an even mind.β Note the implication that if a country is not
unified it is because its people are morally deficient, unable to control their selfβcentered impulses.
The military conception of disciplined democracy arises from the fear of political disorder, which
intensified during the parliamentary period and provided members of the military with their view of
themselves as the only institution capable of holding the country together. The potential divisiveness
of democracy must be mediated by a group capable of transcending potential disunity (the military)
that can also impose discipline on the citizenry.
The militaryβs narrative of how to develop a lasting democracy is also consistent with the general
Burmese perspective on popular political participation that is skeptical of the ability of the average
person (pu htu zin) to participate in politics and wary of the results when it occurs. That is, most
citizens do not yet have the moral grounding to move beyond their own selfish interests and
participate in a potentially divisive democratic process in a unified way that would benefit the
country as a whole.
A 2008 editorial from the government run New Light of Myanmar warned readers of the dangers of
not practicing democracy βcorrectly.β The failures of the parliamentary period were βnot because of
democracy, but because of those who implemented democracy, and those who were desperate to
come to power with egotism, attachment to the party concerned, and selfishness.β Another editorial
reinforced the idea that only the military was morally capable of rising above this egotism and
working for the benefit of the country. The importance of βdisciplinedβ participation implies that
most citizens were not and are still not morally equipped to take part in the correct manner without
continued guidance. The strongest indicator of this moral immaturity from the militaryβs perspective
was continued political opposition to the state.
In a 2005 speech, former Senior General Than Shwe stated that βUnder a democratic system, only
high education standards can ensure discipline and a clear perception of right from wrong.β He also
warned of the dangers of a return to the disorder and chaos that characterized the parliamentary
period and then drew on the four agatis (biases) that U Hpo Hlaing used to argue for collective
decisionβmaking and that Aung San Suu Kyi also used to criticize military rule. βGenuine democracy
can flourish only when each and every citizen possesses reasoning power and is able to vote for
delegates without [the] four forms of partiality.β The military instituted βdisciplined democracyβ as a
form of moral and political guardianship and military leadersβ claims regarding the legitimacy of their
guardian role refer to the purity of their intentions (nonβdisintegration of the Union, as opposed to
personal gain) and position themselves as the only group capable of making selfless decisions with
the interest of the entire nation in mind.
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This skepticism is also not just limited to past political figures or the military. In an interview just after
his release, the 88 Generation activist Min Ko Naing stated βIt is very important to have discipline and
unity. We have to show that we deserve democracy.β This conception of unity reinforces an
antiβdemocratic discourse that questions the ability of individual citizens to (ever) have the moral
capacity (ability to think beyond their own interests) to effectively participate in selfβgovernance.
There has also been a persistent concern for the collective political action of the party system. The
proliferation of political parties and events like the 1958 split in the ruling AFPFL was seen as
evidence of disunity and of the moral deterioration of the government and the citizens. Seeing
political parties as evidence of factionalism continued throughout the period of military rule,
especially after the illβfated 1990 elections. A 1998 article in the New Light of Myanmar stated, βAs to
freedom of organizational activity and expression, it can be a big danger, as long as there are political
parties that still cannot renounce the way of confrontation, defiance of authority and anarchy, so
there will be only such freedom within the bounds of rules and regulations.β Here, βthe way of
confrontationβ implies that any disagreement is unacceptable and is just a first step toward
fragmentation and the dissolution of the country. Whereas the phrase βdefiance of authorityβ implies
that the authorities know whatβs best; they are the (only) ones (capable of) working for the benefit of
all, while any opposition could only be selfish and misguided.
Finally, a discussion of unity as a moral concept cannot ignore the ways in which groups across the
political spectrum have used the rhetoric of unity to quash dissent within their own organizations. In
this way, the unity discourse has functioned as a disciplining tool, deployed in order to win an
internal argument or move a group past a contentious disagreement. Multiple scholars have noted
instances where βmoralizedβ concepts like unity have been used to repress dissenting or minority
views, by implicitly or explicitly questioning the moral conduct of those who disagreed with their
policies.
While I would argue that the Burmanβdominated discourse on national unity presents the greatest
impediment to national reconciliation, a concern with unity has stifled difference and generated
conflict within nonβBurman and other minority groups in the country as well. For example, even
though Christians are not the majority among Karens, Christians have dominated the leadership of
the KNU and Karen ethnic oppositional identity is broadly conceived as Christian. This has resulted in
discrimination against Buddhists and lack of recognition of Buddhist Karen within the movement. The
split between the DKBA and the KNU is an example of the destructive effects that an overβriding and
homogenizing concern for unity can have on a diverse political community.
This brief examination of unity as a moral notion also demonstrates the ways in which political
concepts acquire additional dimensions of significance when interpreted within a Burmese Buddhist
worldview. In this narrative, unity is an indicator of correct moral practice, of the ability of individuals
in a group to overcome the natural human inclination towards selfβinterest; it functions as an
evaluative moral concept. Those who threaten unity do so because they are enslaved to selfish and
individualistic desires and unable to see or work for the benefit of the community. Those who control
the discourse on unity position themselves as morally superior; they see themselves as capable of
overcoming their desires, even sacrificing individual interests, to realize a goal that will benefit all.
23
The Displaced in Reform
Khin Khin Lwin
UNESCO Yangon
The reformists are leading Myanmarβs political reform during this transition period. However, the
situation in border areas and conflict/postβconflict zones remains highly volatile and insecure. Illegal
trade, the grab for natural resources, economic inequity, highly contested development projects fuel
conflict, threaten communities and the countryβs potential for transformation. Military officers begin
to participate in peace talks, but security sector reform is at a standβstill and demilitarisation, a
sensitive issue. Equitable distribution of power across the political spectrum, the peace processes,
and constitutional reform remain essential to driving the reform process forward. Underneath the
façade of seeming progress is a well of deep injustices. Significant new freedoms have been attained
but health, education and other basic services remain severely limited, and mistrust, violence and
abuse prevail, especially for the most marginalised and vulnerable. In the midst of rapid changes and
exciting opportunities, there is unease within communities affect by the conflict in Kachin and
northern Shan States. What happens to ordinary people in transition? What does an elder feel about
being displaced? What are the real battles facing youth? Who do the children fear? What is a
motherβs burning question? I would like to take this opportunity to raise their voices and to make
them present to us.
There are approximately 60,000 displaced persons in KIO or nonβState areas and 40,000 in
Stateβcontrolled areas. These villagers fled their homes due to direct attacks or due to fear of
violence resulting from military. Initially the people remained close to their villages, or hid in the
jungle, to monitor the situation, feed their livestock and take care of their plantations. When it
became evident that the fighting would continue, the people began to move into church compounds,
monasteries and places designated as βinternally displaced camps.β For weeks, I sat with individuals
or groups of survivors listening to their fears, feelings of uncertainty, pain, frustration, and struggles.
These individuals object to being labelled as βdisplaced personsβ and βvictims.β Their bitterness is
evident: βWe are neither displaced nor victims; this is our land, our ancestral land: we have lived
here for generations. How can we be the displaced? We are not rich or educated like you are in the
city, but we own our land. We worked our own land for our livelihood; we lived in dignity. We were
forced into this situation.β These feelings are prevalent in all those who are living in camps.
The past, present and future of these individuals speak of loss, deprivation and anxiety. In the past,
they have faced the loss of their lifeβs work and investments; in the present they contend with
deprivation of needs, comforts and opportunities; in the future they will face issues related to
security, loss of land, rebuilding lives and relationships. Villages remain abandoned either voluntarily
or due to pressure from one or all of the many State and nonβState armed groups in the area. In
some areas, only those of Kachin ethnicity and tribal ties are forced to move out, whereas the rest
are allowed to remain, creating suspicion and divisions among neighbours and communities. In some
24
others, the local population is taxed and coerced by two or more of these armed groups, straining
their resources, and their physical and psychosocial wellβbeing. For these communities, even the
most insignificant things in life, would never be the same. Families are torn apart: one member
fighting for the State army, another for a nonβState armed group or militia; decisionβmaking powers
play out in relationships with devastating consequences; every family is obligated to provide one,
two, three, sometimes all sons for the frontlines, and the daughters for health, education or social
services β with the exception of the few with enough connections or influence to send their children
far away from the conflict.
The shelters at the camps are basic: long structures on bamboo stilts, built mainly with zinc sheets
and 9βply wood, partitioned into roughly 10βbyβ15βfeet sections all held together by wire and
bamboo scaffolding. In some camps blue tarps are used instead of zinc sheets. For almost three
months, I lived in the land of Loss. During the past years, the communities in camps and in conflict
areas have gradually learnt to live with loss: personal items, house and land, livelihood, crops and
animals, education opportunities, health services, dignity. At the camps, it is a daily struggle of
learning to live with less: less space, less solidarity among families, less relationships and contact, less
food, less movement, less work, less willβpower, less hope, and less certainty in what the future holds.
In a number of camps, firewood is scarce, as are fresh meat and fresh vegetables. Some camps are
miles away from where firewood can be collected, which means walking for miles β most of the time
on an empty stomach; markets open once every five days, but very few can afford to purchase food;
the majority of families cook two meals a day in the camps: the morning meal at around eight and
the evening meal at around four thirty. Meals consist mainly of vegetables, roots, and on a market
day, eggs, or a few fish; fresh meat is beyond our budget, although, from time to time, there would
be a piece of dried meat or salted fish grounded into the roots and chillies.
As in every other resourceβrich state, these areas in conflict have been plundered by every top dog
that has passed by. Even now, whoever wins the war will battle amongst themselves to sell the state
out to the highest bidder and divide the spoils of peace. While the locals have been forced to flee the
fighting, their homes have been looted by hungry and deprived victors β their animals killed and
eaten, their plantations and forests cut down by overβzealous patrols from different armed groups,
their land simply taken over by locals or outsiders with powerful connections. The majority of elders,
who have experienced armed conflict and broken promises from both the state and the KIA, believe
that it is more dignified to die fighting rather than starving in peace times; the younger generation,
fight their own battles of drug addiction, sexual abuse, intimidation, conscription, prostitution and
HIV while dreaming of family, friends, success, and being βhip and fresh;β children β the most
adaptable group of the general population β play, sing, dance under the proud but worried eyes of
their elders, without inhibition as only they know how, but with a sense of caution and wariness.
It has been extremely painful to be separated from their communities, land and the comfort of their
home. Equally humiliating to these proud people is the need to accept βhandβoutsβ and to live in
often squalid and unhygienic conditions that lack privacy, facilities and security, the discrimination
and bullying by local residents due to tension over resources, the inability to provide for their
families or to live up to traditional, expected roles in the community such as organizing important
rituals and celebrations, to ensure their childrenβs education opportunities, to seek lifeβsustaining
support and to access services due to lack of income. The elderly express feelings of uselessness,
25
depression, sadness, deprived of their lifeβs work and investments β an irreparable loss with no hope
of ever being restored in their lifetime.
Families in the camps commit or face violence and abuse due to the overβconsumption of alcohol
and lack of easy access to drugs, inadequate and unsafe shelter arrangements, risky situations, in
which young boys and girls are placed, domestic violence, and unwanted pregnancies. It is extremely
difficult for the displaced to generate any income while living in the camps, with consequences on
various aspects of peopleβs lives: access to appropriate medical services, education, general sense of
security, and negatively impacts their sense of selfβreliance and psychological health. Where there
are casual labour opportunities too these vulnerable communities are exploited and paid low wages.
They are pushed into adopting risky coping strategies such as working illegally across the border, or
selling self, community or family members to human traffickers. Movement in and out of camps is
strictly regulated by camp committees enforcing curfew hours and systems to record individual
travelling out of camp for specific periods of time. This is said to have reduced opportunities for
human trafficking, military recruitment and prostitution.
When the war began, no one expected it to continue for long. As the conflict enters its second year,
uncertainties as to when the conflict would end and what would happen should the crisis last longer
raises fears. This awareness is very strong among the displaced population, further adding to the
already uncertain projections of their future, straining their capacity for resilience and their will to
survive. How do they cope? Women quite often express and voice out their frustrations, pray
individually or in groups, share feelings with friends and neighbours. Men consider their participation
to be a unified and collective act of defending the national cause, often making reference to their
sacrifice for a worthy cause, while others cope by employing negative strategies such as drinking,
drugs, abuse and violence.
What do the displaced expect from the peace talks?
Safe, dignified, voluntary return and resettlement
Participation in informed decisionβmaking processes
Fulfilment of basic needs
Access to land and livelihood opportunities
Rebuilding lives, restoring relationships, and community assets
The right to determine their own and their childrenβs and grandchildrenβs future
26
Risk Assessment, International Investment and Responsible Business Practice in Myanmar:
What Has Changed?
John Bray
Control Risks, Tokyo
In late 2012, the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) published by the international antiβcorruption
NGO Transparency International (TI) gave Myanmar a score of 15 points out of 100.6 In the CPI, 100
stands for the highest standards of transparency, and Denmark received the highest score of 90 out
100. By contrast, Myanmar is near the bottom of the table, only just above Sudan. Looking at the CPI,
one is tempted to believe that nothing in Myanmar has changed.
A reading of the international business press suggests the opposite conclusion. For example, a Wall
Street Journal article published on 2 June begins by stating that βInterest in Myanmarβs investment
potential has reached feverish levels over the past yearβ.7 If one looks no further than the first
sentence, it is easy to jump to the conclusion that everything has changed. However, reading further,
one quickly learns that foreign investment in Myanmar in 2012 was only $1.4bn, roughly the same
figure as in Laos, which has only a tenth of Myanmarβs population. Furthermore, weak governance β
including perceived high levels of corruption β is among the deterrents to wouldβbe investors. Some
things have changed, but not everything.
International Perspectives
Control Risks recently commissioned the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) to conduct a survey of
International Business Attitudes to Corruption. 8 The survey covered senior legal officers and
management professionals in 316 companies worldwide. It did not focus on Myanmar specifically but
many of its findings carry lessons for the country as it presses ahead with its reform process.
In the first question, we asked respondents to select their two greatest concerns from a list of five
potential areas of corruption risk. The results were as follow: 58% of respondents chose βrisks
associated with ensuring the smooth running of the business, e.g. demands for bribes from customs,
police officers or tax inspectors responsibility for antiβcorruptionβ; 52% chose βrisks associated with
your companyβs relationship with third parties, e.g. commercial agents, consultantsβ; 29% chose βrisks
associated with winning business, e.g. demands for bribes to secure contractβ; 25% chose βrisks
associated with doing business in particular countriesβ; and 12% chose βrisks associated with business
partners, e.g. joint venture partners, politically exposed personsβ.
At first sight, it is surprising that risks associated with running of the business should rank so high in
6 See TIβs website, www.transparency.org, for a full report on the CPI, including an explanation of its methodology.
7 Natasha BreretonβFukui, βWEF Meets in Myanmar as Investment Falls Shortβ, Wall Street Journal, 2 June 2013. http://online.wsj.com
8 For the full text of the survey, see www.controlrisks.com.
27
respondentsβ concerns. The reason is that demands for bribes from β for example β tax officials or
customs officers β often come across as a form of extortion. The amounts of money exchanged may
be relatively small β often less than USD 100 β but demands typically carry a threat: βIf you donβt pay,
your business will sufferβ, whether as the result of expensive delays in customs processing or license
applications, or in the form of unjustified tax requisitions. International companies are reluctant to
pay because US, UK and other Western law enforcement agencies are cracking down on commercial
bribes whether they are paid at home or internationally, including in countries such as Myanmar.
The emphasis on βoperational bribesβ does not mean that other risks are unimportant. To gain a more
nuanced view of how companies view them, we offered respondents a series of scenarios and asked
them to comment on whether the risks were βinsignificantβ, βroutineβ or βmajorββ or whether they
amounted to a βdealβbreakerβ meaning that the company could not go ahead with the project under
those circumstances.
In one of the scenarios, we invited respondents to consider a situation where βjudges deciding
commercial disputes are notoriously corruptβ Hardly anyone thought that the risks were
βinsignificantβ and nearly a fifth of respondents thought that this situation amounted to a
βdealβbreakerβ. Nevertheless, it was striking that more than 40% thought that the risks were βroutineβ.
This does not necessarily mean that they would bribe the judges where necessary. Instead,
companies may manage such risks by specifying in contracts that commercial disputes would be
decided outside the country concerned. Alternatively, they may decide that in the event of a dispute
they will have to accept a negotiated settlement on terms that they consider unjust rather than risk
going to court. The possibility that this might happen is not an absolute deterrent to investment but
it is one among several factors that they will need to take into account.
In a second scenario, we asked respondents to consider a situation where a potential joint venture
partner was a βcousin of the Prime Ministerβ (the same kinds of issue would apply to relatives of any
senior government official). The range of responses was striking. Nearly a quarter (23%) thought that
the risks amounted to a βdealβbreakerβ, but almost as many (20%) β including a large proportion of
Western companies β thought that the risks were βinsignificantβ.
In Control Risksβ view, it would be wrong to be complacent. In certain circumstances there may well
be legitimate commercial reasons to work with the relative of a senior politician. Equally, there are
key questions that need to be asked: what exactly is the nature of the relativeβs contribution to the
joint venture, and how exactly are they rewarded? To take a cynical view β which will, after all, be the
view taken by regulators and investigative journalists β is there a possibility that they are being paid
for minimal services as a kind of proxy bribe to the official? And what happens if the government
changes?
Implications for Myanmar
The survey results point to a wide range of approaches to risks associated with high levels of
corruption: not all companies will regard such risks as a deterrent to investment. However, a
significant minority of companies will decide that they would prefer to put their money in other
countries that present fewer problems. This is all the more damaging because these are the likely to
28
be the companies that operate according to higher commercial, technical and corporate
responsibility standards.
In Control Risksβ recent experience, international companies frequently ask questions about the legal
situation in Myanmar as well as the wider operating environment when deciding whether or not to
invest. So far, the answers are not entirely satisfactory, and this is one of the reasons why
international investment has been slower than might be expected.
Companiesβ concerns are not so much to do with the letter of the law, but rather with competence of
officials at every level, and especially the judiciary. Myanmar has recently signed the New York
Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards. This is a step forward
because it means that in future it may be possible to resort to international arbitration to resolve
commercial disputes. However, Myanmarβs parliament will still need to implement the provisions of
the Convention in domestic legislation, and the longβterm objective of ensuring that Myanmar judges
are properly trained in commercial law remains as important as ever.
Partnership risk is a second major concern that often comes up in Control Risksβ discussions with
wouldβbe investors. At a minimum, they want to know whether their prospective joint venture
partners are included on a US sanctions list. More than that, they want to be able to assess their
personal connections and reputations for integrity.
To return to the question posed by the title of this article, the issue is not so much whether Myanmar
is changing but how fast, and in what direction. President Thein Sein has recognised the need to raise
governance standards and take concrete steps to tackle corruption. Rapid progress is an urgent
requirement if both domestic and international companies are to flourish in the new Myanmar.
29
Politicization of Chinaβs Economic Investment in Myanmar: Cause and Impact
Zhu Li
Executive Director and Professor, Research Institute for Indian Ocean Economics
Yunnan University of Finance and Economics
The Present Situation of SinoβMyanmar Economic Cooperation
Due to geopolitical reasons, SinoβMyanmar economic cooperation has a long history.
In 2005, the volume of trade between China and Myanmar was $1.2 billion, while the bilateral trade
volume rose to $6.97 billion in 2012. Since 2005, the Chinaβs investment in Myanmar has increased
considerably, surging from $110 million to $8.75 billion in recent 5 years. Most of Chinaβs investment
projects focus on the resources industries, such as energy, mineral industry and so on.
On May 27, 2011, The Chinese President Hu Jingtao met with the Myanmar President Thein Sein in
Beijing, both sides issued a joint statement of building the comprehensive strategic partnership,
through which they try to enhance bilateral cooperation.
Up to August, 2012, the total investment of China in Myanmar has reached $14.14 billion, and to
Myanmar, China has become the biggest investment country compared with other foreign countries.
The Politicization of Myanmar Economy: Two Typical Cases about China
Myitsone Dam
Myitsone Dam is controversial for at least six reasons: nonβtransparency, minimal electricity supply to
the domestic market, forcible displacement of residents, predominant use of Chinese labors, adverse
environmental impacts, and disrespect of local cultural heritage.
Some analysis points out, the transition of democratic reform in Myanmar and the prejudice hold by
Western countries on Chinese enterprisesβ investment in hydropower project of Myanmar lead to the
suspension of the dam construction.
The sudden suspension of construction of Myitsone Dam highlights the political risk of Chinaβs
investment in Myanmar. Since that time, βChinaβs investment in Myanmarβ has entered in the most
difficult time, some other projects mired in controversy and there were no more new investment
projects of China since then.
Latpadaung copper mine
In November 2012, a mass protest against the injustice of demolition compensation and the
30
environmental pollution broke out in Latpadaung copper mine, the protesters occupied the camp of
Wanbao Company near the mine, causing that the construction of the project was forced to halt.
On December 1, Myanmar government set up a commission of inquiry. On March 12, 2013, the final
report of the commission manifested that, the project should continue to implement, however, it
requires of necessary improvement measures. The problem of transparency is put forward many
times in this report. According to the report, due to the low transparency, local people knew little
about the project, which leads to misunderstanding.
The Politicization of Myanmar Economy: Cause
(1) To Resolve a Variety of Internal Contradictions
First, Myanmar government need to balance the domestic political interests and improve the
government image. During the transition period, the most important thing for Thein Sein
government is to shape a new image of government and to convert the peopleβs conceptions of the
new government, enhancing the publicβs trust. Therefore, the voices of the common peopleβs (or just
in the name of it) has become the focus of Thein Sein government and it hope to take the
opportunity to get the publicβs trust. China is the biggest investor in Myanmar, so its large
construction projects must attracted great attention.
Second, to accelerate the National Reconciliation and Reduce the Conflicts of Interests in the
Minority Areas.
Third, mediate the conflicts between the old and new Interests. Chinaβs investment projects in
Myanmar are always under attack, the deep reason is the conflicts between the old and new
interests.
(2) To Balance Myanmarβs Relations with Other Countries
First, Need to Weaken Chinaβs Influence. Chinaβs influence in Myanmar is growing, which deepens
the anxiety of Myanmar government and the foreign powers. It is generally believe that Chinaβs
strategic intent includes two aspects: to strengthen energy security; to open a new channel into the
India Ocean, becoming a real sense of the βTwo Oceanβ country.
Second, To Balance International Relations and Interests. In the process of balancing international
relations, many countriesβthe United States, Japanβ gradually perceived the pressure from China,
so they began to enhance the diplomatic interactions with Myanmar. Especially after the United
States implemented the βReturn to AsiaβPacificβ strategy, Myanmar has become a new hot spot of
the interests game between China and the United States. The balance strategy of diplomacy in
Myanmar aims to stimulate the competition between the great powers and maximize its own
interests. Western countries have canceled economic sanctions to Myanmar gradually.
(3) The Problems of Chinese Enterprises
We need to reflection on Chinaβs overseas investment patterns. Most of Chinaβs oversea investment
projects are implemented by the stateβowned enterprises that is used to dealing with governments.
31
They tend to build a good relation with governments, while ignore the social public, leading to the
opaque of the projects and the unfair distribution of the profits.
Many Chinese stateβowned enterprises is lack of corporate social responsibility.
Impacts on the Politicized Tendency of Chinese Economic Investment in Myanmar
To Transform the Sinoβ Myanmar Relations from Bilateral to Multilateral
The advancement of democratization process in Myanmar changed the SinoβMyanmar relations that
is an important part of Myanmarβs foreign relations, but not all. What the Myanmar government
need is not only the bilateral relationship with China, but also the multilateral international relations
that includes China, it is impossible for the SinoβMyanmar relations to go back to the previous state
of unipolar. However, China is one of the most important neighbor of Myanmar, and China will exert
positive effect on the development of Myanmar. Therefore, both of them need to adjust their
mentality and promote the regional prosperity jointly on the basis of the existing good cooperation.
The Pain of the Transition of Myanmar Government: the Cost of the Democratization
In the process of democratization in Myanmar, the government also faced severe economic
challenges. Foreign enterprises are cautious about the investment in Myanmar, hindering the
economic development of Myanmar. Under the condition of giving priority to the political reform,
the development of economy in Myanmar will be affected largely.
Transformation of the Ways of Dealing with the Disputes
As we can see, from the event of Myitsone Dam to the case of Latpadaung copper mine, the way of
Thein Sein government in dealing with complicated international issues has become increasingly
mature.
Shift Chinaβs overseas investment patterns and Its Focus on the Project of Peopleβs Livelihood
Cooperation is the balance of interests, rather than imposing the unilateral interests on the other
side, the same is to the cooperation of China and Myanmar.
Conclusion
The politicization of Chinaβs investment in Myanmar is the inevitable outcome of Myanmarβs political
transition. First of all, China is the main investor of Myanmar; Secondly, many Chinese investment
projects came into being during the period of military rule, which has become a sensitive political
problem in the process of democratization in Myanmar; Thirdly, Myanmar need to rebalance the
international relations and interests, improving its international status. The politicized
tendencyβincluding Myanmarβs domestic democratization, national reconciliation, external relations
and other problemsβwill pose great effect on SinoβMyanmar economic cooperation. In the
meantime, it will, to some extent, evolve into a hot spot in the multiβstakeholder game.
32
Myanmarβs Oil and Gas Sector since 2011: Progress and Challenges
Zhu Xianghui
Center for Myanmar Studies, Yunnan University
Since the inauguration of the new government in 2011, it has pushed forward the reform with
poverty eradication and improving peopleβs livelihood as its mantra. Thus, Myanmarβs oil and gas
sector is facing a new period of strategic development. The country is using a variety of technical and
economic means to adjust the domestic investment, to ensure the domestic energy security, to make
more rational distribution of resources into the exploration, exploitation, production and other areas
in the oil and gas industry. A close study of the oil and gas sector reveals that the unique
geographical location and rich of oil and gas resources give Myanmar an important position in the
regional oil and gas industry. Meanwhile, the weak infrastructure, lack of technology and capital also
bring about great challenges for its future development.
An Overview of Myanmarβs Oil and Gas Industry
Myanmar used to be an important oil exporting country in the Southeast Asia. Although its oil and
gas industry declined slowly after World War II, Myanmarβs oil and gas production together with the
position of its oil and gas industry gradually recovered since its openingβup in 1988. According to the
BP statistic, the country has a natural gas reserve of 7.8 trillion cubic feet and accounts for 0.1% of
the worldβs total reserves. But the data from EIA (US) reveals that the reserves of Myanmarβs oil and
gas are 10 trillion cubic feet. Ministry of Energy of Myanmar (MOE) claims that the country owns
0.58 billion barrels of oil deposit and 22.5 trillion cubic feet of gas. From a global perspective,
Myanmar does not have particularly notable oil and gas reserves. Itβs ranked fortieth for proved
reserves of natural gas and seventyβseventh for proved reserves of oil. However, from a regional
perspective Myanmarβs reserves are significant. Currently, Myanmar exports the largest volume of
natural gas by pipeline and the fourth largest volume of natural gas overall in the AsiaβPacific region.
Myanmarβs oil and gas production areas can be divided into two types: onshore production areas and
offshore production areas. It is reported that Myanmar has a daily average production of 7500
barrels of oil on shore and 65 million cubic feet of gas.
Myanmar exports the largest volume of natural gas by pipeline and the fourth largest volume of
natural gas overall in the AsiaβPacific region. Myanmarβs oil and gas production areas can be divided
into two types: onshore production areas and offshore production areas. Myanmarβs onshore oil
reserve is 0.5 billion barrels and natural gas reserve is 970 billion cubic feet. There are 14 onshore oil
and gas basins in Myanmar. Myanmar has an offshore oil reserve of 8.1 billion barrels and an
offshore natural gas reserve of 10 trillion cubic feet. Myanmar authority divides those into 3 areas
and 25 blocks. The three zones are Rakhine Offshore area, Moattama Offshore area and Tanintharyi
Offshore area.
33
Exploration and Excavation
So far, exploration and development are only carried out in the Central Myanmar Basin, the Pyay
Embayment Basin and the Ayeyarwady Delta Basin. There are a little or even no exploitation in the
other 11 basins. Itβs possible to discover new oil and gas reserves in many other places in Myanmar.
Therefore, Myanmar has great potential for oil and gas exploitation. Compared to onshore oil and gas
resources, Myanmar has a greater potential in offshore oil and gas exploitation. Currently, the daily
productions of Myanmarβs offshore fields are 12 thousand crude oil and 1.05 billion cubic feet
natural gas. With the new discovery of gas in Myanmarβs coastal areas, its offshore gas reserve is
large as well. The Yadana oil and gas field in the block Mβ5 and the Yetagun oil and gas field in the
blocks Mβ12 and Mβ13 have the highest yield in Myanmarβs offshore oil fields. The discoveries at the
block Aβ1 and block Mβ9 increased Myanmarβs share of proved natural gas reserves in the AsiaβPacific
region from 2.6% to 4.14%, to become the seventh largest in the region.
Natural Gas Transport
Myanmar has built more than 2000 miles onshore natural gas pipeline, the diameter of which is
mostly 6β20 inch. Compressed natural gas (CNG) is generally used in industry and daily life. From
1986 to 2004, 5 CNG filling stations were constructed, of which 2 are located in Yangon, 2 seats in
Yenangyaung and 1 in Chauk. Besides, Myanmar has converted 587 oil buses into natural gas vehicles.
Myanmarβs CNG developed rapidly from 2004 to 2011. As of June 2011, Myanmar has 27472 natural
gas buses and 45 CNG filling stations, 40 in Yangon, 2 in Mandalay, 2 in Yenangyaung and 1 in Chauk.
The goal of Myanmar natural gas market is to build reasonable number of CNG filling stations along
the gas pipeline.
Export of Natural Gas
In 1998, Myanmar became a gas exporting country. Two years later in 2000, it exported the largest
volume of natural gas by pipeline in the AsiaβPacific region. Currently, itβs the fourth largest natural
gas exporting country in the region. According to the British Petroleum Organization, Myanmar
became the eleventh largest country exporting natural gas by pipeline in 2006. Currently, natural gas
is one of Myanmarβs main export products. Increasing gas exports helps Myanmar gain a rising status
in the regional oil and gas exploration area. As the per capita use of natural gas is growing in
Myanmar, natural gas is to be allocated for domestic consumption as priority. According to the
Ministry of Energy, Myanmar has earned 16 billion US dollars in 2007β2012 fiscal years. It is estimated
that the total export of gas set a record of 3.5 billion US dollars during 2011β2012 fiscal year.
Governance and Transparency
Since the inauguration of U Thein Sein government, Myanmar Government expresses its intention to
reform its energy sector, and to facilitate the extractives transparency. Myanmar is preparing to
implement Extractive Industries Transparency Initiatives (EITI), which will provide a platform for
conversations though its multiβstakeholder group. On 14 December, President Thein Sein has
appointed U Soe Thein, Minister of the Presidentβs Office, to lead EITI implementation in Myanmar,
and established the EITI Leading Authority. On May 20, 2013 Minister of Energy U Than Htay and
Special Envoy and Coordinator for International Energy Affairs Carlos Pascual released a Joint
34
Statement on Good Governance and Transparency in the Energy Sector. Through the Energy
Governance and Capacity Initiative (EGCI), the United States intends to support technical
capacityβbuilding to facilitate longβterm sector management, financial accountability and safety. On
6th June, 2013, the 22th World Economic Forum on East Asia was held in Naypyidaw, a report titled
New Energy Architecture: Myanmar was released calling for new strategy and planning on
Myanmarβs oil and gas industry.
Foreign Investment in Oil and Gas Sector
Foreign investment in Myanmarβs oil and gas industry has increased since its openingβup in 1989 and
other preferential policies. Especially after 2000, foreign companiesβ involvement in Myanmarβs oil
and gas exploitation increased significantly. Projects, which foreign companies involved in, are mostly
concentrated in coastal areas. Countries investing in Myanmar include ASEAN members like Thailand,
Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam, as well as nonβASEAN states like China, India, South
Korea, Japan, Australia, Britain, Canada, and Russia and so on. Among them, companies from China
and India are most active. Besides, Thailand is one of Myanmarβs largest investment sources in oil
and gas industry. Since 2012 PTTEP has drawn bold plans to expand its fuel station and retail network
in Myanmar. With Myanmarβs reform and opening up and the lifting of western sanctions, oil giants
like Total, Chevron, Shell intend to participate in the development of Myanmarβs oil and gas sector.
The MyanmarβChina Gas Pipeline is scheduled to operate on May 2013, and crude oil pipeline to
operate on September 2013.
Generally MOGE cooperates with foreign companies in approach of PSC. There are altogether 101
blocks for business cooperation with foreign oil companies: 53 onshore and 48 offshore. By January
2012, there are 8 foreign oil companies working in 10 onshore blocks, 12 in 27 offshore blocks. In
January 2013, India has won PSCβ1 onshore block bid and on 28 May signed PSC contract with MOGE
as holder of 77.5% shares. On April 10, 2013, Myanmar government initiated bidding for 30 offshore
blocks, By May 2013, there are 59 preβqualified international companies that have been enlisted on
the onshore blocks bidding. Competition between foreign companies brings advantages for Myanmar
in pitting China, India with ASEAN memberβs demand for energy to require those countries provide
reasonable economic interests to Myanmar.
Advantages and Challenges
The Oil and Gas sector has made great strides during last two decades. Yet insufficient terminals,
defunct port system and underdeveloped transportation have undermined its potential for progress.
Vast Potentials in Newly Explored Blocks
Myanmarβs proved oil and gas reserves have doubled in the past decade. The revelation of block Aβ1
and block Mβ9 increased Myanmarβs share of proved natural gas reserves in the AsiaβPacific region
from 2.6% to 4.14%, to become the seventh largest in the region. Block Aβ1 locates in Rakhine coastal
area, near Sittwe Port. Currently, there is no accurate figure of the natural gas reserves in block Aβ1.
The conservative estimate of its natural gas reserves is 10 trillion cubic feet, with about 4β6 trillion
cubic feet in Shwe gas field and 5 trillion cubic feet in the Shwe Phyu gas field. In addition to block
Aβ1, Mya natural gas field (block Aβ3) was also found in Rakhine coastal area, whose estimated
35
natural gas reserve is 2 trillion cubic feet. The gas reserves in Mβ9 block are estimated to be 8 trillion
cubic feet. These findings further improved Myanmarβs position in the international energy market.
Insufficient Oil for Domestic Demand
Compared with natural gas, Myanmar is not so rich in crude oil reserves. Myanmarβs oil and gas
production has increased since 1988. The production of crude oil has increased from 4.83 million
barrels in 1988 to 7.62 million barrels in 2007, with an increasing rate of 67%. At the same time,
Myanmarβs oil demand is also growing. The demand of gasoline, diesel and other fuel oil has
increased by four fold during nearly two decades. Diesel import accounts for more than half of the
domestic consumption and the Myanmar government has to pay for the subsidies caused by the
different prices in the international and domestic markets. Thus, Myanmar is still incapable of
providing selfβsufficient crude oil and its import of petroleum products has been on increase.
Deficiencies in Oil and Gas Market
The segmentation and monopoly is serious in Myanmarβs oil and gas market, resulting in market
mechanism malfunction, business inefficiency and underdevelopment of oil and gas market.
Moreover, there are administrative monopoly and market access restriction in Myanmarβs oil and gas
industry. The stateβrunning oil marketing terminals have the priority to gain petroleum products.
During the privatization of state assets in recent three years, some fuel stations were sold to private
enterprises, and since February 2012 private enterprises have been entitled to importation and
exportation, storage and sale of oil and gas products, but more is to be reformed to break the
monopoly and promote the effective circulation of products and service.
Refineries to be Constructed
Currently, Myanmar has set up only three refineries, namely, Thanlyin Refinery, Chauk Refinery and
Thanbayakan Refinery, all of them locates in Yangon regionβs Thanlyin town and Magway division.
The oldest one was built in 1954, and canβt operate at full capacity due to the long period. The
combined capacity of the three refineries is 51 thousand barrels per day, which canβt meet the
domestic need. In the coastal area of lower Myanmar, natural gas power generation plays an
important role. Myanmar government is eager to build new refinery. In the meeting on May 27 2013,
President U Thein Sein urged China National Petroleum Corporationβs new president Liao Yong Yuan
to construct refinery plants in Myanmar. It is proposed in the MyanmarβChina Oil and Gas Pipelines
project that a refinery plant in Mandalay, with a capacity of 56 thousand barrels per day, is to be
constructed in order to refine the annual 2 million tons crude oil downloaded from ChinaβMyanmar
pipeline. It can process crude oil produced in Myanmar or from Middle East. Oil products can be
transported to destination by the pipeline after processing. The oil products of the refinery also can
be put into local market. Therefore, building refinery in Myanmar can meet its domestic demand and
greatly reduce the cost and risk of international transportation.
Gas Grid to be Developed
Although Myanmar is rich in natural gas resources, its domestic gas usage rate is growing too. Thus, it
needs to expand gas transportation grid. It needs to improve crossβborder gas transportation grid to
36
strengthen exporting capacity, and with the development of Myanmarβs economy, residents must
also have more gas demand. It implicates the existing 2000 kilometers gas pipeline be expanded for
secondary supply network. When conditions permitted, natural gas pipeline can be reach to some
households in large cities.
Oil and Gas Legislation to Be Promulgated
Myanmar needs develop specific regulations for energy, and its legal system for oil and gas
exploitation needs to be improved. Currently, foreign investment in Myanmarβs energy industry has
to comply with several laws and regulations. Although Myanmar has developed some policies
relating to oil and gas exploitation and consumption, the energy sector canβt fully achieve the
objectives due to lack of specific energy laws and regulations.
37
From βOutsideβ to βInsideβ: The Transformation of Activism over Energy Projects in Myanmar
Adam Simpson
Director, Centre for Peace, Conflict and Mediation, Hawke Research Institute
University of South Australia
The search for energy security and the establishment of reliable transnational energy markets is one
of the key factors reβshaping politics and governance throughout Asia. With the energy needs of
China and India in particular rapidly increasing, Myanmar, sandwiched between the two, has taken
on greater significance both as a source and a transit route for energy. With the development of
these regional energy markets there is a pressing need for effective environmental governance of
transnational energy projects that have the potential to inflict serious and widespread social and
environmental impacts. Until recently most forms of stateβled governance in Myanmar were
authoritarian and haphazard. With the political reforms currently underway, however, the new
government is attempting to establish more democratic, rigorous and transparent forms of
governance. Nonβstate actors, and particularly environmental activists, can make an important
contribution to this transition. Historically, most activism has been transnational in nature, as it has
been undertaken by exiled activists based in Thailand or otherwise beyond the reach of the
Myanmar state. As the opportunities for political contribution and dissent in Myanmar increase more
activism is taking place inside Myanmar, as exiled activists return and domestic activists emerge. This
paper explores this unfolding transformation of activism from an exiled βactivist diasporaβ to domestic
activism, particularly in relation to campaigns against the gas and oil pipelines being built across
Myanmar to provide energy for southβwest China.
During military rule the displaced and rebellious borderland communities were the most fertile
spaces for the development of environment movements against transnational energy projects based
in Myanmar. Despite the dangers these activists often reβentered Myanmar incognito to undertake
research for NGOs that were based outside Myanmarβs borders. These activists developed networks
between displaced communities inside Myanmar and the exiles across the border (South 2004). The
indeterminate nature of the zones of operation that environmental activists inhabited led them to
undertake a broad range of activities. No borderβbased environmental groups were simply lobby
groups but their activities included lobbying international actors, writing reports, undertaking covert
field research and providing clandestine education and training in Myanmar.
This exodus from authoritarianβruled Myanmar to engage in activism in its borderlands and
neighbouring countries resulted in what can be described as an βactivist diasporaβ, which has
provided activist environmental governance of policies and projects in Myanmar (Simpson 2013a).
The inclusive domain of the term βdiasporaβ has, at times, been stretched to render it almost
meaningless, with academic literature on, for example, liberal or queer diaspora leading Brubaker to
argue that β[i]f everyone is diasporic, then no one is distinctively soβ (2005: 3). Myanmarβs expatriate
38
activists, however, fulfil not only traditional aspects of the term based on dislocation or βthe dispersal
of a people from [their] original homelandβ (Butler 2001: 189), but also what SΓΆkefeld argues are
βimagined transnational communitiesβ with a βtransnationally dispersed collectivity that distinguishes
itself by clear selfβimaginations as communityβ (2006: 267). His focus on social movement theory and
forms of mobilisation dovetails with the concept of an activist diasporic community. This concept,
deriving as it does from a largely progressive and democratic activist community also avoids the
pitfalls that afflict some diasporic communities, such as a lack of transβethnic solidarity and gender
awareness (Anthias 1998). Despite friction existing between some ethnic communities of Myanmar,
which may be replicated in exile, this friction is largely absent in the environmental activist
communities examined here who have made significant attempts to develop multiβethnic
collaboration for both strategic and ideological reasons. An additional stimulus to cooperation has
been the geographic reach of both the Shwe Gas Pipeline and the Salween Dams, which cross several
ethnic states and regions, precipitating a high level of crossβethnic cooperation in the development of
the campaigns. This unprecedented collaboration is the first defining characteristic of an activist
diaspora.
The second characteristic of an activist diaspora is that it actively establishes linkages and provides
specialist knowledge and otherwise unavailable expertise to broader campaign networks or
coalitions in foreign or βoutsiderβ communities, which contrasts with the often isolationist approach
of other members of diasporic communities. The importance of exiled activists to the outside groups
lies in their specific linguistic and cultural knowledge together with a local political understanding,
often sharpened by intense personal experiences, which outsiders, in this case from the North or
Thailand, are unlikely ever to acquire or fully comprehend. This βinsiderβ knowledge of Myanmar
exiles allows them to undertake covert research back in Myanmar proper that would otherwise be
unachievable and to provide the expertise to outside or transnational civil society groups that is
inaccessible to other activists. In this way the activist diaspora can publicise and highlight issues of
particular concern to their communities, drawing the attention of outsiders to their campaigns.
The third aspect of an activist diaspora is that contributing expertise to broader campaigns and
engaging with activists outside its community plays an important role in bolstering the confidence
and skills, including English language proficiency, of exiles who may otherwise feel isolated in a
foreign country. The delicate balance of emotions that exists in exile communities between βhope
[and] resistanceβ on the one hand and βhelplessness, suffering and apathyβ on the other suggests that
those who establish strong links both to their own diasporic community and the outsider community
are those most likely to adapt successfully to their new lives (Mavroudi 2008: 70). The networks
within Myanmarβs activist diaspora have facilitated linkages and communication with other
transnational activists, based predominantly in Thailand, that have successfully conveyed their
campaigns, on both crossβborder energy projects and democratisation in Myanmar, to a more
spatially dispersed transnational audience (Simpson 2013b).
Activism over the Shwe Gas Pipeline
Until recently most activism over the Shwe Gas Pipeline Project, which is to transport gas from
Rakhine State to Yunnan Province in China, was undertaken by outside activists, led by the Shwe Gas
Movement (SGM) and Arakan Oil Watch (AOW) in Chiang Mai. As under most authoritarian regimes,
39
political activism in Myanmar took unconventional forms so, while there were no domestic NGOs
established to challenge the Shwe Project directly, concerned youth channelled their energy through
alternative organisational structures. In 2004 Thu Rein, a student at Sittwe University in the state
capital, set up the Association of University Stipends and Social Affairs Rakhine, a student body
nominally established to represent student interests. As the details of the Shwe Project gradually
emerged the Association became a focal point for related debate and discussion. As well as holding
covert gatherings on the topic they contacted exiled organisations, such as AOW and SGM in
Thailand, to gather more information. Their activities were eventually discovered by military
intelligence and in 2009 eleven Association student members were arrested, receiving sentences of
up to six years in prison with three years each for two illegal activities: βcontacting unlawful [e.g.
exiled] associationsβ and βillegal border crossingsβ, into Thailand or India.9 These young students
were taken to prisons in other states and regions β some as far away as Kachin State at the other end
of the country β which made it difficult for old or poor relatives to visit. Although the easing of
security tensions under the new government meant that most of the group were released in a
January 2012 amnesty, four remained in jail.10 Thu Rein managed to evade arrest and fled to
Thailand in 2010, eventually becoming the Campaign Coordinator of AOW.
Restrictions on these domestic political activities began to lift in late 2011. In October 2011 Energy
Minister U Than Htay confirmed in a parliamentary speech that 80 per cent of the Shwe gas was to
be exported to China with much of the rest to be used by factories in central Myanmar owned by
companies that were known to be close to the military. In response to this statement and the easing
of political restrictions the local campaign became more open and visible. One component of the
campaign was the writing of letters to the provincial governments of both Rakhine and Shan states β
the two ethnic states that the pipeline traversed β making what could be considered procedural
complaints about the pipeline construction such as infringing on farmersβ land, lack of compensation
and destruction of roads.11
A more confrontational, substantive and dissenting argument in the campaign, which was informed
by concepts of natural resource rights, was the demand that the gas be used to provide 24βhour
electricity to Rakhine State before any gas was exported. Rakhine State was one of Myanmarβs
poorest, with the lowest per capita electricity usage in the country according to the stateβrun media.
The emerging permissive political atmosphere convinced local activists that it was possible to make
this sort of demand openly for the first time. Across the state tβshirts, posters, stickers and calendars
appeared bearing the message β24 Hours of Electricity Now. We Have the Right to Use Our Gasβ
(Mizzima 2012).
The demand for 24βhour electricity resonated with the more formalised ethnic political parties in
Rakhine State, the Rakhine Nationalities Development Party (RNDP), which participated in the 2010
elections and had parliamentarians in the national parliament, and the ALD, which boycotted the
2010 elections but agreed to register as a party in late 2011 along with the NLD.12 Both parties
9 Thu Rein, interview with author, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 11 February 2012.
10 Phyo Phyo (pseudonym), interview with author, Yangon, Myanmar, 18 February 2012.
11 Patrick (pseudonym), interview with author, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 13 February 2012.
12 Soon after the ALD decided to participate in the elections the plainclothes security personnel who had been posted outside the
40
adopted a less confrontational approach than activists, however, and saw potential developmental
benefits from the pipeline projects, with the Secretary of the RNDP, Oo Hla Saw, noting that they
were much less socially and environmentally damaging than the Myitsone Dam in Kachin State.13
Indeed he βwelcomedβ foreign direct investment in Rakhine State although preferring US/EU over
Chinese investment due to βgreater transparency and respect for international normsβ. While Oo Hla
Saw felt that they were unable to stop the project anyway the RNDP argued in parliament that the 20
per cent of gas allocated to Myanmar should be used for development in Rakhine State, setting up a
β24βhour Electricity Committeeβ to pursue this objective. The ALD Secretary, Aye Tha Aung, voiced
similar opinions from outside the parliamentary system, but argued that more public participation
was necessary in the decision making process and that Rakhine State βreceived nothingβ under the
existing contracts. All technical labour was brought in from China and many of the manual labourers
were brought in from central Myanmar.14 Local campaigners were now very openly arguing for overt
politicisation of the gas in favour of Rakhine State, with activists arguing for it all to be kept in the
state rather than being sold to China in international energy markets.
Conclusion
Myanmarβs activist diaspora has skills and international networks that could be used effectively to
bolster the growth and efficacy of domestic βinsideβ activism. Rapid changes in the domestic political
and economic environment, however, poses challenges for activists based βoutsideβ to keep up with
developments and remain relevant. As well as the Shwe Pipeline coming into commercial operation
in the second half of 2013 there is likely to be an explosion of energy and natural resource projects
over the next few years that have the potential to cause significant social and environmental
displocation throughout Myanmar. Civil society can contribute to the environmental governance of
these projects not only by bringing an important alternative viewpoint but, in the case of Myanmar,
inside activists and those with international experience can also provide skills and expertise that are
in desperately short supply in the Myanmar government and its civil service.
References
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Brubaker, R. 2005. βThe βdiasporaβ diaspora.β Ethnic and Racial Studies, 28(1): 1β19.
Butler, K. D. 2001. βDefining diaspora, refining a discourse.β Diaspora, 10(2): 189β219.
Mavroudi, E. 2008. βPalestinians in diaspora, empowerment and informal political space.β Political
Geography. January, 27(1): 1β138.
Mizzima. 8 February 2012. βPTT ready to expand its Burma oil businessβ.
http://www.mizzima.com/business/6558βpttβreadyβtoβexpandβitsβburmaβoilβbusiness.html.
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Lin), Yangon, Myanmar, 20 January 2012.
13 Oo Hla Saw, interview with author, Yangon, Myanmar, 20 January 2012.
14 Aye Tha Aung, interview with author (translated from Arakanese by Zaw Myat Lin), Yangon, Myanmar, 20 January 2012.
41
Accessed:12 February 2012.
Simpson, A. 2013a. βChallenging hydropower development in Myanmar (Burma): Crossβborder
activism under a regime in transition.β Pacific Review. May, 26(2).
ββββββ 2013b. Energy, Governance and Security in Thailand and Myanmar (Burma): A Critical Approach
to Environmental Politics in the South. Farnham: Ashgate, forthcoming.
SΓΆkefeld, M. 2006. βMobilizing in transnational space: A social movement approach to the formation
of diaspora.β Global Networks, 6(3): 265β84.
South, A. 2004. βPolitical transition in Myanmar: A new model for democratization.β Contemporary
Southeast Asia, 26(2): 233β55.
42
Amending Constitution: Focal Point of Myanmarβs Political Development in 2013
Wang Zichang
School of International Studies, Jinan University
On Political Development
Here the political developments means that, first, public sources are distributed fairer than before,
and second, powers are obtained and operated according rules more than before; the second criteria
must be obedient to the first criteria; One countryβs political developments are the results of the
interactions among the relative political powers.
Why should we study Myanmarβs political development?
It can provide us a framework to comprehend, judge and forecast Myanmarβs situation
How to analyze Myanmarβs political development?
It need us focus on the interactions among the various political powers instead of just one political
leaderβs aspiration and action.
Focal Points of Myanmarβs Political Development in 2013
First, amending the 2008 constitution for Aung San Suu Kyiβs presidential dream
In the period of one or two years afterwards, amending the 2008 constitutionβs request for
presidential qualification will be a focal point in the Myanmarβs political development. This because
that Aung San Suu Kyi want to race for the Myanmarβs president in 2015. According Myanmarβs 2008
constitutionοΌAung San Suu Kyi cannot be elected as Myanmarβs president because she married an
Englishman, and her two sons are English. But Aung San Suu Kyi15 has expressed her aspiration
several times that she want to race for Myanmarβs president in 2015. If she wants to realize her
presidential dream, she must mobilize enough support to amend the 2008 constitution.
According the present observationοΌAungSan Suu Kyi can get enough votes if she was admitted to
race for the 2015 presidential election. In the long past period, Aung San suu kyi and the National
League for Democracy (NLD) that she led struggled arduously and persistently with the junta for
Myanmarβs democracy. This wined Aung San Suu Kyi a coin of Myanmarβs democracy and common
peopleβs support. They support her to race Myanmarβs next president to lead Myanmar after 2015.
15 Chapter III, Article 59 (f), of the Constitution states: βHe himself [the president or vice president], one of his parents, his spouse, one of
his legitimate children or their spouses shall not owe allegiance to a foreign power, nor be the subject of a foreign power or the citizen of a foreign country. They shall not be persons entitled to enjoy the rights and privileges of a subject of a foreign government or citizen of a foreign country.β
43
Here it should point that though NLD support Aung San Suu Kyiβs aspiration to be president, they
didnβt take the actions that they used to, such parade on the street. Instead, they take legal actions
to show their support, such as to participate in the committee of amending constitution of
parliament, to take part in the international symposium on amending constitution. At same time,
Aung San Suu Kyi also seeking the militaryβs support by expressing clearly her points about armed
forces in the future political structure.
About amending constitution, the latest expression of Aung San Suu Kyi is that she will first lead the
NLD participate the parliamentary election, if NLD won the majority, then she and NLD promote to
amend the constitution so that she can be elected as the next president by parliament.
To the request of amending constitution of Aung San Suu Kyi and NLD, the ruling party leaders
responded differently. Aung Min responded positively. He said he support ASSK and NLD demand.
Htay Oo, a vice chairman of USDP, responded negatively. He said that there is not plan now to amend
the constitution. Thein Sein, the president responded mildly, he said it will be determined by people
and by the parliament. From their interaction, it can be judged that the constitution cannot be
amended this year.
Second, amending the 2008 constitution to satisfy the minority peoplesβ demand
According the law, the central government want incorporate the local armed forces of minority
(LAFM) into the Board Guard forces. The LAFM felt that the treatment stipulated by the law were not
satisfactory and refused the requirement of central government. Then the central government
attacked them.
This time the central government takes the βcarrot and stickβ strategy. At the same time the attack
was fighting, the central government also established two committeesββββUnion Peace Making
Committee and the Union Peace Working Committeeβββ to seek end the conflicts peacefully. In 2012,
the central government has signed peace agreement with six LAFMs. The one that is still fighting
with the central government is Kachin Independence Organization (KIO). The reason of continuing
conflicts is that the two sides cannot agree on the preconditions to cease fire.
The leaders of KIO point that the main reason of the present conflicts is the central government
betrayed the 1947 Panglong agreements. They put forward that it should first resolve the problems
of status and rights of the minority peoples in the federalist government and then negotiate the
peace agreement. The central government insists that it should cease fire first and then negotiate
the plans of political settlement.
It can be concludes from the interactions between the central government and LAFMs that the focal
points of the conflicts are the distribution of the rights. The KIO want the high autonomy that
stipulated by the 1947 Panglong agreements. Otherwise, the central government did not empower
the autonomy the minority wanted. The sustained conflicts showed us once again that the criteria of
fair distribution of rights must be emphasized in the political developments of one country. The
criteria of normalization gaining and operation of power must be obedient to the former criteria.
Otherwise, the results may be armed conflicts in larger scale and more efficient slaughters.
44
Seemed understanding this, the central government unilaterally announced that It will stop attack
and seek to negotiate the cease fire in January 2013. 28 may the two sides will hold peace talk in
Magweal Hall in Myitkyina Township with the participation of representatives of China and the UN.
Though the interactions between the central government and KIO have not promoted the
normalization of the power operationββββ promoting fair distribution by the present constitution and
parliament, the struggle of KIO for fair right distribution is still one very important part of Myanmarβs
political development.
The key to resolve this problem is the honesty and measures of the central government. That is
whether the central government want amend the 2008 constitution according the 1947 Panglong
agreements to meet the autonomy of the Kachin and other minority peoples.
45
Cooperation and Competition between U.S. and Japanβs Policy towards Myanmar
Bi Shihong
School of International Studies, Yunnan University
After the first general election in 20 years held in January 2010, an elected government took place of
the military junta in March. On April 1, 2012, Myanmar opposition party, the National League for
Democracy (NLD), won the byβelections and its leader Aung San Suu Kyi was elected Member of
Parliament with an overwhelming majority of votes. A series of changes of Myanmar political
situation brought hopes for this countryβs stability and development, broadened space for Myanmar
diplomacy and provided opportunities for U.S. and Japan to improve their relations with Myanmar.
U.S. and Japanese dignitaries visited Myanmar continuously, launching the efficient and pragmatic
dialogue and cooperation with Myanmarβs new government. Cooperation and competition between
U.S. and Japanβs policy towards Myanmar will undoubtedly affect Myanmarβs domestic and foreign
affairs in many aspects. Reviewing U.S. and Japanβs policies towards Myanmar, this paper will discuss
cooperation and competition between U.S. and Japan, and its influences on China as well.
Since the Obama administration took office, the government emphasized Southeast Asia as its
strategic priority, declaring βReturn to Southeast Asiaβ, enhancing cooperation with ASEAN countries,
proposing a new mechanism of βLower Mekong Initiativeβ (LMI), and taking adjustment of its policy
towards Myanmar into account. U.S. proactive flexible engagement policy towards Myanmar in
certain sense is an inevitable result of the adjustment of U.S. global strategy, even an inevitable
choice of U.S. βReturn to Southeast Asiaβ strategy. From a micro view, U.S. proactive flexible
engagement policy towards Myanmar was based on U.S. reflection on inefficient βsanction and
isolationβ policy and its judgment of Myanmarβs internal and external situation. Since 2009, U.S.
policy towards Myanmar has shifted from the longβterm βsanction and isolationβ to the twoβway
βpragmatic engagementβ which means simultaneous diplomatic engagement and sanction, and U.S.
continuously showed its willingness to improve its relation with Myanmar, then put it into practice.
During Hilaryβs visit to Myanmar in early December, 2011, Hilary particularly invited Myanmar to join
LMI cooperation mechanism as a diplomatic observer. Hilaryβs visit to Myanmar opened a new page
for U.S.βMyanmar relations, and it was an important part of βreturn to Southeast Asiaβ strategy. In
November 19th 2012, Obama, the first U.S. president who visited Myanmar, met Thein Sein and Aung
San Suu Kyi in Yangon, and declared that U.S. would provide $170 million financial aid to Myanmar.
The significance of Obamaβs sixβhour visit to Myanmar was more symbolic than practical, and was
regarded as recognition for the abolition of military governance and encouragement for the future.
U.S. needed Myanmar as its strategic pivot of βReturn to Southeast Asiaβ by which U.S. wanted to
impair Chinaβs increasing influences in Southeast Asia. The Obama administration attempted to grasp
the chance that Myanmar was undertaking a comprehensive reform and trying to get out of the
international isolation, hoping to catalyze peaceful evolution of authoritarian regimes in East Asia by
Myanmarβs comprehensive reform and the influence of βArab Springβ.
46
Japan was greatly aware of Myanmarβs fertility, the potential huge market and business opportunities
of more than 50 million people. For Japan, the sea routes in Southeast Asia were the lifeline through
which Japan could enter into the Pacific. From the longβterm strategic point of view, Japanβs
competing dominance over Myanmarβs diplomacy and its abundant resources with China is very
important to maintain its maritime lifeline. In order to maintain its influences in Southeast Asian
especially in Myanmar and prevent the infiltration of Chinaβs influences, Japanese government
continues to spread the βtheory of Chinese threat to the southβ , therefore, Myanmar is increasing
fears and concerns that China will force to the south someday.
Japanβs policies towards Myanmar were the following: taking financial aid as a bait to impel dialogues
between Myanmarβs government and opposition parties and reconciliation of ethnic minorities;
helping Myanmarβs transition towards market economy system; keeping the coordination with
European countries and U.S.; paying continuous attention to the situation of human rights in
Myanmar. When the people in Myanmar had enough food and clothing, they would ask the military
junta to take reform and transfer more power to them. When it became true, Myanmar could be a
democratic country as Japan had expected. Japan always implemented βconstructive interferenceβ
policy towards Myanmar and played a very important role in guiding Myanmarβs road to
marketβoriented economy. Japan kept a certain distance with European countries and the States, had
the close ties with Myanmar government, and induced Myanmar to keep a certain distance with
China by βthe carrot rather than the big stickβ policy. Japan attempted to affect Myanmarβs process
of democratization and direction of economic reform by the means of economic and technical
assistance, the exchange of policies and dialogues, human resource development, trade cooperation
and direct investment and so on.
Affected by the Obama administrationβs βReturn to Southeast Asiaβ and βproactive flexible
engagementβ, Japanese government included Southeast Asia into βvalueβoriented diplomacyβ system,
trying to enlarge the camp of containing China and taking frequent diplomatic offensive in Southeast
Asia. Japan wanted to develop further relations with Myanmar via the transition from the military
junta to the elected government, realizing the promise made by the previous Japanese leaders,
paying attention to the abundant human resources and markets to seek the joint development of
mineral resources such as natural gas and rare earth. As for economic cooperation with Myanmar,
Japan played a more active role, trying to support the construction of democratization in Myanmar
via the enhanced economic relation and contain Chinaβs influences in Myanmar by signing and
implementing the investment agreements to strengthen financial assistance for Myanmar.
Both U.S. and Japan consider Myanmarβs geopolitics location is of great importance. Myanmar is
located in the central area of the contiguous plates of East Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia, and it
is the most convenient channel through which China advances south into the Indian Ocean, so U.S.
and Japan naturally compete with China for their influences in Myanmar. Myanmarβs political elites
also think the strategic location of Myanmar between China and India is more important than its
abundant natural resources. Both U.S. and Japan realize that it is necessary to further improve their
relations with Myanmar to balance the continuously developed bilateral relation between China and
Myanmar. Though it will be a long period for U.S. to lift its sanctions on Myanmar completely, U.S.
will finally do this to further enhance its influences in Myanmar and even the whole AsianβPacific
region. Meanwhile, Japan coordinates closely with U.S. βreturn to Southeast Asiaβ strategy when
47
improving its relations with Myanmar. Thus, when considering the development of their relations
with Myanmar, U.S. and Japan pay great attention to policy coordination and close cooperation
between them in order to promote the political and economic reform in Myanmar.
Japan always remains close interactions with U.S. in its important diplomatic activities because
U.S.βJapan Alliance is the foot stone of Japanβs diplomacy, but it is obvious that U.S. canβt fully
understand Myanmarβs importance to Japan. In order to maintain the special JapanβMyanmar
relations and Japanβs interests in Myanmar, Japan not only put pressure on Myanmar but also kept
close relations during the military junta. As for sanctions on Myanmar, Japan showed a different and
even doubleβfaced stand from U.S., which indicated Japanβs opportunism and pragmatism.
For Japan, it did not prepare enough for U.S. βreturn to Southeast Asiaβ, LMI and the
rapidlyβdeveloped U.S.βMyanmar closer relations, and felt nervous because this situation was not the
same as it had expectedβto contain China by strengthening U.S.βJapan alliance. Japanβs elaboration of
its policy towards Myanmar was a little inferior to U.S. βreturn to Southeast Asiaβ strategy, and
JapanβMyanmar cooperation space was extruded by U.S. In recent years, U.S. paid more attention to
Myanmar, so Japan worried about its influences on Myanmar and enhanced its cooperation with
Myanmar to ensure its leading position in this region.
In other words, U.S. mighty interference would weaken Japanβs influences on Myanmar and the
Southeast Asia, and the leading position in Southeast Asia pursued by U.S. and Japan were
contradictory. Both U.S. βproactive flexible engagementβ and Japanβs βconstructive interferenceβ
aimed at enlarging their influences on Myanmar, which would cause more competition between
these two countries. In recent years, with the different strategic consideration, the strategic interests
of U.S. and Japan in this region were overlapped and the competition and cooperation between
these two countries occurred repeatedly. Both U.S. comeback and Japanβs increased stake to gain
superiority were to enhance its influences on Myanmar. U.S. and Japan would keep close cooperation
to improve their relations with Myanmar and the competition for their influences on Myanmar
would be inevitable, which would objectively enlarge Myanmarβs diplomatic space and improve
Myanmarβs relations with western countries.
In conclusion, Myanmar is very important for China in geopolitics, border security and energy
security and China also has much financial interests in Myanmar. In recent years, Myanmar
implemented βmultiβfaceted diplomacyβ and βthe balance of powerβ, developing relations with
neighboring countries such as China and India as well as improving relations with the western
countries including U.S. and Japan. China hopes to see a stable and prosperous Myanmar, so there
would be a certain space for China, Japan and U.S. to cooperate diplomatically with some common
interests in issues related Myanmar. Facing U.S. and Japanβs recent activities, China should remain
conscious and vigilant. βReturn to Southeast Asiaβ and βproactive flexible engagementβ of the
Obama administration and Japanβs βvalueβoriented diplomacyβ in Southeast Asia region and close
economic relation with Myanmar aim at China clearly, planning to contain Chinaβs influences in
strategic aspect. Besides, U.S. and Japan took some other measures in politics, diplomacy, and
economy, military and social culture to contain China. U.S. and Japanβs improved relations with
Myanmar will not only inevitably play a role in containing China but also interfere with Chinaβs
strategic layout in Southeast Asia.
48
The European Union and Future Development of Myanmar
Yang Baoyun
School of International Studies, Peking University
Due to historical factors and actual demands, some European powers pay an extra attention to
Myanmar. With the deepening of the European integration process, the European Union (EU) applies
also a more unified policy towards Myanmar focused on βValues diplomacyβ which is the basis of the
EU policy on this country. With the reform of Myanmarβs new government, EU has also adjusted its
policy. At same time, Myanmarβs government needs the help and aids from EU. A benign interaction
between European Union and Myanmar has preliminary established, and this new relationship will
exert some influences in the future development of Myanmar.
The EU Policy to Myanmarβs Military Junta
During the Myanmarβs military junta period, issues such as human rights and freedom were the EUβs
most important obstacles in the relations with this country. Responding to the Burmese juntaβs
repression of proβdemocracy activists, the EU governments agreed to impose even tougher sanctions
against Rangoon. The decision extended the existing the EU ban on granting visas to more than 200
people, including not just members of the government but also βthose who profit from it.β The EU
freeze on assets of Myanmarβs nationals was also extended to cover more people, including generals,
ministers, and people working in the tourism industry and in state enterprises. It suspended
preferential trade concessions for the country several years ago. At same time, the EU banned the
sale of arms to Myanmar.
In the process to impose the values diplomacy on Myanmar, the EU has on the one hand applied
sanctions on Myanmar for express its dissatisfaction with the human rights situation in the country;
on the other hand, promoted its values in Myanmar by a variety of channels, including the
establishment of the nonβgovernmental organizations and funding the local NGO existed.
The EUβs policy visβΓ βvis to Myanmar has given the Myanmarβs military government a great deal of
pressure.
At this period, the relation between EU and Myanmar even had a great effect on the relations
EUβASEAN. After Myanmarβs admission to ASEAN on 1997, and in the process of institutional
development of AsiaβEurope meeting where ASEAN and the European Union are the main problem
of Myanmar even became one of the issues in the relationship between two sides. Since then, the
ASEANβEU biβregional dialogue went into a process of atrophy.
Adjustment of the EU Policy towards Myanmar
Since the elections in Myanmar, the new Government introduced quickly the political and social
49
reforms and carried out an opening policy; the European Union has watched and supported the
remarkable process of reform in Myanmar; welcome the developments towards democracy, a strong
Parliament, freedom of expression, and the governmentβs efforts against corruption, as well as the
efforts towards the release of remaining political prisoners.
As the EU is conscious that there are still significant challenges to be addressed in its relations with
Myanmar, it set up the political conditions: First is to consolidate the democratic achievements so far
and to move further towards full transition; second to unconditionally release the remaining political
prisoners, while noting with satisfaction the creation of a review mechanism and looking forward to
the early completion of its work; third to strengthen human rights and the rule of law including
through enhanced cooperation with the UN, in particular to ensure the protection of all minorities;
fourth to deal with interβcommunal violence; fifth to achieve sustainable peace in Myanmar by
addressing longβstanding differences in an inclusive way, and in particular calling for an end of
hostilities in Kachin State; sixth to adopt urgent action to deal with humanitarian risks for all
displaced people in the Rakhine State.
The economic conditions have been set up as following: First is to promote inclusive and sustainable
growth, as well as good governance to achieve the Millennium Development Goals in line with the
governmentβs plans; second to ensure that reforms are translated to economic benefits for ordinary
people; third to encourage responsible trade and investment while promoting transparency and
environmental protection.
In the international affairs there are also the principles to be respected: Myanmar has to be an active
and respected member of the international community, by adhering to international agreements,
including in relation to human rights, land mines, nonβproliferation and disarmament, etc.
With adjustment of its policy towards Myanmar, the EU stands ready to cooperate with Naypyidaw.
The EU is willing to open a new chapter in its relations with Myanmar building a lasting partnership
and to promote closer engagement with the country as a whole. The Council invites the High
Representative/Vice President to discuss and propose a comprehensive framework with priorities for
the EUβs policy and support to the ongoing reforms for the next three years to prepare election of
2015 and encourages relevant authorities in Member States and the EU institutions to proceed
without delay to joint programming of development aid for Myanmar while respecting the existing
harmonization efforts.
The EU plans to strengthen relations with Myanmarβs parliament by studying the possibility of
assisting the reform of the police service in Myanmar, in partnership with all appropriate
stakeholders, in particular with the countryβs Parliament.
The EU is ready to cooperate with Myanmar for democratization and human rights by sharing the
recent experience on political transition and democratization in some of its Member States and
exploring ways to promote a regular human rights dialogue with Naypyidaw.
For economic cooperation the EU will maintain increased levels of development assistance, in
coordination with other donors and explore the feasibility of a bilateral investment agreement. But
the EU will still keep the embargo on arms. In response to the changes that have taken place and in
50
the expectation that they will continue, the Council has decided to lift all sanctions with the
exception of the embargo on arms which will remain in place.
The main factors improving EUβs policy change is the reform of Myanmar are following: First, the
achievements of social and political reforms and carried out an opening policy to the world adopted
by new Government of Myanmar introduced EU to adjust its policy towards Myanmar to promote
father reform in this country. Secondly, the EU realize the unavailability of sanctions policy. In fact,
for over 14 years EU sanctions have achieved little to nothing in terms of forcing Myanmarβs military
dictatorship to open up, as an example, Piero Fassino, EU Special Envoy for Myanmar, has been
unable for long time to get permission to visit the country since his appointment in late 2007. Third,
for reasons of economic interests. The EU is facing many challenges, such as the European debt crisis
and weak economic development, and its economic power has declined. Myanmar is an important
market for EU. Some big companies of the EU member countries keep an eye on potential future
developments in Myanmar, hoping to gain an interest in this market.
However, there are also some different voices on the adjustment of policy towards Myanmar. For
example the European Burma Network, a collective of advocacy and human rights groups has
released a joint statement urging the European Union to delay lifting remaining sanctions on
Myanmar ahead of a review on April 22, 2013. βWe are concerned that the premature lifting of EU
sanctions will undermine the reform process in Myanmar, and could even encourage further serious
human rights abuses,β said the statement issued by Mark Farmaner, director of Burma Campaign UK,
on March 26, 2013. Some other criticized that the EU Foreign Ministers have decided to trust Thein
Sein, and throw everything they have behind him. There are no caveats or reservationsβinstead itβs
a wholehearted endorsement of a man whom the United Nations Special Rapporteur on human
rights in Myanmar twice named for personally ordering human rights abuses.
The Myanmar Governmentβs Response
Myanmarβs government shows welcome attitude to the new policy of EU. Itβs president Thein Sein
had visited EU and requested that the remaining EU sanctions be lifted during his European visit. He
pointed outοΌβWhat we lack is capital and modern technologies ... all these are because of the
economic sanctions for the last 20 yearsβ.
Myanmar has shown clearly that Myanmar has high expectations of EUβs aids. In 2012 the European
Commission allocated β¬18.5 million to address the basic humanitarian needs of over one million
vulnerable people in Myanmar affected by conflict, natural disasters or ethnic tensions, particularly
along the eastern border with Thailand, in Kachin, Chin and in Rakhine State. ECHO has provided β¬5
million of humanitarian aid to Kachin state, and β¬8 million to Rakhine state in 2012. EUβs aids eased
the burden of Myanmarβs government to a certain extent.
In order to respond to the demands of release of political prisoners, Myanmarβs president has
pardoned 93 prisoners, including at least 59 political detainees, a day after the European Union lifted
sanctions. βAmnesties almost always coincide with international events. Todayβs amnesty coincides
with the lifting of EU sanctions,β said Ko Ko Gyi, who was released from jail in 2012.
Taking conscience of role of European big companies on the EUβs policy visβΓ βvis to Myanmar, the
51
government of Naypyidaw will pay high attention to them in future,and increase its relationship with
the big European enterprises, in particular the links with some transnational holding companies to
obtain more investment and assistance from EU.
Conclusion
The European Union had taken the new policy characterized by the links between the values and
economic assistance in Myanmar, to encourage the government of this country to continue to reform
and opening up, and at the same time, the EU tries use economic interests to prevent the turn back
of Myanmarβs reform.
The European Union and Myanmar has established a preliminary benign interaction
It can be expected, as long as the Myanmar government continues to implement the reform and
opening up policy, the EU will continue to make a positive response, so that bilateral relations in
different fields, such as political, social, economic, cultural and other will maintain a stable
development.
52
Human Security in Myanmar: Critical Hurdles
Pavin Chachavalpongpun, PhD
Associate Professor
Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University
[email protected]βu.ac.jp
Domestic Discourse of βSecurityβ
Human security has been a relatively alien concept due to the overwhelming concentration on the
security of nationβstate. The making of the βsecurityβ discourse in Myanmar is arbitrary. It is
arbitrary because it has been shaped and reshaped according to the changing power interests of the
Myanmar elite. The state becomes equivalent to the nation. Hence, the security of the nation is
equal the regime security. Brendan Howe and Suyoun Jang explain this through the actorβcentric
security paradigm.16 In this paradigm, security is an essential component of absolute sovereignty
and the cornerstone of national interest. It places the security of the nationβstate at the centre of
analysis. From this viewpoint, state is forever preoccupied with the need to protect national
sovereignty and territorial integrity from foreign and domestic enemies, at the same time as it
defends itself from all kinds of threats to its interest. Externally, wars are unavoidable. Internally,
political stability and social order is imperative. The priority has been to ensure security with the
military being assigned a primary role in the safeguarding of the nationβstate.
In Myanmarβs case, a number of factors are responsible for the existence of stateβcentric of security.
From the bitter memory of being colonised by the British, the civil war throughout the Cold War, to
the unending ethnic insurgencies, the security discourse nominated the state as the most important
institution capable of defending the country. This explains why the military rule in Myanmar had
endured, effectively because the junta claimed to protect national security; yet, what exactly they
protected remained obscured.17
Western Advocacy: Selfβserving?
Maung Zarni crafts a useful framework in exploring the relationship between human security in
Myanmar and Western advocacy. He argues that there are three discourses of βsecurityβ adopted by
16 Brendan M. Howe and Suyoun Jang,βHuman Security and Development: Divergent Approaches to Burma/Myanmarβ, Pacific Focus, Vol.
XXVIII, No. 1 (April 2003), pp. 123.
17 For elaborate details, see, Tin Maung Maung Than, βMyanmar: Preoccupation with Regime Survival, National Unity and Stabilityβ, Asian
Security Practice: Material and Ideational Influences, Muthiah Alagappa, ed., (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), pp.390β416. See
also, Mary P. Callahan, Making Enemies: War and State Building in Burma, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2003).
53
the West. These are: national security, global security and human security.18 Whereas the first two
discourses have gained much attention from Western governments primarily because of their
interests involved, the last has often been ignored even when they promoted the awareness of
human rights in Myanmar. Western advocacy on security in Myanmar has heavily focused on the
outside interests in the endurance of the regime and the way in which such regime has engendered
the impact on global security. Zarni emphasises, βThe thirdβhumanβor peopleβcentredβsecurity
trails as a distant third in Western policy making. This reality is opposed to public discussions, where
the omnipresent rhetoric of human rights masks its diminished statusβ.19
As the Cold War came to an end, what also came was the shift of the Westβs advocacy policy toward
political situation in Myanmar. The brutal crackdown on proβdemocracy protesters in August 1988
and the rejection of the election result in 1990 which saw the triumph of Suu Kyiβs National League
for Democracy (NLD) partly influenced the change in the Westβs position toward Myanmarβs human
rights situation. Yet, the change was merely cosmetic. The emergence of Suu Kyi as a democratic
icon fighting for democracy and the protection of human rights perfectly served as the reference
point in the new advocacy policy of the West. But in reality, the West invested tremendously in
safeguarding its core interests in the Middle East and North Africa. Strategically, the United States
was willing to enter into wars in the Middle East so as to protect those interests, be they political or
economic. Meanwhile, in 2005, the United States referred to Burma/Myanmar as βoutpost of
tyrannyβ. Despite being labelled as enemy of democracy, Myanmar has never been perceived as the
United Statesβ core interest.
As part of readjusting its position, the American government implemented a liberal Western
advocacy to protest against the appalling human security situation in Myanmar. This liberal Western
advocacy was made possible because Myanmar was one of the places where the West felt it could
afford to live out its liberal values, as it was pursuing its core interests elsewhere. In other words,
advocacy of human security was allowed to dominate Myanmar policy discussions and media
coverage because other Western interests in Myanmar were not deemed very important.20 In the
words of Michael Backman, βBurma is not strategically important to the United States, so it is a βfree
kickβ politically to take a highβhanded approach to the issue. It makes for good headlines and helps
to pacify the US domestic human rights lobby, regardless of whether the approach is effective or
notβ.21 The West then imposed sanctions against the Myanmar regime, realising that the shutβdown
of channels of communication with Myanmar would not affect its overall global strategic interests.
Indeed, sanctions became the hallmark of the Westβs Myanmar policy, initially endorsed by Suu Kyi
herself. Sanctions were also justified not only because of the persistent military rule in Myanmar,
but also the terrible human security situation.22 In response, the military regime intensified its 18 Maung Zarni, βBurma/Myanmar: Its Conflicts, Western Advocacy, and Country Impactβ, World Peace Foundation, 25 March 2013
<http://sites.tufts.edu/reinventingpeace/2013/03/25/burmamyanmarβitsβconflictsβwesternβadvocacyβandβcountryβimpact/> (accessed 20
April 2013). 19 Ibid.
20 Ibid.
21 Backman, Michael. 2008. Asia Future Shock: Business Crisis and Opportunity in the Coming Years, (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008)
p. 120.
22 Morten B. Pedersen, Promoting Human Rights in Burma: A Critique of Western Sanctions Policy, (Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield
Publisher, 2008), p.24.
54
repressive policy visβΓ βvis its own people, creating an even more devastating human insecurity
situation. For a long time, Western sanctions had proven to be futile.
The US Shift of Myanmar Policy
The changes inside Myanmar, at the same time, coincided with US President Barack Obamaβs
innovative policy toward Asiaβthe s0βcalled βAsia Pivotβ. Once again, the new political landscape in
the region forced the United States to readjust its focus on Myanmarβs regime, rather than the dire
human rights situation inside the country. The new concept of US policy toward Myanmar is now a
pragmatic conceptβengaging the regime and encouraging its democratisation with lucrative
investments from the United States supposedly to facilitate the economic opening up after long
years of the countryβs economic hardship.23 The engagement with the Thien Sien government is
now a product of the United Statesβ Asia Pivot in relation to Myanmar. The United States no longer
needs Myanmar dissidents and exile leaders to legitimise the substance of its policy toward
Myanmar. Together with Suu Kyi, the Obama administration has reinvented Myanmar whose old
image as an outpost of tyranny was replaced by a new friendly business partner image. In
responding to the opening up process of Myanmar, Washington has sought to create a comfort zone
for the leaders in Naypyidaw primarily to do business together and at the same time to veer the
country away from the Chinese influence.24 Lifting sanctions, engaging with the Myanmar elite,
paying more attention to Myanmarβs political reconciliation and promoting human rights are now
parts of the new policy package designed to welcome Myanmarβs political transition and to ensure
the US interests in such process.
Apparently, the US admiration of Myanmarβs democratisation and of course its defence of human
rights in the country neatly unveils an ethical standpoint of the Obama administration. But the real
gist of the new upgraded Myanmar policy of the United States has been securityβcommerce
centricβbeing wary of the threats from the old military elite and in the meantime needing to
engage economically with the new regime for the United Statesβ own benefits. This view of the
realpolitik, or in a more diplomatic termβpragmatism, is indeed dominating the West in terms of its
new approach in dealing with developments in Myanmar. However, pragmatism poses a dilemma
for the West. It needs to be pragmatic to grasp any opportunities which emerge in the process of
transition. But in so doing, its promotion of human rights and the support for human security could
be compromised. Like in the past, the securityβcentric view of the West eclipsed its seriousness to
tackle human insecurity issues. Today, while the West finds it is important to remain pragmatic in
managing its relations with Myanmar, its concerns over the lack of human security are belittled. The
fact that the atrocious human security situation still persists today in Myanmar is a testament of the
ineffectiveness of the new approach by the West.
23 U Myint Soe, βShift in US Policy towards Myanmarβ, ASEANβUS Relations: What are the Talking Points?, edited by Pavin
Chachavalpongpun, ( Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2012), pp.107β8.
24 See, David I. Steinberg and Hongwei Fan. Modern ChinaβMyanmar Relations: Dilemmas of Mutual Dependence, (Copenhagen: Nordic
Institute of Asian Studies, 2012).
55
Development of Transport Connectivity in Myanmar and the Prospect for Regional Cooperation
Lei Zhuning
Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Yunnan Academy of Social Sciences
Myanmar stands at the conjunction of Southeast Asia, South Asia and East Asia. Due to its strategic
location, Myanmar plays an irreplaceable role in bridging separate and landlocked countries and
regions together. Hence, regional transport connectivity in a large part hinges on Myanmarβs progress
in this regard.
Confronted by many difficulties such as limited financial resources and technology capabilities,
Myanmarβs transport infrastructure construction since 1988 has been mostly inwardβlooking. In
order to fully utilize Myanmarβs comparative advantages and generate economic benefits for
Myanmar and the region at large, it is necessary to deepen multiβlateral cooperation and make
concerted efforts to promote regional transport connectivity centered on Myanmar.
Improvement of Transport Connectivity in Myanmar
Myanmar has made much progress in the area of transport infrastructure construction since 1988.
However, as constrained by limited resources and economic sanctions, there is still much work to be
done on domestic front and the progress on improving regional connectivity is limited.
1. Progress on Transport Infrastructure Construction
Great achievement has been seen in road construction since 1988. Previously, before 1988, there
were only 13,635 miles of roads maintained by Public Works of the Ministry of Construction. By the
end of 2011, Public Works has extended the road to over 24,000 miles in the entire nation. Particular
effort has been given to the YangonβMandalay expressway and road construction on the western
bank of the Ayeyawady River, which has lagged behind the eastern side in development due to poor
transport conditions.
As to railway, Myanmar has made tremendous progress in railway construction in last two decades.
Before 1988, there were 1,976 miles of railroads in the country25, of which 1,924.75 miles were built
before 1948, and only 51.6 miles were built from 1948 to 1988. Since 1988, construction of railway
has been expedited. By April 2011, 1,048.95 miles more railway had been added to the existing
railway system and the total length of railway has exceeded 3,000 miles. The government plans to
further extend the railway system by a rate of building 250 miles railroads annually26.
From Myanmar governmentβs point of view, in terms of importance in socioβeconomic development,
YangonβMandalay railroad stands first, MandalayβMyitkyina railroad comes second,
25 New Light of Myanmar, Oct. 30, 2010 p.1
26 New Light of Myanmar, June 5, 2011 p.1, p.8
56
YangonβMawlamyineβYe is third and YangonβPyay is fourth27. In the meantime, mush focus has been
put on construction of railroads to areas formerly not linked with the central part of Myanmar. The
aim is to promote economic development in a regionally balanced way, so as to promote equitable
development of all parts of the country.
Myanmar has also made great progress in the area of air and water transportation since 1988,
although the achievements might not be as conspicuous as those achieved in road and railway
construction.
2. A Similar Pattern Observed on both Road and Railway Construction
Despite of the aboveβmentioned achievements, the overall progress on transport connectivity is slow
and Myanmar still has a long way to connect itself with its neighbors.
Although Asia Highways, ASEAN28 Highways and GMS29 Economic Corridor projects have been
stated as government priorities, in reality, road construction is inwardβlooking and little progress has
been made on outbound projects. For instance, nearly two third of the Asian Highway routes in
Myanmar are Class III road and nearly one third are still below Class III roads. A similar pattern could
be observed on railway construction, with emphases having been put on domestic front, and little
progress having been made to bridge the missing links with neighboring countries. Major missing
links of TAR30 still exist in Myanmar as it was ten years ago.
Opportunities and Challenges
Deepening regional cooperation on transport connectivity will bring Myanmar and neighboring
countries many benefits.
1. Market Access and Economic Cooperation
Improvement on regional connectivity will provide the countries in the region with easier market
access to the vast regional market. Myanmarβs neighborsββChina, India, Bangladesh and other ASEAN
member countries, constitutes a huge market with a total population of over 3 billion.
Regional integration is gaining momentum with the establishment of ChinaβASEAN Free Trade Area
and the coming ASEAN Economic Community. Other regional cooperation mechanisms such as GMS,
SAARC31, BIMSTEC32 are also coming along. As a result, regional FDI33 and technology transfer will
increase, together with more job opportunities. As exportβoriented laborβintensive industries are
phasing out of the coastal areas of China, Myanmar could become a major production center of Asia
considering its competitive labor costs and advantageous location. Moreover, improvement on
transport connectivity will greatly promote the development of logistics and tourism in the region,
and create more jobs in the service sector.
27 New Light of Myanmar, March 15, 2011 p.8
28 ASEAN: Association of Southeast Asian Nations
29 GMS: Greater Mekong Subβregion
30 TAR: TransβAsian Railway.
31 SAARC: South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
32 BIMSTEC: Bay of Bengal Initiative for MultiβSectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation
33 FDI: Foreign Direct Investment
57
2. Challenges and Difficulties Confronting the Regional Routes thru Myanmar
Financing and technical constraints have become the two most prominent and recurring problems
hampering the construction of regional routes. Besides, each route has its own particular problems.
Taking reference from the GMS transportation and logistics cooperation, exorbitant and
unpredictable transit charges, complex crossβborder procedures and poor condition of transport
infrastructures are usually cited as major obstacles. Problems usually amass at border areas and
security problems constitute a big challenge in and around Myanmar. Lack of mechanisms for sharing
the benefit and cost fairly among the stakeholders is also a problem. In addition, there could be
externalities brought about by improved regional connectivity such as trafficking of people, drugs
and protected wildlife coming with improved transport facilities.
The Way Forward
To promote regional connectivity, it is necessary for stakeholders in the region to deepen multilateral
cooperation and assist Myanmar in transport infrastructure construction.
1οΌTo Strengthen Multiβlateral Cooperation
In the new era since the democratic government sworn in, Myanmar is returning to its
longβcherished tradition of neutrality, and it is in Myanmarβs best interests to maintain a delicate
balance of powers. It is critically important for Myanmar to utilize its geographical advantage to
foster regional cooperation, channel all the international and regional resources to domestic
constructive purposes while carefully avoiding becoming a battle ground for cutβthroat geopolitical
struggle and missing the golden opportunity for long overdue development.
For China, a stable, prosperous and open Myanmar is in Chinaβs interests, especially for its landlocked
and underdeveloped Southwest areas. Thatβs why it is China who first provided platform for
MyanmarβU.S. dialogue a few years ago. It is also in the interests of other neighboring countries of
Myanmar to see its promising economic potential being full realized.
To improve regional connectivity centered on Myanmar is of great importance for regional
cooperation. Therefore, it is necessary to establish a regional multilateral cooperation mechanism
centered on Myanmar. The mechanism, in the initial stage, should involve all the immediate
stakeholders in the region, particularly Myanmar, India, Bangladesh, Thailand and China, and should
follow the principle of inclusiveness, open to regional and global stakeholders in the long run.
Some efforts have been made in this regard. In May 2013, India and China jointly proposed the
BCIM34 Economic Corridor initiative following a successful car rally from Kolkata to Kunming via
Bangladesh and Myanmar in February and March 2013. Meanwhile, the U.S.A. is floating the idea of
developing an IndiaβPacific Economic Corridor through Bangladesh and Myanmar. Japan is making
plans to construct high speed trains for Myanmar while China, in cooperation of Korea, is considering
setting up factory for producing locomotives for the high speed train. In the future, more concerted
34 The BCIM Regional Cooperation Forum involves Bangladesh, China (Yunnan), India (NER and West Bengal) and Myanmar, which was
started with the Kunming Initiative in 1999, with the aim to βstrengthen regional economic cooperation and cultural exchanges and to make the BCIM area the real βSuvarnabhumiβ (golden land) as they figure in ancient legends.β
58
efforts are needed to provide more assistance in order to further improve regional connectivity.
2. A New Master Plan on Regional Connectivity is in Need
It is necessary to consider the overall situation of regional connectivity, taking into account all the
existing routes and planned or proposed routes. A new master plan for regional cooperation on
transport connectivity should be drawn up with flagship and pilot projects being identified.
3. To Establish Mechanisms for Better Sharing of Benefits and Costs
Transport routes and economic corridors in Myanmar can be regarded as βclub goodsβ for the region
around Myanmar. Improvement of the transport conditions in Myanmar will benefit all the regional
stakeholders. Therefore, a set of benefits and costs sharing mechanisms should be established, and
measures should be taken to remedy the hidden costs in social and environmental areas.
4. To Reduce NonβPhysical Barriers and Enhance Interoperability
Taking reference from the experience of GMS Crossβborder Transport Agreement (CBTA), it is also
recommended that a similar multilateral agreement be reached among Myanmar and its neighbors
to facilitate customs clearance procedures and reduce transport time and costs in the region.
Through implementation of these measures, it is hoped that a seamless regional logistics network be
established eventually, so as to fully realize the potential of infrastructure interconnectivity in the
region, and the benefits of regional cooperation can be reaped and shared among all the countries in
the region.
59
Myanmarβs Political Transformation and New Development of ChinaβMyanmar Relations
Liu Xuecheng
Senior Fellow
China Institute of International Studies
China and Myanmar are friendly neighbors, sharing the profound βpaukβphawβ (fraternity) friendship
with crossβborder ethnic peoples living together. They are the first Asian countries that advocated the
five principles of peaceful coexistence as the code of conduct for the stateβtoβstate relationship.
Myanmar has adhered to the βOneβChinaβ policy and supported Chinaβs core interests. China has
supported Myanmarβs unity, sovereignty, and territorial integrity.
Myanmar and China have constructed the strategic corridor of energy and commerce connecting the
landlocked Southwest China to the Indian Ocean. They are the two key stakeholders in the proposed
FourβState Economic Corridor among China, Myanmar, Bangladesh, and India. They are the
cooperative partners of the Greater Mekong Subβregional Cooperation and the fourβstate Joint
Patrolling against organized crimes over the Mekong River, greatly contributing to the shipping safety
on the river. China is Myanmarβs largest investor with an investment totaling $12.32 billion in 2010. In
2011, the bilateral trade volume reached $6.5 billion, seeing an annual increase of 46.3 percent.
Chinaβs nonβfinancial direct investment in Myanmar that year was $460 million, increasing 41.4
percent over that in 2010, making China Myanmarβs secondβlargest trading partner behind Thailand.
The ASEANβChina Free Trade Area (CAFTA) was realized on 1 January 2010 as over 90 per cent of
products classified by ASEANβ6 and China have been eliminated. The CLMV countries, including
Myanmar, will fully implement the CAFTA on 1 January 2015.
