EXPERIMENT REPORT

OF

BASIC MATERIAL SCIENCE

Written By :

MUHAMAD RIZKI

1111097000016

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

FACULTY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

UNIVERSITAS ISLAM NEGERI SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH

JAKARTA

2014

i

PREFACE

Assalaamu'alaikum Warrahmatullahi Wabarakatuh,

Praise to Allah, the Lord of hosts who have given favors health and free time so that this

paper can be resolved. Blessings and greetings do not forget to always delivered to the Prophet

Muhammad, his family, his companions and his followers that we may remain unchanged to

follow his teachings. Ameen.

Material Physics is a science that studies the properties of solid materials. In this paper,

insya Allah, Iwill discuss on some physical properties of materials.

Do not forget to always say, thank you for those who helped to complete this paper. Thanks

to Basic Material Science Experiment lecturer, Priyambodo, S.Si which has provided an overview

of the material. Thanks also to the parents and brothers, sisters, & Indira Juliana Safitri who are

always motivating and pray that the completion of this paper and do not forget to also thank

companions in arms at the Physics Department of UIN Jakarta 2011 class.

We apologize for the shortcomings of this paper. As a constituent, I really hope there is

constructive criticism and suggestions to this paper. Hopefully that is in this paper could be better

and could be an inspiration to every reader, ameen ya Robb. Similarly, exposure of me.

Wassalamu'alaykum Warrohmatullohi Wabarokatuh.

ii

CONTENTS

1. Characteristics of Semiconductor’s Electrical Resistance ........................................ 1

2. Characteristics of Conductor’s Electrical Resistance ............................................... 6

3. Ferromagnetic Hysterisis Curve ............................................................................... 12

4. Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, Ferromagnetic Substance ............................................ 15

5. Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) .................................................................. 19

6. Elastic Deformation .................................................................................................. 24

1

Characteristics of Semiconductor’s Electrical Resistance

A. OBJECTIVE

- To determine influence of temperature to semiconductor electrical resistance.

- To obtain gap energy value in the semiconductor.

B. THEORIES

Semiconductors constitute a large class of substances which have resistivities lying

between those of insulators and conductors. The resistivity of semiconductors varies in wide

limits, i.e., 10–4 to 104 Ω-m and is reduced to a very great extent with an increase in temperature

(according to an exponential law) as shown in Figure below.

It has been found that semiconductor will become insulator in the low temperatur and will

become conductor in the high temperature. It has been proven by measuring its electrical resistivity

when it heated.The resistivity changing by temperatur changing can be expressed by equation :

kTEeRR 2/

0

whereas:

T : temperature (K)

R : electric resistance (Ω)

Figure 1.1 Graph of Temperature Influence to Electrical Resistance

2

E : gap Energy (J)

k : Bolztmann constant = 1,38 . 10-23 J/K or = 86,1 x 10-6 eV/K

The band structure in a solid determines whether the solid is an insulator or a conductor or

a semiconductor. The bands are filled up to a certain level by the electrons within each atom. The

highest band in which electrons are still predominantly attached to their atoms are found is

called the valence band. This is the band in which the valence (outermost) electrons from each

atom will be located. These are the electrons that are the possible carriers of electricity.

However, in order for an electron to conduct, it must get up to a slightly higher energy so that is

free of the grip of its atom.

When the electrons excitated toward conducting band populated by electrons and leaves

valence band populated by holes. As result, both bands wills half-filled and it Wills conducting

charge if it given an electrical field.The valence energy can be expressed by :

*

22

2)(

h

vm

kkE

The main parameter of the energy is me, mh and band gap Eg.

C. Apparatus & Methods

The experiments measure the resistance values as a function of temperature using a

Wheatstone bridge. The multimeter measured-value recording system is ideal for recording and

evaluating the measurements.