China is happy to see Myanmar emerging from decades of the military rule and diplomatic isolation,
shaking off the Western sanctions by conducting political and economic reforms, and cultivating
diplomatic space of national reconstruction. Under the new civilian government, ChinaβMyanmar
relations have opened a new page of their traditional friendly relationship. President U Thein Sein
visited China immediately after assuming the presidency in May 2011. The joint statement on
establishing the comprehensive strategic cooperative partnership was signed between China and
Myanmar. Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi met with U Wunna Maung Lwin, his counterpart from
Myanmar, at the sidelines of ASEAN Foreign Ministersβ meeting and related meetings held in Brunei
in July 2013. Wang described their bilateral relations by quoting two famous Chinese sayings βtime
reveals a personβs heartβ and βa friend in need is a friend indeed.β Wang reaffirmed that China will,
as always, adhere to a friendly policy towards Myanmar and support Myanmar to pursue a path of
development that conforms to its conditions and that, such a traditional friendly relationship should
rather be strengthened, not weakened under the new situation. Myanmarβs Foreign Minister U
Wunna Maung Lwin said that Myanmar cherished the traditional friendship with China and thanked
China for having long offered valuable support and assistance. He reaffirmed that βMyanmar is in a
60
period of reform and transition, but we will never change our goodβneighborly and friendly
cooperative relations with China.β
China Supports Myanmarβs Political Transformation
Since the new civilian government was established in March 2011, Myanmarβs political
transformation has experienced the two phases. The first phase could be defined as the one of
political rectification; and it has now ushered in the second phase of political democratization.
With the sevenβstep roadmap toward democracy, the new constitution adopted in 2008 came into
force. The elections conducted in November 2010 officially ended the Juntaβs rule in Myanmar. The
civilian government was swornβin in March 2011. China has strongly supported the Juntaβs roadmap
toward democracy, the democratic election in 2010 and the new Government. Chinese official
statements and media reports held positive and supportive positions on political development in
Myanmar. The smooth elections provided an opportunity for the international community to
encourage the new civilian government to move in the direction of greater openness and reform and
commit it to national reconciliation and economic development.
President Thein SeinβAung San Suu Kyi meeting on 19 August 2011 was βthe first step toward
national reconciliation.β President Thein Sein announced in 2011 that his government would allow
exiles to return home when their offences would be considered leniently. Since then, the new
government has released hundreds of prisoners, including political prisoners. Myanmar government
has formed a National Human Rights Commission to investigate reported abuses in the country. The
15βmember commission of retired civil servants will safeguard citizensβ fundamental rights as
specified in the 2008 constitution. The election law and Party registration bill have been revised to
pave the way for opposition parties to register as legal political parties, including the National League
for Democracy. The New Government has lifted the censorship of the media and the private
newspapers and magazines and the television stations have been published and operated.
The government has started peace talks with armed ethnic groups. The government has also formed
a national peace committee to deal with groups seeking peace talks. The new government has signed
ceasefire agreements with 11 leading ethnic armed groups. The talks with the KIA for a ceasefire
agreement are under way with the support of the international community. Although there have
been conflicts and clashes between the Myanmar military and some armed ethnic groups, the
government has started the process of negotiations with several armed ethnic groups and at least
temporarily shelved the BGF plan.
The second phase is characterized by preparations for the 2015 elections. Suu Kyi and Shwe Mann
have announced the presidential bid, and 11 ethnic parties have decided to create one party under
the name of Federal Union Party, eyeing the 2015 elections. These new political developments have
lifted the certain of political democratization. The key issue is constitutional amendment: Whether
Suu Kyi is qualified to run for the presidency and How to share power and interests between the
Federal government, the local minority authorities within the federal context, and how to deal with
sectarian conflicts between Buddhists and Muslims and other minority communal groups. The
61
international community is watching the interplay of the internal and external political forces
released by the political transformation in Myanmar.
New Development of ChinaβMyanmar Relations
After the new government was established, Myanmarβs president U Thain Sein visited China and the
two governments signed the joint statement on establishing the Comprehensive Strategic
Cooperative Partnership between China and Myanmar. In June 2013, Chinese State Counsilor Yang
Jiechi visited Myanmar and Called on President U Thein Sein. During his visit, both governments
signed the agreement on implementing the Action Plan of Comprehensive Strategic Cooperation
Partnership and further pushing forward the process of neighborly and friendly cooperation.
With the development of political and social diversity in Myanmar in the process of democratization,
China has adjusted its policy to Myanmar with emphasis of public diplomacy. Some geoβstrategists,
security experts, and policy analysts have distorted this diplomatic move as a Chinaβs effort to
colonize Myanmar or encircle other neighbors, or dominate in the Indian Ocean. I would like to
explain the current dynamic ChinaβMyanmar relations from a Chinese perspective. Although Chinaβs
approach may differ from othersβ approaches, its general goals are similar. The goals China has
pursued:
China has appointed its capable ambassador Yang Houlan to Myanmar and an experienced senior
diplomat Wang Yingfan as special envoy to Asian affairs, first concentrating on dealing with
developing ChinaβMyanmar relations.
China has seen Myanmar as a good neighbor, a cooperative partner, and a close friend. Myanmar is
also seen as a land bridge that gives access to the Indian Ocean and enables China to bypass the
Malacca Straits from the geostrategic perspective.
China has support Myanmarβs national reconciliation and domestic unity through constructive
dialogue with the opposition and through negotiating peace agreements with armed ethnic groups.
China has been a biggest investor and improved its intraβstructure by the connectivity projects.
Chinese government and Chinese companies have paid attention to the social obligations and
environmental issues related to their investments.
China has supported Myanmarβs chairmanship of the ASEAN in 2014β2015 and supported this
nationβs efforts to participate in regional cooperation, particularly participating in the course of the
ASEAN community building. In developing their bilateral relations, China has adhered to the
principles of sovereign equality, friendly consultation on an equal footing, and mutual benefits and
winβwin cooperation.
China has strengthened its efforts to engage with opposition parties and social groups as well as
consolidated its official governmentβtoβgovernment relations. Chinese government has invited the
ruling USDP delegation to visit China. China has also invited the NLD delegations and leading minority
ethnic parties or groups to visit China, strengthening peopleβtoβpeople contacts and consolidating
62
the social base of ChinaβMyanmar friendship and cooperation.
Conclusion
The whole nation is shifting to an agenda of political and economic liberalization, a process
remarkably initiated by positive interactions between President U Thein Sein and Daw Aung Shan Suu
Kyi. However, a number of challenges is facing the new government and these are βserious,
deepβseated and longβstandingβ problems. The Myanmar people expect that this political process
will be conducive to political reconciliation, social stability, and economic development. Minority
ethnic groups hope that peace will be achieved by negotiating new peace agreements with the
civilian government. The 2008 constitution excluded most of the ceasefire groupsβ demands for
ethnic selfβdetermination. It should decentralize authority, particularly in the fields of development
and social welfare, to the new stateβlevel administrations. The fate of the ceasefires lies with the new
government. The international community has significant interests in βstabilizingβ Myanmar.
The international community is expecting the new process of national reconciliation and economic
development sustainable and irreversible. The new government needs to cope with the five
βbalancingβ issues:
1. Balancing of political democratization agenda and economic development agenda. Any political
reform agenda without peopleβcentered and developmentβoriented agenda are doomed to fail when
people do not benefit from them.
2. Balancing of release of βpolitical prisonersβ and return of the internally displaced refugees.
Previous and ongoing armed conflicts have forced over halfβaβmillion people to flee their homes,
with 150,000 refugees and some 2 million migrant workers crossing the border to seek refuge and
livelihood in the neighboring countries.
3. Balancing political reconciliation between the opposition and the government and the peace
agreements between the armed ethnic groups and the federal governments.
4. Balancing the relations with the dominant Buddhist population and with the minority communal
groups in terms of social and economic policy making.
5. Balancing relations with all key stakeholders or major players in the region and the world.
We are happy to see that the new government has been making active efforts to maintain the
positive momentum of conducting domestic reforms and pursuing friendly relationships with all
countries, particularly neighboring countries.
63
ChinaβMyanmar Relations (2011β2013): Promoting Chinaβs Image in Myanmar
Aung Aung
Independent Researcher
With the recent democratization in Myanmar, the society of Myanmar is heavily influenced by
Western value systems such as democracy, human rights, freedom, and good governance. More
international nonβgovernmental organizations (INGOs) are coming into Myanmar to encourage civil
society and to strengthen nascent democratization process. From that sense, in the increasingly
active Myanmarβs civil society, you may not survive if you are not talking about human rights.
Currently, international relations and Myanmar are widely being discussed within news journals in
Myanmar including ChinaβMyanmar relations. Many writers write about the relations between China
and Myanmar from different point of views. Some write that Myanmar should be closer to the US.
Some write Myanmar should be closer to European countries. Some write Myanmar should maintain
relations with China as Myanmar cannot choose its neighbors. Among the critics, one common thing
is that all stakeholders in politics of Myanmar do recognize the importance of China in the future of
Myanmar. Many experts also agree that current image of China in Myanmar is severely damaged as
China supported exβmilitary regimes in Myanmar neglecting the voice of the people of Myanmar
under suppression.
People in Myanmar generally feel that China exploited Myanmar during its hard times meaning that
China supported the military mechanism of Myanmar ignoring democracy, human rights and good
governance. In turn, China purchased natural resources of Myanmar with cheap prices. As a result,
Myanmar had become poorer more and more relying on China for everything. In this paper, how
China can promote its image among Myanmar people will be discussed.
It is important for China to understand Myanmar and to conduct strategic public relations diplomacy.
In doing so, the role of Chinese embassy in Myanmar is important as the embassy serves as the
image of China in Myanmar. Before writing the paper, I met around 20 people from the class of Peace,
Democracy & Development (MDRIβCSIS) in Yangon and also met with taxi drivers and some people
on the streets. Based on the information obtained, in the presentation, there are recommendations
for China to promote Chinaβs image in Myanmar.
In the past, China worked with the Government of Myanmar as the Government was the only main
stakeholder in the politics of Myanmar. However, todayβs Myanmar is changing meaning there are
more than one stakeholder such as civil society, political parties and the media. In order to
implement a powerful public diplomacy in Myanmar, China should establish an effective public
relations department at the Embassy of China in Yangon. Local political officers and media officers
should be hired at the department in order to garner updated information and to keep abreast with
the changes. Unlike the US embassy, British Embassy and Japanese Embassy in Myanmar, people
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have little information about what the Chinese embassy is doing in Myanmar. China should also build
Chinese Centers in Myanmar to provide cultural exchange programs (like Confucius Centers). In
Yangon, the American Centre and British Council are very popular among the Youth in Myanmar to
learn English and Western culture, but no people go to the Embassy of China in Yangon to learn
Chinese culture. In order to raise the awareness of Myanmar people on China, China can also
advertise its achievement and values through private media in Myanmar.
In Chinese project areas, longβterm development projects for local people should be considered.
China can do it through local NGOs or can set up a new NGO that can implement the values and
interests of China. Chinese projects in Myanmar are also under critics for not creating enough job
positions for Myanmarβs work forces meaning that China brings their own workers from China. Most
senior positions are occupied by those who speak Chinese so Chinese projects are just for China.
China should also send medical teams and other humanitarian teams to support vulnerable people in
Myanmar. Meeting closely with local people will be one of the best tools to win minds and souls of
Myanmar people. Myanmar is now in the process of democratization so it is important for China to
understand on Myanmar meaning that the politics of Myanmar is more and more complex. So, China
should regularly invite independent scholars/ researchers to China and discuss about the politics of
Myanmar. Students in Myanmar have little information about scholarships from China, so people
think that Chinese scholarships are just for Chinese meaning that if you do not speak Chinese, you
will not win Chinese scholarships. In order to promote human resource development, China can
receive more Myanmar students allocating the quota for them.
In the views of Myanmar people, Myanmar girls are often persuaded to China through
humanβtrafficking and are forced to marry to Chinese disabled men or those who have mental
problems. People think that China does not take enough actions against those crimes so China can
take more action on it and should also let people know how China is combating on it through private
media. If Chinese leaders visit Myanmar, they should go and talk to university students and civil
organizations. For example, Western leaders visited Myanmar and met with civil societies. Japanese
leaders also visited Myanmar and met with civil organizations and even they played with children
meaning that within minutes, Japan won the hearts of Myanmar people. In order to strengthen
peopleβtoβpeople relations, China can also send its movie stars or singers to Myanmar to meet with
local people as ambassadors. Like the US and EU, China should allow Myanmar a special trade
opportunity and can write off some debts. In order to encourage the growth of manufacturing and
create more job opportunities in Myanmar side, China should take some measures to increase
imports from Myanmar, so that the trade imbalance between the two countries can be relieved.
China also should examine previous contracts with Myanmar during military regimes as some
Myanmar people think that the Military regime in Myanmar sold out all resources to China before
they quitted the power. Finally, China should work more closely with NLD and should invite Aung San
Suu Kyi to China to discuss current ChinaβMyanmar relations. China can take this opportunity letting
Aung San Suu Kyi know what China like or dislike.
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Chinaβs Investment in Myanmar under Its Political and Economic Reform
Lu Guangsheng
Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Yunnan University
By 2012, China has invested more than $ 14 billion in Myanmar, accounting for about 50% of
Myanmarβs total foreign investment, which makes China the largest investor of Myanmar. Myanmarβs
political and economic reform brings both new opportunities and challenges to Chinese investment.
Myanmarβs new Foreign Investment Law and its efforts to open monopoly industries to the private
sector are attractive for foreign investors, including China. However, the suspension of Myitsone dam
and the protest against Latpadantaung Cooper makes Chinese investors suffers a lot. Facing the new
situation, both the Chinese government and enterprises have adjusted their policy for investing in
Myanmar.
What Has Chinaβs Investment in Myanmar Changed since 2010?
Chinese investment in Myanmar declined. By August 2012, China has invested a total of $ 14.11
billion in Myanmar, ranking the first. The investment is mainly in oil and gas, electricity, mining and
manufacturing. However, itβs reported that no new Chinese investment went to Myanmar after the
Myitsone Dam was suspended in 2011. The effect of the reform carried out by the new government
has yet to be observed. Some Chinese enterprises have stopped to invest in the Northern Myanmar
on in recent two years. Some even plan to withdraw from Myanmar to Laos.
The Chinese government has adjusted its Myanmar policy to come up with the new situation of
ChinaβMyanmar economic cooperation. A senior diplomat Wang Yingfan was appointed as the
representatives of Asian affairs at the beginning of 2013, in charge of Myanmar affairs. Yang Houlan,
the new Chinese ambassador to Myanmar, is actively contact with all parties, including Aung San Suu
Kyi and leaders of Generation 88. Chinese embassy in Myanmar registered in the Face Book, viewing
it a channel to communicate with Myanmar public. Meanwhile, the Chinese government upgraded
the environmental standards for goingβout Chinese enterprises. In February 2013, the Ministry of
Commerce and the Ministry of Environment jointly issued the Guidelines on Environmental
Protection in Overseas Investment and Cooperation, which is the first of its kind in China. The
guideline makes it clear that the goingβout Chinese enterprises should abide by the laws and
regulations of the host countries and fulfill the responsibility of environmental protection. Chinese
enterprises have to get a recommendation from the provincial (municipal) commercial department
before invest in Myanmar after March 2013.
Facing the complicated situation in Myanmar, some Chinese enterprises introspected on their past
behavior, and took some actions. They pay more attention and invest more to fulfill social
responsibility, promote transparency, engage with local media actively and try to βdo more and talk
lessβ. China Power Investment Corporation, the contractor of the Myitsone Dam, makes great efforts
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to try to change Myanmarβs view on the dam, including investing Myanmar media to China to
enhance communication and dialogue with the local community. In addition to pay attention to
environmental protection, the ChinaβMyanmar Oil and Gas Pipeline contractor has invested roughly
$ 20 million to improve the infrastructure along the pipeline. It constructed 45 schools, 2
kindergartens, 3 hospitals and 21 medical stations and Maday reservoir and some electric
transmission line in Rakhine State. Wanbao Minning plans to build new school and library around the
Latpadantaung Copper and rebuild the road.
Prospect of Chinaβs Investment in Myanmar
Myanmar will be more pragmatic towards foreign investment. The investigation report on protest
against Latpadantaung Copper points out that the copper project is an officially signed bilateral
project, unilateral suspension will damage Myanmarβs reputation, investorsβ confidence, bilateral
relations and the publicβs longβterm interest. It shows that despite of some unfriendly behavior
against foreign investment, the Myanmar government and the public will take a more pragmatic and
impartial attitude towards foreign investment for the interest of the country and its people.
Western countriesβ return to Myanmar will affect but canβt replace Chinese investors. The U.S.
announced the suspension of economic sanction on Myanmar in May 2012 and President Obama
made a historic visit to Myanmar in the November. The EU officially removed all sanctions against
Myanmar except for arms embargo in April 2013. A month later, Japan announced to provide
Myanmar with 91 billion yen ODA and exempted 200 billion yen debt. However, Myanmar is not
ready for large investment at present due to its backward infrastructure is backward and unsolved
ethnic and religious crisis. In addition, the U.S. hasnβt completely abolished its sanction and not fully
recovered from the global economic crisis. EU is in the debt crisis. Thus, itβs unreality for Myanmar to
count Western countries on largeβscale investment and assistance in the near future.
Generally speaking, there are three main features of Chinaβs investment in Myanmar: holding the
bottom line, waiting and seeing, and gradually improving. Holding the bottom line is to avoid another
Myitsone Dam Event and prevent the ChinaβMyanmar Oil and Gas Pipeline from huge impact. And
China wonβt stop the effort to get the Myitsone Dam reβstart. The onβgoing Chinese projects are
longβterm with huge investment, which will be carried out continually unless there is any accident.
Waiting and seeing means China will continue to observe the progress and result of Myanmarβs
political and economic reform, as well as its impact on Chinese investment This feature may last until
the 2015 election has been held or even longer. The trend of slow increasing of Chinaβs investment in
Myanmar wonβt be changed as long as the issues mentioned above havenβt been solved or
Myanmarβs situation is still unclear. Gradual improving includes two aspects. One is that the Chinese
government will enhance its guidance for Chinese enterprise in operation, environmental protection
and public relation maintain. The other is that Chinese enterprises will pay more attention to
operation strategy, environmental protection and social responsibility, as well as political, economic
and social risks during the operation.
Conclusion
China is the largest investor of Myanmar. Great changes have taken place in Myanmarβs internal
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affairs and diplomacy since the new government took office in 2011. Although there is uncertainty in
Myanmar economy, the overall prospect is optimistic. In the recent two years, the new government
introduced several economic laws and regulations. It will continue to attach importance on economic
development and attracting foreign investment. Myanmar market will be more mature, and its
investment environment will be more open and in line with international practice. The current
Myanmar market is just starting rising, with both risk and opportunities. Facing such challenges and
opportunities, Chinese enterprises should be more calm, positive and objective.
68
State Transformation and the Geography of State Power:
Exploring Crossβborder Development between China and Myanmar
Nora Schlenzig
The University of Hong Kong
Owing to Chinaβs conservative rhetoric on state sovereignty but also because many countries feel
uneasy with Chinaβs growing influence, literature on Chinaβs foreign policy remains dominated by
conventional International Relations theories that adopt a specific understanding of the state. In this
conceptualization, the state incorporates the core features of some form of central government with
exclusive authority over a territory and a defined population. The model moreover implies fairly neat
distinctions between dynamics inside and outside a stateβs geographical boundaries and between the
public sphere of politics and the private sphere of society and economics.
Being an ideal type it does not directly portray the βreal worldβ. Yet, in recent years many scholars
pointed out that deviations from this standard model are key in understanding todayβs crossβborder
relations and they take issue with the dichotomies it creates. A more nuanced understanding of how
state type and crossβborder relations relate thus seems necessary to understand Chinaβs growing
involvement with its Southeast Asian neighbours.
Dynamics that matter in this context are relations between central and local authorities in Chinaβs
two border provinces Yunnan and Guangxi. And while many theoretical debates on state
transformation also discuss increasingly blurred lines between state and nonβstate actors more
generally, an issue that deserves special attention in this case is the entanglement of illicit and legal
domains. This refers to criminal activities like drug trafficking and corruption but it can also include
institutions and practices outside the legal framework that take on more constructive functions in
society.
Including different geographical layers of government and actors outside conventional state
administrative bodies into the analysis of Chinaβs relations with its neighbours has the potential to
challenge the image of China as a unitary actor following clearβcut strategies in its neighbouring
countries for expanding geopolitical influence, following an image campaign or a scramble for
resources. Understanding the many players with different levels of power and goals involved in this
process is key for adjusting and improving engagement strategies for Myanmar.
The various interests and layers of conflict involved can be traced both in discourse and practice with
regard to crossβborder relations. I will try to substantiate these claims by exploring official rhetoric
regarding Yunnanβs new βbridgehead strategyβ towards its neighbours, followed by some remarks on
evolving state market relations in China and its impact on China Myanmar relations.
On a visit to the province in 2009, then Party General Secretary Hu Jintao announced that Yunnan
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would become a βbridgeheadβ for Chinaβs opening towards the southwest. Formally introduced as
part of the 12th 5 Year Plan in 2011, the declared aims of this strategy are to further Chinaβs economic
ties and promote regional cooperation with its neighbours. It also includes the components of border
stability and developing a strategic connection to the Indian Ocean.
This security concern even seems to find expression in the name for the strategy, as βbridgeheadβ is
originally a military term usually employed to describe a position from which troops defend a bridge
near an enemy. This military connotation can also be found in Chinese dictionaries although Baidu
claims it to be an economic term. Another explanation linguists offer with regard to contemporary
Chinese language is that it still employs revolutionary vocabulary to bridge the gap between
economic transition and socialist ideals that used to once justify one party rule. As it has also been
referred to as the βgateway strategyβ in other publications however, it might only be an unfortunate
translation.
Yet, looking at a number of publications regarding the aims of the program reveals that there exist
different readings of what the campaign should entail. The term bridgehead starts appearing in most
publications between 2009 and 2011. So around the same time as it is announced as a national
strategy. These texts usually highlight the official aims outlined above or emphasize domestic efforts
designed to close development gaps between Chinaβs coastal and inland provinces.
However, there is a publication that places the same term in a much earlier context: a development
report published by the economics department of the Yunnan Academy of Social Science on the
ChinaβASEAN Free Trade Area indicates that the original idea behind it was probably initiated on the
local level. Here, the focus seems to be more foreign policy oriented and economic in nature. Thus,
one can speculate whether meaning and aims of the strategy were only later appropriated and
adjusted by central authorities.
An article in the China Daily in 2011 even calls on Yunnan province to stop treating neighbouring
countries as export markets only to make the relationship more beneficial for both sides. While
unclear whether this reflects an honest appeal of central authorities to improve the local
implementation of national policies or this can be read as a case of shifting blame to lower levels of
government, it definitely suggests that there exist some tensions in centreβperiphery relations.
The very same article also urges the border prefecture Dehong to make use of its strategic position
and broaden investment into Myanmar. However, a visit to the prefectureβs city Ruili β a major border
crossing to Myanmar also referred to as the βbig toeβ of the bridgehead strategy β casts doubts on
which role the immediate border areas can play in the program. Once a lifeline to isolated Myanmar,
new unrests in Kachin state and Myanmarβs process of opening up to the rest of the world seem to
put a damper on border trade. Dominating the cityβs current image are large posters by the Peopleβs
Liberation Army cautioning the importance of military education and in Jiegao cameras are pointed
at the heavily guarded border crossing.
To address the second issue of state β market relations in China requires looking at both formal
regulatory development, reform of the financial sector, ownership forms and the changing bases of
legitimacy of the Communist Party (CCP).
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In terms of CCP legitimacy, economic growth increasingly builds one of pillars of support for the party.
Also, the CCP is trying to embrace private businesses in different ways. A key question remains
however whether the private sector will be serving as an agent of change inside the party or whether
the party is βcoβoptingβ private entrepreneurs and consolidating its power by sending party members
into business.
Generally, when government officials become private entrepreneurs it can cut both ways. It could
strengthen the private sector in terms of human capital but it can also accelerate crony capitalism.
While the number of private entrepreneurs joining the CCP in Yunnan seems to be growing, overall
they make up for only a small share of the provincial party members.
Another positive development in this context appears to be that market logics begin to infiltrate the
state itself. For example, SOE executive bonuses are increasingly tied to financial performance, and
provincial economic success matters for resource allocations and promotion within the party.
When looking at Yunnan and Myanmarβs case more specifically however, the key problem remains
that most of the provinces industries and the vast majority of investments into Myanmar are in
sectors that remain heavily dominated by SOEβs such as tobacco production, oil and gas exploitation
or water supplies. For local growth at least in the direct border regions this means that the argument
of complementarity does not really hold. Also, the most dynamic part of Chinaβs economy β the
private sector β only plays a marginal role in crossβborder business.
When trying to research private sector involvement in China Myanmar relations in more detail, an
issue that complicates things are the sometimes rather confusing categories in Chinese statistics.
There are a number of different terms lumped together or used inconsistently for the private sector.
Among them, one of the least transparent terms is also the one used most frequently in the
statistical yearbooks of Yunnan. With regard to outward engagement one can only find international
trade numbers without further specifying the recipient countries.
In general, private Chinese businesses have gained a bad reputation of relying on illegal practices in
context of the opium replacement strategy and contract farming in Myanmar. Yet again, the
problems involved are too complex to justify finger pointing at private business owners only.
Crossβborder activities are in fact often overregulated which creates high administrative hurdles and
nuisances.
Another issue that remains problematic for the private sector is the banking system in China. Most
businesses have to rely on the countryβs shadow lending system that involves higher risks and
interests rates because official banks do not provide them with loans.
The issue of Renminbi convertibility creates further problems. Despite recent attempts by the
Chinese government to further internationalize the currency, only one bank in Laos and Thailand
have so far signed swap agreements in the Greater Mekong Area. The almost nonβexistent banking
system in Myanmar in combination with a lack of regulated financing of crossβborder investment on
the Chinese side thus creates rather unfavourable circumstances for the sector.
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While the current overall picture does not seem very favorable, understanding the different players
and interests involved in crossβborder dynamics also provides some potential for China Myanmar
relations. Considering the true lines of conflict and competition is not only necessary to design
appropriate strategies but might also create new space to improve China Myanmar relations in the
future.
72
Chinaβs Investments and Development Assistance in Myanmar
Diane Tang Lee
University of Manchester
Introduction
My PhD thesis will examine interactions between China and Myanmar civil society in Chinaβs foreign
aid and investments. I recently conducted a pilot study trip in Myanmar, and would appreciate your
comments on my preliminary observations. I broadly categorize Chinaβs aid into economic, social and
political aspects. The economic aspect is the infrastructure projects such as dams and bridges. These
are usually thought of as business investments but it is worthy to note that there is sometimes an
economic assistance element in them. The social aspect of Chinaβs aid is the initiatives that help
improve livelihood, mainly the building of schools and hospitals for people in the areas affected by
the infrastructure projects. These are mainly done as part of the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
initiatives of the Chinese Stateβowned Enterprises (SOEs). The political aspect is the facilitation of
peace talks ethnic armed groups and the military.
All of these aspects are connected, but in this presentation I will narrow down to the economic
aspect. China financed many economic projects; those that are supported with grants, interestβfree
loans, or concessional loans could be classified as aid. There are a host of aid projects in the
transportation, manufacturing and agricultural sectors that have been overshadowed by the
unpopular mega infrastructures.
It is clear that under the new political environment, Myanmar civil society is demanding more public
participation in the decisionβmaking of Chinaβs aid and other investments, while Chinese state media
and embassy in Myanmar have also called for increased public engagement. Some efforts can already
be seen, but I will draw from the current state of environmental governance in China to show how it
will be a challenge for Chinese government and SOE officials, as they are not experienced in public
participation in environmental governance.
Economic Aspect of Chinaβs Aid
China financed many economic projects with grants, interestβfree loans, or concessional loans, which
would classify them as aid. Apart from mega infrastructures like the Myitsone Dam, there are a host
of other projects that have been overshadowed by the unpopular mega infrastructures. Just to cite
some examples, these projects include the YangonβThanlyin Bridge for which China provided an
interestβfree loan of at least 50 million yuan in 1980s, and other interestβfree loans have been
provided to the powerβgeneration, manufacturing and agricultural sectors.
As with Chinaβs aid to other developing countries, many of the projects are linked with business and
trade. Chinaβs aid is managed by the Ministry of Commerce and the China Export Import Bank, the
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mandate of both is to build Chinaβs domestic economy. This contrasts with the arrangement of many
western countries, for example the US Agency for International Development is housed under the
State Department. This institutional structure reflects that China uses aid for its own economic
development as well as the recipient countryβs, which is made explicit in its constant emphasis that
development assistance is more of a βmutually beneficial cooperationβ.
Chinaβs provision of businessβlinked aid is coherent with its foreign policy grounded on the βFive
Principles of Peaceful Coexistenceβ β equality, mutual benefit, and respect for sovereignty of the host
country, which Premier Zhou Enlai introduced in 1954. The Chinese leaders to this day assert that aid
is a partnership and not a oneβway transfer of charity nor a tool for hegemonic aggression. In fact
many developing countries such as Sri Lanka, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, governments view it as a
successful model and an amenable alternative than that preached by Western donors with
burdensome conditionalities. Aside from arguments that China is protecting these countries against
international criticism and reprisals, there are a lot of doubts especially in Myanmar whether the
benefits are equally mutual or actually tilted towards China, and also, whether the local populations
can enjoy the benefits, as the recent protests show. As these investments are geared by Chinese SOEs
who are driven not only by diplomatic but also business interests, how do they ensure their business
practices do not infringe on these principles of equality and mutual benefit? How, and to what extent,
China adheres to these principles will be explored in the rest of my research.
It is worthy to note here that Chinaβs aid is very different from western, liberal democratic notions of
aid, whose aid or peacebuilding programmes encompass security sector reforms, rule of law
programming, transitional justice mechanism, election monitoring and so forth.
Chinaβs heavy focus in economic aid is underpinned by the belief that βdevelopment is of overriding
importanceβ which exβPresident Deng famously said in 1970s about Chinaβs reform and opening. It
also reflects developmentalist notions that economic development is the primary means of
establishing political legitimacy. In foreign policy, officials also prioritize economic growth above
other issues such as political reform and social justice.
This stateβcentric approach to development has extended to its foreign interventions and brought
accusations that China will support incumbent regimes regardless of their nature, and because it
usually cooperates exclusively with the host government, its interventions may be conducive to
statebuilding but are arguably not an inclusive peacebuilding that involves strengthening of civil
society.
However, I would argue that while stateβcentric approach describes Chinaβs assistance in broad
strokes, the local conditions and the host governmentβs priorities are the fine lines that shape Chinaβs
engagement. In Myanmar, Chinaβs engagement has no doubt focused on support to the government,
but because the Myanmar government sees the urgent need to manage the ceasefires and peace
process with its ethnic minorities, China plays along and supports the peace talks in cooperation with
the Myanmar government and ethnic armed groups.
The recent priority of Myanmar government on political opening resulting in more space for local
civil society to protest is also why China needs to respond to local resistance against its investments
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by engaging with local populations and advocacy groups. China does have its own stake in border and
energy security that motivates it to support peace talk and appease grievances, but the point here is
that when local conditions, influenced by the prevailing priorities of the host government, call for an
approach that is less straightβforward than the stateβcentric, governmentβtoβgovernment method,
China adjusts accordingly and pragmatically. It adjusts its aid approach to be more i) comprehensive
in terms of dimensions (i.e. encompassing the social and political aspects stated in the beginning),
and ii) inclusive in terms of the range of actors/stakeholders involved by China.
China Responds to Resistance β Engaging with Myanmar Civil Society
These adjustments are a response to the mounting resistance from Myanmar civil society. From my
observations in the pilot study, there is a strong network amongst Civil Society Organizations (CSOs)
in Yangon, who are actively engaged in various environmental, social, and cultural issues. The
cohesiveness of the CSOs enabled them to cooperate together along with painters, cartoonists, poets,
and photographers to raise awareness throughout the country. At the same time, Yangonβbased CSOs
have good connections with ethnic political party leaders and ethnic activists. Their priorities of
demands might be different β while Yangonβbased CSOs stress on transparency and accountability of
investments, ethnic leaders have an added demand for increased autonomy. Nonetheless, there is a
sense of unity among them that was galvanized during the antiβMyitsone Dam campaign, overriding
other differences of interests and ethnicity.
China sees the need to respond to the resistance against its investments. After the dam suspension,
there have been increased efforts from the China side to engage with civil society to build dialogue
or for consultation. In 2012, Chinese Embassy had a discussion about MyanmarβChina relationship
that participants thought was very open. An official from Ministry of Commerce carried an
assessment visit to Kachin to speak to local villagers and church leaders to understand their concerns.
Although engagement initiated by state officials were largely considered satisfactory, it is not the
case with the Chinese SOEs. MyanmarβChina Pipeline Watch Committee (MCPWC) made
recommendations to China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) concerning the pipeline project,
including improving transparency and the safety of nearby communities. MCPWC expresses its
frustrations towards the denials from CNPC. Another informant from an ethnic party also says that
CNPC denied all the facts to the newspapers. What is heard repeatedly with several activists and
ethnic leaders is they feel cheated by the βsoβcalledβ consultations and compensations, where
photos of the ceremonies would be published as proof that the company has fulfilled its
responsibilities, but affected populations find unsatisfactory.
Stateβcivil society dialogues have only begun recently, and Chinese SOEs are not familiar with public
consultations. Myanmar civil society is pushing the Chinese state and SOEs on a learning curve of
engaging the public. What is the current state of public participation in environmental governance
within China? How comfortable is the Chinese government (national, provincial levels and SOEs) to
interact with civil society directly, and how experienced is it to respond to public demands?
The Chinese government is not unfamiliar with environmental activism. President Thein Seinβs call to
suspend the Myitsone Dam construction because of public outcry is in many ways reminiscent of
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Premier Wan Jiabaoβs call to suspend the Nu River Dam, also known as the Salween River, in 2004
because of a nationβwide campaign in China against it.
The characteristics of these activisms and the space they are allowed to operate in however, are
presumably very different between China and Myanmar. In China, although the government has
enacted Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and public disclosure regulations in the early 2000s,
government officials are not accustomed to engaging civil society on public decisionβmaking and
there are various restraints that limit genuine participation of Chinese NGOs. Moreover,
environmental activism in China is cooperative rather than antagonistic with the national
government, as ENGOs tend to have formal or informal ties with the partyβstate.
Although I have not explored in great detail the nature of environmentalism in Myanmar and its
relationship with the state, the CSOs Iβve interacted with certainly have no formal or informal ties
with the state. Therefore, Chinese officials are likely to be inexperienced about dealing directly with
the kind of civil society in Myanmar which, unlike in China, is more independent of its own state and
not subject to the same conditions/restraints that Chinaβs environmental activists face, not least
because of the opening up of the political space in Myanmar.
Conclusion
Chinaβs foreign investments are undergoing an image crisis in Myanmar. Chinese state officials have
recognized it and began to adjust its engagement to become more comprehensive and inclusive in
terms of the range of actors involved by China. One of my future research aims will be to find out
how the Chinese state (national, provincial levels and SOEs) interacts with civil society and nonβstate
actors in Myanmar in its investments and aid, and what challenges lie ahead.
76
Challenges Facing Myanmarβs Migrant Workers
Khin Maung Nyo
Senior Research Fellow, MDRIβCESD
According to the Economist magazine published on 30th May, in 2009 the International Organisation
for Migration (IOM) estimated that 10% of Myanmarβs population were living abroad. Another study
suggests that there are between 2m and 4m Burmese workers in Thailand, perhaps another
halfβmillion in Malaysia, more than 100,000 in Singapore, a few thousand in Japan and South Korea,
and then a totally unknown number in India and China. However, last year only $566m (or 1.1% of
GDP) worth of remittances ended up in the coffers of the Central Bank of Myanmar.
As IMF observed on 22nd May, 2013, Myanmarβs ambitious reform program is bearing fruit, with
macroeconomic stability and high investor interest. Growth in fiscal year (FY) 2012/13 (year ending
March) is estimated at around 6Β½ percent and is expected to accelerate slightly to 6ΒΎ percent in FY
2013/14.
At the World Economic Forum for East Asia, Myanmar opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi mentioned
that βI want our country to be a sanctuary any of our people can return to and bring their talents
back.β It indicates partly that Myanmar migrant workers are not enjoy working abroad under difficult,
dirty and dangerous working conditions. However, she cannot guarantee when her wish will be
fulfilled and in what way.
Myanmar Ministry of Labor has recently adopted a strategy to address employment and migration. It
has opened 77 employment centers across the country to assist the youth and unemployed access
both domestic and oversea job markets. In particular, it has taken a historic change to register the
migrant workers in neighboring Thailand β a phenomenon previously regarded as an illegal activity
subject to heavy punishment by law. (Framework for economic and social reforms) It has already
issued half a million passports and identity cards to migrant workers while cooperating with the
Royal Government of Thailand in reaching out to around 2 million migrant workers in Thailand.
Official attempts to acknowledge and register reduced the cost of migration and impact on poverty.
Remittances of migrant workers could be channeled through proper banking system.
Myanmar government, which pays little if any attention to migrant workers, adopted policy very
recently which could be interpreted some concerns for migrant workers. Migration policy of
Myanmar new government includes to migrate via formal channel, basic rights for migrant workers
to be protected, to reduce the costs for migration, to focus on socio economic development of
migrant workers and families and gaining experience, skill and knowledge from migration. Moreover,
migration should be integrated into the National Development Strategy. Furthermore, policy
recommended data collection, visits and research to be conducted, integration with international
organizations, international and local civil society. And finally, to endeavor for the development of
77
local and regional labor markets.
In Malaysia, seven cases of incidents on 30th May to 4th June killed more than 4 Myanmar workers
and a thousand arrested for interrogation. It is related with group clash and not related with
Malaysians (Myanmar Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs). Even some Malaysia businessmen
demand for protection of Myanmar workers in Malaysia. Most of Myanmar workers in Malaysia
planning to return home because of attacks in Malaysia and concern by their families in Myanmar
but limited by Contract terms and lack of document. Even though those who already worked for
agreed term facing difficult to leave as their passports are controlled by the employees.
According to Deputy Minister for Information ,inexperienced and low capacity of Myanmar embassy
officials in Malaysia make unable to issue Certificate of Identity to remaining illegal Myanmar migrant
workers . According to one estimation, it amounted to 300,000 legal migrant workers and 30,000
illegal workers in Malaysia. Myanmar government could employ very limited officials and
coordination with other ministries is still needed, said Deputy Minister for Labor. As of June 19,
10,000 Myanmar migrant workers already hold Certificate of Identity, according to Minister for Labor.
Other Myanmar migrants who are working in different parts of Malaysia demand for the presence of
Myanmar Counsellor in their regions as it is risky to visit Myanmar embassy in Kuala Lumpur.
Myanmar employment Agencies are restricted by Ministry of labor to bring workers to Malaysia
during June 2013. One delegation of employment agencies visited Malaysia and reported that
conflicts in Malaysia is not related with discrimination of race or religion but based on personal
affairs.
There are some lucky groups of Myanmar migrant workers are still waiting to get registered with
UNHCR as refugee. Hundreds, if not thousands, of Myanmar nationals with refugee cards issued by
the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees were illegally doing business which suffer local
businessmen. Local people criticized UNHCRβs repeated defence of refugees, who were caught
abusing their refugee status by conducting illegal businesses. Some of the Myanmar refugees, who
total about 9,000, according to UNHCR data, had refused to leave Malaysia after establishing
themselves in the country (New Strait Times, 24th June, 2013).
Myanmar business community and civil society actively participated to bring back workers in
Malaysia. On 28th June, 12 workers are employed in Naypyidaw and another 43 workers in Yangon
totally 55 out of around 1000 returnee from Malaysia (New Light of Myanmar 29th June). In general,
their skill and experience might not fit into the needs of local market. However, on the other hand,
Myanmar migrant workers are still leaving to Malaysia through official channel.
Problems in Thailand are different from Malaysia. In Thailand, Reliability and credibility of the
Myanmar Agents in question related with wages and working conditions. Myanmar government in
collaboration with Thai government already issued temporary passport to 1.4 million Myanmar
workers in Thailand. But as 2 million still remain, the process extended again from May 11 to Aug 11,
2013. The cost of temporary passport amounted to 3700 Bahts per worker and 675 Bahts for
dependents and children. However, they still suffer higher cost of temporary passport through agents
at the cost of 15000 Bahts). The causes for registration through agents might be illiteracy, lack of
78
information and understanding of the process, and low income level. Children of the migrant workers
have very few access to education even though 74 schools for Myanmar migrant workers established
in Thailand.
Illegal Myanmar migrant workers are deported by Thai officials frequently as Thai police force trying
to suppress increasing cases of human trafficking. On 21st June, Myanmar labor officials approved
that around 150 Myanmar migrant workers are deported through Myawaddy. Around 200 workers
who already contracted with Thai companies but could not get permission from the Ministry of Labor
protest in Myawaddy for delaying their migration on 28th June, 2013.
Factors affecting returnees might be: economic development in Myanmar , wage differential,
unemployment which increased from 4.01 to 8β10 percent (Minister for Labor, 31st May, 2013),
underβemployment and low development of businesses , development of peace especially in remote
and ethnic areas and willingness of migrant workers among others. Other related issues include
defining what is home countryβThailand or Myanmar, new and unfamiliar social and physical
environment in Myanmar, adaptability of Myanmar kids born in Thailand with Myanmar
environment, continuous training and education for Myanmar kids born in Thailand.
There are some area of development including government policy (Myanmar citizens all over the
world need to be protected by the government), easier transfer of remittance via formal channel,
establishing Industrial zones near border areas but developed slowly because of constraints in
financing infrastructure, Complaint Mechanism for local and international labor issues which is
established on 27th June.
79
Exile or Return? The Diasporaβs Role in Myanmarβs Political Transition
Kerstin Duell, PhD
Myanmar Programme Manager, KonradβAdenauer Foundation Singapore
Introduction
Myanmarβs tumultuous postβcolonial history has been characterised by decades of direct and indirect
military rule and corresponding political mobilisations ranging from armed ethnic and ideological
insurgencies to mass protests, student movements, and nonβviolent proβdemocracy uprisings. The
nationalisation and mismanagement of the economy, the militarisation of the state, political
surveillance and oppression, and the closure of universities triggered the flight of millions of
Burmese. Several main waves of exit can be distinguished following (1) the 1962 military coup, (2)
the onset of the βBurma Socialist Programme Partyβs direct rule and the U Thant uprising in the
midβ1970s, (3) the 1988 mass uprisings, and (4) the 2007 uprisings respectively. The largest exodus
occurred between late 1988 and after the 1990 elections when the military government indefinitely
delayed the transfer of power to the elected opposition. Thus, the Burmese diaspora was primarily
conflictβgenerated but also comprised individuals who left for educational and professional purposes.
Political exiles as a subset of this diverse diaspora lead a transnational proβdemocracy movement
that maintained sustained challenges against the powerful military regime for over 20 years.
Although activism was only one among multiple factors that induced topβdown political reform
beginning in 2011, the political diaspora can be credited with influencing international relations with
their homeland and, to a lesser extent, domestic politics. The unexpected governmentβdriven reform
initiative combined with invitations β but no safety guarantees or amnesty β to the diaspora at large
to return home, only attracted a few political exiles back. They currently contribute to the
politicoβeconomic development, including as advisors to the present government. However, while
there is general agreement over the important areas where the skills and experience of the returning
diaspora could benefit the countryβs development, political exiles also meet with distrust from their
countrymen. Disagreement among activists who remained in the country prevails when assessing the
role and motivation of exiles in Myanmarβs reforms. Conflicts persist among dissident groups of a
movement that was split between home and exile over 20 years ago and that attempts to reconcile
different experiences into one combined effort for Myanmarβs transformation.
Attitudes of Activists who Remained in the Country towards Exiles
Many activists in Myanmar are acutely aware of their lack of formal education, theoretical
knowledge, international exposure and organisational capacity as a result of censorship, the
undermining of the education system, and the lack of internet access and ICT. They also lament the
fact that nobody in the country ever experienced the democratic freedoms and practices envisioned
80
for Myanmarβs future.35 Representatives of youth organisations therefore stressed that the primary
contribution of returning exiles consisted in bringing knowβhow, international experience and
organisational skills to the movement and to the countryβs development at large.
Another important area of exile experience is the interaction with people from other ethnic groups
and hence a different understanding of ethnic relations. In exile, Burmans were in regular contact
with ethnic movement organisations as well as with the armed groups. Not least, key exile groups
such as the NCGUB, DAB and NCUB were founded in the previous Karen National Union headquarters
Manerplaw at the inception of the proβdemocracy movement between 1988β1990. During the
exodus into territories controlled by the respective rebel armies the latter provided vital help for the
activistsβ survival in the jungle and eventual crossing to neighbouring countries. Although
Burmanβethnic relations were far from smooth, identifying common goals as well as exposure to
international perspectives on ethnic rights increased mutual acceptance in the early years.
Beyond politics, many fields could benefit from the foreignβeducated Burmeseβ valuable expertise
and skills. For instance, exile media organisations could become catalysts for media development by
training young journalists, setting standards of journalism ethics, connecting local and international
media and in short, put Myanmar indigenous media outlets on the global news network map. While
the government appears to favour returning exile media, they still need to struggle with cronies who
oppose this new competition and who attempt to outbid or undermine exile journalists.36
Inβcountry movement leaders are proud of their years of sacrifices to maintain, at great personal risk,
underground networks across the country and contacts with the grassroots. A common criticism is
that exiles remain close to their peers from the 88 Group and political prisoners but not the
grassroots; accordingly, exiles work with the political leaders and main stakeholders but hardly with
the broader civil society that does not focus on strictly political issues.37 There is thus a notion that
exiles fail to approach and to understand the general populationβs needs and aspirations.38 Yet,
considering the nature of the previous clandestine work, it comes at no surprise that the mutual
exposure between exiles and the grassroots has been limited at best. However, such criticism
contradicts the claims of the exile organisations like ABSDF, DPNS and FTUB to have worked
extensively at the grassroots during the years of dictatorship.39 Whatever the case, returning exiles
need to intensify their approach to the grassroots in order to work efficiently with the population
and use funds wisely.40
Incongruent expectations pose another point of contention between locals and exiles. Local activists
are well aware that decades of pentβup frustration and grievances fuel peopleβs extremely high
expectations to see immediate improvements in matters of daily survival such as food, housing,
electricity, transport, land issues and others. Exiles seem to hold equally unrealistic expectations but
in terms of fundamental institutional changes rather than daily hardship. With an education and
experience often acquired in established democracies and industrial countries, exiles tend to
35 Hkun Htun Oo, βA Union for all of usβ, Journal of Democracy 23, 4 (2012): 132β134.
36 Interview with former 1988 activists. Yangon, 2013.
37 Interview with youth activists, Yangon 2013.
38 Interview with youth activists, Yangon 2012.
39 Duell, Kerstin. 2011. Transnational Activism and the Burmese ProβDemocracy Movement in India and Thailand. Ph.D. dissertation,
Department of Political Science, National University of Singapore. 40 Interview with Ko Ko Gyi, Yangon 2013.
81
measure Myanmar against the political freedoms in their host countries.41 On the one hand, such
comparisons imply how removed from current conditions some exiles may have become. On the
other hand, the vision of a fullβfledged federal democracy will be the key to drive the countryβs
reform ahead and prevent it from stagnating at an early stage.
Residual resentments after a 20βyear history continue to impact on relations within the home and
exile movement. Activists in Myanmar have always perceived themselves as the real martyrs and
crucial players, while portraying exiles to a varying degree as hypocrites leading lives in security and
material comfort. Beyond real dedication to the countryβs political progress the question of power
lies at the core of the matter. In 2007 for instance, some former political prisoners from the 88
Generation stressed their unwillingness to grant political positions to returning exiles in the event of
transition.42 In 2012, insiders still question whether returnees are driven by concern for their
country or by personal gain. As a member of the Myanmar Youth Union explained βwe need to call
the exiles back to see their attitudes β whether they return for their own interests or to really help
the country.β43 Others on the contrary believe the returnees to be very committed to a broadβbased
reform and therefore actively be working with many different groups and parties.44
Conflicts also exist over past exile activities β on the exact nature and effectiveness of programmes
and the use of funds allocated to exiles.45 It is somewhat ironic that the competition for funding that
exacerbated some of the internal problems of the movement in exile now causes friction between
exiles and activists at home.
Changing Donor Agendas in the Current Period and Their Implications
The reform process substantially altered ramifications for donors. The flow of people, capital and
information into Myanmar drastically increased. The suspension of most international sanctions
paved the way for formal bilateral and multilateral engagement with the new administration.
International nonβgovernmental organisations, some of which have a long history of supporting
Burmese refugees, IDPs, and migrant workers in the region as well as political exiles, are entering the
country to carry out their programmes. Several trends among donors of political organisations can be
observed.
First, the traditional donors of the exile movement shifted their focus to support projects in the
country, which are run by newly established organisations or returning exiles.
Second, a different set of donors, international and multilateral agencies supporting political parties,
parliaments and multiβparty platforms are setting up or expanding their specific Myanmar
programmes and staff.
Third, funds to exile and crossβborder projects are drying up. The major donors of the movement in
exile for 20 years β the National Endowment for Democracy, Soros and the International Republican
Institute β continue to support some initiatives but grants will be phased out before 2015. Donors
41 Interview with peace movement organiser, Yangon 2012.
42 Interviews with former political prisoners, Yangon 2007.
43 Interview with Myanmar Youth Union, Yangon 2012.
44 Interview with Generation Wave, Yangon 2012.
45 Interview with NLD Youth, Yangon 2012.
82
may also feel compelled by their respective governments to rush into Myanmar. Yet, this quick shift
and βdonor fatigueβ have detrimental effects on humanitarian assistance to IDPs and refugees in
border areas and neighbouring countries where the return of these communities remains unclear.
Fourth and related, exile organisations need to reβinvent themselves to stay relevant. On the one side,
the ongoing political opening undermines arguments to βstay behindβ in exile. In fact, the exiled
government NCGUB dissolved in September 2012 after 21 years. With Aung San Suu Kyi in
parliament and other progress, the NCGUB had not more βraison dβΓͺtreβ, besides the groupβs budget
was reduced to a quarter of what it was five years ago.46 On the other side, human rights groups
continue to publicise violations, restrictions of freedoms and Myanmarβs many unchanged problems.
Perhaps the last role for exile organisations would be in the midβterm to keep a check on whether
progress is being made towards true democratisation, rule of law and respect for human rights.
Outlook
The countryβs underdevelopment, humanitarian and political crises engendered a βgold rushβ not only
of investors, development assistance and humanitarian aid but also of donors of political
programmes.
Power asymmetries between donors and recipients, between exiles and insiders and between local
wellβestablished and newcomer organisations created a difficult web of relationships and
dependencies. In addition, the sudden availability of resources also triggered the mushrooming of
Burmese political organisations. This is mainly due to the fact that activists feel they are finally able
to do more and more openly, especially since everyone is preparing for the next general elections in
2015. Genuine efforts notwithstanding, some organisations also appear to be hastily set up to siphon
off some funds without actually offering useful programmes.
The few returned exiles focus so far on building capacities of the main political actors in the country β
the government and parliaments, leaders of political parties and groups associated with the
movement. As a result, wellβknown dissidents are represented in presidential advisory boards, in the
MDRI think tank as well as in special commissions, for instance to investigate the BuddhistβMuslim
communal violence or the security forcesβ treatment of the protestors at the Letpadaung copper
mine. However knowβhow transfer appears to be seen as a oneβsided process. Missing in this
discussion are the areas where the returning diaspora could learn from people in the country.
The lack of a systematic, transparent and nationβwide policy applicable to the entire diaspora,
including political exiles, remains a key issue to be resolved. Since President Thein Seinβs verbal
invitations have not translated into legal assurances, most exiles wishing to return hesitate. The
government needs to demonstrate its political will with an amnesty for exiled activists in order for
the country to fully benefit from its diasporaβs skills and expertise.
46 βInterview NCGUB Prime Minister Sein Win: Myanmar Elections, a Changing Country and its Exiled Opponentsβ, PRIβs The World, 30
March 2012
http://www.pri.org/stories/world/asia/myanmarβgovernmentβopponentsβfaceβnewβrealityβinβwakeβofβparliamentaryβelectionsβ9230.html.
83
Transitional Justice in Myanmar: Assessing the Alternatives
Mung Don
The University of Hong Kong
A transitional justice is usually taken place after a political transition from authoritarian or military
regimes to democratic government to address the gross human rights violations of the past
oppressive regimes. Several measures such as retributive justice, reparation, truth commission,
memorialization, affirmative action, institutional reform (vetting process) and other measures are
executed to achieve justice, accountability, national reconciliation, peace and political stability. The
transitional justice measures are envisaged by several human rights activists, local and international
human rights organizations and victims of the gross human rights violations in Myanmar. Several
literatures on transitional justice of Myanmar discussed a variety of approaches to address human
rights violations of the past two decades.
The International Human Rights Clinic at Harvard Law School studied the human rights violations of
the armed conflict between several nonβstate armed groups and Tatmadaw in the eastern part of
Myanmar. The study concluded there were war crimes, crimes against humanity and other gross
human rights violations.47 Recently, Tomas Ojea Quintana, the Special Rapporteur on the situation of
human rights in Myanmar has reported to the UN Human Rights Council suggesting transitional
justice measures to seek justice, truth and accountability of the past gravest violations in the political
transitional period. Executing under his mandate, he encouraged the residing parliamentarians to
initiate legislation addressing the past human rights grievances.48 Ian Holliday briefly discussed a
national measure of transitional justice in his βBurma Reduxβ and suggested a regional or State level
approach to addressing the past violations in his presentation of the 2012 Myanmar Conference.
Post 2010 Election
The human rights activists and organizations in abroad and domestic have campaigned for several
years calling for the establishment of a commission of inquiry of Myanmar. Since the United States
has started engagement policy with the new elected nominal civilian government, the support and
pressure of the international community for the transitional justice was significantly decreased. The
US and some of the European States have extended their political engagement to deeper military
relationship and business investments. The possibility of bringing the perpetrators of gross human
rights violations to the International Criminal Court and other ad hoc international criminal tribunals
is extremely low at present political settings. Some democratic opposition parties are concerned of
47 See generally International Human Rights Clinic At Harvard Law School, Crimes In Burma (Cambridge: Harvard Law School, 2009).
48 See generally at UN Human Rights Council, UN Human Rights Council: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights
in Myanmar, 6 March 2013, A/HRC/22/58, available at:
http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session22/A.HRC.22.58_AUV.pdf [accessed 15 June 2013]
84
prosecution of the military perpetrators will result in negative impacts on the reform process
initiated by the highly military influenced government.
The USDP and military representatives, over 80% of the representatives, is unlikely to initiate any
legislations to address the past human rights violations or amend the Section 445 of the 2008
Constitution which guarantees amnesty to all the actions taken by the military regimes of the past
two decades. The military, the most powerful and influential institution in Myanmar politics, will
prevent any measures to prosecute the senior military leaders. The fullβscale national transitional
justice of any measures seems impossible.
Alternative Measures
Jon Elster suggested the motivation for retributive justice becomes lower with the fading memory of
the past. In his research on the trials of Germany after the WWII, the number of prosecution was
dropped in the later years.49 The gap between the conflict (violations) and the measure of a
transitional justice determines what measures have to be taken. The lack of political will of the
international and national stakeholders raises the question of when the transitional justice will be
initiated in political transition of Myanmar. Currently, the regional or State level measures of
addressing the past human rights violations seems promising while the international and national
transitional justice are constrained by numerous challenges.
The amnesty provision of the Constitution, the Section 445, does not prevent the prosecution of
human rights violations committed by the military after 2010. Under the constitution certain human
rights are guaranteed from violation and the perpetrators are liable under the domestic jurisdiction.
Regardless of challenges such as the Supreme Court, the highest court of the State, has no
jurisdiction over military affairs and the CommanderβinβChief has final judicial authority over the
Courtsβmartial. The current domestic legal system maintains the immunity of the military institution
from the prosecution of the past human rights violations.
Recent human rights abuses in Kachin State and northern Shan State were violations of the
constitutional rights of Myanmar citizen and existing domestic laws. The litigation of those violations
in either civilian or military courts does not interfere with the constitutional immunity clause and it
will have impact on fighting against the impunity enjoyed by the military. This ambitious legal task
requires a flexible strategy to avoid negative consequences on the victims. Such litigations were
already conducted for the unlawfully detained persons in the armed conflicts by the military
intelligence in Kachin State. The detainees were saved from torture in unknown detention centers
and they were brought to the township and district courts. The impunity poses serious threats to the
rule of law and democratic society and it undermines the political reform process. The judicial
mechanisms are still strongly influenced by the military and executive body. However, the litigation
has revealed the need of institutional reform of the legal system and mechanism of check and
balance.
The next advantage of focusing on recent abuses is that most of the human rights violations were
well reported, published, documented and recorded in video and audio, and the international
49 See generally at Jon Elster, Closing the books: transitional justice in historical perspective (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
85
community was well informed about the atrocities of the conflicts. Some of the victims, relatives and
family members of the victims, witness and the perpetrators are still alive and the evidence can be
accessible rather easily. The 2008 constitutional provision of immunity covers the human rights
violations in Karen State, Shan State and eastern parts of Myanmar because those violations were
committed before the new government was installed and the 2008 constitution came into effect. The
regional measure of Kachin State is very unique and timely approach to transitional justice.
The current reform taken by the government, the investment interests and political attention of the
international community are supposed to be favorable ground for initiation of small but timely
regional measures of transitional justice. The scope and mandate of the alternative measures are
limited but it is a catalyst for national measure of transitional justice and it exposes the necessity to
end the cycle of conflicts. Based on the precedent cases, the alternative measures might not be
effective or have incredible impact on the institutional reform or political transition like the
retributive justice conducted by the International Criminal Court, ad hoc criminal tribunals or hybrid
courts. However, it is an initiative for broader and forwardβlooking national transitional justice, and
preliminary measure to lobby the Union government and State government for rehabilitation and
reparation of the victims of violations and armed conflicts.
Such moderate alternative measure is supposed to avoid provoking the security concerns of retired
Generals and the litigation should focus on the prosecution of physically committed or directly
complicit military personnel. The retired military Generals are not liable as they are no longer in the
position of formal military structure. The most likely to be prosecuted under this legal approach are
low ranking officers such as major, lieutenant and private. The highest possible responsible position
might be βBureau of Special Operationβ and the approach opens an escape route for senior military
officials through the flow of command system. The CommanderβinβChief or other higher officials is
assumed not to order to commit rape, murder or torture, but nonβrecognition of the violations and
lack of accountability create collective guilt of the military institution. The legal justice is an
important step to national reconciliation because it individualizes the crimes and help the Kachin
community change the perception of collective crimes of the Burman. The president and General
Myint Soe, from Bureau of Special Operation and in charge of military operation in Kachin State and
northern Shan State, stated that the military personnel are liable for any commission of violations
under domestic civilian laws and military laws in recent interview.50
The regional measure cannot fully address the legacy of past violations but it can achieve the
governmentβs recognition of those violations. The initiative will raise transitional justice as an issue in
2015 election. The factβfindings, documentation and investigation by the regional measure are
preparatory step for wider national measures. On the other hand, the rehabilitation and reparation
measures can acquire the necessary data from the factβfindings and other local NGOs can initiate the
approach to rebuild the livelihood of the victims. The victims will not be left behind, but equipped
with skills and education to join the competing open market and workforce in the transition. The
development of people from warβtorn areas will surely reduce the burden on the State and
strengthen the democratization process. All in all, the regional measure is a compulsory initiative for
truth commission or other transitional justice measure and national reconciliation.
50 Nyein Nyein & May Kha, β Donβt Believe Everything You Hear,β The Irrawaddy, June 4, 2013. http://www.irrawaddy.org/archives/36431
86
Cultural Elite: Situating Hip Hop in the Transition
Jacqueline Menager
Australian National University
A preoccupation since the 2010 elections has been the question of βwhy nowβ? Over the past two
days we have heard various facets of this transition and I would like to add another β that of
generational change. Young people have grown up in a country with a basic standard of living and
considerably fewer opportunities than the countries where many of them travel for university studies
and vacations. The role of young people in the current transition cannot be overlooked: as both a
force for change and as the leaders of the future. It is not only an economic and political transition
but a social one; young people have begun to expect more from their country.
The concept of elite is a linking factor and a justification for studying culture in Myanmar. While we
have discussed notions of political elite and the economic transition in Myanmar, I think it is
necessary to link these actors and their actions to wider society. Here culture and specifically music
provides one such link. Hip hop musicians influence what is considered desirable and this both
supports and drives the current shift from a militarily dominated country to a more cosmopolitan
outwardly looking population.
Hip hop is quickly becoming the most popular music in Myanmar. While rock bands, most
prominently Iron Cross and R Zarni, have dominated the past, the future looks to be preoccupied by
hip hop. Popular music and the cultural sphere of Myanmar is an important driver and measure of
the transition. Not only does music offer an ideal medium for the expression of social realities and
values, it also has the potential to challenge the status quo. Here I am not referring only to politically
oriented music, but more importantly to music which challenges certain moral and social mores
which are outdated and repressive to many, primarily the youth of today.
When appraising the hip hop scene in Myanmar, three distinct categories of musicians can be
identified. Firstly, there are the children of wealthy families who want to be famous. Their families
bankroll their questionable talent, with autoβtuned songs written and produced by talented
musicians, excessive advertising displaying their expensive photo shoots and the funds to put on
elaborate shows in prime locations. The second group are artists who are talented, but not as
wealthy, and have persevered with music, negotiating with censors, competing for sponsorship and
networking for features on the wealthy artists tracks and spots in their shows. And finally, the third
group are artists who are classified as βundergroundβ. This final group is the focus of this paper.
Here the concept of underground needs to be unpacked. An underground artist in Myanmar is
someone who has never released an official album, that is, they have never applied to the Press
Scrutiny and Registration Board. Instead, they have relied on the internet to distribute their music,
uploading to Youtube, Facebook and other file sharing sites to circulate their music. Also, live
87
performances were a crucial ground for increasing their fan base.
Underground artists in Yangon did not apply to the censorship board for several reasons. Firstly,
many have tattoos, which were banned on posters, advertising, TV and film clips until November
2012. Secondly, their lyrics, while not always directly political were more confrontational than the
censor board would approve, most often discussing how hard life is in Myanmar. While these lyrics
would not always directly indict the government nor be directly political, but rather conform to a
typical hip hop practice of talking about hustling and life on the streets, the artists predicted the
censorship board would not have approved and therefore did not apply.
If they were to apply and their songs didnβt pass, they couldnβt upload them to Youtube or Facebook
or perform them live, as that would have had serious repercussions being a direct disregard to the
censorship decision. Whereas if censorship was never sought, artists could simply remain under the
radar and have more grounds for contestation if they were ever confronted for their music.
Interestingly, while this approach of skirting the censorship board seems risky, I have not heard of
any of the underground artists being punished for such defiance. Indeed, a video clip for one song
shows the artists in a physical conflict with actors, dressed as Yangon police. This was considered by
the artists as considerably dangerous, however even this went seemingly unnoticed by the
authorities.
Following the end of censorship in late 2012, these underground artists are currently working to
release their first official albums this year. While the albums due to be released throughout this year
do not have to go through any censorship process, the artists are still taking a risk releasing official
albums. The artists do not know what the results of their official releases will be, especially
considering some of their songs are openly confrontational, discussing the 1988 uprisings, political
prisoners and refugees on the ThaiβBurma border for example. As with most facets of the newly
forming country, the true extent of musical freedom will be tested over the next few years, through
the release of increasingly controversial songs.
Certainly, a free music scene is important in and of itself, however, it indicates broader changes also.
Presenting a model for youth with less traditional morals, it offers an alternative to what was
previously a more conservative culture, which emulated military force as the key marker of elitism
and power. Now the cultural cache, which can be garnered from being conspicuously βcoolβ, is joining
previous methods of gaining power, predominately wealth and military connections. This change
affects many facets of Burmese society, including gender inequalities for example.
The hip hop industry in Myanmar is a predominately male domain. This comes from the difficultly of
women entering the industry due to restrictions on their movements from parents, husbands,
boyfriends and the stigma attached if they do so. Females in the public sphere, including models,
actresses and singers, who dressed provocatively by Burmese standards, who went out at night and
acted independently from their male custodians were virtually considered prostitutes, with outraged
comments towards photos, videos or news articles about them. This obviously stopped many from
even considering or pursuing the occupations. This is beginning to change, with some female hip hop
artists becoming popular, including Bobby Soxer and Sandy Myint Lwin.
88
This leads to another important aspect of Myanmarβs hip hop culture, that of image. Popular music
internationally is entering a new period of music distribution and how artists make money. While
previously relying on profits from album sales, now with the proliferation of free downloading of
albums, artists are earning money from alternative means including sponsorships and touring.
Myanmarβs underground hip hop artists have long relied on sponsors, appearing in promotional
material for clothing and accessories, state promotional material and movie soundtracks. This
includes promotional material for private clothing, watches, jewelry, makeup, mobile phone launches
and retail stores, as well as government campaigns β for example several major hip hop artists have
been commissioned to write songs and film video clips for the South East Asian Games being held by
Myanmar in December this year. And thus, more than the music quality necessarily, hip hop artistsβ
reputations and image are becoming increasingly more important.
As hip hop becomes more popular and profitable, so an increase in a formalization of the
management of artists can be seen. Producers, studio owners, sponsors and event managers are
increasing becoming viable businesses, and as such the industry is becoming more formalized and
somewhat depersonalized. The four most popular hip hop artists in Yangon currently are Sai Sai,
Snare, Bunny Phyoe and Hlwain Paing. These artists perform almost always together and almost
exclusively for the event organizer BoBo Entertainment. Sponsors for these events have recently
begun to include Coca Cola and Tiger Music.
An integral quality of hip hop are group affiliations. Both from groups of rappers who perform as one
entity, including PBD Hood, Cyclone and Snare, but also of associations of musicians, the most
prominent of which is the Myanmar Hip Hop Association or MHA. Members of MHA bear large
tattoos of the acronym and often perform together in shows and on albums. A side effect of such
group affiliations are competition and rivalry, which is currently intensifying in the Yangon scene.
With the perception that the industry is about to take off with increasing foreign investment and
disposable income, everyone wants to be at the head of the pack as sponsors begin to invest more
and the possibility of international record companies entering the market increases.
Ultimately, all these changes indicate hip hop in Myanmar is driving many social, political and
economic changes, including the traditional discrimination against tattoos, gender inequality, military
elitism, censorship of freedom of speech and foreign involvement and perception. As such, the
interplay between culture and politics requires further analysis and a greater appreciation in
Myanmar Studies.
89
Soldiers as Lawmakers: In Search for a Legislative Role for the Tatmadaw
Renaud Egreteau
Research Assistant Professor, The University of Hong Kong
Under authoritarian rules, parliaments are frequently construed as βrubber stampβ legislatures. They
are expected to act according to the wishes of the powerful executive. In transitional periods
though, the significance of newlyβformed legislatures increases considerably. Newlyβelected
parliaments can indeed either act as obstructionist bodies defending the interests of the old ruling
class, or, on the contrary, foster democratization. In postβjunta regimes, the military commonly
seeks a constitutionallyβsanctioned presence in these parliaments β but not always as the case of the
postβ1986 civilβmilitary transition in the Philippines illustrate. The legislative participation of the
military is usually secured through reserved seats in national and/or local assemblies. Through this
presence in lawmaking bodies, praetorian armies intend to keep an eye on the legislative process
and safeguarding their own interests, beside other channels of influence they have captured in the
state bureaucracy and transitional executive and other policymaking structures. Indonesia has long
offered a case model with General Suhartoβs New Order (1965β1998). The Indonesian military indeed
managed to institutionalize its participation in governance and lawmaking. Active generals and
colonels have long populated Indonesiaβs embassies, ministries and parliaments. It was only in the
early 1990s that the mandated presence of the armed forces in the national parliament in Jakarta
began to be seriously debated. Military parliamentarians were eventually withdrawn from national
and local legislatures in 2004.
In Myanmar, the 2008 Constitution provided a significant opportunity for the Tatmadaw to follow
this model. Burmese army delegates represent roughly one fourth of each local and national
assemblies formed after the 2010 elections. They can therefore boast 110 seats in Pyithu Hluttaw
(article 109b of the Constitution), 56 seats in Amyotha Hluttaw (article 141b), and a total of 222
seats in the fourteen state and region legislatures (article161d). All military appointees are
nominated by the CommanderβinβChief of the Tatmadaw. It was one of the last decisions taken by
SeniorβGeneral Than Shwe on January 20, 2011, before his retirement. Out of 388 firstβtime
delegates appointed by Than Shwe in 2011, there were only three army colonels in Pyithu Hluttaw,
two in Amyotha Hluttaw, whilst one army colonel lead each military delegation in the fourteen
decentralized local assemblies, safe the Kayin State where a BrigadierβGeneral has been posted (he
would thereafter be nominated Chief Minister). All other military appointees were of lower ranks β
majors, captains, and navy lieutenantβcommanders. For many observers, their core objective in the
parliament was to ensure the army a nonβnegotiable βvetoβ on any potential constitutional reform;
indeed 75 per cent of the legislators are required to pass any amendment on the Constitution.
But if the presence of the military in the postβSPDC national and local assemblies seems secured,
Tatmadawβs legislative power appears not as unlimited and unchecked as often claimed by
proβdemocracy activists. Initially, many an observer thought the military appointees would just have
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to resist potential amendments to the Constitution prepared by leading opposition MPs, secure the
nomination of the President and one of the two Viceβpresidents (both with substantial military
background), and deal with militaryβrelated affairs. But the political significance of the army
representatives in the national parliament (far more than in the local legislatures) has gradually
evolved, in line with the enduring political salience of the Tatmadaw. During the first postβ2010
elections parliamentarian sessions, newly appointed army delegates tended to keep low profile in all
assemblies. But once the charismatic Aung San Suu Kyi and her National League for Democracy
entered both houses after the byβelections held in April 2012, the parliamentβs prestige emerged
redeemed. Already, the assertion of Thura Shwe Mannβs political authority as Speaker of Pyithu
Hluttaw has since 2011 strengthened its importance. This was all the more highlighted by rumours
on his emerging political rivalry with the executive power and President Thein Sein.
Above all, military representatives have progressively showed skills at participating in
parliamentarian debates, discussing law propositions and arranging for shuttles of bills between the
two houses of Pyidaungsu Hluttaw. Special trainings have been provided to them and political
science teachings are compulsory at the Defence Services Academy (DSA). When in early 2013 I
conducted interviews in Naypyidaw and Yangon with parliamentarians, some have recalled how they
have attempted to establish some sort of friendly dialogue with their military colleagues, especially
the midβrank officers. Discussions within the premises of the national assemblies in Naypyidaw
appeared far more forthcoming than initially expected. After all, legislative mechanisms were also
quite unfamiliar to civilian MPs, who took for the first time a parliamentarian position in 2011.
Furthermore, three weeks after the historical election of Aung San Suu Kyi in April 2012, the
substitution of 59 majors and captains with as many Brigadierβgenerals and colonels as new military
appointees in Pyidaungsu Hluttaw underscored an evident policy change from the armed forces.
From then on, higher ranking military officers were to get thoroughly involved in legislative debates.
This indicated the increasing importance the Tatmadaw β and more particularly its CβinβC Min Aung
Hlaing β gives to a legislative branch. This is also in line with the Tatmadawβs rhetoric on the image
of responsibility, accountability and dedication to the public interest that every senior army officer
should project, including in nonβmilitary bodies and institutions.
Besides, military appointees have increasingly proved ready not to vote systematically against
propositions prepared by opposition MPs (far from it). On some issues once considered as βnational
securityβ and reserved to the sole military hierarchy during the SLORCβSPDC era, military delegates
have proved willing to listen and, sometimes, align with the opposition. When the support for a
general amnesty for prisoners was proposed in August 2011, military appointees acquiesced.
According to civilian parliamentarian themselves, the new legislature β although far from perfect β
therefore in no way resembles the tightly controlled National Convention which drafted the
Constitution between 2004 and 2007.
If the postβSPDC national and local parliaments can prove they are no rubberβstamping legislature, in
which military delegates act cooperatively with the dominant party as well as the opposition, the
prospects for a consolidation of the postβSPDC transition through parliamentarian activism would
therefore appear brighter. Encouragingly, the military delegates have not opposed the formulation
of the most significant reformβminded laws since 2011 β especially at the Union level. The critical
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role, behind closed doors, of the charismatic Thura Shwe Mann might explain. A further positive sign
would be that the military moves beyond its primordial veto function sanctioned by the Constitution
to actively participate in lawmaking and reform planning. This is however where the transition
appears to remain extremely fragile, and expectations too idealistic. Tensions might loom soon.
Opposition members and particularly Aung San Suu Kyi have repeatedly claimed that the presence of
men in uniform in postβSPDC assemblies was an anomaly that has to be corrected. They push for a
constitutional amendment before 2015. As in Indonesia in the 1990s, how the issue is dealt with will
prove critical to the consolidation (or not) of a peaceful relationship between the civilians and the
still dominant military, and this beyond the premises of the parliament.
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Authoritarian Survival Strategies in Comparative Perspective:
Myanmar, China and North Korea
Wooyeal Paik
Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul
Three authoritarian regimes in (South and North) East AsiaβMyanmar, China and North Koreaβhave
been experiencing substantial challenges and changes in recent years, but have responded differently.
Myanmar made a transition to market economy with recent significant political reform; China has
made a transition to market economy without fundamental political reform; North Korea has not
made a transition to market economy without any political reform. These three authoritarian
regimesβ different paths for their own regime survival help us to understand authoritarian regimes in
East Asia. More specifically, comparing the three East Asian authoritarian regimes would show their
resilience, survival strategies, and economic and political reform and transition.
In this vein, this paper focuses on the following four questions: (1) How have the three authoritarian
regimesβChina, Myanmar, and North Koreaβin East Asia been surviving?; (2) Why did some
authoritarian regimes make economic and/or political transition and the others not?; (3) What are
the roles of semiβcompetitive election, authoritarian regime type, and clientele structure in making
such distinctions with the similar result (regime survival)?; (4) What are other critical factors beyond
these three domestic factors?
To answer this set of questions, this paper uses comparative political study with qualitative methods
of case study of three regimes and quantitative methods for large pictures in East Asia and other
regions (largeβN study). To use these methods for this research, there are some concerns such as the
βkitchen sinkβ method (i.e. including every possible variable in the equation); the βendogeneityβ (i.e.
the causal relation runs in both directions) problem; and the βmulticollineartyβ (i.e. two or more
predictor variables in a multiple regression model are highly correlated) problem
Main arguments of this paper are as follows. Authoritarian regimes in East Asia have been
transforming themselves into different types of hybrid regime for its own survival. The following
three theoretical frameworks are helpful to analyze their authoritarian resilience: (1) Institutional
arrangement (electoral institution); (2) Authoritarian regime type (singleβparty, military, personalistic,
and hybrid); and (3) Their engendered similar but distinct patronβclientele structures (at the elite as
well as mass levels). These theoretical frameworks, the further study will be incorporated to the
context of economic and political reform(or transition).
Case I. The Tatmadaw Regime in Myanmar
Its institutional arrangement (electoral mechanism) has been based upon semiβcompetitive national
and local elections with increasingly more competitiveness (esp. since 2012) with the ordinary
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citizensβ significant electoral experiences and opposition party and charismatic leaders such as Aung
San Suu Ki. Its authoritarian regime type is still military type, which is conventionally the most
unstable and shortβlived, but not for Myanmar and similar with the previous South Korea
1960s~1980s. Its patronβclientele structure is composed of two sectors: at the elite level, it revolving
around the military armed force (tatmadaw) and connected entrepreneurs and at the mass level, the
ordinary citizens are largely excluded, but are somehow connected into the militaryβbased
clientelism for their own survival.
Case 2. Chinese Communist Party Regime in China
Its institutional arrangement (electoral mechanism) has no meaningful election above the village
committee election with neither opposition parties and leaders nor substantial electoral experiences.
This regime promotes βSocialist Democracy with Chinese Characteristicsβ, which is not very clear. Its
authoritarian regime type can be categorized as singleβparty (Chinese Communist Party), which is
very stable with collective leadership at the top (established succession mechanism) and more than
82 million party members. The patronβclient structure of this singleβparty regime has that of
revolving around political and economic resources at the elite level and that of not revolving around
elections and largely between local governments/cadres and newly emerged entrepreneurs
excluding most ordinary citizens at the mass level.
Case 3. The Kim Family Regime in North Korea
Its institutional arrangement (electoral mechanism) has no meaningful election without any
opposition parties and leaders and electoral experience of ordinary citizens. Its ruling coalition is the
smallest among three cases. Its authoritarian regime type is a soβcalled tripleβthreat (a hybrid of
Singleβparty, Military, and Personalistic) and relatively stable with succession issue. Its patronβclient
structure is composed of the Kim Family and its military and party cronies at the elite level and local
cadres and illegal businessmen at the mass level. It seems that there is no patron for ordinary citizens
who barely survive in everyday life.
Conclusion
Based upon the preliminary research, more specific mechanisms related to economic and political
reform/transition in each case will be investigated. To be sure, some other factors for regime survival
will be state repression (Its proportional change with political openness?), predatory state vs.
developmental state, international factors (Nuclear Weapons, China/USβ¦), and ideology (The Revival
of Great Chinese People, National Unity, We Kim Ilsung Peopleβ¦). Also, these three authoritarian
regimes will be compared with other authoritarian regimes from previous and current as well as in
East Asia and other regions for general patterns for prediction.
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Myanmarβs Economic Potential: Peace Making or Peace Breaking?
Joakim Kreutz
Uppsala University
The Myanmar reform process starting with the 2008 Constitution have so far been accompanied by
an increase in political violenceβ particularly near economically important areas. Widespread public
protests have taken place against planned dams and pipelines, and natural resources rich areas have
been affected by clashes between the government and nonβstate armed groups in Kachin and
northern Shan state. Indeed, statements by representatives for nonβstate armed groups repeatedly
assess that the current fighting occur because the government wants to capture these natural
resources. But this behavior flies in the face of established theories on rational political
decisionβmaking: why engage in costly fighting in exactly the locations where the peace dividend
from the end of conflict will be the greatest?
In what follows, I suggest an explanation that focuses on the dynamic nature of strategy employed by
belligerents during civil strife. Thereby, I move away from a common assumption in scholarly work on
internal war warring party behaviuor is determined solely by their interaction with each other. In this
short research note, I focus explicitly on one factor β parties expected duration of the conflict β and
one effect β whether parties choose to engage in battle near or far from important economic
resources. Following a presentation of the theoretical argument, I explore whether this can be
observed in Myanmar. The empirics build on the shift in government behavior in northern Myanmar
(Kachin and Shan States) as a consequence of the reform process, and I conclude with a discussion
on the implications this may have for the possibility of ending civil war in the country.
The Aims of Rebels and Governments in Conflict
While there can be many reasons for why civil strife erupts somewhere, the choice of action by
governments and rebels in the initiatl stages are strikingly similar across different countries. The first
rebel offesnives focuses on the achieving the goal of getting increased access to power. In the first
years of postβcolonial Burma, several rebellious movements were almost able to succeed with this
but the early ABSDF government managed to defend itself. Fighting was extremely intense as both
sides committed all their available resources towards the military campaign in the expectation that
the conflict soon would be over. Most of the fighting was located at the most economically and
symbolically important resources, such as cities, trading posts and transport routes, as capturing
them could provide important resources for postβconflict reconstruction.
However, unless one side succeeds in defeating the other in these early clashes, belligerents have to
reconsider their strategy. Knowing that they are unable to comprehensively win the conflict and
achieve their ultimate goals, they have to focus on secondary goals such as survival and to
strengthen militarily over time. In order to do this, governments will claim control over as much
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territory as possible to be perceived as strong and legitimate. Rebels, on the other side, need to
ensure that they control some territory for recruitment purposes and are able to set up bases for
military training, political education, and the development of a political wing. Both sides also need to
be more cautious with their existing resources. Thus, even though the competitoin still centers on
control over territory, belligerents are less willing to commit resources for this and clashes will not be
near economically important areas. It is rational for them to avoid fighting near economically
important areas since that could disrupt their income from the ongoing trade with natural resources.
To maximize income from these areas for the warring sides, they will instead establish arrangements
to ensure that they receive a share of the income from the trade without having to risk losing
soldiers or income. In Myanmar, such arrangements have consisted of for example taxation of
companies involved in logging and mining, as well as roadβblocks or protection pacts seeking revenue
from transporting the goods towards the Thai and Chinese borders.
If negotiations begin and the parties see these as credibly offering a way to settle the conflict, they
will again reconsider their expectation of the duration of conflict and subsequently shift from
temporary to ultimate goals. In order to improve their bargaining position as well as secure
important resources in the postβconflict society, the strategic aim of the parties will shift back
towards economically important areas. At the same time, they will also be more willing to commit
the resources at their disposal to secure these areas in what is perceived as the endβgame of the
conflict. This is of course a risky choice, an intensification of violence runs counter to attempts to
build trust between belligerents and may lead to a breakdown of the talks and a return to protracted
conflict.
The Government Approach to Ethnic Minority Areas in Northern Myanmar 1948β2007
Ever since independence, the government has shown little ambition to engage with or incorporate
northern Kachin and Shan states into the state formation of Burma/Myanmar. Most areas have not
been under direct government control, and there have been few attempts to establish state presence.
Instead, these areas have been ruled through more or less formalized networks where local saophas,
religious actors, and local strongmen who have been trusted with controlling the political and
economic local life. This approach persisted even during the SLORC/SPDC βceasefireβ period. Despite
an opportunity of almost two decades of reduced violence in these areas and where many local
leaders explicitly requested government support for schools and healthcare, little interest was shown
by Yangon/Naypyidaw. Tellingly, there were not even much interest from Myanmar businessmen to
access the income from natural resources in these areas, with almost all investments only involving
foreign companies from, in particular, China and Thailand. The military government, and particularly
local commanders, continued to tax the trade in these areas which suggest that they remained
focused on the shortβterm goal of preparing for fighting rather than seeking to consolidate their
longβterm power.
The Government Approach to Ethnic Minority Areas in Northern Myanmar 2008β
In my research, I have found that the prevailing view is that there was a visible change of government
strategy following the new constitution 2008. Since then, the government has with increasing
assertiveness focused their troop deployments and political efforts towards securing control over
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economically important areas. The first sign of this followed the acceptance of some nonβstate forces
to transform into border guard forces (BGF). While much of the opposition of the BGF scheme from
nonβstate armed groups focused on their unwillingness to serve under a Myanmar army commander,
this aspect has not been the cause of as much fraction as originally expected. However, when a new
BGF has been formed, this has usually been accompanied by a deployment of Myanmar army units at
economically important areas nearby. The second sign that the government is paying more attention
to natural resources are the events that led to the resumption of the Kachin conflict in 2011.
Although tension had been lingering between the government and the KIO for some time, the spark
that started the fighting was the intrusion of government soldiers into an area that the 1994
ceasefire terms stipulated as controlled by KIO. This should not have necessitated an escalation of
violence that now has lasted several years, but the government forces refused to withdraw while the
KIO were similarly reluctant to concede this economically important territory. Finally, many ethnic
minority representatives also claim that the governmentsβ priorities in the ongoing peace talks have
been to focus first on achieving a ceasefire with those groups that controlled the most economically
important areas. As the peace process has persisted and widened, it is not possible in 2013 to
suggest that the government only is interested in ceasefires only where there are natural resources.
However, the content and uneven progress of the talks indicate that both the government and the
nonβstate armed groups are fully aware of the importance of controlling future economic growth:
some groups have explicitly demanded that they are granted at least partial control over areas that
are considered as having economic potential. In some cases, this has even included areas that
currently are not under rebel control.
This study yields three implications that can be useful for understanding the contemporary situation
in Myanmar. First, there is a rationale behind the escalation of violence in some parts of the country
during the early stages of the peace process as competing actors are vying for power in a future
Myanmar. Second, while this may explain the violence in Kachin and northern Shan state, we should
not underestimate the risk that this may delay or reverse the peace process. Increased violence is a
threat to any attempt of settling or implementing a settlement and there is a risk that all the
Myanmar army and the nonβstate armed groups move back into a mode where they expect fighting
to persist of another generation or so. This would likely increase human rights abuse and challenge
the development that is necessary in the country to safeguard both the peace process and the
political reforms. Third, it is also necessary to be observant on how this competition to control
natural resources and economic centers is manifested. An consequence of the contentious relations
between government and nonβstate armed group is that whichever actor ends up in control may also
be protective against any other community or political organization in this territory. If all
economically promising areas are controlled by a unique actor who rejects the possibility of
nonβviolent actors coβexisting in the same space, then Myanmarβs road towards both democracy and
economic growth will be substantively longer.
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Obstacles to Police Reform in Myanmar/Burma
Andrew Selth
Griffith Asia Institute
Despite all the publicity that Myanmar (Burma) has received since the inauguration of a hybrid
militaryβcivilian parliament in 2011, and the launch of an ambitious reform program by President U
Thein Sein, there are some important issues which seem to have escaped serious study. The reform
of the national police force, for example, has not been specifically covered in any of the presidentβs
speeches about the need for the βrule of lawβ. However, it has become clear that the government
wishes not only to reinvigorate existing plans to expand and remodel the Myanmar Police Force
(MPF), but also to give it a more distinctive civilian style and ethos, and see it take greater
responsibility for some key aspects of the countryβs internal security. Indeed, such steps will be
essential if Myanmar is to strengthen the rule of law and make an orderly transition to a genuine and
sustainable democracy.
The armed forces (Tatmadaw) will remain responsible for external defence and for major security
operations such as counterβinsurgency campaigns against armed ethnic groups. However, it seems to
be envisaged that, as part of the broad democratisation process, the MPF will assume a greater role
in terms of law enforcement and the maintenance of internal order. Already, there are more blue
uniforms than green uniforms on the streets of Myanmarβs population centres, protecting VIPs,
standing static guard outside government offices and diplomatic missions. In rural districts they are
manning road blocks and protecting important infrastructure sites such as bridges. The police can
also be expected to play a larger part in quelling outbreaks of civil unrest, with the army only called
upon to provide aid to the βcivilβ power during emergencies, as occurred in Arakan (Rakhine) State in
2012 and central Myanmar in 2013.
To this end, the MPF is being expanded, restructured and modernised. It is already larger and more
powerful than it has been since the colonial era, but the goal is a force of over 100,000 men and
women, with 34 βsecurityβ battalions. As seen on the MPFβs comprehensive new Myanmar language
website, recruitment standards and officer level entry requirements have been raised. At the same
time, the MPFβs doctrine and training programs are being changed to give greater emphasis to
βcommunityβbased policingβ by unarmed officers working in close cooperation with the civil
population. This approach may not be completely new to Myanmar but, if fully and successfully
adopted, it will be in stark contrast to the tough paramilitary style of policing that has characterised
the force since General Ne Winβs 1962 coup dβetat.
As the former military regime found before 2011, however, and as postβauthoritarian governments in
other countries β such as Indonesia β have also experienced, the reform of a national police force
presents enormous challenges. Such transitions are never quick or easy. There are a number of areas
where the government and police force are likely to encounter challenges during the reform process.
98
Inevitably, given the rapid expansion of the MPF, there will be structural and resource pressures. In
addition, Myanmarβs armed forces remain very powerful. There will be some areas, such as
intelligence collection and internal security operations, where the interests of the MPF and
Tatmadaw will overlap. The respective roles, responsibilities and associated benefits of the two
institutions may be sorted out β probably in the Tatmadawβs favour β but there could still be
friction. Also, there are cultural issues in the police force which will take a long time to resolve.
Corruption and the abuse of power, for example, are deeplyβrooted problems that will be difficult to
eradicate. Until they are, the forceβs relations with the civil population will remain problematical.
In addition, such reform measures cannot be implemented in isolation from other institutions of
state. As the president has said, the benchmark for public bodies must be the rule of law,
administered fairly and impartially. There can be no tolerance of a system which constantly alludes to
the rule of law, but enables practices that contradict it. For decades, the βrule of lawβ was conflated
with βlaw and orderβ, as defined by the military government. There were honourable exceptions, of
course, but all too often the police acted as if they were not subject to the laws they were charged to
uphold. If officials cannot change and embrace the new paradigm, or are seen to be irretrievably
linked to the old regime, then they will need to be replaced. A more modern and effective police
force will be rendered impotent, for example, if prosecutors, judges, and prison governors fail in their
responsibilities. There needs to be a clear break with the past.
Since 2011, several foreign governments, international institutions and private foundations have
approached Naypyidaw with offers of help in this area. While most cite the presidentβs speeches and
refer to broad βrule of lawβ issues, a number seem to envisage direct assistance to the MPF. The
ability of foreigners to reform Myanmarβs police force, however, is limited. They can provide
specialised instruction, technical assistance and modern equipment. They can advise on concepts like
rightsβbased and community policing. This should lift the MPFβs ability to perform its basic functions,
enhance its capacity to control crime and disorder, and develop democratic policing models.
However, fundamental reform of the MPF will depend on sustained support from Naypyidaw, a
paradigm shift in the forceβs professional culture and the development of a relationship of trust with
the community. These are matters which can only be dealt with by the Burmese themselves.
Over the past decade, a broad consensus has developed at the international level on what
democratic policing looks like. Analysts have identified seven basic principles: that the police force
operates in accordance with the law, is regulated by a professional code of conduct, protects life by
minimising the use of force, is accountable to the public, protects life and property through
proβactive crime prevention, safeguards human rights and dignity, and acts in non discriminatory
manner. These seven principles can be condensed to just three: the police force must adhere to
international standards of human rights, it must maintain effective internal and external
accountability, and develop a partnership with local communities to achieve public safety. Measured
against all these benchmarks, Myanmar has made some progress since the late 1990s, and perhaps
even since the advent of a new government in 2011, but it still has a long way to go.
Should the MPF be able to reinvent itself, however, it has the potential to make a major contribution
to President Thein Seinβs reform program and the development of a more democratic, prosperous
and humane society in Myanmar. Also, as an important civilian body answerable to the public
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through an βelectedβ government, its behaviour β and treatment by the government β will be
important indicators of progress in current attempts to implement the rule of law in Myanmar and
make the security forces more accountable for their actions. These are all matters which will be
watched closely, both by the international community and by the Burmese people themselves.
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The Prospects of Myanmarβs Economic Reform and Development
Song Qingrun
China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations
The Imperative of Myanmarβs New Round of Economic Reform
Long period of extreme poorness of the country and people is the main driving force to push the new
government to undertake new round of economic reform. Myanmar is country full of natural
resources. But, it has been one of the poorest countries since 1987.
The urgency of the new round of economic reforms. The Thein Sein government put the political
reform as its priorityοΌespecially during the first year of the new government, it paid not much
attention to the economic reform and development. Later, the top official realized that lagging
economic reform would damage the political reform.
The turmoil situation in Arab world in the past two years has shocked the Myanmar authority and
pressed them to accelerate the economic reform, because the main reason of the so called Arab
Spring is the high rate of unemployment of the young people.
The Measures of Myanmarβs New Government Economic Reform since 2011
After more than one year of political reform, the Thein Sein government pushed the second phase of
reformβeconomic reform.
First, the government set the scientific plan and ambitious aim of the economic reform for the
following years, which will guide and drive the reform process. President Thein Sein said that, one of
Myanmarβs economic objectives βDevelopment of agriculture as the base and allβround development
of other sectors of the economy as wellβ has been replaced with βBuilding of modern industrialized
nation through the agricultural development, and allβround development of other sectors of the
economyβ.51
Second, quite different from the former junta government, one of the fundamental goals of the
Thein Sein governmentβs economic reform is to improve the common peopleβs wellbeing, and it pays
much attention to the rural development and poverty alleviation.
Third, the parliament and government has amended some outβdated economic laws or promulgates
a series of new laws, which has helped the country to improve the invest environment and boost the
economic development. The new laws have facilitate the investment and take more preferential
measures the investors to attract investment.
51βThe speech delivered by President U Thein Sein at the National Workshop on Reforms for National Economic Developmentβ, Myanmar
President Office, August 19, 2011, http://www.presidentβoffice.gov.mm/en/briefingβroom/speechesβandβremarks/2011/08/19/idβ210.
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Fourth, Myanmar has reshuffled several economic governing organizations, set up several new
service organizations, eliminate the conservative officials, and put the reformer to the important
positions. All the above mentioned measures have consolidated the reformersβ status in the
government, unified and strengthened the all the government officialsβ thoughts about reform, then
to improve the officialsβ consciousness and efficiency of serving for the investors. For example, in
January, 2013, Myanmar government has formed a central committee for further development of
small and mediumβ sized enterprises (SME), pivotal for national economy and promotion of
socialβeconomic status of the people. The 27βmember central committee for SME development is
chaired by President U Thein Sein, also involving two Vice Presidents Dr. Sai Mauk Kham and U Nyan
Tun and 20 ministers.52
Fifth, the government strongly pushes the privation of the state owned enterprises, loosen the state
control towards the sectors of the telecommunication, energy, finance and other fields, and then let
the private capital and foreign capital to operate in the aboveβmentioned fields. Some stateβowned
enterprises will be changed into corporation and some into private sector with the aim of boosting
the private sector, the government wants to create a suitable environment for the private sector in
the reform process, then to put more dynamic into the economy.
Sixth, the government takes the full advantage of the wisdom of the domestic and international
experts or institutions. On April 11, 2011, President Thein Sein set up the Economic Advisory Unit
lead by Dr. U Myint, and the advisors can directly submit the economic reform advice to President
Thein Sein. Myanmar has held several big workshops concerning the Rural Development and Poverty
Alleviation, the reform of bank and capital market, and it has held the Myanmar Investment Summit
every year. The Myanmar government has invited many international scholars, experts and investors
to attend the workshops and Summit, and it has even employed several U.S. and EU experts to help
push the economic reform. With the help of the IMF experts, on April 1, 2012, Myanmar ended the
parallel market currency exchange rate system which had lasted for more then 20 years, and
Myanmarβs central bank set a reference exchange rate of 818 kyat per dollar (basically according to
the black market range of 800 to 820 kyat per dollar, which is already used for most transactions in
the country) used for most everyday transactions. Besides these measures, the Myanmar banks has
joined Visa ATM network, and they begun to introduce the electronic transaction such as ATM and
Eβcommerce, then they has begun to conduct international credit cards transactions.
Seventh, President Thein Sein has undertaken economic and political reforms that have persuaded
Western countries to suspend even get rid of most of the sanctions. And the Myanmar government
makes great efforts to attract the FDI from the ASEAN, U.S., EU, Japan, China, India, South Korea and
other countries. Myanmar is seriously short of capital and techniques to develop the economy,
because it has large amount of debt and was given heavy economic sanctions for more than 20 years.
The Prospects of Myanmarβs Economic Reform: Asiaβs Next Rising Star?
On August 20, 2012, the Asian Development Bank released a study report, Myanmar in Transition:
Opportunities and Challenges. The reported pointed out that, Myanmar could follow Asiaβs fast
52βSMEs lie at the core of national economic growth in developing countries and some developed countries: President U Thein Sein,β The
New Light of Myanmar, January 12, 2013.
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growing economies and expand at 7% to 8% a year, become a middle income nation, and triple per
capita income by 2030 if it can surmount substantial development challenges by further
implementing acrossβtheβboard reforms. Stephen Groff, ADBβs Vice President for East Asia, Southeast
Asia and the Pacific, said that, βMyanmar could be Asiaβs next rising star, but for this to happen there
needs to be a firm and lasting commitment to reform .β53 Also in May, 2013, the IMF said in a
statement that, Myanmar reforms bearing fruit, and its economic growth to gain momentum, and
Myanmarβs economy is expected to grow 6.75 percent in fiscal year of 2013, ending March 2014,
somewhat accelerating from an estimated 6.5 percent expansion a year earlier.54
Myanmarβs economy has the several advantages to take off in the future.
First, the country is on the track of quick reform and development, and it has great potential in the
economic development, because almost every sector of the agriculture and industry need
development and investment, and Myanmar has more than 60 million people and it has potential
consumption ability.
Second, Myanmarβs economic reform and development gets a lot of support from the international
society. The informallyβnamed Paris Club, a group representing 19 major world economies, has
forgiven $6 billion of Myanmarβs debt in January, 2013, then in May, Japan wrote off nearly
Myanmarβs $2 billion debt and extending new aid of 51.05 billion yen ($504 million). Myanmar has
also get a lot of loans and aids from the international society.
Third, Myanmar is in a good position connecting the business and the interflow of goods and
materials between Southeast Asia and South Asia, and Myanmar is building the several economic
zones will help Myanmar to become a center of products and logistics in the region, such as Dawei in
MyanmarβThailand border area, Kyauk Phyu near the coast of India Ocean, and Thilawa near Yangon
Port off the Andaman Sea. These special economic zones will better bring the geographical
advantages into play and boost its development. And there are rich natural resources in Myanmar.
The future of Myanmarβs economic reform and development seems bright. But, its reform and
developing process will be an arduous one full of challenges.
First, until now, many international investors suspect the future of new round of reform. According to
the Corruption index 2012 from Transparency International, Myanmar was a still one of the most
corrupted countries in the world, which was a big obstacle to the economic reform and
development.55 The Wall Street Journalβs article pointed out that, Myanmar has only just cracked
open to Western investors after a junta government stepped down in 2011, and the privateβequity
firms are divided over whether Myanmar will be a source of huge profits, or just another place to
endure losses.56
53βMyanmar Will Be Middle Income Nation If Reforms Stay on Track β Report,β Asian Development Bank, August 20, 2012,
http://www.adb.org/news/myanmarβwillβbeβmiddleβincomeβnationβifβreformsβstayβtrackβreport. 54
βMyanmar reforms bearing fruit, economic growth to gain momentum: IMF,β Kyodo News International, May 22, 2013,http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/kyodoβnewsβinternational/130522/myanmarβreformsβbearingβfruitβeconomicβgrowthβgainβmom. 55βCorruption index 2012 from Transparency International: find out how countries compare,β Guardian, December 5, 2012,
http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/2012/dec/05/corruptionβindexβ2012βtransparencyβinternational. 56βMyanmar:Gold Mine Or Sinkhole?β, The Wall Street Journal, November 17, 2012.
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Second, the outdated economic, especially financial system issue will be the big obstacles for the
economic reform.
Third, the dilapidated infrastructure including hard and soft ware in the whole country is another big
and longβterm barrier to the economic reform and development.
Fourth, short of sufficient domestic and foreign investment restricts the reform and development.
Fifth, in the economic reform process, whether Myanmarβs national industry will become stronger or
defeated by foreign companies? Most of Myanmarβs local companies are middle and small sized ones,
even there are several big enterprises, and their technology, management, and operation lag far
behind the international level. Facing more and more powerful international companies, whatβs the
destiny of Myanmarβs national companies? How to make the local and international companies to
compete or cooperate harmoniously? Then to make them develop simultaneously?
Internationally, the western investors donβt have enough capital to invest in Myanmar, and the
western market consumption capacity is relatively low. This bad situation means that the western
investment and market canβt play great contributing role in Myanmarβs economic development.
Short Conclusion
Myanmarβs economic reform will boost the countryβs development and improve the mass peopleβs
wellβbeing. The countryβs development has great advantages and bright future. But, Myanmar also
should notice the challenges and carefully overcome the difficulties ahead.
α‘αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘α αΈαα α»αααα¬αααα ααα¬ ααα«αα ααα α»αααΈ- α»αααα¬αααα αΌα αααα±αα ααΈα»ααα±ααΈα±αα¬α αααα αααΈαααααα±ααΈα±αα¬
The Obama Administrationβs Myanmar Policies Adjustment: Promoting Democracy in Myanmar or
Containing China?
Li Chenyang Center for Myanmar Studies, Yunnan University
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αααα±αα ααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α‘α±αα¬ααΈααΈ αααα±ααΈ α αα α»αα α±αα¬αααΈ αααΈα αα αα α‘αααααΈααΈααααα αα ααααα ααααΌα α‘αααα‘ααΌααΈ αααα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαα±αα¬ α»ααα¬ααα‘α¬αΈααΈα α±α»ααααΈαααααααα±αα ααα αα ααααα α‘α±ααα±αα¬αα‘α¬αααΌα α‘α±ααααα ααα¬ααααααα αα»αα α±αα¬αααΈ ααΌαααα±ααΈααΏααΈα±αα¬αα±αα¬ααΈααΌα α±αα¬α‘ααααααααα αααα‘ααααΌα ααααΈαααα»αα αααΈαα«α‘α±α»αα‘α±αααα±αα¬ααα±αααα αααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ααααα ααα ααα¬αααααα¬αΈα‘α»αα α‘α±αααααα αααα±αα α‘ααΌααΈααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈααα ααΈα»αααα±α αααα¬αα ααα αααα α»αααα¬ααα ααα‘α¬αΈ α‘αααα±ααΈα αΌααΈα‘α¬αΈ αα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααααΈα»αααααα‘ααΌααααΈ α‘αα‘αα±ααΈαααα‘αααα α€α‘αααΈααΌα α‘α±ααααααα±αα¬ααΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬α±αα¬ααααα»αααΈααα ααα¬αααα¬αΈα αααΎαααα α‘α±ααααααα«ααααΈααααα αα±αα¬αααα αΌααΈα α»αααα¬α»ααααα¬αΈ α‘αα»αααααα»αα αα ααα¬αααααα¬ α‘αα»αααααα¬αΈααααΈ ααααΌααΈ ααΌααααααα»αα ααα ααααααα ααΌα α‘αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘α αΈα αααα¬αΏααΈα±αα¬α αααα α ααΈααα¬α»αααΈα αααΈαααααααα‘ααα¬ ααα-α»αααα¬ ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαααα α‘αα¬αΈα‘ααΈα»αα α±α ααα»αααα¬αααααΌα αα α‘αααααααΈααα αααααααα α‘α±αααα- α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈαααα αααα ααααΌαα»αααΈαααα αα α±αΎααα¬αα±αα¬αααΈ αααα»ααααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα ααααααΌααα¬ααα±αα α‘αα¬αα¬αΈα‘α αΈααα α»αααα¬ααααααα¬ ααα«ααα¬αΈα αααα±αα¬αααα±ααΈ-ααααααα ααααΈα ααααα α»αααα¬α»ααααα¬αΈαα α±αα¬ααΈααΌαα±αα¬ αααα±ααΈα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα»αααΈαααα±αα ααααααα α‘α αΈααα α»ααααα¬αΈ α ααα΅α α±ααΈα α¬αΈαααα»αα α±αα¬αααΈ α»αααα¬αααααΌα αααα±αα α‘ααΌααΈααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈααα»αα α±αααΏααΈα±αα¬α αααααα»αααα¬ αΎαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαα±ααΈα ααααΈαα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααΌαα αΌα¬ α‘α±αα¬αα‘αααα±αα¬αααα±αα α»αα αααα αααα±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬αα±αΎααΈαααΈα±αα¬α±ααΈαα ααα-α»αααα¬α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈαααα α‘α±ααααααααα¬αΈααα αα αα αα¬αΈα»αα αΎαααα α‘α±ααααααα«αααα αα»αααΈα‘α±ααα»αααα¬α ααα»αααα α‘α±ααααααα«α ααααααα‘α±ααα»αααα¬αα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈα α‘ααΈααΈα±αα¬ ααα»αααααα¬αΈα±ααΈααΎαααα α‘α±αααααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αα α‘α¬αα ααααα¬αΈααα±ααΈααααα α»αααα¬α»ααααα‘ααα α±αα¬αααΎαααα α₯ααα¬ α‘α¬αΈα»αα αααα ααα α ααααα¬α (αα )ααα±ααααΌα αα«ααααααα ααααΈα α¬α (α‘α±ααα±αα¬αα‘α¬αααΌαα»αααα¬ααααα αα«ααααα ααα¬ααα¬α±α»αα¬αα±ααΌαΈααααα‘αα )α α±αα«ααΈα α₯α»αα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈαα‘αα¬ααα α₯αΈα»αα α α±αα¬α±ααΈαα±ααΈαα¬αΈααα α±αα¬ααΈ αα«αΈα»αα ααα α‘ααα«α±αα¬ααΈαα«αΈααΌα βα‘α±αα¬ααα α»α¬ααα¬αΈααααααα¬ αα±ααα±αα ααααααα±ααΈα‘α±α»αα‘α±α α‘ααΈ αα»αα α»αααα¬αααα αα‘αα±αα±αα¬ αααα αααΈααα¬ααααα»αα ααα ααααα α‘α±ααΈαα αααΈα»αα α±ααααα¬αααΌα α»ααααα α»α¬ααα»αααα¬αααα α‘ααα‘ααα α»αα ααΌααΈα±α αα αα«αααααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα‘α αΈααα¬αΈα αααααα»αα ααα α±ααααΈ α α±αα¬α±αα¬αα±αα¬ααα»ααα¬αΈα±αα¬ α»αα αααα αα½αΌαα±αα¬αααααΌααααΈα ααααααα¬αΈα»αααΈαα αααααα ααα αα α»α¬α‘α¬αΈ α‘ααα»αααα»αααΈα»αα ααα α‘ααα α‘α±ααααα»ααα±αα¬αα αααΈα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈα ααααΌαα»αα αα αα«αααααα α‘αααααΈαα¬αΈα±ααααΌα α‘αααΈα‘αααΈα‘αα ααααΈααΌα¬ααΌα¬αΈααααα»αα ααα ααα±αα¬ α‘ααα±αα¬ α»αααα¬α»ααααα¬αΈα α‘α±ααααα‘α±ααα±α α¬αααααΎαααα α₯ααα¬α‘α¬αΈα»αα
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α‘ααα±αα¬ α»αααα¬ α‘αααααΈααα¬αα¬αΈα α±α»αα¬αΎααααα¬α»αααα¬αααα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬ ααα±αα¬αααΏααΈ α‘α±ααααα ααα»αααααα¬αΈαα αααΈα±ααΈαα ααα»αα αααα»αααα¬ααααα α‘α¬αααααααα ααα±αα¬ααΈααΌαα αΌα¬ ααα±αα¬αααΏααΈα±αα¬αααΈ α‘α¬ααααααααα αα α α₯ α±αααα¬αααα±αα«ααΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬ αα±αα¬ α‘αα‘ααα¬αΈα α‘α±ααααα α±αα¬ααα±ααΈα±ααΏααΈα»αααα¬αααα‘α±ααα α±ααΌα±αΎααΈα±αα¬α ααααα¬αΈαα±ααΈα α‘α±ααΈααααααααα¬αΈαα¬ α»ααααααα‘ααΌα αααΈααα α‘α±ααααα ααα±αα¬ααααα ααα»αααααα¬αΈα α‘α¬αΈαααΎαα±αα α»αααα¬αααα αααααα¬αααα±ααΈα‘ααΌα α‘αα΅ααα ααααααα α‘α±ααΈαααΈα±αα¬ αααααα¬αΈα»αα αΎαααα α±αα»ααα±αα¬α‘α±α»αα α α±αα¬αααα‘αα¬ααα α₯αΈα α±αα¬αα»ααααα α‘α±αααααα α»αααα¬αααα αα ααααα‘α α±ααΈαααααααααα ααα±αα¬ααααα αααα α ααααα¬ααΌα ααα»ααααα CSIS α»αααα¬αααΈα α₯ α‘α αααα α¬α‘α α‘ααα±αα¬ α»αααα¬α‘αααααΈααα¬αα¬αΈα αααααα‘α±αααααΎαα¬αΈ ααααΌααα¬αααα αααΈα α¬αΈα±ααΎαααααααα (α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαα»αααααααα±αα¬α αα α»αααα¬α α α±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα αααα‘α±ααα»αααα¬α‘α αΈα ααα±ααα»αααΈα ααα¬ααα±αα¬ α‘α¬αΈα±ααΈαααα±αα¬ αα‘α»αα ααααΈαα±αα¬α»ααααααα ααααα»αααα»αααααΎαααΎαααα ααααααΈααΌαα α‘αα α αΎαα¬αΈαααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα ααα α‘αααΈααα α‘α α₯α‘αα¬ α‘αααΈαααΈαααα‘α»αα αα¬ α‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈαΏααΈ αααααααααα±αα¬α‘α±αα«ααΈαα αααααΌα α±ααα±α αα ααα«ααα¬αΈα α‘α±ααααα»ααα±αα¬αα α α±αα¬ααα¬αΈα±α ααΎαααα α α α‘α αΈααααααα ααα αα αα¬αΈ α‘ααΌααΈ α»αααα¬ααααααΌαα±ααΈα α α αααααα α₯ααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈααα αα αααα±ααΈαααα¬ αααα±ααΈα‘α±ααααΌα αα¬ααΎαα¬ ααα αΌα¬ ααααα‘α¬αΈααΈααΈαα«αΈ α‘αα ααΈαα¬αΈααα α±ααΈαα¬αΈααα‘α»αα αααααα¬αΈαααα α‘α±ααααα»ααα±αα¬αα αα α»αααα¬αααααα ααα»ααα αΌα¬ α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈαα¬α±αα¬ αααα±ααΈαααα αααααΌααααααα αα¬αα¬αΈ α»αα α±ααα±αα±α αΏααΈ α‘α±ααααα»ααα±αα¬αα α αααααααα±ααΈα‘α¬αΈαααααα¬αΈα‘α±αα α±αΎαα¬αααΌαα αΈαααααα¬αΈααααα α±ααα±αα«ααα¬α±α ααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αα α‘α±ααααα αααΈααααααααααα ααααα ααααααααα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈα»αααΈα ααα«ααα α αα αααα αααΈαααααααα»αααα¬αααα‘α¬αΈ α‘α±ααααα»ααα±αα¬αα α‘α¬αΈ α‘ααΈα»αα±ααααα±αα¬α±ααααΈααααααα¬αΈ α±αα¬αα«αΈα±α αα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»αα α±α ααα α»αααα¬-α‘α±αααα αααα±ααΈααΌααΏα αΈααΈααααα‘α±αα αααααα±αα¬αα¬αΈ-αααααα¬αααα α±αα¬αα ααα±αα¬α α‘α»αα¬αΈααααα¬αΈαα αααα±ααΈαα±αα¬αααα»αααα¬αααα α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈα αααα‘α¬αΈααΈ α±ααΈα α¬αΈαααα α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈ α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈααα α‘α±αααααα α‘αα‘ααα»αα»αααΈαα ααα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ α‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα¬αΈαα α»αααα¬αααα α±ααα α±ααΈα»αα α α₯α‘ααΌα αααΈα αΌα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘ααΈα»αα ααΌααΈααααα αααααα¬αααα¬αΈα α‘α»ααα‘ααα¬αΈαααα±αα¬α±αα«ααΎα ααα α»αααα¬ααααα α±αα¬ααΈααΌαα±αα¬ αααα±ααΈα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘α±ααααααΌααααΈ α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαααα αααΈα αααααααΈ α‘αΏααααΈα‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»ααααα αααα ααα ααΌααααΌα α±ααααΈα α»αααα¬αααααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘α±αααα α‘αα¬ααα¬αΈα ααααα‘α ααΈα‘α±ααΈαα αα αααα ααααααΈαα±ααΈαααα αααααα¬αα ααααααΈαααααΈαΏααΈ α±αα¬α ααααα±ααααα ααα±ααΈα±αα¬ααα±ααΈαα α₯ααΈαα¬αΈ α‘α±ααααα α ααα±ααα¬α₯αα¬αΈα»αα ααα±αα¬αααα±α‘α¬α α»αααα¬α α α‘α αΈααα α‘α±ααααααα‘α¬αΈαααα ααααααΈα±αα¬αααΌαα±ααΈαααα ααα±αα¬ α‘ααΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈααααΈ α‘α±αααααα α»αααα¬ααααααα±ααΈα α¬αΈαααα»αα ααα
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αααα»αααα¬ ααα»αα¬αΈα±αα αααΏααα±ααΈαα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαα α»αααα¬α ααααααΈααΈα»αααααα‘α¬αΈααΈαααα α‘ααα‘α αΈαααααα ααααα‘ααΈαα¬αΈ α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αΈα»αα αΎαααα αα‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈααα αΌα¬α»αα α»αααα¬αααααΌα α‘α±ααααααααααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α αααΈααα‘α±αα ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα»αα α±αααααα αααΈ αααααα‘α±αααααααα α»αααα¬αααααΌα αΏαααααααα¬αΈαα±αα¬αααΈ αα ααα ααΈα α»αααα¬ααααα‘ααα‘α»αα¬ α‘α¬αα¬ αα ααα¬αΈα±ααΈαααα¬ α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈα α±ααΈα α¬αΈαααα»αα ααα α»αααα¬α»αααααα‘α¬αΈ αααΈαααααα΅αα ααααααΏααΈ αα α αα αα α»ααααα ααααα α₯αΈαα α±αα¬ααα αα‘α¬αΈα±ααΈα»αααΈαα»ααααα αα±αααα¬ααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αα ααααα¬αΈαα α‘α±ααααα α‘α±ααΈαααααααα‘α¬αΈααΈα αααα¬αΈαα ααα α‘ααα±αα¬ααΈα‘ααα»αα ααα α±αααα±ααΈα»αα α α₯αα αα‘ααΌα αααΏαααΏααΈ αααααα±αα¬ αααααΈαααα α αααα αα‘αααα α‘α±αααα αα α‘α¬αΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ααα ααααααααα ααααααα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α αααααα‘α¬αααΌα α‘αααΈαααΈααααα¬αΈ α‘α¬α α ααα αα±ααΈαα αα‘ααΏααΈ α‘αααΈαααΈαααα±ααΈα αααα±ααΈα ααΌαααα αΌα¬ααα±αα¬ααααα»αα ααα ααααααα»αα α±α α‘α±αααααα α»αααα¬ααα (αα)α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αααα¬αΈααΌα ααααα α‘α±αα«ααΈααα ααααΌαα±αα¬ αα α¬αΈααΌα αα α¬αΈαα αααααα αα½αΌααααα±αα¬αααα«ααα
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αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈ ααα±αα¬αααα»αα α α₯ααΌα α‘ααααααα ααα¬αΈααα»αα αααααα‘αααΈαα
Governance and Legitimacy in the Peace Process
Ashley South Senior Adviser β Myanmar Peace Support Initiative
Ph.D. Candidate β Australian National University [email protected]
α‘ααΌαα‘αααΈαα¬αΈαα ααα±ααΌααααΌαααα α‘ααα¬ααα¬αΈ
β’ αααα ααα α±αα¬ααΈαααΈααΌα α»αααα¬αααα ααΌαα±ααααα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαααααΈα α₯αα ααΌαααα±ααΈααΏααΈ
ααααΈα ααααααααααα‘αα¬αΈα»αα ααΌα¬αΈαααα αααα±ααΈα αααα±ααΈα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαα αα₯α±ααΈαα αααα¬ αα α₯αααα¬αΈα α±α»ααααΈαα ααα αα α±αα«ααΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬α‘ααΌααΈ α‘α±αα¬ααΈααΈα‘ααΌαα‘αααΈα»αα ααα
β’ ααΎαα¬α±ααΈαα α‘α αΈααα αααααΌαα±α»αα¬αα±ααΈα‘ααΌα(KIO) αΎαα¬αΈ ααααΌαα¬αΈαααα¬αΈααΌα¬αΈα»αααΈαα
α‘α αΈααα ααα₯αΈα‘αα α‘ααααα α±ααΈ αα±αα¬αααΏααΈα»αα αα α‘ααα±αα¬ α‘α αΈαααααα αααα αα α‘αα Non State Armed Group (NSAG) αα¬αΈ α‘α¬αΈααΈ α‘ααΌα αααααΈα±αα¬ α‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬α»αα ααα
β’ ααα±αα¬αααΈ α‘α±ααΈαααΈαααα α₯ααα‘α±αα¬αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα αα±α»ααααΈαα±ααΈα±αα αααΈαα α₯αα¬αΈα
αα±α»ααααΈαα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα»αα α α₯αα α±α‘α¬αα»ααααααΌαααα±αα α±αα¬αααα±αα¬ ααααααα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ αααα¬αΈα±αα¬ ααααΈαα α±αα¬α αααΎαααααα¬αΈααα»αααΈα±αΎαα¬α αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαααααΈα α₯αα ααααααα α»αα ααα
α‘αα α‘ααααα αααα¬αΈ β’ ααααα‘α‘ααΈαααα¬αΈα αα α¬αΈααα α±ααα¬αα¬αΈααΌα α±ααααΎαααα¬αΈαα NSAG αα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ
α‘αα α‘ααααα αααα¬αΈα α‘ααΈα‘α»αααα¬αΈααααα α‘α±αΎαα¬αααα¬αΈ α±αα¬αα»αααΈα α‘ααα±ααΌαΈαααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈ α±ααΌαΈααα αα¬αα¬αΈ ααααΈαααα¬α»αααΈαα αααΈααΌα¬αΈ α»αααΈα‘ααΌα ααα±αα¬ααΈααΌαα±αα¬ α‘ααΌαα‘αααΈαα¬αΈα
β’ ααααα‘α‘ααΈαααα¬αΈα αα α¬αΈααα ααααΌα¬αα¬αΈα α‘αααα±αα¬ ααααααα¬ αααααΈαααα¬ ααΏαα±ααΈ
α»αα ααα
β’ αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈααααΌα¬αα¬αΈααΌα α α αααΌααΌααΈαααα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬αααα αα αααααΌααααα α‘ααα α»αααα¬α α αααα NSAG αα¬αΈα ααααΌα¬αα¬αΈα αΏαααΈα±α»αα¬αααα‘α»αα ααααΏααΈ ααα¬ααα¬α±α»αα¬ααααα±αα¬ α‘ααα±ααα¬αα¬αΈα ααααΌα¬ααααααα ααααααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ αα¬αΈαα ααΎααααααΈα»αααα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»αα α±α ααα
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β’ ααα₯αΈ α‘αα α‘ααααα α±ααΈαα¬αΈαα ααα±ααα¬ααα¬αΈα»αααΈαα ααααααααααΌααα¬αΈα α‘α»αα‘α
(α‘αα α‘ααααα α±ααΈ αααα) αα¬αΈααααααα±αα¬ αααα¬αα αα±αα¬αααααα¬αΈααα‘α α±ααααααα¬ αα αα‘αααα
β’ α‘αα α‘ααααααα α±ααΈ α±α α¬ααΎααα α α±ααΈα»αααΈα‘ααΌα αα‘αααα
β’ αααα±αα¬α»αα ααΌα¬αΈα±ααα α‘αααα±αα¬ αα αααΎαα¬αΈααααΌαα¬αΈ (α₯ααα¬- αααΈα»αααα) αααααα α±αα¬ α‘ααΌαααα¬ α αΈααααααααα¬αΈα α»αααα¬α α αααα α‘α αΈαα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαααααΈα α₯α‘αααΈ ααα±α αα±αα¬ ααααα α‘α αΈααα α α αααα α±αα¬ααα ααΈα»αα α±ααα±αα¬ααααααααααα α±ααΈααΌααΈαα¬αΈα
αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα»αα α α₯αα¬αΈ
β’ α»αααα¬αααααΌαα»αα ααΌα¬αΈα±αα±αα¬ ααααααααααΌααα¬αΈαα αααα±αα¬αααΎαα¬αΈ ααααα‘αα¬αΈα α±ααααΌααΈααα αα¬ααα αααα±ααΈαα α₯αααα¬αΈαα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααα ααα₯αΈα‘αα α‘ααααα α±ααΈ αα±αα¬ααααα α±αααααα α‘αααα αααα±ααΈ α±α α ααααααΈαααα¬αΈα α»ααααα α‘α αΈαα αα‘α¬αΈα»αα αα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαα±αα¬αααΈ αα α‘ααα‘α α ααα»αααΈ ααα±ααΈα±αα αααα α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌαα¬αΈαα αα»αααΈα»αααΈααΈαααα¬αΏαα»αα ααα
β’ αααααΈαα¬αΈααααααα¬αΈ (NSAG αα¬αΈα αααα±ααΈαα«ααα¬αΈα α‘αααα α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈ) αα
αααα±ααΈ α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααΌαα¬αΈ ααΌα ααααα α‘αααΈα‘αααΈαα¬αΈα αα±αα¬αα αΌα¬ααα α¬αΈα»ααααα ααα«ααα αααΈααα¬ α‘ααα‘α α αα±α‘α¬α ααα±αα¬ααα αα‘αααα
β’ ααααα‘α‘ααΈααα αα α¬αΈαα±αα¬ ααααΌα¬αα¬αΈα α‘ααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈ α‘αα αα¬αΈαα αααα±ααΈαα«ααα¬αΈ
α‘αα« α‘αα α‘ααααααααα¬αΈ αα«αααα αα‘αααα α‘α αΈαα ααα»ααα±αα¬ α‘αααα±αα¬α αα±αα¬α ααα (αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈ α‘α α‘α α₯)α αααα±ααΌαΈααα‘αααα α±αα¬ααααα±αα¬αα±ααΈαααα¬ α αα±αα αααα αααααααα»αα ααα
ααΈα»αα¬αΈαα αα α₯αααα¬αΈ- ααααα‘α‘ααΈαααα α¬αΈαα±αα¬ α±ααα¬αα¬αΈααΌα α ααΈαα₯αΈα»αααααΈααα»αααΈααα±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈ α±ααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈ ααα±αα¬αααααα»αααΈα α±α»ααα¬αααΈααα α‘αααΈα α¬αΈ α ααααΈαα¬αΈ
β’ ααααα‘α‘ααΈαααα α¬αΈαα±αα¬ α±ααα¬αα¬αΈααΌα αααααΎααα α‘αα¬αΈααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα αα¬αΈαα¬ αααα¬α αααα±ααΈ (αα ααα»αααΈα ααααΈα±αα¬α»αααΈ α αα) αααααΈαα¬αΈα»αα αΎααΏααΈ α±αααααα¬ ααααα αααααΈαααα¬ α‘α¬αα¬αααααα (α₯ααα¬- α»αααα¬ α α ααα NSAG) αααα ααααα±α ααΎαααα
β’ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα»αα α α₯ααΌα ααΎαααααα ααΎααα αααααα ααααΈα±α ααα±αα¬
α‘ααααα‘αα¬α±αα¬ααα αααα±ααΈ αα ααα¬ααααααΈαααααα¬ ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈααα ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈαααΈαααα
β’ αααα αααα¬α±α»αα₯αα±ααα αααα ααα α±α»αααΌαα±α»ααααΈα₯αα±αααα α‘ααααα‘αα¬α±αα¬αα±αα¬
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αα α±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα
β’ α‘ααα±αα¬ α‘α±α»ααα‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘ α ααααΈαα¬αΈ (α₯ααα¬-α±αα‘α¬αΈααα α αααα¬αΈ) ααααααα±αα¬ ααααααα¬αΈα
ααΈα»αα¬αΈαα αα α₯αααα¬αΈ-- α‘αααααα α±αααα ααααα‘αααααΌααα αααα±ααΈ
β’ αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα±ααααΎαα±αα¬ α±ααα¬α±αααα¬αΈααΌα ααααααααα±αα¬αα±ααΈααααααα±αα¬ α±α α αα ααααΈαααα¬αΈα α‘α αΈαα αα‘α α»ααααααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ αααα¬αααααα±ααΈα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααΌαα¬αΈαααα α‘ααΌα ααα‘ααα‘α ααΈααααααα±ααΈα±αα
β’ α‘αα α‘ααααα α±ααΈ α»αα α α₯αα¬αΈαα ααααα₯αΏααααααα±ααα±αα¬
ααααα‘α‘ααΈααααα α¬αΈααα α±ααα¬α±αααα¬αΈαα α‘α αΈαα α‘α¬αα¬α αα ααααΌααα ααΌααΈα‘α¬αΈα±ααΈαααα ααα¬ α»αα ααααα
β’ αααα ααααα»αααΈααα±αα¬ ααααα‘ααΈααα αα α¬αΈααα α±ααα¬α±αααα¬αΈαα α‘α αΈαααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈ
(α₯ααα¬- αααΈαα¬α±ααΈαα ααα¬α±ααΈααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈαααα ααΈα»ααα»αααΈα α‘αααααα¬αΈ ααα±ααΈα»αααΈ) ααααΌα α»αααΈαα αααααΌααα αα₯αΈα±αα‘ααΌα α‘α±αα«ααΈααα‘αα¬αα αα»αα ααααα ααα±αα¬ αααα‘α¬αΈ αΏαααΈ α±α»αα¬αααα‘α»αα ααααααα±ααΏααΈ α»αααα¬α α ααααααΈ α‘αΎαααΈααα»αααΈαα α±αα«ααΈαα»αααα αα α±αα¬ α±ααααααααΌα¬αα¬αΈ α αΏαααΈα±α»αα¬αααα‘α»αα αααΈ ααα»ααααΌα¬αΈααααα
β’ ααα±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬α‘α αΈα α‘α¬αα¬αααα ααα±αα¬αααα±ααΈα»αααΈ α αα αα¬αΈααΈαααα α‘α¬αΈαααααα¬αΈα α‘α αΈα
αααα±αα¬ ααααααα‘αα αα¬αΈα α‘ααΈαααα α¬αΈαα±αα¬ ααααΌα¬αα¬αΈα α‘ααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈα‘αα αα¬αΈαα α‘ααΈαα ααααα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈαααα¬αΈα»ααααΏααΈ α±αα¬αααΌαααααα
β’ ααααα‘α‘ααΈαααα α¬αΈαα±αα¬ α±ααα¬α±αααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ααΌα α±ααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈ (ααα»αα¬αΈα»ααα±αα¬
ααααα»αααΈαα α»αααα¬αααααΌααΈα) ααα¬ ααααα‘α‘ααΈαααα α¬αΈα α±αα¬ ααααΌα¬αα¬αΈα α‘αα‘α αα¬αΈα±ααΈαα α±α‘ααα αα¬αΈα‘α»αα αα α±αα«ααΈαα¬αΈααααα α±ααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈ ααααααΌ ααααα±αα±αα¬ αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ NSAG αα¬αΈ αα ααααΌα¬α‘α±α»αα»αα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈ (CBO) αα¬αΈ ααα±αα¬αα αααα¬αΈαα‘αααα‘αααα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈαααα±αα¬αα±αααααα αααΈα±ααα ααα¬α±ααΈα αααΈαα¬α±ααΈα ααα±ααααα‘αααα±ααΈαααΈαααα¬αα¬αΈααα¬αα‘αααΎαα¬αααα»αααααΈα±ααΈααααα«ααα
β’ ααααα‘αααα¬αΈα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈαα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ ααααΌα¬αα¬αΈα‘ααΌα NSAG αα
ααα αα±αα¬ α‘αα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαα αααα’ααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ αααα±αα¬ α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαα αααα’ααα¬αΈαα ααα¬αΈ ααα»αα αα ααααα ααααΎαααα αααΈααα±αα¬ αααα’ααα¬αΈαα ααΌααααα¬αΈαα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈ α»αα α α₯ ααΌα ααααα»αα αααα αα αα αΏααα±αα»αααΈαα αααα»αα α‘α±ααΈαα«ααα
β’ α‘ααα« α±ααα¬α±αααα¬αΈαα ααα±αα¬αα±ααα αααααα¬αα αααα±αα¬α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α
αα±αα±αα¬ α±αααα α αΌααΈαααα¬αΈα α±αα¬αααααααΈα»αααΈαα/ααααα ααΌααΈαΏαα»αααΈα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈ α»αα α α₯ααΌαααΎαα α ααααα ααα αΈ α±α α»αααΈα α±αα¬ ααααααα α‘ααα¬ααα ααα±αααα
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β’ ααααα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααααα (α‘αα‘αα αα) αααα αα₯αΏααααααα±αα±αα¬ α±ααα¬α±αααα¬αΈαα α‘α αΈα α‘α¬αα¬αααα ααααΌαα»αααΈα α±αα¬ααα»αααΈα»αα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα»αα α α₯ααΌα ααΎαααααα ααΎααα ααααα α±αα¬αααααααΈαα α‘αα¬αα¬αΈα αααααα¬ ααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈα ααα±αα¬ααααααα±αα
αααα±ααΈ αα±ααα¬αΈ
β’ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα»αα α α₯ααΌα αα«ααααααα±ααααα α‘α αΈααα α»αααα¬α α ααα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαα αααΈαααΈ αα¬αΈ α‘αααΈα‘αααΈ (αα NSAG αα¬αΈ) α αααΈααα αααααα¬ααααΈαα¬αΈααΌα α‘αα αα¬αα±αα¬α αα¬αΈα‘α»αα ααα»ααα»αααΈαα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ α‘αααΈα‘αααΈα α‘α αΈα (αααααα¬α‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα¬αΈαα)α ααΌααΏααΈααΈαα/ ααΈααα±α‘α¬α ααα±αα¬αααα±α‘α¬αααΌαα±ααααΎαααα αα±ααΈααααα¬αΈα‘α»αα ααα»ααα±ααα»αα ααα
β’ ααααα‘αααΈ ααα±ααΌαααΌα ααααα‘α»αα ααΌα¬αΈαα¬α±ααα¬α±αααα¬αΈααΌα ααΎαα¬ααααα±ααΌααααααα¬
ααα α α±αα¬ααααα»αααΈααααα ααααα‘α‘ααΈαααα α¬αΈααα α±ααα¬α±αααα¬αΈααΌα α‘αα-α±α‘α¬α ααα ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈαα α‘αααααα‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘αα¬αΈ ααΈα±αα¬αααα±αα¬αα»αααΈαα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα»αα α α₯ααΌα ααΎαααα ααα»αα¬αΈα±α ααα
β’ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαα αααα±ααΈααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαα αααα±αα¬ α αα±αααααα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααα¬αΈαΏααΈ
αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα‘αααΈ α‘αααΈαα αααα±αα¬-αα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαααα±ααΈαα¬αΈα‘α±αα ααα±αα¬αα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ ααααα α»ααα¬ αα¬αΈα α±α»ααααΈα±αα»αααΈα»αα ααααα ααΈααΌααΈα±ααα»αααΈα αα±αα¬α±ααΌαα±ααα ααααΌααΈα α₯αΈα α¬αΈαααΌα ααααα αα¬α±ααΈα‘ααα¬ααα ααααΈαα±αααα αααα»αα αα ααα±αα¬ααΈααΌαα±αα¬ α»αααα¬αααα ααα±αα¬α ααα α‘ααΌαα‘αααΈαα¬αΈαααΈ ααΈαααΈααΌα¬αΈααΌααααα
ααααα α±α‘α¬αααα¬α±αα¬ αααααα αα
β’ αααααΈα‘αα αααα±ααΈα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααΌαα¬αΈαα α‘ααααΌαα¬αΈα»αααΈα α‘αα-α±α‘α¬ααα ααΎαααΈα‘αααΈα±αα¬α ααΌααΎααα αααααααΌα α‘ααα¬ααααΈαααα αααααΈα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈαααα¬αΈαα α‘αααα±αα¬ ααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈ α αααααα₯αΈαααα αα¬αΈα ααΈαα¬ (α‘ααΈαα»αα αααα α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌαα¬αΈααΌα ααα±αα¬ααα₯αΏααα»αααΈ) ααα¬αΈα₯αα±ααααΈα α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈαααα¬αΈ (α₯ααα¬- ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±ααααα¬ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈααΌα)ααΌα αααα±αααααα
β’ αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαααα±ααΈααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα α₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌα α‘α±ααΈαα α₯αα¬αΈα αα¬α±ααΌα±αα¬αααΏααΈ α‘α αΈααα
ααα»ααα±αα¬ αααααΈα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈαααα¬αΈ ααα±αα¬αααααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα αα αα¬αααα¬αΈ (α₯ααα¬- αα¬αα¬α αα¬αΈα‘ααΈα»ααααα α±α»ααα¬ α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈαα ααα αα±αα¬) α±αα¬ααΈααΌαα±αα¬ ααΎαααααα ααα»αααα α±αα¬ααα»ααααα‘αααα¬ α‘α αΈαα α‘ααα±αα¬ αα±αα€αα»αα»αααΈαα ααα±ααΌαααα±αα¬ α‘α±αα¬α‘αααΈ/αααααα¬αΈα α»ααααα αα‘αααα
β’ αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα‘αααΈα‘αααΈα α‘α±ααΈα±ααααααααα¬αΈαα αα‘ααααα¬αΈα α±α»ααααΈαα¬ααΌα
α‘αα‘αα»αα αα α±αααααααααΈαα¬αΈα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα±ααΈαα«α α±α‘α¬αα±α»αααΌα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈααα±αα¬ααα αααα¬αΏααΈ α±ααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘ααΈα‘α±ααΈαααΈαααα α‘ααα±ααΌαΈαααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈα‘α±α»αα‘α±αα‘α αααα±ααΈαααααΈ α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈαααα¬αΈαα αααα α±αα¬ααΈαααΈα‘α
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αα α ααα¬ α‘αααΈα‘αα¬α‘α α‘α±α»ααα₯αΈαααααα±αα (αα±αα¬ααΈααα αααΈααα±αα¬ αα±αα¬αα ααααα ααααα α»αααα¬α α αα ααααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘αα ααα ααααααα¬αΈααααΎαααα¬αΈαα±αα¬ α±ααΈααΌααΈα αα±ααα»αα ααα)
β’ αα‘ααααα¬αΈα ααα¬αΈαααααα¬αΈαααα±αα¬ααααα αααΈααα‘α¬αΈα±α»ααααΈααα‘ααΌα
ααΈααΌαααααΈα‘α α‘α α₯αα α α±αα¬α±αα¬αααα‘αααα¬ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈααα±αα¬αα»αααΈ αα‘αα±αα¬ α‘ααα‘αααα¬αΈα±αα¬α α αααΈα α αα¬ααΌα α‘α αΈααα α‘ααααα¬αΈαα NSAG αα¬αΈα α‘ααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα ααααα‘α‘ααΈαα α αα α¬αΈααα ααααΌα¬αα¬αΈαα ααααΌ α±αα¬αααΌαααααα
β’ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα»αα α α₯α α ααΈααα»αααΈαα α‘αααα±αα¬ ααααααα¬αΈαα‘αααΈααΌα ααΎαααααα
ααΎαα α αααα ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈ α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»αα α±α αα αααααΈαα¬αΈα α»αααααα«α α±αα¬ααΈααΌαα±αα¬ α‘α±α α‘ααα¬αΈα (αα αααΌα α±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬ α α ααΈα±ααΈα»αααΈαα₯αΈαααα) -α₯ααα¬ ααα¬α±ααΈαα α‘ααα±ααΌαΈαααΈα±αα¬ααΈ αααααα¬αΈααΌα- αα¬α±ααΌαΏααΈ α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα±ααΈαα«α
β’ α±αααα α‘α±αα‘αα α‘α¬αΈα»αααΏααΈ ααα±αα¬ααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα»αα αααα±αα¬αα
α‘α αΈααααα±αα¬ α‘ααααα α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈαα ααα±αα¬αααα±ααΈα±αα¬ α αα αα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ αααα»αα α±αααα¬α±α‘α¬α α‘α±αα¬α α‘αα±ααΈαα«α αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαααααΈα α₯ααΌα α±ααααα±α‘ααα α α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»αα α±αα¬α±ααα¬αα¬αΈααααΈαααα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα»αα α α₯αα αααααααΌα¬αα¬αΈ (αα NSAGαα¬αΈα α‘ααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈ) αα«ααα±αα¬αααΌαα»αααΈαα α‘α±ααΈαααΈααα
α±αα¬αααα±αα¬ α±ααΈααΌααΈαα¬αΈ
β’ αααα±αα¬ α‘αα α‘ααααα α±ααΈαα¬αΈαα NSAG αα¬αΈ ααααα‘αααααΌαα ααΌαα±α»αα¬ααααα¬αΈ ( αααα α»αααα αα¬αΈα α‘αα α‘ααααα α±ααΈαα¬αΈααα) αααααααΈααααΌααααα α»αααα±αα¬α αα‘α±ααΈααΌα αα±ααα¬α±αααα¬αΈα α‘ααα‘αααΈαα αα¬α»αα ααα αααΈα‘α±ααΈαα α₯αα¬αΈαα αααα±ααΈα‘α α±α α ααααααΈ α»αααΈα α‘α αα‘αααΈαα ααα‘α»αα αααα»αα αα¬αα/α»αα αα¬ααααα
β’ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα»αα α α₯αα NSAG αα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ α±αα¬ααΈαααΈαα‘αα αα¬αΈα‘α»αα α α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα αα
α±αα¬αααΏαα±αα¬α αααα±αα¬ααααα αααα±αα¬αα αααααα¬ααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈ α‘αα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈα»αα αααΎα αααα¬ α±αα¬αααα±αα¬ ααααααα¬αΈα ααααα αααα±ααΈα‘αα±α»ααααΈααα α±α α ααααααΈαααα NSAG αα¬αΈαα ααααα αΌαα αΎαααααα α»αα ααα α‘ααα±αα¬ NSAG αα¬αΈαα αααααα αΌαααΏααΈ αααα±ααΈαα«αααα¬αΈα»αα αα¬αΎαααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα‘ααΌααα¬αΈαα αααα αααααα¬αΈα ααααα αΌααααΏααΈ α‘ααΌαα±α»αα¬ααΈ α»αααα¬α α ααα α‘α αα‘αααΈαα αα α‘α»αα α»αα ααααΌααααα
β’ NSAG αα¬αΈαα ααα¬αΈαααα»αα αααα (α»αααα¬α‘α αΈαα ααααααα‘αα αααΈααααααΈ
ααααααα ααα¬αΈ ααα»αα ααααα αααα¬αΈαα α‘α»ααα»αααααα¬ααααα¬αΈ α αα α‘ααααΈ NSAG αα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α‘α α‘ααα»ααα αααΎαα±αα) NSAG αα¬αΈααααααΌαα»αααΈα αα¬αααααα ααααα±αα¬ α₯αα±ααα¬αΈααααΈ ααααα±ααΈαα αααΌαα ααα»αααΏααΈα»αα ααα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈααα α α ααα αααααα¬ ααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈ (αα αααα¬αΈα α‘ααααα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααα±ααΈ α±α‘ααα αα¬αΈ) α‘ααΌα NSAG αα¬αΈα α‘ααα‘αααΈαα αα¬α»αα αα αααΈα αααα±αα¬ α‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘αα¬αΈαα ααα αα±αα±αα¬
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α‘α αΈαααααα α‘ααααααα ααα±αα¬αααα±ααΈ αα α‘αααα±ααΈαα ααααα»αα ααααααΈα
β’ αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα αα αα¬αααα¬αΈαα αααααΈαααα¬αΈα α‘α αΈαα αα¬αΈααααα¬αΈα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈααα α α αα αα αααα±ααΈ α±α α ααααααΈαααα¬αΈααΌα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈααα ααααααα¬αΈα α»ααα»αααα α±α»ααααΈα±ααΈαααα¬αΈα
β’ ααααα‘α‘ααΈααααα α¬αΈααα α±ααα¬α±αααα¬αΈ ααΌααΏααΈαααα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈααα±αα¬ααα αααααΈαα¬αΈ
α±α‘α¬αα»ααα±α αα α‘α αΈααα αααααα¬αααααα¬αΈαα α±αα¬αααα±αα¬ ααααααα¬αΈαα ααααα»α αα¬ ααΈααΌα±αα¬αααΌααα α αααα¬αΈα
β’ αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα‘αα αα¬αΈα αααα±ααΈααα α¬αΈα»αααα‘α»αα NSAG αα¬αΈα α‘ααα‘αααΈαα α»ααα¬
α»αα ααα ααα±αα¬ ααααα ααααΈα α‘ααα‘αααΈαΎαα¬αΈααΌα ααα¬αΈααα»αα ααααΏααΈα»αα ααα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα»αα α α₯αα NSAG αα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ α‘α αΈαα αααααα¬α‘αααΈα‘αααΈαα¬αΈαα αααααα¬αΈα‘α»αα αα α±αα¬ααα₯αΈα±ααΈααΏααΈ αααΈα αα±ααΌαααα»αααΈααα±αα¬ ααααΌα¬αα¬αΈ (α₯ααα¬- α‘α αΈααααΈαααα¬αΈαα ααα±α»αα±αααα¬αΈ) αΎαα¬αΈααΌα α α ααΈ α±αα¬αααΌααα NSAG αα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α‘ααΌα α‘αααΈαα¬αΈ αααααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ αααα±ααΈααα¬αΈ αα¬αΈ (α₯ααα¬- αααα α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌαα¬αΈααΌα ααα±αα¬α αα₯αΏααααα αααα±ααΈαα«ααα¬αΈ) α‘ααΌα ααα±ααα¬ αααα
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αΏαααΈααα±ααΈααα±αα¬αααααΌα α»ααααααΏα α±ααΈα α‘αααΈαα
The Role of Human Security in Peace Building in Myanmar
Kim Jolliffe Kingβs College London [email protected]
αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈααα±αα¬αααααΌα α»ααααααΏα α±ααΈα‘αααΈαα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈααα±αα¬αααααΌα α±αααααααΏααΈα‘α¬αΈααΈαα«ααα±αα¬ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌα αααααΈαααα α αααα ααααα‘α‘ααΈ αααα α¬αΈαα±αα¬ ααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈ α»ααααααα±αα¬αα»αααΈαα α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαααα¬ α αΌααΈαααα¬αΈ α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈα±α‘α¬α α»αααα»αααΈα»αα αααααααααα±ααΈα‘ααα¬αα¬αΈ α±αΎαα¬α ααααα±ααΈααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘αα α‘αα ααα αααα¬αΈ αααα¬ α±ααΈα αα»αα αα±ααα‘αα±αα¬ α»αα α α₯αα ααα»αα ααα αααΈαα α‘α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈα αα¬α±αααα αα ααααα±αα¬ αΎαα¬αΈαααααα αα»αα αΏααΈ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈααααα (αααααααα¬αΈ ααα»αααΈα α α‘α¬αΈα»αα αα¬αΈαααα¬αΈαΎααα)αααΈαααα ααααΈααα¬αααα±αα α₯ααα¬α‘α¬αΈα»αα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬ α±αα¬ α‘ααΈα α‘α¬αα¬αααα«αααααα¬αΈααΌα α‘αΎαααΈαααΈα»αα αααα»αααΈαα α»αααα¬αΈα±αα¬α α α±ααΈα‘α α±α‘α¬αααΌαα¬αΈααα αα α±α‘α¬αα»ααααΎαααα αα ααααα±αα¬ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈααα±αα¬αααα±αα¬α±αα¬αα»αααΈαα¬αΈα»αα ααααα»αααα±αα¬ ααα ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈ α ααααΈαα¬αΈ α‘ααΌααα α»αα αα¬αΎαααα αα α αα αα¬α±αα¬ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαα αα αα αααααααα ααααΌααα¬ αααα±αα¬ ααα»αα»αααΈαα ααα»α¬ααΈαααα¬α±αα«ααΈα ααΈα±ααΈα‘α±ααα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈαααα αααα‘ααααα±αα αααα¬αΈ α₯αα±αα αΈααΈααααΌααΏααΈααα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα αααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘αααΈαααα«αα‘α¬αΈααΈααα ααααααααΌα±αα¬αααΌαααα αααΈ αααΈαα αα»αα ααα αααα±αα¬αα α‘α»αα¬αΈ α‘ααΈα αααΈααα¬αΈα‘αΎαα¬αΈ α‘ααααα ααααα ααααα¬αΈαα ααΌα¬α αααα¬αΈαα αααΈαααΈ αα¬αΈ(αα)α‘α»αα¬αΈαααΈαα¬αΈ ααΌα»αα¬αΈααα»αα α±αααα±ααα¬ααΌα α‘ααααααααα‘α±ααααΌααα¬ααα α‘αα¬αΈαα¬αΈααααα αα¬αΈαΎαααα ααα±αΎαα¬α αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈααα±αα¬ααααα‘αααΌα αα«αααααα¬ αααα±αα¬αα ααααα‘α‘ααΈααα αα α¬αΈααα ααα¬αΈαα±αα¬αααααα»αα αΏααΈ αααΈααα‘α¬αΈ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα α‘ααΈαααΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αΈα ααα¬αΈαΎαααα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈ αα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αααα±αα¬ α‘ααΈα‘α»αααα¬αΈ ααα±α αα¬αααΈααα‘α¬αΈ α»αα α α₯αα±αα¬αααΌα αα±αα±α αααα ααΈαααΈαα αα¬αα αα¬αΈαααΈαα¬αααα¬αΈαααΈ α±αα¬αα«αΈα±α αααα»αα ααα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈααα αααα‘ααΈαα¬αΈα‘α ααΈα‘ααΈ(KNU)αΎαα¬αΈ α»αα α α₯α‘α±αα α‘αα¬αΈα α₯αΈαααα¬αΈαα ααα α¬αααΈααΌα αααα±αα¬αα α‘αΏααααααααααααΌααα¬αΈα‘αΎαα¬αΈ ααα αα αα¬αΈαααα ααααααΎαα±αα¬ α»αααα¬αααααΌα ααα¬αΈααα‘αααα‘α±αα αααΈααα±αα¬ α₯αΈαααααα ααα α‘ααΈαα αα α‘α±ααΈαααΈαα±αΎαα¬ααΈα ααα»αααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ α»αααα¬αααααΌα α»αα ααΌα¬αΈα±ααα ααααα‘α ααα¬αα αα¬αΈααααααΌαα¬αΈα±αααααα α‘ααααΌα αααα±αα¬α α‘α±α»αα¬αααα±αα¬ α‘αα‘α±αα¬ααα αααα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααα ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈα ααααΈααααα αα±ααα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈααα±αα¬αα±ααΈα ααααΈα±αα¬αα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαα αΏαα±ααΈα‘ααΌα
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α‘α¬αΈαααααα¬αΈα ααααααΈααΌα αΏαααΈα±α»αα¬αα±αααααα α»ααααα α ααΌαα¬αΈα α»αααααΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαα¬αΈα α»αααα¬αααααΌα ααα αα αα¬αΈα‘αΎαα¬ αααααααα ααΌααα¬αΈα‘αΎαα¬αΈ α‘α»ααα‘ααααααα±ααΎααα ααααα‘αα¬αΈααΌα α»ααααα¬αΈαα α±α»αα α¬ααααΈααΈα»αα ααααα ααα±αΎαα¬α αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα‘α α α₯αα ααα α‘αααΈαααΈααΌαα α±ααα α»ααααα¬αΈ α‘α¬αΈααααααα αααα α‘ααααααα αΏαααΈαααΈα αΌα¬ α‘αα¬αΈαα±αα¬αααααα ααα»αα αααα ααααα»αααα αα¬αΈααΌα α±ααααΌααΈααα αααα±αα¬α α»ααααα α ααΌαα«ααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαα α±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈααααααα α±ααΈααααΌαααα±α‘α¬αα»αααα α‘ααα¬ α»ααααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ αααα±αα¬α ααΈααΈα αα±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬ αααΈα»αα αα αα‘α»αα α ααααααΌ αα ααααα±αα¬ααα»αα ααα α‘ααΈαα»αα αααα»αα¬αΈ ααΈα±αα¬αααα ααα±ααα±αα«αααααΌα α α α±ααΈαααααΈαααα¬αΈ α‘ααΌα ααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈααΈα α‘ααΈα»αααα±α αα α‘ααα«αα«ααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα αα±αα¬ααα»αααΈα»αα ααα αααααααα ααααα‘αα«α αα»αα α±αααα α‘ααα«αα«ααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαα α‘ααααα±αα¬ α‘α αΈααα¬αΈ αα±αα¬αα αΌα¬ α‘ααααααα αα₯αΈαααααα αα‘α»αα α‘α»αααΈααΌα¬αΈααΌααα¬ αα±αα¬ααΏααΈ α±αα¬ααΈαααΈαααααααΈα±ααΈ ααα¬ααα¬ α‘α»αα αα¬ α‘α±αα‘αα¬αα α±αα¬αααααααα αααα ααΈα»ααααΌααα ααααα»ααααα¬αΈα α‘α»αα¬αΈα‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌα ααααα±ααΎαααα α‘αα¬αΈα α ααΎααα αααΈα»αααα±α»αα¬αα»αα¬αΈαα αΌα¬α±αα¬ αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈααααααα‘αα αα¬αΈ(EAG)αα¬αΈα αααα±αα¬αα αα ααα α±αα¬ααΈααααΌααααΈ α»ααααα¬αΈα ααα»αα αααα αααα‘α¬αΈα»αα EAG αα¬αΈα α‘α αΈααα α»ααααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ αα¬αΈα αΌα¬ ααα±αα¬ααΈααΌαα±αα¬ ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα±ααΈααααα α»αα αααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ααΌα α±ααΌαααααα αααααΈααΌαα‘αα¬αΈα α‘αααΈα‘ααα¬αΈα α±α α¬αα±αα¬αααα¬αΈαα α±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα α±ααΈα α¬αΈααα±ααΈααα‘α±αα ααααα»αααα»αααα‘α±α»αααα¬αΈ ααααΈαα¬α‘ααα±α‘α¬ααα αααααα¬αΈααΌα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα»ααααα¬αΈα αααα αααααα¬ EAG αα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ α±ααΈααα±αα¬α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈ ααααα ααααα»αα ααα αααα α»αααα αα¬αΈααααΈα α»ααααααα»α α α α±ααΈααα¬ααα¬αα¬αΈα ααΈα αΌαα¬ αααα±αα¬α αααΈααα α»ααα±ααΈα»αα ααα¬ααα¬α αααα¬αΈαααααΈα»αα ααα»ααααααα αααΈα ααααΌααααα¬ αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ αααΈαα¬αΈαα EAG αα¬αΈ αΎαα¬αΈα‘ααα‘ααΌαα‘α¬αΈααΈα α»ααα±αα¬ααΏααΈ αααα αα¬α αααα±ααΌαα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααααΈα±ααΈα αααα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααΈα»αααΈαα α‘α»αα¬αΈ α‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα¬αΈα»ααα±αα¬αααΌα¬αΈα±α ααααααΌααΏααΈ α»ααααα¬αΈααααααΌα¬αΈαα»αααΈα»αα ααα αααα¬α α¬αα¬αΈ α αΌα¬αα«αααα αα‘αα¬αΈα±αα¬αααααααααα¬αΈαα αα α₯αα ααααΌα ααα¬ααα¬α‘α ααα αα αα¬αΈαααα α‘α ααα‘αΏα ααα±ααα¬α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈα»αααΈαα¬αΈ α»ααααααα ααΏααΈ α‘ααα‘αααΈαα αααΈ α‘ααΈα α»αααΈααΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαα ααααΈα±αα«ααΈ αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α α‘αααΌα±ααα¬α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈα»αααΈα‘α±αα ααα»ααα¬ EAG ααααα±α»ααα¬αΈα»ααααα α‘α αΈααααΈααααα±α‘α¬αααΌααα±αα¬ α α αα±αααα¬αΈαα ααα±αα¬αα»αααΈαα¬αΈα»ααααααα αααΈααα±αα¬ α α ααα±ααΈαα¬αΈααΌα ααΌα¬αα¬αΈα ααΈαααα»αααΈα α‘α α¬αΈα‘α±αα¬α αα±αα¬αααα±ααα¬αα¬αΈα ααααΈα»αααΈα αα±αα±ααα¬αα¬αΈα α ααααΈαα¬αΈαα αααΌα¬αΈαααΈαα¬αΈααΌα α±α»αα»αααααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬α α»αααΈα α₯αα±αα ααα»ααα»αααΈα α‘αααΌαααΈααΈααα αα»αααΈα αα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα‘αα«α‘αα αΏαααΈα±α»αα¬αα»αααΈ αααΈαααΈααΈα αα ααααα‘ααΈααΈα»αα α‘ααΈα»ααααα αααΈαααΈαααΈαα¬αΈααΌα αααααΈαααα¬ααα‘α»αα¬αΈαα αα¬ααααΈαααα¬ α‘αΎαααΈαααΈ αα¬αΈααααΈ α‘ααΈα»ααααα
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αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌα α»ααααα¬αΈα α‘α¬αΈα±ααΈα‘α¬αΈα±α»ααα¬αα»αα»αααΈ α»ααααα¬αΈα‘α±αα α₯αΈααααα α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈααΈαααα α»αααα¬αααααΌα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαααΏααα α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαααΈααα αα α»αααα¬αααααΌα αααα±αα α‘ααΌααΈααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌα ααα»αααα±αα¬ αααΈα α¬αΈαααΈαααααα αααΈααΈα αΌαααααα αααα¬αΈα‘α±αα ααα»αααΈα αααΈα±ααΈα±α ααα‘ααααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα»αα α α₯αα αααα αα αα¬ααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ α‘ααααααα»αα αΏααΈ α±α‘α¬αααα¬αα ααααΈααΈααα αααΈαααα αα αα ααΌααααΈαα¬α±α αα ααα¬α±αα¬ααΈα αΌα¬αααα ααααααΈα α¬αΈαα ααααα‘α ααααα αΌααΈααΏααΈ ααΌαα‘α¬αΈαα±αα¬ ααααα¬αΈααα αα α±ααααΌααα¬α±ααΈα±ααααΌα α‘αα αααα±αααα α‘αααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α‘ααα₯αΈααααα‘α»αα αα¬αΈαα»αααΈααα‘α α±α‘α¬αα±α»αα‘ααααΌα α‘ααα‘α±ααΌαΈααα±αα¬α α±ααΈ αα α±αα¬αααααα αα αααα±αα¬ααΌαα±α»αα¬αα»αα¬αΈαα αΌα¬α±αα¬ αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα α±ααΈαααααΎαα₯ααααα‘ααΈα±αα¬ αααα¬ αααΌα αααα±ααΎαααα αααα±αα¬ααααααα α‘αΎαααΈααααΈααααΌα αααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα αααα±αα¬ α‘ααΌααΈα ααααΌα¬α»αααΈ(αα)α‘ααΌαα‘αα½αΌα»αα α±αα¬ αα α₯αααα¬αΈααΌα αααα±αα¬α‘ααΌααΈα ααΌαα±α»ααΈα»αααΈαα¬αΈα»αα α±αααΏααΈ EAG αα¬αΈα‘α±αααααααααααα αα α₯α¬ααααα¬αΈα α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈα±α αααα αααα‘α¬αΈα»αα αααΈααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαα αααα±αα¬α α‘α»αα α±ααΈααα ααααααΏααΈ α‘ααααΌα α±αα¬α»ααα¬αΈααα αα‘α±α»αα»αα α α±ααΈααα¬ααα¬α α±α»αα α¬ααα»αα αα¬ α α αα¬αΈαα¬αΈ αααα ααααααααα αααΈα α αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α‘α»αα α±ααΈααα»αααΈαααα±αα¬αα»αα αααα αα αα½αΌαα±αα¬ααααααΈαααα¬ ααααα‘αΈα‘ααα¬αΈααΈαααΈαΏααΈ ααΌαα±α»ααΈαΎααααα¬αΈααα¬αααα αα ααααα αα«α αααα‘ααααααΈαα αααΈααα α±αα¬α»ααααα¬αΈα ααααΌαα»αααΈα»αα ααα αα½αΌαα±αα¬α±ααΌααα±ααΈα»αααΈααα α‘αα(αα)α±αα¬α‘ααΌααα¬αΈααα αααα α±ααΈααααΌα¬αΈα‘ααΌαααααΈα ααΌαα±α»ααΈααααααα¬αΈαααα»αα ααα αα α±αα¬αααΈα‘α¬αΈα»αα ααα EAG αααααα±αα¬ααα»αα¬αΈα±α α¬αααααΌααα¬αΈααΌα α‘αα(αα)αα α±α‘α¬ααα¬αΈ αα«αα ααααααα‘α±αα ααααααα ααΌα αα½αΌαα±αα¬α»αααααα αα±αααα‘α ααΈα»ααααα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ αααα±αα¬αα¬αΈ α±ααΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌα αααΈαααΎαααΈαΎαααΈαααΈαααΈαα α α αα¬αΈα‘α»αα α‘αααΌα α±αα¬ααΈααα»αααΈα αααΌαα±αα¬ααα¬ αα α¬αΈα±ααα»αααΈ αα¬ αααα α±ααΌαΈαααααα ααααα±αα α‘α αΈαα αα αα¬ααα αα‘ααΌααΈ α α α±α»ααΏαααΈαα¬αΈα»αααΈ(αα) EAG α±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈ αααα ααΈααΌα±αα¬αααΌαα±αα±αα¬α±α α αααααααΈα±ααΈα α¬αΈααΌαααΈααΌα αααα±ααΈα±αααααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α αα±αααα¬αα‘ααΌα ααααα±αα¬ ααααα¬αΈ ααΌαα±αα ααααα»αα α±α α α ααα‘ααΌααα±α»αα¬αα αααΈα±αααα¬αΈααΌα αααΏαααα α±αα¬ααααααααα¬αΈα»αααααΈαΎαααΈα»ααα±αα±αα¬ α»ααααα¬αΈαα αααα α±ααα α₯ααα»αα αααααα ααααα‘αα¬αααα¬αΈα ααΈα»ααααα αΌααΈα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα ααΈα»αααα±ααΈααα αΌααΈααα α‘αα¬αααα αα α±αα¬αααΈααααα‘ααα‘α αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα α»αααααααααα±αα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα αααααΈαα α α α±ααΈαααααααααααΌα¬αα αααΌα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα α‘α»αααααααααααα»αα αααααΈααααααααααΏααΈ ααα»αααααααα¬αΈα±ααΈααΎαααα ααα¬αΈααΈαα‘α¬αΈα»αα α±αα¬αααα±αα¬ ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα αα αααα¬αΈαα αααααα¬α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαα αααα±αα¬αα α‘ααααΌααα±αα¬αα»αααΈ ααααα
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α±αα¬α±αα¬αα±αα¬ααα»ααΏααΈ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈ ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈα»αα α α₯ααΌα ααα‘αααΈα‘αααΈααΎααααααα±αα¬αα»αααΈ α α»ααααΎααααα α»αααα¬α‘α±ααΈ ααΌα IDP αα α‘α±α»αααα‘ααααα¬αΈα±αα¬ααα»αααΈα αααΈαααΈαααΈα»αααΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘αα«α‘αα α‘α αΈαα‘αα α‘αααα NGO α₯αΈα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈαα αα α₯ααα‘α±αα¬αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α ααααααΌαααΎαααα αααΈαα α₯αα ααα ααΈαα EAG αα ααααΌα±αα¬αααΌααα α‘ααααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈ ααΌααααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α‘α»αααΈα‘ααα‘α»αααΈααΌα¬αΈα αα¬α‘α»αα α α±ααα»αα ααα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα±αα«ααΈα α₯α±α‘α¬αααΌα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ααα»αα α±ααα αααα»αα¬αΈααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘α±αα¬αα‘αα αααα±ααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬α ααααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘ααΈαα»αα α‘αα α‘ααααα α±ααΈααααα±αΎαα¬α EAG αΎααα¬α ααααααααα±αα¬ α±ααα¬α±αααα¬αΈααΌα αααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬αααα»αααΈαα α‘α αΈαα±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬αααα»αααΈααααα α±αα¬ ααααααααα ααα‘α¬αΈα»αα»αααΈα‘α±ααα‘α¬αα αααα αα α₯α‘ααααΌα αααα±αα¬αααααα α α α±ααΈα‘ααΈα ααα αα αα αα α‘α±ααααα±αααα¬αααΈ αααα α±αα¬ ααααααΈα αΌα±ααΏααΈ αααΈααα±αα¬αααααΈααΈαα¬αΈα α‘α αΈαα α‘ααΈα ααα±ααΈα»αααΈα αα ααααα¬αΈααααα
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α»αααα¬αααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈ- ααα‘ααα αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»αα αααααΈααααα±ααΈαα α₯αααα¬αΈααααααΌαα±αα¬ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαα
αααα±ααΈααα ααα¬αΈα±αα α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αΎααα»αααΈαα¬αΈ
Business and Peace in Myanmar: Thoughts on Sector Risks, Related to Peace and Social License to Operate Issues
David Allan
Spectrum Yangon [email protected]
α»αααα¬ααααα α α α‘α¬αα¬ααα αα α αααα±αα α‘αααααα αα ααα ααα₯αΈα αΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα α±α αΈααΌαα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα αα ααα ααα»αα¬αΈα±αααα¬αΈααΌα αα α±αα«ααΈ αα ααααα‘α αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαα α‘ααΌαα±α»αα¬ααΈααααΈααα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααααααα0
1 βααααααΈα±αα¬α‘α αΈααα α±αα¬ααΈααΌαα±αα¬α‘ααααααααααα¬αΈααΌα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈααα±αα¬ααΈα αΌα¬α»αααα±αα α₯ αααΈαααα ααααΏααΈ α±α»ααααΈαααα±αα¬ αα α₯αααα¬αΈα αΌα¬αααα±ααΈαΏααΈ αααααα¬α ααΈααΈαααα¬αΈαα αααααα α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαααααααα ααααΌαα±αα¬αααΈα±αα¬ααΈα ααααα‘α¬αΈααΈααΌαα±αα¬ αααΈ α±αα¬αα»αα α±αα¬αα»αααΈαα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬αααααα¬αΈααααΈ α‘ααΈααα»αα α±α ααα αααα±αα¬α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈα‘α±αα α‘αααααα₯αΈαααααααα α‘α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘ααα¬αΈαα α‘α±ααααααα¬α»αααα αααΌααα¬α»αα αΏααΈ ααα‘α ααααΈ αα¬αΈααΌααα±ααα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ αα α₯αααα¬αΈαα α»ααααΌααΈα α αα ααααα‘αααα αα αα¬αΈα ααααα±αα¬αα ααΌα¬αΈααααα»αα ααα αααΈα‘αααΈα‘αααΈαα αα α‘ααΌααααααΌααααα α₯αααα αα‘α»αα αα±αα ααα»αα ααα α‘α α α‘ααααααα¬αΈαα ααα‘ααα±ααΌαΈααΈαααααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈαα ααα±αααΌαα»αα ααΌα¬αΈαααα¬ α‘α±αα‘αα¬α»αα αΏααΈ αααα±αα¬ααΌαα±αα¬ αα‘α±α»αααΈαααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα±ααΌααα±ααΈα±αα ααα¬αααα±αα¬ α‘ααα‘ααα¬αΈ α‘ααα±αα¬α‘ααα‘ααα¬αΈα αααα ααααα«α αα ααα±ααααΌαα±α»αα¬αΎαα¬αΈαα αα αααααΌααΈααΌα αααΌαα₯αΈαααΈα αα ααααΌααΈα±α»αα¬αΎαα¬αΈαααα βα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα±ααΌ α»αααα±αα±αα¬α»αα¬αΈ αααΈα»αααα¬α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈαα¬ααα¬ ααα¬αα αα α‘ααα‘αα±ααΌαα α αα±ααα±ααΌααα±ααΌα ααααα±αααα«ααα αααα±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬αα ααααΈα α±α»ααα¬α‘α±ααΈα αααα»αααααα¬α»αα ααΌα¬αΈα α‘αΎαααΈααααα±ααΌαα ααααΏαααΈαααΈα±αααα»αα¬αΈαα»αααΈα±ααΌαααααααΏααΈ α»ααα¬α±ααΌ α ααααΌαα±α»ααααΈαα¬ααααα¬α α‘α±ααΌαα‘ααα±ααΌαα±α αααααΈα α¬ααΏααΈ α‘αα¬αααα¬ αααααα α ααααααΌαα ααΈαα α±α‘α¬α α‘α αΈαα αααΈαααΈααΌα¬αΈαα«ααβ αα±α»αα¬αΎαα¬αΈαααα αααΈααα»αα αααα¬αΈα»αα ααΌα¬αΈαα»αααΈα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ α±αα¬αα α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈα‘αααΈαα¬αΈαα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα α‘ααα‘α αααΎαααα αααα±αα¬α (α±αΎααΈαααααΌααΈ)-αα αα¬α±αΎααΈ α±ααΈα»αααΈαα α₯αααα¬αΈα ααααΌαα‘αα‘α¬αΈα‘ααΈα»αααα α±α»ααα¬ααΈαααΈααα ααααΌα¬α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈα αα αααΈαααα¬αΈα α±α»ααα¬α‘ααΌα α‘α±ααΈ- α±α»ααααΈα»αααΈα α±αα¬ααα¬α±α»ααα¬αΈα αα±αα¬ααα±αα¬α₯αα±ααα¬αΈα α±α»ααα¬ααααααΌα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα¬αΈαα α₯αααα¬αΈα α‘αΏααα‘ααααΈα»αααΈαα¬αΈα αααα‘αΎαααΈαααα- α‘αα αα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α±αααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈααα»αααΈα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈ α‘ααΈ α‘ααΌααα¬αΈααα»αααΈααααα»αα α±ααα±αα»αααΈα αααα»αααα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈ/α α ααΌ- ααααα‘αααααΌαααα»αααΈα αααΈα»αα α‘ααΈα‘α»ααααΌα±αααααα»αααΈα αααααΈα»ααα±αα¬
1 World Bank, Myanmar Strategy 2012.
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α ααααΈαα¬αΈα»αα αΎαααα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααααΌα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα αααΈααΈα»αααααααααα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαα ααααα‘ααααααααα±ααΎαααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα αα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈ α‘ααΌα αααααα’αααΈαααα‘α±α»αα αααα¬αΈααΌααΏααΈα±ααααααΈα α₯αα¬αΈα α₯αΈα±αα¬αα±ααα John Ruggie α α»αααα¬ααα ααΌα βααΈααααααΈαααΈαααα»αααΈα»αααΈααααααα±αα¬ααααα‘αα±αααβ α ααΈα±αα¬ααΈααΈα»ααααα1
2 βαα¬ααΌαααα α±ααΈα α¬αΈααα ααααβ αα±αα¬αα ααααα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬ααΌαααα‘ααΌα αααα±αα¬αα¬ααα αα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈ α±ααΈα α¬αΈ αααα¬αα α±αα¬ααααα¬αααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈααααααΌαα±αα¬ α‘ααΌααΈααααα¬αΈ α‘α¬αΈ ααααα±ααΈ αα ααα±αα¬ααΈααΌαα±αα¬αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα‘ααααααα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»αα±αααααα α ααααΈαα¬αΈααααααα±αα¬ α»ααααα¬αΈα α‘ααααααααα¬αΈ α»αααα¬ααααα ααααΈαα¬αΈα‘α±ααααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈααααααα±αα¬ α‘αα¬αΈαα α¬αααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘ααΈααΈα±αα¬ α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈ ααΌαα¬αΈαα α±ααα¬ααΈαααααα¬αΈα ααΌαα±αααα¬ααα α‘α αΈαα αααααΈαα α»ααααα‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈ α‘αα αα¬αΈαα«ααα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈαα¬ αααΌαα±αααα¬αα α»ααααα‘αα¬αΈαα‘ααααααα αα αααα¬ ααααα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈαααααααΈα α₯αα¬αΈαααα»αααΈα α‘αα¬αα α‘ααα±ααΌαΈαααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈα‘ααΌα α‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα»αα»αααΈα α±αα¬ααααα₯α±ααΈααα‘α αααααα±ααΌααααααααα»αααΈα ααααΌα¬αα¬αΈα‘ααΌα αα¬ααααα (ααΏαααα ααα¬ααααααΈαα) ααα»αααΈα αααααΈααααα±ααΈα ααα ααααΈαα¬αΈαα αα ααΏααΈ α»ααααααααα‘αα»αααΈα αα₯α±ααΈαααααα¬α‘α±ααΌα‘αα αα¬αΈα‘α±αα α‘ααΈαααα¬αΈα ααααΌααΈαα α₯αΈα α¬αΈα»αααΈα α α αααΈαα¬αΈα αααα±αααααααΈαααΈα ααααα»αααΈα αα αα¬α±αΎααΈα±ααΈααα‘ααΌα αα±αα¬αα±αα¬ αααααα α»αααΈα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈ- ααα±αα¬α±αα¬ααααΌαααααα»αααΈα ααααΌα¬ααα‘ααΈαα»αα α»αααΈ (ααααΌα¬α ααααα‘αα¬α αα‘α ααααΈ)α α±α»ααα¬ααΈαααΈα»αααΈ- αα₯α±ααΈαααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααα¬α α¬αα¬αΈα ααΈααΌαααααααα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααα αΌααΈααα»αααΈ-α‘α αΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈα ααααΌα¬αα¬αΈα α α₯αααα»ααα±α α¬ααΎαααααΈααααααα»αααΈα αααααααα¬α αα₯α±ααΈαααααα¬ α‘α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘ααα αα¬αααααα»αααα¬αΈα»αααΈα αααΈαα¬α±ααΈα ααΏαα±ααΈα‘ααΈαααα¬αΈαα ααα¬ααααααΈαααα αααΈαααα α»αα αΎαααα α‘ααα«α α¬αααΈαα αααα±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬αα ααααΈααααααα±αα¬ α±ααΈαα¬αΈααα±αααα αααααα α¬αααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘αα¬αΈαααα»αα ααα2
3 α ααααΈαα¬αΈ α»ααα¬αα¬αΈα‘αα¬ααα¬αααα±ααα»αααΈαα¬ α±αααααα»ααααα αΌααΈ ααα¬ααα»ααα±αα»αααΈα»αα ααα αααΈαα α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»αα‘αα»αααααα αααααΈααα αΌααα α¬αΈααα α±α»αα α¬αααΈαα¬αΈα α‘α±ααΈαα«αα ααΈα±αα¬ααΈααΈα»αα±αα»αααΈα»αα ααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαα α₯αααα¬αΈα‘α±αα α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»α αααα»ααα‘αα»αααα αααααΈα‘ααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαααΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈααααααΌαα±αα¬ α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈα‘αααΈαα¬αΈα‘α±αα α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»α αααα»ααα‘αα»ααααα α»αααααααα αααΈαααα¬αΈααΌα α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»αα ααααααααααΈα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈ αααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈαα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαααααΈα α₯αα¬αΈ α‘α±ααααα±αα¬αααα α‘α»αααα¬αΈα αα αα ααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈ αα α±ααΈααα αααααΈαα αα¬αΈα αααΈα α α±αα¬αααααα α‘α±α»ααα αΌααΈα‘αα α‘α±α»ααα‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘α α αααΈα±ααΈαα α‘α α¬αΈα‘α±αα¬αααααα±ααΈα α α¬αΈααΈααααα α₯ααΈαα¬αΈα ααΈαααΈα±ααΈαααααΈα ααα¬α±ααΈαα ααα±αα¬ααααα α αΌααα α¬αΈα ααα±α»ααααΈαα«αΈααα ααααΎααα¬ ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα α‘α±αα¬αα‘α ααα»αα α±α ααααΌααααα ααααΌααΈααΌααα αα¬αΈα±αα¬ αααααΈααΌ αα ααΈα α‘ααα₯ααα¬αα¬αΈαα¬ α±ααΈααΌα¬α‘α±α»αα α α»ααααα»αααΏααΈα»αα αΌααΈα‘αα α‘ααα±ααΌαΈαααΈ α±αα¬ααΈαααααΈα αααΈαα¬α±ααΈααα±αα¬αααα ααααΌα¬α‘α±α»αα»α αααΈααΌα¬αΈαααααΈα ααααΌαα±ααΈα α±ααΈααΌα¬αα α±αα¬ αααααΈαα¬αΈααα»αα αΎαααα
2 Responsible Business in Myanmar: Operating Context, Sanctions and International CSR Standards, Webinar, FOLEY HOAG LLP, 18 August 2012. 3 Finalized Report of Special Investigation Commission, Mirror Newspaper, 12 March 2013.
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αααα¬αααΈα±αα¬α±ααΈαααααΈαααα¬αΈαα α‘αααΈα α¬αΈα ααααααααΈαα¬αΈαα¬ α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»αα»ααααα αααΏααΈ ααΌααΏααΈ α±ααΈα α‘αααα‘αα¬αΈ ααα»αα α±α ααΌααααα αααα¬αΈαα αααααΈαα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ α»αα¬αΈαα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα‘α±αα α»αααα¬αααααΌα α‘αααΈαααα¬ααααα±αα¬αααΌααα±ααΈαΏααΈ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈα α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»αα‘α»ααα αααα αΈααααα‘α»αα ααΎαα¬ααα»αα αΎαα±ααααα ααα±ααα¬αααα ααααααα¬α»αα αΏααΈ ααα¬ααααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘αα‘α»ααα±ααα¬αα αα α ααααα α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»αα‘α±αα‘ααα¬αΈα‘αα»ααα»αααΈ α‘α¬αΈααΌαααΌαα αααα±αα¬ααααα α»αα αααααα α±αα¬αααααα αααΈααα±αα¬α‘ααααΈα α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»αααα±αα¬ αααααΈαα¬αΈα α‘ααααααΈαααα±αα¬α ααααα α‘ααΈα‘α»ααα»ααα»αααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαααα‘ααΌα α αΌααα α¬αΈααα»ααα»αααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαααα αααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈαα¬ ααααΌα¬αα¬αΈ αα±ααΈααααα α‘ααΈαααααααΌαα»αααΈα»αα ααα α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»ααα¬αΈα ααα»ααααα αΌααΈαα α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαααΈ αΏααΈ α‘αααααα¬αΈααΌα α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»ααα¬αΈα α»ααααα¬αΈαααααα±αΎαα¬α αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαααααΈα α₯αα¬αΈααΌα α±αα¬ααα αααα±ααΌαΈαααα¬αΈααα¬ααααα α±αα¬ααααααα αααααΈα±ααα¬αααα¬αΈααα‘α±ααΈα αααα α₯ααα¬αα¬αΈ- ααααΌααΈ Franks αα Davis αα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈααα»ααααα±αα¬ ααα»α¬ααΈαααα¬αα±αααααΌα ααααΌααΈ αααΈα/ααααΌα¬ ααααα‘ α»αα αα α α αα±ααα¬αααα3
4 αααΈααα αα‘ααΌα ααααα‘αα‘ααα‘ααΈαααα¬ α ααααααΌαααα αααααΈαα¬αΈ α‘ααα ααα±αΎααΈαα¬αΈα αα αα¬α±αΎααΈα ααααΈα»αααα»αααΈαααα ααα ααααααα‘ααα‘α αΈαα α₯ αααα¬αΈα»αα ααα α±ααΌααααΏααΈ α±ααα¬α±αααα¬αΈααΌα ααααΌααααα»ααα¬αα¬αΈα α α αα¬ααααααΈαα¬ αα αααΈααα α‘α»ααααΌα±αααα αααΈα»αα αα¬αΈ ααα»αααΈ ααααα αΏααααα»αααΈα ααααα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈα»αααΈαα ααααΌαα±ααΈα ααααΌα¬αααΈαα¬α±ααΈαα ααΏαα±ααΈα αααααΌααΏααΈ αααα₯ααα¬αΈαα±αα¬ α‘αα αα¬αΈα αα±ααα¬αΈαα ααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα αα±αα¬αααααα α₯αααα¬αΈα αα₯αΈα±ααα αα₯αΈα±αα‘α±α»αα¬ααΈααα α₯αα¬αΈα»αα αΎαααα αα±αααα αα¬α±ααΌα±ααΌα ααααα αααΈααΌααΈαα αα¬αααααΈα±αα¬α±ααΈααααΌα ααα‘ααΌαα‘ α±ααΈααΈα±αα¬ααα α‘α αααα α¬αα¬αΈααΌα α±ααΌααααααααΈα/ααααΌα¬ααααα‘α The International Council for Mining and Metals αααΈαααα¬ααΌααααΈ α‘αα¬αΈααααααΈααααΌαα±αααααα αααα¬αααΈα±αα¬α±ααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈααΌα α‘α±αα«ααΈααα‘αα¬α±αα¬αα±αα¬ ααΌααΏααΈααα‘ααΌα ααΈααΌα‘αΎαα»ααα α αα CSRα αααα±ααΈααα±αα¬αααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈ α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααΌα ααα»ααααα±αα¬ α αΌααα α¬αΈααα α±α»ααα¬αΈα ααααΌαα±α»ααααΈαα α»αααα¬αααααΌα αααα¬αααΈα±αα¬α±ααΈααα α‘α±αα‘ααα¬αΈ ααΈααα±α ααα‘ααΌα α±α‘α¬ααα« α‘α±α»ααα α ααα α±αα¬αααααα4
5 (α) α±αα¬ααα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈ α‘ααα±α»αα±αα¬α±ααΌαα±α αα ααΈααα±αα¬ ααααΌαα±ααΈα αα¬αΈαααααα α‘ααΌαα‘αααΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬α α±ααΈαα α‘α αΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα α»ααααα αΎαα¬αΈ ααΈααΌααααααα¬α±αα¬α ααΈααα±α‘α¬αα±αα¬αααΌαααα (α) CSR αα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα α₯αααα¬αΈα α₯αΈαα αα α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααΌααΌα αααΈαα α₯αααα¬αΈα±αα α‘ααΌααα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ αα¬αΈααααααΈαααα α±ααααααα αααΈαα α α±ααΌαα αααα ααΈα»ααααααααααααΈα α₯αα¬αΈααΌα ααααΌα¬αα¬αΈαα«αααααα αα±αα¬αααααααα αααα¬αααΈα±αα¬α±ααΈ α ααααΈαα¬αΈαααααα¬α αααα±αα¬ααΌαα±αααα¬αα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ αα α₯αααα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααα¬αΈααααα»αα ααα (Free Prior and Informed Consent or FPIC)α (α) α±α»ααα¬α α‘ααα±ααΌαΈαααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈα ααα¬ααααααΈαα αααα¬α αααααα αα₯α±ααΈαααααα¬ α‘α±ααΌα‘αα α α‘ααΈα‘α»ααααΌα±αα»αααΈα ααΏαααα ααααΌα¬ααααααα ααααΌα¬α‘αα¬α‘ααΌαα±ααΈ α»αααΈαα α₯αααα¬αΈα‘α±αα
4 Davis, Rachel and Franks, Daniel M., The costs of conflict with local communities in the extractive industry, 2011. 5 Spectrum Seminar, βSharing on Corporate Social Responsibilityβ, 7β8 October 2012.