3

D. Experiment Data

- Electrical resistance (R) measurement in increasing temperature

T (°C) R (Ω)

50 119.27

60 64.22

70 47.79

80 37.10

90 26.27

100 21.29

110 17.73

120 19.45

130 14.31

140 11.04

150 9.50

160 8.19

170 7.19

180 5.93

190 5.11

200 5.23

Data Processing

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200

Elec

tric

al R

esis

tan

ce (

Ω)

Temperature (°C)

Curve of Relationship Between Increasing Temperature & Electrical Resistance

4

Gap Energy calculation on the semiconductor

R0 = 119.27 Ω

T (°C) R (Ω) T (K) x (1/T) y (ln R) x2 x.y

50 119.27 323 0.003096 5 9.59E-06 0.014803

60 64.22 333 0.003003 4 9.02E-06 0.012499

70 47.79 343 0.002915 4 8.50E-06 0.011274

80 37.1 353 0.002833 4 8.03E-06 0.010237

90 26.27 363 0.002755 3 7.59E-06 0.009004

100 21.29 373 0.002681 3 7.19E-06 0.008199

110 17.73 383 0.002611 3 6.82E-06 0.007507

120 19.45 393 0.002545 3 6.47E-06 0.007552

130 14.31 403 0.002481 3 6.16E-06 0.006603

140 11.04 413 0.002421 2 5.86E-06 0.005815

150 9.5 423 0.002364 2 5.59E-06 0.005322

160 8.19 433 0.002309 2 5.33E-06 0.004857

170 7.19 443 0.002257 2 5.10E-06 0.004453

180 5.93 453 0.002208 2 4.87E-06 0.003929

190 5.11 463 0.00216 2 4.66E-06 0.003523

200 5.23 473 0.002114 2 4.47E-06 0.00291

0.040754 45.04892 0.000105 0.118487∑

b = 1128.448

because, kTEeRR 2/

0

Ln R = Ln R + ∆E/ 2kT

y = a + bx

so, b = ∆E/2k ∆E = b x 2k

∆E = 1128.448 x 3,76 x 10-23 J = 4242.96 x 10-23 J

E. Discussion

The experiment is done by giving electric current into semiconductor material in the

device & measure the electric resistance in the temperature increasing.

Theoritically the electric resistance on the semicoductor will be decreased

exponentially in the icreasing of temperature.

We can look on the data that when we increased the temperature of the material from

50°C into 200°C, the electrical resistance is decreased from 119.27 Ω until 5.23 Ω. Also, we can

5

find the value of gap energy by least square method from the resistance equation. Thus, we

get the gap energy of the material is 4.24 x 10-20 J

It can be explained that when the material’s temperature is increased, the outest shell

electrons in the semiconductor will be oscillating & they will be exictated & move freely

if the heat is enough. The heat energy is conversed into gap energy, so it can excitate

electron from valence band into conducting band.

F. Conclusion

The electrical resistance of the semiconductor will decreased exponentially by the

icreasing of temperature.

G. Reference

Jorena. 2000. Penentuan Celah Energi pada semikonduktor.

Mayasari, Ika. 2011. Makalah Semikonduktor.

Rolf Enderlein, Norman J.M. Horing. Fundamental of Seminconductor Physics &

Device.

6

Characteristic of Conductor’s Electrical Resistance

A. Objective

- To determine influence of temperature to conductor electrical resistance.

- To determine the value of temperature influenced-resistance coefficient.

B. Theoeries

Conductivity property of solid material can be explained by theory of energy band.

Theory of energy band state that every outest electron (valence electron) has energies that

must be through to conducting electricity. Energy band is divided into :

1. Valence band

2. Conducting band

Valence band state that bounding energy of electrons to keep attached to nucleon.

Electron on this state cannot conducting electricity. To conducting electricity, the electrons

must leap from valence band into conducting band. But there is a distance between valence

band & conducting band. The distance is called gap energy.

In the conductor especially metals, there are valence electrons & free electrons-called

electron clouds- that contribute in conductivity. The valence electrons in the conductor

have very small value of gap energy, so they can easily to leap into conducting band.

Since crystalline defects serve as scattering centers for conduction electrons in metals,

increasing their number raises the resistivity (or lowers the conductivity). The

concentration of these imperfections depends on temperature, composition, and the degree

of cold work of a metal specimen. In fact, it has been observed experimentally that the total

resistivity of a metal is the sum of the contributions from thermal vibrations, impurities,

and plastic deformation; that is, the scattering mechanisms act independently of one

another. This may be represented in mathematicalform as follows:

in which and represent the individual thermal, impurity, and deformation resistivity

contributions, respectively. This equation is sometimes known as Matthiessen’s rule. the

resistivity rises linearly with temperature above about Thus,

7

where and a are constants for each particular metal. This dependence of the thermal

resistivity component on temperature is due to the increase with temperature in thermal

vibrations and other lattice irregularities (e.g., vacancies), which serve as electron-

scattering centers.