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α‘α¬αα αα»αααΈα α‘ααΈα‘α±ααΈαααΈ αααααΈαα ααα‘α»αα ααααΌααΈα α₯αΈα α¬αΈαααα (α) α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈ βαα¬ααΌαα»αααΈα α±ααΈα α¬αΈα»αααΈα ααα»αααΈβ αα±αα¬ααα α‘α αΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ αααααΈαα ααααΌα¬αααα±ααΈααΈααααααα α‘ααΈα»αα α±α ααα (α ) α±αα¬αααααααα¬αααα¬αΈ (CSR) α‘α±αα¬ααΈααΈ α‘α±αα‘ααα Ruggie α αα±αα¬αα‘α ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈα‘α¬αΈααΈα α±ααΈα α¬αΈααα‘α±αα α‘ααΈααα α₯αΈ αααααα ααα¬αΈα»αααΈαα α‘ααααα‘αα¬α±αα¬αα±αα¬ ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬αααΌα¬αΈα±αααααα (α) α‘ααΈααΈα±αα¬αααααΈαααα¬αΈαααα±αα¬ αα α‘ααΈααΈα±αα¬ α ααα ααααΈαα¬αΈαα αααααα¬αΈα α±ααΈα α¬αΈαααα¬ α»αααΈα»αα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα αααααΈαααααα α‘α±αα«ααΈααα‘αα¬α±αα¬αα±αα¬ αααα±ααΈααα αα ααα±ααα ααα (α) αααα¬αα αα αα¬αααααα¬αΈαα αα αα¬α±αΎααΈα±ααΈα»αααΈααα αα αα α¬αΈααα‘ααΌα ααααΈα α±α α¬ααΎαα αααΈααα»αααΈαα ααΈααα±αα¬ α₯αα±ααααα¬αα ααα¬αΈα±ααΈαααα¬αααα±αα¬ αααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα αα α₯αααα¬αΈα α±α»ααααΈαα¬ααΌα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα±ααΈαα α‘αα¬αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α α»αα ααΌααΈα±α ααα αααα¬αααΈα±αα¬α±ααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α»αα ααααααΌα αααΈα‘α±α»ααααα¬αΈαα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬αααααΈαααα¬αΈααΌα α‘ααΈα»αααααα»αα ααα α‘αα αααα αααΈαα¬αΈ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαα¬αΈαα α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»αα‘ααΈα α αααΈαα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα α‘α±αα¬ααα»αα αα±αα¬α α‘ααα α‘αα¬αΈα»αα α±α αα±αα¬ααα α‘α»ααα αααΈα α ααααα ααΌα»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ αααα¬αΈααΌα ααΌα»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»ααα¬αΈαα α‘ααΈα‘α»αααα¬αΈαα±ααΏααΈ α‘αααααα¬αΈααΌα α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»αα»αααα¬αΈα±αααααΌα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈ αα αα¬αΈαα±ααΈαα ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα α‘αα¬αΈαα αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»αααα«α ααααΌα¬αα¬αΈα ααααΎαααΌααααα αααΈαα αα¬αΈαα ααΌααΏααΈααα₯αΈαααα¬αα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαααααΈα α₯ α‘ααΈα α±αα α‘α±αα«ααΈααα‘αα¬α±αα¬αα±αα¬ ααα±αα¬ααααα α αα»αα ααΌααααα α±α»ααα¬αα α₯αααα¬αΈααΌα α±α»ααα¬α‘ααΈα»αααα‘α±αα ααΌααααΈα»αααα¬αααα α±α»ααα¬α‘ααΈα»ααααα α₯αααα¬αΈ ααΌα ααααΌα¬αα±αα¬αααααα αααααΈαααααα ααααα±ααΈααα αααααα‘ααΌα α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαααΈααα α‘α»αα ααΌα±αα»αααΈαα α‘ααα‘α±ααΌαΈα»αα αααΈα»αα α ααααααΌαααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα‘αα αα¬αΈααΌα α±αα¬αααα±αα¬ αα α₯αααα¬αΈα»αα ααα αααΈαααα‘α±α»ααααα¬αΈααα‘α αααα¬αααΈα±αα¬α±ααΈαα α‘α»αα¬αΈαααα¬αΈααΈααααα‘ααΌα α‘ααα»ααααα¬αΈαα αααα«ααα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»αα α±α αα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαααα¬αΈα α₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈααα αααΈααα¬αΈ ααααααα α‘ααΈααααααα»ααααα¬αΈα αααααα‘α¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ αα±αα¬αααααα»αααΈα±αα ααααα±αα¬ααα α‘ααα»ααα«ααα ααααΌα¬α₯αΈα±αα¬αα±αα¬ ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα ααααΈαα₯αΈααααα¬αΈαα ααααα‘α»αα αααααααΈαα«αΈααΌααααα α‘ααα‘α±ααΌαΈα»ααααα±αα¬ α ααααΈαα¬αΈα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»αα α±α αα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαααΈαα¬αα¬αΈαααΈ αααα αα«ααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈα ααααΌααΈα α₯αΈα α¬αΈα»αααΈαα αααΈααΈα»ααααααα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα αααα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»αα±α αα ααααα ααααα‘ααΈα‘αα¬αΈα»αα α±α ααα α»αααααααα αααα ααα±αα¬α ααΌαα αααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈαα α‘α α‘α α₯α±ααΈααΌααα¬αΈαα α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»ααααΏααΈ α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»αα±αα¬αα«αΈα±α‘α¬α αα ααα αΌααΈααα±αα¬ α»ααααα¬αΈ αααα«ααααα‘α±αα α₯αΈαααααΏαα»αα ααα ααααΌα¬α‘αα‘α±αα α±αα¬αααΈααα‘α±ααΌαΈα αα¬αΈ α‘α αΈαα αααααΈαα α»ααα α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααΌαα¬αΈα‘ααΌααΈ ααΈα±αα¬ααΈααΈα»αααα ααααΌα¬ααα α±ααΌαΈααααααΌαα ααααα ααααα¬αΈα₯αΈα±αα¬αα±αα¬ ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα‘α±αα ααααα»ααΎααααα¬ β------ ααααΈαα±ααΌαα±αα¬ α±αα¬ααΈ ααΌαα α ααα ααααΈα±ααΌα αααα¬αα«αα. #### αααΈαα±ααΌαα α‘αα‘αα αααααα¬α±ααΈαα¬α α»αααα¬αααα αααα¬αΏααΈ α‘αααααα ------------ α αααΈαα±ααΌαα α‘α±αα¬ααΈα‘ααΈα‘α±αα‘ααα αααΈαα±ααΌα ααα±αααα αα½αΌαα±αα¬αααα¬ α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈααααααΈαα¬αΈα α‘ααααΈα‘ααα‘α±ααΌαΈαα αααΈαα±ααΌ
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αααα¬αα¬α αα½αΌαα±αα¬αα αααα¬αΈααΈα α‘α±αα¬ααΈααΈαααΈαα±ααΌαααα¬αα αα½αΌαα±αα¬αα ααα±ααααα«ααβ α αα αααααα¬αΈα»αααΎαααα α‘ααα ααααα¬αΈαα α±αα¬ααα α±ααΌαΈααααααα‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈααΌααα αα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈ α‘ααΌα ααΏααΈαααααα±αα¬α‘α±α»αααα αααΌαα±αααα¬ααα»αα ααα
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α»αααα¬αααα ααααα¬αΈα»αα αα α‘ααα‘αααΈα α α₯αΈα α¬αΈαΎααα»αααΈ
Thinking about Myanmarβs Citizenship Crisis
Ian Holliday The University of Hong Kong
ααααα¬αΈα»αα αααα ααααα¬αΈα»αα ααααααα±αα¬ α‘α»αααααΈα±ααααΌααα αααααα ααααα
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α±αα«ααΈα ααΈαα¬αΈα»αααΈα»αα ααα ααααα¬αΈα»αα ααααα±αα¬ α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈααΌα α‘ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈααΈαα
αααα T. H. Marshall α αααα ααα ααΌα ααααα α»αααα»αααα¬αΈαααα¬ α‘αααΈ ααΌα
αα α₯αΈαααΈααΌαααααΌαα‘ααΌα αα‘αα±αα¬ α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈαα«ααααα αααα±ααΈαααα¬ α‘αααΈ ααΌα
αααα±ααΈα‘α¬αα¬α ααααααΈαα¬ααΌα ααα±αα¬αα±αα¬αααΌαααΌα αα«ααααα αααα±ααΈαααα¬ α‘αααΈ ααΌα
ααααα±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘ααΈαα α¬αΈααΌαα αααα±ααΈαααα¬ α‘α±ααΌα‘αα α‘α»αααα‘α αα±αααΌαααα
ααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα αααΌα α»ααα¬ααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘ααα‘αααΈαα¬αΈααα‘α ααααααααααααΌααα¬αΈ α‘α
α‘ααΈα αα«ααααα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ ααα±αα¬αα±ααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈα ααααΌααΈα α₯αΈα α¬αΈααΌα αααΈα±ααΈ
αα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈααΈα ααα αααααα±α αα α ααα±α»αα¬αα‘αααΈα ααα¬αααα¬αΈα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈαααα
αααααααΌααΈααΎαααα αα₯α±ααΈαααααα¬ α‘αααΈααΌα αα α ααα¬α±αα¬ αα₯α±ααΈαααααα¬ α‘α±ααΌ
α‘αα α α‘αα‘ααα»αα±αα¬ααα»αααΈαα α»αα ααΈα±αα¬αα»αααΈαααα«ααααα αα±αααα¬αααΌα ααΌα»αα¬αΈ α±αα¬
ααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈααΌα α‘α±αα‘ααα¬αΈ αααα¬αα¬α»αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα±ααααα α¬αΈ ααααΈα±αααΎααα
ααααα¬αΈα»αα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αααΈ αααα¬α α¬αα¬αΈα αΌα¬ααα¬ α»αααα»αααα¬αΈαααα¬α αααα±ααΈ αααα¬α
αααα±ααΈαααα¬αα αα₯α±ααΈαααααα¬αααα¬α α¬αα¬αΈα»αα ααααΈαΏααα¬αΈααα αααΈααα ααα αα αααα‘α¬αΈ
αα α₯α¬ααα¬ααΌα αααα¬ααααα¬αααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα«αααα ααααα¬αΈα»αα ααααααα±αα¬ αα¬αααα¬αΈα»αα
ααααα¬αΈααα αααΈααααΈαααα¬α±αα¬ α±αα¬ααααα¬αααα ααααααααΈ αααα¬α±α ααα
α‘ααα« α‘αααΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬α α‘αα‘ααΌαααα¬ααααΈα»αααΈααααΌα ααααα¬ ααααα¬αΈ α»αα ααααααα±αα¬
α‘α»αααααΈα±ααααΌααα αααααα ααααα α‘ααα‘αα¬αΈααααα α»αα ααα ααααααΈαααα
α±ααα±αα¬ α±αα¬ααααααα α₯αα αααα¬ ααααα¬αΈα»αα ααααααα±αα¬ α‘αα α‘αα¬αΈαααα α‘α
α‘ααα»ααα ααα»αα αα ααααα ααΈα ααΌα»αα¬αΈααααα¬αααα»αα ααα
α»αααα¬αααααΌα α‘αααααα¬α α¬α±ααΈααα«α±αα¬ ααααα¬αΈα»αα ααα‘ααα‘αααΈαα ααα αααα±αα¬
ααααααα±ααΌαα±ααααα α±αααα‘α¬αΈα»αααααα αααα ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±ααα α±αα¬ααα
α»ααα¬ααΈα±αα¬ α₯αα±ααα¬αΈααΌα α»ααα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈα‘α ααααα¬αΈα»αα ααα ααα»αααααα ααΈαα¬αΈα»αα
α±αα¬ααα αα ααα±αααα α»αααα»αααα¬αΈααααα±αα¬α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈ α‘ααΈα ααα»αααΈααα
α»ααα±αα¬αα α‘ααα ααα αααΈα±αααααΈ/α»αααααααα¬α‘αααα¬αΈααΌα αααα±αα¬ααα α¬αΈαααα¬αΈα
α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬ααα α±α»αα¬α αα¬ααΌα α α ααααααααααα‘αα»αααΈα»αα αααα±ααΈαααα¬α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈ
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α»ααα±αα¬αααα¬αΈααα¬αααα±ααΈαααα¬α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈαααααΈ ααααα»αα α±ααΏααΈ αα₯α±ααΈαααααα¬
α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈαα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±ααΌα»αα¬αΈα±αααα α‘ααα«α‘αααΈα‘αααΈα‘ααΌααΈ α‘ααα‘αααΈααΌα ααΏααΈ
α‘α±ααΈα ααα±αα¬ αααα¬α α¬ααΈαααα±αααα αααααΈαα ααα¬ αααα»ααααα ααααα¬αα¬αΈα
αααααα αααα¬αΈααααααα¬αΈα»αα ααα»αααΈααα»αααΈα»αα αΏααΈαααΈα»αααα‘α»αα¬αΈα±αααα¬αΈα ααΌαα αα
α‘αα αα¬αΈ α‘ααΌα αααα±ααΌαΈαααα¬αΈααΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αααααα α±αα¬ααααα ααα¬ αα₯α±ααΈαααααα¬αα
α±αα¬α±α»αα¬αααααΌα α‘α±αα ααΈααΈα»αα¬αΈα»αα¬αΈ αααααα»αααΈα»αα ααα¬αΈαα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ ααααΈα αα¬αΈ α‘α¬αΈααΈ
αααα±αα¬αααααααα¬αΈα»αα ααααα αααα¬αΈαααααα»αααΈα»αα ααα α±αα¬αααΈαα ααα ααα¬α
α‘αααΌα»αα¬αΈα»αα¬αΈαα¬αΈαααα αααααα αααα‘ααΌααΈαααΈα αΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ααα¬ααα¬αΈα αααααααααααα¬αΈ
α»αα ααα ααα»ααααα ααα αΈαααααΈα»ααα ααααα α±αα¬αααα αΈα»αααΈα»αα ααα Matthew J. Walton
ααααΈαα₯α»αααα‘α α‘α±ααααα»ααα±αα¬αα αα α‘α»αα¬αΈ α‘α±αα¬αααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈααΌα αα»αα‘ααΌα
ααΈαααααααα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬α±αα¬ααΈαααα¬α α¬αα¬αΈαα αααααα
α»αααα¬αααααα¬αΈα»αα ααα‘ααα‘αααΈααααΈα α αα¬ααΌααααααααΈααα αααΈα±αα¬ααΌαα»ααααα‘
αα¬αα¬αΈα ααΈα±αα¬ααΈααΈα»αααααααΈαααα¬αα₯αΈαααααα αα»ααα‘ααΌααΈαααΎααα»αααΈααααα α‘α»αα¬αΈ
ααααα¬αΈα α‘α±ααΌαα‘ααααα±ααααααααα¬αΈααα¬α±ααΌααααααΈαα₯αα₯αΈαααααΈαα αα»αα
α‘α»αααααΎααα»αααΈαα α»αα ααααΌααααα ααα»αα ααααΌαα‘ααΌααΈαααΎααα»αααΈα αααααα«ααα
α‘α¬αα¬αααα«αα‘α±ααα‘α¬αα ααΏααΈαα₯αΈαααααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α»ααααααααα±ααα‘ααΌααΈ
α‘α±α»αααα»αα α±αααα¬αΏααΈ α±αα¬αα‘α¬ααα¬αΈαα¬αΈ α»ααααΌααΈαα α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈα‘α±α»ααα±α αα ααα»αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα
ααΌαα±ααΈ αα»αααΈαα αααΈα±αα¬αα‘α¬ααα¬αΈαα¬αΈ αααααααααΈααα±αα¬ αααΈααα«αΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘α»αα
α»αααΎαα±ααα±α‘α¬αααΌααΈααα±ααΈαααα α‘α αΌααΈα±αα¬αα‘α»αααα αααα¬α‘α αΌααα±αα¬αααΈαααΈαα«ααα
αααα ααα αα ααΏααΈ αααα α‘αα±αα¬αααααααααα‘α¬αα¬αααα«αα α‘ααΌαα‘α»αααα αα
α»αα αα»αααΈα»αα ααα αααΈα‘α»ααα αα₯αΈαααα ααααα¬αΈα»αα αα α‘α±ααΈαα α»αααα¬αααααΌααα ααααΈ
α±αα¬αααααα‘αα¬α»αα α±αααααα ααααα ααα‘α¬αΈα»αα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±ααΈααΌαα‘α»αααααΎααα»αααΈ
α»αα αΎααααααααααΈ ααααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα‘ααα±α‘α¬αα αα αααααααα ααααα¬αΈα»αα αα
αα α±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααααααα αα α ααΈααα»ααααα α±αααα ααααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ ααα±ααΌαααααα±ααα αααα
α αα±αααααα¬αΈαα α±αα¬ααααΌα¬αΈαα α»αα ααα α‘ααα«α‘α»ααααΌα α»αααα¬αααααΌαααΈα»αα¬αΈα»αα αΏααΈ α‘α±ααΈ
α±ααα»αα αα α‘ααΌαα‘α»αααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ ααααα αααααααα±ααα±αα¬αα α₯αααα¬αΈααΌα αα ααΈαααΈ
ααααα αα ααααααΈ αα¬αααα±αα¬α ααααΈαα₯ααα±αα¬ α‘α±ααΌαα‘αααα¬αΈα α±ααα¬ααα
αααααα¬ α‘α±αα‘αα¬αα α»αα ααα α‘α¬αααααα¬αΈα αΌα¬α α‘ααα«αα α₯αααα¬αΈα α ααααααΌααααα
ααΌααΏααΈαΏααΈ α‘α±αα¬α ααααα¬αΈααΌα αα¬αα‘ααααΈααα±ααΌαααα α‘α±ααΌαα‘αααα¬αΈααα αα₯α±ααΈαα
ααααααα¬ α±αα¬αα¬αΈαααααΈα α‘αα αα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈα‘αα‘ααα»αα»αααΈαα¬αΈααα±ααα¬ααα¬αΈα»αααΈααααααΌα
α±αα±αα¬α±ααΈααΌααΈαα¬αΈα»αααα¬α ααααΎαααα α‘αα€ααα αα¬αΈα±α»αα¬α‘α±α»ααα±αααααα¬αΈα»αα αΎααα
αΎαα α±αΎααΈαα αα±ααα«α αααΈαααα α‘α±ααααα»ααα±αα¬αα αα αα ααΈα ααΌα»αα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα»αα¬αΈαα
ααααααα αααα¬ααα αα±ααα α αααα±ααΈααΈαααΈααααα¬αΈαα αααΈαααΈα α‘α±αα¬αααααΈ
α±αα¬ααααααααα¬αΈα»αα αΎαααα ααα‘α αααααα’αα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬αααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈ
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α α±α α¬α αΎααααΌαααααα α ααα ααΌααΈαα¬αΈααααα¬ααΌα αααΈααααα¬αΈα α‘αα‘αα»αα α±α αααα
ααα ααΈαα α‘α¬αα‘αααΈα‘αααΈαα α‘ααα‘α αααααα‘ααΌα ααααΈαα₯α±ααα¬ααΈααααα»ααα¬ααΌα
αα αααΈα αΌα¬αα¬αΈαΏααΈ ααααΌαααααΏααΈ α»αα ααααΌααα¬ααα»αααΈαααα±αα
αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ α‘α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈαα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈα±αα¬ ααα αα αα¬αΈααΌα ααααα¬αΈα‘ααΌαα±ααΈααααα
αα₯α±ααΈααααΈα αα«ααα ααααα¬αΈαααα¬α±αα«ααΈα ααΈαααα¬αΈα α±α‘α¬αα»ααα±αα¬ α‘αααα ααααα»ααα
α»αααα±αα¬ααααΌα¬αΈααΏααΈα»αα ααα ααααα¬αΈα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈααααα‘ααΌα ααα α α»αααα αα¬αΈαα αααα α»αα
αα αα¬αΈααΌαα‘α±ααααα»ααα±αα¬αα αα‘ααααα¬α±αα¬ α±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααα»αα α»αα ααΌααΈαααα αα₯α±ααΈαα
ααΈα αα«αα‘ααΌαα αΎαα α±αΎααΈααααα±ααα«αααα αααα α»αααα αα¬αΈαα αΏααΈ αααα¬αΈα±αα¬αα αα¬
α‘α±ααΈαα«αααα ααααα¬αΈα±αα«ααΈα ααΈααα‘ααΌα α±α»αα¬ααα¬αΈαα αΌα¬α±αα¬ ααΌααΏααΈαΏααΈααααα¬αΈα α±αα¬
αααα±αα¬α±ααα¬α αα«ααααΎαααα αα±αααα¬αααΌα αα₯α±ααΈααααΈα αα«ααα ααααα»αααα»ααα
α₯αΈα±αα¬αα₯αΈααΌαα»ααααα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ α‘α»αααΈααΌα¬αΈααΌααα¬α‘α»αα ααΈα»αα α±ααΏααΈ α±αα¬αα αα ααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈααααααΈ
α α‘α±αα¬ααααα‘αα¬αΈα ααΌα α‘αα¬αΈα α ααα¬αααα¬αΈα±αα¬ α±ααααααα¬αΈαα ααααααα±ααΌα ααααα
αααα-αα ααα ααΌα αα₯α±ααΈααααΈα αα«ααα βα‘ααΈα ααααΈβ αααα αα¬αααααααΈαα
α‘αααα¬αα¬ααα α±α»αα¬ααΏααΈ α»αααα αααΌα ααααα αα¬α±αα¬ααααΈ βα±αααΈβ ααΌα¬αΈααΏαααααα¬
αΏααααααααΈαα α±ααΈαα αααααΌααΈααααΈ α‘αα¬αΈαααααααΈα±ααΈαααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ αααα
ααΌααα₯α±ααΈααααΈα αα«αααα«αα‘ααααΈαααΈα‘αα‘αα¬αΈα α±αα¬ α‘αααααααααα¬αΈααΌααα₯α±ααΈααααΈα
αα«ααα α‘α±αα¬α‘ααααα»αααααααα±ααΌαααΏααΈ αααα¬ααααααα ααααααΈααΌααα¬α±αα¬αα»αα
ααΌα¬αΈαααα‘α±α»αα‘α±αααΈααααααααα αα¬ααα±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈα‘α±α»ααααααααα¬αΈα α±αα«ααΈα ααΈαααα α‘ααααΈ
αααΈααααΈα‘αα¬αΈα αααααΈααα»ααααααααα±αΎαα¬α αα»αααΈααα±αα¬α‘α»αααΈααΌα¬αΈααΌααα¬αα¬αΈ ααα
ααααααΈα αα¬αΈα‘ααΌαααΈα ααΌα»αα¬αΈαααα±αα¬α±αα¬αααααα‘αα¬α‘ααΌααα¬αΈαααα±αα¬ααα
αα₯α±ααΈααααΈα αα«αα αααα»ααααα¬ αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ααααα¬αΈααΌα α»ααααα±ααΈαα¬ααα«αα α±αα¬αααα±αα¬
ααα‘αα¬αα ααα‘α»αα αα±αα±ααΈααα ααα»αα ααααα¬αΈα±αα«ααΈα ααΈααα α‘ααΌαααΌα»αα¬αΈαααα αα‘α»αα
α»αααααα α₯α‘ααααα±ααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα αα₯α±ααΈααααααα±ααΈα αααααΈαααΈααΎααΏααΈ
αααΈαααα αα₯α±ααΈααααΈα αα«αααΌα α±αααα»αα α±αα¬ ααα‘αα¬αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α α»ααααααα±α αααα
αααΈααα«ααα¬αΈα ααααα αΌα»αααΈαα α‘α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈααΌαααααα»αααα»αααααααα¬αΈααααααΈα
α‘αα αα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ α‘ααΈα‘α α¬αΈααΈαααΌα»αα¬αΈα»αααΈα»αα ααα αα αα αααΈαα α‘α¬αα‘αααΈα‘αααΈαα αααα
ααα±α»αα¬ααΈ ααααΌαααα±αα¬αααΈ α‘α α‘α α₯ααα»αα ααα‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»ααααΏααΈ α±ααΌαΈα±ααααααααΈααΌα±ααΈ
ααααΌααααα α‘αα ααΈααα¬αααα±αα¬αααα±α»αα‘ααΌααΈ α‘αααα‘αααα±αα¬ ααααΈαα ααα¬ααα
α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈα‘α±α»ααααααΈα αα¬αΈα α‘ααΌαα±ααΈααΌα¬αααα¬αα‘αα»ααα±αα¬αααααααααΈαα¬αΈααα
αααααα ααΌα α‘α±α»ααα±ααααα¬αααα±αα¬αα¬αΈαααα₯αΈαααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈαααααααα¬αΈαα±αα¬ α‘ααΈ
αα¬αΈαααααα α‘αα α±αα¬ α‘α αα‘αααΈαα¬αΈα‘α»αα α±αααααααα‘ααΈαα¬αΈααααΈα αα¬αΈα»αα αΎαααα
α»αααα¬ααααααααα αα ααΌα α‘α±α»ααα±ααααααααα±αα¬αα α αααααα‘ααΌα α‘ααα«
α‘ααΈα‘α α¬αΈααΈαααΌα αααα±α»αα¬αα‘ααΈα‘α α¬αΈα ααααα‘ααΈα»ααα α»αα αααααααα±αα
αααααααα‘α¬αΈα»αα αααΈα ααα α‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈα‘α α‘α»αα¬αΈα‘ααΈα‘α α¬αΈαα ααα
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ααααΌααΈα α₯αΈα α¬αΈααααΌααα±αα¬ αα±αα¬αααααααα
αα₯α±ααΈααααΈα αα«α ααα«αα‘ααααΈαααΈαα α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈα‘α±α»ααα±αα¬ ααααΈα αα¬αΈααααα ααα
ααα«ααα ααΈα»αα ααΌα»αα¬αΈααααααα αααΈαααα¬ αααα±ααΈααΌα»αα¬αΈααααα»αααΈα α±αα¬ααΈαααααΈα α¬αα¬αΈα
α»ααααα»αααα α»αααΈα αααα¬α‘αααααα α‘ααα‘α α¬αΈααααααα αα α‘α»αα¬αΈ αααΈααΌαααΌααα¬αΈα
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α±αα¬ααααα αααα±ααΈα‘αααΌα»αα¬αΈααααα»αααΈα αααααα¬α»αααα¬ααααα‘α±αα α‘α¬αα ααα ααα«ααα α»αα ααα
α‘ααα«α‘ααα‘αααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈααΈα α‘ααα¬ααααΌαα‘αααααααΏααΈααα»ααα α±αα¬ α αα¬αΈα‘α±α»α
α‘ααα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈαααα α±ααα¬ααΈαααααα¬αΈα»αααααααα α»αααα¬αααα α‘ααα«α‘αααΈα‘αααΈ α»αα
αααΈα α α»αααΈα»αα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬ααααααααα¬ αααΈαααΈα±αααα αααΈα»αααα αα±ααα‘ααα‘α α‘α±α»αα
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α±αα¬α±αα¬ααα αααΈαααΈααα‘αααΈαααα¬α»ααααααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ αααα±αα¬α±αα¬α±αα¬αα±αα±αα¬
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α‘αΏαα ααα±αα¬ααα α‘ααΌαα‘αααΈαα ααα αααΈααΌαα±ααΈαα¬αΈααα
α»αααα¬ααααα¬αΈα»αα ααα‘ααα‘αααΈα α±α»ααααΈαα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα α α₯αΈα α₯αΈα»αααΈαα α‘ααα‘α
α‘α»αα αα±ααα»αα ααα αααΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌα αααΈααααααα¬αα¬αΈαα»αααΈαα α‘α»αα αα±αα±α»ααααΈααα
α‘ααα»αα ααα αααΈαα±α»ααααΈαα αααα±αα α‘α α‘α¬αΈα αα¬αΈαα¬αα αα¬αα¬α±ααΈαα α α ααα±αα«ααΈ
α±αα¬ααα¬αΈα‘αα«α‘αα α‘α±ααΌαΈα‘α±αα¬αα αααα±ααΈ α‘αα‘α¬αΈα αα¬αΈα α»αααα¬α±αα¬ ααα±αα¬ααααα
αααααα‘αα±αααααα αααΈααα‘αΏααααΌα ααααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈααΈα‘ααΌα ααααα¬αΈαααα¬αα αααα±ααΈ
αααα¬ αααααα¬αΈαααα αααΌαα±ααΌ αα‘αααα αααΈαα ααα ααΏααΈ αα₯α±ααΈαααααΈααΈααΈααααΌαααΈ
α ααΌα»αα¬αΈααα αααα±ααΈααααα‘α»αα α‘αα ααααααα ααααα±αα¬ αααΈα‘αααα«αααΌααα
α»ααα¬αααα αα¬ααα αα¬αα±ααα»αα αΏααΈ ααα¬α±ααΈα αααα¬αα αα₯α±ααΈαααααα±αα¬ α±αα¬ααααα
αααααα¬αΈααΌα α‘α»ααα±αα¬α±αα¬ααα ααα«α α‘α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘ααα¬αΈ αα‘αααααα»αα ααα αααα
ααα₯αΈα±αα¬α±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα αααα±αα¬ ααα»α¬ααΈαα αα¬ α‘αααΈα‘αααΈ α‘ααΈααΈααΌαααα±αα¬αααΏααΈ
α»αα αα¬ α»αααα¬ααα«ααααααα¬αΈα α±ααα¬ααΈαααααααΈ ααααααα αααΈααααΎααααα»αααΈα»αα
ααΈαααΈα αα¬α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈαα»ααα αααα αα¬ααα α‘αα¬α‘αα¬αα¬αΈα αΌα¬ αααα
α»αααα¬ααααα¬αΈα»αα ααα‘ααα‘αααΈαα±α»ααααΈαα¬ααΌα αααααΈα‘αα¬αΈα α α»ααααΌααΈα‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈα»αα
α»ααααααα‘αααα αααΈα±ααΈα α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈαα ααααΈα ααΌα»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘ααΈαα¬αΈαα±ααα‘α±αα
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α±αα«ααΈ α±αα¬αααα»αα±ααΎααα αααααΌααΈα αααααΈα‘αααα α±α‘α¬αα±α»αααα‘αααα ααΈα ααΈαα
αα«αααΎαα ααα»αα ααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ αα αααααΈαα¬αα αααααα¬α‘αααΈα‘αααΈαα ααΈα ααΌα»αα¬αΈ
ααα‘ααΌα αααα±αα¬αααΌαα±αα±αα¬ α‘α¬αΈαα«αΈααα±αα¬αααααα»ααα»αααΈα»αααααΈα±αα¬ααΈαααα¬α±ααΈ
α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα αααα¬αααααΈα±ααΈα»αααΈα αα₯α±ααΈαααααα¬α»αααααααΈαα α»αααΈαα ααα»α¬ααΈαααα¬
αα±ααΌααααα»αααΈαα α αααααα¬αΈααΌα ααα«ααααα¬α±αα¬αααΌααααα¬αΈα ααα¬α±ααΌα±αα¬ααααα
αα»αααΈα»αααααΈα±αα¬ααΈα»ααααΌααΈα‘α¬αΈαααααα¬αΈαα‘α±αα¬αα‘αα±ααΈααααα αααααΈα±αα¬αααΌααααα¬αΈ
α αααΈα±ααΈαα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ ααα±α‘α¬ααα α α±αα¬ααααα αα¬αΈα αα₯α±ααΈααα»αααΈααΈααΈααααΌα
ααΈα ααΌα»αα¬αΈααα‘α±ααααα±αα¬α αα¬αΈαα ααααααα ααααα¬αΈα»αα ααα α‘αα¬αΈαααα αα¬αΈα
α‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αα¬α»αααΈαα»ααα ααα»αααα±αα¬α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈααα α±α‘α¬αα»ααα αΌα¬α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα
α±αα¬αΏααΈ ααΈααααα»αα ααΌααΈααα α±ααΌαα»αα αααα ααα₯αΈααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα
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α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈαα α ααΈααΈαααΌαα±ααΈαα±αα¬αα«α±αα
Burmese Politics and the Pathology of Unity
Matthew J. Walton George Washington University/St Antonyβs College, Oxford University
α»αααα¬αααα ααααααα±ααΈ α‘ααΌααΈααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈααααΌα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈαα α‘ααΌαααα»ααααΌαα»αααΈ α±αΎαα¬α α»ααααΌααΈα±αα¬ α»αααααΌαα±ααααΎααα α»ααααα¬αΈα α±αΎαα¬αααΌαα αΈαααααα¬αΈ α αααα α±αα¬α»ααααα ααΌααα ααα α±αα¬ααα±αααα αααΈα±αΎαα¬αααααααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α α‘ααΈααΈα±αα¬ αααΎαα₯ α α‘αα αα¬αΈα (α‘αααααααα‘αααααααΈαααααααα) α‘αα‘ααα»αα»αααΈα‘ααΌα α±αα¬ααΈ ααααα¬αΈα±ααα±αα«ααα¬α±ααααα α±αααα‘αααΈαααα α»αααα¬αααααΌα α‘ααα« αααΈαααΈ αα¬αΈααααΈα αα¬αΈαα ααα αα α±αα«ααΈαα¬α αΌα¬ ααα¬ααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈααΌα ααααα α‘ααΈααααα±αα¬ α‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈα αααα±ααΈα‘αα‘ααα»αααα αα¬α±ααΌα±αααΎαααα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ (α‘αα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈα»ααααα¬) αααα±ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈ (αααααα»αα¬αΈα±ααα¬α±α α¬ααΎααααα¬αΈ) αααα¬αα α±αααααα»αααααα¬ αααΌααααΌαα‘ααΌααα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈαα¬αα‘ααΌααΈ αααΈααα±αα¬ αα ααΈαα αα¬ αααα¬αΈα αααα α±αα¬αα±αα¬αααα±αα¬α»ααα»αααΈαα α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαααΈαααα¬ααα αααΌα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈα ααΈααΈαααΌα α±ααΈαααα»αα¬αΈα±α α»αααΈα»αα α»αα α α₯αα αααΈα ααα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±α ααααα α αΎαααα ααα±αΎαα¬α αααΈα»αααα αααα±ααΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘α αααΏαααααααααα¬αα α‘αααα α α±αα¬αααααααΈ αα αα¬αααα¬αΈα α±ααααααΈαα¬αΈααααα ααααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα±αα¬ααααα βααΈα ααΌα»αα¬αΈααααααα α ααΈααΈαααΌαααβαααααα½αΌαα±αα¬α‘α±αα»αααα α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈαα αα¬ βαααα αΈααΈ α»αααΈα»αα α ααΈααΈ αααΌαα»αααΈβ ααααα±ααΏααΈ α ααΈααΈαααΌαααα αααααα±αα¬αα»αααΈαααααΈ α»ααααΌααΈαααααΈ α α‘αα αα¬αΈα αααααα ααααΏααΈ α α ααα±αα¬α ααΈααΈαααΌαααααααΈααΌα¬α±α αααααΈααα αα«ααα α ααΈααΈαααΌαααααααα¬ α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ αααα±ααα α α α‘αααα±ααΈαα¬α ααααααα±ααα‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈαα¬αα‘α α α₯αααα»ααααα±αα¬ αα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαα αα»αα αααα α‘ααα±αα¬α ααΈααΈαααΌαααα±αα¬ααΈαα»αααΈαα¬αΈαα¬ααα¬ααα¬ ααααα α ααααΈαααα¬α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈααα¬αΈ αα¬αΈα‘ααΌαα»αα αα±αα¬αααΈααα α¬αααΈααΌαα αα½αΌαα±αα¬ααααααα±αα¬ ααααααα‘α±αα‘αα αα αααα αααααα‘αα¬α ααααΈαααΈαα αα α ααΈααΈαααΌαααααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα ααα¬αααΆ αα¬αα¬ α‘αα‘αααααΈαααΈααα¬ααα»αααα«ααα α‘ααα«α ααΈααΈαααΌαααα‘αα‘ααα ααααααΈ α‘α¬αΈα»αα α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈ α‘αααΈα‘αααΈα‘ααΌααΈαα ααΈα α±αα¬ α‘ααα¬αΈαα ααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα α±αα«ααΈα ααΈαα«ααα±α αα α±αα¬αααΌααα¬ααΌα αααα±αα αααα±αα¬ αααΈαααΈαα αα»αα αΏααΈα‘ααΈαα¬αΈα»ααααααα»ααα±ααΈα‘ααΌα ααααααααΈαα ααααΈ α»αα ααα ααα‘α»αααααΈαααΈαααΈαααααα α α‘α αΈαααα¬ααααα αΌααααΈααααααΈαααΈαα αααα¬ααα αα‘ααα‘ααααα±ααΈαα«ααααα¬αΈ ααααα¬αΈααααα αααΈα ααααα αα αααα±αα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαα‘α¬αΈαα α±αα¬αααΌααααααααα»ααααΌαα ααΈααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα±αα¬α‘ααΌααα¬αΈαααα ααα±αα¬αα±αα¬αααααΈ ααα αααΈαααΈ α»αα ααα αααααααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαα αα‘α»αα α ααΈααΈαααΌαα»αααΈααααα¬ αααααΌααααα αα‘ααΌα
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α‘α±αα»ααα‘ααΈα»αα ααΌααΈαα αααΌαα±αα¬αααΈαααΈαα αααΌα α‘αα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈα»αα α‘ααΈα‘α»ααα±ααΈαααα ααααααα α»αα α α₯αα ααααΌα αααΈαα«ααα»αααΈαααΎαα±αα α‘α αΈαααααΈα α¬αα α±α α¬αα»αα α±αα¬ α»αααα¬α‘αααΈααααΈα α¬ααΌααααα ααα ααα«ααα α‘αααα¬ α‘α¬α±αα¬ αα αααΌα αααα±αα αααααα αΌα¬αααααΈα»αααΈαα‘ααα¬ααα¬αΈα α α¬ααααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈααα±ααΈ αα¬αΈααα αα«ααα αααα±αα α±αααα±α‘α¬αα»ααα»αααΈαα¬ αααα±αα α±αΎαα¬ααααα αααα±αα α α±αα¬α±αα¬αα α±αΎαα¬ααα¬α»αα αΏααΈ α‘α¬αα¬α α‘ααα«αα»ααααααΈααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈα»αα αα¬ αα«αα αΌα α‘αα αΌαα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬αα»αα ααα α±ααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈ ααα α±αα¬αααα‘αααα¬α‘α¬α±αα¬αα αααΌααααΈ α α αααααα¬αααΈα‘αα αΌαα±αα¬ααα¬αΈααα αΌααΈααΏααΈαααΈα»ααα‘ααΈααααΈαααααα±αα¬α‘αααα¬ α α±ααΈαα¬αΈαααα α ααΈαααΈαα αΌα¬αα«ααα±ααΈα α‘α±ααΈαααΈ αααα±αα¬αα¬αΈαααα¬αααΈ ααααα¬αΈα‘αα¬αΈα αα αααααααΈαααααααα ααααα αΌα¬αα«αααααα ααααααα¬αΈ ααα±ααΈα»αααΈααα»αα α±ααΎααα ααα»αααααα α ααα‘α»ααα‘ααααΈαα ααααααα¬αΈαα»αα αα»αααΈα‘α¬αΈα‘α±αα¬ααΈααΈααααΌα ααα α±αα¬α‘α¬αΈααααααα αααα±ααΈα‘ααα‘ααα¬αΈα»αα αα¬ααΎα ααα αααα βαααα±αα α αα α±α‘α¬ααα¬ααα¬ααα»αααα¬αΈαα±ααΌαα¬α ααΈαααΈααα±ααααΏααΈα‘ααα‘αα¬αΈα ααΌα»αα¬αΈ αα»ααααααβαα‘αΏαααΈα α¬αΈααααααΈαααΈαααΈα±ααααααα ααΌαα±α»αα¬αΎαα¬αΈαααααααΌααΈαα αα ααααΌααΈ α±α»αα¬ αΎαα¬αΈαααα αα«αααα±ααααα αααΈα»ααααΏαααααα»αα ααα‘α±α»αα‘α±αα α»ααα±αα¬αααΌα¬αΈαα α»αα α±αΎαα¬ααΈααααΈ ααααα±ααΈααΏααΈ α α±αα«ααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬ααΌα α±αα¬αααΈαααΈα₯αΈααΈαααα±α»αα¬α±α ααα α‘αα ααα¬αΈα±ααΈαα«αΈα‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈααααΈ ααααΌααΈα±α»αα¬αΎαα¬αΈαααα αα‘ααααα¬αΈα±ααΈ αα«αΈααααα±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎαααα α ααα‘α¬αΈα±ααααα¬ααΌαααΈα±ααααα βα α ααααααα±αα ααα¬ ααααα¬αΈαααΈαααα»ααααα αΌααΈααΏααΈ α‘ααααα¬αΈα±ααΈαα«αΈαααΈαααα α¬αΈααα α±ααΌαΈαααα‘ αααα¬ααΌααΈαα¬αΈααααβαα α αααα±αα¬α±αα¬αααα ααΈαααΈα»αααα±αα¬αααα±αα ααααα¬ αα αααααα αααα±ααΈα‘α αααΈα±αα¬ααΈα±ααΈαα αα αα ααα»αα αΏααΈ αααααααα¬ ααααΈααα αα αααααΈα‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααα₯αΈ α±ααΈαααα αα ααααΈα±αα¬α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈα‘α»αα αα±αα¬αα¬αΈαΏααΈ (α»ααα±αα¬αα ααΏαααΌα±ααΈα ααααΈα αΈ ααΌα¬αΈααα±ααΈ) ααααα α ααΎααα±αΎαα¬ααΈααααΈααα¬ αααα ααα¬αΈααα»αα ααα‘α»αα α α α±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαα»ααα±αα»αααΈα»αα ααα α‘ααα«ααααα«ααα α‘ααααααα±ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈαα α α ααα‘α±ααααΌααα¬ α‘αααα‘αα α»αααα±ααααααΈαααα±αα ααααΈααα±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααααΈααααα αα‘αα₯αΈα±αα¬αα ααΌααα¬αΏααΈα ααΌα α±ααΌααα±ααΈα»αααΈαααα αα±α»ααΎαα¬αΈαα¬ααΌα βα ααΈαααΈααααα αααΌααα α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαααΈαα« ααα αα½αΌαα±αα¬αααα¬ αααα±αα ααααααα±αΎαα¬ααΈ α»ααααα«ααβ αα±α»ααΎαα¬αΈαααα αααΌαααα±αα αααΈαα±αα¬ αα¬αΈαα ααααααα‘αααααααΌα ααα±αα¬αα±αα¬ααα«ααα»ααΈααααααα αΌααΈα‘α¬αΈ (ααααα‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαα±αα¬ααΌααΏααΈ α α₯αΈα α¬αΈααα αΌααΈ) ααα(α‘α»α) ααααα¬αΈαααΈαα αΌααΈα±αα¬αααα α±ααΈααΌααΈαααα αααα±αα αααα±αα¬αα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈα±α ααα αα«αα αα α α α±αα«ααΈαααα±ααΈααα±αα¬αααα‘ααΌα α‘α»ααα±ααα±αα¬ ααααααα αααααΈ αα±ααααα αααα±ααΈ αα«ααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα»αα¬αΈα±αα»αααΈαα ααα α αααΈαααα α‘α¬αα¬α αααα αα α»αααΈααΌααα»αα αααα¬αΈα ααααΌαααα ααα±ααα αα‘α»αα ααα»αααΏααΈ α‘α αΈαααααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα ααααααααααΌααΈα»αααΈ α‘α»αα αααΈ ααα»ααααα α α α‘α αΈαα‘ααααα αα¬ααα α±αα¬αααΈαααα±ααΈαα«ααα¬αΈα α‘αα ααΌααα«αα ααα±αα‘α»αα αααα ααα»ααααΎααΏααΈ α‘ααΈαα»αα α‘α¬αα¬ααΌαα±ααΈααα αααα α»ααα±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌ α±αα¬ααααΈααΌαα»αα ααα αααα ααΌα α»αααα¬α‘αααΈααααΈα α¬ α±αα¬ααΈαα«αΈαα αα α±ααΈαα¬αΈααααα¬ βα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈα ααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈααΌααα ααΌααα ααΌαααα αΌα¬ααα±αα¬α±α»αα¬αααΌαα‘αααα αααα±ααΈ
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α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαα¬αααΌα α±ααα¬α±αα¬αα±ααααα¬αΈ
The Displaced in Reform
Khin Khin Lwin
UNESCO Yangon [email protected]
ααα‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αα‘ααΌααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαα«αα±ααΌα α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα α₯αΈα±αα¬αα±ααΎαααα αα«α±ααααααΈ ααα αα±αααα¬αΈαα ααααα‘/ααααα‘α‘ααΌααααα¬αΈα α‘α±α»αα‘α±α αα±αα¬ ααααΏαααααα αααΏααα α»αααα¬αΈα±αααα«αα ααα¬αΈαααααααΌαααα ααα¬ααααα¬αα±ααΌ αααααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααααααα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα ααααΈα±ααΌα‘ααΌα α‘α»αααΈα‘αααα₯αΏααα±αααα±ααΌαα¬ αα ααα‘α±ααΌα ααΈααΈα±ααΈαΏααΈ ααααΌα¬αα¬αΈαα αααΈα»αααα α‘ααΌαα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈα‘αα¬αΈαα¬α αΏαααΈα±α»αα¬αααα αα«ααα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααΌα±ααΌαα¬ α α ααα‘αα¬αα±ααΌα αααα«αααα¬αΎαα±ααα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬ α±αααααΈα±αα¬αααααα α α αααααα¬ααααα¬αΈαααααΈαα»αααΈαααα αα ααΌααααα αα α₯αα ααα‘α»αα αα±αααα«αα αααα±ααΈαααα¬ α‘α±ααΌαΈα‘α±αα¬αα α±ααΌαΎαα¬αΈ ααα±αα¬ α‘α¬αα¬ααΌα±αααα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα»αα α α₯αα¬αΈαα ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±ααααα¬ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαααα¬αααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈα»αα α α₯α±αααααα α±αα¬ααΈααααα αααα»αα αα α₯α‘α»αα αα±αααα«α ααΈααα±αααα α‘α»αααααΈααα¬αααα±αα¬αααΌααα¬α±αα¬ ααα¬αΈααααααα»αααΈα ααααααΈα αΌα¬αα±ααα«ααα ααα¬ αααα¬αΈα ααΌαααααα‘αα α±ααΌαααα±ααα αααΈαα¬α±ααΈα ααα¬α±ααΈαα α‘α»αα¬αΈ α‘α±α»ααααα±αα¬αααα±ααΌ αα±αα¬ ααΈααΈααΌα¬αΈααΌα¬αΈαααααααα¬αΈααα»αα αΏααΈ α‘ααΈαα»αα α‘αααα₯ααααΈαα α‘αααααΌα ααΈαα±ααΌα‘ααΌα αααΎααααα±ααΌα α‘αΎαααΈααααα±ααΌαα ααΈααΌα¬αΈα αΌα¬α»ααααα¬αΈαα±ααα«ααα α»ααααα α‘α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘αα±ααΌαα α αααααα¬αΈα αα¬ α‘ααΌαα‘αααΈα±ααΌα±ααααΌααΈα±αα±ααα ααααα αααΈα»αα α±α»αα¬ααααΈα±ααΌα ααααα‘α±ααΌαα α‘ααΈααααα α¬αΈαα ααααΌα¬α±ααΌααα¬α±αα¬ αααααα¬ α»αα α±α αα«ααα α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈαα¬ αα¬ααα»αααα±ααΌ αα¬α±ααΌα»αα α±αααα α±ααΌαα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα α±αααα αα¬α αααααΈααΌαα‘αα¬αΈ ααααα α¬αΈαααα αααα±ααΌ ααααα±ααα αααααααΌα±ααΌα αα¬αα αα±ααΈαααα±ααΌ α±αΎαα¬αααΌααααααα±α‘α¬α αααα±ααΌ αααα¬αα αααα±ααΌαα α±αα«ααΈα αα¬α±αα¬αα±αα¬αα±αα α±ααΈααΌααΈααα¬αα αα‘ααΌαα‘αααΈα α‘ααΈααΏααΈ αααααα‘αα α±αα¬αααα¬ αα½αΌααααα αααααα α¬αΈα±α»αα¬α»αααΌα¬αΈαα«αα±α α
αααααΌαα±α»αα¬αα±ααΈα‘ααΌα(KIO) ααααα α‘α αΈαααααΈαααα±ααα±ααΌαα¬ α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈααα ααααα ααΈαα«αΈααΏααΈ α‘α αΈααααΈαααα¬αΈαα±ααα±ααΌαα¬ ααααα ααΈαα«αΈααα«ααα αααααααααααα αα«αααα α α ααα±αΎαα¬αα»αα αα¬α α‘αΎαααΈααααα±ααΌα α±αΎαα¬αααΌαααααααα ααΌα¬αα¬αΈα±ααΌαα¬ααα α‘αα±ααΌαα±αααΌαα±α»ααΈααΎαααα α‘α αααΈαααΈαα±αα¬ α‘α±α»αα‘α±αα α±α α¬ααΎααααα αααα‘αα±ααΌαΈ ααα α¬α¦αα±ααΌα α‘α α¬α±αα½αΌαΈαααα αααα ααααΈα±ααΌα α±α α¬αα±αα¬ααα αα±ααΌα αααααΌα¬αα¬αΈα±ααΈ αα«αα αα α±αα¬ααα¬α±αα±αααΎαααα ααααΌα±ααΌααα»αα ααα‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈαααΈα»αα αα¬α±αα¬ αα±ααΌαα¬ ααα¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈααα±ααΌα αααΈαααΈα±ααΌαα α»ααααΌααΈα±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα±ααΌα‘ααΌα αααααα¬αΈα ααα‘ ααα αααΈα±ααΌα α α±α»αα¬ααΈααΎαααα ααααααα±αα«ααΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬ α‘ααααααΌαα±α»αα¬ααα ααα α₯αΈαααΈ αα«αααα α‘αα αα αα½αΌααα±ααΌαααΏααΈ ααααα α±αΎαα¬αααΌαα αΈααααα αα±αααα¬αα α¬αΈαααα αα¬αα ααα α αααα‘αα αααΈααααα±ααΌα αα¬αΈα±αα¬ααααα α‘ααααα’αα±ααΌαα α₯αΈαααΈα αα±αα¬ βα±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈα
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αα αα±ααΌβ αα«αααα βα α αααα¬αΈα±αα¬αβ αα α‘αααααααααα ααααααα«αΈααΈααα±ααΌαα±αα¬ α‘ααα‘αα¬αΈαα«αα βααα±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα±ααΌαααΈαααααΈα α α αααα¬αΈα±αα¬α α±ααΌαααΈ ααααα«ααΈα αα« ααα±α»αα αααα ααΈααΌα¬αΈααα±α»αα αααα±α»ααα¬ ααα±ααΌααΈααα±αα«ααΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬ α±αααααΎαααα ααα ααααα α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα±ααΌα»αα ααα¬αα ααα αΏααααα±ααΌα αααΈαααΈααααΈαα¬α ααα¬ αααΈ αααα±ααα ααααα±α»αα ααααααα ααα‘ααα±ααΌαΈαα αααααα±α»ααα¬ ααα‘αααααΎαααα ααα±ααΌ ααααα‘α¬αα ααααα±ααααΎαααα ααα±ααΌα αα‘α±α»αα‘α±αα±αα¬αα±α‘α¬α α‘αααΌααααΎααα¬βα αααα α¬αΈααααΈα±ααΌαα¬ ααα‘ααα αααΈα±ααΌαα¬α±αααααα±ααΌα‘α¬αΈααΈαα¬ααΎαααα
α‘ααα αα α₯ααα α‘αα¬αα αα¬αααΈαα«αΈα ααΈαα¬ ααααα’αα±ααΌααα±α»αα¬α ααΈαααΈααα ααααααα αααααα±ααΌα α±ααα«ααα α‘αααααΈα αααα±ααΌαα¬ ααααααα α‘ααα‘αααα αααΈααΈα»αααααα±ααΌ ααΈαααΈααα¬αα ααααααΎααααα αα α₯αααα¬αα‘αααα±ααΌαααα±αα¬ααααα¬α»αα ααα±ααΌααα‘ααΌαα‘αααΈα±ααΌ αααααα αα ααααα±ααααα α‘αα¬αααα¬α±αα¬ αααα±ααΌαα¬ ααΏαααααααααα α₯α±ααΌα α±α»ααα¬ααΈαααΈααα±ααΌ αα ααα±ααΌααα±ααΌααΈαα¬αΈαααΈα±ααΌ α»ααααααα±αα¬αααα±ααΌαα αααααΎαααα¬αα«α α±αααα¬αα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬ α±αα¬ α‘α αΈααα α‘α αΈαααααααααααα‘αα αα α αα«αααα α‘α¬αΈααΈαα αα‘α¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α αα«αααα αααα±αα¬αααα α±ααΈααΌα¬α±ααΌα α αΌααααΌα¬αΈαααα αα ααα±ααα±ααΌαα¬ ααααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα±ααΌ αα αααΈα ααΌαααα±ααΌαα¬ α‘αααΌα±αα¬ααΈααααα±αα ααααα±ααΌα ααα±αααΌαα±ααΈαΏααΈ α‘αααΈαααΈα±ααΌαα ααααΌα¬α±ααΌαΎαα¬αΈ αααααααΌα»αα¬αΈααα±ααΌ ααααΈαΎαααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±ααα±ααΌαα¬α±αα¬ α±αααα±ααΌαα¬ α‘α ααααααα‘αα αα α αα«αααα αα α ααααα‘αα α±ααΌαα α‘ααΌαα±αα¬αα»αααΈαα α‘ααααα»αααΈαα αΏααΈ ααααα αααΈα»αα α±ααΌα ααααα αααααΈαααα¬αα α ααααΈαααα¬αα¬αα¬ααα±ααΌ ααα αΈααααα α‘α ααααΌα¬α±ααΌα‘ααΌαα±αα¬ αααα¬ ααααα¬αΈααΈα‘αα¬α±ααΌαα¬α±αα¬α ααα±αα¬α ααα¬ααααα«ααΈα ααα¬αΈα α±ααΌ αα ααΌαα α»αα¬αΈα»αα αΏααΈ αα α±αα¬αα α‘α αΈαα α ααα‘ααΌα ααααΌαααααα¬ α±αα¬ααα α±αα¬αα α‘α αΈααααα ααααααα‘αα αα«αααα α»ααααα α α‘ααΌα ααα±ααααα α±ααΌ ααΈαα¬αΈαααΈα‘α±ααΈαα¬ ααΈα»αααααααΌαα‘α¬αα¬α±αΎαα¬α ααΈααΌα¬αΈα α‘ααΈααα±ααΌα»αα ααααα ααα¬αΈ α αααΈαα¬ αα¬αΈαα α±αα¬αα αα α±αα¬αα ααΈα±αα¬αα α±αααααΈααααΏααΈ αα αα«αα α±ααα¬ αα¬αΈα±ααΌ α‘α¬αΈααΈα α±αααααΈααααααα αααΈα±ααΌαα±αα¬ αααΈαα¬α±ααΈα ααα¬α±ααΈ αα«αααα αααα±ααΈααα±αα¬α ααα±ααΌα‘ααΌα α±ααΈααααΏααΈ α‘ααα‘ααΌαα±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬ααΈ ααααα ααααΈααΈααα±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬ααΈααα α±αα¬ ααααα±ααΈα±ααΌα ααααα‘ααα±ααΈαα¬αα ααααα α±αα¬αααααααΈαααΈα±αα¬ααα«ααα
ααα‘ααα αααΈαα¬αΈα α±αα‘αα±ααΌα α‘α±α»ααα‘α¬αΈα»αα αα«αΈααα±ααΌαα‘ααΈα»ααΏααΈ ααΌααα ααΈαααα¬αΈααΈ αα¬αα¬αΈαα¬ α‘αΎαααΈα‘α¬αΈα»αα ααα±αx αα α±α α‘αααΈα±ααΌα αα«αΈααα±ααΌαα αα¬ααα¬αΈαα¬αα«α αα αα α αααΈα±ααΌαα¬ααα ααΌαα‘α α¬αΈ αα¬αααα‘α»αα¬αΈα±ααΌα α‘ααΈα»ααα¬αΈαα«ααα α‘ααΈαααΈαα±ααΌαα α±α»ααα¬ αα½αΌαα ααΈαααΈαα«αΈα±αα¬αα±αααααα«ααα αΏααΈαααα α±ααΌαα¬ α αααΈα±ααΌαα ααααα‘α»αα ααΌα¬αΈαα¬α±ααα±ααΌ α ααααΌα¬α±ααΌαα¬ αα ααααααΈαα α₯ααΈα±ααΌα α‘αΈα‘αααα±α»ααα¬α α‘ααα±ααΌαΈαααΈ α±αΎαα¬ααΈααα α±αα¬αα ααΈααα ααα α¬α¦αα±ααΌα ααα¬α±ααΈα‘ααΌαα‘αααΈα±ααΌα αααΈαα¬α±ααΈααα±αα¬αααα±ααΌα ααααα‘α¬α α ααΈαααΈααα±ααΌααα±αααααα±α‘α¬α αα α»αααΈα»αααΈαααααα«ααα α αααΈα±ααΌαα¬ α±ααα¬ααααα¬α ααα¬αΈ α α±ααΌαΎαα¬αΈα ααΈααΈαααΌαααααααα¬α αααα±ααΈα±ααΌαα α‘ααα‘ααΌαααααα¬α α‘α α¬αΈα‘α±αα¬α ααααα¬α α‘ααΌα¬αΈα‘αα¬ααααα¬α α‘ααα‘ααααααα¬α α αααΌαα‘α¬αΈααααα¬α α±αα¬ααααααα αα¬α α‘αα¬αααα¬αα¬α»αα αα¬αααα α±ααα¬ααααααα¬α α αααααα±ααΌααα±αααααα±α‘α¬α α±ααα α₯ αααΈααα±αααα«ααα α αααΈα‘α±αα¬αα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα¬ αααΈααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα ααααα α‘αα¬αΈαα«αΈαα α‘ααΈ α‘ααΌααααΈαα¬αΈαα«ααα αα ααα αααΈα±ααΌαα¬α αααΈα±ααΌαα ααααααΏααΈ α‘α±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬ααΈαααααΈα±αα¬α
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ααΌα¬αΈαααα α±α αΈα±ααΌααααΈ αα«αΈαααα α±α αΈαααΌαα±ααα ααααΈα α α‘α α¬αΈα‘α±αα¬ααααααα« ααα α αααΈα±ααΌα ααα¬αΈα α‘αα¬αΈα αα±αα¬ αα α±αααα¬ αα ααααααααα«ααα αααα α¬α ααα α αα¬α α±αα¬ααα¬ αααΏααΈ αα±αα α¬αα±αα¬ α±ααΈαα¬αααΌα±αα¬ααα¬ αααΎααα«ααα ααα»ααα α¬αΈαΎααα¬ αα±αα¬ α‘ααα‘α¬αΈα»αα α‘ααΈα‘ααΌαα αα α»αα αα α₯α±ααΌα»αα αΏααΈ α±α αΈα±αααα¬αααα±αα¬ αα₯α αΎααα₯ αα«α ααα αα«αΈαααΈαααΈαα«αα«ααα α‘αα¬αΈαααααααααα±αα¬ αα½αΌαααααααααα‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈ αααα« ααΈα αα αα«αα αα«α±αα¬ α‘αα¬αΈα±α»αα¬α αα«αααα αα«αΈαα±αα¬αα ααΈα»αα α±ααΌα αααααΈα±ααΌαα α±αΎαα¬ ααα α¬αΈαα‘αα«αααΈααα«ααα
αααα¬ααΎααΌαααα‘α»αα¬αΈαααΈα»ααα±ααΌαα¬αα α‘αα±ααα ααααα‘α±ααΌαα¬αα¬αααΈ αα αααααΈ αα αααααα αα α₯ααΈα₯α α₯α¬α±ααΌα αααΈαααΈαααααΌα¬αΈαΎααα¬αα«αα α‘αα‘ααα‘αα±αα¬ α α ααΌαα¬ αα ααααα αααΈα»ααα α±α αΈα‘α»ααααΈα±ααΈααααααα±αα¬ααΈαα αααα±ααΌαΎαα¬αΈ ααααΌα±ααΌα»αα αΏααΈ αΏαααΈ αααΈα±ααΈαα α‘ααΈαααα±ααΌα ααΌα±ααΎααα¬αα«α ααααΌα±αΎαα¬α α±αααα±ααΌ ααΌαα±α»ααΈα±ααα α₯αα¬ ααα α‘αΈα‘αα±ααΌαα±αα¬ αα¬α±αα¬ααΏααΈ ααα±αα α¬α»αα α±αα α±α‘α¬ααααα±ααΌα αααΈα α‘ααΈααΈ α±αα¬ ααααααααααΌαα±ααΌα α±αα¬αα±αα¬ααα±αα αααΈααααΌαα±ααΌα αααααα α¬α¦αα±ααΌα ααα»αα α α¬αΈα±αα¬αα αααα ααααΈα±ααΌαα αα α±αα¬α±ααΌα αααα αααααα±α»ααα¬α α‘α¬αα¬ααα±ααΌααα‘αα α‘ααΌααα α±αααα±ααΌ ααααα α»αααα αα±ααΌα αααΈααα¬αααΎααααα αααααα ααααα‘ α‘α±ααΌαα‘ααααΏααΈ α‘α αΈααα α±αα‘αα±α‘αα ααΌαα ααΈα ααα±ααΌααΈα±αα¬ααα¬ααααΈα ααααΈα‘αα¬αΈα α α±αα¬ αΏαααΈαααΈααα¬αα±ααΌαα¬ ααααΌαα±ααα¬ααα α¬αα ααααΌαααααΈα±αααΌα¬αΈαα¬α ααΏααΈ αα ααα‘α¬αααααααΎαααΎαααα ααα¬αΈα α ααααααΈα‘α±αα«ααΈα‘αααΈα α±α‘α¬αα»αααααα -α αα¬α±ααΌα α αααΈαα₯α‘αααααα±αα α₯αα¬ ααααΌααα±ααΌαα±αα¬ ααααα ααΈαα α±ααΈα αΌα»αααΈα αααααΈαααα¬ ααΈααΈααΌα¬αΈααΌα¬αΈα»ααααα»αααΈα αΏαααΈα±α»αα¬αααα»αααΈα α‘αααΌα α αα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααΈααα»αααΈα α»αααααα¬α‘α»αα ααΌα ααΌααΈααα»αααΈαα HIV α α ααααα ααααααααΌα ααααα±ααΎααα«ααα α‘α¬αΈααΈααα¬ α‘αα¬αΈα α±α‘α¬α α‘α±αααααΈα‘αα α»αα α αα±ααΈααα±ααΌαα±αα¬ α αΈααα±ααα αααα±αα αααααααααΈα αα±ααΌααααα α±α‘α¬ααα¬ αααααα¬αα‘αααΈ α‘ααα‘α»ααααα αα α¬αΈα»αααΈα α±ααΈαα»αααΈα αααα»αααΈ α±ααΌαα»αα±ααΎαα±ααα ααα»αα αα¬αα αααα±ααΎααα«ααα
αααααααΌα¬α±ααΌα α±α»ααα¬α±ααΌαα ααα±αα¬ααααα¬ααα αααααα‘αα±ααΌαα±α ααΌααΌα¬α±ααα¬αα¬αα¬ α‘ααΌαααα¬αΎαααα α¬αΈαααα«ααα αααα αΌα¬ααα±ααααα¬αα ααα±ααΌα‘ααΌααα α±α»ααΈα ααα αα¬ α±αα¬ααΈα±α αα¬αα±αα¬ α±ααΈα α¬αααΈα α¬ααααααα¬α α αα»αααΏααΈ αα ααααααααααΈαααααΈααα ααααααα αα α₯ααΈαα α₯ααα ααΏαα±ααΈ αααα±ααα¬ααΈα±ααΌαα¬ α±ααα±αααα¬α αααΈα»αα α±ααΌαααααααΏααΈ α»αα αα¬α αααΈαα¬ααα±ααΌα±αΎαα¬α αΏαααααΌα¬αα±ααΌαα ααΌα»αα¬αΈαααα»αααΈαααααα»αααΈαααα¬α αααααα¬αΈα α±ααΌ α αα±αα¬αααααα¬ αα«αααα ααΈαα¬α‘α α₯α‘αα¬α‘αααΈαα±ααααα¬α α‘α±ααΈαααΈα ααΈαα¬αα ααΌαααΈ αααα±ααΌ αααΈααα¬ααΈα ααααΌα¬αα¬ α±αα¬αααα¬αΈα α‘αααΈααα ααααααα¬α ααααα±ααΈα±ααΌαα ααα¬α±ααΈα‘ααΌαα‘αααΈ α±ααα¬ααα αααα α±αα¬αα‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»αα αα¬α αα¬α±ααΌαααα ααα±ααΌαααα¬α±αΎαα¬α ααα±αα¬αααα±ααΌααααα»αα αα«ααα ααααΈααα±ααΌαα±αα¬ α‘ααΈαααα»αα ααα α ααααα αααΈαααΈααα ααααα αα α‘αααα αααΈααΈα»αααααα±ααΌ αα»ααα ααα αα¬α±ααΌαα¬ αα α¬αΈααα±ααΌα α±αα¬α»ααΎαααα αα«α±ααΌαα¬ ααααααααΈαα¬ α±αα¬ααααααα±αα¬α α»αααα ααα±αα¬α ααΈαααΈαααα αααα«αα
α αααΈα±ααΌαα¬αα ααα¬αΈα α±ααΌαα¬ α‘ααα‘ααΌαα‘αα½αΌα±αα¬ααα¬α ααΈαα α±ααΌαα«αΈα‘ααΌααααααα¬α α‘ααα‘α±ααΌαΈαα»αααααα ααΏαααααα α±ααα¬αααααΈα±ααΌα α‘ααα¬αααα‘α±α»αα‘α±αα±ααΌα α±αα¬αα€α¬αΈα±ααΈ α±ααΌαα αααΈαα±ααΈα±ααΌα ααΈααααααα±ααα¬α α‘αααΌααΈα‘αΎαααΈαααααα ααααα ααααα±αα¬αααα¬
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α±ααΌα α α‘αΎαααΈαααααα ααΈααΈααΌα¬αΈααΌα¬αΈα»ααααα±ααΌα ααΈααΌααα¬ αα«αααα αααααα¬αα¬α±ααΌααα«ααα α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈα±αααααα±ααΌαα¬ ααα‘ααα αααΈα±ααΌαα¬α±αααα α₯ ααα±ααΌαα¬αα α‘ααΌααααα¬α±αΎαα¬α αα±ααααααα α±αα¬αααααΌα‘ααΈααα±αα±ααΌα»αα α ααα±αα¬α α±ααΈαα«αΈααααα ααα¬α±ααΈα ααΏαα ααα»αααΈα αα α¬αΈ αααα αα¬α±ααΌ αααα¬α α¬α‘ααΈααΈααααααααΏααΈ ααα±α»αα±αα¬αα±αααααααααα α ααααΈαααα¬ αααΈαα¬ α±ααΈα±ααΌαα¬ α‘ααααααα‘α¬α±αα¬αα ααα±αα¬αααα±ααΌα»αα α±α ααα«ααα α‘α αααααΌαα ααααΌα¬α±ααΌ α ααααααα α¬αΈα‘ααααα¬αΈα±ααΌαα α‘ααΌαα‘αααΈα±ααΌαα¬αααΈ α±αα«ααΈαα»αααααΏααΈ ααααααΈαααΈ αααΎααα«ααα αααα±ααΌαα¬ ααα¬αΈαααααα»αα¬αΈα»ααα±αα¬ α‘αααααα¬α αααααα αααααΌα¬αα¬αΈ αα«αααα ααα¬αΈα ααα±ααΌα αα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα±ααΌααα α±αα¬ααΈα α¬αΈαα¬ααΈα±ααΌα α‘ααα¬ααα±αα¬ αααΈ αα»αα αα±αα±ααΌαΈαααααα¬α±ααΌα αααααΈαααα«ααα α αααΈα±ααΌαα α‘ααα α‘ααΌαααααΈ α αααΈ α±αα¬αααα¬αΈα αααΈαααΈαΎαααΎαα α ααΈαααΈαααα¬αΈαΏααΈ α αααΈα‘α»αααααΌαα αα¬ααα¬αΈαα α‘α»αααα αααΈααΌα¬αΈαα α αααΈα‘α»ααααΌαααΌααα‘αααα¬αα±ααΌ αααααΈαααα αα αα¬αΈα±ααΌαα¬αΈααα«ααα α‘α ααααα¬αα¬ αα±αα¬ααα»αααΈα α α αα α α αα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααΈα»αααΈαα α»αααααα¬α‘α»αα ααΌααΈααΌααΈα»αααΈα α α‘ααΌαα‘αααΈα±ααΌ α±αα¬αα±α ααααα ααα«ααα
α α ααΌα»ααα»αα αα‘αααα¬ α‘αΎαα¬αααΈααα»αα α±ααα ααααα α₯αΈαα α±αα¬ααα αα±αα¬ααααΎααα«ααΈα ααααα‘αα¬ ααααα ααααα¬αααα¬α±αα¬ ααααα‘α‘αααΏααΈαα¬αα α‘ααα‘αααΈ αααΎαα¬αα¬αα αα¬α»αα αα¬αα¬ααα αα±ααα¬ααα±ααΌα±αΎαα¬α α±αΎαα¬αααΌααααααααα±ααΌ α»αααα¬αα«ααα α±ααΌαα±α»αα¬ααΈα±α
ααααα±ααΌαΎαα¬αΈαα¬ ααααα¬αΈα ααΌαα αΌα¬α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈαΏααΈ ααααααα αα±ααα¬α±αα¬ α‘αα¬ααα±αΎαα¬α ααααα αα±ααα¬α±ααααα αΌααΈαα αααααα‘ααΌα ααααα±ααααα αα±ααΌαα¬αααΈ αααΌααΈαα¬α±ααα« ααα αααα±ααΌ α‘α±α»αα‘α±αα‘α αααααααΌαααα α‘ααΈαααΈα±ααΌαα±αα¬ ααααα α ααα ααΈ α αα¬α±ααΌα α‘α±αα¬α±ααΈααα±αα¬α±α»αα¬αα±αααΎααΏααΈ αα α₯αΈαααΈ αα«αααα α‘αα α±ααΌαα αα±αα¬ααΈ αα¬α±ααΌα α‘αααΈαααΈα±ααΌα ααα±ααΌα±ααΌαα αα α¬αΈααα±ααΌ αα±ααα¬α±ααΌ αααΎααα«ααα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈα±ααΌα α±αα¬ ααααααα«αααααα¬ α‘ααΈαα¬αΈα±ααΈα αα¬ααΌααα αααΌααΏααΈ α α±αα«ααΈααα±αα¬ααααα αα»αα ααααα α α₯αΈα α¬αΈαΎαααα ααααα α‘αα αα¬ααααα¬ αααααα‘α±ααΈαα αα‘ααΌαα»αα αααα ααα±αααΎα ααα αα ααα±αα¬ α‘ααα±αα¬αα»αααΈα ααΈαα α±ααΈααΈα»αααΈα ααΈααΌα¬αΈα αΌα¬α»αααα»αααΈαα α‘αΎαααΈααα»αααΈα±ααΌα α‘ααΈαα»αα α±α αα¬ααΈα±ααΌα αααΎαααα
α±α»αα¬ααΈα±αααα±αααααα±ααΌαα¬ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααΌαα±α αα¬α α±αα¬αααα«ααα
β’ ααΏαα αααα±αα¬α ααααα‘α¬αα±αα¬α α‘ααααα‘αα»αααααα α»ααααα‘α±α»ααα»αααΈ
β’ α»αα α α₯αα±ααα¬α αΌα¬ααΏααΈα±αα¬ ααΈα»ααααααα α»αα α α₯αα¬αΈααΌα αα«ααα»αααΈ
β’ α‘α±α»αααα‘ααααα¬αΈ α»αααααΈα»αααΈ
β’ α±α»ααα¬αα α‘ααα±ααΌαΈαααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈα‘ααΌαα‘αααΈαα¬αΈ ααα»αααΈ
αααα¬αΈα α»ααααααα±αα¬αα»αααΈα αααα±ααΈαα¬αΈα»αααααα±αα¬αα»αααΈαα ααααΌα¬α‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘ αα¬αΈαααααααα ααααα¬αΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα αααα±α»ααΈα»αα αα¬αΈα α‘αα¬ααα ααΈα»ααααααΌα
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α»αααα¬αααα αΌααααΈααΈα»α αααααααα¬α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»ααααΈα α αα αααααα¬αααΈααΈα»α αααααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈα‘α±αα‘ααα¬αΈαα¬α±α»αα¬ααΈαααα
Risk Assessment, International Investment and Responsible Business Practice in Myanmar:
What Has Changed?
John Bray Control Risks, Tokyo
αααα α±αα¬ααΈαααΈααΌα α‘α»ααα»αααααα¬ α‘ααααα α¬αΈααααααα±ααΈ α‘αααα‘ Transparency International (TI) α ααα»αααα±αα¬ Corruption Perception Index (CPI) α‘α α‘αααα α¬ααΌα α‘αα ααα α‘ααα»αααα¬αααα αα αααα¬α±ααΈαα¬αΈαααα6 CPI ααΌα α‘αα ααα αα ααΌααααΈα»αααα¬αα α‘α»ααααΈα ααα ααααΈ α»αα αΏααΈ αααΈαααααα α‘αα ααα ααΌα αα αααααα αααααααα‘α¬αΈα»αα α»αααα¬αα ααα¬αΈα α±α‘α¬αααΈα±αα¬αααααΌααα±ααα¬ α±α‘α¬αααΌα ααααα¬αα±αα¬αααα±ααΌαα αα«ααα CPI ααΎαααα α»αααα¬αααααΌα αα¬α‘α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘αα αααα ααα»αααα±αα¬αααα±αα«αα±α ααα αααααα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααααΈα α¬αα¬αΈα αααΎααα±αα¬α‘αα« αααααααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα α±ααΌαα ααα α₯ααα¬αααα ααΌαα α ααα±ααααΌα ααα±ααα Wall Street Journal α±αα¬ααΈαα«αΈαα ααααΌα βα»αααα¬αααΈααΈα»αααααα‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬α α αααα α¬αΈαααα αΏααΈααααα α‘ααΌααΈ α‘ααΌαα αααααα¬αΈα αα¬ α±αα¬ααΈαα α‘αααα α±αα¬αααααβ α α±ααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈααα7 α‘ααα αα α±αα¬αα±αα¬αα αααααΈαα«ααα α±αααααααα±αα¬αα α‘αα¬α‘α¬αΈααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαααΏαα α‘ααΌαααα±αα¬ααα αααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ αααααΎααααααα αααα α α»αααα¬αααααΌα αααα»αα¬αΈαααΈ ααΈα»αααααααα¬ααα α±αααα¬ α ααα α αααα¬ααααα α‘ααα‘α»αααααααα»αα αΏααΈ α‘αΎαααΈ αααΈα‘α¬αΈα»αα α»αααα¬αα₯αΈα±αα ααααα ααα¬αα±αα¬ αα¬α‘ααΌα αααΈααΈα»αααααααα¬ααα α‘αα ααα»αα ααα ααα»αα α‘ααααα α¬αΈααα‘αααα¬αΈα»αααα¬αΈα»αααΈα‘αα«α‘αα α‘α¬αΈαααΈα±αα¬ α‘ααααααα αααΈααΈα»ααααΎαααααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α‘ααΈα‘αα¬αΈαα¬αΈαααΌα αα«ααααα α‘ααα‘αα¬αα¬αΈ α±α»αα¬ααΈααα±αα¬ αααΈ α‘αα¬α‘α¬αΈααΈα±αα¬αααα±αα αααααα¬ α‘α»αααα¬αΈ Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) α ααααα»αααΏααΈ ααΎαα¬α±ααΈαα Control Risks α‘ααΌαα α‘αα ααα α¬αΈααα‘α±αα αααααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈα αα±αα¬αα¬αΈα α αααΈαα αα α±αα¬αααααα8
6 Transparency International α website αα¬ www.transparency.org α»αα α»ααΈ α‘α α‘αααα α¬ α‘α»ααα‘α ααα‘α α‘αααα α¬α»αα αα¬ααΌαα‘ααΈ α»ααααα±ααααααΈα αα αα¬αΈα α‘ααα« website ααΌααΎαααααααα«ααα 7 Natasha BreretonβFukui, βWEF Meets in Myanmar as Investment Falls Shortβ, Wall Street Journal, 2 June 2013. http://online.wsj.com
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αα¬ααααααΈα±αα¬αααα»αααΎαααα αααΌαα±αα¬ααα¬ αααααα‘αα« ααααα ααα¬αΈααααΈαα¬αΈα αα¬αα±ααΈ αααα α±ααα¬α±αα«αααα»αααΈαααα±αα αααα»αααααα‘α α¬αΈ ααα ααα α¬αααα¬αΈααΌα α‘ααΈα‘αααα¬αΈααααΌααΈα»αααΈα»αα ααΈαααΈα±αα¬ααΈααα±ααΈαααα¬ α‘α»αααΈααΌα¬αΈαααα¬αΈ α αααααααα α»αααααΌα ααΈα»ααααα»αα αα¬ αααΈααα±αα¬ α αΌααα α¬αΈααααα¬αΈα αααΈααα¬αΈα αα ααΌαααΌα¬αΈααΌααααα α‘α»αα¬αΈαα αααΈα‘α¬αΈα»αα α‘α»αααΈααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα±ααα¬ααΌααα ααΈα»ααα»αααΈα»αα ααα¬αΈααΈααα±αα¬ααα α αΌααα α¬αΈ αααα±α»αααααα¬αΈαααααααααα±αα¬αα αααααΈα±α»ααααααααΈα ααααΎααααα α»αα ααα αααΈααα»αα ααα±α»ααα¬αΈαα αααΈααΈα»αααααα‘ααΌα ααΈαα₯α α‘αα¬αΈα‘ααΈαα αα»αα α±αα¬ααΈα»αα ααΌααααα±αα¬αααΈ αααΈααααααΌααΈααΌααααααα‘ααα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬ α±αα¬ α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα αα αα»αα ααα αααα‘αααΈα‘αααΈααΌα α‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬ααα αααααΈααΈααΌαααααα αααααα αααααΈαααα α±ααΌααΈαααΈααΌα±αα¬α ααα (α‘αα¬αΈααα α₯αααα¬αΈααΌα α‘α αΈαα‘ααΌααααααΈα‘αα¬ααα α₯αΈα₯αΈαα α±ααΌ ααΈα±αα¬α αααααααΈ α α₯αΈα α¬αΈααα) α α α₯αΈα α¬αΈαα α±α»ααΎαα¬αΈααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ α±ααΈα»αααΈαααα ααα»αααα αα¬αΈα α‘αααα¬ αααα¬αα¬ααΌα»αα¬αΈααΌα¬αΈαααα αα αα¬ααααααΈααΈαα«α α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»ααα¬αΈαα βα αααΏααΈααβ α‘αα¬α ααα»ααααΎαααα α‘α±αα¬αααα αααΈαα‘αα¬αΈα α‘αα«α‘αα αα αα¬ααααααΈααΈαα«αΈ α α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»ααα¬αΈαα βααα¬αααα¬αΈααααβ α ααα»ααααΎαααα Control Risks α‘α»ααααΌα α±αααα±αα¬αααα‘α±α»αααααα¬ αα¬αΈααΌααΈααΌααααα αα α ααα¬α±αα¬ α‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈααΌα αααααΈαααα±ααΈααα¬αΈαα α±αα¬αα α±ααΌααΈαα¬αΈαααΈαα α‘αααααα ααα¬αΈ ααα»αα αααα±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈαααΈαα±αα¬ααΈαα αα»αα ααΌααααα α‘αα¬αΈααα α±ααΈα»αααΈααα α±αα¬αααα±αα¬ α±ααΈααΌααΈαα¬αΈαααΈαααα ααΈααΌαααααΈαα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ α±ααΌααΈαα¬αΈαααΈα αααααα α αα¬αα α‘αα‘ααααα αα¬α»αα αααααΈα ααααααα ααα¬ααα α‘αα‘αα‘α¬αΈα»αα ααααα»αα αααααΈα α ααΈαααΈαααΈαααΈα±ααΈααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα α α ααΈα±αα¬ααα±ααΈαα¬αΈαα ααααΈα α¬ ααα¬αα¬αΈαΎααα±αααα αααααααΈα»αααΎααααααα α‘αα¬αα α‘α»αα¬αΈαα αααΈα»αα αα¬α α±ααΈαααα αα‘α»αα α‘αααΈααΈα±αα¬ ααα±αα¬αααα‘ααΌα α±ααΈααα α‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬αααα¬αΈα α‘ααα α‘α αΈαα‘ααΌα α‘α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘αα»αα αα αα¬α»αα ααΌα¬αΈαααααΈααα α±ααΈααΌααΈαα¬αΈαααα α»αααα¬αααα‘ααΌα αααα±ααΌαΈαααα¬αΈ α‘ααααα α¬αΈαα α»αααα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘αααα¬αΈααααα αα±ααα α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»ααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ αα₯αΈαααααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ α»αα α»αααααα αα±αα¬αα¬αΈα α αααΈα‘α αααΈααα±αα¬ α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»ααα¬αΈ αααΈααΈα»αααααα‘ααΌα α‘ααΈα‘αα¬αΈαα αα‘α»αα αααΈαα‘α¬αΈααΈα αααααααααα±αα ααα±αα¬αααΈ α‘αααΈα α±ααΈ αα¬α»αα α±αα¬ αααΈααα¬αΈααα¬ α»ααα¬ααααΈα±αα¬ α‘α»αα¬αΈααααα¬αΈααΌα αααΈααα α±ααΌαα¬αΈα αααΈααΈ α»ααααα¬ ααααα¬αΈαα ααα±αΎαα¬ααΈ ααΈα»αααΎαααααα»αα ααα α‘ααα»αααα¬αΈα±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ αααααΈαααα¬α αααΈααα¬αααα¬αα α±αα¬ααα αα¬αααααα¬αΈ α ααα ααααΈαα¬αΈα‘α αααααα αααΈααα¬αΈα»αα ααΌααα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α α‘ααααααΌα α‘ααΈα‘αααΈααα¬αΈααα»αα ααα Control Risks α ααΎαα¬α±ααΈαα α‘α±ααΌαα‘αααα¬αΈααΌα αααααα¬αααΈααα¬αΈα±ααΈα»αααΈα±αααα α±ααΈ ααΌααΈαα¬αΈαα¬ α»αααα¬αααα ααα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘α±α»αα‘α±αα»αα αα αααΈααΈα»ααααα α»αα αα»αααΈα»ααααααΌα αααα α»αααα±αα¬ αααααΈαααααα αααααΈααα‘α±α»αα‘α±ααααΈαα«ααααα ααα‘ααα‘α α‘α±α»ααα¬αΈα ααΈααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ααα αα¬ααα±αα αααΈα‘αααα αααααα¬αααΈααΈα»αααααα¬αΈ α±αα¬αααΈαα¬αΈα αααα α‘ααα±ααΈααα α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈαα αααααΈα»αα ααα
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αααΈααα¬αΈαα α₯αα±ααα«α‘αααα¬αΈα‘αααΈαααα¬ααααα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬ααααα α‘αααααΈα α‘αα¬α αα¬αΈα α‘ααα‘α±ααΌαΈα ααα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈααα α‘ααΈαα»αα ααα¬αΈα ααα±ααΈααΌαα»αα αααα»αααα¬ααααα New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards α ααΎαα¬ α±ααΈαα ααααα±ααΈααΈαααα αααΈααααααα±ααΈααΈα»αααΈαα α±ααααα±α»ααααΈαα αααΈ α»αα αΏααΈ α‘αα¬ααααΌα ααΈαααΈα±αα¬ααΈααα±ααΈαααα¬ α‘α»αααΈααΌα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα α‘α»ααα»αααααα¬ αααα¬ααα ααααα‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬αααΌα¬αΈαααα±αα¬α»αα αααααα±αα¬αααΈα»ααααΌααΈα₯αα±αα»αααααΌα ααΌααααΈαααΈα α»ααα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈαα»αααα¬αααα±αα¬αα‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αα¬αααα±αα₯αΈααα»αα ααα α»αααα¬ααα¬αΈααααΈ αα¬αΈααΈαααΈα±αα¬ααΈααα±ααΈαααα¬α₯αα±ααααα±αα¬α αΌα¬α±ααααααΎαα¬αΈα±ααΈααα α±ααααααααΈ αααα¬ αααα‘αααΈ α‘α±ααΈααααΈ αα α₯αα ααα‘α»αα αα±αααα»αα ααα αααΈααΈα»αααααΌααααα¬αΈαα Control Risks αα α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈαααα¬αΈααΌα αααααΈαααααα α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»ααα¬ αααα‘ααα‘αααΈ αααααα‘α»αα α±ααααΌααα¬ααααα α‘αααΈααΈα‘α¬αΈα»αα ααααα α‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬ αα±αα¬ααΈααΌαααααΈαααααααα¬αΈααα‘α±αααα α‘α±ααΈαααααααα α¬αααΈααΌααα«ααα« αααΎα ααα αααααΏααΈ αααΎααααα¬ ααααα‘α¬α‘ααΌα αααΈααα ααα’αα±ααΈα‘ααα‘ααΌααα¬αΈαα αα¬ααααααααΈαα¬αΈα αααααΈαααΎαααα ααα α¬αααΈααΌα α±αα«ααΈα α₯αααα¬αΈαα α±ααΈααΌααΈα α»ααααΌα¬αΈααα α»αααα¬ααααα α±α»αα¬ααΈαα±αααα¬αΈα αα±α»αα¬ααΈααα±αααα¬αΈα‘α±αααα¬αΈα αΌα¬α‘α»αααΈααΌα¬αΈα±αααααααααα±αα¬αα»αααααα ααα ααΌα¬αΈα±ααααααα α±ααΈααΌααΈαααα»αααΈα»αα ααα α‘ααααα α ααα ααααΈαα¬αΈα α»αααααααα α‘ααααα α¬αΈααααααα±ααΈα‘αααα¬αΈααααα¬α±α‘α¬αα»ααααααα αααΌαα₯αΈαααΈα αα α‘α α‘ααα»αααΏααΈα»αα ααα α±α»ααααΈαα αα¬αΈα±αα¬ααααΈ α±αα±αα¬ α»αααα¬ααΌα α»ααααΌααΈαα αααααα¬ αααΈααα¬αΈ αααΈααΌα¬αΈα±α‘α¬αα»αααααααα‘ααα‘α»ααααΈααα±α αα¬ α‘α±ααΈααΎααΈα α‘ααααα αα»αα ααα
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α»αααα¬ααΌα αααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααΈααΈα»α αααααα¬αΈα αααα±ααΈαα¬αααΌααΈα»αααΈ - α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈααα¬αΈαα ααα±αα¬ααα
Politicization of Chinaβs Economic Investment in Myanmar: Cause and Impact
Zhu Li
Executive Director and Professor, Research Institute for Indian Ocean Economics Yunnan University of Finance and Economics
[email protected] ααα-α»αααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαααα ααα α‘α±α»αα‘α±α ααααααα±ααΈ α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈααα¬αα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α ααα-α»αααα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααααα αααα¬αΈα±αα¬ ααααΈαα αααααα ααααα α»αααα¬αΎαα¬αΈ ααααΌαα±ααΈ ααα¬ααα αααα ααα ααΌα α±αααα¬ α ααα α αααααα¬α αααα ααΌα αα αααααααΌαα±ααΈ ααα¬ααα α±αααα¬ α ααα αα αααα ααΈα»αααα¬αααα α»αααα¬αααααΌα αααα αααΈααΈα»ααααααα αααα ααα ααααΈα αααα¬αα¬ααΈα»ααααΏααΈ ααΎαα¬ α±ααΈα±αα¬ αα«αΈαα α‘ααΌααΈ α±αααα¬ ααα ααα α±αααα¬ α ααα αα ααα‘α ααΈα»αααααα αααα αααΈααΈα»αααααα ααααΈα‘αα¬αΈα αα¬ α αΌααΈα‘αα αααα±αα¬α±ααΈαααααα±αα¬ααα¬ααααα¬ααααααΈαα¬αΈ α‘α±ααα₯αΈααααα αααα α±ααααΌα ααααααΌα αααα±αα¬ααα α»αααα¬αααΌα α₯αΈαααΈα ααα α±ααααΈααΌα α±ααΌααα αΏααΈ αα ααααΎαα¬αΈααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαα±ααΈααΈα»αααααααΈαααΈαααα ααα‘α»αα αααα¬α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬ ααα¬ ααα¬αααα ααα±αα¬αα»αααΈ ααΈααΌα±αΎααα¬αααα ααα αα ααα ααΈα ααα»αααααα α»αααα¬αααααΌα αααα αααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬ αααα αΎααααα‘α α±αααα¬ αα ααα αααα α±αα¬αα ααΏααΈ α‘α»αα¬αΈαααα»αα¬αΈαααΈα»αααα¬αΈαααα₯αα ααααα α»αααα¬αααα‘ααΌα ααα¬αα‘αααΈαα¬αΈααΈ αααΈααΈα»ααααα»αα αα¬αααα
α»αααα¬α ααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααααα±ααΈαα¬αααΌααΈα»αααΈ-αααααααααα±αα¬ α»αα ααΈα»αα α α₯ α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈαα αα α»αα αααα±αα‘α¬αΈααα α α ααααΈ α»αα αααα±αα‘α¬αΈααα α α ααααΈααααΌααααΈα»αααα¬ααααα»αααΈα α»ααααΌααΈα±α αΈααΌααα ααα α α±αα¬ααΈααα αααΈαα«αΈα»αααΈα α±αααα±αααααα¬αΈα α‘αααΌα±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααα¬αα»αααΈα ααααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈ α α‘ααΈαα¬αΈα»αααΈα ααα¬ααααααΈαααααα¬ ααΈααΌα¬αΈαα±αα¬ ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα α±ααα αα₯α±ααΈαα α‘α±ααΌα‘αα αα¬αΈα α±ααΈα α¬αΈααααα»αααΈ α αα α‘αααΈααΈα‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈα»αααα±α»αα¬ααα‘ααΌα α‘α»αααΈααΌα¬αΈα αα¬α»αα αααα
α»αααα¬ααΌα ααααααα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααα α‘ααΌααα±α»αα¬ααΈα»αααΈαα α»αααα¬ α±αα‘α¬αΈααα α α ααααΈααΌα
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ααααααααΈαα¬αΈα αααΈααΈα»αααααα‘α±αα α‘α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαα±αα¬ α‘α¬αα¬ααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α αα α±αα¬αα±ααΈ αααααααΌα¬αΈαα»αααΈα»αα ααα α±ααα¬ααΈαααα‘ααα α±αα¬αα»ααΎαααα
α»αα αααα±αα¬αααα±ααΈ ααααααααααααΌα¬αΈα»αααΈα±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬ααΌα ααα αααΈααΈα»αααααα ααα α±ααΈαααα¬ α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»ααα¬αΈ α‘αααΈαα¬αΈα±ααααΌααααα αα‘αααα αα¬ βα»αααα¬ααΌα ααα αααΈααΈ α»αααααβ αα α‘αααααΈαα¬ααα αα»αα αα¬ααΏααΈ α‘α»αα¬αΈα ααααΈα‘αααααΈ α‘α»αααΈααΌα¬αΈααΌααα¬αααΌα αα αααααα»αα αα¬ αααΈααΈα»αααααα‘αα αα¬αΈαααΈ αααααα±αα¬α±αα
αααα±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬α α±αΎααΈαααααΌααΈα ααααΈ αααα±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬α α±αΎααΈαααααΌααΈα ααααΈα±αΎαα¬α α»αα α±αααα¬αα ααα¬ααααααΈαααα αααΈ αααα ααα¬αΈα αααααα±αα¬ αα αα¬α±αΎααΈα αα±ααααα α±ααααα¬αΈααα΅α»ααααααΈαα αα αααα ααααα¬ ααΌαα»αα ααΏααΈ ααα΅α»αααα¬αΈα ααααΌααΈα‘ααΈα α»αααα¬-ααα±αα«α α±αα¬αα«αΈαααα α α αααΈα αααΈαααα»αααΈ α±αΎαα¬α α ααααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈ αααααααααα
ααααα¬ α ααα±ααααΌα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈα ααααα±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬α α α ααΈα α α±ααΈα±ααΈ α±αα¬αααα ααΌαα ααΈα ααα αααα αα α αα ααα±ααααΌα ααα»αααα α±αα¬αααΈα‘α αααα α¬ααΌα α ααααΈα ααααα‘α±αα¬αα‘αα α±αα¬ααα±αα¬αααΈ αα‘αα±αα¬ααΈαααααααΈαα¬α»αααΈαα¬αΈα»ααααααα α±αα¬αααα α‘ααα»ααα¬αΈ ααα ααΌααααΈα»αααα¬ααα»ααα¬α α‘ααα«α‘α αααα α¬ααΌα α‘ααααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ ααααΌααΈαα¬αΈααα α‘α αα αα α¬α‘α ααΌααααΈα»αααα¬αααααΈαα«αΈαα»αα α ααααΈαααααααΏααΈ α±ααα α»ααααα¬αΈ αααΈαααΈαα¬ααα»αα αα¬αΈααααααΌαα¬αΈα±α αααα αααα
α»αααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα αααα±ααΈαα¬αααΌααΈα»αααΈα‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈ
(α) α»ααααΌααΈαα±αα¬αααΈα α α±α»ααααΈαα αααα₯αΈααΈα‘α±αα»αα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈααα α»ααααΌααΈαααα±ααΈα‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αΈα ααααααα α‘α αΈααααα α»αααααα αα‘αααα α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈαα¬αα‘ααΌααΈ α₯αΈαααΈα αα‘α αΈαα‘ααΌα α‘α±ααΈαααΈααΈα‘αα¬ αα¬α‘α αΈαα ααααα α αα±αα¬αααα α‘α αΈααα α‘α±αα α»αααααα¬αΈα αα±αα¬αα¬αΈα α±α»αα¬ααΈααα»αα ααα ααα±αΎαα¬α αα¬ααα»ααααα¬αΈα α‘ααα (ααααα αααΈα‘αααααα) α₯αΈαααΈα αα‘α αΈαα α‘α¬αα αα αα¬α»αα αα¬αΏααΈ αααΈα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈα α‘αα‘ααααααΏααΈ α»ααααααΎααααααααα α±αα¬ααα ααα ααααα α»αααα¬ααΌα ααα¬αα‘αααΈαα¬αΈααΈαααΈααΈα»ααααα»αα α±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α αααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ α±αα¬α ααα±ααΈα ααααΈαα¬αΈαααΈ α‘α¬αα ααααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈααααα»αα ααα
αααα‘ααα‘α±αα»αα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈα»ααααα ααΈααΈαααΌαα±ααΈα α‘ααα»αααααα ααααΈα αααΈαααΈ αα¬αΈαααΈα α±αααα¬αΈααΌα α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αΈ ααααα‘αα±αα¬ααααα
αααα‘ααα‘α±αα»αα α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈα‘αα αα¬αΈαα α‘α±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ ααααα‘αα¬αΈα αΎαα¬αΈαααααα α»αααα¬ααΌα ααααααΈααΈα»αααααα ααααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘α»ααααααα±αααα ααααααΈα±αα¬ α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈαα¬ α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈ α‘αα αα¬αΈαα α‘α±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ ααααα‘α»αα ααα
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(α) α‘α»αα¬αΈααααα¬αΈαα α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈα ααααα
αααααΈα‘α±αα»αα αααααααΈααΈαα α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΌα¬αΈαααα‘αααα α»αααα¬ααΌα αααα αΎααα¬ααΌααΈααΈαα αααααΈαα¬αΈα±ααα»αα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈααα αααα»αα¬αΈαα«αα«αα¬αΈ α αΈαααααααα ααααααααΈααααΈα»αα α±ααα±α α ααα αααα ααα¬αα±α»αα¬αααααΌαααααΌα α αΌααΈα‘αααΏαα±ααΈα αααα¬α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈα±α αααα βααα αα αααα αααα΅αα¬αα αβ αα±αα¬α‘ααα αααα»αα αα¬α±α αα α‘αα΅ααααα΅αα¬αα αααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈαα αααααΌα ααααα αααα¬α α¬αα αααααα α±αααα‘α¬αΈα»αα ααΎαααΎαααα
αααα‘αααα¬ αααααα¬αααα±ααΈαα α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αΈα αααααα»αα ααα αααααα¬ααα α±ααΈαααα»αααΈ α»αα α α₯ααΌα α‘α±αααααα αααα‘αα«α‘αα ααααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ααα ααααααα αα‘α¬αΈαα¬αΈααα¬ αΏαα αα»αααΈα»αααΈαααα¬αα»αα α»αααα¬αα ααααα±ααΈαα¬ α‘α»ααα‘ααααααααα¬αΈ α ααααΈα»ααααΎα ααα α‘ααΈαα»αα α‘α±ααααα»ααα±αα¬αα α βα‘α¬α-αα αααα α»αααα¬α»αααΈβ ααα¬αα α‘α±αα¬α α‘ααα±αα¬αΏααΈα±αα¬α α»αααα¬αα ααααα α‘α±ααααα»ααα±αα¬αα αΎαα¬αΈ α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαα α¬αΈααΌα α‘ααα‘α»αα¬α±ααα¬αα αα α α»αα αα¬αααα α»αααα¬α ααααα±ααΈαα¬αααα±ααΈααα¬ααα¬αα ααα¬ αα«αα«αααΈαα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ αΏααααααα αααΈααΌαααα ααααααα‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈα α‘αα¬αΈααΈααααΌααα ααααΌαααα α‘α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈα α»αααα¬α‘α±ααααααα¬αΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ α‘α±ααΈααααααααα¬αΈα αα»αααΈα»αααΈ αα αααααα
(α) ααααααααΈαα¬αΈα α»ααα¬αα¬αΈ
αααα αααααα»αα¬αΈ αααΈααΈα»αααα αα αα¬αΈα α»αααααααΈα α αα αα‘αααα αααα αααααα»αα¬αΈ αααΈααΈα»αααααα ααααΈ α‘αα¬αΈα αα¬ α‘α αΈααα¬αΈαα ααααααααα±αααα ααααααααααΈαα¬αΈα α‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αα¬α»αααΈα»αα ααα α‘α αΈααα¬αΈαα αααα±ααΈα±αα¬ααΈαα α ααα±αα¬ααααα¬ αααΈ ααα αααΈαααΈα±ααΏααΈ α»ααααα¬αΈα αααααα αα ααααα»αααΈαα α ααααΈαα¬αΈ ααααΈααααΈα‘α±α α‘αα¬αΈααα±αα¬ααα±α αΏααΈ α‘ααΈα‘α»αααα¬αΈααΌα±ααα¬ααΌα ααααα»αα α±α αααα
αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ αααα ααααααααααΈαα¬αΈαα α±αα¬αααααααα¬αααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈ ααααΌααΎαααα
α»αααα¬ααΌα αααα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ αααΈααΈα»α ααα‘α¬αΈ αααα±ααΈαα¬αααΌααΈαααα‘α±αα ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈ
ααα-α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈα αα ααααααα±ααΈα αααα αααα±ααΈαα α‘ααΌαα±α»αα¬ααΈαα
α»αααα¬ααΌα αααα±αα α‘ααΌααΈααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈα»αα α α₯αα¬αΈααΈααααα±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬αααα»αα¬αΈαααα±ααΈα α‘α±ααΈαααΈα±αα¬ α‘α αα‘αααΈα»αα αα ααα-α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈ α±α»αα¬ααΈααα±αα¬αααΈ α‘ααΈα α±α»αα¬ααΈ ααααα±αα¬ αααα±αα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈααα‘ααααα¬ ααααα αα ααααΎαα¬αΈαααα±ααΈαα¬ααα αααα‘αα«α‘αα αααα αααααα¬αααα±ααΈα»αα ααα ααα±αΎαα¬α ααα-α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈαα αα ααΈαα ααααΈαααα αααα‘α±α»αα‘α±αααα»ααα±αα¬ααα αα»αα ααα±αα¬α±αα ααα±αα¬αααΈ ααααα α»αααα¬α α‘α±ααΈα‘αα«ααΈα‘αααΈαααΈααααα αα»αα αΏααΈ α»αααα¬α ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘α±αα αααα α±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬ α‘ααΈααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈ α±ααΈααα»αα ααα ααα±αΎαα¬α ααα αααα±ααΈα±αα¬ααΈα±ααα‘α±α»αααΏααΈ α±αα ααΌααΈ α±αα¬ααΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈαααΈααΌααΈα»αααααα ααααα α ααααΈαααα¬α ααααα αα ααα ααΈ αα‘ααα α»αα ααα
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α»αααα¬α‘α αΈαα α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈ αα¬αααα- αααα±αα α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌα α±ααΈααααα ααααΈ
α»αααα¬ αααα±αα α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαα α»αα α α₯ααΌα α‘α αΈααααααΈ α»αααΈαααα±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα αα±αααα αα¬αΈα»αα ααααααααα αααα»αα¬αΈαααααΈαα¬αΈα α»αααα¬ααΌα αααΈααΈα»ααααααααααααΏααΈ αααααα α±αα¬αα±ααΎααα»αα α»αααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααα‘ααΌα α‘ααΈα‘αα¬αΈα»αα ααααα αααα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααα α α₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈαα¬αΈααα α‘α±α»αα‘α±αα±α‘α¬αα α»αααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ ααΌααΏααΈααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈααα±αα¬ααα αααα»αα ααα
α‘α»αααΈααΌα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα ααααΌαα±α»ααααΈα»αααΈαααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ α‘ααΌαα±α»αα¬ααΈα»αααΈ
αα½αΌαα±αα¬αα α±ααΌαα»ααααααα‘αααΈ α»αα αααα‘α»αα α‘ααα αααα±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬α α±αΎααΈαααααΌααΈ α ααααΈ αα α₯ α‘α αααα±ααΌαΈααα αααααα¬α‘α±ααΈαα α₯αα¬αΈα ααααΌααα¬ααΌα α₯αΈαααΈα αα‘α αΈαα αααΈαααΈαα αααααααα¬αααα
αααα αααααα»αα¬αΈαααΈααΈα»ααααααα α α±αααα»αααΈαα α»ααααα¬αΈα α‘ααα±ααΌαΈαααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈα‘α±αα α ααααΈ α α₯αΈααα»αααΈ
α±αα¬αα±ααΈαααΈαα α‘α»αα¬αΈαα ααα‘α±αα αα ααααα‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαααα»αααΈααΌα α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈ αααΈ αα»αααΈα α»ααααααα ααααα α»αααα¬ ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααααα αααααα»ααααααα
αααΈ
α»αααα¬ααΌα ααααααΈααΈα»αααααα αααα±ααΈαα¬αααΌααΈα»αααΈαα α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈ α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈααα αααΌ αα±αα¬ααα¬α±αα¬ αααα»αα ααα αααααΈα‘αααα¬ ααααα α»αααα¬α α‘αα αααΈααΈα»ααααα»αα ααα αααα‘αααα¬ αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ ααααααΈααΈα»αααααα ααααΈαα¬αΈαα α α α‘α αΈαα‘ααααααα¬α α‘ααΌααΈ α±αα¬ααα¬ααΎαααα‘ααΌα α»αααα¬ αααα±αα α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈααα»αα α α₯ααΌα α‘αααα±αα¬ ααα α±ααΈα»ααα¬αα ααα»αα αα¬αααα αααα‘αααα¬ α»αααα¬αα αααααα¬α‘ααα‘αααΈα α»αααα αααΈ αααααα¬αααα±ααΈαα α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α»ααααααααααα‘αααα α»αααα¬ α»ααααΌααΈ αα αα±αα α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈααα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈ α»ααααα ααΈααΈαααΌαα±ααΈα α»ααααααα±ααΈαα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ α»ααα¬αα¬αΈα‘αα«α‘αα αααα±ααΈαα¬αααΌααΈααααα ααα-α»αααα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαααα αααΈ αααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈ ααα±αα¬ααααααααα»αα ααα αα‘ααααΌα α‘αααΈα‘αα¬αα αα‘α αα αα«α±αα¬ αα α¬αΈ ααΌααΌα α‘ααα‘α»αα¬α±ααα¬αα αα»αα ααΌα¬αΈααααα»αα ααα
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ααααααα αα αααΏααΈα»αααα¬α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌα αα-ααΈαααααα α αα±αααααα¬αΈ
Myanmarβs Oil and Gas Sector Since 2011: Progress and Challenges
Zhu Xianghui Center for Myanmar Studies, Yunnan University
[email protected] αααα ααα ααΌα α‘α αΈααα αααΈαα α₯α¬αααααΏααΈααααΈα αααΈαααΌα±ααααα±αα¬αα±ααΈαα α»ααααα¬αΈα ααααΈαα α±ααΈα αα«αα¬ααΌααα αααΌαααΌαααΌαααΏααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααα α±αααααα ααΌααΈααΎαααα ααα±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬ α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌααααα ααα¬ααα¬α±α»αα¬α ααΌααΏααΈαααα‘αααΈαα αα ααα αααααααααα αααΈα»αααα α»ααααΌααΈαααΈ ααΈα»αααααα ααααααα α»ααααΌααΈα αΌααΈα‘αααΏααααα±α ααα α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈααΌα α ααΈαααα¬α±ααΌα»αααΈα ααΈα±αα¬α»αααΈα ααααα»αααΈαα α‘α»αα¬αΈαααααα αααααΈαααΈαααα±αα¬ αααΈα»αα ααΌα±ααααα¬αΈα»ααααα ααΈα α±αα¬ αααΈααα¬αα¬αΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬α α‘ααΈα»ααααααα α‘αα¬αΈααααα αα ααααΈα±αα¬ ααααααααα¬ ααα±ααα¬αα α±αα αα αα¬αα±ααΌααααΈα»αα αα¬αΈ αΎααΌααααα±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬ααααα α±αααααα¬ α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌαααααααΌα α‘α±ααΈαααΈα±αα¬ α±ααα¬αα α α‘α»αα αααα±αααα α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌααα α‘ααΈααα±ααα¬αααα ααα α±αα¬αααααααα αα‘ααααΌα α‘α¬αΈαααΈα±αα¬ α‘α±α»ααα‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘ αααΈααα¬αα α‘αααΈα‘ααΈααα»αααΈααααααΈ ααα‘αα¬ααααΌααΏααΈαα α‘ααΌα αααΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ α αα±αααααα¬αΈααααΈ α±α α¬ααα₯αΈαα¬αααα α»αααα¬α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈα‘α¬αΈ α‘αΎαααΈαα₯αΈααΈαααα α»αααα¬ααααα α‘α±ααα±αα¬αα‘α¬αααΌα α‘α±ααΈαα«α±αα¬ α±αααααααα ααααα αααα»αα α±αααααα αααααα»α¬α α αΏααΈ α±αα¬ααα α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈααααΈααααα αααα ααΌαααα«αΈααΌααααααααΈα α»αααα¬ααααα±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈαααααααα¬ αα»αααΈα»αααΈα»ααααα±αα¬ααΈααΌααα¬ααΏααΈ αααα±ααα¬αα α»ααααα±αα¬αααα¬αααα BT αααΈααααΈαα¬αΈα‘α αααΈα»ααααΌα α‘ααααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌαααα±α α ααα α αααααΏααΈ ααα»α¬α α α±αα«ααΈα‘αααα¬αα±ααΌαααα¬αα α ααα ααα¬ααααααΈαααα ααααα ααα±αα¬EIA (US)α ααα»αααα αααΈααααΈαα¬αΈα‘α αααΈα±αα¬αα±ααΈαα α»αααα¬α±αααα ααα¬ααα¬α α±ααΌααα ααα±α αα ααααααα ααααα α»αααα¬ α αΌααΈα‘ααααααΈαα¬α(MOE)αααααΈ α»ααααΌα αααΈα±αα¬αα±ααΈαα α±ααα αα±αα«ααΈ α ααα α α αααα αα¬αα±ααΌαααα±α αα ααα α ααα αααααα¬αΈααααααα αα ααα»α¬ααΈα‘αααΈα‘αα¬αααα α»αααα¬ααααα α‘ααΈαααααααΌααΈααΌαααααα α‘ααα±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌαααα¬α ααααα»αααΈαααα±αα α‘αααα¬αα±ααΌαααα¬α ααααααα‘αααα (αα)ααΌαααΏααΈ α‘ααα±ααααααααα‘αααα (αα) ααΌααα±αααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ α±ααααΌααΈα‘αααΈα‘αα¬αα α»αααα¬α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌαααα¬ααα α‘α±αα¬αα¬αΈα»αα¬αΈααα αααααα αααα‘ααααΌαα»αααα¬ααααα α‘α¬ααα ααα±ααααΌα αααααΈα»αα αα¬αα±ααΌαααααααααα¬αα‘αα¬αΈααΈαααα»αα ααα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌαααααααααα¬α α ααα±α»αα¬αα‘αα¬αΈααΈα»αα ααα α»αααα¬α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌαααααα»αααΈαα ααααΌα αα αααΈααΌα»αα¬αΈααααα αααΈααΌααΈααααα»αααΈαααααα αααΈααΌαααααα»αααΈααααααα»αα ααα α»αααα¬ααα αααααΈααΌααΈα±αααααααααα¬ αα α±αααααααΈα α αα±αα«ααΈ(αα αα)ααΏααΈ αα¬αα±ααΌαααα±α (αα )αααΈααααααα
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(α)ααα α±ααα±αα¬ααΈααΌα (α)ααα α±αα¬αααΌα (α)αααααα α»αααα¬ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌαα±α αΈααΌαα αααΈαααα¬ αα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈαα α±αΎαα¬α CNG α‘α±αα¬ααΈ αααα¬αΈ ααα¬ααα ααααα±αα¬αααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌαααααα»αααΈ α»αααα¬ααααα αααα ααα ααΌα αα¬αα±ααΌααααααααααα»αα αα¬αααα (α)αα αΎαα¬αΏααΈα±αα¬α ααααα»αααα ααΌα α‘α¬α αα ααα±ααα αααααΈα»αα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌαα‘αα¬αΈααΈαααααααα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααααΌα α±ααααΌααΈα αα¬αα±ααΌα ααααααααΌα α ααα±α»αα¬αα‘αα¬αΈααΈα»αα ααα αΏαααα±ααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα α‘αα‘α α»αααα¬ααααα ααααααΌα αααααΈ α»αα αα¬αα±ααΌααααααα αααααα±α»αα¬α α‘αααΈααΈαααα»αα αα¬αααα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααααΌα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌααα α»αααα¬αααα α‘αα αααα»αα¬αΈαααααα¬αΈαα αα αα»αα ααα αα¬αα±ααΌααααααα ααΈα»ααααα¬ααα±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬ααααα α±αααα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌααα¬α±ααΌααααααααΌα α‘ααα‘αααΈ α»αααα¬ α±α αααα α»αααα¬αααααΌα ααα α₯αΈαααΈα‘αα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌα‘ααΈα»ααα ααΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬α α₯ααΌα ααα¬α αα¬αα±ααΌαα α»ααααΌααΈα α¬αΈααΈααα‘ααΌα α₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈα‘α»αα αα¬αΈααα¬ααα α αΌααΈα‘ααααααΈαα¬ααα‘αα‘α αααα-αααα ααα¬α±ααΈαα αα¬αΈ ααΌαα»αααα¬ααααα α‘α±ααααα±αααα¬ αα ααααααααα αααα-αααα ααα¬α±ααΈαα ααΌα αα¬αα±ααΌααααααα α α α±αα«ααΈ ααα‘α±ααααα±αααα¬ α.α αααα»αα α αααααααααα ααααααΈαΎαααα α‘ααααααα ααΌααααΈα»αααα¬αα α₯αΈαααΈα αα‘α αΈααααα¬αΏααΈααααΈα ααααα α αΌααΈα‘αααα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈ α»ααααα ααααΌααα¬αΈααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α αΈαα α±αα¬ααα±α»αα¬αααΏααΈ ααα¬ααααα¬ααααα±ααΈααΌα ααΌααααΈα»αααα¬αααα¬αΈ αα±α αααα ααααα α»αααα¬ααααα Extractive Industries Transparency Initiatives (EITI)α α‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αα¬ααα»ααααααααΏααΈ αααΈ αα‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αα¬α»αααΈα»αα αα αα«ααααααα±ααα‘αα¬αΈα‘α»αα¬αΈααα α‘αα α αααΈαααΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌα αααΈ α±αΎαα¬ααΈαα αααααααα»αα ααα ααααα¬ αα ααα±ααα αααΌαα₯αΈαααΈα αα αααΌαααΈαααααΈ α₯αΈα αΈαααΈα‘α¬αΈ α»αααα¬αααααΌα EITI α‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αα¬α±ααΈα α₯αΈα±αα¬ααααααα‘αααΏααΈ EITI α₯αΈα±αα¬αα‘α¬αα¬ααα‘ααΌαα αα±αα¬αα ααα αααα ααα α±αα(αα)ααα±ααααΌα α αΌααΈα‘ααααααΈ α₯αΈαααΈα±ααΈαα αααααα¬ α αΌααΈα‘αα±ααΈαα¬α‘ααΈαααααα αα ααααΈα±αα¬αααΌαα±ααΈααΈ Carlos Pascual α α αΌααΈα‘αααααΌα α±αα¬ααΈααΌαα±αα¬ α‘ααααααα ααΌααααΈα»αααα¬αα α±αα¬α±αα¬αααααΈααΌα±αΎααα¬αααα ααααα»αααααα Energy Governance and Capacity Initiative (EGCI)ααα ααα±ααααα α ααααααΌαα ααα¬α±ααΈαα¬ααααααα ααΏααααα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααα αααΈααα¬αααΈαααα¬ α αΌααΈααααα±αα¬α α±ααΈα±αα¬ααααα‘ααΌα α‘α±ααααα ααααΌααα¬αΈααα αααα ααα ααΌααα±α»αα¬αααα±ααααΌα α±αα»ααα±αα¬ααααΈαα αα αααααα±α»αα¬α α‘α±ααα‘α¬ααααα¬ααα»α¬α α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααα α αΌααΈα‘α αααα¬αα αα±αα¬α±αα«ααΈα α₯α»αα α‘α αααα α¬ αα α±α α¬αααα»αααααα α»αααα¬ααααα α»αααα¬ α±ααααααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈ α ααααΈαα ααα¬ααα¬αα α αα¬ α±ααΌα±αααα ααα»αααααα α±αααα¬αα±ααΌαααααΌα αααα»αα¬αΈαααΈααΈα»ααααα
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αααα ααα ααΌα α ααααα«αΈααΌαααΏααΈα±αα¬α α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬α₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈααα«ααα¬αΈα»ααααΏααΈααααΈα α»αααα¬α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌααα αααΈααΌα αααα»αα¬αΈαααΈααΈα»ααααα ααΈαααα¬αααα α‘ααΈαα»αα αααα α»αααα α±αα¬ααααΈααΌα α»αααα¬ α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌα ααΈα±αα¬α±ααΈααΌα αααα»αα¬αΈαααΈααα¬αΈα αα«αααααααααα¬ αααα¬αα¬ααΈα»ααααα¬αααα αααα»αα¬αΈαααΈααα¬αΈαα«αααα αααα α ααααΈαα¬αΈαα¬ α‘αα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈα»αα αααΈααΈαααΈα±αααα¬αΈααΌα αααααΎαααα α»αααα¬αααααΌα αααΈααΈα»ααααα ααααα¬αΈαα αααΈαααα α ααα¬αα αα±ααΈαα¬αΈα α‘ααααΈαα¬αΈαα αααααααααα α‘α¬ααααααα¬αΈαα«αααα αααα α‘αα΅αα α±αα¬ααααΈαα¬αΈα αααα αΎαα α±αΎααΈαα αΏαααα αα±ααα« αα ααα¬αΈ α‘α ααα»αα α‘α¬ααα‘ααΌααααααα±αα¬ ααααα¬αΈαααΈαα«ααααα ααα»αααααΈααααα α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈααΌα α»αααα¬ααααα‘αααΈαα¬αΈααΈ αααΈααΈα»ααααααααΈα»αα αα αα»αα ααα ααααααα αα αΏααΈ PTTEP αα α»αααα¬αααααΌα ααα αααΈαα‘α±αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈαα αααααΌααααα¬αΈ α ααΈαααααααΈαα¬αΈααα‘α α‘α α₯αα αα α±ααΈααΌαααα α»αααα¬αααα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαα ααα«αΈααΌααα¬α»αααΈααααα‘α α‘α±αα¬αααα»α¬α α‘α±ααΈααααααααα¬αΈ αααααΈαα¬αα»αααΈααα±αΎαα¬α Total α Chevronα αα Shell αααααα±αα¬ α±αααααΈααααΈαα¬αΈαααααΈ α»αααα¬α±αααα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈ ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈααΌααα«αααα ααααΌααα¬αΎαααα α»αααα¬-αα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈα α±αα(αααα)ααα ααΌα αααααα α‘ααααα¬αΈααΌαα¬αΈαΏααΈ α±ααα ααΈαααααΈα αααα α α αααα¬αααΌα ααααααα»αα ααα α±αααα‘α¬αΈα»αααααα»αα¬αΈαααΈααα¬αΈαα MOGE ααααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααα¬ααΌα PSC αααΈαααααΈα»αα αααααΎαααα αααα»αα¬αΈα±αααααΈααα¬αΈα»αα α αΈααΌα¬α±ααΈαααααΈααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαααα‘ααΌα ααααΌαα±αα«ααΈ ααα ααΌαααΌα α‘ααααΌαα αααΎααΏααΈ α α ααΌααα¬ αααΈααΌααΈα»αα αα¬ αα ααΌααα¬ αααΈααΌαα»αα ααα ααααααα ααααα«ααα‘α αααΈααΌααΈααααΌα αααααΌα αααααααα αααα±αααααΈα α αααΏααΈ αααΈααΌαααααΌα αααααΌαααααα±ααα αααα»αα¬αΈαααΈα ααα αααα αααα ααα αααααα«ααααΌα α‘αα΅αα PSC β 1 ααααΌαα αααα«α±α‘α¬ααααα MOGE ααααα¬ααααααα αα αααα αα¬ααααααΈα»αα α±αα αα ααα±ααααΌα PSC αααααα α¬ααααααα±ααΈααΈαααα ααααααα α§αΏαα αα ααα±ααααΌα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈαα αααΈααΌαααααΌα αα α‘ααΌα αααα«α±αααααΏααΈ αααα α±ααααΌααααα α‘ααα‘αααΈα»ααα αααααααα¬ αααΈα α α αααα αααΈααΌααΈα±ααααααΌααα¬αΈααΌα αααα«α α¬αααΈααΌααΈααΎαααα αααα»αα¬αΈαααΈααα¬αΈ αΎαα¬αΈαΏαααααααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α¬αΈ αα α ααα¬α±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘ααΈα‘α»αααα¬αΈ α±ααΈαα¬ α αΌααΈα‘αααααα‘ααΌα αααΈαααΈα±ααΎααα αααα α‘αα΅ααα α‘α¬ααααααα¬αΈαα ααααα±ααΎααα α»αααα¬αααα‘ααΌα α‘α¬αΈαα¬αααα¬αΈα±αα¬ααα₯αΈ αα¬αααα α‘α¬αΈαα¬αααα¬αΈαα α αα±αααααα¬αΈ αΏααΈααα ααα αα αα αα‘ααΌααΈα±ααααααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌααααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈααΈαααααα α‘ααα‘α±ααΌαΈαα»αα αα±αα¬ αααααΈαα¬αΈαα αααΌααΈα±ααα αααααααα αα αα ααΌααΏααΈαααααα αααααα±αα¬αα±ααΈααα±αΎαα¬α ααΈ ααα±ααΈα‘ααΌα α‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬α±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈ ααα αΈααααα α‘αα α ααΈαααα¬α±ααΌα±αα¬ααααΌααα¬αΈααααΈαα¬αΈααα»αααα±αα¬ α‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬αα¬αΈ α»αααα¬αααααα¬α±ααΌα±ααΌαααα¬αΈα±αα¬ α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌααααα ααΌαααα ααα αα ααΌα αα αα»αααααααα ααααΌα A-1 αα ααααΌα M-9 ααα±αα¬αααααααα±αΎαα¬α α‘α¬ααα ααα±ααααΌα α»αααα¬αααααα¬α±ααΌα±ααΌαααΏααΈ α±αα¬ ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌα ααα¬α αααα¬αα¬ α ααα
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α αα¬ααααααΈα α.αα αα¬ααααααΈααΈαα¬ααΏααΈ α±ααααΌααΈα αααα±α»αα¬αα‘αααΈαα»αα αα¬α ααα ααααΌα A-1 αα α α α±ααΌαααααΈα‘ααΈα ααα αααΈααΈαααΈα±ααααΌααααααα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααααΌα ααααΌα A-1 ααΌαααα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌαααα¬αα α‘αα‘αααΌαααααα»αααΈααα±ααΈα±αα ααααααΈα±αα¬ααΈα‘αααΈ ααΌαααααα‘α α±αααα¬α α±ααΌααααααΈααΌαααα±α α ααα α ααααα α±ααα»α αα¬αα±ααΌαααΌα ααα±α α ααααααααα‘αααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌαααα±αα±αα«ααΈ αααααααααααα ααααααΈαΎαααα ααααΌα A-1 α‘α»αα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌαααα±αα±αα«ααΈ α αααααααααα ααααααΈ αα¬αΈααα α»αααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈ(ααααΌα A-3)ααααααΈααΈαααΈα±ααααΌα α±ααΌαααααα ααααΌα M-9 ααΌαα αα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌαααα¬ααα ααα±α α ααααααα ααααααΈαα¬αΈαΎαααα α‘ααα«α±ααΌαααααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α αααααα¬α αΌααΈα‘αα±α αΈααΌαααΌα α»αααα¬ααααα‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈ αα¬ αααααΈα»αααα¬αααα α»ααααΌααΈαα‘αααα‘ααΌα α±ααααα±αα¬ααα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌααααα₯αα α»αααα¬ααααα α±ααα ααΈαααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ αΎααΌααα»αααΈααα±αα α»αααα¬α±αααα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌααα ααα»αααΈαα αααα ααα ααααΈα ααΈαααα¬αααα α±ααα ααΈαααααααα¬ ααααααα ααΌα α αα±αα«ααΈ α ααα αα αααΈαααα¬αα¬ ααααααα α ααα αα αααΈααααΈαααααα ααΈααααααααΈαα¬ αα αα¬ααααααΈαααα αα αααααΈαα¬ ααα»αααα¬α±αα αα‘ααααα¬αααΈ ααΈααΌα¬αΈαααααα αα¬ααα ααααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬αα α¬ααα‘ααααα¬ ααα αα αα αααΈαα«αΈα‘ααΌααΈ α±ααΈαα»ααααααααα αααααΈααΌααααα¬αα ααααα±αα¬αααα αααα»αα¬αΈαααααΌααΈ αααΏααΈ αααααα¬α±α αΈααΌααα α»ααααΌααΈα±α αΈααΌαααΌα α±α αΈααααΈααΌα¬α»αα¬αΈααα±αΎαα¬α α‘α αΈαα α ααααααααα¬αΈ α»αααααααα ααα±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬ααααα αααααα‘ααΌα αα±αα¬αα±αα¬ α±ααα ααΈα ααααα±ααΈααα»αααΈααα±ααΈα α±ααααΌααααα α₯ααΈααααΌααΈααααα¬αααΈ ααΈαααα α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌαα±α αΈααΌαααΌα ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈ α»αααα¬α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌαα±α αΈααΌαααΌα α‘αααΈααααΌα»αα¬αΈα»αααΈαα αααα«αΈαααΈα‘ααααα¬αΈααΈααΈααΌα¬αΈααΌα¬αΈα»αα α±αααα‘ααΈ αααα‘α¬αΈα»αα α±α αΈααΌααααα¬αΈαααααααααα»αααΈα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈααα±αα¬ααααα α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌαα±α αΈααΌα ααΌααΏααΈ ααααα»αααΈαα¬αΈα»αα ααααα ααα‘α»αα α»αααα¬α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈααΌα α‘αααα±ααΈαααΈαααα¬ αααα«αΈαααΈα‘ααααα α±α αΈααΌαααα±αα¬ααααα α‘αααα‘αααα¬αΈαααα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈα±αα¬ ααΈαα αα¬αα¬αα‘ααΌααΈ αααα±αα¬αα αα¬αΈα ααα’ααααα»αααα α₯ α‘ααΌααΈα‘ααα±αα¬ α αααΈαα‘α±αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈα ααα’αααααααΈαα¬αΈααα±αα¬ααΈααααα ααααααα α±αα±αα¬αα«ααα αααΈα ααα’αααααααΈαα¬αΈαα α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌααααααα¬αΈααααα»αααΈα ααααΌααΈα»αααΈα αα±αα¬αα±αα¬ααΈαα»αααΈαα¬αΈα ααα¬αΈααα»ααααα±αα¬αααΈ αααα«αΈαααΈα‘αααα ααααααααα αααααα¬αΈαα ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈ αα±αα¬αα±αα¬ ααααααααΈα»αααα±α αα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈ ααααα±αα¬ααααα»αα ααα ααα±αα¬αααα α±ααααα αααα¬αΈ α±αα¬α±αα¬ααααΌα α»αααα¬αααα ααααα±ααααα ααα α±αα¬αα±ααααα αααα αααα¬αα α±ααααα ααα α α±ααααα ααααΈααα¬ααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαΏααΈ αααα‘α¬αΈααΈαα¬ αααααααΈα±αααααΈα αααααΏαααααα αα±ααΌαΈαααΈ α±αααααΈααΌααα¬ αααααα
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αααααΈα‘ααααΈ α±ααααα αααα αα ααα α ααα ααΌαααα±αα¬αααΏααΈ αα αα¬ ααα¬αΈαααΎαα¬αα¬α±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α α‘α»ααα‘αααααααα»αααΈααα±αα¬α±αα α ααααΈαα±αα«ααΈ ααααααααααα¬ααα¬ αα αα αα α±ααα αα±αα«ααΈ (α αααα)ααΏααΈ αααΈααα¬ααα α»ααααΌααΈαα‘αααα»αααααΈααα»αααΈααα±αα α»αααα¬ααα α±α‘α¬ααααΈ αααΈααΈαααΈα±αααα¬αΈααΌα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌα αα¬αα‘α¬αΈα±ααΈα αααα α‘α±ααΈαααΈα±αα¬ α‘αααΈαααα αααΌα αα«ααααα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈαα α±ααααα αααα α‘αααΈα‘ααααα±αα¬ααααα αααα ααα α±αα αα ααα±ααααΌα αααΈααα α‘α ααΈα‘α±ααΈα αααΌαα₯αΈαααΈα αα αααα‘ααΈαα¬αΈα±ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈαααΈα α₯ααα‘αα Liao Yong Yuan α‘α¬αΈα»αααα¬αααααΌα α±ααααα αααα¬αΈααα±αα¬ααα ααααΌααΈαααα α‘αα»ααα¬αΈαα α»αααα¬-αααα±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈα ααααΈααΌα ααα±ααΈα α±ααααα ααααα±αα¬ααααα«αααα αααΈα ααα αα α±αααα α±ααα α α±αα«ααΈ (α αααα)αααααααααα»αα ααα αα ααααα±αα¬αα»αααΈα»αα ααα-α»αααα¬αααααΈα αα αα αα α±αα α ααΈ ααα±αα«ααΈαα αααΈα αααααααααααα»αα ααα αα ααααΌα α»αααα¬ααα(αα)α‘α±ααα‘αααααΈα αααα αα α±ααα ααΈαα¬αΈα ααααααααα»αα αΏααΈ α±ααααΌααααα¬αΈααααΈ αααααΏααΈα±αα¬α αααααΈα±αα¬αααα¬ α±ααα¬ αα¬αΈααααα±αα¬αααααα»αα ααα α±ααααα ααα α±αααααααα¬αΈαα α»ααααΌααΈα±α αΈααΌαααΌααΈααααα±αα¬αααααα ααα±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬αααααΌα α±ααααα ααααα±αα¬αα»αααΈαα α»ααααΌααΈαα‘αααα α»αααααΈαααα αααααα¬ αααααα±αα¬αα±ααΈα αααα ααααα αΌααα α¬αΈααααααα¬αΈα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬αααααα»αα ααα ααα±αα¬αααα αα¬αα±ααΌαααα ααΈ α»αααα¬αααααΌα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌααααΈα»αα αα¬αΈαΎααΌαααα α»ααααΌααΈαα¬αα±ααΌαα‘ααΈα»ααααα¬αααΈ ααΈααΌα¬αΈαααααα ααα±αΎαα¬α αα¬αα±ααΌαααα±αα¬αα±ααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈα ααΈαααα αα‘αααα αααα»αα¬αΈαα αααααα α αΌααΈα‘αα‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈα±α αα ααα»αα¬αΈα»ααα±αα¬ αα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈαα¬αΈααΈααααα αα‘αααα α»αααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈαα¬ααααα‘α αααααΌαα±ααα αΎαααα¬αΈααααΈ αα¬αα±ααΌααα¬αΈαααα‘ααα¬ααα»αα ααα α‘ααααα±αα¬αα±ααΈ ααΌαααα‘ααΌα αααααααα¬ αααα ααα±αα¬ αα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈααΈαααααααΈαα«ααααα α‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈα ααΌαα»ααα¬ααααΌα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈ αα αΏαααααΈαα¬αΈα α‘ααα±αα¬ α‘αα±αα¬αα αα¬αΈααα α±αα¬ααααααα»αα ααα α»ααα¬ααΈααα α±αααα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌαα₯αα±α α»αααα¬ααααα α αΌααΈα‘αα‘ααΌα ααα±αα¬ α ααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα α‘ααΌαα±αα¬ααααα‘ααα α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌααΈα±αα¬α±ααΈα‘ααΌα αα ααα¬αΈα±ααΈα αα α ααΈααα±α‘α¬αα»ααααα αα‘αααα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααααΌα α»αααα¬ααααα αΌααΈα‘ααααααΈα αααα»αα¬αΈ αααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬ αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ α₯αα±ααα¬αΈα α ααΈαα₯αΈα ααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα αααα¬α±ααααα α»αααα¬ααααα α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌαααΈα±αα¬ααααα±ααΈαα α α¬αΈααΈαα ααααααα αα±αα¬ α‘ααααα«ααα¬αΈα α±αα¬α±αα¬αααααα αα ααα±αα¬α αΌααΈα‘αα₯αα±ααα¬αΈα α ααΈαα₯αΈα ααΈαααΈαα¬αΈααα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α α αΌααΈα‘ααααα αααααΈααα α‘α»ααα‘αα±α‘α¬αα»ααα±α‘α¬αα±αα¬αααΌαααα»αααΈααα±αα
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βα‘α»ααβ ααα βα‘ααΌααΈβ ααα - α»αααα¬αααα α αΌααΈα‘αα ααααΈαα¬αΈαααα»αααα αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈ α‘ααΌαα±α»αα¬ααΈααα¬α»αααΈ
From βOutsideβ to βInsideβ: The Transformation of Activism over Energy Projects in Myanmar
Adam Simpson
Director, Centre for Peace, Conflict and Mediation, Hawke Research Institute University of South Australia
α αΌααΈα‘αααΏαα±ααΈ αα¬α±ααΌα»αααΈαα ααΎααααΈα α¬αΈα±αα¬αα±αα¬ αααα»ααα±αα¬α αΌααΈα‘αα±α αΈααΌααα¬αΈ ααα±αα¬αα»αααΈαα α‘α¬ααα α±αα¬α αααα±ααΈαα α‘αααααα»αααααα±αα¬α»αααΈ α±αα¬αααα±αα¬ α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα αα αα»αα ααα ααααα α‘αα΅αααα α αΌααΈα‘ααα‘ααααα¬αΈ αα ααα»ααα»ααααΈααΌα¬αΈα±αα»αααΈααα‘α α‘ααα« ααααααΈαα ααΎαα¬αΈααΌα αααα±ααα α»αααα¬ααααα α αΌααΈ α‘ααααΈα»αα αα ααα α αΌααΈα‘αα‘ααα‘α±α»αα¬ααΈαααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈ αα ααα‘α»αα αα αααααΈα‘ααΌαα‘ααΌαα αα¬ααα»αααΈαα α±ααα¬αα αα‘α»αα ααα±αα¬αααααα α±αααααα¬ α αΌααΈα‘αα±α αΈααΌααα¬αΈ ααΌααΏααΈαααα α‘α αααα±ααΈαα ααα¬ααααααΈαααααα¬ ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈ α»αααΈα»αααΈαααααα ααααα»ααα α»ααα α»αα ααΌα¬αΈαα α‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬αα¬αΈααααααα»ααα±αα¬α αΌααΈα‘αα ααααΈαα¬α αα±αα¬αα±αα¬ααα¬α αααααΈαααααα¬ α‘ααααα α‘ααΌα α‘α±ααΈααααΈαα‘ααααα αα»αα αα¬ααα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈααα¬ αα‘α α»αααα¬ααΌα α‘α αΈα α₯αΈα±αα¬αα±αα¬α‘ααααααα αα¬αΈααα‘α¬αα¬αααα«ααα α»αα ααααααΈα»αα αααα ααα±αα¬αααΈαααα±αα¬α±αα¬αα±ααααααα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈααα‘αα‘α αΈα αα αα αααα±αα αααΈαααΈ ααα±αα¬α α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈαΏααΈ ααΌααααΈα»αααα¬αα α‘ααααααα αα¬αΈα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααα αααΈαααΈα±αααα α‘α αΈααααα±αα¬ ααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈ α‘ααΈαα»αα ααα¬α αααααΈαα αααα¬ αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαα α‘ααα« α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈααααΌα α‘α±ααΈαααΈα±αα¬ ααΈα±αα«ααΈαα«αααα αα ααα»ααααααααααααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈα‘ααααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα‘αα¬αΈα αααααα»ααα±αα¬αα α»αα αααα¬ααα¬αααα»αα αΏααΈ αααΈαααααΌαα‘α±α»αα αα±αα¬ α»ααα±α»ααΈαααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈ ααααα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈ ααααααΈαααααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±ααα¬αα¬αΈααΌα α‘α±α»αα αααα¬αΈα αα α±αα¬αααΎαααα αααα±ααΈα‘α αααααααα α‘ααα‘ααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α‘ααΌαα‘αααΈαα¬αΈ α»αααα¬ αααααΌα ααΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬ ααααΌα α»ααα±α»ααΈ αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαααΈ α»αααα¬αΏααΈ α»ααααΌααΈαααΎααΌ ααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαααΈ ααΌαα±αααα¬αα¬ α»αααα¬αααααΌααΈ α αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈααα»αα ααΌααΈαα¬αααα ααα α¬αααΈαα αααααα»αα¬αΈ α±αα¬α α»ααα±α»ααΈαααΎααΌααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈααα α»ααααΌααΈαααΎααΌ ααααα¬αΈααααα α‘ααΌα α±α»αα¬ααΈαα¬ αα αααΈαααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα αα¬α±ααΌα±αα¬αααα¬αΈα»αααΈα»αα ααα α‘ααΈαα»αα ααα α‘α±αα¬α α±αα¬ααααΈα‘ααΌα α αΌααΈα‘αα±αα¬αααα α»αααα¬ααααα»αααα¬ ααα±αα¬αααααα α±αααα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈα ααααααα ααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈαα ααα αα±ααααα¬αΈα αα¬α±ααΌα±αα¬αα αα¬αΈα»αααΈα»αα ααα α α α‘α αΈαααααα‘ααΌααΈ α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααΏααΈ ααααααΎααΌα±αα¬ ααα»αα¬αΈα±αα ααααΌα¬αα¬αΈαα α»αααα¬ ααα ααΌαα‘α±α»αα ααα αααα»ααα±αα¬ α αΌααΈα‘αα ααααΈαα¬αΈα ααααααα ααα¬ααααααΈαα α±ααΈ αα¬ααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈ ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌα α‘ααΌαα±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬α±ααα¬αα¬αΈα»αα αααα α‘ααα¬ααα¬αΈαα±α αα αΎαα¬αΈααα α‘ααα«αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαα α»αααα¬ααα»αα¬αΈα‘α»ααααααΌαα‘α±α»αα ααα NGOαα¬αΈ α‘ααΌααα±αααα»ααααα αααααΏααΈ α»αααα¬αααα‘ααΌααΈ α»ααααααα±αα¬αα±αααΎα ααα α‘ααα«
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αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαα α»αααα¬αααααΌααΈα α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααααΌα¬αα¬αΈαα ααα»αα¬αΈ α±αααα»ααα±α»ααΈαα¬αΈ αΎαα¬αΈ ααΌααααα¬αΈα ααα±αα¬αααΎαααα(South-2004) αααααΈαα α±αα¬ααα¬αααα¬αΈα αΎαα¬αΈα ααα¬αα‘α ααα¬ααααααΈαααααα¬ αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαα α‘ααΈααΈα±αα¬ ααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα ααα±αα¬ααα α‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα αααααααα ααα αα‘α±α»α α ααααα±αα¬ ααα¬ααααααΈαα α±ααΈαα¬α‘αα αα¬αΈ αα ααΈαααΈαα αΌα¬αα α±αα¬α α‘αα αα¬αΈ α»αα αΎααΏααΈ αααΈααα ααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈααΌα αααααα¬ααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈα α±αα¬αααα»αααΈα α‘α αααα α¬ α±ααΈαα¬αΈα»αααΈα α‘ααΌαα ααΌααΈαααΈαα±α ααα»αααα»αααΈα α»αααα¬αααααΌα αααΈααΈααΌαααΈααα¬ α±ααΈα»αααΈαα αααααΈα±ααΈα»αααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬αααΌαα»αααΈαα αα«ααααα α α α‘α αΈαα‘ααααα α»αααα¬ααααααΌαα±α»ααΈαα¬ααΎαα±αα¬ αααα¬αΈ α»αααα¬ααα»αα¬αΈα±αααα¬αΈαα α‘α ααΈαααΈααααα¬αΈααΌα αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈααΌααα«αααΎαα±αα¬α‘αα« α»αααα¬αααααΌα ααα¬ααααααΈαα αααα¬ α‘αααααααα¬αΈαα α ααααΈαα¬αΈαααααααα αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααααα βα»αααα±αα¬α αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈβ α‘α»αα α±ααααααα ααααα αα»αα αα¬αααα (Simpon 2013a)α βα»ααααααα±αα¬αααα¬αΈβ αα±αα¬ α±αα«αα¬αα α‘α¬αΈααΈαΏαααα±αα¬ αααααα αα ααΌααααααα αααααΈαααα‘αα« αα αα«αα α α‘αααΈα ααααΈαα«α»αα ααααα α₯ααα¬α‘α¬αΈα»αα ααα¬ αααααα¬ α α¬α±αα‘α αα ααα ααααα αα αααΈα±αα¬ α»ααααααα±αα¬αααα¬αΈααα α‘αααΈα ααΈαα¬ Brubaker α‘αα‘α βααααΈααααΈαα α»αααααααα¬αΈαα ααΌα¬αΈα±αα¬αα±αααα¬αΈα»αα αΎααα ααααα α₯αΈαα α±αα¬ααα ααΌααΌα»αα¬αΈα»αα¬αΈααααααα±αα¬αααααβ α ααα α‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈ ααα±αα¬ααααΌα¬αΈα±α ααα (2005: 3)α ααα±αα¬αααΈ α»ααααααα α»αααα¬ αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈ α±αα« αα¬αα α‘α α₯α‘αα¬ αααα¬α α¬αα¬αΈα±ααααΌα βα±ααα¬α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈα»αααΈ ααααα ααααααα ααααα¬α»αααΈβ (Butler 2001: 189) α αα α‘αααΈα α‘α±αα α‘α±α»αα»αααα¬αα Sokefeld α α‘αα‘αααΈ α‘ααα‘αααΈα‘α»αα αααα¬αα¬ αααΈαααΈα αΌα¬ α αααΈααα¬αΈαα αααααα¬αα¬αααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈαα±αα¬ α‘α α‘ααΌααααααα»ααα±αα¬ααα αα¬α»αααΈα»αα βα αααΈαα±αα¬αα¬αΈαα αααα»ααα±αα¬ α‘αα α‘αααΈαα¬αΈβ(2006: 267) α»αα α±ααΎαααα α»ααααααα±αα¬α αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈ α‘ααα‘αααΈ αα ααα α‘ααα»αα αα α ααΈααααα±αα¬α»αααΈαα αα¬αΈαα αααα±ααΈαααα¬ααααα¬αΈαα αα‘αα‘α±αα αα α₯αΈααααΈααα»αααΈα»αα ααα α‘ααα« α‘αα‘ααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ α ααΈααΈαααΌααα αα ααααααααα¬ ααΈαΎαα¬αΈααααα»αααΈααα α‘ααα±αα¬ α»ααααααα±αα¬αα‘ααα‘αααΈαα¬αΈααΌα α»αα αα αα α‘ααα¬ααα¬αΈ (Anthias 1998)α α±αα¬ααα¬αΈαΏααΈ ααΈαααααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈααΏααΈ αααα±αα αααΈ αα±αα¬ αααΎααΌ ααααα¬αΈαα‘ααα‘αααΈαα αα αααΈαααα¬α»αααΈα»αα ααα α»αααα¬αααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα‘ααα‘αααΈα‘αααΎαα¬αΈ α»ααα±α»ααΈααα±αα¬αααααΌα α±ααΈααααΌα¬αΈααΌαααααα±αα¬ αα¬αΈααΌααΌαα αα¬αΈααααα α‘ααα«αα±αα¬αα¬αΈααΌααΌαααα¬αΈαα ααα¬ααααααΈαααααα¬ αααΎααΌ ααααα¬αΈα αα¬αΈα‘ααα‘αααΈααΌα α‘α±αα¬αααααα±αα¬αα»αα αΏααΈ ααα¬ααα¬α±α»αα¬αα»αααΈαα αα±αα¬ ααα¬αΈα±ααΈαα¬ α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈαααΈααα αα ααΈα‘ααΌα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα±αα«ααΈα ααΈααΌα±αα¬αααΌαα»αααΈααΌααΏααΈαα αααα ααα¬ α±αα¬ αααΈαααΈαααα¬αΈ α»ααααααααΈαααα»αααα¬ ααΈα»αααΎαααα ααΈα±αα«ααΈ α±αα¬αααΌαα±ααΈα»αα ααΌααΈα±α α α±αα¬αααα‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈααα¬αΈαα ααα±αα¬ αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ α»αααααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ αα α±αααα¬αΈα αΌα¬α α»αααααΈααΌα¬αΈαΏααΈ αααα‘α¬αΈα»αα α±αα¬ααα±α α α±αα αα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈαα αααΌαα»αα αααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬αα»αα αΏααΈ ααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈααΌααΏααΈααααΌα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα±αα«ααΈα ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααααα¬ α‘αα α»ααα»αααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα»αα ααα¬ α‘ααα‘α»ααααΈα±αα«ααΈαΎαααα α±αα¬αααΈααα¬αΈαα αααΈααΈα±αα«ααΈ α±αα¬αααΌααα ααα»ααααααα±αα¬ααααΎααΌααααα¬αΈαααα ααα ααααα‘αα¬α‘α»αα αααααΈ α‘αααΈαααΌαααα¬ α»αα ααα α»ααααααα±αα¬α αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈαααα αα αααα±α»αα¬α α ααααα‘αα¬αα¬ α‘ααα‘αααα¬αΈ
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αααΎααΌα αΌα¬ααα±αα¬αα»αααΈαα α‘ααΈα»αα‘αααα¬αα¬αΈα±αα¬ααα»αααΈα‘α»αα α»ααααααα±αα¬α α‘αα α‘αααΈα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘ααΌααααα¬αΈ αααα±αα¬αα₯αΈαααααα αααααααα»αα α±αααα αααα»αα¬αΈ ααααα βα»αααβ α‘ααα‘αααΈαα¬αΈααΌα ααα»αααα±αα¬ ααααα¬αΈαα ααΌααααα¬αΈ ααααα ααααα±αα«ααΈ αα¬αΈα»αα α±αααα¬α±α αα ααααα±αα¬ αα½αΌααΈαααααα¬αΈαα±αα¬ααα»αααΈα»αα ααα α»αααα‘αα αα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α»ααα±α»ααΈαααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈα α‘α±ααΈαα«αααα¬ αααΈααα α»ααααΌααΈαααα±ααΈααα¬αΈααα»αααΈααα‘α αααΈααα ααΈα»αα¬αΈαα¬αα¬α αα¬αΈαααα¬αα αα₯α±ααΈαααααα¬ α‘αααα¬αα¬αΈα±ααααΌααααα±αααα αα αα«αα αααΌα α±α»αα¬ααααΈ ααααα αααΈααααααα¬ αααααΈαα α₯αα¬αΈααΌα α»αααααα¬αΈ ααααα‘αα« α ααααααΌαααα±αα¬ ααααα α‘α»ααα‘ααα¬αΈαααααα±αα¬ αααα¬αα ααα’ααα‘α±ααΌαα‘αααα¬αΈ α±αΎαα¬α αααα±αα¬ααααα α»αααα¬α»ααα±α»ααΈαα¬αΈα βα‘ααΌααΈαβ α‘αααα¬αα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α α‘α»αα¬αΈαααΈα»αα αα±α‘α¬αα»ααααα±αα¬ α»αααα¬αααααα»αααααα¬ αα±α»αα¬ααΈ αα±ααααααααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ αααΎααΌ ααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈ αααααΈαααααααα½αΌααΈαααααα¬αΈα α»αααααα¬αΈ ααααα αααα»ααα±αα¬ α‘αααα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ααα±ααΈαααα ααααΈα»αα α»ααααααα±αα¬α αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈ ααα¬αΈαα αααΈααα α‘ααα‘αααΈα‘ααΌα ααΈααΈα»αα¬αΈα»αα¬αΈαααααα α‘α±ααΈαα α₯αα¬αΈα α‘αα¬αΈ αα±α‘α¬αααα»αααΈαα ααΈα±αα¬ααΈααΈα»αα»αααΈαα¬αΈα»ααααα¬αααΏααΈ αααΈααα ααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ α»αααααα¬αΈ α α‘α¬αα ααααα¬αΈ αααα¬ααα α»ααααααα±αα¬α αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα α±αα¬αα ααααααα¬α α¬αα¬ ααααα»αααα±αα¬ ααααα¬αΈ αααα¬αΈααα±αα¬ααα αα½αΌααΈαααααα¬αΈα±ααΈα»αααΈαα α»ααααααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαα αααααααα»αααΈ α»αα ααααα α‘ααα‘αααΈααΌα α‘α±ααΈαα«α±αα¬α‘αααΈααααααα¬ αααα»αα¬αΈαααΈα»αααα αααΌα α‘ααΈαααΈα»αα ααα αα α¬αΈ αααΌαααα α»ααα±α»ααΈαα¬αΈααΌα α‘αα€αααα¬αα¬α αα¬αΈαα½αΌααΈααααα‘αα«α‘αα ααααααααΎαααα αα αα½αΌααΈαααααα¬αΈααΈα»ααα±α αααα α»ααα±α»ααΈα‘ααα‘αααΈ αα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ ααΌαααα αα ααααΌα βα±αα¬αααα (αα) ααααβ αα α‘α»αα¬αΈαα ααααΌα α‘α¬αΈαααΈα»αααΈαα α‘α»αα¬αΈαα αα βα±αα¬αααααααα αα¬αααααα α ααα«ααα α¬αΈααααα»αααΈβαααΎαα¬αΈ α ααα α¬αΈαααα¬αΈα ααα ααααα‘α¬αΈαααΈα»αααΈα ααααα α»ααααααα±αα¬α α‘ααα‘αααΈαα α»αααα‘ααα‘αααΈαΎαα¬αΈ α‘α¬αΈ α±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬ α‘ααα‘αααα α αα±αα¬αα»αααΈα»αα αααααα ααααα αααα αα¬αΈααΌα α±α‘α¬α α±α‘α¬αα»ααα»ααα‘αα¬αΈααα‘α»αα ααααΈα»αα αΎαααα αααΎαααα (Mavroudi 2008: 70)α α»ααα αααα±αα¬α α»αααα¬αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ ααΌααααα¬αΈαα αααΈαααααΌα αααααααΈα α‘α±α»αα ααααααααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ αααα»ααα±αα¬ αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαα α‘ααα‘ααα α‘ααα‘ααΌααα¬αΈα ααα±α ααΏααΈ ααα»αα¬αΈα»ααα±αα¬ α αΌααΈα‘αα ααααΈαα α»αααα¬α»αα αααα±αα α‘ααΌα ααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈ ααααα¬αΈαααα ααα ααΈα ααα±αα¬αααααΏααΈ αααααα»αα¬αΈ αααααααΎαα¬αΈ ααα»αααααα±α αααα (Simpon 2013b) α±αα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌαααα ααΈααααααα±αα¬ αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈ αααα»ααααα ααααααα αααα»αααααα αα¬αα±ααΌααα¬αΈααα±αα¬ααα α±αα αα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈαα ααααα±αα¬ αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα αααΈααα α±αα ααα¬ααα¬αα±ααΌαααααα¬αΈαα (SGM) αα ααα α±ααα±α α¬ααΎααα±ααΈ (AOW)ααα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈααα‘α α‘αα¬αΈααΈα₯αΈα±αα¬αααΎαααα α‘α¬αα¬ααα‘α αΈ α α‘αα¬αΈα α±α‘α¬αααΌαα»αα α±ααααα‘αααΈαα α»αααα¬αααααΌα αααα±ααΈαααΎααΌααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈαα¬ ααα¬αΈααΈ ααα αα¬αΈαα¬α»αα αΏααΈ α±αα α ααααΈα ααααα αα±αααα α»ααααΌααΈ NGO αα¬αΈαα±αα¬αα»αααΈ αααααααα±αα¬ ααααα¬αΈα ααααα αΌααΈα‘α¬αΈα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαααα¬ α‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘ ααΌααΈααα«ααααΎαααα ααααααα ααΌααααα»αααααΏααα±αα¬ααΌαααααα α α α±ααΌαααα α±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈαα α₯αΈα»αα ααααααα±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈα‘α±ααΈα ααα α¬αΈα»ααα α±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α‘α ααΈ
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αα α α»αα αα ααααααα¬ααα ααα±αα¬ααα±ααΈαα αααααααα±ααΈα‘αααΈα αα±αα¬ααααα α±ααα ααααΈαα‘α±ααΈα αα‘ααα‘αααα¬αΈαα»αααΈα»αααΈααΌαα±αααα¬ααααΌα α‘αααΈαα αααα α±αα¬ α αα¬αΈα‘α±α»αα‘ααα α ααΈααΌαα α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααααα‘ααΌα αααα»αα αα¬αααα α‘α»αα¬αΈαα αα ααα»αα α»αααα±αα¬ α α±ααΈα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈαααα¬αΈαααα ααααΈα‘ααα‘αααα¬αΈαααααα αααΈαααα AWO αα SGM αααααα±αα¬ α»ααα±α»ααΈα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαααααΈ ααααΌαααΎαααα αααα ααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα α α α±αα¬ααααΈα±ααΈαα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααααΏααΈ αααα ααα ααΌα α‘ααΌαααα±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈ α α₯αΈαααΈααΈααααα¬ αααα¬αΈαααΈ (α₯ααα¬-α»ααα±α»ααΈ) αα¬αΈααααααΌαααα αααΈ ααααα α‘αα΅ααα ααα¬αΈαααααα»αα¬αΈα»αα α±αα¬ααα αα ααα¬αΈαααααααα¬αΈαααα αα‘ααΌα α±αα¬αααααΈαα α α»αα α±αα¬αααα±α»αα¬ααααααα αααα9 α‘ααα« α±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈαααα¬αΈαα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ α»αααααα¬αΈαα α±αααα¬αΈα α‘αα₯αΈα±αα¬α αα¬αΈαα ααα±αα¬αααααΏααΈ α‘αααα¬ αααα±α»αα¬ααα¬αΈαααΈα αααα»ααααα‘α ααα±αα¬αααααΏααΈ α‘αα α‘ααΌααααΈα±αα¬ ααααα αααΈαα±αα¬ ααα±ααΌααΈαα¬αΈ ααΌα¬αΈα±αα¬ααα αααα±α αααα α‘α αΈααα ααααααΌα ααΏαα±ααΈα‘αα±α»αα±αα¬αααα¬αΈα»ααααΏααΈ α‘ααΌαααα‘αα¬αΈα α αααα ααααα«ααα«αααΌα ααΌα αΏαααΈαααΈαα¬ααΌαα»αααααα α±ααΈα₯αΈαα¬ α±αα¬αααααα±αααα»αα ααα10 ααααα αααΈααΈαα ααα‘α±ααΈα αααΈα±αα¬αααααΏααΈ αααα ααΌα αααΈααααα ααΌαα±α»ααΈαα¬ααΏααΈ AOW α ααααα¬αΈαα αααααΈ α±αα¬αααΌαα±ααΈααΈαα α»αα αα¬αααα α‘ααα« α»ααααΌααΈ αααα±ααΈααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα‘α±αα ααααααααα¬αΈα αααα α±αα¬ααΈαααΈααΌα α αα αα αααΈ αα¬αααα α±ααα¬αα±ααΌαα αα αα¬ααααααΈα αααααααα ααααα±αα¬ααΈααΏααΈ αααα¬αα±ααΌααα α‘αα¬αΈα α α»αααα¬αααα‘αααααΈα α α ααααααΈα αααα α±αα¬αΎαα¬αΈα±αα¬ αααΈααα¬αΈαα α αααα¬αΈ ααΌα α‘ααΈα»αααα α αΌααΈα‘ααααααΈ α₯αΈαααΈα±ααΈα αααα α±α‘α¬αααα¬ααΌαα±α»αα¬αΎαα¬αΈαα ααα α±αα¬αααααΌααΈααΌα α‘ααα»ααααα α‘ααα«α‘ααα»αααα ααα»ααα»αααΈαα αααα±ααΈαααα¬ ααααα αααα¬αΈ α±α»αα±αα¬α»αααΈααα±αΎαα¬ααΈ α»ααααΌααΈααααα¬αΈαααα ααααΌααααΈαΏααΈ α»αααα¬αα¬αααα ααααα¬αΈαα ααΌααα«ααααα±αα¬αααΌααααα ααα¬ αααααΈα»ααααΌα¬αΈαα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα»αααααα αα»αα α±αα¬ ααα α»αααααα αααΈα»αααα α‘α αΈααα¬αΈααα α α¬αα¬αΈα±ααΈαα¬αΈαΏααΈ ααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα αααα¬α±α»ααα¬αΈ α ααΈα±αα¬α»αααΈα αα αα¬α±αΎααΈα±ααΈαα ααααΌαα»αααΈαα αααΈαα¬αΈααααΈα»αααΈαααααα±αα¬ αααααΈ αα α±αα¬ααααααααΏααΈ αααΎαα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα ααααααα±αα¬ααααααΈα α±ααΈα»αααΈαααα11 αα¬αα±ααΌαα ααααα±αα¬ααΈαα»αααΈαα»αα αααα»ααααα αα αα¬αααα α ααΈα±ααΈααα‘ααΌα αα¬αα±ααΌαα α‘ααΈα»αααα±αα¬ααΈααααα«αααα ααα¬ααααα¬αα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈα α‘αα‘ααα¬αΈα ααααΌααΈ α±αα¬α»ααα¬αΈα±αα¬ ααααα¬αΈααααΌα ααααααα±ααΌαααα¬ αααα¬αΏααΈ αααααα±αα¬ α‘ααα¬αΈαααΈ α»αα αα¬αααα αααα»αααααα α»αααα¬αααα α‘αααΈαααΈα»αααααα αα»αα αα¬ ααα α₯αΈαααΈα αα α α αα¬αα‘α¬αΈα‘ααΈα»ααα α‘ααααΈα»αα ααα αααααααααΈα α¬α‘ααααααα α‘αα α»αα ααΌααΈαα¬ αα ααΌαααααΌαα±ααΈα±αα¬ αααα±ααΈαααΈααα±αΎαα¬α α»ααααΌααΈ αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈ ααααα α±αα¬ααΈαααααΈα αααααΈα‘αααα‘α»αα ααΌααααΈα αΌα¬ ααα±αα¬ααα α»αα αα¬αααααα α»αααααα αααΈααΌα βαα αα¬α ααα α ααΈ α‘αα±ααΈα αα½αΌαααα αα¬αα±ααΌααααΈαα αα½αΌαααα α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαααβ α α±αα¬ α α¬αα¬αΈαα¬αΈ αααααα¬αΈαα ααααα¬αΈα αα αα¬αα¬αΈαα αα αα¬αα¬αΈαα α»ααα‘αααα¬αΈα±ααααΌααα¬α ααα (Mizzima 2012)α αα αα¬α ααα α ααΈααα±ααΈ α±αα¬ααΈααααα αααα»ααααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα«ααα¬αΈα»αα α±αα¬ αααα α±ααΌαΈ
9 αααααα±ααΌααα±ααΈα»αααΈα»αααΈα αααΈαα αααΈαααα αα α±αα±αα¬αα«α ααααα 10 α»ααΈα»ααΈ (α‘αααααΈααα) ααα±ααΌααα±ααΈα»αααΈα»αααΈα αααα α»αααα¬αααα αα α±αα±αα¬αα«α ααααα 11 Patrick (α‘αααααΈααα) ααα±ααΌααα±ααΈα»αααΈα»αααΈα αααΈαα αααΈαααα αα α±αα±αα¬αα«α ααααα
155
α±αα¬αααΌααΌααα«αααα₯αΏαααΏααΈ α‘ααΈαα¬αΈααΌαα±αα¬α‘ααΌααΈ αααα±αα¬ααα α¬αΈαααα¬αΈααα ααα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαα«α (RNDP) αα αααα α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌααααα±αα¬ααα±αα¬αααΈ αααα ααΌα NLDααα‘α αα«ααα ααα‘α»αα ααααααα±αα¬ ααααααα±αα α‘ααΌααα (ALD) αα ααα‘α α‘ααααΈαα¬αααα12 αα αα«αα ααΈαααΎααΌααααα¬αΈαα ααααα±ααΌαααααααΈα±αα¬αααΈ αααααΈα ααααΈα α‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬αα±αα¬ ααΌααΏααΈ α±ααΈαααα¬ α‘ααΈα‘α»αααα¬αΈα α±ααΌαα»ααααΏααΈ ααα α»ααααααΌα ααα±αα¬ααα α»αα ααααα αααααα±ααΈαα¬αα ααα¬ααααααΈαααααα¬ ααα αΈαααα¬αΈα αΌα¬αααΈαα«αΈααα RNDP α‘α±ααΌα±ααΌα‘ααΌααΈ α±ααΈααΈ α₯αΈα₯αΈαα±α α¬α ααααα»ααααα13 ααααααΈααΌα αααα»ααααα αααα»αα¬αΈαααααααΈααΈα»αα ααααα¬αΈα αααααα±αα¬αααΈ ααΌααααΈα»αααα¬αααα αααααα¬α ααααΈαα¬αΈα α±ααΈα α¬αΈαα ααα±αα¬ α‘α±αααα αα α₯α±αα¬ααααα’ ααα ααααααααα ααααα αααα αααααααα±α αααααα α ααααΈα αααααααααα ααα±α αα¬α αα αα αα¬ααααααΈα±αα¬ αα¬αα±ααΌααα¬αΈα αααα»ααααααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌα α‘ααΈα»ααα ααα α₯αΈα₯αΈαα±α α¬α αααα±αα¬ααΌα ααα»αααΏααΈ αααΈαααααΈααα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα α±αα¬αα βαα αα¬α ααΈαααΈα±ααΈ α±αα¬ααβ αα ααα αα±αα¬ααα α‘ααα»ααααα ALD α‘α±ααΌα±ααΌ α‘ααΌααΈα±ααΈααΈ α₯αΈα±α‘αΈαα¬α±α‘α¬αααααΈ αααα±αα¬α»αααα α‘αα¬αΈαααα»ααααααΈ ααα±αα¬α±α»αα¬α αα±αα¬αααΈ ααΈα»αααααααα»αα α α₯αα¬αΈααΌα α»ααααα¬αΈααα«αααααααα‘αα±αΎαα¬ααΈαα ααααααααα α¬ αααα¬αΈα‘α αααα»αααααα βαα¬α αααβ α αααα αααΈααα¬αααΈαααα¬ α‘ααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈ α‘α¬αΈααΈα αααααααα±ααα±αα¬ααα¬αΏααΈ α‘αααΎαααΈααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬α α»αααα¬αααα‘αααααΈα α±αα α±αα¬ααααα14 αααα‘ααααΌα α±αααααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈα αααα»αααααααΌααα±αα¬ αα¬αα±ααΌααα¬αΈ αααααααΏααΈ αααα±ααΈα‘α α‘ααΌαααΌααααΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ααΈαααΎααΏααΈ αααααα¬α αΌααΈα‘αα±α αΈααΌαααΌα ααααα±αα¬ααΈαα±αα»αααΈαα αα¬αα±ααΌαα‘α¬αΈααΈα α»ααααααΌααα¬αααααα¬αΈααα αααΎααΌααα αα¬αΈααα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααΈααΎαααα αααΈ α»αααα±αα¬α α»αααα¬αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαα α»ααααΌααΈα βα‘ααΌααΈβ αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα αααΈααΌα¬αΈ ααΌααΏααΈαααααα±αα¬αααααα ααΈα»αααα¬α±α αα αα±αα¬αα αΌα¬ α‘ααΈα»ααααα αα½αΌααΈαααααα¬αΈαααααααα¬ ααΌααααα¬αΈααΎαααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ α»ααααΌααΈαααα±ααΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈααααΌα ααα»αα α±αα¬ α‘α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘ααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαα¬αΈαααααΈαα¬αΈα ααααααααα±αα±αα¬ βα»αααβ α‘α±α»α α α αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α αα±αααααα¬αΈα»αα α±ααα±α αΏααΈ αα±αα¬α±ααα»αα ααα αααα ααααα ααααΌα α±αααα¬αα±ααΌααααΈαααΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα»αα αααααΈααααααα»ααα¬ααα»αα αα α»αααα¬ααααα αααΈααΈααΌααααΈ αααα±ααΈαα ααα¬ααααααΈαααααα¬ ααα¬α±αα¬ α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈ α»αα α±ααα±α αα α‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬αα¬αΈααα α αΌααΈα‘ααα αααα¬αα ααααΈαα¬αΈ αα¬αααα α‘αααΈαα α‘ααΌααΈ α‘αα¬αΈα‘α»αα¬αΈα±ααααΌααα¬ααΌααααα α‘ααααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘ααα«α ααααΈ αα¬αΈα ααα¬ααααααΈαααααα¬ α‘αααααααΌα α‘α±ααΈαααΈα±αα¬ α‘α»αα¬αΈα‘α»αααα ααα»αα αα«ααααααα¬α α α»αααα¬α‘α±ααΈααΌα α‘ααΌααΈα αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαα αααααα¬α‘α±ααΌαα‘αααααα¬αΈαα α»αααα¬ α‘α αΈααα αααΈα α»ααααααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈααΌα ααΈααΈααΌα¬αΈααΌα¬αΈαα αααΈα±ααα αα½αΌααΈαααααα¬αΈαα ααα¬ αααααα¬ αα½αΌααΈαααααα¬αΈααααΈ α±αα¬ααα±ααΈααΌα¬αΈααααα»αα ααα
12 ααααααα±αα α‘ααΌααα αα±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌααααααΈα»αααααα»ααΈααΎαα¬αααΌααα αα«αα‘α±ααΌα±ααΌ α‘ααΌααΈα±ααΈααΈ αα±αα‘αα±ααααΌα αα α±αα«ααΈαα αα α±αα¬αΎαα¬ααα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘αααααααα»αα±ααΈαα¬αΈ ααααα¬αΈα±ααΈααααααααα α₯αΈα±α‘αΈαα¬α±α‘α¬αααα±ααΌααα±ααΈα»αααΈα»αααΈα αααα α»αααα¬αααα αα ααααα«α ααααα (α±αα¬α»αααααΈ ααααα¬αα¬αα»αααα±ααΈαα) 13 α₯αΈα₯αΈαα±α α¬ααα±ααΌααα±ααΈα»αααΈα»αααΈα αααα α»αααα¬αααα αα ααααα«α ααααα
14 α₯αΈα±α‘αΈαα¬α±α‘α¬αααα±ααΌααα±ααΈα»αααΈα»αααΈα αααα α»αααα¬αααα αα ααααα«α ααααα (α±αα¬α»αααααΈ ααααα¬αα¬αα»αααα±ααΈαα)
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ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±α α»ααααα±ααΈ αααα ααΌα α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααα αααααΌ α
Amending Constitution: Focal Point of Myanmarβs Political Development in 2013
Wang Zichang School of International Studies, Jinan University, Guangzhou
China [email protected]
αααα±ααΈαααα¬ααΌααΏααΈαα
ααα α¬αααΈααΌααααα αααα±ααΈαααα¬ααΌααΏααΈααααααα¬ αααα‘ααα‘α±αα»αα α»αααααααΈα»αα αα¬αΈα αααααα ααα αΌα¬ααΌα±ααα¬α»αααΈα αααα‘ααα‘α±αα»αα α‘α¬αα¬αα¬αΈα αααααα α₯αα±αα αΈ ααΈααα‘α αααααα»αααΈαα ααααΈα»αααΈααα»αα ααα ααα α ααααΈαα ααα ααααΈα αα»αα αα±ααααα¬αααα»αα ααα ααααα αααα αααα±ααΈαααα¬ ααΌααΏααΈαααα¬αΈαα αααα±ααΈα‘α¬αα¬αα αα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ α‘α»ααα‘αααααα±ααΈαα¬αΈα ααΌαα±αααα¬α±αα¬ ααααα¬αΈα»αα ααα α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααα αα½αΌααα αα¬α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈα±αΎαα¬α α±ααα¬ααααααΈα αα½αΌααααα‘α¬αΈ α»ααα α±αα¬ α±αα¬αααααααα α»αααα¬α‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈα ααααααΈαα αα±αα¬ααα αα α±ααΈααα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬αα»αα ααα α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααα αααα±ααα¬ααΈααααα»ααααααΈα αααα±ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα α±αα¬αα α»αααΈα»αα±αα¬ααα΅αα ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈααα¬ α₯αΈααααα‘α α¬αΈ αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ αααα±ααΈα‘α¬αα¬αααα¬αΈα‘αΎαα¬αΈ α‘α»ααα‘αααααα±ααΈαα¬αΈα αα½αΌαααα α₯αΈαααα α α‘αααα αααα ααΌα α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααα αααααΌ α αααα‘ααα‘α±αα»αα α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎααα αααΌαα»αα α±ααΈα‘αααα‘ααΌα αααα ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»α αα₯αα±α α»ααααα±ααΈ αααα αΏααΈ αα¬αααα αα ααααα αα αα αα¬αα‘ααΌααΈ αααΌαα α‘ααα‘αααΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌα αααα ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±αα»ααααα±ααΈα±αα¬ααΈααααα α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααα αααααΌαα»αα αα¬αα ααα α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎαααα αααα ααΌα α»αααα¬ααα αααΌαα»αα α±ααΈα‘ααΌα ααα±αα¬ααα₯αΏααα α±αα¬α±αΎαα¬αα»αα ααα α»αααα¬αααα αααα ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±αα‘α α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎαααα α‘αα€αααααΈαααα ααααΏααΈ α‘αα€ααααααα¬αΈ αα¬αΈαα α±αα¬ααα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬αααα αααΌαα‘α»αα α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αα