C. Aparatus & Methods

The experiments measure the resistance values as a function of temperature using a

Wheatstone bridge. The multimeter measured-value recording system is ideal for recording and

evaluating the measurements.

Figure 2.1 Thermal-electric resistance characteristic of conductor

8

D. Experiment Data

- Electrical resistance measurement in temperature increasing

T (°C) R (Ω)

50 116.69

60 120.41

70 124.34

80 127.93

90 131.91

100 135.93

110 139.94

120 143.88

130 147.97

140 152.25

150 156.51

160 160.74

170 164.79

180 168.91

190 173.13

200 177.83

9

E. Data Processing

Data processing to determine temperature influenced-resistance coefficient

x --> T

(°C) y --> R (Ω) x2 x.y

50 116.69 2500 5834.5

60 120.41 3600 7224.6

70 124.34 4900 8703.8

80 127.93 6400 10234.4

90 131.91 8100 11871.9

100 135.93 10000 13593

110 139.94 12100 15393.4

120 143.88 14400 17265.6

130 147.97 16900 19236.1

140 152.25 19600 21315

150 156.51 22500 23476.5

160 160.74 25600 25718.4

170 164.79 28900 28014.3

180 168.91 32400 30403.8

190 173.13 36100 32894.7

200 177.83 40000 35566

∑ 2000 2343.16 284000 306746

y = 0.407x + 95.52R² = 0.999

0

50

100

150

200

0 50 100 150 200 250

Re

sist

ance

(Ω

)

Temperature (°C)

Curve of Relationship Between Increasing Temperature & Electrical Resistance

10

b = 1.0801

Because R = R0 + R0.α . ∆T

y = a + b.x

So, b = R0 . α α =b/R0

α = 0.0092561 /°C

F. Discussion

The experiment is done by giving electric current into conductor material in the

device & measure the electric resistance in the temperature 50°C until 200°C by interval

10°C.

Theoritically we know that conductor material is a good electric conducting material

when the electric field is given. Most of conductor material is metal that have different

atomic bonding than the others. Metal has electrons that move freely surrounding the

atoms called electron clouds. If the electric field is given, the electron clouds will move

to more positive charge region. But we must remember that metal has 1 to 3 valence

electrons (except transition metal) that still bounded in the atom. If the temperature is

increased, the valence electrons will be excitated from valence band into conducting band.

The more electrons are excitated, the more collision will be increased among the electrons

that can made increasing of resistivity.

The experiment data show that the electrical resistance on the material is increased

linearly from 116.69 Ω to 177.83 Ω in a row of temperature increasing. We also able to

determine the tempreature influenced-resistance coefficient by least square method. By

define b (variable’s coefficient) as R0 . α, we got the value of tempreature influenced-

resistance coefficient 0.0092561 /°C. This coefficient define the ability of resistivity increasing

in the temperature increasing of the material.

G. Conclusion

The temperature increasing will increase electrical resistance of the conductor

material linearly.

11

H. Reference

Callister,Jr. , William D. Material Science & Engineering An Introduction.2007. New

York : John Willey & Son, Inc.

12

Ferromagnetic Hysterisis Curve

A. Objective

- Study about frequency & voltage influence into ferromagnetic hysterisis curve.

B. Theories

Certain metallic materials possess a permanent magnetic moment in the absence of an

external field, and manifest very large and permanent magnetizations. Theseare the

characteristics of ferromagnetism, and they are displayed by the transition metals iron

(as BCC ferrite), cobalt, nickel, and some of the rare earth metals such as gadolinium

(Gd). Magnetic susceptibilities as high as are possible for ferromagnetic materials.

Consequently, we write

Permanent magnetic moments in ferromagnetic materials result from atomic

magnetic moments due to electron spin—uncancelled electron spins as a consequence of

the electron structure. There is also an orbital magnetic moment contribution that is small

in comparison to the spin moment. Furthermore, in a ferromagnetic material, coupling

interactions cause net spin magnetic moments of adjacent atoms to align with one another,

even in the absence of an external field. The origin of these coupling forces is not

completely understood, but it is thought to arise from the electronic structure of the metal.