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αααααααα±αα ααα±αα¬ αααα ααα ααΌα αααΌαα»αα α±ααΈα‘ααΌα ααα±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌαα₯αΏααα α±αΎαα¬ααΈ α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎααα ααα α»αααΈα»αα±αα¬ααα΅α α‘ααααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ ααα±αα¬α±α»αα¬ααααα ααα αααΌαα»αα α±ααΈα‘αααα αα α‘αααααα‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αα¬ααα αααα ααΌαα ααΈα α‘α±α»ααα₯αα±α α»αααααα αα±αα¬αα±αα¬α±αα¬ααααααα±α‘α¬α αααααα±αα¬α ααΈααΈαααα»αα ααα15 αααα±αα¬ α±ααα¬α±α α¬ααΎαααααα¬αΈα‘α αααα ααΌα αααΌαα»αα α±ααΈα‘ααΌα αααα¬ ααα αααΈααα±αα¬αααααα«α α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎαααα αα±αα¬αα±αα¬ αα‘α±αα‘ααΌαα ααα ααα αααΎαα¬αα±αα¬ α‘αααα¬αααΌα α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎαααα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈαααα±αα α‘ααΌααα (NLD) αααα α»αααα¬αααα±αα α‘α±ααΈα‘ααΌα ααα₯αΈα±αα¬ααα¬ α α α‘α αΈαα‘α¬αΈ αααααα ααααΌαααααα ααααααΈαααΈαααα±αΎαα¬α α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎαααα α»αααα¬αααα±αα α»αααα»αα α αΏααΈ αα¬ααααα α±αα¬αααααααα»αααΈα»αα ααα αααα α±αα¬ααααΈααΌα α»αααα¬αααα α₯αΈα±αα¬ααα α‘ααΌα α»αααα¬αααα αα¬αααααΌαα±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌααα±αα¬ααα₯αΏαααα αααα α±αα¬αααΎαααα αααΈα±ααα¬ααΌα α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎαα αααΌαα»αα α±ααΈα NLD αα±αα¬ααααα α‘αααα¬ αααΈαα ααα±ααΎαα‘αααΈ αααΈα±ααααΌα α αααΈαααΈα±αα¬αα»αααΈααα ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα ααααα»αααΈα»αα ααα αα‘α α¬αΈ αααΈααα α±αα¬αααααα»αααα αααα±αα¬α ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»α αα₯αα±αα»ααααα±ααΈ α±αα¬ααααΌααα«ααα»αααΈα ααΌαα ααΈα α‘α±α»ααα₯αα±αα»ααααα±ααΈααααααα±αα¬ αααααα¬α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈ ααΌαα¬αΈααΌααα«ααα»αααΈαα¬αΈααα ααα¬αΈ α₯αα±ααααα¬ ααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈααα¬ααα±αα¬ααααα αα αα αααΈαα¬αα α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎααααααΈ α‘αα¬αααααα±ααΈα‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘ααΌα αααααα ααααΌααα¬αΈααααααα±αα¬ ααα α‘α»αααα¬αΈα αααΈαααΈαααΈαααΈ αααα¬α±α»αα¬αα»αααΈα»αα α α αα α±αα¬ααααααα αααΈαααΈαααα ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±αα»ααααα±ααΈαααααααΏααΈ α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎααα α±αα¬αααΈααα±αα¬α»αα αααα¬ αααα±αα¬α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌααΌα αα«αααα₯αΏααα»αααΈα»αα αΏααΈ NLD αα¬ α‘αα¬αΈα α‘αααααα«α α±αα¬α αααΌαα‘α»αα αααα±αα¬α α±ααΌαΈαααααα αααα NLD αααα ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±αα»ααααα±ααΈ α αααΈαααΈαΎαααα ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±αα»ααααα±ααΈα‘ααΌα α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎαααα NLD ααα α±αα¬ααΈαααα α‘α¬αα¬ααα«αα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα α‘ααΈααΈααα»ααααΎαααα α₯αΈα±α‘α¬ααααΈα α±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬ααα»ααααα±ααΈ αααα α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎαααα NLD ααα α±αα¬ααΈαααα ααα±αα¬ααααα αα α±α»αα¬αα ααα α»ααα±αα¬αα αααααα±ααΈαα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαα«α USDP ααα α₯αα α₯αΈα±ααΈα₯αΈα ααΈα±αα¬ ααα»αααα α±ααΈαααα αααα‘ααααΌα ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±αα α»αααααα α‘α α α₯ααα αα αααα αααΌ αα₯αΈαααΈα αα α±αα¬α±αα¬α±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬ααΈααα»αααααα α‘ααα«αα α₯α α»ααααα¬αΈαα ααΌαα±αα¬α ααΈ α»αααΎααααααα αα αααα α‘α»ααα‘ααα±α»αα¬ααααα¬αΈααΎαααα ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±αα ααααααΌα α»ααααααααααα α
15 αΏααα±αα¬αα αααΌααΏαααα¬αααα±αα¬ ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±αΏααα₯αα±αα α‘αααΈ (α) αααα±αα¬αααΌααα ααααααΌααα¬αΈα ααα α α (α ) ααΌαα±α‘α¬ααα« α‘αααΈ α»ααααΈ αα¬αΈαα«ααα βααααααα±αα¬αααΈα±αα¬ααΈα ααααα αα αα«αΈαα«αΈ α±αα¬αααΈα±αα¬ααΈα ααααααΈαααα ααααΌααΈα±αα¬αααΈα±αα¬ααΈα ααα ααα¬αΈ αααα¬αΈαααΈαα α¦αΈα¦αΈα±αα¬αααΈα±αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈαααΈαα α¦αΈα¦αΈααααΈααααααααΌααΈα±αα¬αααΈα±αα¬ααΈαααα»αα¬αΈα‘α αΈαα α±ααΈααΈαα α₯α¬α±αα¬α αα α±α α¬αα±αα¬ααα±αααααα αααα»αα¬αΈα‘α αΈααααα±α‘α¬ααα»αα ααααααααΈαα αα«αΈα ααααα¬αΈα»αα α αα¬αΈαα»αα α±α αααααα¬αΈαα αααα»αα¬αΈα‘α αΈαα ααα±α‘α¬ααα»αα αα±αα¬αααΈα±αα¬ααΈααααΈαα αα«αΈα ααααα¬αΈα±αα¬αααΈα±αα¬ααΈαα α¬αΈ αα±αα¬ α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈαα α±ααΈααΈ αα α¬αΈααΌααα¬αΈα αα α¬αΈααααΌααααα¬αΈαα»αα α±α ααβ
159
α±αα¬ααααααααα αααα‘ααα±α±αα»αα ααααΈα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααΈαααα α»αααααΈαα αααα ααΌαα ααΈ αα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±αα α»ααααα±ααΈ α₯αα±αα‘α ααααΈα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α±αααααααααααααΌα LAFM αα¬αΈα ααα»αα¬αΈ α±α α¬ααα BGF α‘α»αα α‘ααΌαα±α»αα¬ααΈαα ααα‘α αΈαα ααα¬αΈααα α₯αα±αααΌα α»ααα¬ααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘αααα¬αΈαα¬ α αα±αααα±αα¬αααΌαααα LAFM αα¬αΈα αααΏααΈ ααα‘α αΈαα αα‘ααααα¬αΈα α»αααΈααααα ααα±αα¬α ααα‘α αΈαα αααΈααα‘α¬αΈ αααααααα ααα‘ααααΌα ααα‘α αΈααα βα±αα¬αα αα« α±α»αα¬ααα ααβ ααα¬ααα¬α ααααΈααα ααααΌ αα¬αΈα»αα ααΌα¬αΈα±ααααα¬αα ααααα‘α αΏαααΈαααΈα αΌα¬ α‘ααΈαααα ααα‘α αΈαα Union Peace Making Committee αα Union Peace Working Committee αα ααααααΈ ααΌαα ααΈαααα αααα ααα ααΌα αα α‘α αΈααα LAFM α±α»αα¬αααΌααα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαα±αα¬αααα ααααα±ααΈααΈαααα ααα‘α αΈα αα ααααααααα±αα±αα¬ α‘ααΌααα ααα¬ αααααΌαα±α»αα¬αα±ααΈα‘ααΌα KIO α»αα ααα ααααα‘ αα¬αΈααααα»αα ααΌα¬αΈα±αααα α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈαα¬ α‘αα α‘ααααα α±ααΈα‘ααΌα ααα₯αΈαα±αα¬αααα αα¬αΈα αα ααα ααΈα αα±αα¬ααααα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α α»αα ααα αααα±αα¬ ααααα‘αα¬αΈα α‘ααα‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈααα¬αΈαα¬ ααα‘α αΈαα αααα αααα α¬ααα α±αα¬α αααα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬αα»αα ααα KIO α±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα α±αα¬αα»αααα αααααα‘α αΈαα±α‘α¬α ααΌα ααααΈα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α‘ααα‘αααΈαα α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈαααα¬α»ααα¬αα¬αΈα αααααΈ α±α»ααααΈ αΏααΈααα¬ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαα±αα¬αααααα¬αΈα αααααΈααααα αααΈααα ααααα αα α‘α αΈα αα α‘αα α‘ααααα α±ααΈααα¬ α₯αΈα αΌα¬αα±αα¬ααΏααΈ αααα±ααΈα‘α α‘α±α»ααα¬ααα‘α α‘α α₯αα¬αΈα αααααΈααα αα α αααααα±α»αα¬ααααα ααα‘α αΈααα LAFM αα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ α‘α»ααα‘αααααα±ααΈαα¬αΈααΎαααΏααΈ ααααα‘αα¬αΈα ααααα¬ α‘ααΌα α‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈααΌα±αα»αααΈα»αα ααα α±αα¬ααααααααα αααα αααα α¬αααα« α‘α»ααααΈααααα‘α ααααΌαα KIO α αααααα ααα‘α αΈααα ααααΈα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈααα¬αΈα±αα¬ ααααα‘α ααααΌαα αα±ααΈαα±αα αα¬ααα ααααα‘αα¬αΈααΎαααα ααααα αααα αααα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααααΌα α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈ ααα αΌα¬ααΌα±αα»αααΈ α ααααΈαα¬αΈα α‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈαααα αα½αΌαααα αααα±ααΌαααα»ααααα ααα‘α±α»αα‘α±αα α»ααααΌα¬αΈα»αααΈαα α‘α¬αα¬αααααΈα»αααΈ α ααααΈαα αααα ααααΈαα¬αΈα αααα¬α ααα»αα ααα αααααααα ααααα ααα¬ααααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ αααααα ααααα‘α»αα ααΌα¬αΈααΌαα αΏααΈ ααα»αααΈααα±αα¬ ααα»αααααα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααααΌα¬αΈααΌααααα αααααααα¬αΈα αααΏααΈ α‘αα α‘ααααα α±ααΈα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈαααα¬αΈα»αααααΌα¬αΈααα αααα ααΌα ααα‘α αΈα α αα ααααα±αΎααα¬αααα α±αα αα ααα±ααααΌα ααααα αααααα’ααα α¬αΈαααα¬αΈ αα«αααΏααΈ α»αα αααΈαα¬αΈα Magweal αααΈαααΌα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααΌαα¬αΈαααΈααααα ααα‘α αΈααα KIO αΎαα¬αΈ α‘α»ααα‘αααααα±ααΈααΌα ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±ααα ααΌαα±αα¬ααΌα αα α±αα¬ ααΌα±ααααααΈα»ααα±ααΈααα α‘α¬αα¬ααααΈααα ααα‘α±α»αα‘α±αα ααΈα»ααααα»αααΈαααα α‘ααΌα α‘α±ααΈααα αΌα¬ααΌα±αα»αααΈα‘ααΌα KIO α αααΈαααΈαααα α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααα α‘α±ααΈαααΈα±αα¬ α‘α αα‘αααΈαα ααα»αα α±ααα»αα ααα
160
α»ααα¬α±α»αααα±ααΈ α‘ααα±αα¬αααα¬ ααα‘α αΈαα ααΈα±α»αα¬ααααα ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈααα»αα ααα ααααα α‘α»αα¬αΈαααΈαααΈαα¬αΈααααΈα αα¬αΈα ααααα‘αααααΌαααα αααα ααα ααααα±αα¬α ααααα¬αΈα‘α αααα ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±αα ααα‘α αΈαα α»ααααααα±αα¬αααααα»αα ααα
161
α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αααααααααααα ααα«αα‘αΎαα¬αΈ ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααααα αΏα αα ααα
Cooperation and Competition between U.S. and Japanβs Policy towards Myanmar
Bi Shihong School of International Studies, Yunnan University
[email protected] αααα α»αααα ααααα«ααααΌα αα α±αα«ααΈαα α‘ααΌααΈαααααΈα‘ααααααΈαααα α‘α±ααΌα±ααΌα±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌαΏααΈα±αα¬α αααααΌα α α α‘α αΈααα±ααα¬α α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬ααα‘α αΈαα ααα±αα¬ααα¬αααα ααααααα α§αΏαα α ααα±ααααΌα α»αααα¬α‘ααα‘ααα«α α‘ααΈαα¬αΈαααα±αα α‘ααΌααα (NLD) αΎαα¬αΈα»ααα±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌααΌα α‘αααααα»ααΈ αα«αα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬α α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎαααααααΈ αα‘α»ααα‘ααα‘ααααα¬ αααα±αα¬ααα α¬αΈααα»αα αα¬αααα α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈ α‘α±α»αα‘α±αα‘α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘ααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α αααΈα»ααα αααΏαααααα ααΌααΏααΈααα‘ααΌα α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈα±αα¬ααΎαα₯αΈαα¬ααΏααΈ α‘α±αααααααααααα‘ααΌα α»αααα¬ααααα αααΈα±αα¬ααΈααα αααα±ααΈααΈα»αααααα‘ααΌαα‘αααΈαα¬αΈααααα¬ α»αααα¬ ααααα±ααΈα‘ααΌα α±ααα¬ααα»ααααα¬αααα α‘α±ααααααααα ααα α¬αΈαααα¬αΈαα α»αααα¬ααααα α‘αααα»αα ααΌα¬αΈα±αα¬ααααααααα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈααα αααα±αα¬ααΏααΈ ααα±ααΌααα±αα¬ αααα¬α±αα¬αα¬αΈα»ααααα¬ ααΈα±αα«ααΈ α±αα¬αααΌααααα¬αΈα αααΎαααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αα α‘α±αααααα αααααα«αα‘αΎαα¬αΈααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααααα αΏαααααααα αα α»αααα¬α»ααααΌααΈα±ααΈαα αααα»αα¬αΈαααα±ααΈααΌα αααα¬α α¬αα¬αΈα αΌα¬ ααα±αα¬αααααα ααα¬αΈααααα αα¬ α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈαα»ααα±αα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αα α‘α±αααααα αααααα ααα«ααα¬αΈα ααΈαααααΈ ααα α¬αααΈα ααααα α‘α±αα αααΎαα¬αΈααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααααα αΏααααααα α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα αααα‘α±ααααααΈααΈααααααΈα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααΌα¬αΈ ααα»αα ααα α‘αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘α αΈαα‘α¬αα¬ααααααΈα α‘α±ααα±αα¬αα‘α¬αα‘α¬αΈ αα ααα¬ααα¬α±α»αα¬αα₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈα‘α»αα α‘α αΈα α‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈααΏααΈ βα‘α±ααα±αα¬αα‘α¬ααα α»αααα¬α»αααΈβαα±αΎααα¬αα¬ α‘α¬ααααααα¬αΈαα ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααααα¬αΈααΈα»ααα αΏααΈβLower Mekong Initiativeβ(LMI) αααα¬αΈα‘αα α α‘αα»ααα¬ α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αα ααααα«αααααα»αααΈα αααΈ ααααΌααΈα»ααααααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αα α‘α±αααααα»ααααΌαα α±α»αα¬ααΈααΌα αα±ααΌααααα±ααΈα±αααα αα α‘α±ααααα ααα»α¬ααΈαααα¬ ααα¬ααα¬ααααααα α±αα¬αααΌααααα±αα¬ ααααα αα»αα αα¬ α‘α±ααααα α‘α±ααα±αα¬α α‘α¬ααα α»αααα¬α»αααΈααα¬ααα¬α α±αα¬αααΌααααα±αα¬ α±ααΌαΈαααααα ααα±ααααααΈα»αα ααα α‘α±ααΈα α α‘α»ααααΎαα αα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αα α‘α±ααααα α»ααααΌαα±α»αα¬ααΈααΌαα»αα α±αα¬ αα±ααΌααααα±ααΈα±ααααα αα αα±αα¬αα±αα¬ αααααααα α‘ααΈααα»αα α±α αα ααα«ααα α»αααα¬αα»ααααΌααΈα±ααΈαα α»αααα‘α±α»αα‘α±αααα ααααΈα»ααααα‘α±αα α‘α±αα ααα α±αα¬αα»ααααα»αααΈα‘α±ααααΌα α‘α±α»αααααα αααα ααα αα α α»αααα¬αααα‘α±ααα‘α±ααααααα«ααα αα¬α αΎαα¬αα α‘α±ααΈαααααα»αααΈαα α‘ααΈααα»αα α±α α»αααΈα ααα±ααΌααα±αα¬ αα αααΈααΌα¬αΈαα±ααΌαααααααα α±α»αα¬ααΈααα¬ ααΏααΈ αααααα±ααΌαααααααα α‘α±ααΈαααααααα αα αααααΈα»ααααα αααΈαααΈα»αα ααα α»αααα¬ααααα αααα±ααΈα ααΈαααα ααα΅αα±αΎαα¬ααΈα α‘α±ααααα α α₯αααα»ααα»αααααα ααα±ααΌααααΈααααΈα ααα αααα ααα ααααα¬α α‘α±α α¬αααΈααΌα ααα¬αα α»αααα¬αααΈα α₯α‘ααΌααΈ LMI ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαα±ααΈαααα¬αΈααΌα ααααα±ααΈαα¬ α±α α¬ααΎααα±ααα¬αα‘α»αα αα«αααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α¬αΈ ααα¬αα‘α¬αΈ
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α‘α±αααααα ααΈααΈ ααααα‘αΏαα‘α»ααα‘ααα±αα¬αααΌααααα±ααα±αα¬αααΈ α»αααα¬ααααα αααα‘ααΌα α‘ααα±αΎαα¬αα‘α±ααΈαααΈαα α α‘α±ααααα α‘α»ααα‘ααα¬αΈααααααααα¬ αααα¬αΈα±αααα ααα-α»αααα¬α‘ααΈαααα±ααΈαα α»αααα¬αααα αααα‘ααΈ α αΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αΈα αααααααΈαα¬αΈαααα αααααα α α‘α αΈααα¬αα‘ααΌααΈ α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αααα‘α¬αΈα±ααΈα»αααΈαα¬ααααΈααα±αα¬ αααα±ααΈαα¬αΈαααΈ αα¬αΈααααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±ααα‘α±ααΈαααααα±ααΈααΌα αααα α‘αα¬αΈααα»αα¬αΈαα¬αΈααΏααΈ ααααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈααα¬ααα«ααα ααα±ααΌα ααα¬ααα«ααααααΈαα¬ α‘α±ααααααααα αααα¬α α¬αα ααα»αααααα ααα αααα‘ααΌααα‘α±ααααα α‘α±ααα±αα¬αα‘α¬αααα»αααα¬α»αααΈα LMI αα α‘ααα‘α»ααααΌααΏααΈαα¬α±αα¬ α‘α±αααα-α»αααα¬ ααΈαααα αααα±ααΈα‘ααΌα αα±αα¬αα±αα¬ α»αααααααα»ααααα±αα ααα-α‘α±αααα ααα¬αα α»αα α»αααΈα α‘α¬αΈ α±αα¬ααΈα±α‘α¬α α»αααα»αααΈα»αα αααα αααΈααααααα α±αα¬ααααα ααα±αα¬ αα‘α±α»αα‘α±αα±αΎαα¬α ααααα¬ αα±α ααα«α»αα ααΌα¬αΈααααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αααα α±ααααα ααΌα αααα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααααα α‘α±ααααα α‘α±ααα±αα¬αα‘α¬α ααα»αααα¬α»αααΈ ααα¬ααα¬ααα‘αααΈαααααα«αΈαααα α‘α±ααααα±αΎαα¬α ααα-α»αααα¬ ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααααααα αα α‘αααΈααα±αα¬αα«αΈααΌα¬αΈαααα ααΎαα¬ααα αα¬αΈααΌα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αα α‘α±ααααα ααα‘α¬αα ααα¬α±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α ααααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αα ααααααΈααΈααααααααΏααΈ α αΈαααααα¬αΈα»αα αα¬ α±ααααΌααΈα αα α₯αΈα±αα¬αα‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈ αααΏαα±α αα α»αααα¬αααααααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααααα¬αΈααΈα»ααααααα α‘α»αα¬αΈαα ααα αΎαααα α‘α±αααααα‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈ α±αα¬ αΎαα¬αΈαααααα α‘α±ααα±αα¬αα‘α¬αα‘α±αα ααααααααΈααΈαααα α‘α¬αΈαααΈααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα α‘α±ααα±αα¬αα‘α¬α ααΌα α₯αΈα±αα¬αα±ααα¬α α‘α±αααααα αααααα‘αΏααααΎαα»αααΈαα αα±αα¬ααα ααα»αα ααα αααΎααΌα±αα¬ α»ααααΌα α±α»αα¬ααΈααΌα αα±ααΌααααααα ααααΈαα α‘α±αααααα α‘α»ααα±αα¬α±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬ αΎαα¬αΈααααα ααααΈαα ααααααα α₯αΈα ααΈααααΌααααα¬ α»αααα¬α‘α±αα ααααα ααααΈααΈααα αααΌαααα»αα αΏααΈ αααααΌαααα±αΎαα¬α αααΈαα ααα αΎαα¬αΈαΏαααααααα¬αΈααα»αα ααΌα¬αΈαα¬ααα αααα±αα¬ ααα¬ααα¬α±α»αα¬αααααΌααΈααΌαααααα ααααΌαα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘α±αααααα ααααααα αααΈα±ααα ααα¬ααα¬ α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬ ααΎαα¬αΈα±ααΈααα αα¬αΈα‘ααΌααΈ αα ααα αα ααα ααααα¬ α‘ααα«αα ααααΎαα¬αΈαΏαααααααα ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααααα¬αΈ αααα«αα ααα»αα α±αααααα α‘α±αααα α»αα αα¬α»αααΈαα αααα α‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈααΈα»αααα»αααΈ αα αα ααΈαα¬ α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αα αααα ααααΈααΈααα ααΈα»ααααΏααΈ α‘ααα αΈα αααα»αα ααα α»αααα¬ααααα αααα αααα±ααΈααΈα»ααααα α‘ααΈααααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααααα ααααααα±αα¬ααΎα ααα»αα αα¬ α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αα αααα ααααΈααΈααα‘ααΌα αΏααααααα α±αα¬αααααααααα±αα ααα αα±αα¬αα±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬αααα ααααα±ααΈαα¬αααααα ααααα»αααΏααΈ α‘α±αα¬αα±αα¬αααααα¬αΈααα»αααα¬αααα αααα±ααΈαααΈ ααΈα»ααααα¬ααα»αα ααα αααΈααα‘α»αα α»αααα¬ααααα ααααααααα±ααΈ ααα»αα¬αΈααΏαα±ααΈ α αΌααΈα‘αααα±ααΈααααΌα αααα‘ααΌα α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαααΈ αα α»αααα¬αααααΌα αααα ααα¬α±ααΈ α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαααΈ αα¬αΈα αΌα¬αα±αααα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈααα αα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α»αααα¬ααααα αααα¬α α¬α±αα«ααΈα ααααα±ααΈαα αα«αα«ααααΌααα¬ααα±ααΈα α‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αα¬αΏααΈ ααααα α‘αα΅αααα α‘αααΈαααΈααα αα¬αΈαα αααα±ααΈααααΈ ααΈα»ααααα¬ α‘α±ααααα‘αα«α‘αα α‘α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈαα ααααααααααα±ααΈααααΈ ααΈα»αααα±α‘α¬αα‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αα¬αααα ααααα αααΏαααΈαΏααΈαΎααΌαααα¬α±αα¬ α»αααα¬ααααα ααα α»ααα±ααΌαααα α±αα¬αααα¬αΈα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬ααααα ααααα±αα¬ α‘αααα α₯αα¬αΈααΌα αα‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈα‘ααααα‘α αααα αααα α‘α±αααααα ααααα±ααΈα‘α
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ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαααα‘ααΌα α±ααα¬αα αααα¬ααα»αα αααα‘α±αααααα αααααα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈαα ααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα αααααααΈ ααααα αααα αα±ααααα±ααααα α‘α±ααα±αα¬αα‘α¬αααΌα α‘αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘α αΈαα α‘α±ααα±αα¬α α‘α¬ααα α»αααα¬α»αααΈαα αααΎααΌα±αα¬ α»ααααΌαα±α»αα¬ααΈααΌααα±ααΌαααααααα αααα ααααΈα‘α±α»αα»α ααααα±ααΈαα¬αααα α»αααα¬ααααα ααΈααα±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααα¬αααα±ααΈαααα αααα ααααΌααααα¬ αααΈαααΈα±ααΏααΈ ααα¬ααα¬αααα¬α α¬ααΌα αααα ααααΈααΈααα αααΈαααααααα α α₯α»αααΈα»αα ααα αα α‘α»αα α‘α±αααααα ααααααα αααα αααΈααααααα αααα±ααΈα ααααα±ααΈα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα α α α±ααΈαα ααααα₯α±ααΈ αααααα¬αα¬αΈααΌα α‘ααα±αα¬ α±αα¬αααΌααααα¬αΈααααα α»αααα¬ααααααααα±ααΈα α‘α±αααααα ααααα ααΈα»αααα±ααΈαα αααααααΈααααααα¬ααΌα αα±αα¬ααα¬α±αα¬ αααα ααα»αα αα α‘α±ααα±αα¬αα‘α¬αααΌα αααα ααα¬ααα¬ α‘αααΈα‘αααΈα ααα±αα¬ααΎαα¬αΈααα»αααΈαα¬αΈα»αα ααα
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α₯α±αα¬ααααα’αα α»αααα¬ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘αα¬αα
The European Union and Future Development of Myanmar
Yang Baoyun School of International Studies, Peking University
ααααΈαααα¬ αααα¬αα¬αΈαα α‘ααααααα‘ααααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α α‘ααα±αα¬ α₯α±αα¬αα‘αα‘α¬αΈαααΈ ααααα¬αΈααΌα α»αααα¬αααα‘α¬αΈα±αα¬αααα‘α¬αα ααααα¬αΈα»ααα¬αΎαααα α₯α±αα¬αα±αα«ααΈα ααΈα±ααΈα»αα α α₯ααααααΈαα¬α»αααΈααα‘α α₯α±αα¬ααααα’ (EU)αα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±ααEU ααα«αα α‘α±α»ααα»αα αα ααααΈα‘α±α»αα»αααααα±ααΈαα¬α‘α±αα α‘α¬αα ααα¬ α»αααα¬ααααα ααααα±αα¬ αααααααα ααα«ααα¬αΈααααΈ ααααΈαΎαααα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈααα α α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα α‘α EU ααααΈ αααΈα ααα«αα αααααααα αα αααααΈαα¬αα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈαααααΈ EUαα α‘αα‘ααα α‘α±αα¬αα‘α αα¬αΈ α₯α±αα¬α αααα’αα α»αααα¬ααααΎαα¬αΈ ααΈαα±αα¬α±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬ α‘α»ααα‘αααααα±ααΈα ααα₯αΈααααα±αα¬αααΏααΈα»αα αα¬ αα αααα±ααΈαα αα α»αααα¬ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘αα¬ααααΌα ααααΈααΈαααα¬αΈααα»αα ααΌααΈαα¬ααα»αα ααα α»αααα¬α α α‘α αΈαα‘α±αα EU ααα«α α»αααα¬α α α‘α αΈα αααααΈα‘ααΌααΈ ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα ααΌαααααΌαα α±αα¬ αα α₯αααα¬αΈαα α»αααα¬ααααααααα±ααΈααΌα EUα α‘α±ααΈαααΈααΈα±αα¬ α‘α ααΈα‘αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα»αα αααα αααα±αα α‘α±ααΈ αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαα ααααα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈαα ααα»ααα»αααΈα‘α»αα ααααα‘α±αα ααα»αααΈααα±αα¬ α‘α±ααΈααααααααα¬αΈααααα¬ααΌα EU α‘α αΈααα¬αΈα αα±αα¬αααΎαααα αααΈααΈα»ααααααΌα α‘α αΈαα‘ααΌααααα¬αΈαα¬αα αααΈαααα α‘ααΈα‘α»ααααααα¬αΈα‘αα«α‘αα αα±αα«ααΈααα α±αα¬α ααα¬ααα±ααΈαα EU αααααα»αααΈαα¬αΈ α‘α αα«αααααα α α αααααα¬αΈ αααααΈαα¬αΈα αααΈααΌα¬αΈαααααΈαα ααααααααααΈααααΌα ααααα±ααΎααα ααα¬αΈα‘αα«α‘αα ααα±αα¬ ααα¬αΈα ααα±α αα α»αααα¬ ααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα ααααααα EUα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα»αααΈαααΈαα«ααααα ααΌααα±αα¬ αα α±αα«ααΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬α αααΈα»ααα‘α±αα α₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈααααΌαα±ααΈ α‘α±αα¬α±ααΈα»αααΈαα¬αΈααααΈ ααααααααα αα αααααΈαα¬αα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αα αααα α±αα¬ααΈαα»αααΈα EUααααααααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αα ααααΈα‘α±α»αα»α ααααα±ααΈαα¬ααααΈ α±ααΈα»αα α α₯ααΌα ααααααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαΈα‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈα α±ααααα ααα»αααΈααα±αΎαα¬ααΈα±αα¬α»αααα‘ααΌα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αα α‘α±ααΈααααααααα¬αΈαα ααααΌα EU αα»αααααΏααΈ α‘α»αα¬αΈαα ααααΌα α‘α αΈααααα±αα¬ α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαα±αα¬αα»αααΈαα αααα±αα±αα¬ α±ααα NGO αα¬αΈα ααααααΌαα±αα¬αα α»αααΈα‘αα«α‘αα αααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈααΈα α»αα α»αααα¬αααααΌα ααααααΈαα¬αΈα ααΈα»ααααααα EUα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±ααααα«ααα α»αααα¬α α α‘α αΈαα‘α±ααα‘ααΌααααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ αα‘α¬αΈαα¬αΈα»αα α±α αααα αααΈαα¬αααΌα EUααα»αααα¬ααααΎαα¬αΈαααα±ααΈαα EU - α‘α¬αααααααα‘α±ααααΌα ααα±αα¬ααααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈ α»αα α ααα αααα ααα ααΌα α»αααα¬αααα
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α‘α¬ααααααΌαα±αα¬ααα¬αΈααΏααΈα±αα¬α α‘α¬α-α₯α±αα¬α α‘α ααΈα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈα α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈ αααα¬ ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαααααΈα α₯ααΌα α‘α¬αααα α₯α±αα¬ααααα’ααα αα αααΎαα¬αΈαααα±ααΈααΌα α»αααα¬α‘α±ααΈαα α‘αα α»ααα¬αα¬αΈαα αα ααα»αα αα¬αααα αα‘αααα α α‘α¬αα-EU αα αααΎαα¬αΈα±αααααα¬ αααα¬α±αα¬αα α‘α¬αΈαααΈαα α»αα α α₯αα ααα»αα ααΌα¬αΈαααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±ααEU ααα«αααα ααα α»αααα¬αααααΌα α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌαα¬αΈαααΈααΏααΈααααΈα α‘α αΈααα αα αααα±ααΈαα αααα±ααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈα‘αα α‘α»ααα ααα»αααααΏααΈ ααα«αΈααΌαα±ααΈααα«αα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααααα α₯α±αα¬ααααα’α α±α α¬ααΎααααΏααΈ α»αααα¬αααααΌα αααα¬αΈα±αα¬ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈα»αα α α₯αα¬αΈα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα±ααΈαααα αααα±αα α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬ αααα±αα¬αα α ααΌαααα αΌα¬ ααα±αα¬α±ααΈα±α»αα¬αααΌααααα₯αΈααα±αα¬ααΌααΏααΈαααα α‘α¬ααααα α¬αΈααααααα±ααΈ α‘α αΈαα α‘α¬αΈαααα αα¬αΈααααααα αααα±αα±αα¬ αααα±ααΈα‘αα₯αΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈαααα±ααΈα±ααΈ ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈααααΈ ααααααα α»αααα¬ααααα αα αααα±ααΈααΌα α±α»ααααΈααα ααα¬αααα¬αΈα±αα¬ α αα±αααααα¬αΈαα±αα±ααΈααα EU αα‘ααα±αααααΌα αααα±ααΈα‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈα αα±αα¬ααααα αααα‘αααα¬ ααα‘ααα‘α αααΏααΈα±αα¬αααα±αα α±α‘α¬αα»αααααα¬αΈα αααα¬αααα α‘α»ααα‘αα‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα α±αα¬αααααααα±αα¬ααααΈαα α»αα ααα αααα‘αααα¬ααΈ ααα±ααΈ αααα¬αΈαα αααααΈα»αααΈαα αααααααΈαα¬αΈα α‘α±α α¬ααααΏααΈα±α»αα¬αα±α‘α¬α ααααα±αα¬α αααΈααα α±αααα±αΎαα¬ααΈα»ααα α₯αααα±αα±αα¬ αααα±ααΈα‘αα₯αΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈααΈα α‘αΎααΌααΈααααα±ααΈα±ααΈα»αα ααα ααα α‘αααα¬α‘ααΈαα»ααααααΈα α‘α¬αΈααΈα‘α¬αΈ α‘αα¬α‘ααΌααα±α αα αααααα’ααααΈα±αα«ααΈ α±αα¬αααΌαααααΈα»αααα±ααΈ α‘αα«α‘αα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα ααα¬αΈα₯αα±αα αΈααΈα±ααΈ α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈα±α ααα»αα ααα α ααα‘αααα¬ ααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ α‘αΎαααΈαααααα¬αΈα ααααΌαα±α»ααααΈααα»αα ααα αα₯α₯αα‘αααα¬α‘α¬αΈααΈαα«ααααα±αα¬ αααΈαααΈαα αααΌα αα¬ααΎαα¬ ααααΌα»αα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα α±α»ααααΈα»αααΈα»αα α»αααα¬αααααΌα α±ααααααΏαα±αα¬ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈααα±α ααα»αα ααα α‘ααΈαα»αα ααα α»ααααααΌα α‘αΎαααΈαααΈα»ααααααΌαααα‘α¬αΈααΈα ααααααα α±αα¬ααΈαα»αααΈα»αα ααα αααα‘αααα¬ αααα»ααααα α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα‘α¬αΈααΈ ααααα±αααα ααα¬αΈαααΈα α¬αα¬α±αα¬ααα¬αΈα±ααΈαααα¬ α‘ααα¬ααα¬αΈα α±α»ααααΈαα α‘α±ααΈ α±ααα±αα¬αααΌααααα¬αΈα»αααααα»αα ααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈααααΈ α±α‘α¬ααα«α‘αααΈ ααααα¬αΈααα αααα‘αααα¬ α‘α¬αΈααΈαα«αααΏααΈ α±αααααα α±αα¬ααΌααΏααΈαααααΈα»ααααααα»αα αα α‘α αΈααα ααααΈαα¬αΈα‘αααΈ α±αα¬αα αα αααααΈαααα¬αΈα±α‘α¬αα»αααα α‘ααααα α±αα¬ααΈααΈα»ααααααα»αα ααα αααα‘αααα¬ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈαα αα¬αα¬αα»ααααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘ααΈ α»αααα¬αΈαα α¬αΈααα±α ααα»αα ααα αααα‘αααα¬ ααΌααααΈα»αααα¬αααα ααα¬ααααααΈαααααα¬ α‘αα¬α‘ααΌαα±ααΈ αα αα¬αΈα ααΈα»αααα±αααααΌα αα¬ααααααα±αα¬ ααααΌαα±ααΈαα αααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈα±ααααΌααΈαα¬α±α ααα»αα ααα αααααα¬αααα±ααΈααΌααααΈα±α‘α¬ααα«ααα¬αΈα α±αα α¬αΈαααα»αα ααα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈα±α»αα»αααααΈαα¬αΈα αααααα»ααα ααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαα αααΈααα±ααΈα‘α αααααα‘αα«α‘αα αααααα¬ αα±αα¬αααααα¬αΈα αααα¬α±αα¬αααΌαα»αααΈα»αα α»αααα¬αα ααα αααααα¬α‘αααΈα‘αααΈα αααΎααΌα±αα¬α α±ααΈα α¬αΈαααα¬α±αα¬α‘ααΌααα α»αα αααα»αα ααα ααα»αααα¬ααααααα¬ ααα«αααααα»αααΈααα‘α EUαα α±αα»ααα±αα¬αα
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ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαααα‘ααα»αα α±αααα EU αα α»αααα¬ααααα αααααα±ααΈααααΏαα±αα¬ ααα¬ααααα‘α»αα ααα±αα¬αα»αααΈα»αα αααα αα ααααΌααα αααα αα αααααΈα‘ααα‘αα¬α»αα ααααΈααα±αα¬ αα±ααΌαααααααα¬αΈα»ααααα ααα΅αα±αααα EU ααα«ααα¬αΈ α‘ααΌα α₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈα‘αα¬αα¬αΈααα‘α α»ααα α±αα¬αα±αα¬ααα α α‘αα»ααααα α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈαα α‘ααα»ααααα α¬αΈαα/ααααΌαα α₯α±αα¬αα±αα¬αα α ααα±αααα¬αΈααα ααα αααααα±ααΈα‘α¬αΈαααααα¬αΈα α±ααΈα α¬αΈααα»ααα±αααααΌα α»αααα¬αααα‘ααΌα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘αα‘ααα¬αΈα ααΈααΌα‘α α‘α α₯αα¬αΈα α±αα¬αα±ααΈαΎααααΎαα¬ααααα ααααα±αα¬αααΌααααα α‘ααΌαααααααα¬αΈαα EU α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈα ααααα±αα¬ α‘α¬αα¬αααα¬αΈα ααααΌααΈαα¬αΈαΏααΈ αααα α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌα»αα αααα αα¬αα ααΈαα α‘ααΌα α»ααααα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα±ααΈααα α‘ααΈαα»αα α»ααα±αα¬αα αααα±αα¬ααΌα ααα±αα¬α±αα¬ ααααααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈααΈαα ααααΌα±αα¬αααΌααα α»ααααΏααΈ α»αααα¬αααα αααααΌαααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈα‘αα‘ααα¬αΈα α±ααΈαα¬ααΌα α»αα ααααΌααα¬αα¬αΈα α±ααα¬α»αααΈα»αα ααα α»αααα¬αααα±αα¬αα αααα±ααΈα α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈα±α αα EUα α α α₯ααα ααα‘ααΌαααααααα αα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈαα ααα±ααΌααααα αααα±ααΈα‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα αααα±αα α±αα¬α±αα¬αααα‘α±ααΌα α‘αααα¬αΈα αα±αα»αααΈα»αα αααα±αα α±αα¬α±αα¬αα»αααΈαα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈα‘ααΌα α»αααα¬ααααα ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααα EUα α‘αααααα±ααα α±αα»ααα±αα¬ααααα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈ αααα¬α±αα¬αα¬αΈααΈα»ααααααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ αα¬α±ααΌαααααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαα±ααΈα‘ααΌαα EUαα α‘α»αα¬αΈα‘ααααα¬αΈαα ααααααΈα±αα¬αααΌααΏααΈ α»αα ααααΌααα¬αα±αα¬ αα αααααΈααΈα»ααααα αα±αα¬αααααα αα αα¬α±ααΌαα¬ ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα¬αΈααααΈ ααααααΈα»αααα±ααΈααΌα¬αΈ ααα»αα ααα ααα±αα¬ ααααααααα±αα¬ααΈαααααααα»αααΈα αααααα¬αΈαααα»αα ααα α»αααααΏααΈα±αα¬ α‘α±α»αα¬ααΈ α‘ααα¬αΈαα ααααα»ααααααα±αα¬αααα¬αΈαα α‘α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘ααα¬αΈα ααα»ααα»αααΈα‘α±αα»αα α₯α±αα¬αα±αα¬αα α ααααααααα¬αΈαα ααααααααα±αα¬ααΈαααααααα±ααΈαα‘α ααααα‘α±ααΈαααα‘α¬αΈααΈααααααΈαα ααΈα»ααααΏααΈ α»αα ααα α»αααα¬αααα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈα‘α±αα EU ααα«ααα¬αΈ α‘α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘αα»αα α±α ααα α‘αα αααα¬αα¬αΈαα¬ α±α‘α¬ααα«α‘αααΈα»αα ααα αααα‘αααα¬ αααα±ααΈαα αααα±ααΈαααα¬ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈα±α‘α¬αα»αααααα α»αααα¬ααα ααΌα α±αα¬αααα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααααΈα»ααααα α»αααα¬ααααααα¬ ααααα«αα αααααα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈαα ααα»α¬αααα ααααα«αΈααΌαα±ααΈααα«ααα αα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααΏααΈ EU αα ααααα»αααΈα»αα ααα αααα‘αααα¬ α‘α±ααΈαααααα±ααΈ ααα«α α α‘αααΈα‘ααΈα»αα ααα EUα αα±αα¬α±αα«αα»αααΈα»αα ααα ααααααΈααΌα αααα α±αα¬αΎαα¬ EUα α‘α±ααΈααααα α‘ααΌα ααα«αΈααΌααα α»αααα¬α α α‘α¬αα¬ααα‘α¬αΈ αα‘α¬αΈα±ααΈαα¬ααΌα αα»αα α α±αα¬ααα¬ α±α‘α¬αα»ααααααααα α₯ααα¬α‘α¬αΈα»αα ααααααα α±αα¬ααΈαααΈααααΈα α»αααα¬ααααααα¬ EU α‘ααΈααααα‘α»αα αααα‘αα»αααΈαααα Piero Fassino αα α»αααα¬αααα‘ααΌααΈααααΌα¬αΈα±αα¬αααΌααααα αα¬ααΎαα¬αα ααααααα»αααΈα»αα ααα αααα‘αααα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘ααΈ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬αα»αα ααα α₯α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈ α±αΎααΌαΈαΏααΈα‘ααα‘αααΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααα‘α¬αΈαααΈαα¬α»αααΈα ααααααα α α α±ααααα±αα«ααΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬α EUαααααα±αααΏααΈ ααα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘αα‘α¬αΈαα¬ααααΈαααα α»αααα¬ααααα EUα α‘α±ααΈαααΈ α±αα¬ α±α αΈααΌααα αα»αα ααα EU α‘ααΌαααααααα¬αΈα α‘ααα±αα¬ αααΈααααΈαα¬αΈαα α»αααα¬αααα α‘αα¬ααααΌααΏααΈααα α‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬αα¬αΈα αααα±α α¬ααΎααα±ααΏααΈ αααΈα±α αΈααΌαα α‘ααΈα‘α»αααα αααααα±αα¬αααααααα ααα±αα¬ αααΈα»αααα¬ααααααα¬ ααα«α ααααα‘α±αα
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ααΌα»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘ααα αααααΈααΌαα±αααα¬αααα α₯ααα¬α‘α±αα»αα αααα±αα¬ α±ααΈαα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈα‘αα αα¬αΈα±αα«ααΈα ααΈαα¬αΈαα α₯α±αα¬α αα¬αΈαα¬αΈααΌαααα ααααααα α§αΏαα αα ααα±ααααΌα ααΈαααααα ααααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±ααααααα¬αΈαα αααα±αα±ααΈα±αα¬ α‘α±ααΈααααααααα¬αΈ αααααΈα»αααΈα αααΈααα¬αΈαα α₯α±αα¬α αααα’α‘α¬αΈααααΌααΈαα ααΈααΌα±αΎααα¬αααα ααααα»αααααα (EU α‘α±ααΈαααααααα±ααΌα α‘αααααα αααααΈα±ααΈαα¬αα¬ α»αααα¬αααα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈα»αα α α₯α α‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα»αα αα¬α αα½αΌαα±αα¬αα α αΈαα αα«ααα αΏααΈα±αα¬ α±αα¬αααα»αααΈαααα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈα±αα¬αααααα±ααΌα»αα αα¬α±α‘α¬α ααα±ααΈααα»αα αααα«αα)α Burma Campaign UK α αα«αααα¬ Mark Farmanerα ααααααα ααα ααααα±ααααΌα ααα»ααα±αα¬ α±αΎααα¬ααααΌα α±α»αα¬αΎαα¬αΈαααα EU αααα»αα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈα α₯αΈαααΈα αα‘α±ααααΎααααα±ααΈαα ααΈα»ααααΎαααα α‘αα¬α‘α¬αΈααΈα α±αα¬αααΌα αααα¬αΈαα»αααΈα‘ααΌα α‘α»αα¬αΈαα‘ααααααΈα±αααααΎαααα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈαα ααα»αααα EUα ααα«ααα α‘α±αα αααα±αΎαα¬ααΈαα±αα¬αα¬αΈα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈαα»ααααα»αααα¬αααΌαα₯αΈαααΈα ααα EU ααα‘αα α‘αααααΈααΌα¬αΈα±αα¬αααΏααΈ α₯α±αα¬ααααΈα α₯αααα αααα±αα±αα¬ EU α‘α±ααΈααααααααα¬αΈα αααααΈα±ααΈαα α±αα¬ααΈαα ααα βαα½αΌαα±αα¬αααα¬ α‘αααΈα‘ααΈαα α±ααααααΈααα¬α±ααΌαααα«ααΈ. . . .αα«α±ααΌα‘α¬αΈααΈαα¬ αα αα αααΎαα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ α‘α±ααΈαααααααα±αΎαα¬αα»αα ααα¬αα«βα ααα±αα¬αα»ααααα EUα α‘αα‘ααα¬αΈα α»αααα¬αααα α±αα¬αααααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα±αΎαα¬α αααΈαααΈαααΈαααΈα»ααααΏαα»αα ααα α‘ααΈαα»αα α‘α±αααα αααΈααα»αα¬αΈα±αααα α±αα¬α αααα αααΈα αααα»ααααααααΌα α»αα ααΌα¬αΈαα±αα¬ ααααα‘αα¬αΈα ααα¬αα±ααΈα‘ααα¬ααα¬αΈ ααααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ ααααα‘αα¬αΈα α‘ααΈαααα¬αΈα αα α¬αΈααα αααΌαααααΌαα α±αα¬ α»ααααα αααΈα±αα¬ α‘α±α»ααααα¬αΈαααΈα α¬αα¬α±αα¬ααα¬αΈα±ααΈ αα‘ααααα¬αΈα α±α»ααααΈαα ααααααα ααΌα α₯α±αα¬αα±αα¬ααα α±αα«α αα.α αααΈα±ααΈαααα αααα»αααααα ααα¬αΈαααΈα α¬αα¬α±αα¬ααα¬αΈα±ααΈαααα¬ α‘αα‘α α±αα«α α αααΈα αααα»αααααα α±αα«α ααααΈα ααααααα ααΌα ECHOα α±ααΈααααα₯α±αα¬α α‘αα‘ααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬α‘α αΈαα ααααααααΈαα¬αΈαα α αα αα¬α‘αααΈα‘αα¬α αααα¬αααααα αααα±ααΈα‘αα₯αΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈαααα±ααΈαα α±αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈα ααα»ααααα‘α±αα»αα α₯α±αα¬ααααα’α α‘α±ααΈααααααααα¬αΈαααααΈα±ααΈαΏααΈ αα ααα‘αΎαα¬ααΌα αααα±ααΈα‘αα₯αΈαα¬αΈ α‘αααΈααΈα αα₯αΈα‘αα«α‘αα α‘αα₯αΈαα¬αΈ ααα₯αΈα α»αααα¬αααΌαα ααα αΏαααΈαααΈαα¬ααΌαα»ααααα βααααΏαααΈαααΈαα¬ααΌαα‘α¬αΈααΈααΈαα«α α‘αΏααααΈα αααααα¬α»αα ααα±ααΌαα ααααα±αααα αα±ααααααΏαααΈαααΈαα¬ααΌαααααΈ EU α‘α±ααΈαααααααα±ααΌ ααααα±αααβα αααα ααα ααΌαααΌαα±α»αα¬ααα¬ αα αααααΈαα±α»αα¬ααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αααα¬αΈααα EU ααα«αα‘α±ααααΌα α₯α±αα¬ααααΈααααΈαα¬αΈα α‘αααΈααα ααααΌααΈα α₯αΈα α¬αΈαααα»αα αα¬ α‘αα¬αααα¬αααΌα αααΈααα‘α±ααα±αα»ααα±αα¬α‘α αΈαα α‘α¬αα ααααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα±ααΈαα¬αΈααααα»αα ααα α₯α±αα¬α αααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα αααααα±ααΈα ααΈα»αααααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα α‘ααΈαα»αα EU αα αααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈααα‘α±αα¬α α‘ααα¬αΈαααααα αααα αααΈααααΈα‘αααα ααα ααα»αα ααα
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αααΈ α»αααα¬αααα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαα ααα«αΈααΌαα±ααΈ ααααααα±αα¬αααα‘α αΈαα‘α¬αΈ α‘α¬αΈα±ααΈαααα α»αααα¬αααααΌα ααααΈαα¬αΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘αα‘ααα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ ααα ααααα¬αΈα»αα αα±αα¬αα¬αΈα±αα¬ ααα«αα‘αα α α₯α±αα¬ααααα’α α±αα¬α±αα¬α αααα αα αααααΈαα¬αα α»αααα¬α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααα α±αα¬αα»ααααα»αααΈα αα¬ααΌαααα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α‘ααΈα»ααα¬ EUα αααΈαααΈαααααα ααα₯αΈααααΈααααα α₯α±αα¬ααααα’αα α»αααα¬ααααΎαα¬αΈα±αα¬α±α»αα¬ααΈα±αα¬ α‘α»ααα‘αααααα±ααΈ α»αααα¬α‘α αΈαα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαα ααα«αΈααΌαα±ααΈααα«αα ααααα‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αα¬α±ααα EUαα α‘α±αα«ααΈααα‘αα¬α±αα¬αα±αα¬ ααα»αααααα¬αΈα ααααα»αααααααα α±αα¬αααααα αααα»αααα»αααΈαα¬ αααα±ααΈ αααα±ααΈα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα αα₯α±ααΈαααααα±αα¬ ααΌα»αα¬αΈα±αα¬αααααα¬αΈααΌα αα αααααα±ααΈαααΏαα±α ααα‘ααΌα α‘α»αα¬αΈαααΈ αααΈαα¬αΈα»αα αααΏααα±αα¬ ααΌααΏααΈαααα¬αΈα αααααααΈαααΈααΌα¬αΈααααα»αα ααα
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α»αααα¬αααα αΌαααα¬αΈααΏαααα‘α±α»αα‘α±α - α‘ααΌαααΈααΌα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘ααα‘ααα¬αΈ
Human Security in Myanmar: Critical Hurdles
Pavin Chachavalpongpun, PhD Associate Professor
Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University [email protected]βu.ac.jp
ααΏαα±ααΈα α»ααααΌααΈαα±αα¬ααα¬αΈ α‘ααΈαα¬αΈααααα¬αΈαααΏαα±ααΈα‘α±ααααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈα»αααΈα±αΎαα¬αααα¬αΈααΏαααααααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαααααΈααΌα¬α±ααααα α»αααα¬αααααΌαβααΏαα±ααΈβαα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαααααα¬ααΌα α‘αα±αα¬αα α»αααα¬αα αααααααααα α»αααα¬αααααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±αα±αα¬ α‘α¬αα¬α‘ ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈα‘ααα±αα¬αα»αααΈαα α»αααααα±αα¬αα»αααΈααα±αΎαα¬ααα ααααα»αα ααα»αααΈα»αα ααα State αα Nation α‘ααα»αα αα¬ααα ααα±αΎαα¬α Nation α ααΏαα±ααΈαα α‘ααααα‘α αΈαα ααΏαα±ααΈαα ααααα ααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαα‘ααα¬ααα»α ααΏαα±ααΈαα«αα¬αααΈα»αα Bredan Howe αα Suyoun ααααααΈα»ααααα‘ααα«αα«αα¬αααΈααΌα αΏαα±ααΈααα‘ααΈα α±αα¬α‘ααα‘α»αα¬α‘α¬αα¬α αααα»αα α‘α±ααΈαα«α±αα¬ α‘α ααααΈ α»αα αΏααΈ α‘ααΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈα α‘α±α»αα‘αα‘αα»αα α»αα αααα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈαααα±αα¬(Nation-State) α ααΏαα±ααΈα α±ααα¬ααΈααααα ααααΌα αα¬αΈαααα αααΈα‘α»ααα‘α State α α»ααααα α»ααααΌααΈαααα¬αΈα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈα‘ααα‘α»αα¬ α‘α¬αα¬αα ααα±α»α αααα¬ααααα‘α¬αααα¬ααΌαα±ααΈαααα‘ααααα‘α»αααααΏααΈαα αααααΈαα¬αα αααΈα α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ α»αααΈα±α»αα¬αααα‘α¬αΈααΈα αααααααα¬ααΌααααα»αα ααα α»αααα‘α¬αΈα»αα α α ααα±αα¬αααΌαα±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬α‘αα¬αααα α»ααααΌααΈα‘α±αα»αα αααα±ααΈαααΏαααααα αααα±ααΈ αααΏαααααααααααΌαα±ααΌααααα‘αα¬αα¬αΈα»αα αΎαααα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈαααα±αα¬αα αα (Nation State) α αα¬ααΌααααΈαααΈα±α α¬αα±αα¬ααα¬ααΌαα α ααα ααα¬αα»ααα¬αΈααα‘αααΈααααΌα αα¬ααα±ααΈαα¬αΈαα ααΏααααα±ααΈαα α₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈα»αα ααα α»αααα¬ααααα»αα ααααΌααααα±αα¬ααα»αααΏαα±ααΈα»αα ααααα‘ααΌααα¬ααααα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈ ααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬αααα αΏαααααααα»αααα»αααΈααααα αα«αΈααΈα±αα¬α‘ααααα α α α±α‘αΈα±αααα α±αα¬αα»ααααΌααΈα α ααΏααΈααΈααα±αα¬ αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα‘αΎααΌαααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α ααΏαα±ααΈ αα±αα¬ααα¬αΈ ααΌα αααα±αα¬ααααΈα»αααα¬ααΌαα±ααΈαα αΌααΈα±αα¬ααααα α‘α±ααΈαααΈααΈα±αα¬ α‘αα αααΈαααΈα‘α»αα αα±αα±α ααααα‘ααΈαα¬αΈααΏαα±ααΈααα¬ααΌαααα α α‘α αΈαααααΏααΈ α‘αααα«α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈ αα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬αααααΌα α α α‘ααααα αααααΈααααα»αααΈα»αα ααα αααααα±ααα‘ααα‘α ααααα¬α αα¬ααΌαα±αααααΈααααα¬ααααΈαααΈα±αα α‘α±αα¬ααααΈα ααα±αα¬αΎααα-αααααα¬ααΌαα»αααΈαα¬αΈ α»αααα¬ααααα α‘α±αα¬ααααΈα ααα±αα¬αΎαααααΌααααααα¬αΈααΏααααΎαα¬αΈαααα±ααΈα αα¬α±ααΌα±αα¬ αααα¬ααΌαα±αα¬ααα¬αααα‘ααΈααα±αα¬αα±αα¬ααα αα ααα±αα¬αα»ααααα α‘α±αα¬α αααΈαααααα¬αΈααααΏαα±ααΈαα±αα¬ααα¬αΈααΈαααααααααααα αααΈαααα¬α‘ααΈ
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α±ααα±α αααα α‘α±ααΈααααααααα¬αΈα ααα»ααα±αα¬α‘α¬αΈα»ααα α α‘α αΈααααααα»ααααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ αααα»αααΈα α»αααΈα»αααΈααααα»αααααΏααΈ ααααααΈααΌα¬αΈααα ααα¬αΈαααΏαα‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα αα ααα α»αα ααΌααΈα±α αααα α‘α±ααααα α»αααα¬α±ααΈαα¬ααα«α α‘α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘α±ααα α»αααα¬αααααΌααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈα»αα αα¬αα α‘ααααΌα α‘α±αααααααΌα αααα‘αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα αααΌααααΈαα α±αα¬ α‘α¬αα±ααΈαα¬ααα«α βα‘α¬ααααβ α α ααααααααααα±αααα ααα‘α»αα α±ααααΌααΈα αααα±ααΈ α‘αααΈα‘αααΈαα ααααΈ αααΈα»ααα‘ααΌααΈ ααΈααΌα¬αΈα±αα¬ ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈ α‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈαα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈαα‘α±αα α‘α±ααααα α₯αΈαααααα¬αΈα α»αααααααα α±α αααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αα α‘α±ααααα αα±αααα¬αΈαα αα ααα‘αα« ααα±ααΌααα±αα¬ αα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα»αα αΏααΈ α‘α αΈααααα±ααΌαααααααΈ αααΎαα¬α±αα¬ αααΈα»ααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘ααα‘α αα αα¬ααα¬αΈααΌααΏααΈα±αα¬α α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααα«αΈααΌαααα‘ααα±α»αα±α αα α‘α±αααα αα αααΈααΈα»ααααααα‘αα¬αΈα‘α»αα¬αΈα»αα α»αααα¬αααα αααα±αα α±αα¬α±αα¬αα±ααΈα α‘α¬αΈα±ααΈ αααα αααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈααα»αα ααα α₯αΈαααΈα αα‘α αΈααααα±ααΌααααα»αααΈαααα±αα αα¬α α»αααα¬ααααααααα±ααΈααΌα α‘α±ααααα α‘α¬α αααααα«αα αααααα αα»αα ααα α»αααα¬α‘ααα‘ααα¬αΈαα α»αααα±αα¬α α±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αααα¬αΈααα αααΈαααα«ααααα¬ααα ααα¬αΈααα»αα α±α‘α¬ααα α±αα¬ααααα»αα ααα α‘α¬αα¬ααα αα αα±α»ααα α‘α»αα αααα αααα±αα¬ααΈααα αΎαααααΈααΈα±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααα ααααα αα α»ααααα α±αα¬αα α‘αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘α αΈααα α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎααααα‘αααααΌα±αα¬α±αα¬αα±αααα α»αααα¬αααα ααΌααααΈαα¬α±αα¬ α»αα α α₯αα¬αΈ α ααα»αααα¬ααΌα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈα‘ααααΌαα α±αα¬ααα ααα¬αααα α±αα»ααα±αα¬α α±αα«ααΈ α±αα¬ααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αα αα αααααΈαα αα«ααααααααΈαααΈααΏααΈ αα αααααΈαα¬ αα ααααααααΈααΈααααααΈα±ααΈαα¬αα α»αααα¬αααα±αα¬αααααααΈ αααΈαααΈαααα α‘α±ααΈααααααα αα¬αΈαααααΈα»αααΈα α»αααα¬α‘αα αααΈααα¬αα¬αΈαα αα±ααΌααααα»αααΈα α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈα»ααααα±αα«ααΈ α ααΈα±ααΈα ααα‘α¬αα αα»αααΈ αα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈα»αααααα»αααΈαααα ααα‘ααααΌα α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈ α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαααααα αααα αααΈααα±αα¬αααααΈα α₯αα¬αΈααΌα α‘α±αααααα‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈααα±α α±ααΈααα‘ααΌα α»αααα αα¬αΈαα ααα«ααα α α‘α αα‘αααα¬αΈααα»αα ααα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααα‘α¬αΈα»αα α»αααα¬αααα±αα α±αα¬α±αα¬αααα‘α¬αΈ α‘α±ααααα‘α¬αΈα±ααΈαααα αααΈα»αα ααΌααααΈα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬ααΌαααα‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα α‘αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘α αΈαα αααααααα¬ αααααααα αα ααααα±αα¬ααα»αααα»αααΈααα»αα αααααα±αα¬α‘α±ααααα α‘ααα»αα αα¬αΈα±αα¬ α»αααα¬α±ααΈαα¬ααα«ααα α ααααα±αα¬αααα α α ααα‘αααααΈααα¬α‘α±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈ αααΏαααΈα±α»αα¬ααααα¬αΈα αααα¬αΈα±αααα ααΏαα±ααΈ-ααΈαααΈα±αα¬ααΈααα±ααΈ ααα»αα»αα ααΏααΈ αα αααααΈαα¬ααα‘α±ααααα ααααα‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌαα‘α αΈααα αααα±ααΌαααα αααααΈαα‘αα±α ααα Realpolitik α α‘α»ααα‘α ααααα ααΏααΈααααα±ααΈαα¬αααα α αα¬αΈααΈααααααααα±ααΌαααα¬ααα«αα‘ααααΈα αα₯αΈααααα‘αα α‘ααααα‘α±αα¬ααααΈ α ααααααΈα αΈααΈαα¬αΈ αααα¬ α»αααα¬αααααΌα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαα¬αΈαα αααααααα»αααΈααα»αα αααααα±αα¬αααΈααα±ααΌαααα¬ααα«αααα‘α±αα¬αααα»α¬α‘α¬αΈ αααααΈαααΈαααΈα‘α±α»α α‘α±ααα ααααααααα±α ααα α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈα»αα α α₯α ααΌαα±αααα¬αα α‘ααΌαα‘αααΈ αα ααα αααααααα¬αααΈ ααα±ααΌαααα¬ααα«αα ααααΈαααα‘αααα α‘αααααΈα αααααα‘α±αα¬ααααΈα ααΏαα±ααΈααα»αα‘α»αααα ααα¬αΈααΏαα±ααΈαα α₯αααα¬αΈα ααααΌαα±ααΈ
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ααΌααααΈαα»αααΈα»αααα αααααΈαα±αα«αα»αα α±αααα α»αααα¬ααααα αααΈαααΎαα¬αΈαααα±ααΈα ααααΌααα¬ααΌαααα±ααΌαααα¬ααααα αααα±ααΈαα α‘α±ααΈαααΈαααα‘α±αα¬ααααΈ αα±ααΌαααα¬αΈαααα±αααα¬αααΌαααα¬αΈααΏααα ααα»αααΈα‘α±αα α±αααα αα¬α»αα α±αααα α»αααα¬αααααΌαααα¬αΈααΏαα±ααΈα‘α¬αΈα‘α α‘ααα‘αΏααααααααα±αα¬ α‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈαα±α α±ααΈ αααα¬ ααααα±αα»αααΈαα α‘α±αα¬ααααΈ αααααΈαα αα₯αΈααααα‘αα α ααα±αα¬αααα‘α¬αΈ α ααΈαααααα ααα»αα α±αα±αα±αα¬ααα
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α»αααα¬ ααα±αα¬αααααΌαα±ααΈ ααΌααΏααΈαααα α±ααααΌααΈααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααα α‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬
Development of Transport Connectivity in Myanmar and the Prospect for Regional
Cooperation
Lei Zhuning Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Yunnan Academy of Social
Sciences [email protected]
α»αααα¬α α α αα α‘α±ααα±αα¬αα‘α¬αα α±αα¬αα‘α¬ααα α‘α±ααα‘α¬αααα αααΈααααΈααΌααΌα αααα αααΈα ααα¬ααα¬α±α»αα¬αααα±ααα¬α±αΎαα¬α α»αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα±ααΏααΈ αααΈααΌααΈααααα αα¬αΈαα α±αα«ααΈααΈα±ααΈα»αααΈαα α±αααααα¬ α‘αα‘ααΌα»αα ααααααΌα α‘α α¬αΈααΈααα±αα¬ α‘αααΈ αααα αα»αα α±ααααααα±αΎαα¬αα±αααααα¬ααα±αα¬αααααΌαα±ααΈαα αααΈαα ααΌαα»αααα¬α α α αααΈααααα±ααααΌααααΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬α‘α αα‘αααΈαα ααα‘α»αα αααα±α ααα α‘αααα‘αααα±αα¬ ααα¬α±ααΈαααΈα»αα αα¬αΈαα αααΈααα¬ α αΌααΈα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈααααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ α±αα¬ α‘ααα‘ααα¬αΈ ααααααα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈ α‘α±α»ααα‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘ αα¬αΈ ααα±αα¬α α±ααΈαα αααα ααα ααααΈα αα¬αΈα±αα¬α‘α¬αΈα»αα αααααΈαα±αα«αα α±αα α»αααα¬α α α α ααα¬α±αα¬α‘α¬αΈαα¬αααα¬αΈαα‘α»ααα‘αα‘ααΈα»ααααα α±ααα α‘α¬αΈα»ααα»αααα¬ααα±ααααΌααΈα‘ααΌαα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ α‘ααΈα‘α»αααα¬αΈαααΌααα¬ααα ααα±αα¬ αααα¬ αααα α±αα¬αα±ααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ ααααααααΈααααΈαα«αααααα α»αααα¬α α α α‘α±ααααα»ααα¬αΈ α±αα¬α±αααααα¬ααα±αα¬αααααΌαα±ααΈ ααΈα»ααα±ααΈα‘ααΌα αααα¬α±αα¬ α‘α¬αΈαααααα¬αΈ α»ααααα αααΌαα±ααΌ αα‘αααα α»αα αα¬α α α ααΌα ααα±αα¬αααααΌαα±ααΈ ααΈαααααα¬αΈ α»αααα¬α α α αα ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈ α‘α±α»ααα‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘αα¬αΈα±αα¬αααα±ααΈααααααΌα αααα ααααΈα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ ααΈαααααα¬αΈα α±αα¬αααΌααααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ α‘αααα‘αααα±αα¬ αααΈα»αα αα¬αΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ αα αααααα¬αΈα α‘ααα‘α±αα¬αα‘ααΈ α‘αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α α»ααααΌααΈαααΈααΌα α±αα¬αααΌαααα αααααΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬αα±αα±ααΈαΏααΈ α±αα αααα¬ ααα±αα¬αααααΌαα±ααΈααΈα»ααα±ααΈα‘ααΌααα¬αααΈ α‘ααα α‘αααα±αααα α. ααα±αα¬αααααΌαα±ααΈ α‘α±α»αα‘αα‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘ α±αα¬αααα±ααΈααΌα ααΈαααα αααΈα±αα¬αααα±ααΈααΌα αααα ααααΈα αααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ α±α‘α¬αα»αααααα¬αΈαααααα αααα αααα α»ααααα±αα¬αααα±ααΈαααααΈαα¬αα±α‘α¬αααΌα αααΈααα±αα«ααΈ ααααα αααα¬ααααα αααα ααΌα αα αααααΈα αααΈααα±αα«ααΈ ααααα α±αα¬α‘α α»αααα α±αα¬αααα±ααΈαααααΈα ααΈααααΏααΈα»αα ααα ααΈα»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘α¬αΈαααααα¬ αααα-ααα±ααΈ α‘α»αααααΈααα ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈαααααα±αΎαα¬α α‘α±αα α»αααΈαα
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ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈααΌα α±αα¬ααααααα±αα¬ α§αα¬ααα»αα α‘α±αα¬ααααααΈ ααΌα αααΈα±αα¬α ααα±ααΈαα¬αΈ α»αα αΎαααα ααΈααα¬αΈαααΈααααΌααααΈ α»αααα¬α α α αα αΏααΈαααααα αα α‘ααΌααΈ αααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ ααΈαααααα¬αΈαα ααα αααα ααααα αααααΌα ααΈααα¬αΈαααΈααα±αα«ααΈ αααα αααα¬ ααααα15
16 αααα αααααααΈ α αααα.αα ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈααΏααΈα»αα αα¬ αααα αα αααα α‘ααΌα ααΈααα¬αΈαααΈ α α.α αααα¬ α±αα¬ααααα»αααΈα»αα ααα αααα αα αα¬ ααΈααα¬αΈαααΈα±αα¬αααα±ααΈα α‘αα»αααααα αααα α§αΏα αα‘α ααα αααα¬αΈαααΈ α αα ααΌα α±αα¬ααα ααΈααα¬αΈαααΈααα±αα«ααΈ αααα.αα αααααα±αα¬α ααααΏααΈ ααΈααα¬αΈ αααΈα α α±αα«ααΈα‘αααα ααα±αα«ααΈ αααα α±αα¬ααΌα¬αΈαααα αα α α₯ ααΈααα¬αΈαααΈ αα αα α ααααΈα»αα αααα¬αΈαααΈα αα α ααΈαααα α‘α αΈααα α α₯α±αααα16
17 α»αααα¬α‘α αΈαα α‘α»ααααΌα ααα-α αΈααΌα¬αΈααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘α±ααΈαα«ααα‘α αααα-ααα±ααΈ ααα¬αΈαααΈ αα ααα α»αα αΏααΈ ααα±ααΈ- α»αα αααΈαα¬αΈ ααα¬αΈαααΈα ααααααα¬ αααα-α±αα¬αΏαα-α±ααΈ ααα¬αΈαααΈα αααα±ααα¬ααΌαααΏααΈ αααα-α»ααααα¬αΈαααΈα α αα α»αα ααα17
18 ααα¬αα‘α±αα¬α‘ααΌααΈ α»αααα¬α α α αα αααα ααα αα αα¬α±αα±αΎαα¬ααΈαα α±αα±αΎαα¬ααΈ ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈαααααα¬αΈααΌααααΈ αααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈ αα αααα¬αΈαααα±αα¬αααΈα±αα¬α±αα¬ αα¬αΈαααΈαα ααΈααα¬αΈαααΈα±αα¬αααα±ααΈααααΌααααα±αα¬ α±α‘α¬αα»αααα ααΈα±αα¬α ααα α±αα α. α±αα¬α±αα¬αα¬αΈαααΈαα ααΈααα¬αΈαααΈααα±αα¬αα±ααΈαα αα ααΈααΌα α±ααα¬α±ααΌααααα±αα¬ α‘ααΌαααα αα αα α‘ααααΌαα±αα¬α»αααα α±α‘α¬αα»αααααα¬αΈααα±αα¬α»αα¬αΈααα±αα¬αααααΌαα±ααΈ ααααα ααΈ αααααα¬ α±ααΈα±ααΌαΈα±α αΏααΈαααΈα»αααα‘αααΈαααΈααααα¬αΈαα αααααα α‘αααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ααα₯αΈ ααα»αα ααα α‘α¬αα‘α»αααααΈααα¬αΈα α‘α¬αα18
19 α‘α±ααΈα±α»ααΈαααΈααα¬αΈαα GMS20 α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα±αα¬αα αα« α ααααΈ αα¬αΈ αα‘α αΈαα α₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈα‘α»αα αα¬αΈααααα±αα¬αααΈααααααΈααΌαα α±αα¬α±αα¬αα¬αΈαααΈ α±αα¬αααα±ααΈαα¬α»ααααΌααΈααα¬α‘α¬αΈα»αα±ααΏααΈ αααα»αααα ααααΈ αα¬αΈααΌααα¬ααΈααααα‘αααΈ ααααααα αααα±αα¬ααΌα α»αααα¬α α α ααΌα α‘α¬αα‘α»αααααΈααα¬αΈα ααΈααα αααΈαα«αΈ αα¬α‘αα III ααΌααα±ααΏααΈααΈααα αααΈαα«αΈαα¬α‘αα III α±α‘α¬αααΌααα±α ααα α‘αα¬αΈααα ααΈ αααα¬αΈαααΈα±αα¬αααα±ααΈααΌααααΈα±ααΌαααααΏααΈ α»ααααΌααΈααααα¬α‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈ α±ααα¬ α‘αααΈαααΈααααα¬αΈαα α‘ααα‘ααα»ααα±ααα ααα¬αΈααα±αα¬αα±ααΈαα¬αΈααΌα α‘αααΈ ααα±αα¬ ααΈαααααα¬ααααα TAR21 α α‘ααα‘ααα‘ααα»ααα±αα±αα¬α±ααα¬αα¬αΈαα¬ ααΌαα αα αααα α α‘αααΈαα αα±αα±ααΈααα α‘ααΌαα‘αααΈαα¬αΈαα α αα±αααααα¬αΈ
16 New Light of Myanmar, Oct. 30, 2010 p.1 17 New Light of Myanmar, June 5, 2011 p.1, p.8 18 New Light of Myanmar, March 15, 2011 p.8 19 ASEAN: Association of Southeast Asian Nations 20 GMS: Greater Mekong Subβregion 21 TAR: TransβAsian Railway.
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ααα±αα¬αααααΌαα±ααΈα‘α±αα α±αααααα¬αα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααα ααααααααΈααααΈα»αα α±ααα»αααΈαα α»αααα¬α α α αα α‘αααΈαααΈ ααααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬α‘ααΈα‘α»αααα¬αΈαααα±α ααα»αα ααα α.α±α αΈααΌαα±αα«αα±αα¬ααααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααα α±ααααΌααΈααα±αα¬αααααΌαα±ααΈααΈαααα¬α»αααΈαα ααα»ααααα±αα¬α±ααααΌααΈα±α αΈ ααΌααα α±ααααΌααΈ ααααα¬αΈαα α±α αΈααΌαααααΌααα αΌα¬α±αα«αα±αα¬αααΌα¬αΈα±α ααα»αα ααα α»αααα¬α α α α α‘αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα»αα α±αα¬αααα α‘αα΅αα ααα€αα¬αΈα±αααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα‘α¬ααααα αα¬αΈαα α α α±αα«ααΈαα₯αΈα±ααααΈ αααα α±αα¬ααα αααΈαα¬αΈ α±αα¬ α±α αΈααΌααα αα»αα ααα ααα-α‘α¬ααααΌαααα αΌα¬ααααΌαααααα±α»αααα±αα¬ααα»αααΈαα α±ααααΌααΈαα¬α±αα¬αα α‘α¬ααα αΈααΌα¬αΈ α±ααΈ α‘ααα‘αααΈα±αΎαα¬α α±ααααΌααΈα±αα«ααΈα ααΈαα α‘ααα‘ααααα¬α±αααα GMSα SAARC22 α BIMSTEC23 α αα α±ααααΌααΈααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαα±ααΈ αααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαααΈ ααΏααααα±ααααΌααΈαα¬α±αααα ααααα α α‘α»αα α±ααααΌααΈ FDI24 αα αααΈααα¬ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα αααΈααΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬ααα»αα αα¬α‘ααα‘ααα‘ααΌαα‘αααΈαα¬αΈ αααΈααα»αα ααΌααΈαα¬ααα»αα ααα ααααα₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈααα‘α¬αΈα‘ααΈα»α α ααααααααΈαα¬αΈααααααΈααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ ααΌαα‘ααα±αα¬αα¬ ααααΌα α»αααα¬α α α α αα₯αΏααααα αΌααΈαα±αα¬α‘ααααα¬αΈα αααα ααα±ααα¬α‘α¬αΈαα¬αα αα¬αΈαααααΌααΈα α₯αΈα α¬αΈαα α‘α¬αα α‘αααα±αα¬ααααα±ααΈα ααα¬α»αα αα¬ααααα ααα»ααααα±αα¬α ααααΌαα±ααΈααΈαααααα α±ααααΌα ααα αααα±αα¬αα±ααΈαα ααα»α¬αα αααΈααΌα¬αΈαααααΈαα¬αΈα ααΌααΏααΈααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈααα»αααααΏααΈ ααα±αα¬αααααααΌα α‘ααα‘ αααα¬αΈααααααΈα±ααΈααααα»αα ααα α. α»αααα¬α α α αα»αααααΈαα α±ααααΌα αααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈαα¬αΈααααα±αααα α αα±αααααα¬αΈαα α‘ααα‘ααα¬αΈ ααα¬α±ααΌα±αα¬ααα»αααΈαα αααΈααα¬αααΈαααα¬α‘αααα‘ααα‘αα¬αΈα‘ααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘ααα¬ααΈ α‘αα α‘α αα ααα α±ααααΌααΈαααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬αααα±ααΈα‘ααΌα α‘ααΈα‘αα¬αΈα»αα α±α αα ααα±ααΌααα±αα αα α»ααα¬αα¬αΈα»αα α±αααα ααα»αα αααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈα‘ααΈααΈααΌα ααΈα»αα¬αΈααα±ααΌαα±α αα±αα¬ α»ααα¬αα¬αΈααΎα ααα ααααααααΈαα¬αΈαααααααααααΈααα±αα¬ααα αααα±α»αα¬ααΈα α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈα αααα±ααΌαΈα±αα¬ααα»αα¬αΈ α»ααα±αα¬ αααααΈα α₯αα¬αΈαα ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈα‘α±α»ααα‘α±αα¬αα‘ α‘αα¬αΈααααΈα»αααΈα ααααααGMS ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈααααα α ααα±αα¬αα±αα¬αα±ααΈααΈα±αα«ααΈ α±αα¬αααΌααα ααΌα α‘ααα±αα¬α‘ααΈα‘αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘α»αα ααΈαα¬αΈαα α±αααα α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈααα¬αΈαα¬αΈ α»αα αΎαααα ααα»αα¬αΈα±αααα¬αΈααΌαα»ααα¬αα¬αΈαα±α»αα¬ααΏααΈααΏαα±ααΈα»ααα¬αα¬αΈαα»αααα¬αααααΌααΈαα α»αααα¬α α α αα ααααΌα αααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬α αα±αααααα ααα»αα α±αααα ααα»αα α±ααααΌααΈ αααααα ααΈαααα¬α»αααΈ α α±αα¬ααα₯αΈαα¬α±αα¬ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈα‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘αα¬αΈααΈαααα¬α»αααΈ ααα‘α αααααΈα»αααΈα ααΈαα α±αα¬αα α±αα¬ααΈααα»αααΈαα α±αα¬αααΈααα α¬α¦ααα¬αΈαα¬ααΌαα±ααΈα αα α±ααΈααΌα α»ααα¬αα¬αΈαααΈααα¬ααααα α±ααααααα±αα¬αααα αααΈ α±ααααΌααΈαααααααααΈα»αααα α±ααααΌααΈααααααα¬αΈα αααα ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααα ααααααααΈαα αα
22 SAARC: South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation 23 BIMSTEC: Bay of Bengal Initiative for MultiβSectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation 24 FDI: Foreign Direct Investment
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ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈα‘α±α»ααα‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘αα¬αΈααα±αα¬αααααΌα α»αααα¬α α α ααααααα¬αΈααα±αα¬ααα αααΌαα±ααΌ αα‘α ααα α.αααα ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααα α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈα±α αα ααααααα α‘α αΈααααΈαα α₯α¬ααααΏααΈααααΈαα±αααα ααΌα α»αααα¬α α α αα αα¬α ααααα αΌαα±αα¬ααα α‘α α₯α‘αα¬α»αα αα αΎαα¬αΈα±αα±ααΈα α»ααααΌα¬αΈα±ααΏααΈααα±ααΌαα±αα¬ αα«αα«αααΈα ααα αααααααΈαααΈαααα¬ α»αααα¬α α α α α‘α±αα¬ααΈααΈα‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈα‘α»αα ααΌααα±αααα α‘α»αααααΈαα ααααααα±ααΈααααΌα‘ααΌα α α α±α»α α»αααα αα α»αα αα¬ααα‘α±ααΈαα αα¬ααα ααααΌαααα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌα α±ααα‘ααΌαα‘αααΈαα ααα ααααΌααα α‘α±ααΈαααα»ααα±αα¬α α±αα α₯ α»ααααΌααΈα±αα¬αααα±ααΈααααΌααααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα ααα ααα¬αα α±ααααΌααΈαααΈα»αα αα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ ααΈαα‘ααΈα»αααα α±ααααΌααΈααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαααα α»αααααα ααα α‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈα‘α α‘α¬αΈαα¬αα αα¬αΈαα‘α»ααα‘αα‘ααΈααααα¬ α»αααα¬α α α α‘ααΌα α‘ααΌαααα¬α‘α±ααΈαααΈααα αααα‘ααΌαααααΏααα±αα¬α αΎααΌααα±αα¬α ααΌααααΈα±αα¬ α»αααα¬ααααα ααα»αα αααα¬αααα‘ααΈ α αΈααΌα¬αΈ αα¬αΈαααΌα αα±ααΏααΈα‘ααΈαα»αα αααΈααΌααΈααα»αα αΏααΈααΌααΏααΈαααααα±αα¬αααΈα α‘α±αα¬αα±αα¬α α±αααα¬αΈ α‘ααΌα α»αα ααα ααα±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬-α‘α±αααα αααα¬α±αα¬ αααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈααααα ααΌαααααα α‘αααΈααααααααΈαααΈα±αα¬αα±ααΈαα»αααΈα»αα ααα α»αααα¬α α α αα‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬α α±αα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌαα‘αααΈαα¬αΈαα‘α»ααα‘αα‘α±αα¬α α‘ααα±αααα¬α±α ααΎααααα¬αααΈ α»αααα¬α α α α α‘α»αα¬αΈα‘αααΈαααΈααααα¬αΈα α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈα ααΌααα«ααααα α»αααα¬α α α αααα»ααα¬αΈαα α±ααααΌααΈα‘ααα‘αααα αααΈαααα¬αααα¬ α±ααααΌααΈ ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαα±ααΈ α‘ααΌα α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαααΈα±αα¬α‘αα¬α»αα ααα ααα±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬α α α α ααα»ααα¬αΈαα α±ααααΌααΈαααα ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαα±ααΈ αααα¬αΈαα ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αααΌαα±ααΌ αα‘αααα αααα¬αΈααα₯αΈα‘ααααΌα α±ααααΌααΈααΌα ααααααα‘αααΈα»αα αα α‘ααΈαα»αα α»αααα¬α α‘αα΅αα ααα€αα¬αΈα±ααα αααΈαα ααααα αα«αααααΏααΈα±αααααΌα α‘α¬αΈααΈαα«αααααα±αα¬ ααααααΈαΏααΈα±ααααΌααΈαα ααα»α¬ααΈαααα¬ααααααα¬αΈ α‘α¬αΈααΈααααΈααΌαα±ααΈαα¬αΈααααα α‘ααα±αα¬α‘α¬αΈαααααα¬αΈααα‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈα»ααααα»ααααααα αααα α±αα±αα¬αα«ααα αααααααΌα ααα€αα¬αΈα±αα αα α»αααα¬α α α αααα»αααΏααΈααΈαααα¬αΈα ααααΈαα α±α‘α¬αα»ααα±αα¬αα¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈαΏααααΌ αα αα αααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈααααΏααΈ BCIM25 Economic Corridor αα ααα αααα α‘αα΅ααα αααααα αααα α±ααααΌα α‘αα»ααααα αα α₯ α‘α±ααααααααα€αα¬αΈα±αααα α»αααα¬α α α αα α±αα¬α India-Pacific Economic Corridor αα ααα‘α±αα¬αα‘αα α±αα¬αα α‘αααα¬ααΌα α±αα¬αα«α±αααα αααα α±αα¬ααααΈαα¬αΈα ααΈα±αα«ααΈααα»αα α»ααααααΈα»ααααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα ααα¬αΈααΌαα¬αΈ αααααα α ααααα±αα¬αα±ααΈ αα α₯αΈα α¬αΈα±αα₯ αααα α»αααα¬α α α α‘ααΌα α»ααααααΈα»ααααα¬αΈ αα¬αΈαα α±αα¬αα±ααΈαα α α₯α±αααα α‘αα¬ααααΌα α±ααααΌαα‘ααα‘αα α±αα¬αααααΈααα±α ααα‘αααα¬α‘α±αα¬α α‘ααα¬αΈααα±αα¬αααα αααααα¬ α±αα¬α‘α¬αΈαααααα¬αΈαα‘αα±αααα
25 BCIM Regional Cooperation Forum ααΌα ααα€αα¬αΈ α±ααα αααα»αααααααΌαααα(ααα)α α‘αα΅α(α‘α±ααα±α»αα¬αα±αααα
α‘α±αα¬αααα±αα«α»αααα)α αα α»αααα¬ααα αααα«ααα»ααΈ α±ααααΌααΈααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααααααα₯α±ααΈαααααα±ααΈαα¬αΈαα»αααααα
αααααα¬α±αααα αααΈα ααα΅α¬ααα¬ αααα°αα α±ααα±α»αααα ααΈααααΌαα»ααΈα±α ααααααΌαααα»ααααααααα ααΌα ααααΈα»αααα αααααα
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α. α±ααααΌααΈααααααααΌα αα¬α αα¬α ααααΈαα αα ααα‘ααα α±ααααΌααΈααααααα α‘α¬αΈααΈααΌααΈαΏαααα±αα¬α‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα αααααααΌααΈα α₯αΈα α¬αΈαααααΌαα±ααΌ αα‘ααΏααΈααααααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈαα¬αΈα α α α₯αα¬αΈα±αα¬ααααα α‘αα»ααα¬αΈα±αα¬αααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈαα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈααΈα ααααΌααΈααΌααααααα‘αααα ααα±αα¬αααααΌαααΌαα±ααΈαααα¬α±ααααΌααΈααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααα α‘ααΌα αα¬α αα¬α ααααΈαα αα αααΌα αα¬α±ααΌα±αα¬αααα¬αΈαα α‘α±ααΈαααΈααΈαα α ααΈααα ααααΈαα¬αΈ α‘αααΈ α»αααααααα α.α‘ααΈαα α¬αΈααΌααα αααα αααα¬αΈ ααα±αα¬ααΈααΌαα αΌα¬ααΌα±αα»αααΈα‘ααΌα αααα¬αΈαα¬αΈααα±αα¬αα»αααΈ α»αααα¬ααααααα±αα¬αα±ααΈαααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈαα¬αΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα αΎαα€ααα¬αΈα α»αααα¬αααΈααα±αααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα βclub goodβ α‘α»αα αααααααα α»αααα¬α α α ααΌα ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈα‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈααΈαααααα α±ααααΌααΈααααααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈαα‘ααΈαα α¬αΈααΌαααααααα ααα±αΎαα¬α α‘ααΈαα α¬αΈααΌααα ααα α αααα¬αΈααΌα±αα»αααΈ αααα¬αΈαα α αααα±αα¬α αααΏααΈααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα±αα¬αααΌααα¬ααΌα αααα±ααΈαα ααα¬ααααααΈαααααα¬α§ααα¬αα¬αΈααΌα αα»ααααα±αα¬α αααα¬αΈααα α¬αΈαα α±αα¬αααΌαααααα α. αααααΈαααα¬αααα±αα¬α‘ααΈα‘αα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα±αα¬ααΏααΈαα αααααΈα±αα¬αααΌαααα αΌααΈα α»αααααα GMS ααα»αα¬αΈα»ααα±αα¬ ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈαα±αα¬αααα (CBTA) α α‘α±ααΌαα‘ααα α±ααα¬ααα‘α α‘α±αα¬αααΌα αααΈαααΈα±ααΈαααααΈα α₯αα¬αΈα±αα¬α±ααΌαααααα α±ααααΌα ααα±αα¬αα‘αααα α ααα±αα¬ααα α»αααα¬α α α αα αααΈαα‘αααΈαααΈααααα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈα‘αα¬αΈααααα αα±αα¬ααααααΈαααααα‘αΎαα»ααα¬αΈααα α‘ααα«αααααΈαα¬αΈαα‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αα¬α»αααΈα»αα α‘α»ααα‘α±αα¬αααα±αα¬α±ααααΌααΈ ααα αααα±αα¬αα±ααΈααΌααααα αααα ααα±αα¬ααΏααΈα»αα αααα±αα¬αααα¬αΈαΏααΈα±ααααΌααΈ α‘α±α»αα α‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘α‘α»ααα‘αα ααααααα α‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬αα¬αΈαααΈα‘α»ααα‘αα‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±ααα¬ ααα»αα ααα α±ααααΌααΈααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬α ααΌαααα α‘ααΈαα α¬αΈααΌααα¬αΈαα±αααααααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈααΈαΎαα¬αΈ α±αααα α¬αΈααααα»αα ααα
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α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈα‘ααΌααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα»αααΈαα ααα-α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈααΌααΏα αΈααα‘αα
Myanmarβs Political Transformation and New Development of Chinaβ Myanmar Relations
Liu Xuecheng Senior Fellow
China Institute of International Studies [email protected]
αααααα»αααα¬ααααααα αα αΎαααααΈααΈα±αα¬ α‘αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα»αα αΎαααα ααα»αα¬αΈα»ααα±αα¬αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαααΈαα¬αΈ α‘α α±αααααααα‘α αααα¬αΈα±αα¬ α±αα«αα±αα¬(ααααΈα‘α)αααααααα±ααΈαααΎαααα ααα ααααα αααα‘αααΈαααΈ αααα±ααΈααΌα ααααΈαααα¬ααα ααααα‘α»αα αΏαααΈαααΈα αΌα¬ α‘ααα₯ααΌα±αααα±ααΈ ααα«αΈααα α ααα±αα¬αααΌα α αα αααααΈα±αα¬ α‘α¬αααααα¬αΈα»αα αΎαααα α»αααα¬ααααα ααααα ααααααΈααα«αα αααα¬αΏααΈ ααααα‘αα α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α±αα¬αααααα αααααααΈ α»αααα¬αααα αααααα α‘ααα‘α»αα¬α‘α¬αα¬αα ααααααα±α»ααααα¬ ααααα‘α¬α α±αα¬αααααα αααΈααΌααΈαααααααααΌα α‘αα΅ααααα΅αα¬αα ααααΌααα ααα¬ααα¬α±α»αα¬αα αΌααΈα‘ααα ααΈαααΈα±αα¬ααΈααα±ααΈ αααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈα α»αααα¬ααααα ααααα ααα±αα¬αααΎαααα ααααα ααα-α»αααα¬ ααα€αα¬αΈα±αααα α‘αα΅ααα α‘αΎαα¬αΈα±ααΈαααα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ ααααα α‘αα»αααα¬ααΌα α‘αααα«ααααααα αα α₯αΈα»αα ααα αααΈααααααα¬αα±αα«α α±ααααΌααΈ ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααααα α»αα α‘ααΌααΈαα±αα€α¬αα¬αΈααΏαα ααα αΌα¬ ααΌα¬αΈαα¬ααα±α αα αα±αα«αα»αα α±αΎαα¬ααΈαα α±αα¬α α‘α α‘α α₯ααααΈααΌααα αα¬ααααααα¬αΈα αα¬αΈααΈαα α±ααΈαααααΈα±αα«ααΈαααΈααα»αααΈααα ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬α ααΌαα±ααΈ αααααα¬αΈα»αα αΎαααα αααααα»αααα¬αααα α‘αααΈαα¬αΈααΈ αααΈααΈα»ααααα»αα ααΏααΈ ααααα»αααα ααΌα α α α±αα«ααΈαααΈααΈα»ααααα α‘α±ααααα±αααα¬ αα.αα αααααααα ααααααα ααΌα αα ααααΎαα¬αΈααααΌαααααα‘α±αααα α±αααα¬ α.α αααααα±αα¬ααααΏααΈ αα αα αα¬ ααΈαααα α.α αα¬ααααααΈααααα α»αααα¬αααααΌα αααααααα ααα¬α±ααΈαααα±αα¬ αααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬ α‘α±ααααα±αααα¬ αααΈααα αααΏααΈ ααααα»αααα ααΌα α.αα αα¬ααααααΈααΈαα ααα¬ααα αααααΈααααα±αα¬αααΌα α»αααα¬αααααααα‘αααΈααΈ ααααΌαααα»αα αααα α‘α¬αα-αααααΌααα α αΌα¬ααααΌαα±ααΈααα±α»α(CAFTA)α ααααα»αααα ααααα«ααααΌα α‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αα¬ααΏααΈα‘α¬αα-α αα ααα ααα αααααα¬αΈα±αα¬ ααααααα%α±αα¬αα ααΌαααα αΌα¬ ααααΌαααΌαααααα α»αααα¬αααα‘αα«α‘αα CLMV ααααα¬αΈαα αααα ααα ααααα«ααααΌα CFTA α α‘α»ααα‘αα‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αα¬ααααα»αα ααα ααα αα αα¬αΈαααα±αα¬ α α α‘ααααααα ααααα±ααΈαα¬ α‘ααΈααα»αα ααα α»αααα¬αααα»ααααααΌααα¬α»αααΈα αααα±ααΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈ α±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈα»αααα»αααΈα»αα α‘α±αα¬αααα»α¬α±ααΈααααααααα¬αΈα ααααααα»αααΈαα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈα»αααααα α±αα¬αα±ααΈα ααααα±ααΈαα¬ α±ααα¬α ααααα»αααΈααα αααα α±ααΌαα»αααααα α‘αααα¬αΈα‘α αΈααα ααα α±α‘α¬αααα-α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈαα ααααα α‘α α₯α‘αα¬ αα αΎαααααΈααΈα±αα¬ αααα±ααΈαα α¬αααα¬αα α ααΌααα ααΏααΈα»αα ααα αααΌαα₯αΈαααΈα ααα αααΌααα¬ααΈαααΏααΈ ααΎαα¬α