This mutual spin alignment exists over relatively large volume regions of the crystal called

domains. The maximum possible magnetization, or saturation magnetization of a

ferromagnetic material represents the magnetization that results when all the magnetic

dipoles in a solid piece are mutually aligned with the external field;there is also a

corresponding saturation flux density The saturation magnetization isequal to the product

of the net magnetic moment for each atom and the number of atoms present. For each of

iron, cobalt, and nickel, the net magnetic moments per atom are 2.22, 1.72, and 0.60 Bohr

magnetons, respectively.

13

Figure 3.1 Schematic illustration of the mutual alignment of atomic dipoles for a ferromagnetic material, which will exist even in the absence of an external magnetic field

C. Apparatus & Methods

The experiment is done by record Induced-Magnetic Field (B)-External Magnetic Field

(H) curve by maintains the given voltage & frequency.

D. Experiment Data

- For given canstant voltage, V = 1,5 Volt

f = 0,1 Hz f = 0,2 Hz f = 0,3 Hz

14

- For given constant frequency, f = 0,2 Hz

v = 1 V v = 1,5 V v = 2 V

U ∫𝜱. 𝒅𝑰 = 𝑬 (𝑽𝒔𝑨)

f ∫𝜱.𝒅𝑰 = 𝑬(𝑽𝒔𝑨)

1,0 0,0564 0,1 0,2743

1,5 0,1398 0,2 0,1937

2,0 0,1937 0,3 0,1325

E. Discussion

Hysteresis curve show that giving a U value varied (from 1, 1.5, 2 v) and a constant

value of f (1 Hz) impact on increasing the saturation value and the loop becomes enlarged.

The opposite treatment should also be applied, where U so constant (2v) and the value of

f is varied (0.1, 0.2, 0.3 Hz), and also have the opposite effect on the hysteresis curve, ie

the increase in the value of U impact of impairment saturation resulted in a loop so

narrowed.

F. Conclussion

Loss of energy produced by each loop can be seen in the following table, where:

- Voltage (U) is proportional to the Energy Loss

- Frequency (f) is inversely proportional to the Energy Loss

G. Reference

H. Callister,Jr. , William D. Material Science & Engineering An Introduction.2007. New

York : John Willey & Son, Inc.

15

Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, & Ferromagnetic Substance

A. Objective

To identify diiamagnetic, paramagnetic, & ferromagnetic substance.

B. Theories

Magnetism, the phenomenon by which materials assert an attractive or repulsive

force or influence on other materials, has been known for thousands of years. However,

the underlying principles and mechanisms that explain the magnetic phenomenonare

complex and subtle, and their understanding has eluded scientists until relatively recent

times. Many of our modern technological devices rely on magnetism and magnetic

materials; these include electrical power generators and transformers, electric motors,

radio, television, telephones, computers, and components of sound and video reproduction

systems. Iron, some steels, and the naturally occurring mineral lodestone are well-known

examples of materials that exhibit magnetic properties. Not so familiar, however, is the

fact that all substances are influenced to one degree or another by the presence of a

magnetic field.

Diamagnetism is a very weak form of magnetism that is nonpermanent and persists

only while an external field is being applied. It is induced by a change in the orbital motion

of electrons due to an applied magnetic field. The magnitude of the induced magnetic

moment is extremely small, and in a direction opposite to that of the applied field. Thus,

the relative permeability is less than unity (however, only very slightly), and the magnetic

susceptibility is negative; that is, the magnitude of the Bfield within a diamagnetic solid

is less than that in a vacuum. The volume susceptibility for diamagnetic solid materials is

on the order of When placed between the poles of a strong electromagnet, diamagnetic

materials are attracted toward regions where the field is weak.

For some solid materials, each atom possesses a permanent dipole moment by virtue

of incomplete cancellation of electron spin and/or orbital magnetic moments. In the

absence of an external magnetic field, the orientations of these atomic magnetic moments

are random, such that a piece of material possesses no net macroscopic

16

magnetization.These atomic dipoles are free to rotate, and paramagnetism results when

they preferentially align, by rotation, with an external field as shown in Figure 4.1.These

magnetic dipoles are acted on individually with no mutual interaction between adjacent

dipoles. Inasmuch as the dipoles align with the external field, they enhance it, giving rise

to a relative permeability that is greater than unity, and to a relatively small but positive

magnetic susceptibility. Susceptibilities for paramagnetic materials range from about 10-

5 to 10-2 .

Figure 4.1The atomic dipole configuration for a diamagnetic material : (a) Diamagnetic , (b) Paramagnetic , (c) Ferromagnetic

Certain metallic materials possess a permanent magnetic moment in the absence of

an external field, and manifest very large and permanent magnetizations. These are the

characteristics of ferromagnetism, and they are displayed by the transition metals iron

(as BCC ferrite), cobalt, nickel, and some of the rare earth metals such as gadolinium

(Gd). Magnetic susceptibilities as high as are possible for ferromagnetic materials.

(c)

17

C. Apparatus & Methods

In the experiment three 9 mm long rods with different magnetic behaviors are suspended

into homogenous magnetic field so that they can easily rotate, allowing them to be

attracted or repelled by the magnetic field depending on their respective magnetic

property.

D. Experiment result & Discussion

The experiment is done by examine the magnetization of 3 kinds of substances,

Bismuth (Bi), Copper (Cu), & Iron (Fe). We gave the external field from electromagnetic

induction to the sample & observed their respond. The result can be looked on these table.

No. Substance Attracted Repel

1 Bismuth (Bi) - Yes

2 Copper (Cu) Yes -

3 Iron (Fe) Yes -

From the table above, Bitmuth show a repellent to the external magnetic field that

indicate it is a diamagnetic material. However, copper & iron give attraction to the

external magnetic field. We can determine if they are paramagnetic or ferromagnetic

18

material because the different among paramagnetic & ferromagnetic material is on their

magnetic susceptibility. So, we have to take quantitative magnetic examine to determine

their magnetization kind.

E. Conclussion

It is sufficient to determine a substance is a diamagnetic material by giving external

magnetic field. But, we have to measure it’s magnetic susceptibility to distinguish which

paramagnetic or ferromagnetic is.

F. Reference

Callister,Jr. , William D. Material Science & Engineering An Introduction.2007. New

York : John Willey & Son, Inc.

19

Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)

A. Objective

Investigating Gold (Au), Graphite, & MoS2 surface using a Scanning Tunneling

Microscope (STM).

B. Theories

The scanning tunneling microscope was developed in the 1980’s by G. Binnig & H.

Rohrer. It uses a fine metal tip as a local probe; the probe is brought so close to an

electrically conductive samole that the electrons ‘tunnel’ from the tip to the sample due

to quantum-mechanical effects.

When an electric field is applied between the tip and the sample, an electric current,

tunnel current, can flow. As the tunnel current varies exponentially with the distance, even

an extremely minute change in distance of 0.01 nm results in a measurable change in the

tunnel current. The tip is mounted on a platform which can be moved in all three spatial

dimensions by means of piezoelectric control elements. The tip is scanned across the

sample to measure its topography.

A control circuit maintains the distance between tip and sample extremely precise at

a constance distance by maintaining a constant tunnel current value. The controlled

motion performed during the scanning process are recorded and imaged using computer.

The image generated in this manner is a composite in which the sample topography and

the electrical conductivity of the sample surface are superimposed.

C. Apparatus

- Scanning Tunneling Microscope

- Molybdenum disulphide (MoS2) sample

- Gold (Au) sample

- Graphite sample

- PC with windows XP/7/Vista

20

D. Experiment Method

The experiments use a scanning tunneling micreoscope specially developed for

practical experiments, whic operates at standard air pressure. At the beginning of the

experiment, a measuring tip is made from platinum wire. The graphite sample is prepared

by taering off a strip of tape. When the gold sample is handled carefully, it requires no

cleaning; the same is valid for teh MoS2 probe. The investigation of the samples begins

with an overview scan. In the subsequent procedure, the step width of the measuring tip

is reduced until the positions of the individua atoms of the sample with respect to each

other are clearly visible in the image.

21

E. Result

Gold (Ag) sample

Graphite sample

22

MoS2 sample

F. Discussion

The experiment is done by scanning surface of the sample. The electric current from

interaction between the tip & sample surface is converted in the STM & transmitted to

PC as digital signal. The signal is proccessed by PC’s software to get x-y plane graph, 2D

& 3D topography.

Scanning Tunneling Microscope just give us qualitative data of the sample surface,

so we can’t determine precisely the parameter of surface flatness.