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αααααααΌααΈα‘α¬αΈα»αα αααα α»αααα¬ααα ααΌα αααα±αα α‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αα¬α±ααΈα»αα α α₯α αααα±ααΈαα αααα±ααΈ ααΈα ααΌα»αα¬αΈαα ααΌααΏααΈααααα‘α α»ααααααααα±ααΈα α‘α±ααα¬αΈαΏααΈ α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αααα ααα«αα‘α¬αΈ αααα αααααααα α‘ααα±αα¬ ααα ααα¬ααα¬αα½αΌααΈααααα¬αΈα ααΏαα±ααΈαα½αΌααΈααααα¬αΈαα ααα«αα±ααα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈα α‘ααα«ααααΈααααααΈαα αααα α»αααα¬α αααα»αααα‘α¬αΈααα»αααΈ(ααααα)α‘α»αα¬αΈα‘αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα αααΈα»αααΈ (ααααα) α‘αα΅ααααα΅αα¬α α αΈααΈαα αααΈαααΈαααα ααα»αα ααααΎαααα αααα±αα¬ αααααααΎααΌα±ααα ααα-α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈα ααα αααΈαα α±αα¬ααα‘α»ααα»αα αα½αΌαα±αα¬αααΈα»αααα«ααα αααα αα₯αΈαααααα α‘α»αα¬αΈααα¬αΈα αα₯αΈαααααα ααΌα»αα¬αΈ α±αα¬ααΈααΌα»αα¬αΈααα»αα α±αα¬αααΈ αααΈαα±ααααααΈαααα¬αΈαα¬ αααααα αααα αααΈαααΈα±αα¬α±αα¬ααα αααΈαααα¬αΈαα¬ αααα ααααα αΌααΈαα±αα¬ αα‘αα Yang Houlan α‘α¬αΈ α»αααα¬αα‘ααα‘α»αα αααααΈα±αα¬ααΈα α‘α±ααΌαα‘αααα±αα¬ αααααΈαααα Wang Yingfan α α‘α¬αα±ααΈαα¬ α‘ααΈααααα‘α»αα αααΈ αααα‘ααα»αααΈαα¬ ααα-α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈ ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈααα‘α αααααΈα‘αααα‘α¬αα αΈα ααα¬α»αααΈα»αα ααα ααααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α¬αΈ α‘αααΈαααΈα±αα¬ααΈα ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαα±ααΈαααααα αααΈααΈα±αα¬ααα±ααΌα‘α»αα α»αααα¬αΈα ααα α»αααα¬αααα‘α¬αΈ α‘αα΅ααααα΅αα¬αα αααΈαααΈα»ααα±αα«αα±αα¬αααααα±ααα¬αα αααα¬α±ααααΎαα¬αΈα ααα α»αααααΈααααα±ααα¬α‘α»αα αααααα¬ααα¬ααα±αα¬αα α»αααα¬αΈαααα α»αααα¬αααα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈα»ααααα±ααΌαΈα ααΈαααΌαα±ααΈαα α»ααααΌααΈαααΌαααα α‘ααα‘ααα¬αΈα»αα α‘α»ααα±αα¬α±αα¬α α±αα¬ αααα¬α±αα¬αα¬αΈα»αααααΈα±αα¬ααΈα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈααααααααααΌααα¬αΈαα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαα±αα¬αααα α±α α ααα ααααΈα»αααΈα»αααααΈα±αα¬α α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»ααααα ααααα α‘αααΈααΈ αααΈααΈα»αααααα»αα ααΏααΈ αααΈαααΈααααΌαα±ααΈ α ααααΈαα¬αΈα»αα α‘α±α»ααα‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘αα¬αΈααΈααα±α‘α¬α α±αα¬αααΌααααα αααα‘α αΈααα ααααααΈααα¬αΈαα ααααα αααΈααΈα»ααααααααααααΌαα±αα±αα¬ ααααα¬αααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα ααα¬ααααααΈαααα α₯αααα¬αΈα α‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈα ααα ααααα αααα-αααα ααΌα α»αααα¬ααα α‘α¬ααα₯ααα»αα α±ααΈα‘ααΌα α±αα¬ααααΏααΈ α±ααααΌααΈααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααα αα«αααα α‘ααΈαα»αα α‘α¬ααα‘ααα‘αααΈααα±αα¬αα±ααΈααΌα αα«ααα»αααΈα‘ααΌα α±αα¬αααααα ααααα αα ααα αααα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈααΌα α‘ααα‘α»αα¬α‘α¬αα¬ααααα ααα±αα¬α‘α±α»ααα±ααααΌα αααΈααΈα αΌα¬ααααα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααα αα ααα‘ααΈ α‘α»αααα αα ααα ααΈα‘αα¬ααα ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαα±ααΈααα¬αΈα αααα ααα αΌαααα ααααα α‘ααα‘ααααα±ααΈαα«ααα¬αΈα αααα±ααΈα‘ααΌααα¬αΈαα αα±ααΌααααα±ααΈα α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈα±α‘α¬αα±αα¬αααΌαα αα α‘α αΈααααΈααα¬αΈαααααα±ααΈααααΈ αααα¬α±α‘α¬αααα±αα¬ααααα αααα‘α αΈααα α‘α¬αα¬α αΎααααααΌα αΏααΈα±ααΈαα«αααα α¬αΈαααα¬αΈα ααα±αααααα NLD ααα α¬αΈαααα¬αΈαα α₯αΈα±αα¬αααααΈα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα«ααα¬αΈ ααααα α‘ααΌααα¬αΈααααΈ ααααααα±ααααα¬ α»ααααααΈαααα±ααΈα‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈα±α αααα αααα±ααΈα‘α±α»αα»α ααα-α»αααα¬ αα αΎααα±ααΈαα ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααααα¬αΈααααΈ αααα¬α±α‘α¬α α±αα¬αααΌααααα
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αααΈ αααΌαα₯αΈαααΈα ααα α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎαααααΎαα¬αΈ α‘α±αα«ααΈααα‘αα¬α±αα¬αα±αα¬ α‘α»ααα‘αααααα±ααΈα»αα αααα¬ αα¬ α»αα ααΌααΈαα¬α±αα¬ α»αα α α₯αα ααα‘α»αα αα αααααΈαα αααα±ααΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαα αααααα±ααΈαααΈ α§αααα«αα α αα α±αααααΌα¬αΈαΎαααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ α‘α αΈααα αα α αα±ααααα±αα«ααΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬α ααααα±αααΏααΈ αααΈαααα α»αααΈαααα¬ α‘α»αα ααΌαα±ααα α±αααα»ααα¬αα¬αΈα»αα ααα αααΈαααα±ααΈα»αα α α₯αα αααα±ααΈα»ααααα±αα«ααΈα ααΈααα αααα±ααΈαα αΏαααααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈαααα¬αΈα α»αα α±ααα±α ααααα α»αααα¬α»ααααα¬αΈα α±αα¬αααΎαααα α‘αααα¬αΈα‘α αΈααααα αα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαα±αα¬ααααα‘αα α±α α αα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈαΏααΈ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα ααααααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈααααΈα αα¬αΈα α±αα¬ αααΎαααα αααα ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±ααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈ ααααααΈα»ααααΌαα‘ααΌα α‘αα α‘ααααα α±ααΈα‘ααΌα αα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααΈαααα‘αα¬αΈα α αααααα¬αΈααα αααα±αα¬α‘ααα‘αααα±ααΈα‘αα ααΌα ααααααααααα±αα¬ α‘α¬αα¬ααα»αα ααααα α‘ααΈαα»αα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαα αααααα±ααΈααααααΌαα»αα ααα α‘αα α‘ααααα αα¬αΈαα α‘ααΌα αα¬αΈα ααΎαααΌα¬αα α‘α αΈαα α‘α±αααα αααα±αααα αααααα¬α‘αααΈα‘αααΈα α»αααα¬ααααααΏαααΈα±ααΈααΌα α‘ααΈα ααααα α¬αΈααΎαααα
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ααα-α»αααα¬ αααα±ααΈ (αααα-αααα)- α»αααα¬α α α ααΌαααααααα α»ααααα±ααΈ
ChinaβMyanmar Relations (2011β2013): Promoting Chinaβs Image in Myanmar
Aung Aung Independent Researcher [email protected]
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α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈααα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαα¬αα‘ααΌααΈ α»αααα¬ααΌα ααααααΈααΈα»ααααα
Chinaβs Investment in Myanmar under Its Political and Economic Reform
Lu Guangsheng Institute of Southeast Asian Studies,
Yunnan University [email protected]
αααα ααα α α»αααα¬αααααΌαααααααΈααΈα»αααααααα¬ααα α±αααα¬αααΈ αααα α±αα¬ααΏααΈ α»αααα¬ αααα»αα¬αΈαααΈααΈα»αααααα α α±αα«ααΈα α α αα¬ααααααΈα±αα¬ααα¬ α»αααα¬ααΌα ααααα α‘αα¬αΈααΈαααΈααΈα»ααα αα»αα αααα α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈαα ααααααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α‘ααΌαα‘αααΈα‘αα αα¬αΈαα α αα±ααααα‘αα αα¬αΈ αα ααΈα ααΈα α±αα¬ααα₯αΈαα¬αααα α»αααα¬ αααα»αα¬αΈ αααΈααΈα»αααααα₯αα±ααα αα ααααααααααΈαα¬αΈα ααα’αααα ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα α‘α¬αΈαααααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α αααα‘αα«α‘αα αααα»αα¬αΈαααΈααΈα»αααααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα ααΌα±αα¬αα αα¬α»αα αααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ α»αα α ααα±αα¬αααα±ααΈ αααααα»αααΈαα αααα±αα¬ααΈα±αΎααΈαα ααααΈα αααααααα΅α»ααααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α ααααααΈααΈα»αααααα¬αΈ α‘ααα¬αααα α‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα αααααααα αααα‘α αΈααα αααααΈαα¬αΈ αα α₯αΈα ααΈααααα»αααα¬αααααΌαααααΈα»αααα»αααΈα‘ααΌααααααααα«ααα¬αΈααααΈααααα¬αΈα»αααααΎαααα αααα ααααΈα α»αααα¬αααααΌα ααααααΈααΈα»α αααα αα¬αα¬αΈα±α»αα¬ααΈααααααΈ α»αααα¬αααααΌα ααααααΈααΈα»αααααααααΈαααα αααα αΎααααα‘α ααααα α»αααα¬αααααΌα α‘α±ααααα±αααα¬ αα ααα αα αα¬ααααααΈαααΈααΈα»αααααΏααΈ αααα±ααα¬ααΌααα±ααααα αααΈααΈα»ααααα αα¬ α‘ααα‘α¬αΈα»αα α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌαα ααα α αα¬αα‘α¬αΈα ααααΌααΈαα ααα±αα¬ααααα±ααΈαααααΈ αα¬αΈααΌαα»αα αΎαααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ αααα ααΌα α»αα ααα αααααΈαααΏααΈα±αα¬α α»αααα¬ααααα ααα αααΈααΈα»αααααα‘αα αα¬αΈ αααααα±αα¬ααα¬α»αααΈααα±αα¬α ααααΈαα¬αΈααααα α‘α αΈααα α α±αα¬ α±αα¬αα±ααα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα α‘ααΈαααα¬αΈα ααα‘ααα‘α α±α α¬ααΎααα±ααα»αα ααα ααααααααΈααα‘αααα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈαα αα αα αα¬αα¬αα‘ααΌααΈ α»αααα¬αααα±α»αα¬ααααΈααΌα αααΈ ααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈα αααααααΎαααα α‘αααα α»αααα¬αααα αα¬α‘ααααααΌα¬αα α α α₯αΎαααα αααα‘α αΈαα ααα-α»αααα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααα α‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα ααα‘α ααα α»αααα¬α±ααΈ αα¬ ααα«αα αααΈααααα αααααΈαααα Wang Yinfan α αααα α‘α αααΈααΌα α‘α¬αα±ααΈαα¬ αα α α¬αΈααα‘α»αα αααα‘αααΏααΈ α»αααα¬α±ααΈαα¬αα¬αααα»αα αα¬αααα α»αααα¬ααααααα¬ ααααα‘αααα Yang Houlan αα α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎαααα αα ααΈααα±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα‘αα«α‘αα αααα±ααΈαα«αα‘α¬αΈααΈαα αααΎααΌα αΌα¬ ααααΌααααααα α»αααα¬ααααααα¬ ααααααΈαα α±αα ααΌαααΈα αΌααΏααΈ α»αααα¬α»ααααα¬αΈαα ααααΌααα αααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈαα αα‘α»αα α‘ααΈα»ααααααα αα α₯ αααα»αααααΌα αααααΎααα ααααααααΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌα ααα¬ααααααΈαααααα¬ α ααα ααααΈαα¬αΈα αααα‘α αΈαα α»αααααααα αααα α±αα±αα¬αα«ααααΌα ααααΌαα±ααΈαααααΈαα¬ααα ααα¬ααααααΈ ααα±ααΈαα¬αααααΈαα¬ααααΈααΌαΏααΈ αααααα»αα¬αΈ αααΈααΈα»ααααααα α±αα¬αα±ααΈαααΈαα¬αΈααΌα ααα¬ααααααΈαα α±ααΈαα¬ αααΈααααααα¬αΈα ααα»ααααΏααΈ αααΈα‘ααΈα‘α α¬αΈααΌα αααααΈα±αα¬ ααα»ααααα»αα αααα αααααα»αα¬αΈααΌα ααΌα¬αΈα±αα¬ααααααΎααα ααααααααΈα‘α¬αΈααΈαα α‘α αααααα α₯αα±αα‘α¬αΈααΈα
189
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α±ααΈα±αα ααα±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬ααααα αα±ααΈα±αα¬αα α‘αα¬ααααΌα α‘α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈαα ααα¬ααααΈαα¬αΈ α±αα¬ αααΈααΈα»ααααααα α‘αα‘ααα¬αΈααααααα¬ ααα±ααΌαα‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αααααααα±αα α±αααα‘α¬αΈα»αα α±α»αα¬ααα α»αααα¬αααααΌα ααααααΈααΈα»αααααα α‘ααααΌαα»ααααα‘αα¬ααΈαααα¬ α±αα¬αααΈα‘α±α»αα‘α±αα αααααΏααΈ α±α α¬ααΎαααα¬ αα»αααΈα»αααΈααΈααα±α‘α¬αα»αααα»αααΈα»αα ααα α±αα¬αααΈα‘α±α»αα‘α±αα ααααα»αααΈααααα¬ α±αα¬ααα α»αα αααα‘α±α»αα‘α±αααΈα α±αα¬ααααα αα ααα-α»αααα¬αα¬αα±ααΌααααααΈα α‘ααΌααααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ ααα±αα¬αααααα¬ααΌαααα»αα ααα ααααα α»αα αααα»ααααα αααα α‘α¬αΈαααααα¬αΈα ααααααααααα±αα ααααααα αααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈ αα¬ ααα¬ααααΈαα¬αΈαΏααΈ α±ααααααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈα»αα ααα αα±αα¬αα ααα αα αααααα ααααααΈαα¬αΈα α α₯αααα»ααααααααΌα¬αΈααααααα»αα ααα α±α α¬ααΎααα»αααΈααααα¬ ααααα α»αααα¬ααα α±ααΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈα ααααα ααΈαααααα¬αΈα ααααα±α α¬α αΎααα±ααα¬ααΌα¬αΈ ααα»αα αα ααααααΈααΈα»αααααα‘α±ααααα±αα¬αααααααΈ α±α α¬ααΎααααΌα¬αΈαα α»αα ααα α‘ααα« ααΌαα»ααααα‘αα¬αα αααα α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌαααΈαααα‘αα±αα¬αααΈα±αα¬ααΈα ααααααααΎαα¬ ααα‘αα±αα¬αααΈ α»αα ααΌααααα α»αααα¬ααΌα ααααααΈααΈα»αααααα α±ααΈα±ααΌαΈαα ααΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αααααΈ α±αΎαα¬ααΈαα α‘ααααΌαα±αα¬α»ααα¬αΈαα αα α₯αααα¬αΈ α±α»ααααΈααα»αααΈαααα ααααα α»αααα¬α‘α±α»αα‘α±α αα αααΈαααΈαααΈαααΈααα±ααΈαα»αα α±αααα‘α α±α»αα¬ααΈααααααα±αα αα α»αααΈα»αααΈααΈααα»αααΈ ααΌααααα¬α α¬αα αααααααααα¬α α¬αα αααα¬ααααααααΈαα¬αΈαααααΈααααα±ααΈα ααα¬ααααααΈ αααα¬ααΌαα±ααΈα αααααα±ααΈ αααΈαααΈα±ααΈααα‘ααΌα ααα αααΈααααααα¬αΈα αααα ααΈα»αα ααΌα¬αΈααααα»αα αααα‘α»αα¬αΈαααα¬α α¬αα¬ααααααααΈαα¬αΈαααααααΈααααα ααα¬ααα¬α ααα¬α αααααΈαααα¬ααΌαα±ααΈαα ααααα¬αααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈ α ααΏααΈ α‘α¬αα ααα¬ααααα»αα αα αααααΈ ααααα α₯α‘ααΌααΈ αααα±ααΈα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαα αααα±ααΈ α αΌαα α α¬αΈαααα±α»ααα¬αΈααααΈ ααΏααΈα‘α¬αα ααα ααα»αα ααα αααΈ ααααα α»αααα¬αααα ααα¬αα‘αα¬αΈααΈαααΈααΈα»ααααα»αα ααα αααα ααΌα α‘α αΈααα αααΏααΈ ααααΈα α»αααα¬α»ααααΌααΈα±ααΈαα ααααα±ααΈααΌα α‘ααΌααααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘ααα¬αΈ α»αα α±ααα ααα α»αααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌα αα±ααα¬αααα¬αΈαα±ααα¬α»αα¬αΈ α‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬α‘α¬αΈααΈα αΏααΎαααα α‘α±αα¬ααΈ αααα α±αα¬αα±αααα αΏααΈααα αα αα ααΌα α‘α αΈααα αα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα₯αα±ααα¬αΈαα α ααΈαα₯αΈ α ααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα α ααα»ααα¬ααΈαααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααα α‘α±ααΈαα«ααα αααααααα ααΌα¬αΈααα»αα αΏααΈ αααα»αα¬αΈαααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈααααΈ ααΌα±αα¬αααΌα¬αΈααααα»αα ααα α»αααα¬α±α αΈααΌααα αααααααα¬ααααα»αα αΏααΈ αααΈααΈα»ααααααααααΈαααααααΈααΏααΈααΌααααΈαα¬αα¬ αααααα¬ααααΈ αα¬αΈααα‘αα»αα αα¬ααααα»αα ααααααα±αα¬α»αααα¬α±α αΈααΌααα α αΌααα α¬αΈαααα±α»ααα¬αΈα α‘ααΌαα‘αααΈ αα¬αΈ α»ααα ααααΈαα α»αα ααααααΈααα±αα¬α αα±αααααα¬αΈααα‘ααΌαα‘αααΈαα¬αΈα αααααααΈ ααα αααααΈ αα¬αΈαα ααΏααΈ αααΏαααα¬ α‘α±αα¬ααΈααααΎαααΏααΈ αααΌααα¬ααααααα
191
αααα±αα¬α‘ααΌαα±α»αα¬ααΈα»αααΈαα αααα±αα¬αα«αα«α ααααα - ααααα α»αααα¬αΎαα¬αΈ ααα»αα¬αΈα»ααα±αα¬ααΌααΏα αΈααααΌα αα¬α±ααΌα»αααΈ
State Transformation and the Geography of State Power:
Exploring Cross-border Development between China and Myanmar
Nora Schlenzig The University Hong Kong [email protected]
αααα±αα¬α‘ααα‘α»αα¬α‘α¬αα¬ααααααααααα±ααΈααΈα αΌα‘αα‘αα±ααααΌαα‘αααΈααα¬αΈαΏααΈ αααα‘αα¬αΈα αα αααααααΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬α±αα¬ ααααΈααΈααα αααααα¬αα α¬αΈααααα αααα±αα¬αα‘α±ααΈα ααα¬αΈ ααα αα¬αα αα α ααααα¬αΈαα ααα¬αΈααΈααααααα¬αααα±ααΈ αα‘ααα¬αΈαααααααα»αα¬αΈ α±ααΈααα«ααααα¬α α¬α±αα±ααααΌααα±ααα»αα ααα α‘ααα«αα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαααα»αααΈ α‘α αααα±αα¬α αααα¬ ααα±α»ααααααα ααα αααααα¬αΈα±αα¬ αα₯αΈ α±αα‘α±αα ααΈααα α‘α¬αα¬ααααααα‘α ααα‘α αΈαα α‘αααα αα¬αΈα»αααααα»α ααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα»αααΈα»αα ααα
αααααα»α¬α αααααα±αα¬αα¬αΈα»αααΈαα»ααα α α»ααα αα ααα‘α»αα αααα±αααα αααΈαα α α±ααΌααα»αααΈ αα αα±αα αα¬αα ααα»αα¬αΈα»ααα±αα¬αααα±ααΈαα¬αΈα αα¬αΈαααα¬ααΌαα‘αα α±αα¬ααα»αα ααα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈααα αα¬αΈα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ ααα¬αααα¬αΈα α±αα¬αα»ααααα ααααΈαα¬αΈ αααα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α»αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘α±ααΈαα α₯αα¬αΈα αααα ααααα»ααααα αααα±αα¬αα αα ααα»αα¬αΈα»ααα±αα¬αααα±ααΈαα¬αΈ αααα αααααααΌαααα ααααααααΈα αΌα¬αα¬αΈ αααααα¬ αααα α‘α±ααα±αα¬αα‘α¬αα‘αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα αα«αα ααααααααΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬α»αααΈα αα¬αΈαααα αααΌαα±ααΌ αα‘ααα±ααααα
α‘ααα«α‘αααΈα‘αααΈααΌα ααααα¬αΈααααα±αα±α αα α₯αααα¬αΈαα αααα ααα αα»αααααα α α»αα α±αα¬ααααα α±αα«ααα»αααααα αα α±ααααα‘α¬αα¬αααα¬αΈαα αααΎαα¬αΈ αααα±ααΈααα»αα αΎαααα ααα»αα ααα α±αα¬α‘ααΌαα±α»αα¬ααΈα»αααΈα‘α±αα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬αα‘αααα¬ α‘α»αααΈα‘ααα¬αΈααΌα αααα±αα¬αα αααα±αα¬αααα±αα¬ α‘ααα¬αα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈααααΈα»αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ αα₯αΈαα¬ ααΏααΈααααα«αΈαα¬αααα¬ ααα±ααα αααααααΈ α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈα±ααΎα α α₯ ααα»αα ααααΌα ααα¬αΈααααα ααα¬αΈαααααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬α±ααΌαΈ α±αααα α‘ααΈα‘α¬αα αααα αα α₯αα αα α»αα ααα αααΈαα ααΈαα α±αα¬ααααααα»αα α¬αΈααααααα α±αα¬ αα¬αααααα±α»αα¬ααααααααΈαα¬αΈα ααααΈαα±αα¬ αααΈ ααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈα‘ααΌααΈ ααΏααΈα‘α»ααα±αα¬ α±αα¬ααααααααΈαα¬αΈα»αα αα ααα¬αΈαααα±αα¬αα α»αααα α‘αα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘α±αα‘ααα¬αΈ ααααΈ ααααααΈααααα
ααα¬αΈααΈααααα±αα¬α‘α αΈαα‘ααΌα α‘α ααΈαα¬αΈα α»αααα α‘α αΈααα¬αΈαα α‘ααα¬αα¬αΈα α‘ααΈααΈα±αα¬ ααααααα¬ α‘ααα¬αα¬αΈα‘αα«α‘αα ααααα αααΈαα‘αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈαααα±ααΈα α±ααα¬ααΈ αααα¬ααΌα αααΈαα‘αααΈαααΈααααα¬αΈ α‘α¬αΈ ααααααα±ααΈα‘αααααΈααΈααααααΌαα±ααΈαα αααΈα»αα αα¬αΈα‘ααΌα αααα»αααααα±ααΈ αααααα‘αα‘αααααΈαααΈα±ααΈααααΌααα α₯αΈαααΈα±αα¬α‘ααα¬α‘α»αα αααα ααααα αα±ααααααααα‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬αα¬αΈααααα αααΈα»αα α α₯ααΌααα«αα ααααα±ααα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬
192
αα±ααα¬αα¬αΈααΌα αααα±αα¬α‘αααα¬αΈαα αααΈαααα¬αΈαα±αααααα¬αΈααα»αααΈαα α»αααα¬ααα α‘ααΌα αα±ααΌααααα±ααΈααα¬ααα¬αα¬αΈ αααΈαα±ααΈαα ααΈααα±ααΈααΌα α±αα¬ααα»αα ααα
ααααα‘α α‘ααΈααΈα±αα¬α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα α‘ααα¬αα¬αΈα ααα»αα¬αΈα»ααα±αα¬αααα±ααΈαα¬αΈαα αααα α±αα¬αα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαα¬αΈααα‘α±αα‘ααα αα ααΈα»ααα±α»ααα¬α±αα¬αααααα αααΈα‘ααα¬αΈα αααα¬α±α αα ααααααααααα±αα¬α±α αΈααΌααααα±ααΈαα¬αΈααααα-α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈα‘α±αααααΈα αααααααα¬αΈ αααΌαα±αααα¬αα αααααα¬αΈα α±αα¬αααα»ααααΈ α‘αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα‘α±ααααα α»ααααα βBridgehead Strategyβ α‘αα ααα αααα±αα¬ ααα¬αΈααα±α»αα¬ αΎαα¬αΈα»αααΈαα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααα»αααΈα»αα αααΈαααΈα»ααααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα
αααααα‘α±αα¬αα±αα¬ααααα αααααααΈααΌαααα‘ααΌα βBridgehead Strategyβ α»αα αα¬ ααααααα ααα ααΌααααΈα»ααααααααΌα¬αΈα±αα¬αα±αα¬αααΈα α₯ααα«αα‘α±ααΌα±ααΌα‘ααΌααΈα±ααΈααΈ ααα α±αα¬ααα±α»αα¬αΎαα¬αΈαααα αααα‘α¬αΈα»αα αααα ααα αα αααα±α»αα¬α α αα α ααααΈα α‘α αα‘αααΈαα ααα α ααααααα»αααΈα‘α»αα α‘αααΈαααΈαα ααα¬αΈαα αααα α±αα¬αααα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααα±ααΈαα α±ααααΌααΈααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααααααΈα»ααααααα¬ αααΈααα¬ααα¬α α±αΎααα¬αα±αα¬ αααααΈαααα¬αΈ α»αα ααα αααΈαααααΈαααα¬αΈααΌα ααα»αα¬αΈα±αααααΏααα±ααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘αα΅α αααα΅αα¬αα ααα¬ααα¬α±α»αα¬ααααααααα α α±αα¬α±αα¬αα±ααΈαααααΈαα«ααααα
ααα¬ααα¬α‘ααΌα α‘ααα‘α¬αΈα»ααα±αα¬α»ααα¬ααΌα ααΏαα±ααΈαααα¬αα α₯ααααα αα¬α±ααΌα±ααΌαααααα βBridgeheadβ α αααα¬ αααα‘α¬αΈα»αα α α α±ααΈα±αα«αα¬αα»αα αΏααΈ ααααα‘ααΈα‘αα¬αΈα ααα¬αΈαα αα αααα¬ααΌαααα ααααΌααα¬αΈα α±αα¬α»ααα¬ααΌα ααΈα±αααΎαααα α‘ααα« α α α±ααΈα±αα«αα¬αα αααα‘ ααα¬αααΌα βBaiduβ αα±ααΌααααΏααΈ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα±αα«αα¬ ααα ααααΈα»αα ααα α±αααΏααααααα¬αα¬α αα¬αΈααααα αα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬αα¬αα¬α±αααααΈαααΈαααα¬ αα αα«α α‘ααααααααα ααααα α αα¬αΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαααΎαα¬αΈ ααΌα¬αααα ααα¬αΈααΈα±ααΈαα α±αα¬ααα±αα¬ α±αα«αα¬αα‘α»αα αααΈ ααΈα±ααΎααα»αα ααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ α α¬α±α α¬ααα¬αΈααΌα βααα±αα«α ααα¬ααα¬β α‘α»αα αααΈ ααΈα±α αΎαα»αααΈαα αααΈαα αα‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈααα±αα¬ αα¬αα¬α»αααααα αα¬αααΈα»αα α±αα¬ααΈα»αα ααα
αααααααααααΈαααα¬αΈααααααα±αα¬ ααα±αα±ααΈαα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ααααααΎαααα¬ααΌα ααααααααα¬αΈαααααα ααα α‘ααΈααΈα±ααΈαα¬αΈαααα α±ααΌααααα βBridgeheadβ αα±αα¬α±αα«αα¬αα αααα αα αααα αΎαα¬αΈααΌα ααα±α α±ααΈαα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ααΌα α αααααα αααΈαα¬ααα ααααΌααα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈααα¬ααα¬ααααΈ α±αΎααα¬αααα αααΈα α¬ αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α‘ααααΌαα±αα¬α»αααα ααα¬αΈαααααααΈαααα¬αΈ ααααα ααααααΈααΈαααΈα±αααα¬αΈαα αααΈααΌααΈα»αα αααα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈααΌα¬αα¬αααααΌα±α αααααααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘α±ααΈα‘ααα»αα±αα¬ α»ααααΌααΈα‘α¬αΈαααααα¬αΈααΌα α‘ααΈα»α αΎαααα
ααα±αα¬αααΈ αα±αα«αα¬αα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±α α¬ααα‘α±ααΈα‘αα¬αΈαα αααΌαα‘ααΈα»ααα¬ ααα±αα±ααΈαα¬αΈαα αα αααΌααα«ααααα ααα-α‘α¬ααααΌαααα αΌα¬ααααΌαα±ααΈααααααα±αα¬ ααααααα±ααΈαααΈ α‘ααααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαα¬αααααα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘α αααα α¬αα αααΌααα«αααα»αααΈα»αα αα¬ αααΈα α±αα¬αααΌαα ααα‘αααα¬α α±αααααα αααααααα ααααα»αα ααα ααα±αΎαα¬α
193
α₯αΈαααααα αα±αα¬ααα¬αα‘α αααα»αα¬αΈα±ααΈααα«αα‘αα¬αΈα±ααΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααααα ααα ααα±αΎαα¬ααα ααα¬ααα¬αα α‘αααΈα¬ααα αααααΈαααα¬αΈαα α±αα¬ααααΈααΌαααα¬ ααα‘α¬αα¬αααα¬αΈα αα α±αα¬αα ααααααΎαααα αααΈαααααα»αα ααα
αααα»ααααα‘α±αα»αα α‘αααΈαααΈααααα¬αΈα ααααα±α αΈααΌααα αα‘α»αα αα¬αααα±αα»αααΈ αααααααααα»ααΈαα ααα ααΈα‘ααΌα α‘ααΈα‘ααΈααα»αα ααΌααΈαα αααα±ααΈαααααΈαα αααα ααΌα ααα±ααα αααα±ααα α₯ααααΈα α¬αα« α±αα¬ααΈαα«αΈααα ααααΌααΈαααα αααΈααααΌααΈαααα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈααα«ααα¬αΈα α±αααααα¬α‘ααα α‘ααα α‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αα¬αα¬ααΌαααα‘α¬αα¬αααα¬αΈα ααΈααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈααααΌααΈα»αααΈα±αα¬α αααααΈααα α‘α αΈ αα α±α‘α¬αα±α»αα‘αααα¬αΈα α‘α»αα ααα»αααΈα±αα¬ ααααα¬ ααααΌα±αα αααα αα-ααα αΌααααα¬αΈαααα±ααΈααΌα α‘ααα±αα¬αααΈαα¬αααα¬αΈαα±αααα ααααααα
ααα αα αααΌααΈααααααααΈ αααααα¬ααα¬α±α»αα¬αα‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈα α‘ααΈα»ααΏααΈ α»αααα¬ααααα αααΈααΈα»ααααααααααΌααα α‘αααα±αα¬ααΈαα«αΈααα‘ααΌααα±αα¬α±αα¬ααΈαα«αΈαα ααααΌααααΈ ααααΌααΈ αα¬αΈααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ βBridgeheadβ ααα¬ααα¬α αααααΈα‘α»αα αααΈ ααααααΈαα α»αααα¬ααα αα α‘ααααα±αα«αααα»αα¬αΈαΏααα»αα α±αα¬ αααΈαααα α±ααα αΏαααα ααΌα¬αΈα±αα¬αααα‘αα«ααΌα αααααααΌα αααΈααα»αα¬αΈα±αααα¬αΈαα αααααα«αααα»ααααααααΈαααα αααα±αααααα ααα α»ααααα ααΏαααααααα¬αΈαα ααα»α¬ααααα«αΈααΌαα±ααα α»αααα¬ααααααΈα α₯αα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α αα αα α α‘ααΈααα»αααα¬ααααα‘ααα±ααΌαΈα±αΎαα¬α»αα αα±αα¬ααα»αα¬αΈααααΌαα±ααΈαα αααΌα¬αΈααααα±αααα α»ααααααΌαα±α»αα¬αα±ααΈααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαα±αα¬ αΏααα‘ααα±ααα αα αα¬α‘αααΈα α¬αΈαααΈαα¬αΈααΌα α α ααα¬ αααΎαα¬αΈα±ααΈ αααα‘α±ααΈαααΈαα ααα±ααΈα±ααΏααΈ ααα»αα¬αΈα»ααα±αα¬α»αααΈααααΈ ααααα¬αα¬αΈα»αααααα¬ αααΈαααΈαΎαααΎαα α±α α¬α αΎαααααααα
ααααααα αααα±αα¬-α±α αΈααΌααααα±ααΈα ααααα α₯αααα±α»ααααΈαααα¬ αα ααα ααΈα αααα ααΈ αααΈαααΈααααααΌα αΏααΈα±ααΈααΎααααα ααα¬α±ααΈααα αααααααα αα¬αΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα ααΌαα»ααα αα«α (CCP) α‘α±ααΌαααααα α±α»αα¬ααΈ αα±αα±αα¬ α‘α±α»αααα¬αΈα αΎαααααα‘αααα
CCP α‘α±ααΌαααααα‘αααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααΈαααααα αα«αα‘ααΌαα±αα¬ααααα ααα‘α»αα ααα»αα αα¬α±αααα ααα’αααααααΈαα¬αΈα αααΈαααΈα‘ααΈααΈααααααααααΈ CCP α αααΈαααΈ αααααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ α±αα¬ααα ααα±ααΈααΌααΈαα¬ ααα’αααααα αα«αααΌααΈα‘α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘α αα§ααα»αα α‘α»αα αααα±αα¬ ααααα αα«αα ααα’ααα αΌααα₯αΈ αααααΈαααα¬αΈα α±ααΌαΈααααΈααααααα¬αΈαΏααΈ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈααΌααΈαα αα«ααααα¬αΈααα±αα¬αα»αααΈα»αα αααΈαα‘α¬αα¬αααα¬α±ααΈ α ααα±αα¬αααα±αα¬ αααααα»αα ααα
α±αααα‘α¬αΈα»αααααα‘α αΈαα‘αα¬ααα¬αΈααα’ααα αΌααα₯αΈαααααΈαααα¬αΈα»αα ααΌα¬αΈααααΌα α‘ααΌα¬αΈαα αααα« αα¬αΈαα»αα ααΌα¬αΈααααα ααα¬αΈα‘αααΈα‘ααΈα‘α¬αΈα»αα ααα’ααααα α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈα±α ααα±αα¬αααΈ ααα α‘αααΈααα αα ααααΈ α‘ααα»αα ααΌα¬αΈα±α ααααα αααα»ααααααΌα ααα’ααα αΌααα₯αΈαααααΈαααα¬αΈ CCP ααααα±αα¬αααααΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααααα±αα¬αααΈ α»αααααα αααΈαα«ααα‘α±ααΈα‘ααΌααααα₯αα αααΈαα«αΈ α±αα±ααΈααα
194
αααΈα‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈααΌα α±αα¬αααα‘α±αα«ααΈααα‘αα¬α±αα¬αα±αα¬ααΌααΏααΈαααα¬ αααα±αα¬α‘ααΌααΈαα α±α αΈααΌααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈ αα¬αΈ α αααααΌα¬αΈααα‘α»αα ααΈααα»αα ααα α₯ααα¬α‘α¬αΈα»αα ααααααααααΈαα¬αΈα α‘αα±αα¬ααα¬αΈααα±αΎααΈαα¬αΈαα ααα¬ α±ααΈα αΌααΈα±αα¬αααα‘ααααΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬α»αααΈαα αα«αα‘ααΌααΈ αααΈα»αα ααΌα±ααααααα¬ααΈααΈα»αααΈα‘ααΌα α»αααααααα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈ α±ααΈα±α‘α¬αα»αααααα¬αΈα»αα α±αααα¬α»αααΈα»αα ααα
ααα±αα¬αααΈ αααα»αααααα α»αααα¬α‘α±ααΈα ααΏααΈα‘α±ααΈα ααααΎαααα α±αα¬αααα±αα¬ α»ααα¬αα¬ α»αααα αααααΈα‘αα¬αΈα αα α»αααα¬αααααΌααΈααααα±αα¬α α»ααααααα‘αα¬αΈα α±ααΈααΌααααΈ ααααα±ααΈα α±αααα αα¬αα±ααΌαααΈα±αα¬α±ααΈ αα α±αα‘αααΈα‘α»αα αααα±αα¬ ααααααααααΈαα¬αΈαααΈα αΈαα¬αΈ αααααααΈ α‘αα¬αΈα‘α»αα¬αΈα»αα α±αα»αααΈααα»αα ααα α‘αααΈ ααΈα‘α¬αΈα»αα ααα»αα¬αΈα±αααα¬αΈααΌα αα ααα α‘αααα αα ααα»αααα¬ α±ααααΌααΏααΈααΈααα±ααΈα ααααααΈααα ααΌαααα±ααΈα±αα αααα αΈ ααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα α‘α¬αΈα‘α±αα¬ααΈααΈα‘αααΈα»αα α±αα¬ ααα’αααααααΈαααααααΈ ααα»αα¬αΈα±αα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ αααααΈαα¬αΈααΌα α±ααΈααΌαα±ααααα‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈααΌααα¬αα±αα±ααΈα»αααΈα»αα ααα
ααα-α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈααΌα ααα’αααααα«ααααααααα ααΏααΈα‘α±ααΈα ααααα±αααα»α αααα αααΈαααΈαα¬ ααΌα α±αα¬α±ααΌαΈα±αααα‘αα¬αα¬αΈαα αα αα«αα αααΌα ααααα α¬αααΈα‘ααΈαα¬αΈααΌα αααα±ααΌαΈα±αα±αα¬ α‘ααΈα‘α α¬αΈαα¬αΈα»αα αα αα α₯α»αα ααα ααα’ααααα‘ααΌα αααα±αα¬α±αα«αα¬ααα¬αΈ α‘αα±αα¬α±αα»αααΈαααααα±ααα±αα¬αααα‘ααΈα»α αα¬αΈα»αααΈαα¬αΈ α‘α±αα¬αα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα±αα»αααΈα»αα ααα αααΈαα αΎαα¬αΈααΌα ααΌααααΈα»αααα¬ααα‘αααΈααΈα±αα«αα¬ααα αααααΈ αααα αα αα αα¬α α¬αααΈα‘ααΈα α¬α‘αα ααΌαααΎαα¬ααΎαα¬α‘ααΈα»αα»αααΈα»αα ααα α‘α»αααααα±ααΌαα»αααΈαααααααΏααΈ αα¬αααααα«α α‘α»αα α»αααααα¬ααααΌαα±ααΈαααΈααααΈαα¬αΈααα¬ αα¬α±ααΌαααΏααΈ αααααααααα¬αα‘α±ααΈα α αα¬ ααα ααα«αα±αα
α±αααα‘α¬αΈα»αα αααααα’ααα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈαα α»αααα¬αααααΌα αααΈα‘α α¬αΈααΈααα¬α αα¬ααααααααααα¬α±α»αααααα»αααΈααΌαααα¬αΈααααααααα¬αΈα‘α±αααααα¬αΈα»αααΈα±αΎαα¬α αα¬ααααΈααααΏααΈα»αα ααα ααα’αα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαααααα¬αΈααα¬ ααααΈααΈα‘α»αα αααααα¬αααΈ αα«ααααααα±αα±αα¬ α»ααα¬αααα¬αΈαα¬ α‘ααΌα αααα±ααΌαΈααΌααΈαα»ααααα
ααα»αα¬αΈα»ααα±αα¬αααααΈαα¬αΈαααα αα«αα αααΌα αα‘αααααα ααΈαααΈαααΈαΎαααα»αα α‘αααα±ααΈαααΈαααα¬ α‘αα¬αΈα‘ααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αααα¬αΈα»αααα¬αΈα±α ααα
ααα’ααααα‘ααΌαα»ααα¬αα ααα‘α»αα αα±αα±ααΈαα α±αα¬ααααα α₯αα αααα¬ αααα ααα αα α»αα ααα ααα¬αΈ αααααα¬αΈααααΈααα‘α¬αΈ α±ααΌαα±ααΈα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α α αΈααΌα¬αΈ α±ααΈαααααΈα‘αα¬αΈα αα¬ α αΌααα α¬αΈ αααα±α»ααα α‘ααΈααααΈα»αααα¬αΈα±αα¬ αααΈα»ααααααααα±αα¬α±ααΌα±ααΈα αα α‘α±αα α‘α¬αΈαα¬αΈα±ααα»αααΈ α»αα ααα
ααΌα(Renminbi) αααα»αααΈαα α₯ααααΈ α±αα¬αααα»ααα¬αα¬αΈα α»αα α±ααα±α ααα α±ααΌα±αΎααΈα ααα ααα¬αααΈααα±α‘α¬α α±αα¬αααααα±αα¬ααα αααα‘α αΈαα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈαααααΈαααΈααααα ααα‘ααα‘αααα¬αα±αα«α α±ααααΌα αα¬α‘αα αααΈαααααα αααα αα ααα¬ α±ααΌαααα±ααΈ αα±αα¬αααααα¬αΈα ααααα±ααΈααΈαα¬αΈααα αααααααΌα ααα»αα¬αΈα»ααα±αα¬αααΈααΈα»ααααααα ααα¬α±ααΈα ααΈαα₯αΈααααααα‘α α»αααα¬αααααΌααααΈ ααα‘ααΌαααα αα αα αααα±ααΈα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α
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α‘ααα«ααα‘ααΌα αααα¬αα¬αα±ααΈααα‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈα»αα α±ααα±α ααα
αααα±αα¬αα α₯ααα‘α¬αΈααΈα αααα¬αα¬α‘ααΌααα±ααΈααα‘α±α»αα‘α±αααΌααα±αααα±αα¬αααΈ α‘ααΈααΈα±αα¬ αα±ααα¬ αα¬αΈαα α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα«ααααααα±ααα ααα»αα¬αΈα»ααα±αα¬αααα α±ααααα¬αΈααΎααα»αααΈα»αα ααα-α»αααα¬ααα α±ααΈα‘ααΌα α‘ααα‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬αα¬αΈαα±αααα ααααα ααααα‘αα αΏααααααα αααΈα»αα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα α‘α α α‘αααα₯αΈαα¬αΈ α ααααΌααΈα α₯αΈα α¬αΈα»αααΈαα ααα±αα¬α±αα¬ααα¬ααα¬αα αα±ααΈααΌαα¬ααΌα αα‘ααααα¬αα α‘αα¬αααα¬αααΌα ααα-α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈααΈαααα α±ααα¬αα αα αααα±αα¬αααα‘ααΌααααΈα»αα ααα
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α»αααα¬αααα α±ααΈαα αααα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘αα‘α
Exploring Chinaβs Investments and Development Assistance in Myanmar
Diane Tang Lee Humanitarian and Conflict Response Institute, University of Manchester
αααα
αα½αΌαα±αα¬α α±αα«ααα¬ααΌαα α¬αααΈαα α»αααα¬αααα‘α¬αΈ αααα±ααα¬αα αααα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈ α‘αα‘α ααα¬αΈααα»αα ααα α‘α±α»αααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα αααΈα α α±ααα¬ααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα αα½αΌαα±αα¬αα α»αααα¬ααααα ααα¬αα±ααα¬αααααΈα α₯ααΌα¬αΈα±αα¬αααΏααΈα»αα αα¬ αα½αΌαα±αα¬α ααα₯αΈα±ααΌαααααα¬αΈα‘α±αα ααααΈαααΈααα αααααα¬αΈα αααΈα±α»αα¬ααααΈαα¬ααααα«ααα αααα α‘αα‘αα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα αααα±ααΈαα αααα±ααΈαααα¬α α¬αα¬αΈαα α‘αΎαααΈαααΈα‘α¬αΈα»αα α‘ααΈα‘α α¬αΈααΌα»αα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα«ααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ αααα¬α α¬ααΌα α‘ααΈαα±ααΈα±ααΌα»αα α»αα αααα±αα¬αααα±ααΈα α±αα¬ααα»αααΈααα α‘α±α»αα α‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘α ααααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘ααΈααΈα±αα¬ α αααα¬αΈα ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈα‘α±α»ααα‘α±αα¬αα‘αα¬αΈαα ααα α αα¬αα‘α¬αΈα±ααΈ α αααα¬αΈα‘αα«α‘αα α‘α»αα¬αΈαααααΈα ααααΈαα¬αΈα»αα αΎαααα αα‘αα¬αα¬αΈα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈα α‘α α₯αααΎαα±αα¬αααΈ αα ααααΈαα¬αΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ α‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα αα‘α»αα αααααααα αααα‘αα‘αα αααα±ααΈαααα¬α α¬ααααα¬ α‘α±α»ααα‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘α ααααΈαα¬αΈα α‘ααΈαααα¬αΈααα α¬αΈαα±αα¬ α±ααα¬α±αααα¬αΈααΌα α»ααααα¬αΈ α‘ααΌα α±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈαα α±ααΈααα¬αΈα±αα¬αααα»αααΈαα α‘αααα«ααα±αα¬ α‘ααα±ααΌαΈαααΈα±αα¬ααΈααΈ ααα±ααΈ α‘αα‘αα±ααΈαααα¬αΈα»αα ααα αααΈαααα αααααααααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈ (SOE) α α±αα¬α ααΌααα α±αα¬αααααααα¬αααααα¬αΈ (CSR) α α‘α αα‘αααΈαα ααα‘α»αα α‘ααα‘α¬αΈα»αα αα α±αα¬αα»αααΈα»αα ααα αααΈαααα¬α α¬α‘α¬αΈααΈαα¬ ααααα±αα±αα¬αααΈ ααααα»αααααΌα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααα¬ααα¬ ααα»αααΌα¬αΈ ααα»αα ααα ααααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααα‘αα‘αα±ααΈα»αααΈααΌα α‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈα»αααΈα±αΎαα¬α αα¬ααΎαα¬ ααααααααα¬αΈαααα αααααα»ααα α‘α±α»ααα‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘ααααα¬α‘α¬αΈα»ααααα‘α ααα α‘ααα‘α¬αΈ α»αααα¬α‘α αΈααα α»ααααΌααΈα‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈα α₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈαααα¬αΈααααΈ ααααααααΈααΈααα ααα ααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘αα‘αα α‘α±α»ααααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα αααα±ααΈαααααΈαααα α±α‘α¬αααΌα αααα‘αα‘ααα¬αΈαα α‘α»αα¬αΈαααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ ααΈα»αα ααααα¬ααΌα α»ααααα¬αΈαα«ααααααααα α»αααα¬α‘ααααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααΈαα±ααΏααΈ αααααααααααα¬αα α»αααα¬αααα ααααααΈααααΈ α»αααααα±ααΌαααααΈα»αααααα ααα¬αΈ αααα¬ α‘αααΈαα¬αΈα±ααΌαα»ααα±ααααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘α¬αΈαααααα¬αΈα α±ααΌαα»ααααααΏαα»αα α±αα¬αααΈ ααα¬ααααααΈαααααα¬ α‘αααααααΌα α»ααααα¬αΈααα«αααα α‘α±ααΌαα‘ααααααΎαα±αα¬ αααα‘α αΈααα ααααααααααΈ (SOE) α‘αα¬ααα¬αΈααααααα α αα±αααααα¬αΈ α»αααα ααα¬ααααααΈαααααα¬α‘αααααα αααα‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈα αα½αΌαα±αα¬ααΌααα»αααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα
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ααααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα ααααΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬α α‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα¬αΈα α‘ααΈαα±ααΈα±ααΌαα¬αΈα αα ααα±ααΈα±ααΌαα¬αΈ α±ααΈααΏααΈ αααΈαααααα α‘αα‘αα‘α»αα αααααααα»αα ααα α»αα ααααααα±αα¬ α‘αααΈα α¬αΈα‘α±α»αα α‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘αα¬αΈαα‘α αααααα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘αααΈα α¬αΈα ααααΈαα¬αΈα α‘ααααΈααα±αα¬ α‘α»αα¬αΈα ααααΈαα¬αΈ αααΈαααα α₯ααα¬α‘αααα»αααα αααα α»αααα αα¬αΈααΌα ααΌαα±ααΌ α‘αααΈααΈ αααΈ α α α α‘ααΈαα±ααΈα±ααΈ ααα αααα-ααααααα¬αΈα‘αα«α‘αα α ααααΈαα¬αΈαα ααα α αα¬αα‘α¬αΈ α±ααΈαααααΈα αααααα α±ααΈαα α αααΈα±ααΈαααααΈαααα¬αΈαα α‘ααΈαα±ααΈα±ααΌαα¬αΈα±ααΈα»αααΈα»αα ααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ααΌααΏααΈαααααα¬αΈαα±ααΈαα αααα‘αα‘ααα¬αΈααα α ααααΈα‘αα¬αΈα αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ αααααΈαα ααααΌαααααα»αα ααα αα±αααα αααα‘αα‘ααα¬αΈα αααα»ααααΌααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈ α±ααΈααα±αα¬ααα α‘ααΌαα‘α¬αα¬ααΎααα ααΈαααΈα±αα¬ααΈααα±ααΈαααααΈαα¬ααα αααααααα ααΌααΈααααααα ααααΌα ααα αααΈααααααΌαα»αααΈαα α‘α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈα ααααΌαααα αααααααα»αα α±αααα α₯ααα¬ α‘α¬αΈ α»αα αααααα¬ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαααα¬ α‘α±ααααα±α‘ααα αα αααα»αα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα¬αα ααα±α‘α¬αααΌαα ααα αααΈααα±αα¬ α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαααα¬ααα±αα¬αα α‘α ααααα αααα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααα‘ααΌα α‘α α‘ααα¬αΈα α‘ααΈα»ααα α‘αααααααα¬αΈα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααα‘ααΌααααΈ α‘ααΈα»αααα α»ααα±αα»αααΈα»αα ααα ααα±αΎαα¬α αααΈα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘αα‘ααα βαα ααα‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈα‘ααΌα ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαα»αααΈβ α ααα‘α¬αΈα αααααα¬ α‘ααΌααααΈα±ααΏαα»αα ααα ααααααααΌαα±ααΈααααα ααΏααΈα‘αα‘αα±ααΈα»αααΈαα¬ααα α ααα ααΌα ααααααααΈαα αα‘ααααΈ αααααα αααΈαααααα αα ααα‘ααΈα‘α»αααα α‘ααααααα α‘ααα‘α»αα¬α‘α¬αα¬α α±ααΈα α¬αΈαα α αααααα«ααβαΏαααΈαααΈα αΌα¬ α‘ααα₯ααΌα±αααα±ααΈααααΈαα«αΈααβα α‘α±α»αααα¬αΈαα αααΈα αααα»αα¬αΈα±ααΈ ααα«αα‘αααα±αα¬αα»αααΈα»αα ααα αα±αααα¬α αααα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈααααΈ α‘αα‘αα±ααΈα»αααΈα ααααα»αα»αααΈαααα‘α»αα ααα»αααΏααΈ αα α±αΎαα¬ααΈααΌα¬αΈ α‘ααα«α ααααα αααα αΈααΈα±ααΈααααα‘α»αα α‘ααΈα»α α»αααΈαααα ααα»αααΎαααα ααααααΈααΌα ααααα€α¬α ααααα α αααα¬α±ααΌαααααα±αα¬ ααΌααΏααΈαααα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬ααΌα αααΈαααΈαααΈα α±α‘α¬αα»αααα ααααα ααα‘α»αα α‘α αΈααα¬αΈαααα»αααΏααΈ α‘α±αα¬αααα»α¬α‘α αααα¬αΈα ααααααααΈα»αα α±α αα α»ααΌααΈαααα¬αΈα»ααα±ααΈα±αα¬ α‘αα‘ααα¬αΈαα α»ααααααα α‘α»αα¬αΈαααΈ αααΈαα ααα‘α»αα ααα»ααααα ααα‘α»αα ααααα α‘ααα«ααααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ αααααα¬ α±ααααααα αααα α»ααα»αααΈααα α‘αα¬α‘ααΌαα±ααΈααααα»αα α‘α±αα¬αα¬αΈαα¬αΈ ααα ααΎααααα¬ α‘ααΈα‘α»αααα αα αααααα±αα¬α ααααα¬ α‘ααΈαα»αα ααΌααΈαα±αα¬αα»αααΈ α»αα αααα‘ααΈαα»αα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈααααα΅α»ααααα¬αΈα»αα αα±αα¬α»αααα¬αααααΌαα±ααααααα±αααααα αΎααα±αα¬αααααα»αα αααα‘ααα« αααΈααΈα»αααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈ ααααα±ααΈα‘α¬αΈα»αααα¬αα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘ααΈ α‘α»ααα‘α¬αΈα»αααα«ααα±αα¬ααΎαααα‘ααΌαα‘ααααΌαα±αα¬α»αααα αααΈαααα±ααΈαα αα ααα‘ααΈ α»αα ααΌααΈα±ααΈααααΈαα¬αΈα α±ααΌαααααΌα¬αΈααααααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈα‘α±αα‘ααα¬αΈα ααααααααΈ αΎααααααΈα α»αααααααααα αα±α ααααΌα α‘ααα«ααα¬αΈα αααααααααααΌααααααΈα αα½αΌαα±αα¬αααααα αα¬α±ααΌα±αα¬ααααΌα¬αΈ ααα»αα ααα αααα α‘αα‘ααα¬αΈαα αα αααααααααααΈαα¬αΈααααΈαα α‘α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈαα±ααΈαα ααΏαα±ααΈααα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈααα ααα±ααΈα±αα¬ α‘αα‘α ααααα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈααα±αα¬α α»αααΈ α‘α α‘α α₯αα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα₯αα±αα αΈααΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈαα‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈαα¬αααα¬αΈαααα αααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌα±α α¬ααΎααα±ααα¬α»αααΈα αααααααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ααΌα¬α»αα¬αΈααα α‘ααΈααααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα ααα
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α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘αα‘αααΌα αααα‘ααΌαα‘αααΈα₯αΈαααααα¬ αααα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαα ααα«αΈααΌα α±ααΈαα αααααΏααΈ ααααα»αααα αα¬αΈααΌα α±α»αα¬αΎαα¬αΈααα αααααΈααα±αα¬ααΈ αααα±αα¬ααααα α±αα¬αΎαα¬αΈα±αα¬ ααααα»αα αα βααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαααα¬ α‘α±ααΈαααΈααΈβααα ααΎαααααα‘α±α»αα αα¬αΈα»αααΈα»αα ααα αααΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈαααα αααα±ααΈα‘αααα¬αΈααα»αα ααααα±αα¬αα±ααΈαααα¬α αα±αα¬αααΈαααΈα»αα αα ααα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈααα¬αααα¬αΈα α‘αααααΈ ααααα±αααα αααα»αα¬αΈ α±ααΈααα«αααΌααααΈ α‘αα¬ααα¬αΈαα αααα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα αααααα¬αΈαααααααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ ααΌααΏααΈααα α₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈαΎαααα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌα αααα±αα¬ααα»ααα₯αΈααααα αααα αααααα¬αΎαα¬αΈαααααα¬αΈααΌαααΌααα«ααααΈααΏααΈ ααααα αααΈαααααα¬αα αααααΌαα α‘α¬αα¬αααα‘α αΈααα¬αΈααα¬ α±αα¬αααααα αα±αα¬ α αΌαα αΌαα αα¬αΈα±ααα±αα«αα±α αααα α‘ααα±αΎαα¬ααα±αα¬ ααααα α‘αααααααα¬αΈα α‘α αΈα αα¬αΈαααα¬ααΈαααααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌαα±ααααα¬αααΈαααΈαααΈαα αααα±αα¬ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈ α‘ααΌα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»αα ααΌααα±αα¬αααΈ α‘ααααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈ αααα¬α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈα±α α»αααΈαα«αααα α‘α¬αΈααΈαα«ααα±αα¬ αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈααα±αα¬ααααα αα±αα¬αααα±αα ααα±αα¬αααΈ αααα±αα¬ααα»ααα₯αΈαααααΈα ααααΈαα¬α±ααΈα‘αα±ααα ααααα‘αα‘ααα¬αΈ αα ααα»α¬α‘ααααααΌαα±ααααααα¬αΈααααααα±ααααααΌα α±αααα‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈαα α‘αααα‘α αΈαααα α₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈ α‘αα¬αα¬αΈαα αααα αα±ααΌααααα±ααΈααα±αα¬α±ααα α‘αα¬αα¬αΈα»αα αα ααα½αΌαα±αα¬ ααα»αααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα α»αααα¬αααααΌααααααα±ααΌαααααααα α‘α αΈαα‘α¬αΈα‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»ααα α»αα αααα¬αααα»αα ααΌααα¬ααα±αα¬αααΈ αααα»ααααααα‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈαα¬ αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈααααΈα αα¬αΈαα αααααΎαα¬αΈα‘αα α‘ααααα α±ααΈαααΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαααααΈα α₯αα¬αΈα α‘α±ααΈα±ααααααΌααααα‘αα±α ααα α»αααα¬ α‘α αΈααααα»ααα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬αααααα»αααα¬α‘α αΈααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈααααααααααΌα αα¬αΈααα‘α αα±αα«ααΈ α±αα¬αααΌααα¬ααΌα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααΌαα¬αΈα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα±ααΈα»αααΈαα αα«ααααα»αααΈααα ααα±αα¬αα α»αααΈα»αα ααα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈαα αααα±ααΈααΌααααΈααα‘α±αα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈαα α₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈαα¬ααα αααα‘α»αα α±ααα α‘ααααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈ ααα΅α»αααα±ααα¬αααα¬α»αααΈααααΈ α±αααααα α±αα¬αΎαα±ααΈα‘αα αα¬αΈαααα±ααΌααα αα»αααΈα»αα ααααα αααΈααΈα»αααααααα¬αΈα α±ααααα¬αΈα αααααααα αααα ααα»ααααα±ααΈαα αα‘αα±αΎαα¬ααΈ α»ααα±αα»αααΈα»αα ααα ααα»αα¬αΈα±αααα α αΌααΈα‘αααΏαα±ααΈααΌα αααααα α‘α±ααΈα±αΎαα¬α ααααα αΏαααΈαααΈ α±ααΈα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααΌαα αα αα¬ααα±αα¬ααΈα αααα¬αΈα α±αα¬αααα α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα±αα¬αααΈ α±ααα α‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α αααα»ααααααααΌααα α‘αααα‘α αΈα α α₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈαα α₯αααα¬αΈα ααααΈααΈααααΏααΈ αααΈαα₯αΈααααααΌα αααα±αα¬ααα»ααΏααΈ α‘α αΈααααΈα±αα¬αααΌααΎα ααααααΈα‘αααΈ αααααΌα¬αΈα±αα¬α αα‘αααα‘αα±αα¬αααΈα±αα¬ααΈα ααα±ααΌαα‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈα‘α α±αα¬αααΈα±αα¬ααΈααααααααα±αα¬αααΌααααααΈα»αα ααααααααα¬αΈα±αα¬αααΈα α‘αα‘αααΌα ααα»αα αααααα¬ α) αααα¬α α¬α‘α ααα αα«ααα»αααΈ (α₯ααα¬- α‘α ααΌαα±αα¬α»ααα¬αΈααα αααα±ααΈαα αααα±ααΈαααα¬α α¬αα¬αΈα)α α) ααααα«ααααααα»αααΈαααα‘ααα¬αα¬αΈ/ααααααα¬αΈ α‘αααα αα«αααα α‘α¬αΈααΈαα«ααααααα»αα ααα αααα ααα»αααααα¬α»αααα¬α‘ααααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαα αα±ααΌαα»αααΈα αααααααα¬αΈ ααα±αα¬ααα»αααΈ αα¬αΈαΏαα α»ααΈα α»αααα¬α‘ααααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαα ααααααααα¬αΈα»αααααα¬α»αααΈ α±αΎαα¬αα»αα ααα αα½αΌαα±αα¬α ααα¬αα±ααα¬α±ααΌαααααα¬αΈα‘α ααα¬ααααααΈααα±ααΈαα¬α αααα±ααΈαα αα₯α±ααΈαα αααα¬αα α₯αααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ααααΌα αααααΎααΌαΎααΌαα«αααΎααα ααααα α‘ααααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈ(CSO)
199
αα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈααΌααααααααα α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈααα α±ααΌααααα CSO αα¬αΈα α±αα«ααΈα ααΈαααΌααα α±αΎαα¬α αααααααΈ α‘αααα¬α±ααΈα»αααΈαααα±αα¬ααααα αααΈαααα¬αα¬αΈα αα¬ααΌααΈααα¬αα¬αΈα ααα¬ααα¬ αα¬αΈα αα¬ααααα¬αα¬αΈα‘ααααΌααΈα±αα«ααΈαα«αααα ααα±αα¬αααααΎαααα αα αααααΈαα¬αα ααααα‘α±α»α α α CSO αα¬αΈαα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαααα±ααΈαα«αα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαα α‘ααα‘ααα±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬ααΈααΎαααα ααααα‘α±α»αα α CSO αα¬αΈα ααΌααααΈα»αααα¬αΈαααα αα¬ααααα α α‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈααΏααΈ αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα ααααα‘αααααΌααα±ααΈααααα«α±αα¬ααΈ ααΎαααα‘ααΌαααααα₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈα±αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈαα¬ ααΌα»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈ ααΌα»αα¬αΈααααα ααα±αα¬α»αα¬αΈαααΈ α»αα α αααααααα±ααΈααααα¬αΈααα‘ααΌααααα±αα¬ααΎααα¬ααΌα αααΈααα‘αΎαα¬αΈ αααΌαα±αα¬α ααα¬αα ααΎααΏααΈα‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈααααα¬αΈαα±αα¬ααα¬αΈααααΎαααα ααα αααΈααΈα»αααααα αα¬αΈαααααααααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈααα»ααααα±ααΈαααα‘ααααααααααα»αααααα»αα α ααααα±αα¬αα±ααΈ αααΈααΏααΈα±αα¬αα‘ααααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαα αα±ααΌααα¬ αααα¬α±αα¬α»αααα±ααΈ ααααα αααα α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌααααααα‘α¬αΈααααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈααΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬ααααααααααα ααΌαααα-α»αααα¬ αααα±ααΈααααααα±αα¬ α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααΌαα αα ααααααΈαα»αααααΏααΈ αααΈ α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααΌαα α‘ααΌαααΌααααΈαααα ααα±αα¬αααα¬αΈα ααα»αααΎαααα αααΈααα ααααααα¬αΈα αα¬αΈαααααα α‘ααΌαα±αααα±ααΈααΌα¬αα¬αΈαα¬αΈααα¬αα¬α±ααΈα‘αααΈα‘ααα¬αΈααα αα¬αΈα±α»αα¬αααααα ααΈαααΈα±αα¬ααΈ ααα±ααΈαααααΈαα¬αα‘αα¬ααα α₯αΈααα‘ααα‘ααα±αα¬ααα±ααΈαααΈα α₯α‘α»αα αααα»αααααα ααΌα¬αΈα±αα¬ααααα αααα±αα¬α‘αα¬ααα¬αΈα α₯αΈα±αα¬ααΏααΈ αα±ααΌααααααα±αΎαα¬α α±ααααα αααΎαααα α‘αα¬αΈα α ααα»αααααΎααααα αααααααααααααΈαα¬αΈαα±αα¬ ααααααα±αα ααΌααααΈα»αααα¬αααα α‘ααΈα‘αα¬αΈα ααααΌα¬αα¬αΈα α±ααααααααααΈα»αααα»αααΈα‘αα«α‘αααααααΈα ααααΈααααααα±αα¬ α‘α±ααΈαα α₯αα¬αΈα αααα‘ααΈαα¬αΈα±ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈαααΈ (CNPC) αα α»αααα¬-ααα αααααΈα±α α¬ααΎαα α±ααΈα±αα¬αα (MCPWC) α α‘αΎαα»ααααα¬αΈα±ααΈαααα CNPC α α»αααΈααααα MCPWC α αα¬αΈα αΌα¬ α αααααααα CNPC αα ααααΈα α¬αααΌα α‘ααα‘ααααα‘α¬αΈααΈα α»αααΈαααααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα«ααα αα α±α»ααααα α₯αΈ αα±α»αα¬αΎαα¬αΈαααα αααΈααα αα¬αααα¬αΈα α‘α»ααα‘α αααααα α‘ααα ααααα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈα»αααΈαα αα αα¬α±αΎααΈα±ααΈα»αααΈ α‘αααΈα‘αα¬αΈαααΈααα¬αα¬αααα¬αΈ α ααααΈα α¬αα¬αΈααΌαααααΌααΈα±αα¬α»αα»αααΈα»αα αα αα¬α±αααα αααααα α¬αΈαα±αΎαα¬ααΈ αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬αα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα αΌα¬αα α‘αααααααΎαα¬αΈααα»ααΈ α‘ααΈαααα α¬αΈαα±αα¬ ααααααΈ α±ααααααα»αααΈααα±αα αααα±αα¬-α‘ααααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαααα¬α±αα¬αα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈαααα¬α ααααΏααΈ αααααααα αααααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘αα¬αΈα»αααααααααα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈα»αααΈαα αααΈααΈαα½αΌααΈααα»αααΈαααΎαα±αα α»αααα¬α‘αααα ααα‘ααΌα α‘α ααΈαα¬αΈ αααααααα ααααααααααΈαα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ α»ααααααααα±ααΌααααα»αααΈα ααααααα ααΌααΈα‘α¬αΈα±ααΈαααααα ααααααα‘ααΌααΈ ααα¬ααααααΈαααααα¬α‘αααααααΌα α»ααααααα« ααααα αααα‘α±α»αα‘α±αααααα ααααΈα αααα‘α αΈα (αααα‘ααα α»ααααα‘αα αα¬αΈαα ααααααααααΈαα¬αΈ) αα α‘ααααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαα ααααα‘α»ααα‘αααααα»αααΈ α αααααααααα±αα¬ααααα¬α»αα α±α‘α¬αααα±αα¬ααααααΈα α»αααααα±αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈα ααα»ααααααααα±αα¬ α‘α±ααΌαα‘αααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈααααΈα αααα‘α αΈααα ααα¬ααααααΈααα±ααΈαα¬ αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈαα αααΈααΈαα½αΌααΈααα»αααΈααα±αα α»αααααα α±αα«ααα αααΈααα»ααααα±αΎαα¬α αααΌαα₯αΈαααΈα αα α»αα αααααα±αα¬αα±ααΈ αααΈαααα»αααΈαα αααα ααα α αααααααα αααΈα»ααααα¬αΈα αααααααα±αΎαα¬α αα»αα αα
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(αααΌαα»αα ) ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈ α αααααΈαααααα¬αΈα±αα«αααααΈαααααΈα»ααααα»αααΈα‘α¬αΈ α»αααα α‘αααα±α ααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ α‘ααα«αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα α ααααα‘αα¬αα αααΈαααααα¬αΈααα±ααα¬ααααΌα ααααα α»αααα¬αΎαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬ααΌα¬α»αα¬αΈαα α‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈααΌααααα ααααααααΌαα α‘α αΈααααα¬α αααααΈαααααα¬ α‘ααΈαααα¬αΈαααΈα α α»αααΈ(EIA)α α»ααααΏααΈαααα α»αααα α‘α±α α¬αααΈααΌα α»αααα αα±αα¬αα¬αΈα ααΈαα₯αΈα ααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα±αα¬α±αα¬αααααα α‘α αΈαα‘αα¬ααα¬αΈαα α»ααααα¬αΈαα«αα αα ααΈα»αααααα±ααΈααΌαα‘ααααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαααα±ααΌααααααα‘α±αα‘αααΈ αααα±αα ααα NGO αα¬αΈ α‘ααααααα«ααααα±ααΈααΌα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ α‘αααα‘αααα¬αΈαα±αααα ααα»αα αααααααααα¬α αααααΈααα±ααΈαα¬ αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈαα α‘α αΈααα ααΏααα±αα¬α±αα¬ααα ααα‘α αΈαααααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌα α±ααΈαα¬α»αα αΏααΈ ENGO αα¬αΈαα αα«α-αααα±αα¬αα αααα»αα α±α α ααααααα±αα¬αααΈαααΈα»ααα»αα α±α α‘ααα‘ααααΎααααα¬α»αα ααα α»αααα¬ααααααα¬ααααααΈααα±ααΈαα¬αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαααα¬ααααααΈαααααααα±αα¬αΎαα¬αΈ αααα±ααΈα αα½αΌαα±αα¬ α‘α±αα»αα α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈα ααα αα±αα¬ααααααα αα½αΌαα±αα¬αααα α±αα¬ CSO αα¬αΈ ααα α±αα¬αα αααα»αα α±α α ααααααα±αα¬αααΈαααΈα»ααα»αα α±α α‘ααα‘αααααΎα αααα¬α‘α±αα‘αα¬ααα»αα αααααα±αΎαα¬αααααααααααααααα αααα±αα¬ααΌα ααΏααΈααΌααααα ααα¬αααααα¬ααααααΈααα±ααΈαα¬αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαααααααα‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈ/α‘ααα α‘αααα¬αΈα αααααα»αααΈαααα α»αααα¬αααα α‘ααααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈααΈαα ααααααα ααα α‘α±ααΌαα‘ααααΈ αααα‘αα¬ααα¬αΈααΌα αααΎααα±ααααα α‘αααΈααΈα‘α¬αΈα»αα αααααα¬α αααααΈααα±ααΈαα¬αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈ α»αααα¬αααα ααΌααααΈαα¬α±αα¬αααα±ααΈα±ααα¬ααΈ αααΎαα»αααΈ α»αα ααα αααα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘αα‘ααα¬αΈαα α»αααα¬αααα ααα¬αΈααα»αα ααα‘ααα‘αααΈαα ααααα±ααααα α€ααα αααα‘αα¬ααα¬αΈα α‘αα‘ααα»ααΏααΈ αααΈα αα₯αΈααααα ααααααα ααααα¬ α) α‘αα‘αα ααα α±ααΈ αα αααα±ααΈαααα¬α α¬αα¬αΈααα« ααααΌααΈα»αααΈα»αα αααα¬α»ααα α±ααΈα α) ααααα«αααααα α»αααΈααα α‘ααα¬αα¬αΈ/ααααααα¬αΈ α‘αααααα«αααα α‘α¬αΈααΈαα«αααααα ααα»αα αα¬α±α ααα»αα ααα α‘αα¬ααααΌααα½αΌαα±αα¬α»ααααα αα±αααα ααααΌααααα ααα¬ αααααα (αααα‘ααα α»ααααα‘αααα¬αΈα ααααααααααΈαα¬αΈ) αααααααα¬αΈααα»αα ααααΈαααα ααα α‘αα‘αααααΈ αααααΈαα¬αΈαα»αααα¬ααααα‘ααααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαα‘α αΈααααα±αα¬α‘ααα¬αα¬αΈαα ααααααΈ α±αα«ααΈααα±αα¬ααααααΈααα±ααααΌαααααα±αα¬α αα±αααααα¬αΈαα±αααααΈαααα αα¬α±ααΌα±αα¬αα ααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα
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α»αααα¬α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈαα¬αΈ ααααα±ααα±αα¬ α αα±αααααα¬αΈ
Challenges Facing Myanmarβs Migrant Workers
Khin Maung Nyo Senior Research Fellow, MDRIβCESD
[email protected] α±αα αα ααα±ααααΌα ααα±ααα±αα¬ The Economist ααα’αααΈααΌα α»αααα¬αα₯αΈα±αα αα αα¬ααααααΈαα ααααα α»αα¬αΈααΌα α±ααααααα±αΎαα¬ααΈ α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α‘α»ααα»αααααα¬α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈ (IOM) αααααααΈαααα αααΈααα ααΌα α»αααα¬α‘ααααα¬αΈ α αααΈα α αααΈα αα±ααΈαα¬αΈαααααΌα α αααΈαααα α ααα¬αααΌα α αααΈα±αα¬α ααααα α±αα¬αα ααΈαα¬αΈααΌα α±αα¬αααααΈαα α‘αα΅ααα αααααααΌα αααΈααααΈαααα ααα¬ααααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±ααα¬αααα αα ααα αααΈαααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ ααααα ααΌα αααα»αα¬αΈα±αα¬αααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα ααα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈααα±ααΌα±αΎααΈ α‘α±ααααα±αααα¬ α αα αααΈαα¬ (ααααα αααα α ααα α αα¬ααααααΈ) α»αααα¬ααα αααααα α±αα¬αααααα α»αααα¬αααα αααααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈα‘α α‘α α₯αα ααααα ααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ αααΏααααα αααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈ α αααα α¬αΈαα α»αααα¬αΈαα¬α»αααΈααα‘α α‘ααΈα‘ααΌααα¬αΈααΈααΌααα¬ααα α‘α»ααα»αααααα¬α±ααΌα±αΎααΈαααα±ααΌα‘ααΌα (IMF) α ααααα α±αα αα ααα±ααααΌα ααα»αααααα αααα/αα (αααααΌα ααααΈαα) ααα¬α±ααΈαα (FY)ααΌα ααΌααΏααΈααΈ αααααα α ααα α αα¬ααααααΈααααα ααααααΈααΏααΈ αααα/αα ααα¬α±ααΈαα ααΌα α ααα αα αα¬ααααααΈαα α‘αααΈ ααααΈααααα ααααααΈαα¬αΈααα α‘α±ααα‘α¬ααααα¬ ααα»α¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΌα α»αααα¬α‘ααα‘αα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬α α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎααα βαα½αΌααααααα αα½αΌαααααααΈα±ααΌ ααααα α‘α αΌααΈα‘α α±ααΌαα±αα¬ααα¬αΏααΈ α»αααα¬ααα αααΏααα αα»αα ααααβ α α±α»αα¬αααα αααΈ ααΎαααα α»αααα¬α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα αααα±αα¬α αα ααα±αα¬α α‘ααα¬ααα¬αΈα±αα¬ αααααΈααΌαα‘α±α»αα‘α±α α±α‘α¬αααΌα αααααα»αα¬αΈα α‘αααααααα αα±αα¬ααα±αΎαα¬ααΈ αα α ααα αααΈα±αα¬α»αα»αααΈα»αα ααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ ααααα΅αα ααααα‘ααααΌα α»αααΏααΈ αααααααΈα»ααα‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αα¬ααα ααα α‘α¬ααααααα±αα α‘ααα‘αααα α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈα±αααα»αααΈα α±α»ααααΈαα α»αααα¬α‘ααααα¬αΈαααααΈαα¬αα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈαα ααα¬ααα¬αα α ααααααα ααααα¬αΈαα α‘ααααααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α»ααααΌααΈαααααα»αα¬αΈ α‘ααα‘αααα¬αΈαα¬α±ααΌαα¬ααΌα α‘αα‘αα±ααΈ αα α‘ααααα¬αΈαααααΈαα¬αα αααααααΈααΌα α‘ααα‘αααα¬α±ααΌα±ααΈα ααα¬ αα αααΌααα αααα α‘ααΈαα»αα ααα ααα¬αΈαααααααα‘α»αα ααααΏααΈ α₯αα±αα‘α αααΈα±ααΈα±αα¬ α‘α»αα α±ααΈααααα ααα‘αα¬αα ααα»αα αα α‘αααΈαααΈ αααΈαααα α±ααα α±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα ααααααα ααααΈααα‘α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘ααα α α»ααααααα (α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαα αααα±ααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈα‘ααΌα αα±αα¬α) αααΈα±αα¬ααα‘α αΈαααααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααΏααΈ αααΈαααα α αααΈααααα±αα¬ α±ααα α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘ααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα±αα¬αααα αααΈαααΈα±αα α₯ α αααΈαααα‘α¬αΈ ααααααααα¬αΈαα α‘αα‘ααα»αααα»αα¬αΈαα¬αΈ ααα±ααΈααΏαα»αα ααα α‘αα‘ααα»ααΏααΈ αααααααΌαα»ααα ααα¬αΈαααααΈαααΈαααα α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α α¬αΈαααα
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αααΈαααΌα±αααα‘ααΈαααα¬αΈα α±αα¬αααααα»αα ααα α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α»ααααα±ααΌαααααΈ ααα±αα¬α±αα¬ ααα αα ααα αα α±αα¬ααααα±αα¬ααα»αα ααα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈαα αα¬αΈααΎααα α±αα¬α±αα¬αααα ααα«αααΈα α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α‘αααΈαααα¬ α‘α¬αα αα αα α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α‘ααα±αα¬ ααααααα¬αΈα αααα¬αα¬αα±α ααα»αα ααα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈααα α α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈα±αααα»αααΈααα«αααΌα ααααααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈααα ααααΌαααΌα¬αααα±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈααα¬αΈαα« αααΏααΈ α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈ αα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α‘α±α»ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈααα¬ααΌαααα α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈα±αααα»αααΈα‘ααΌα α α¬αΈαααα¬αΈα±αα¬ααααα α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈ αααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα ααα¬αΈα αα¬αΈα αααα αΈααΌα¬αΈααΌααΏααΈαααα α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈα±αααα»αααΈααααα¬αα α‘α±ααΌαα‘αααα¬αΈα αα½αΌααΈαααααα¬αΈαα α‘αααα¬αα¬αΈα±ααααΌα α₯αΈαααααα«ααααα ααα»αα α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈα±αααα»αααΈα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈααα¬ααα¬ααΌααΈαα α±αα«ααΈα ααΈααααα ααααα ααα«αα‘α α‘ααα‘ααα±αα¬ααα»αααΈα αααΈααΌα¬αΈα»αααΈαα αα±αααα»αα»αααΈααααααΈ α»ααααααα»αα αα¬ αααααα¬α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈα αααααα¬αα α»ααααΌααΈα‘ααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαα α±αα«ααΈα ααΈαααα α±αα¬αααΈα‘α±αα»αα α»ααααΌααΈαα α±ααααΌααΈ αααα¬αΈα±α αΈααΌααα¬αΈ ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα α‘α¬αΈαααααΈαααΈααα»αα ααα αα±ααΈαα¬αΈα α±αα αα ααα±ααα ααΌαα α ααα±αα‘αα»αα ααΌα¬αΈαα±αα¬ αααααα α αααΌα α»αααα¬αααα¬αΈ α±ααΈα₯αΈα‘ααα αααΏααΈ α±αα¬ααααα αααΈααΈα α α±ααΈαααααα αααΈαα α‘αα αααααααααα¬α»αα ααΏααΈ αα±ααΈαα¬αΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα ααα αααα±αα (α»αααα¬αααα»αα¬αΈα±ααΈ ααααααααΈ)α α‘ααα±αα¬ αα±ααΈαα¬αΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαααα¬αΈααα αα±ααΈαα¬αΈα α»αααα¬ αααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α‘αα¬α‘ααΌαα±ααΈαα α±αα¬ααΈαααΎαααα αα±ααΈαα¬αΈα α»αααα¬αααα¬αΈα‘αα¬αΈα αα¬ αα±ααΈαα¬αΈααΌα αα αααααααα α»αααα¬αααααααΈααα ααα¬αΈα αα¬αΈα αααααα±αΎαα¬αα±αΎαα¬α ααααααααα»ααααα α α₯αΎαα±αα¬αααΈ α α¬αααα« ααααααααα α α¬ααΌαα α¬αααΈαα»ααα αααα¬αΈαα±αααα αα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαα αα¬αα‘αααΈ α‘α»ααα‘αααααααΏααΈ αααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαααα α‘αααααα¬αΈα αααα αααααΈαααααα¬αΈα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα»αα α»ααααΌααα α‘ααα‘α αα ααααα±ααααα αα±ααΈαα¬αΈα α»αααα¬αααΈα‘αα¬ααα¬αΈα α‘α±ααΌαα‘αααααΈαΏααΈ α αΌααΈααααααα±αΎαα¬α ααα¬αΈαααα»αα α±αα α»αααα¬α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα ααααααα±ααΈααα»αααΈααα α»αααΎαα¬αΈα±ααΈ ααααααααΈα α‘αα‘α ααααα ααααααΈαααα αα‘α αα±ααΈαα¬αΈααΌα αα‘α±α»αα‘α±αααααααα±αααα±αα«ααΈ ααα¬αΈααα±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈ αααααα αα ααα¬αΈααααααα¬αΈ ααααα αααα ααααα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈααα αααααΈαα¬αΈα α‘αααα‘ααα»αααα¬ααααα¬αΈαααΏααΈ α‘α»αα¬αΈαααααΈαα¬ααα¬αΈ αααααΈ ααααααΈα±αα¬αααΌααα αα‘αα±αααα α‘ααααα¬αΈαααααΈαα¬α ααααααααΈααααα ααΌαα αα ααα±αα ααΌα α»αααα¬α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈ αααααα αα α‘αα‘ααα‘α»ααααααα¬αΈ αααΏααΈα»αα ααα α‘ααααα¬αΈαααααΈα α±α»αα¬αααα ααΌα¬αα¬αααα α»αααα¬αααΈααααΌα¬αΈα±αα¬ααααα¬ α‘ααα¬ααα¬αΈα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α ααααα±αααα¬αΈααΌα α»αααα¬αααΈ αα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα±ααΈαα αα±ααΈαα¬αΈα ααα±α»αα‘ααΈααΈααΌα ααααα±αα±αα¬ α‘α»αα¬αΈα»αααα¬αααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααΈααααα αα±ααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘ααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈ ααα±αα¬αα»αααΈαα»ααα α»αααα¬α‘ααα‘αααα¬α±ααΌα±ααΈα±α‘ααα α‘α¬αΈαα¬αΈ αααααΈαα¬αα αααα ααΌααααΌα αα¬αΈα»αα αααα αα±ααΈαα¬αΈααααΌα¬αΈα±αα¬αααα α‘ααα‘αααα¬α±ααΌα±ααΈα±α‘ααα ααα α¬αΈ αααα α₯αΈαα αα±ααΈαα¬αΈααΌαα»αα α±ααα±ααα ααααα‘αα¬αΈαα¬ αααΈ ααααα αα¬αα¬α±ααΈααΌα»αα¬αΈααααααα ααΏααΈα»αα α±αααααααα ααα±ααΈαααα¬α»ααα¬α±αΎαα¬ααα»αα ααΌα¬αΈαααα αααα
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α»αααα¬α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα αα±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬α‘ααα‘αα αα¬αΈαα ααα‘ααα‘α»αα UNHCR ααααααα α±α α¬ααααΈα±α αΎααα»αα ααα αααααα’ααα‘αααα¬αΈαααα¬ ααα¬αααΈαααΈααΈαααα±ααΈα±αα¬ ααα‘αααααα¬αΈααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈααα α±αα¬ααααααααα αα¬ααααΈαααα»αα α±αα¬ α»αααα¬ααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα ααα¬αΈααα‘ααααααΌαααααα‘ααΌα α±ααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌααα αα¬ααα ααααα ααα‘ααααα‘ααα‘αααΈα α‘ααΌααΈαΏααΈ ααα¬αΈαααα‘αααα¬αΈαα ααα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α αααΈααΈααααααΌα ααα‘αααα¬αΈα α‘αααααααα¬ααΌαα±ααΈα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α UNHCR α α±ααααα¬αΈα α±ααααΎαααα UNHCR αααΈααααΈαα¬αΈα‘α αα₯αΈα±α αααα ααααα±αα¬ α»αααα¬ααα‘ααα‘αααα αααΈα»ααααΌα αααα αα¬αα¬ α‘α±α»αααααΌα¬αΈαΏααΈα±αα¬ααα±ααΈαα¬αΈαααΌαααΌα¬ααΌα¬αΈα»αααΈαααΎαααααα (New Strait Times, 24th June 2013) αα±ααΈαα¬αΈα αααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α»ααααα±ααα±αα¬ααα α»αααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈα‘αααΈα‘αααΈαα α‘ααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈ αα¬αΈ α αααααΎααΌαΎααΌαα«αααΎαααα αα±ααΈαα¬αΈαα»αααα¬α αααα αααΈααα‘αα ααΌαα αα ααα±ααααΌα α±αα»ααα±αα¬α α‘ααααα¬αΈ αα α±αα¬αα ααααα α‘ααααα¬αΈ αα α±αα¬α α α α±αα«ααΈ α α α±αα¬αα α‘ααααααα¬αΈαααα (α»αααα¬ α‘αααΈ ααΌααα αα αα)α α±αααα‘α¬αΈα»αα αααΈααα αα½αΌααΈαααααα¬αΈαα α‘α±ααΌαα‘αααα¬αΈαα α»ααααΌααΈα±α αΈααΌαα α‘ααααα α‘αααααααα±αα ααα±αα¬αααΈ α‘α»αα¬αΈαα ααααΌα α»αααα¬α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα ααα¬αΈαααααΈ α±αΎαα¬ααΈαα¬αΈααα αα αα±ααΈαα¬αΈαα ααααααΌαααΌα¬α±ααΎαααα αααΈαααα α»ααα¬αα¬ αα±ααΈαα¬αΈααααα±αα αααΈαααααΌα α»αααα¬α±α‘αΈαααα¬αΈα α‘α¬αΈαα¬αΈααααα ααΎααααΈα α¬αΈαααα α±ααΈααΌααΈααααααα¬ ααααα α¬αα αααααΈααΌαα‘α±α»αα‘α±αααα»αα ααα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈααα αααΈα‘α αΈααα ααααΌ α±αα¬αααΌααΏααΈ αααΈαααα α»αααα¬αααα¬αΈ α ααα α αααΈα‘ααΌα αα¬ααααααΈαααααα¬αΈααα±ααΈαΏααΈα»αα ααα αα α±αα¬ α αααΈαα¬ αααα±ααα»αα αΏααΈ αα¬ααααααΈααααααα±ααΈα»αααΈαααααΈα α₯α αααα ααα α α±αα αα ααα±ααα αΎαααα αα ααα±ααα‘α ααααααααΈααΈαα¬αΈααα αα¬ααααααΈαααααααα αααα¬ α‘ααααα¬αΈαα α₯αΈ αα αα αααα α»αα αΏααΈ ααααα¬αΈαα αα±ααΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌα ααα ααα αααααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ ααΌα α¬αΈαα¬αΈααα αα αα¬ααααααΈααααα»α αααααααα αααα¬ αα αα ααα αααα‘ααααα±ααα»αα αα»αα αααΈαα αα αα¬α±αα α»αα ααα ααΌα α¬αΈαα¬αΈααα αα αα¬ααααααΈααααααααα¬αΈαα α α¬αααααα¬αΈα ααααΈα‘ααα‘αααα αααααΈα α₯ααα¬αΈααα»αααΈααααα¬αΈαα ααα±ααΌααααα¬αΈα»αα α±αα¬ααΈα»αα ααααα αααΈαααααΌα ααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαα α»αααα¬ α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α±αα¬ααΈα±αα«ααΈ αα α±αα¬ααΈααααα α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα αα±ααΈαααα¬αΈαα ααα¬α±ααΈα α‘ααΌααααΈαα«αΈααααα¬αααα¬ ααααα ααα¬αΈαααα»αααα¬α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα αααΈαααααΌααααααα»αααΈα ααΎαα¬αααα α¬αΈααα αααΈαααααΌαα αα±αα¬ααααααΈα»αααΈα‘α»αα α‘αααααΈα±α‘α¬αααα»αααΈαααΈααααα ααΌαα αα ααα±ααααΌα α»αααα¬α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈ αα α αα α»αααααα αα ααααα»αααΈαααααα α»αααα¬α‘ααααα¬αΈα±ααΈαα¬α‘αα¬ααα¬αΈα α‘ααα»ααααα αααΈαααΈα αα¬αΈαα α α¬ααααααΏααΈαα¬αΈα»αα α±αα¬αααΈ α‘ααααα¬αΈαααααΈαα¬αα ααΌαα»αααα αααααα»αα αααα α±α»αα¬ααΈα±αααααΌα¬αΈ α±αα¬αα»αααΈα α±αα¬αα±ααΈα±α‘α¬αα»αααααααα¬ α»αααα¬α‘ααααα¬αΈ ααα α αααα ααα ααΌααααΌα α»αααα ααα΅α»αααΎα ααα
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α»αααα¬αΎαααα¬αΈ ααα±ααΌααααΌαααα αααα¬αα¬αΈαα¬ α»αααα¬αααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααα ααααα α¬ααΌα¬α»αα¬αΈααα α‘ααααα ααααΈ α ααα αα αα¬ααααααΈααα α αα¬ααααααΈα αα αα¬ααααααΈααΈα»αααα¬αα (α‘ααααα¬αΈαααααΈαα¬αα αααα α α±α αα) α‘ααα‘αααα¬αΈαα«αΈαααα ααΌααΏααΈααααα±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈα α‘ααΈαα»αα ααα αΌααααα¬αΈαα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα±αααα¬αΈααΌα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈ ααΌααΏααΈαααα α‘α»αα¬αΈααα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ α±αααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα αααα‘ααααααα»αα ααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα αααα±αα±αα¬ αα α₯ αααα¬αΈαα¬ ααααααα αααΈαααα±αα¬α α»αααα¬αααα±αα¬α α‘αα α»αα αΏααΈ ααααΈααΈα±αα¬ α»αααα¬αααα αααα±ααΈαα αααααΈ αααα¬ααΌααΏααΈααα αααΈαααααΌαα±ααΌαΈααΌα¬αΈαα αα±ααΈαααα¬αΈ α»αααα¬αααααΈαααα α‘αα¬αΈαααα αααΈαααααΌα α±ααΌαΈααΌα¬αΈα±αα¬ α»αααα¬αα±ααΈαααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α α₯αααα»αααααααΈαα¬αΈαα ααα¬α±ααΈααα»αα ααα α‘α αΈαααα«α (ααα»α¬αα αααΈα α»αααα¬ααααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈααΈα α‘αα¬α‘ααΌαα±ααΈαα αα‘ααα)α α»ααααα±ααΌα ααααααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈ α ααααΌααα αΌα¬ααα±α»αα¬ααΈα»αααΈα ααα»αα¬αΈα±αααα¬αΈα‘ααΈααΌα α ααααααα¬αΈαα±αα¬αα»αααΈ (α‘α±α»ααα‘α±αα¬αα‘α‘αα¬αΈαα ααα¬α±ααΈα±αα¬ααααα‘αααα‘ααα±αΎαα¬α α±ααΈα±ααΌαΈα αΌα¬ ααΌααΏααΈα»αααΈ)α ααΌαα αα ααα±ααααΌα αα±αα¬αααα α»ααααΌααΈαα αααααα¬α‘ααααα¬αΈα‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈ αααΎαα¬αΈαααααα¬αΈααα‘αα«α‘αα ααΌααΏααΈααα»αα α±αααα¬αα ααααα‘αααααα
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α»ααα±α»ααΈα±αα¬α α»ααα±αα¬α»ααα±αα¬ - α»αααα¬αααα±ααΈα‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈααααΌα α»αααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα α‘αααΈαα
Exile or Return? The Diasporaβs Role in Myanmarβs Political Transition
Kerstin Duell, PhD Myanmar Program Manager, Konrad-Adenauer Foundation Singapore
αααα α»αααα¬αααα ααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαααα±αα¬ αααα±ααααΌαααααΈα αααααααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα αα«ααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈ α±ααΈαααα¬α‘αΎααΌαααα¬αΈααα ααααα΅α»ααααα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈαα α‘αΎαααΈααααααα±αα ααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈ α αα αααα±ααΈααΈαΎαα¬αΈαααα¬αΈααααααα±αα¬ α»αα αααα¬αΈαα ααα αα αα¬αΈαααα±αα¬ α α ααα ααααα±αα¬ αααΈα±αα¬ααΈα ααΌαααα±αα¬αααΈα‘α¬αΈα»ααα±αα¬αααΈα±αα¬ααΈ αααΌααΈαααααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα αααααα»αααα»αααΈαα ααΌαα¬αΈα±αα¬α ααααααΌααα αααΈα»αααα α αα«ααα¬αααΌααΈααα αααα±ααΈα±α α¬ααΎαα ααααΌαα»αααΈαα αααααα¬αΈααααα»αααΈ ααα±αΎαα¬α αααΈαααα±αα¬ α»αααα¬αα¬αΈαα αααααα»αα¬αΈαα ααΌαα±α»ααΈααΎααααα ααΌαα±αα«ααα¬ααα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ ααααΈαα¬αΈα (α) αααα ααα α α ααα‘α¬αα¬αααΈααα (α) αααα α»αααα αα¬αΈα‘ααααΌαα»αα ααΌα¬αΈααα α»αααα¬ααα αα αααΈα α₯αα«αα ααααα‘ααααααα α₯αΈαααα‘α±ααΈα‘αααΈα (α) αααα ααα‘αΎααΌαααα (α) αααα ααα‘αΎααΌαα α‘ααΈααΈααα‘α»αα ααΌα»αα¬αΈαΎααααααααα»αα ααα α»αααααα‘αα¬αΈααΈααΌαα±α»ααΈααΎααααα¬ααα¬ αααα α±αα¬ααΈαααΈαα αααα α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌα‘αΏααΈα α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬ααα‘ααα‘αα α‘α¬αα¬ααα±ααΈα±ααΈα‘α¬αΈ α α ααααα±αααα¬α»αα α‘ααααΌα±α αα αα¬αα‘ααΌααΈαα»αα ααα ααα»αα α»αααα±αα¬αα»αααα¬αα¬αΈαα α‘ααα‘α¬αΈα»αα ααααα‘α±αΎαα¬αααΌαααΌα¬αΎαααα¬αΈ α»αα αααα¬αα αααα’ααα α₯αΈαααΈα‘αα ααα¬α±ααΈαα αα±αα¬αααααααααααΈαααα¬αΈα»αα ααΌαααΌα¬αΎααα αααΈααΎαααα αα α±αα«ααΈ αα α±αα¬ α‘αα‘α¬αΈαααΈα±αα¬α α α‘α αΈαα ααααααα ααα»αα±αα¬ α αα±αααααα¬αΈα α±αα¬αα±αα¬ααααα¬ααα αααα»ααα±αα¬αααα±αα α‘α±ααΈ ααααα¬αΈαααα αα ααΈα α±αα¬ α»αααα±αα¬αα»αααα¬ αα¬αΈα‘αα ααααΈα α¬αΈαα ααα₯αΈα±αα¬ααα¬ αααα±ααΈα»ααα±α»ααΈαα¬αΈα‘α»αα ααααα¬αΈααΎαααα αααα ααΌα α αααα α‘αα-α±α‘α¬α αααα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα»αα α±α αα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈααα¬αΈαα¬αΈ α‘αα αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈαααα αα ααααΈα±αα¬ α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈααα¬αΈ α»αα α±αα¬αααΈ αααα±ααΈα‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈααα¬αΈα»αα α»αααααΌαα±ααααΎαααα¬αΈαα αααααααα αααααα¬αααα±ααΈα ααααΈααΈααα»ααααα α‘αα‘ααα»ααα ααα α»αα ααα α»ααααΌααΈαααα±ααΈα ααα¬ααα αα‘αα±αα¬ α‘ααΈααα±αα¬αααααα±αααα α±α α¬ααααα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘α αΈα α₯αΈα±αα¬ααα α»α α»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈααα±αα¬αααααΌα α»αααα±αα¬αααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ α»ααα±αα¬α»αααααα α±αααα±αα¬αααΈ ααΏαα αααααα‘α¬αααααα ααΌααΏαααΈαααΈαα¬ααΌααα¬αΈαα±ααΈαα αααα±ααΈαααα¬ α»ααα±α»ααΈα‘ααααα¬ α»ααα±αααα»αααΈα»αα ααα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααααΌα αααα‘α αΈαα α‘ααα±ααΈαα¬αΈα‘αα«α‘αα ααααα αααα±ααΈ-α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ ααΌααΏααΈααααΌα αα«ααα±ααΎαααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ α»ααα±αα¬α»αααα¬ααα¬αΈα αα½αΌααΈαααααα¬αΈαα α‘α±ααΌαα‘αααα¬αΈα αααΈα»αααααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈααΌα α‘ααΈα»ααααα α‘α±ααΈαααΈα±αα¬αααααα¬αΈααΌα α±ααααα±αα¬αααααα±αααααΌα αααα±ααΈα»ααα±α»ααΈαα¬αΈαα αααααααΈαα»αααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα ααΎαααααααα»αααΈαααααΈ ααααα±ααααα α»αααα¬ α»αα»ααα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαα¬αΈααΌα α»ααα±α»ααΈαα¬αΈα α‘αααΈαααα α αα»αααΈα»ααααα¬αΈα α‘αα»αααα¬ααΌα αααΈα»ααααΌααΈα αααααα αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ αα±αα¬αα¬αΈααΌααΌαααααα αα α±αα«ααΈ αα α±αα¬ α»ααααΌααΈαα α»ααα±α»ααΈαα¬αΈ αΎαα¬αΈααΌα»αα¬αΈααα ααααα¬αΈαααα αα α‘ααα‘αα‘αα αα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ αα±ααα ααααα‘αα¬αΈαα±αααΏααΈ α»αααα¬αααα‘ααΌα α±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌα
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α α±αα«ααΈα‘α¬αΈαααααα αα‘ααΌααΈαα αααα±αα¬ α‘α±ααΌαα‘αααα¬αΈα±αα«ααΈα ααΈαα αααΈαααΈααΎα ααα α»ααα±α»ααΈαα¬αΈα‘α±αααα¬αΈααα α»ααααΌααΈ αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈα αα±αα¬αα¬αΈ α α α α±ααΈα ααα¬α±ααΈα αα ααα αΈααα α‘ααα¬ααααΈα αΌαααα ICT αααα»αααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈα»αα α±ααααα ααααα α±αα¬ααΈααα¬α±ααΈα αα‘ααααα¬ααααα αααααα¬α‘α±ααΌαα‘αααα α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαααα¬α αΌααΈαααα¬αΈ ααα»αααΈα α»αααα¬αααΎααΌ ααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈα αΌα¬α α±αα¬ααΈα αΌα¬ααα»αααΎααααα»αααα¬α‘αα¬αααα±αα¬α±αα¬ααα¬ααΌα ααααααα ααΌααααα αα¬αΈαα α‘α±αα‘ααα¬αΈ αααΈα»ααα αααα α‘α±ααΌαα‘αααααα α‘ααααααΈ αααααααΎαααα ααα±αΎαα¬α αααΈα»ααααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαα ααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα ααααααα¬αΈα αααααα¬α‘α±ααΌαα‘αααα α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαααα¬ αα½αΌααΈαααααα¬αΈα±αα¬ααα₯αΈαα¬αα α»ααα±αα¬α»ααα»ααα±α»ααΈ αα¬αΈα αα«ααα±αα¬αααΌααααα¬αΈα αααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈα ααα α¬αΈ αααα¬αΈα α‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈαΎαααα α»ααα±α»ααΈαα¬αΈα‘α±ααΌαα‘αααααα α‘α±ααΈαααΈα±αα¬ α±αα¬ααααααααα ααα¬ α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ α‘ααΌααα¬αΈα αααα’ααα¬αΈαα α‘α»ααα‘αααααα±ααΈα»αα ααα ααα±αΎαα¬α αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαααα±ααΈααΌα ααΌα»αα¬αΈα±αα¬αα¬αΈαααα αα ααααααα α»ααα±α»ααΈα»αα α±αα α₯ ααα¬αα¬αΈαα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈααααα¬αΈααα‘ααΌααα¬αΈαα αααα‘ααα‘ααΌαααα ααααααααααΌααα¬αΈαααααΈ α‘ααα‘ααΌααααα NCGUBα DAB αα NCUB αααα±αα¬ α‘ααα»ααα±α»ααΈα‘α α αα¬αΈαα αααα-αααα αΎαα¬αΈ αααα±αα α‘α±ααΈααααα¬αΈααααΌα αααα‘ααΈαα¬αΈ α‘α ααΈα‘ααΈ(KNU) αα¬αααα»αα αα αα¬αααα±αα¬ααΌα αα±ααΆααααΌαα ααΈαα»αααΈα»αα ααα αααααα¬α ααααααΌααα¬αΈααααΈαααα¬αΈαα ααα±α»ααα¬αΈ α‘ααΌα ααΌαα±α»ααΈα»αααΈαα α±αα¬ααααΈααΌα αααΎααΌααα¬αΈααααααααα±ααΈα‘ααΌα αααα‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»αα α±α α αΏααΈ α‘αααΈαααΈααααα¬αΈαα ααΌα¬αΈα±αα¬ααα¬ααΌαααα‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»αα α±α αααα ααα¬αααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαααα±ααΈαα α‘ααα±α»αα±αα¬α±ααΌααα α‘αααΈααΌα¬αααα ααααααΈαααααΈαααα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααα»αααΈαα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α‘α±ααΈα‘α±αααααααα¬α‘α»αααα¬αΈα»αααα±ααΌααα¬α»αααΈααα±αΎαα¬α α‘α±α α¬αααΈαα αα¬ααα¬αΈααΌα αα ααααααααα ααΈα»αααααα αααα±ααΈαααααα±αα¬ααΌααΏααΈ αααα»αα¬αΈααα¬ααααα¬αα¬αΈα ααααΈαα±αα¬ ααα¬αααααα¬αα½αΌααΈαααα αα αα½αΌααΈαααααα¬αΈα α‘ααΈα‘α»αααααααα αααααα¬αΈα αΌα¬αααα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααα‘α¬αΈα»αα αααααααΈα α¬ ααα¬αα¬αΈα αααααΈα±ααΈα»αααΈα»αα αααα¬α±αα¬αααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα αα¬αααα αααααα¬αΈα α αα¬αΈα ααααα»αααΈα α»ααααΌααΈαα αααααα¬αααα¬αα¬αΈα ααααα±ααΈα»αααΈαα ααα±α»αα¬ααα α»αααα¬αα¬α±ααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαααα¬αα¬αΈ α ααα»α¬ααΈαααα¬ ααααΈααΌαααα±α»ααα±ααααα±ααΈα»αααΈααα‘ααΌα α»ααα±α»ααΈαααα¬α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘α±α»αα¬ααΈ α‘ααα‘α±αα¬αα‘αα±ααΈααα¬αΈ α»αα αα¬ αααΎαααα α»ααα±αα¬α»αααα¬α±αα¬ α»ααα±α»ααΈαααα¬αα¬αΈα α‘α αΈαα αααα¬αα¬α±ααΈαα±ααα±αα¬αααΈ αΏααααααα‘αα αα¬αΈα ααααααΏααΈ α»ααα±α»ααΈαα¬αααα αα¬αΈα α‘αα‘αα±ααααα ααααα ααααΈαααααΈαααΈα±ααα ααααα¬αΈαα αΏαααααααααΈ αα‘αα±ααα»αα ααα αααΈα»ααααΌααΈαααααα¬αΈααα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈααααΈ αααα α±ααΈαΏααΈαααααΎααα αααα’αα‘αα‘ααα¬ααααΈ αααΈ αα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα±αα¬ αα αααααΈα α±α»αα±α‘α¬αααΌααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα»αααΈαα α±α‘α¬αα±α»ααααα α‘ααα‘ααΌαα»αααα»αααΈ ααααααααααΈαα¬αΈαααα α»ααα±α»ααΈαα¬αΈαα αααααα±ααα αα ααΈαα α±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌαα αααα±ααΈ α‘αα₯αΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈαααα¬ ααΈααα±αααΏααΈ α±α‘α¬αα±α»ααααααααΈα αα α±αααα±αααΎαααα α»ααα±α»ααΈαα¬αΈαα ααα α±ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα α‘ααααααααα¬αΈαααα¬αααααΎααΏααΈ αααα±ααΈαα α₯αα¬αΈααα¬ααΈααΈααααααα₯αΈααα αα ααα»αααα±αα¬ α‘ααααααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαα ααααααΎαααα ααα±αΎαα¬αα»ααα±α»ααΈαα¬αΈαα αα¬ααα»αα αααα αα‘ααααα¬αΈαα α αααα΅αα¬αΈα αα¬αΈαααααα αα₯αΈαααα ααααΌαααΎαααα αααα αααα αααΈααΈααΌαααΈαααααααα ααα¬ααααααΌααΈα α₯αΈα α¬αΈαα α»ααα±α»ααΈαα¬αΈαα α±α‘α¬αα±α»ααααΎαα¬αΈ αα αα αα±ααΌααααα
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αα±αα¬αα¬αΈα‘α»αα αααΈα»ααα ααΌααΏααΈαααααααα ααα¬αΈαααΈα α¬αα¬α±αα¬ααα¬αΈα±ααΈαα αααα±ααΈαααα¬α‘ααα‘αααΈαα αααΈααΈα»ααααα αα¬αΈα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘αα‘ααα¬αΈα ααα¬αΈαααΈα α¬αα¬α±αα¬ααα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘αα‘ααα¬αΈ α‘α±α»ααΈα‘ααα¬αΈαα¬α±αα¬ααααα±ααα¬ α»αα α±α αα αααα±ααΈααααααα¬αΈα α‘ααααα¬αΈα‘ααΌααααΈ ααααΈαααα»αα ααα α‘ααααα¬αΈαα αααααα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈα α»ααα±α»ααΈαα¬αΈαα α»ααααΌααΈα±αααα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈα α»ααααΌααΈα‘α±α»αααΏααΈααα¬αΈαα α‘αα αααα¬αα α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ αα«αα«ααΌα±αααααα α»αααΈαα αααα±ααΈαα¬αΈαα αααααα¬αΈα αααα±ααΌαΈαα±αα¬ ααα α‘ααααΌαα»αα α±α αααα ααα»αα αααΈα»αα αα¬αΈααααααααΈααα¬α»αααΈααααΈ ααα¬αααα±ααΈα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈ ααα±αα«α ααα±αα«ααα¬α±α αααα αααΈααα±αα¬ α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈαα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α α±αα¬αααΈααΌα αααααα ααααα±αα¬ααααα αα ααΌααααΈααααα±αα¬ααα¬αααΎαααα αααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈααα α¬αΈαΎααΏααΈ α‘ααΈαα»αα αααα ααΌααααΈααα α‘α±ααΌα±ααΌα±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌα‘ααΌα α‘α¬αΈααΈαα»αααααα¬αΎαα»αααΈααα»αα ααα α‘α α α‘ααα‘α¬αΈαααααα¬αΈ ααααα α¬αΈ α‘ααα±αα¬ α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈα α‘ααΈααααααααααα¬αΈα‘αααααααα±αα¬α α‘αααααα±ααΌαα¬αΈα αααα α‘α»αα α±αα¬ααα¬αΈαΎαααααΈαα±αααα α‘αααΈαααα¬α»αααα¬αΎαα±αα¬ α»ααα±α»ααΈαα¬αΈαα αααΈα»ααααΌα α‘αααααα±ααΈ α‘ααα¬αα¬αΈα»αα αΎααα α‘α αΈα αααααα±αα¬αα¬αΈα αααα±ααΈαα«ααα¬αΈα ααααα¬αΈααααααα ααα α‘αα αα¬αΈα α±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα α αΌααΈ α±αα¬αααααα±αα¬αα±ααΈα‘α±αααα¬ ααα‘ααα‘α α‘α¬αα αα±ααΎαααα αααα‘α¬αΈα»αα αα¬ααα±αα¬α‘ααα‘ααα¬αΈαα αααΌαα α‘αΎαα±ααΈα‘ααΌαα MDRI ααα¬ααα‘ααΌαααΌααα«ααα»αααΈα»ααα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααααΌα αααΆαα¬αα¬αααα¬αΈααααΌα α αααα¬αα¬αααα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ α‘αα ααα‘αΎαααΈαααα ααααα αααα±αα¬ααΈα±αΎααΈαα ααααΈα ααα΅α»αααα¬αΈα‘α±αα ααΏαα±ααΈααααΌααααα¬αΈαα»αααααααα α α ααΈα α α±ααΈαα α‘ααΈα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈααΌααααΈαα«αααα¬αΎαααα ααα±αα¬ αααααα¬αα¬αΈααα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈαααααα αα ααααα»αα α α₯α‘α»αα αα¬α»ααα±ααΌαα±ααααα ααα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααααΌα ααα«α α±ααΈαα αααααα¬ α»ααααα»αααα¬αΎαααα¬αΈαα αααααΌααΈαα»ααααα¬αΈαα ααααααα±αα¬ααααα α»αα ααα αααα±ααΈα»ααα±α»ααΈαα¬αΈα‘αα«α‘αα α»αααα±αα¬αα±ααα‘α¬αΈααΈα‘ααΌα α‘ααΈα»ααααα α αα ααΏααΈααΌααααΈα»αααα¬αααα±αα¬ αααααΈαααα¬ααα«αααα»αααΈαα α±α»ααααΈααα α±αα¬αααα±αα¬αα α₯αααα α‘α»αα αα±αα±ααΈααα αααΌαα₯αΈαααΈα α α αααα‘α¬αΈα»αααααΎαα¬αΈααα α₯αα±ααααΈαααα¬α±ααα¬αααα αα‘α»αα α‘αααα±α±αα¬αααα±ααΈααα‘ααΌα α»αααα¬α αα α»ααα±α»ααΈα‘αα¬αΈα αα¬ ααΌααααα±ααΎαααα α»αααα±αα¬αααααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα αα½αΌααΈαααααα¬αΈαα αααααα¬ ααα¬αααααααα½αΌααΈαααααα¬αΈα αααΈα»ααα‘ααΌα α‘α»ααα‘αααΈα»αα α±α αα α»ααα±α»ααΈαααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ ααΌααΏαααΈαααΈαα¬ααΌαα»αα»αααΈααα‘α ααααααα±ααΈααα΅α α‘α αΈααααα±αα¬α»αααααα‘αααα
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α»αααα¬αααα αΌα α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈ ααα¬αΈαααα-α‘α»αα¬αΈαααΈαααΈαα ααα ααΈα αΌα»αααΈ Transitional Justice in Myanmar: Assessing the Alternatives
Mung Don
University of Hong Kong [email protected]
α‘α¬αα¬αααα«α(ααααα)α α α‘α αΈαα‘αααααα αααα±αα α‘α αΈααα αααα±ααΈα‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαΏααΈα±αα¬α αααα±αα¬ αααα‘α αΈα α±αα¬ααΈαααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈααΈα±αα¬αααα‘ααα α±α»ααααΈαα α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈ ααα¬αΈααααα±αα¬α±αα¬αα±αα αΎαααα α±αα¬αα±αΎαα¬ααΈα»ααααα¬αΈα ααα±ααΈα α»ααααα‘ααΌα α‘α α¬αΈα»ααα±ααΈα»αααΈα α‘ααααα¬αΈα±αα¬αααα α‘αααΈα‘αααα¬αΈ α±αα¬α±αα¬αα»αααΈα αααΈα‘αα¬αΈα‘α±αα¬ααααααα¬αΈα‘αα‘ααααα»αααΈα α±αα¬ααα¬αΈα±ααΈααα α₯αα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαααα¬ α»αα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈ (α α α α±ααΈα»αα α α₯αα α‘α»αα¬αΈααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈααα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ α±αα¬αααΌααααα¬αΈα ααα¬αΈααααα αα¬αααααα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈ α»ααααα±ααΌαΈα ααΈααααααα αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈαα αααα±ααΈαααΏααααααα±α‘α¬αα»ααααΎαα»αααΈα»αα αα) α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈ αα¬αααα¬αΈααααα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαααΎααΌααααα¬αΈααα¬αΈα α»ααααΌααΈαα α‘α»ααα»αααααα¬ ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈ α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈα α»αααα¬αααααΌα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈααΈα±αα¬αααα‘ααα αα α¬αΈααααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈααΈα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααΎαα»αααΈα»αα ααα αΏααΈααα ααα αα αα αα ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈααΈα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα α±α»ααααΈαα α‘ααΈααΈα±αα¬ αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈααΌα α»αααα¬ αααα α±α»αα¬αα»αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαα¬αα ααα¬αΈαααααααα¬ α α¬α±ααα¬αΈα»αα α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααΎαααα αα¬αΈααα₯αα±αα±αα¬ααΈα αααααα¬ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα α¬αΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌαα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±αααααΈααΌα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬α‘α αΈαααα ααααααααα‘ααΌααα¬αΈαα αααα±αα¬αααΎαα¬αΈ α»αα ααΌα¬αΈαααααααααααααα‘αα¬αΈα ααα‘ααΌαααΈα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα α±ααα¬ααΎαααα α±ααα¬ααα‘α αααΈααααα α αα¬ααααααα¬αΈα ααα¬αΈα‘α±ααααΈααΌααα αα¬ααααααα¬αΈαα α‘α»αα¬αΈ ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈααΈα±αα¬αααα‘ααααα»αα αΎαααα α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈααα αααα±ααΈα‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αααΌα α‘αααα¬αα ααΈααΌα¬αΈααΈ ααΈα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈααα¬αααααα ααα¬αΈαααααα α‘ααααα¬αΈααα αα¬α±ααΌααα‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈ αα¬α ααα¬αΈαααααααααΈαα¬αΈα α»αααα¬ααααααα¬ ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈα‘ααΈααα α¬αΈαα Tomas Ojea Quintana α αααααα’ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈα±αα¬αα αα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈαα α‘ααα»ααααα αα ααααααΌαα‘α α‘αααα¬α ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈ αα αα¬αααα¬αΈα α±α»ααααΈαα α₯αα±ααα ααα»ααΎαααααα αααα±αα¬α‘αααα¬αΈα αα ααΌααΈα‘α¬αΈα±ααΈαααα α‘ααΌα ααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈαα¬αααα¬αΈααααα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈα α₯α Iam Holliday α Burma Redux α α¬α‘αααΌα α‘αα₯αΈα α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααα ααααααα α»αααα¬ααΌααΈααααααΌα ααααα»αα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααα α‘αααα¬αααΈα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα α±α»ααααΈαα¬ααΌα α‘ααΈα»αααα α±αααααα¬ (αα)αααα±αα¬α‘αααααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈα α‘ααα»ααααα ααααα±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌαα¬α α»αααα¬αααα α α ααΈα±ααΈα±αα¬ααααα αα αα±αα¬αα±ααΈα α»ααααΌααΈαα α»ααααααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαααΎααΌααααα¬αΈα αα¬αΈαα α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈα αα α±αα«ααΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬
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α±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈαα¬ααααα¬ ααα¬αΈαααα ααα α₯αΈααα±αααα α»ααα±αα¬αα α‘α αΈααα α»ααααα‘α αΈααα¬αΈ α‘α¬αΈ ααα₯αΈα±αα¬αΎαα ααΈααΈααααααααΈαα¬ ααΈα±αα¬ααα αα¬αΈαα ααααααααααα‘αα¬αΈα αα α¬αΈααααα¬αΈα α»αααααα±αα¬αα±ααΈαα α‘α α¬αΈα±αα¬α±ααΈα»αααΈα‘ααΌαα»αα ααα
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αα₯α±ααΈααααααααα¬αΈ - α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααΈααΌααα α±αα¬αααα±ααα¬
Cultural Elite: Situating Hip Hop in the Transition
Jacqueline Menager Australian National University
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αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα α±ααΈαα¬ α α αααα ααααααα«ααα α‘α¬αα¬α α‘ααααααΈαα‘α»αα αα±αα¬αα¬αΈαΎαααα ααα‘αα« αα₯α±ααΈαααααα¬αααααααΈαα αααα αα«αα«ααααα αααΈα α₯αα¬αΈα α‘α α₯α‘αααααΈαα¬α αα¬αΈαα α α αααα α‘αα α‘αααααα¬αΈααα‘α αααααα¬αΏαα»αα ααα α»αααα¬αααααα α±αα¬αααααααΈαα αααααααΈα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈαααα αααα¬αΈα ααααΌααΈαα αα¬αΈαααα ααααΈα α¬αΈαα¬αΈα αααα ααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα αααααααα»αααα¬αΈα±αα¬α αΏααΈ ααααααα α‘αααΈα α ααααα»αα α±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α α‘ααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα α±αα¬αααααΈαααααααααααααα‘ααΈαααΈα±αα¬αααα¬αΈα α‘ααΈαααΈ αααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈααα‘ααΈαααΈα‘αα±αα¬αα¬αΈα‘αα«α‘αα α‘ααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ αααΈααααααΈααα ααα¬α αα α±αα¬ααα ααααα‘ααα‘α α¬αΈαα¬αΈαααΏααΈ α‘α±αα¬α‘ααΈαα¬αΈααα«ααααα‘α»ααααΌαααα‘α»αααααΈα‘α¬αΈα»αα α»ααααααα¬ αα¬αΈα αααΎααΏααΈ ααααα¬αααα¬αΈα αααα»αααΌααα¬αΈ ααααα αα‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈ ααααΈαα¬αΈα±α‘α¬αααΌααααΈ ααΈααΌα¬αΈ α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈα»ααΎαααα αα‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈαα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α α‘αα¬αΈα α αααΈα‘ααα α±αα«ααΈαααα»αααΈ ααααα αα ααα»αααΈ αα»ααΎααααα¬ αααα¬αΈααα ααα‘αα«ααΌα α ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααα¬αΏααΈα»αα αΏααΈ Bobby Soxer αα α αα΅α»ααααΌα α‘αα« α‘ααα‘ααΈαααΈαα α±αα¬α‘αα±αα¬α‘αααα¬αααααα¬αΈαα¬α±αα¬ α‘ααααα¬αΈα»αα αα¬αΎα ααα αααΈα±αΎαα¬αα»αααα¬αα α±αα¬αα₯α±ααΈαααα‘α±ααΈαααΈα±αα¬α‘α»αα¬αΈαααα¬α α¬αα ααα»αα αα αααααα α₯αΈααααΌα¬αΈ α±α ααα αααααα¬α‘α¬αΈα»αα α±ααα»ααα¬αααα ααα»ααααα±ααΈαα ααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈααα±ααΌαα¬α±ααΈα α‘αααα¬α αα αα ααα ααα±αα¬ααααααααααααα‘α±ααΌα±αα¬ααΈααα‘α±ααααααα‘ααΈα‘α»ααααα¬ α‘α¬αΈαα¬αΈα α α±αα¬αααΈ αααα¬αααΌαα ααααΈα±ααΌαα¬αΈ α‘ααα¬ααααΌαα‘αααααααΏααΈ α»ααααα»αααΈααα‘α α ααΌαα α¬α±ααΈαααα ααα±αα¬α±α»αααΌαααΈα α₯αα¬αΈα‘αα«α‘ααα‘α»αα¬αΈαααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα»αααααΈααα±ααΌαααααααα α»αααα¬αα α±αα¬α‘α α±αα¬αα¬αΈ αα α ααΌααα¬αα¬αΈα α‘ααα‘αααα¬αΈαα ααα‘ααΈα‘α±αα¬ααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α‘α±αα¬ααΈα»αααααα»αααΈαα¬αΈα αααα±αα¬αα«αα»ααα αα±ααΈαα α₯ααΈαα¬αΈααααααααααΈαα¬αΈααα¬ α‘α¬αΈαα¬αΈααααα αααΈααααΌαααα’αα α‘αα α‘αααα¬αΈα αα¬ααα¬αΈα αααααααα¬αα¬αΈα ααααα ααααΈααααΈααααα»αααΈαα αααα‘α±αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈ α‘ααΌα α‘α±αα¬ααΈα»αααααα±ααΈαα α₯ααΈαα¬αΈαα«αααα αααα ααααα¬αααΌα α»αααα¬αααααααΈααα α‘α±ααα±αα¬α α‘α¬αα‘α¬αΈαα α¬αΈαΏααααΌα‘ααΌα ααααΈαα¬αΈα±ααΈαα¬αΈα»αααΈαα ααααα»αααΌααα¬αΈααΌα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ α‘αααα α±αα¬ α‘ααααα¬αΈαα«ααα»αααΈαααα‘α αΈαα αααα±αα¬α±ααΈ ααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈααΌααααΈ α«ααααα ααα±αΎαα¬α ααααΈα α¬αα¬αΈα α‘ααα‘α±ααΌαΈαααα α±αα¬α‘αα±αα¬ αα¬αΈαααααααΈαααααααααααααΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬α»αααΈαα αα‘α±ααΈαα« ααα αα α±αα¬ααααΏααΈαααααα¬αΈαα¬αα¬ α‘ααΈα‘α»ααα»αα ααΌααΈαα¬ααααΌα α‘αα±αα¬αα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈ αααα α α₯αααα¬αΈ αααΈ αα¬ααα α±ααΌαα»ααααααα ααααααα¬αΈα α ααα αααααα¬αΈα α ααΌααα¬αα¬αΈαα ααΌα α α₯ααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α±α‘α¬αα»αα ααα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααΈα»αα αα¬α±ααΏααΈ α‘ααα«αααααΈαααααΈ αα ααα»αα αα¬αα¬ α‘ααα±ααα¬ααΌα αααα’αα α₯αΈαααααα αα¬αΈα±αα¬ααα¬ααα ααααααΌαααααα‘αα¬αΈααΈ αα α±αα¬α‘αα±αα¬α±ααΈα₯αΈαα¬ α ααΈα ααΈα Snareα ααααΏααΈαα ααααΈααααα»αα αΎαααα αααΈα‘αα±αα¬αα¬αΈαα α‘α»αα‘αα±αα¬α±α»αα±αααΎααΏααΈ Bo Bo Entertainment α ααΌα α α₯αα‘α»αα ααα±ααααα αααΈα±αα¬α±α»αααΌαα¬αΈα‘ααΌα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈαααα Coca Cola αα Tiger Music ααα α ααΌααα¬ α ααα±ααΈααΎαααα αα α±αα¬α α±αα«ααΈα ααΈα‘ααα‘α±ααΌαΈαα¬ α‘ααΌααα¬αΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬α±α»αα»αααΈα»αα ααα PBDα Cyclone αα Snare ααα‘αα«α‘αα α±αα«ααΈα α₯αα α α±α‘α¬αααΌα α‘ααΌααα αα Rapper αα¬αΈα±αα¬α±α»αα»αααΈα»αα αΏααΈ α‘ααααα¬αΈα ααΌααα¬αΈαα α‘αααΈα‘ααΌααα¬αΈαααΈααα¬ α‘αααα¬αΈααΈα‘αααΈαα¬ Myanmar Hip Hop Association ααααα MHA α»αα ααα MHA α‘ααΌααααα¬αΈ αα α α¬ααΈα±αα«ααΈα‘αα±αα¬αα α±ααΈααα±αΎαα¬αα‘αααΈα α¬αΈαααΈαα¬αΈααΈαα¬αΈαΎααΏααΈ α±αα¬α±α»αααΌ αα¬αΈαα α‘α±ααΌαα¬αΈααΌα αα αα«αα αα α±αα«ααΈα±αα¬α±α»ααΎαααα α‘ααΌααα¬αΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬α±α»ααΎαα»αααΈα α±ααΈααΌαααΈααΈαα¬
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ααα±αα¬α±αα¬αα ααααααΌα α»αααΈααα±ααα αΏααααα»αααΈαα α»ααααα»αα α»αααΈααα»αα αΎαααα αααααααΈ αα αααα»αα¬αΈα‘αααΈα‘ααΈαα¬αΈ ααααα±αα¬ααα¬αΏααΈααα±ααΌα±αα¬αα±αα¬ααααααααα±αα¬α‘α»ααα»αα α ααΌααα¬αα¬αΈ ααααΈααΈα»αααααααα¬αΈααα αα αα¬αααα αααααα¬α±ααΈαααΌααΈαααΈααα¬αΈα α±α αΈααΌαααΌααΈααααα±αα¬ααα¬ ααΌααααααΌα α‘α¬αΈααΈα ααααΈ ααΌααα±αααΎαααα αααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα‘α¬αΈααΈαα α»αααα¬αααααα α±αα¬α α±ααΈααα±αΎαα¬ααα¬αΈα ααΌα»αα¬αΈααα‘α±αα‘αα αα¬αΈα αααΈαααααα α α ααααααααα«αα ααΌαααα αΌα¬α±α»αα¬αααΌαα αααα»αα¬αΈαα«ααααααα»αααΈαα αα±αα¬ααα¬αΈ αα α α α αααααα»αααΈααα‘αα«α‘αααα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬αααα±ααΈα αααα±ααΈααα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘ααα±αα¬ααΈααα±ααααα¬ α‘α±α α‘αα¬ααα»αα ααα αααΈαα αααα±ααΈαα αα₯α±ααΈαααΎαα¬αΈα‘α»ααα‘ααααα±αα¬αα±αα»αααΈα α±αα¬ααα α±ααα¬ααΈαα αααα¬αΈα»ααααααα‘ααΏααΈ α»αααα¬α‘α±ααΈα±ααα¬ααααΌα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα±ααα¬α±ααΈαααα»αα ααα
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ααΌαα±αα¬α‘αααα α»αα α α α αα¬αΈαα¬αΈ- αααα±αα¬α‘ααΌα α₯αα±αα»αα±ααΈα‘αααΈαααα αα αα¬α±ααΌα»αααΈ
Soldiers as Lawmakers: In Search for a Legislative Role of the Tatmadaw
Renaud Egreteau Research Assistant Professor The University of Hong Kong
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α»ααα»αααααα«αααα¬ααΎαααα αααΈαα¬ αααα±αα¬ (α‘ααΈαα»αα αα¬ααΌαα±ααΈα₯αΈα αΈαα ααααααΈαααΈ αααΈα±α‘α¬αααα)αα α₯αα±αα»αα±ααΈαααα α‘α±ααΈαα¬αΈααααααΈ αα¬α±αΎαα¬ααΈ αααα»αα±αα»αααΈα»αα ααα ααα»αα αααα±αα¬αα αα¬αααααα αα¬ααααααα α»ααααα‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±αααααΈ ααααααα ααααα»αααααααα αα¬αΈαα¬αΈα±α»αα¬αα¬α»αααΈααα‘α αααα±αα¬αααααΈα‘αα¬ααααΈαααααΈ α α αααααα±αα¬ α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘αα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα‘αα«α‘αα αααααΈα αα¬αα¬αΈαα¬αΈααΎαααα ααα»αα αααα±αα¬αα¬αΈααα α¬αΈαααα¬αΈαα α‘ααα‘αααα α¬αΈαααα¬αΈααααΌααΈαα¬αα α‘ααα¬αΈ (αααα α±αα¬α‘αα¬αα¬αΈ)α ααα αααα¬ααΌα α αα ααα ααα¬αΈα»αααΈαααα±αα¬ αα±ααΈαααα¬αΈαααΈ ααααΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αααα SLORC-SPDC α±ααα‘ααΌααΈ βα‘ααΈαα¬αΈααΏαα±ααΈβ αα αααα±αα¬ααα±α‘α¬ααα α»αααα¬ ααΈααααα¬αΈααα αα ααααα αα¬αΈαα α‘ααα±αα¬ αα α₯ααα‘ααααΌααααΈ αααα±αα¬αα¬αΈααα α¬αΈαααα αα¬αΈα±αα¬ααα α αα±αΎαα¬ααΈα»ααααΏααΈ α‘ααα±ααα¬αα¬αΈααΌα α‘ααα‘ααα¬αΈαα αα±αα¬αα±αααα α±ααΌααααα αααα ααα αΎαααα ααΌα ααα»ααα α‘αα₯αΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α‘α±ααΌα±ααΌααΌααΏαααΈαααΈαα¬ααΌααα αα α±αα¬ααααααΌα αααα±αα¬αα¬αΈ ααα α¬αΈαααα¬αΈααα±αα¬αααΎαααα α‘αααα¬αΈααα α¬αΈαααα¬αΈααααααααΈ α‘αα α αα αα₯αα±αα»α αααα±αα¬ααα α¬αΈαααα¬αΈα»αα α±ααΎαααα‘ααΌα αα»ααα α±ααΈαααα αααα αα αααα α‘ααΌααΈ ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»α αα₯αα±α ααΎαααΈα±ααΈααΌααα αααΈαααΈαΎαααΎαααααΈαααα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘ααΈαα¬αΈααα¬αα α»ααααα±ααααα αααΈαα α±ααΈα±αα αα«ααααααΎααΌααααα¬αΈαααα«αα»αα SPDC α‘ααΌα αααα¬α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌα α‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬αα¬αΈαα¬αααΈ αααααΈ ααα±αα¬αααα¬ααα ααααα»αα ααα α‘α¬αΈααααΌαα±αα¬ααΈαααα¬ αααα±αα¬αα¬αΈααα α¬αΈαααα¬αΈαα αααα ααα ααααΈαα ααααα ααα¬αααα¬αΈα±αα¬ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈα‘α±α»αα»αα₯αα±ααα¬αΈα±αα¬α±αα¬αααα ααα ααααααα»ααα»αααΈα»αα ααα α‘ααΈαα»αα α»ααα±αα¬αα α‘ααααΌαα»αα ααα ααΈααΌαα±ααα αΎααα¬αααΈα±αα¬ αα α₯αΈα±αααααΈα α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα«α±αα¬ α‘αααΈααααααΈ α±αα¬αααααα α±αα¬ααα α±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬ααα‘ αα¬αα αααα¬ α α αααα ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±ααα±ααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ ααααααα ααααα α₯αα±αα»αα»αααΈαα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈ α α α₯α»αααΈααααΌα αααααΎααΌαΎααΌαα«αααα¬α»αααΈα»αα ααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα α‘ααΌαααα¬ααΈ ααααΌαααα‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈααΌααα±ααΏααΈ α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈαα¬αααΈ α‘ααΌαααα¬ α αααΈααα±αα±ααΈααα αααΈαα¬ αααα¬αΈαααΎαα¬α ααΌα¬αΈααα±ααααΌααα¬α±αα¬ααΈ αα¬αααααSPDCα±ααα‘ααΌαααΌααααα±αα¬ αα¬αΈααΌααΈαααα±αα¬ααΈ αααα¬αΈαα±αα»αααΈαα ααααααα±αΎαα¬ααΈαα α»αααααααα»αα α±αΎαα¬ααΈ α‘ααα‘ααα¬αΈα‘ααΈαα»ααα±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈ α αΎααα αααααα±α»αα¬αΎαα¬αΈαααα αααα ααααααΌα ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±αα»ααααα±ααΈ α αααα ααΌααΈα±α αΎαααα αααα α»αααα αα¬αΈααΌα α‘ααααΈαα¬αΈαα»αα ααααα αα α₯αααα¬αΈα ααααααααΌααα α‘αααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα α αΈααΈαα¬αΈαα α αααΎαα¬αΈ αΏαααΈαααΈα±αα¬ αααα±ααΈαα αα αααα¬αα (ααααα ααααα¬αα) ααα±αα»ααααααααΈ αα α»αα αΏααΈ αααΈαα α₯αα αααα±αα¬α₯αα α¬α α±αα¬ααΌαααα
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α‘α¬αα¬ααα‘α αΈααα¬αΈα ααααα±ααΈααα¬ααα¬αα¬αΈ ααααΈαα₯α±ααα¬αα- α»αααα¬α ααααα α±α»αα¬ααααΈαα¬αΈ
Authoritarian Survival Strategies in Comparative Perspective: Myanmar, China and North Korea
Wooyeal Paik Sungkyunkwan University (Seoul, South Korea)
[email protected] α‘α±ααα‘α¬α (α±αα¬ααα α±α»αα¬α) ααα α‘α¬αα¬ααα‘α αΈαααΈαα»αα α±αα¬ α»αααα¬α ααααα α±α»αα¬ααααΈαα¬αΈ αααα ααΎαα¬α±ααΈααα αα¬ααα¬αΈα‘ααΌααΈ α‘α¬αΈα»αααΈαα α αα±αααααα¬αΈαα α‘α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘ααα¬αΈα α±ααΌαααα αα±αα¬αααΈ ααα α ααα»ααααα¬αΈα αααΎαα±αα α»αααα¬αα ααΎαα¬α±ααα ααα¬αααα¬αΈα±αα¬ αααα±ααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈα»ααααΏααΈ α±α αΈααΌαα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα αα αα α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα α α»ααααααα ααααα α‘α±α»αααα±αα¬ αααα±ααΈα»αα»αα α±α»αα¬ααΈαααα»αααα α±α αΈααΌαα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα αα αα ααα α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαα α»αααα αααα±α»αα¬ααααΈαα¬αΈαααααα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααααααα±α αΈααΌαα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαα αααααΈα‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈ ααααααα±αα αααΈα‘α¬αα¬αααα‘α αΈαααΈαααααα ααααααααα±ααΈα‘ααΌα αααα±αα¬αααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈαα¬αΈ αα±ααα¬αα α‘α±ααα‘α¬αα α‘α¬αα¬ααα‘α αΈααα¬αΈα‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈα αα½αΌαααααα¬αΈαααα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»αα α±α ααα ααααααΏααΈ ααΈααΈα»αα¬αΈα»αα¬αΈ αααα α‘α±ααα‘α¬αα‘α¬αα¬ααα‘α αΈααα¬αΈα ααααΈαα₯αΎααα±αα¬α‘αα« αααα αα±ααα¬α±ααααα ααααααααα±ααΈ ααα¬ααα¬αα¬αΈα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαα αααα±ααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈαα α‘ααΌαααΈ α±α»αα¬ααΈαααα¬αΈα α±ααΌααααα»αα ααα ααα±αα¬αα‘α±α»αααΏααΈ ααα α¬αααΈααΌαα±α‘α¬ααα«α±ααΈααΌααΈαα¬αΈ(α)α‘α±ααα‘α¬ααα‘α¬αα¬ααα‘α αΈαααΈααα»αα α±αα¬ α»αααα¬ααααααα±α»αα¬ααααΈαα¬αΈαααααααααααααααααααααΈα(α)α‘ααα±αα¬α‘α¬αα¬ααα‘α αΈααα¬αΈα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαα/ααααααααα±ααΈα‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα‘ααα±αΎαα¬αα»αααααΏααΈα‘α»αα¬αΈα‘α αΈααα¬αΈαα‘αα α±αΎαα¬α αα»αααααααΈα (α) αα αααα αααα₯αΏααααα α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌα α‘α¬αα¬ααα‘α αΈααα α α‘αααΈ ααα αα¬ααα α‘αα¬αΈαααα (α‘α αΈα αααααααααα)ααα‘α αααΈααα±αα¬ααΈα»αα¬αΈαααα¬αΈαα»ααααα¬ααΌα α»αα α±αααα αα¬αΈααα¬αα (α) α‘ααα«α»ααααΌααΈαααα¬ααΈααααααΏααΈ α‘α»αα¬αΈα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα«αααααα¬αα¬αΈ ααααα ααα»αα ααααΈααα α±ααΈα»αααΈαα¬αΈααα α‘ααα«α±ααΈααΌααΈαα¬αΈα α±α»αααα α‘α¬αα¬ααα‘α αΈαααΈααα α»αα αααα¬αΈα α‘ααα‘α±ααΌαΈα‘α±α»αα»ααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘α±ααα‘α¬ααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αααα¬αΈ (arge-N Study) ααΌα αααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ αααΈααααΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α‘α±αα‘ααΌαα±α»αα»α αααΈ αααΈαα¬αΈα»αα ααααΈαα₯α±ααα¬αααααΈα ααα α¬αααΈααΌα α‘ααΈα»ααα¬αΈααα αααα±αααααΌα α‘ααα«αααΈαααΈ αα¬αΈα α‘ααΈα»ααα ------- ααα α¬αααΈα α‘ααα‘ααα¬αΈαα¬ α±α‘α¬ααα«α‘αααΈα»αα ααα α‘α±ααα‘α¬αα α‘α¬αα¬ααα‘α αΈααα¬αΈαα ααααα ααααααααα±ααΈα‘ααΌαα‘ααΈααΈα±αα¬ αα»αα¬αΈα‘α αΈααααα αα¬αΈαα αααααα¬αα¬ α‘ααΌαα±α»αα¬ααΈαααααΎα ααα α±α‘α¬ααα« αα‘ααααα¬αα±αα¬αααΈααΈαα αααα α‘α¬αα¬αααα¬αΈαα±ααα¬α±ααααα ααΈαααα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»αα αααα αααΈαααα¬ (α) α‘αα αααΈαααΈαααα¬ α α α₯α±αα¬αααΌαα»αααΈ (α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌαααα¬ α‘αα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ)α (α) α‘α¬αα¬αα α‘α αΈααα (αα αα«αα α α ααα ααα’αα±ααΈαααα¬αα αα»αα¬αΈαα ) αα (α) αααα±ααΌαΈαααα¬αΈαα αααα±αα¬ αααα¬αΈαα ααα¬α±ααΌαΈ-αααα±ααΌαΈαα αα¬αΈ (αααααΈααΌααααΈα»αα αα ααα¬αΈα α‘ααααΌααααΈ α»αα αα) ααα»αα αΎα ααα αααΈαα‘ααααα¬αα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα»αα α±αα¬αααα±ααα¬αα αα¬αΈααΌα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαα αααα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααα (ααααα α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαα)α α‘αααΈα‘αααΈαα¬αΈααααΈ ααααΌααΈα±ααα¬ααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα
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α»αα αα (α)- α»αααα¬αααα αααα±αα¬α‘α αΈα α‘αα αααΈαααΈαααα¬ α α α₯α±αα¬αααΌαα»αααΈ (α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌ αααα¬αΈ) α‘α±αα α‘α±α»αααα¬αΈαα αα αααα αααΏαα αααα±αα¬ α»ααα±αα¬αα α‘αααα α±αααααα¬α‘ααα±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌαα¬αΈααΌα αα¬ααααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈ ααα¬αααα¬αΈ ααα±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌαααα¬ α‘α±ααΌαα‘αααα¬αΈαααΏααΈ α‘ααα‘ααα«ααα α±ααα±α‘α¬ααααΈα αΎααα αα αΎααα¬ααααααΈ αα¬αΈαα α±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαα«αααα¬α»αααΈα±αΎαα¬α αα₯αΏαααααα¬αΈ ααα»αααααα¬αααα α‘α¬αα¬ααα‘α αΈααα ααα α αααα αα¬αα±αα±ααΈαΏααΈααα¬αΈααΈαα‘α¬αΈα»αααααΏααααααααΈαα αααααΈαα±ααΈ αα¬α»αααα¬αααααΌαααααα α αααα-αααα α»αααα αα¬αΈα αααα±αα¬ααααΈαα¬αΈαα αααααααα αααΈα ααα¬α±ααΌαΈ-αααα±ααΌαΈαα αα¬αααα ααααΌαα»αα ααΌααΈα±αααααααΈαααα¬α α αα(αααα±αα¬) α αααΈαααα¬ αα αααααΈα‘αααα α‘ααααΌαα±αα¬ααΈααα α αΌααα₯αΈαααααΈαααα¬αΈαα αα¬ααα»ααααα¬αΈα ααααα¬αΈ αα α‘αα¬αΈα»αααα‘ααααααΌαα»αα α±αα¬ αααΈ α‘αααα±αα¬ αααααααααααααα±ααΈα‘ααΌα α α ααα ααα±ααα‘α»αα α‘ααα‘ααΌα α±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΎαααα α»αα αα α-αααα αααααΌαα»ααα αα«αα‘α αΈα αααΈα α‘αα αααΈαααΈαααα¬ α α α₯α±αα¬αααΌαα»αααΈ (α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌ αααα¬αΈ)αα α±ααΈααΌα¬α±αα¬ααα‘ααα‘ ααααΌα α‘αααΈα¬αα»αααα±αα¬α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌαα¬αΈαααα α‘ααα‘ααα«ααα¬αΈαα α±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαααα α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌαα αα¬α‘α±ααΌαα‘αααααΈ α±αα¬ααΈα αΌα¬αααΎαα±αα βααααααΈααααα ααααα αααα±αα β α α‘α αΈαα α±αΎααΌαΈα±αΎαα¬ α±αα¬αααΈ αα¬αααΈαααΈαααΈαααΈαααΈααα±αα αααΈα‘α¬αα¬ααα‘α αΈααα α αα αα«α (αααααΌαα»ααα αα«α) αα α‘α»αα α‘ααΈα‘α α¬αΈααΌαααΏααΈ αααααΈααΌα (αααα¬α±αα¬ α‘ααα‘ααααααα αααα¬αΈ) α α±αα«ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααααα αααΏαααΏααΈ αα«ααα αα αααΈα±αα¬αααα αααΈαα αα«αα‘α αΈαα ααα¬α±ααΌαΈ-αααα±ααΌαΈαα αα¬ αααααΈα‘ααα αααα±ααΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααααΌααα¬α»αα ααΌααΈα±ααΏααΈ α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌαα¬αΈα α±ααααα‘α αΈααα¬αΈ/α±ααα«α‘αα¬αΈα αΎαα¬αΈαα α‘αα ααΌαα±αααα¬ α±αα¬ α αΌααα₯αΈααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈα»αα ααΌααΈα»αααΈααα ααα‘αα αα¬ααααααα¬αΈα‘αα¬αΈα αα¬ αααααα¬αΈαααα α»αα αα α-α±α»αα¬ααααΈαα¬αΈα ααααα¬αΈα α‘α αΈα αααΈαα‘αα αααΈαααΈαααα¬α α α₯α±αα¬αααΌαα»αααΈ(α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌαααα¬αΈ)ααα‘ααα‘ααα«ααα α±αα«ααΈα±αα¬α αα¬αΈαααα‘αααΈα¬αα»αααα±αα¬α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌαααααα¬ααααααα¬αΈαααααααΈα±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααΌαααα¬ α‘α±ααΌα α‘ααααα±ααα‘ααααααααα±αα«ααΈααααα»αα ααααΈαααΌαα‘αααΈααΈα»αα αααα‘α¬αα¬ααα‘α αΈααα αα α‘ααα ααΈααΌααα (αα αα«αα α α αααα αααα’α) α»αα αΏααΈ αααα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α α‘α¬αα¬α‘α±ααΌααααα¬ααΌα αααΏααααα αααΈα ααα¬α±ααΌαΈ-αααα±ααΌαΈαα αα¬ αααααΈα‘ααααΌα ααααα¬αΈα α αααΈα α α αααα αα«αααα αα¬αΈααΏααΈααα‘ααααΌαα±αααα±ααα«αα¬αΈααααα¬αΈαααα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααα¬αΈαα¬αΈααΎαααα α±ααα α₯ααααΌα αα±ααα ααααααα±ααα±αα¬ αα¬ααααααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα αααααααα¬ααααααΈαααααα±ααα±αα αααΈ ααα¬ααα±αααα‘α±ααα±α»αααΏααΈ α»αα ααα‘ααΈααΈα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαα αααα±ααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααα/α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα ααα αα±αα¬ ααα‘α±ααΈα ααα±αα¬αααα¬αΈαα¬αΈ α α ααΈα±αα¬ααααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα α±ααα¬αααα¬ α‘α αΈααα¬αΈ ααααα±ααΈα‘ααΌα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬αααα¬α‘αααα¬ α‘α αΈαααααα»αααΈ (αααα±ααΈααΌααααΈααααα‘α α‘ααΈ αα±α»αα¬ααΈα ααΌα¬αΈαα)α α±αα«ααΈαα»ααααααα Vs ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαααα αααααα¬αααα¬αα¬αΈ (ααααΈαα¬αΈαααα αα¬αΈα ααα/ α‘α±αααα)αα αα«αα±ααΈαα¬ (ααα¬ααααααΈαααΈα α‘ααΈαα¬αΈα ααΈααΈαααΌαααα αα«αααα‘α±αα¬α α»αααα αααα α»ααααα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬ααα¬α»αααΈ) ααα»αα α±αααααα α‘ααα« α‘α¬αα¬ααα‘α αΈαααΈααα ααααα
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ααααΌααα±ααα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘α¬αα¬ααα‘α αΈααα¬αΈαα ααααΈαα₯ααΌα¬αΈααα»αα αα ααααααΈααα‘ααΌα α±ααααα αα¬αΈαααα α‘α±ααα‘α¬α αα α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αααα¬αΈαααααΈ ααααΈαα₯ααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα
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α»αααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ α‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬- αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα±αα¬α±αα¬αα»αααΈα±αα¬α αΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα ααΈααα»αααΈα±αα¬
Myanmarβs Economic Potential: Peace Making or Peace Breaking?
Joakim Kreutz Uppsala University
[email protected] αααα ααΌαα ααΈαα‘α±α»ααα₯αα±ααα α‘α α»ααα±αα¬ α»αααα¬α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαααααΈα α₯αα¬αΈαα ααα‘ααα‘α ααα α±ααΈα‘αΎαααΈααααααΈααΌα¬αΈαα¬αΈα»αααΈαα ααα«αα«αα¬αααα α‘ααΈαα»αα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘α α‘α±ααΈαα«α±αα¬ α±αααα¬αΈ α‘ααΈααΌα α»αα ααα α±αα¬αααα αααα¬αΈαα αααααΈαα¬αΈα α»ααααα¬αΈα αααααααα΅α»ααααα¬αΈ αααα α»αααα»αααα»αα α±αα ααΏααΈ αααα»αααααα αααΈα»ααααα±α»αα¬ααααΈααααΌα α‘α αΈααα α‘α αΈααααα±αα¬ αααα ααα‘ααΌααα¬αΈαΎαα¬αΈ ααααΌαα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α ααα¬ααααα¬ααΎααΌααα±αα¬ α±αααα¬αΈααΌα α‘ααΈαααα¬αΈαα α¬αΈαα ααα α‘α αΈααααα±αα¬ ααααααααααΌααα¬αΈα ααα α¬αΈα»αααα±αΎααα¬αααα¬αΈααΌα αααα±αα¬αα αααααα¬αΈα»αα α±ααα±ααα»αααΈαα¬ α‘α αΈαα ααα¬ααααα¬ααα¬αΈα αααΈααααα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬αα»αα αααα αααααα±αΎααα¬αααα ααα±αα¬ ααα»αααααΈααααα±ααΈ ααΈα»αααααα»αααΈαααα¬ αααα¬αααα‘α αα¬αΈαααααααααα‘αα« αααΈααα±αα¬ α‘α»α α‘ααα¬αΈαα αααααα αα¬ααα±αα α‘ααΈα‘αααΈαααΈα αΌα¬α»αααααα α±αα±αα¬α±ααα¬αα¬αΈααΌαααααα‘αα¬αΈ α‘ααΈααα»αααΈααΏαααΈαααΈα±ααΈα‘ααΈα‘ααΌααα¬αΈαααααα α‘α±αα¬ααΈααΈααααα« α±αα¬α α±α‘α¬αααΌα α»ααααΌααΈα α αα¬αα‘ααΌααΈ ααααααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α ααΈαΎαα±αα¬ ααα¬ααα¬α ααααα±αα±αα¬ ααα¬α α‘α±αα α₯αΈαα αααΈαααΈαααα α α‘ααα»ααααα ααα±αΎαα¬α α»ααααΌααΈα α ααΌα αααααΎαααα¬αΈα αααα αα α₯αΈαααα α₯αΈα‘α»ααα‘αααααα»αααααα¬αΈααα¬ α‘ααΈα‘α»ααα±ααΈα»αααΈα‘α±αα ααα¬αααααα¬ α±αααα αα α‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα α ααααΌα¬ααα»αααΌα¬αΈααα»αα α αα±αα¬ααΈααα αααα±αααααΌα ααααα‘α‘ααΌααΈ αααα αΎαααα¬αΈα±αα¬αααα¬αΈαα αααα¬αααα¬ αααΈαααΈ α αΌα¬ α₯αΈααααΌα¬αΈααα»αα αΏααΈ αααααΎαααα¬αΈ α‘α±ααΈαα«α±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααΈα»αα αα¬αΈαα ααΈαα¬ ααααα α±ααΈαα¬ααΌα ααααΌααααααα±ααΌαΈααααα‘α±αα ααα±αα¬ααα αα αααα¬ ααα»αααα»αα ααα αα‘ααααΈαααα¬α‘ααα αα ααα»ααα¬ααΌα α»αααα¬αααααΌα α±ααα¬αα αα±αα¬αααααα¬ ααα»αααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα α»αααα¬αααα±α»αα¬ααααΈ (αααα»αααααα αααΈα»αααα) ααααΌα α‘α αΈαα α‘α»αα‘αα‘α±α»αα¬ααΈ α‘αα‘α±αα ααα±ααΌαα‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈα‘α±ααααα±αα¬αα»αααΌα¬αΈααα»αα αα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈ αααααΈα α₯αα¬αΈα α‘ααΈαααα¬αΈααααΈ ααα»αααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα ααααα±αα±αα¬ α‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈα‘αα¬αα¬αΈα α±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈα»αααΈα»αα α‘ααΈ ααααΌα¬αΈααα»αα αΏααΈ αα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈααα αααΈα»ααααΌα α»ααααΌααΈα α α‘ααΈααα±ααΈ α»αα ααααΌααα¬αα αααααΌααααα ααααα‘ααΌα α‘α αΈααα ααααα¬αΈα αααααΈαααα¬αΈ α‘ααα±ααα¬αα¬αΈααΌα α»ααααΌααΈα α αα¬αΈα»αα ααΌα¬αΈα±αααα‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈα‘αααΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬αα±ααααΏααΈ αααα‘ααααΌα α‘α αΈααα ααααα¬αΈα ααααααα±ααΌαΈαααααα¬αΈαα¬ α‘α»αα¬αΈα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈαα α‘αα¬αΈαααα»αα ααα ααααα¬αΈα αααααΈ αααααααα¬α‘α¬αα¬αααααα ααααΌαααα±α‘α¬αα»ααα±ααΈα‘α±ααα₯αΈααααα αααα±ααααΌα α»αααα¬αααα αααααΈαα αα¬ααα¬αΈααΌα αααα‘α±α»αα¬αα‘α»αα¬αΈααα ααααα¬αΈαααα αααΈααααΌαα±α‘α¬αα»αααααααΈαααΈα»αααΈα»αα α±αα¬αααΈ ABSDF α‘α αΈαα α±α α¬α αΈα αΌα¬αα αααα¬ααΌααααααα ααααΌα α‘α»ααααΈα‘ααΈααααΌα¬αΈα±α αα α±αα¬αααΈααα»αααα ααα ααΈααααααααααα‘αα‘α¬αΈα»ααα‘α αΌααΈααααααααΎααααααααΌα‘αα¬αΈ ααΈαα¬αΏααα»α αα¬αΈα ααααΌαα±ααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈαα ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈαααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈαα¬αΈαααα±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘α¬αΈ
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α»αααα¬/ααα¬α αααααΌαα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈ α‘ααΈα‘αα¬αΈαα¬αΈ
Obstacles to Police Reform in Myanmar/Burma
Andrew Selth Griffith Asia Institute
[email protected] αααα ααΌα α α αα-α‘αααααααα±αα¬αα αααααΈαα α₯α¬αααααΏααΈααααΈα α»αααα¬(ααα¬) α α‘α¬αΈααΈααα αΎααΏααΈ αααΌαα₯αΈαααΈα αα₯αΈα±αα¬ααα αααααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈ α‘α α‘α α₯αα ααα α ααααα αα α‘α±ααΈα‘ααα±ααα¬α»αααΈααααΈααΌαα±αααα α‘α±ααΈαααΈα±αα¬α‘αα αααααα¬αΈαααα±αααααα α₯ααα¬ α‘α¬αΈα»αα αααΈα»ααα αααααΌαα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαα βααα¬αΈα₯αα±α α αΈααΈα±ααΈβ αα‘ααααααααααΏααΈα±α»αα¬αΎαα¬αΈα αα αααΌαα αααααααααΌααΈααΌαα α‘ααΈααααα ααΌααΈα±α»αα¬αΎαα¬αΈαα»αααΈααα±αα ααα±αα¬αααΈ α»αααα¬ααα αααααΌα (MPF) αααΈαααααα α»αααααααΌααΈαα αααα‘α α‘α α₯αα¬αΈα α‘αα α»ααααα‘α¬αΈα»αααα αααα¬αα α‘αααααααα±αα¬ αααααα αααααα¬αΈα±ααΈαααα αααΈα»αααα»ααααΌααΈααΏαα±ααΈα α±αα¬αα αα±αα¬ α‘αα αααα¬α α¬αα¬αΈα αααα¬ αααααα»ααα±ααΌαααα α‘α αΈααααα΅ααααα¬ α‘ααα‘αα¬αΈααα»αα ααα α»αααα¬αααααΌα α α αααΏααΈ α±ααα ααα α±αα¬ αααα±αα α αα αα α‘α α‘α α₯ααα‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα ααα¬αΈα₯αα±αα αΈααΈα±ααΈα‘α¬αΈ α±αα¬ααΈαααα¬ αααΈααα±αα¬ α‘αααα¬αΈαα α‘αααααα‘α¬αΈα»αα αααα»αα αα‘αααα αααα±αα¬αα α»ααααα¬ααΌαα±ααΈαα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈααααααααααΌααα¬αΈαααααααα αααααααααΈα±ααΈ ααααα α‘αααα±αα¬ ααΏαα±ααΈαααα¬α α ααα±ααΈαα¬αΈα‘ααΌααα¬ αα¬αααα±αααααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ ααα»αααα±αα¬ αααα±αα α±αα¬α±αα¬αα±ααΈαααααΈα α₯αα¬αΈα α‘α αα‘αααΈα‘α»αα ααα¬αΈα₯αα±αα‘ααααα±ααΈαα α»ααααΌααΈαα αΏααα±ααΈα αααΈαααΈααα‘ααΌα MPF αα αααααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘αααΈααααΌααααα»αα ααα ααααΌααααΈ α»αααα¬αααα αα±αααααα¬α±ααα¬αα¬αΈα αααΈαα¬αΈααααΌααααΈα±αα¬ααΈα α‘α±ααΈαααΈααα’ααα¬αΈα α‘αα¬α‘ααΌαα±ααΈαα¬ααΌααααΈ α±αα¬ααΈα α‘α αΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα αααααα αααα¬αΈα‘α»ααααααΌα ααα±αα±αα¬ ααΏαα±ααΈ α‘α±α α¬ααα¬αΈααΌααααΈα±αα¬ααΈ α‘α ααΈα±αα¬αααα±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘α»αα¬α±αα¬αααα±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈαααα±ααΏααΈα»αα ααα α»ααααΌααΈα±ααΈααΏαααααααα¬αΈα ααααΌααα¬ααΌα αααααΌααααααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘α αα‘αααΈαα ααααΌααα«αααΏααΈ α α αααα αααα ααα ααΌα αααααΌαα»αα ααΌα¬αΈαααα αααα ααα ααΌα α»αααα¬αααα‘αααααΈααΌαα»αα ααΌα¬αΈααα α‘α±ααΈα±ααα‘α±α»αα‘α±αα‘ααΌααΈ α‘αααα α‘α¬αα¬α α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»ααα α‘ααα‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈαα¬αα±αααα αααΈ α±αα¬ααααααα α‘ααΈααα‘α¬αΈα»αα MPF α ααΈααα»αααΈα α»αααααααΌααΈα»αααΈαα α±αααα±α‘α¬αααα±αα¬αα»αααΈαα»ααααααα ααα α±ααααααΈα αααααΈαα¬αΈαα¬ α‘α¬αα¬αααΏααΈα»αα α±αα¬αααΈ αααΈαααα¬ α‘ααΈαα¬αΈα α‘ααΈαααΈααααΌααα αααααα α±αα¬ααΏααΈααΏαα±ααΈαααααΈ αα αααΈααα ααααΌααα αα»αα ααα»αα ααα α»αααα¬αα¬αα¬α»αα ααααααα¬αΈ αα α»ααα α±αα¬MPFααααααΌαα»ααα±ααΌααααααα¬ααααΌαααα α±αα¬ααΈα±ααΈα ααα ααααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘αα¬αα‘αααα ααα±αα¬ααα αα‘ααααα¬αΈα α»ααααααα¬αΈαΏααΈα»αα ααα αα αααααΈαα¬αα ααααααα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα»αααΈαα α±αα¬ α‘αα¬ααα¬αΈα α‘αααα¬αΈαα¬αΈααα‘ααΈααααΈααΌα±αα¬αααΌαα»αααΈα»αα ααααΌα¬α‘α±α»αα»ααααααΌααααααΈαα¬αΈ α±αα¬αααΌαα±ααΈα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ αα¬αΈα‘α¬αα ααα MPF α αα±αα¬ααα¬αΈα±ααΈαα¬αα α±αααα±ααΈα‘α α‘α α₯αα¬αΈα αααΈ α±α»αα¬ααΈαααΏααΈα»αα ααα αααΈ αα₯αΈαααααα α»αααα¬αααα‘ααΌα ααΈαα‘α ααΈαααΈαααα±αα¬αααΈ α»ααα»αααααα α±α‘α¬αα»ααα αΌα¬α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα α±αα¬ααααα αααα ααα ααΌα αααααααΈα±ααααΈα‘α¬αα¬αααΈαΏααΈ ααααΈα αααΌααΈαα¬αΈααα αααΈαα¬αα α»αααα α α αα αααααΌαα‘α»αα ααα αααααααα‘α±αα‘αα¬αΈαα
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α±α»αα¬ααΈααΌα¬αΈααα±αααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ αααα ααα ααααα αααα α α‘α αΈαααα±αα¬αααα α‘ααααΈαα¬αΈαααααα±αα¬ α‘α»αα¬αΈααααα¬αΈ ααΌα α‘α¬αα¬αα α‘α αΈα αα¬αΈα±ααααΌαα±ααΌααααααα ααααααααΌαα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαα¬ αα α₯αα‘α‘ααααΌα αα±ααααΌαααα±αα¬α αα±αααααα¬αΈαα±αααααααΈααα±αα¬α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈααααΈααααααα‘αα«αα αααα»ααα αα ααΌααααΈαααΌαααα±αα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαααααΈα α₯α‘ααΌααΈ α‘α αΈααα αααααΌαααααααααα±ααΌαα ααΌαααα α αα±ααααααααα‘α±αα¬αα¬αΈαα¬αΈαααα MPF ααΈααα±ααΈα‘ααα‘α»αα α»ααααα αααΌαα±αα¬ααα¬ααα±ααΌαααα ααα±αα¬αααααα¬αα αααΈα»αα αα‘α¬αΈ ααααα α»αα ααα ααα»αα α»αααα¬α α αααα α‘ααΌαααααΈααΌα¬αΈαααα±αα₯αΈααα»αα ααα α±αα¬ααααΈα±ααΈ αααααΈαα¬αΈ α±αα¬αααΌαα»αααΈαα α»ααααΌααΈααΏαα±ααΈα α ααα±ααΈαα¬αΈαααα±αα¬ α‘αααααααα¬αΈααΌα MPF αα αααα±αα¬ααα α‘ααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈαααΈ αααααα±αα±αααααα αααα±αα¬αααΌαα»αααΌαααα α‘αα αααΈαααΈ αα ααΎαα¬αΈ α‘αααΈαα αα¬αΈα αα¬αααα¬αΈαα ααα αα‘ααΈα‘α»αααα¬αΈα ααΈα»αα¬αΈα ααΌα»αα¬αΈαα¬αΈααααΌααα±αα¬αααΈ α±αα¬α±ααΌαΈαααα¬αΈααααα ααα±ααΈααα αααααΌαααΌα αα¬ααΎαα¬ααα‘α»αα ααΌααα±αα¬ αα±ααα¬αΈαα α₯ααααΈ α±α»ααααΈαααα»αα ααα α₯ααα¬ α‘α¬αΈα»αα ααααααααΈααααΈα‘α»αα ααΌαα±αα±αα¬ α»ααα¬αα¬αΈα»αα αα α»αα α¬αΈαααα α‘α¬αα¬α‘ααΌααΈα α¬αΈαααααααα α‘α»ααα»αααααααα±αα±αα₯αΈααα αα‘ααα‘α α‘αααα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα αααααΌααΎαα¬αΈαααα±ααΈαα α»ααα¬α‘α»αα αααααα±ααα«ααααα ααα‘α»αα αααΈααα±αα¬ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαααααΈαα¬αΈα αααα±αα¬α‘α»αα¬αΈα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈαααΈα»αα¬αΈαααΈααΌααΏααΈ α±α»ααααΈαααααααα±αα αααΌαα±α»αα¬ααααα α»ααααααα±αα¬αααα±ααΈααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα¬αΈα α αααααα αα¬ααα¬αΈα₯αα±αα αΈααΈαααααα αααα αααααα‘αααα»αααΈα»αα ααα ααα¬αΈα₯αα±αα αΈααΈααααααΌααααα α‘α»αα»αα α±α αα α αα αα αααααααααααα±αα¬αααΈ ααααΈαααααα αα±αα¬αα»αα α±αααα α α α‘α αΈα α‘αααΈα¬ααααα αααα‘αααΈ ααα¬αΈα₯αα±αα αΈααΈα±ααΈαα αΏαααααα»αα¬αΈα±ααΈα±α‘α¬αααΌα ααα αα αα¬αΈααααα¬ ααα»ααα±ααααα ααΈααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈαααΈααΌαααΌααα¬αΈαα±αα¬αααΈ αααααΌααααα α±αα¬ααα α₯αα±αααααα α‘ααααααα»αααα αα α‘α±ααΈαα‘α»αα α±ααΈααααα»αα ααα α‘ααα α‘αα¬ααα¬αΈα αα«αα¬αααΈα‘αα α ααααΏααΈαα±α»αα¬ααΈαααααα α‘α αΈα α±αα¬ααΈαααααα‘αααα¬αΈα‘αααΈαα±α»αα¬ααΈααα±ααΈαα±ααΌαααα αααα α‘α α¬αΈααΈαααα»αα ααα α‘ααααα‘αα₯αΈα»αααα¬αΈαααα‘αααα αααΈααααααΌα α‘αα‘αα±ααΈααα‘ααΌα αααα»αα¬αΈα‘α αΈααα¬αΈα αααααα¬α‘αα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα ααα’αα α±αα¬α α±ααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα αααα ααααΈα α±αα»ααα±αα¬α‘α¬αΈ αα₯αΈαααααα αααΌαααααααΌααΈα‘αα¬αΈααΈ αααΈαα¬αΈαΏααΈ αα α»αααα±αα¬ ααα¬αΈα₯αα±αα αΈααΈα±ααΈαααααααΈα»αααΈαΎααα¬ α‘αα¬αΈα αα¬ MPF α ααααα‘ αα‘ααα¬αΈα±ααΈααα»αα ααααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ α»αααα¬αααααΌαα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα‘ααΌα αααα»αα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈα α αΌααΈα±αα¬ααααααα¬ α‘αααα‘ααα ααα α‘ααΈα»ααααΈααααΈαααα¬αΈα αααΈααα¬α‘αα‘ααα¬αΈαα α±ααα αααααααα¬αα¬αΈααα¬αΈ αααα±αα¬α α ααααα α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈα‘α±α»αα»αα»αααΈαα ααααΌα¬α‘α±α»αα»α αααααΌα αααααΈααα αα±αα¬ααα¬αΈαα¬αΈααα¬αΈ αααα‘αΎαα±ααΈ ααααα αααααΌαα α‘α±α»αααααααΈαα¬αΈα α±αα¬αααΌααα α αΌααΈα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈααΈα»αααα»αααΈα αα¬ααααααα ααααΏαα αααα¬αΈα αααΈαααα α αΌααΈα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈ ααΈα»αααα»αααΈαα αααα±αα αααΈαααΈααααααΌαααααα¬αΈα α±αα¬α±αα¬αα»αααΈ ααα»αααααααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ MPF α α‘α±α»αααα±αα¬ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα α±αα»ααα±αα¬αα αααα¬α±αα¬ α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα ααααΌαα αα±αα¬ αααααααα±αα αα«αα¬αααΈα‘α±ααΌααα ααααΌα¬ααααΎαααααα±αα¬ αααα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈαα ααα‘α±ααααΌααα¬ αααααα α‘ααα«αα α₯αααα¬αΈα α»αααα¬α±ααΌαααααα¬ ααααΌαα±αα¬αααΌαααααα»αα ααα αααα±αα αααΈαααΈααααααΌααααααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬αααΌαα»αααΈαα ααααααααααΈαααα‘α±αα αααααα¬
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α‘ααα ααα»αααα±αα¬αα±αα¬αααααα¬αΈ ααΌααααααα αα ααααΈα ααααΏααΈα»αα ααα α‘α±α»ααα α ααα α±ααα¬ααΈαα ααα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααααααααΎαααα αααΈαααα¬ αααααΌααα α₯αα±αααα‘ααα¬αααααΈ α±αα¬αα»αααΈα αα±αα¬αα ααααααααα»αα α ααΈαααΈααααα»αααΈα α‘αα‘α¬αΈααΈα»αααΈαα‘αααΈααΈα‘ααΈα»α α»αααΈα»αα αααααα¬αΈα αα¬ααΌα α»αααΈα α»αααα αα¬αααα»αααΈα αα¬ααααααα¬αΈαααααααααΈα»αααΈα»αα αααααα¬αΈαα αααααααα¬αΈα αα¬ααΌαα»αααΈα αα α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα αααα‘α¬α αα¬ααΌααααΈαααΈα±α α¬αα±αα¬αα»αααΈαα ααΌα»αα¬αΈ ααααααα»αα»αααΈααα»αα αΎαααα αααΈα α ααα αααααΌααα α‘α»ααα»αααααα¬ααα‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈα ααααΈαα¬αΈα‘ αααΈ αααα¬α±αα¬αααΌαα»αααΈα α‘ααΌαα ααΈα‘ααΌααΈαα α»αααααΌα αα±αα¬αα±αα¬αα¬αααααα αααΈαααΈα»αααΈαα α»ααααααααΏααααα±α αα α±αααααααΌα¬αααα¬αΈαα ααααΌ α±αα¬αααΌαα»αααΈα αα αααΈααααα‘αα₯αΈαα ααααα αααΈα αααααααα¬αΈαααααΈαα¬αΎαααα α»αααα¬ααα αα αααα α»ααα±αα¬ααΈαααΈααααΈαα αΎαααα ααΈααααα‘αααααΏααΈ αααα ααΌα α‘α αΈααα αααΏααΈα±αα¬α ααα¬αααΌααα±αα¬αααΈ α±ααααα±αα¬ααααΈααα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬αα±αα±ααΈααα ααα±αα¬αααΈ MPF αα ααααααα»αααααα±αα¬αααααΏααΈ αααααα α»αααα¬αααααΌααααΌαα₯αΈαααΈα αα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈ α‘α α‘α α₯αα ααΏααΈαααα±αα αααα¬α±αα«αΎααΌαααΏααΈ ααα¬αΈααα±αα¬ααα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα αα ααΌααΏααΈ α±ααΈα α‘αααα±αα¬αααααααα¬αΈα»αααααααα‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬α»αα ααα α‘α±ααΈαααΈα±αα¬ α‘ααααα‘ ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα ααα‘α±αα»αα α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬ααα‘α αΈαα ααααα α‘α»αα‘α-α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬ααα‘α αΈαα ααααΈαα- ααααα αα α»ααααα¬αΈ α‘ααΌα α‘α±α»ααα¬α±ααΈααα»αααΈαα α»αααα¬αααααΌα ααα¬αΈα₯αα±αα αΈααΈα±ααΈ α‘α±αα¬αα‘ααα±αα¬αααα ααααααααααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα ααΏααΈαα¬αααααα±αα¬ ααΏαα±ααΈααααΌαα»αα αα ααααααααΈαααα¬αΈααΌα ααΈααααα α‘α±ααΈαααΈα±αα¬ ααααΈ αααΈαα ααα»αα α±αααααα αααΈαα α₯α‘α¬αΈααΈααα αααααα¬α‘αααΈα‘αααΈα‘α±αα»αα α±αα¬αααΈα±αα¬ααΈα α»αααα¬ α»ααααα¬αΈαααααα±αα¬αααΈα±αα¬ααΈ αα ααα ααΈα α‘ααΈααα±α α¬ααΎααααα ααα»αα α±αα±αα¬ααα
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α»αααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα ααΌααΏα αΈααα‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬αα¬αΈ
The Prospects of Myanmarβs Economic Reform and Development
Song Qingrun China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations
α»αααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα‘αα α α‘ααΌαα‘α±ααΈαα«α±αα¬α‘αα¬αα¬αΈ αααΈα»αααα α»ααααα¬αΈ αα¬ααΎαα¬α»ααα αΌα¬ α‘ααΌαα‘αααΈαααΈααα»αααΈαααα α‘α αΈααα α‘α¬αΈ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ α»αα»αα α±α»αα¬ααΈαααα‘αα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααα ααΌααΈα‘α¬αΈα±ααΈαα α‘αα α±αα¬ααΈααα‘α¬αΈα»αα ααα α»αααα¬ααααα αααα¬α α±αα«αΎααΌααα«ααα αααΈα»ααα»αα ααα ααα±αα¬ ααααααα αα ααααΈαααΈααααα ααα α»αα ααααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα‘αα α α‘ααα αα‘α±α»αα‘α±ααα¬αΈαααα αααΌαα₯αΈαααΈα αα‘α αΈααα ααα α±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα α‘α αΈαα α₯αΈα α¬αΈα±ααΈαα ααα‘α»αα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααα¬αΈαααα α‘ααΈαα»αα α‘α αΈααα α ααααα α‘ααΌααΈ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα ααΌααΏααΈααααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ α‘α¬αα ααα»αααΈαααα α±αα¬ααααΈααΌα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα±αα¬ααα»αααΈαα αααα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα ααα αΈα±α ααα αααααΈα‘αα¬ααα¬αΈα αα±αα¬ α±αα«ααααα ααΌαααααα αα α α‘α¬ααααα»α¬ααΌαα»αα ααΌα¬αΈααα ααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈ α‘α±α»αα‘α±αα±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬α‘α¬αα¬αααα¬αΈ α±ααΌαΈαα ααααααααΏααΈ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα α‘ααα»ααααα αααα‘α±αα αα‘α¬αΈ α»αα α±α αααα α‘ααα±αΎαα¬ααα±αα¬ α‘α¬ααα±ααΌα₯αΈα α±ααααα α‘α»αα α‘ααα α‘ααα‘α±αΎαα¬ααΈα‘αααΈαα¬ ααααα¬αΈ α‘ααα‘αα ααααααααΈ α»αααα¬αΈαα¬α»αααΈα±αΎαα¬αα»αα ααα αααα ααα αα α α»αααα¬α‘α αΈααα α α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααα ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈ αααα±ααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈ αα αα α±αα¬αΎαα¬ α»ααααΏααΈα±αα¬α αααΌαα₯αΈαααΈα αα‘α αΈααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ α»αα»αα α±α»αα¬ααΈαααα αααα‘αααΈα α»ααααααα αααα‘ααααΌα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈ α»αα α α₯αα¬αΈα αααΈαααα±αα¬ααΈ αααα αα¬αααα αα¬ααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α αΈααΌα¬αΈ α±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα αααΈαααΈαα‘α α‘α α₯αα αααααΈαααααΈ αα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘α α‘α α₯αα¬αΈα ααααααα αααΌα α₯αΈαααΈα αα±α»αα¬αΎαα¬αΈααα α»αααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα₯αΈαααααα¬αΈ α‘αααα αααα¬ α αααΈα±ααΈα α‘α±α»αααΏααΈ α‘α»αα¬αΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ αααα¬αΈ ααα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈααΈααα±ααΈααα α₯αΈααααα‘α¬αΈ α ααα±ααΈααα αα α±αααα ααα αααα±αα¬ ααα±αα¬αα±ααΈαα α‘α»αα¬αΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααα¬αΈ ααα ααΌαΏααΈααΈααα±ααΈ ααα»αα ααα αααα‘αααα ααα α α α‘α αΈααα α‘ααΌαα»αα¬αΈαα¬αΈαΏααΈ α₯αΈααα αα‘α αΈαα αΈ ααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα α‘α±α»αααααΈαααα¬αΈα‘αααα ααα¬ α»ααααα¬αΈαααα‘α±α»αα‘α±α ααΈααα±ααΈαα α±ααΈααααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈ αααΈαααΌα±ααααα±αα¬αα±ααΈααααΌα αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α‘α¬αα αα±ααΈααα»αα ααα αααα‘αααα¬ αααα±αα¬αα α‘α αΈααααα αααΈααΈα»ααααααααααΈαα ααΈαααααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌαΏααΈαα ααΈα»αααα¬ααΌα αααΈα»ααα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»αα α±α αα ααα±αα¬αααα‘α»αα α±ααααα±αα¬α±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ
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αααα¬ α₯αα±ααα¬αΈα α»ααααα»αααΈαα α₯αα±ααα αα¬αΈα α±αα¬α±αα¬αα»ααα¬ααΈα»αααΈα»αα ααα α₯αα±ααα αα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α αααΈααΈα»ααααα α±αα¬ααΌααΏααΈ αααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈα ααΌα±αα¬ααα αααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈα ααααα αα ααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈ α α±αα¬αααΌααΎα ααα»αα ααα α ααα‘αααα¬α»αααα¬α‘α αΈααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααα¬ α‘αααα±ααΈα‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈα‘α±α»αα¬αα‘α»αα¬αΈα α‘α±α»αα¬ααΈα‘α α»αααααΏααΈ ααα±αα¬αααα±ααΈαα α‘ααΌαα‘α ααΈαα α‘α±α»αα¬αα‘α»αα¬αΈα αα±αα¬ααα¬ α±ααΈααΈα αΌα‘αα¬ααα¬αΈα αααα αΏααΈ α‘α±ααΈαααΈα±αα¬ α±ααα¬αα¬αΈααΌα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈααα¬αΈαα¬αΈα αααα‘ααααα α‘αααα«αα α±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα‘α¬αΈααΈ αα α‘α αΈαα‘ααΌαααΌα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααα‘ααα‘αααΈα αααα¬α±α ααΏααΈ α‘α αΈαα‘αα¬αα‘α¬αΈ ααΈα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈ ααααααα±αα¬ α±ααΌαΈα±αα¬αααα¬αΈαα‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈα±α ααα¬ αααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα α‘α αΈαα‘αα¬ααα¬αΈαα‘αα ααα αα±αα¬αα αΌα¬ααα±αα¬αααα±ααΈα»αααΈαα ααΈαααα¬αααα α₯ααα¬α‘α¬αΈα»αα α»ααα αα¬αΈααααα αΈααΌα¬αΈα‘ααα‘αααΈα α»ααα ααα»αααΈαα αααΈα»ααα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌα αααα»αα α±αα¬ α‘α±ααΈα α¬αΈαα α‘ααα α¬αΈαααααΈαα¬αΈ (SME) α±αα¬ααα ααΌα αΏααΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌα ααα±αα¬αααα ααα αααα ααα ααααα«αα ααΌα α»αααα¬α‘α αΈαα ααΌαα ααΈαααα α‘ααΌααα αα α₯αΈαα« ααα±αα¬ SME ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα±αα¬ααα αααΌαα₯αΈαααΈα αα α₯αΈα±αα¬ααΏααΈ ααα αααΌααα α₯αΈα»αα α±αα¬ α±αα«ααα¬ α ααΈα±αα¬ααααΈαα α₯αΈα₯α¬αααΌααΈααα‘αα«α‘αα αααααΈ αα α₯αΈαα«ααααα αα₯α₯αα‘αααα¬ ααααααααααΈαα¬αΈα ααα’ααααα»αααα±ααΈαα α‘α αΈαα α‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈα±αα¬ααΈα»ααα±αα¬αααΌαααΏααΈ ααααααΈααααΌαα±ααΈα α αΌααΈα‘αα ααα¬α±ααΈαα α‘α»αα¬αΈαααααα¬αΈα αααα¬αΈα α‘α αΈαααααΈαααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈ α±α»αα±αα¬α±ααΈααα¬α‘αααα«αααααα¬αΈααΌαααα’ααα‘αααΈα‘ααΈαα¬αΈ α»αααα‘αααΈα‘ααΈαα¬αΈα»αααααα α±αα¬αααΌαααΌαα»ααααα α‘ααα±αα¬ ααααααααααΈαα¬αΈα α±αα¬αα±ααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα‘α»αα ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααααα»αα αΏααΈ α‘αααα ααα’α α ααααΈα»αααααααααΌαααα»αα ααα’αααααα¬αΈααααΌαααααα»αα ααα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈ αα±ααΈαααααΈα α₯αα¬αΈααΌα ααα’ααααα‘ααΌα ααα±αα¬α±αα¬ αααααΈαααα αααααΈααα‘α αΈααααα¬αΈαΏααΈ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌααΈαα αααα ααααααα¬αΈαααα¬αΈα»αα α±α ααα»αα ααα αααα‘αααα¬ α»ααααΌααΈαα αααααα¬ αα½αΌααΈααααα¬αααα¬αΈαα α‘αα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈα α₯α¬αααα¬α α‘ααΌααα¬ αααα¬αΈα α‘α αΈαα α‘α»ααα‘ααααΌα¬αΈααα»αα ααα αααα ααα α§αΏααααΌα α±αα«ααα¬α₯αΈα»ααα₯αΈ α±αα¬αα±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈ α±ααΈα‘ααα±ααΈα‘ααΌαα αααΌαα₯αΈαααΈα ααααΌαα ααΈααΏααΈ α‘ααα±ααΈααα’ααα¬αΈαα αααΌααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈα α±ααΈα‘ααα₯α¬ααα¬αΈααααα±ααΈααααα»αα ααα α±ααΈααα±ααααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαα αααΈαααΌ α±αααααααα±ααΈα αααα α±ααΌα‘αααΈα‘ααΈα±α αΈααΌααα¬αΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈααααααα±αα¬ α‘αααα±ααΌαΈα±ααΌαΈ ααΌαααΈαα¬αΈααααΈ α»αααα¬αααααΌα αααΈαααΏααΈ α»αααα¬αααΈααΈα»ααααααααα¬αααααΈ αα α α₯αααΈαααα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈα ααΌααΈα‘α¬αΈα±ααΈαα¬ ααΌα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»αα αα α‘α±αααααα EU αα½αΌααΈααααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ααα ααααα¬αΈαααα IMF αα½αΌααΈααααα¬αΈα α‘αα‘αα»αα α»αααα¬ααααα αα α±αα«ααΈ αα α±αα¬αΎαα¬ααα»ααα±αα¬ α±α αΈααΌαα±αα«αα±α αΈα‘αααΈ α±ααΌααααα α αα α αααα α§αΏαα α ααα±ααααΌα α‘ααΈααααααΏααΈ α»ααα±αα¬αα α»αααα¬αααα±αα¬ ααααα α‘α±αα ααα±αααα¬ αα α±αααα¬αα α»αααα¬ ααα±ααΌ ααα ααα»αα (αααΈα»ααααΌα α±ααΌααααα‘αα¬αΈααΈα‘ααΌα α‘ααΈα»ααΎαα±α αααΎααα α±αα¬ααα±α αΈααΌαααΌα α‘α±α»ααα‘α¬αΈα»αα αα α±αααα¬αα ααα ααα ααα ααααα) α±α αΈααααΈαααα α±ααΈααα¬ α±αα α₯α±ααΌαααα α‘αα¬αΈααΈα‘ααΌα α‘ααΈα»ααΎαααα αααααα±αα¬ααααα¬αΈα‘αα«α‘αα α»αααα¬αααα¬αΈαα Visa ATM ααΌαααααααααααΏααΈ ATM αα E-commerce ααααα α‘αααααΌααΈαα α±ααΌαααα¬αΈα α ααα‘ααΈα»αα αΎααα¬ α±αα¬ααααΈααΌα αααααα¬ααααα αααα¬αΈα±ααΌααα»αααΈα α ααα‘ααΈα»αααΎαααα αααα‘αααα¬ α‘α±αα¬αααααα¬αΈα α‘α±ααΈααααααααα¬αΈα αααΈαα»αααΈαα α‘αα¬αΈα αααααα±ααΈα»αααΈ ααα»ααααΌ α±αα¬ααα±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααααα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈα αααΌαα₯αΈαααΈα αα ααα±αα¬ααα»αααΈ
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α»αα ααα ααα±αα¬α α»αααα¬α‘α αΈααα α‘α¬ααα α‘α±ααααα EUα αααα α‘αα΅αα α±αα¬ααααΈαα¬αΈαα α‘α»αα¬αΈααααα¬αΈααα¬ αααα»αα¬αΈ αααααααΈααΈα»αααααααα¬αΈ (FDI) α ααΌα±αα¬ααα α‘α¬αΈααΌαααΌαα αααα±αα¬αα ααα αα α±αα«ααΈ αα α±αα¬αΎαα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈ α±ααΈαααααα αααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈααααΏααΈ α±αΎααΌαΈαΏαααα¬ααααΈαα¬αΈαα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α α»αααα¬ααααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈαα α‘αααΈ α‘ααΈαα αααΈααα¬αα¬αΈ α‘αααΈα‘αααα‘αα±αααα α»αααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα ααΌααΏα αΈααα‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬αα¬αΈ- α‘α¬αα ααΌααΈαα α αΎααααΌααα¬αΈ αααα αΎααααααΌα α‘ααΌαααΈα±α»αα¬ααΈα±ααα»αααα¬-α‘ααΌαα‘αααΈαα¬αΈααα αα±αααααα¬αΈααα α±αα«ααΈα α₯α»αα α‘α αααα α¬ αα α±α α¬αα α‘α¬αααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈααα ααα»αααααα α»αααα¬ααα‘α¬αα αααΈααΌα¬αΈααΈαααα α»ααααα±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ αα¬αΈα±αα¬αα αααααΏααΈ αα αα α‘ααΌα α αα¬ααααααΈα α αα¬ααααααΈα ααΈαααα¬ ααα±ααΌα‘ααα‘αααα±αα¬ ααααα αα»αα αα¬αα¬ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα¬αΈα α‘ααα‘ααα»ααα±αα¬ααα α±αα¬α±αα¬αα»αααΈα»αα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα αα±αααααα¬αΈα α±αα¬ααα¬αΈαααα αααα ααΌα ααααα¬αΈαα α₯αΈαααΈααα±ααΌαα ααΈαα»αα αα¬ααα α‘α αααααα α¬α αααα βα»αααα¬ ααααα¬ α‘α¬αααα±αα¬αααααΌααΈαα α αΎαααα ααΌα α»αα αα¬αααααα±ααα ααα»αα αα¬αα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαααα ααααα»αα»ααα αααααα α±αα¬α±αα¬ααααα‘ααα«ααβ α α‘α±ααα‘α¬αα α‘α±ααα±αα¬αα‘α¬ααα αα αααααα¬ ADB αααα₯αα Stephen Groff α α±α»αα¬ααααα α»αααα¬α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαα α‘ααΈα‘ααΌααα¬αΈααΈααΌααα¬α±ααΏααΈ α‘αα α‘ααααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααΈαααα¬αα¬ αααα αααααΌαααααΈαα αααα ααα ααα¬α±ααΈαα ααΌα α»αααα¬α αΈ ααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαα ααααα α αααααα±α»α αααα α αα¬ααααααΈααΈααααα¬α α ααα αα αα¬ααααααΈα‘α ααΈααααα±αα¬ αααΈαα¬αΈααααααΈ αααα ααα α±ααααΌα IMF αα±α»αα¬αΎαα¬αΈαααα α»αααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαα α‘αα¬ααααΌαα₯αΈα±αα¬αα α‘ααΌαα±αα¬ααΈαα¬αΈα αΌα¬αααα αααα‘αααα¬ αααΈα»αααα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαααΈα±αΎαα¬ααΈα±αααα α‘ααα‘α»ααα±αα¬ααα»αααΈ α»αα αΏααΈ α αααΈα±ααΈαα α ααααααααΈαααααΈααΌα ααΌααΏααΈαααα αααΈααΈα»αααααααα‘ααΏααΈ αααΈ αα α±αα¬α±αα¬ α»αααα¬α»ααααα¬αΈ αα α α¬αΈααΈααα αΌααΈα‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬αααα¬αα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬α α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈααααΌα α‘αα¬αΈα‘αα¬αααΈ αααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈαααα αααα‘αααα¬ α»αααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈααΌα αααααα¬α‘αααΈα‘αααΈααα¬ α‘α±αα¬αα‘ ααα¬αΈα αΌα¬ααα±αα¬α±αΎαα¬αα»αα ααα αα«ααααα α±ααααΎααα ααα»α¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα‘αα‘α¬αΈαααΈ αα αααα αααα ααααα« ααααΌα α»αααα¬αααα‘α±ααααααα α±αΎααΌαΈα α‘α±ααααα±αααα¬ α ααα α±αα¬α±ααΈααΏααΈ α±ααααΌα ααααααα α»αααα¬α±αΎααΌαΈα α‘α±ααααα±αααα¬ α αααα±αα¬α±ααΈααα¬ α‘αα‘ααα αααΈ α α ααα αα αααΈ (α‘α±αααα α±αααα¬ α αα αααΈ) α ααααα±ααΈαααα α»αααα¬αα αααααα¬α‘αααΈα‘αααΈαα α±ααΈα±ααΌαα α‘αα‘α αα¬αΈα αΌα¬αααΈαααααα αααα‘αααα¬ α»αααα¬ααααα α‘α±ααα±αα¬αα‘α¬ααα α±αα¬αα‘α¬ααΎαα¬αΈ ααα ααα¬αΈα αΈαααααα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈ αα ααα»αααΈα‘ααΌα α±ααα¬α±αα¬ααΈααΌααα±αα»αααΈα»αα ααα α»αααα¬αααααα±αα¬ααααα±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααα¬αΈ α αΌα¬αα α»αααα¬-αααΈααα»αα¬αΈα±ααααΌα αα¬αΈαααααααΈα α‘αα΅ααααα΅αα¬ αααΈ ααΈαααΈα‘ααΈααΌα α±αα¬αα»α αααααΈ α‘αα αα ααααααΌαα±αα«α αααααααααΈα‘ααΈααΌα αααα«αααααΈαα¬αΈααα α±ααααΌααΈα αααααα ααααα α±αα¬αα±ααΈ α ααα¬αα αα»αα αα¬αα α»αααα¬αααα α‘α±αα¬αα‘αα»αα α±α ααααα αααΈααΈα αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈαααα¬αΈαα α»αααα¬αααα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈααΈα»ααα±α αα ααααααααα¬ α‘ααΌααα¬αααα¬αΈα‘α»αα ααα±αα¬ααΈααΌαα αΌα¬α±αα¬ααα₯αΈαα¬α±α ααααα ααα»αα α»αααα¬αααα αααα¬ααααΈ α±αα«αΎααΌααααα α»αααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘αα¬αααα α±αα¬ααα±αααααα ααα±αα¬ αααΈαα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈ
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ααα αα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈαααααΈα α₯αα¬αΈαα α αα±ααααα‘α»ααα»αα ααααΎαααΈαααΈαααααΈαα ααααΈ α»αα α±αααααα αααα‘αααα¬ αα¬αΈα αΌα¬α±αα¬ αααααα¬αααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈαα α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈα‘α±αα¬αα α α‘αα¬ααα αα αααΎαααα Transparency International αααα»αααα αααα α‘ααααα»αα α¬αΈααααααΈαααΈα‘α α»αααα¬ααα αα ααα»α¬α±ααααΌα α»αα α¬αΈααα‘αα¬αΈααΈααααα αα»αα α±ααα»αα αα¬ αααΈαα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈ ααααα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈ ααα αααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘αα¬αΈα‘ααΈα»αα ααα α»αααα¬ααααα αααα ααΌα α α α‘α αΈααααΈααΌα¬αΈ αΏααΈα±αα¬α α‘α±αα¬αααα αααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈα‘ααΌα ααΌααα¬α αα¬α»αα α±ααΏααΈ ααα’αααααααΈαα¬αΈα‘α±αα»αα α»αααα¬ααααα α‘α»αααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈ αααααα±ααα¬α±αα¬α α‘α»αα¬αΈα±ααα¬αα α‘ααΈαααΈαααΈααα±αα¬α α±αααΌααα»αα α±αααα αααα‘αααα¬ α±ααα±αα¬ααα±αα±αα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα»αα αΏααΈ α‘ααΈαα»αα ααα¬α±ααΈα αα αα α₯αα α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα»αα»αα α±α»αα¬ααΈαααα‘ααΌα αααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬ α‘αα¬αΈα‘ααΈα»αα ααα αααα‘αααα¬ αα αααααΈα α‘αΎαααΈααααα‘ααααα¬αΈα‘αα«α‘αα αααΌααΈααα αΈα±αα±αα¬ α‘α±α»αα α‘α±αα¬α α‘α‘αα¬αΈα»αα αΏααΈ αααΈαααααΈ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈα‘ααΌα αααΈαα¬αΈαΏααΈ α±αααα»αα αα α±αα¬α ααα‘ααΈα‘αα¬αΈαα αα»αα ααα α ααα‘αααα¬ αα±αα¬αα±αα¬ α»ααααΌααΈαα αααα»αα¬αΈαααΈααΈα»ααααααααα»αααΈααααΈ α»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαα ααΌααΏααΈαα α‘ααΌα αααααααα»αα ααα αα₯α₯αα‘αααα¬ α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈαα±ααΈαααααΈα α₯ααΌα α»αααα¬α‘ααΈαα¬αΈαααααΈαα¬αΈαα αα‘α¬αΈα±αα¬ααΈαα¬α αα¬αΈ ααααα αααα»αα¬αΈαααΈααα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬α ααααΈααΌα¬αΈααα¬αΈαααααα»αα ααα α»αααα¬αααΈαα‘αα¬αΈα αα¬ α‘α±ααΈ α α¬αΈ αα α‘ααα‘αααααααΈαα¬αΈα»αα αΎααΏααΈ αααΈαα¬αΈα±αα¬αααααΈα‘αα¬αΈα‘α»αα¬αΈααααα αααΈααα αααΈααα¬α α ααααααΌαα αα αααααΈαααααααααα¬ αααααα¬α‘ααα±αα¬αααΌαααα±αααα αααΏααΈα‘αα‘α¬αΈαααΈαα αααα»αα¬αΈαααΈααα¬αΈ αα αααααΎαα±ααΌααααα‘αα« α»αααα¬α‘ααΈαα¬αΈαααΈααα¬αΈα ααΎαααΌα¬ααααα»αα αααααΈα α»ααααΌααΈαα αααα»αα¬αΈαααΈ ααα¬αΈ αααααα₯αΏαααααααΈ ααααα αααααα αΌα¬ααΈα±αα«ααΈα±αα¬αααΌααααααΈα ααα±αα¬α αααΈααα αα αα αααΈααΌααΏααΈα±α‘α¬α ααααα»ααααααΈα αααααα¬α‘α¬αΈα»αααααΈ α‘α±αα¬ααααΈ αααΈααΈα»ααααααα¬αΈααΌα α»αααα¬αααααααΈααΈα»αααααα α‘αααΈα‘ααΈα‘αα‘α±αα¬α ααα±αα α‘α±αα¬ααααΈα±α αΈ ααΌαα α¬αΈααΈαααα¬αααΈαααααααααΈααα‘α±α»αα‘α±αααΈαα¬αΈα±αΎαα¬αα»αααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈααΌαα‘α±αα¬ααααΈ αααΈααΈα»αααααααα α±α αΈααΌααα α±ααα¬αααΈαααΈααα«αααααααααα±αα α‘αα₯αΈαααααΈ α»αααα¬α αΈααΌα¬αΈα±ααΈα»αα»ααα±α»αα¬ααΈααααα αααΈα»ααααΌααΏααΈαααα α»αααα‘αα¬αΈαααα¬αα¬ααα ααΈααα±α α±ααα ααα αααΈα»ααα ααΌααΏααΈα±ααΈααΌα α‘ααΌααα¬αααααΈαααΈαα¬αΈαα¬αΈαα α±αα¬ααα±αα¬α‘αα¬αααααα ααα±αα¬ α»αααα¬ααααα α αα±αααααα¬αΈα ααα»ααΏααΈ α±ααααΌαααα±ααΌα ααα α‘ααα‘ααα¬αΈα αααα α αα±αα¬ααα¬αΈ ααααα
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