The X-Y plane graph show the sample width by distance change. If the curve is not

too sheer, we can conclude the sample’s surface is quite flat. The 2D & 3D graph give the

information of surface flatness by its colour. The sample width is indicate by color from

white, orange, brown, until black. If the color of the graph is uniformly enough, we can

conclude the sample’s surface is quite flat.

The gold sample graph color is orange with less dark pattern on the some region that

indicate it’s surface is quite rough. The MoS2 sample graph is also indicate same result

with some black & white pattern on the some region. However, the graphite sampe graph

shows different result by giving quite smooth color & less black & white color.

23

G. Conclussion

The gold & MoS2 surface is quite rough wheras graphite surface is quite flat that indicated

by colour on the graph.

H. Reference

http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/physics/microscopes/scanning/

24

Elastic Deformation

A. Objective

- To determine tensile stress & strain value in the elastic deformation

- To determine Young Modulus value of copper & iron

- To determine mechanical characteristic of copper & iron

B. Theories

Elasticity deals with elastic stresses and strains, their relationship, and the external forces

that cause them. An elastic strain is defined as a strain that disappears instantaneously once the

forces that cause it are removed. The theory of elasticity for Hookean solids -- in which stress is

proportional to strain -- is rather complex in its more rigorous treatment.

The normal stress s is defined as this ‘‘resistance” per unit area. Applying the equilibrium-

offorces equation from the mechanics of materials to the lower portion of the specimen, we have

This is the internal resisting stress opposing the externally applied load and avoiding the

breaking of the specimen. The following stress convention is used: Tensile stresses are positive

and compressive stresses are negative. In geology and rock mechanics, on the other hand, the

opposite sign convention is used because compressive stresses are much more common. As the

applied force F increases, so does the length of the specimen. For an increase dF, the length l

increases by dl. The normalized (per unit length) increase in length is equal to

or, upon integration,

where l0 is the original length. This parameter is known as the longitudinal true strain. In

many applications, a simpler form of strain, commonly called engineering or nominal strain, is

used. This type of strain is defined as

25

C. Apparatus & Methods

The experiment is done by fasten the copper & iron wire on the linear expansion apparatus

set & measure the elongation every multiple of 50 grams loads given.

D. Experiment Result & Data Processing

Copper

d = 0,2 mm l0 = 50 cm

Load Mass

(gram)Elongation (cm) Stress (Pa) Strain (%)

Young Modulus

(Pa)

50 0.12 1592356.688 0.24% 663481953.3

100 0.19 3184713.376 0.38% 838082467.3

150 0.27 4777070.064 0.54% 884642604.4

200 0.36 6369426.752 0.72% 884642604.4

817712407.3Young Modulus Average

26

Iron

d = 0,2 mm l0 = 50 cm

0

1000000

2000000

3000000

4000000

5000000

6000000

7000000

0.24 0.38 0.54 0.72

STR

ESS

(Pa)

STRAIN (%)

COPPER STRESS -STRAIN CURVE

Stress (Pa)

Load Mass (gram) Elongation (cm) Stress (Pa) Strain (%)Young Modulus

(Pa)

50 0.08 1592356.688 0.16% 995222929.9

100 0.14 3184713.376 0.28% 1137397634

150 0.17 4777070.064 0.34% 1405020607

200 0.23 6369426.752 0.46% 1384657989

1230574790Young Modulus Average

0

1000000

2000000

3000000

4000000

5000000

6000000

7000000

0.16% 0.28% 0.34% 0.46%

STR

ESS

(Pa)

STRAIN (%)

IRON STRESS -STRAIN CURVE

Stress (Pa)

27

E. Discussion

The experiment is done by fasten the copper & iron wire on the linear expansion apparatus

set & measure the elongation every multiple of 50 grams load given.

Afterwards, we list the elongation data in the table to calcuwhilate the tensile stress &

strain by their formula. Then we can find their Young modulus by divide stress with strain.

The tables show that copper & iron have high value of stress from 1,600,000 Pa to

6,400,000 Pa & less of strain from 0.16 % to 0.72 %. Their Young Modulus value also show high

value by the average 817712407.3 Pa & 1230574790 Pa. It’s indicate copper & iron is a strong

material which able to hold up relative heavy loads & iron is stronger than copper.

F. Conclussion

The tensile stress value of copper & iron is between 1592356.688 Pa to 6369426.752 Pa.

The tensile strain value of copper & iron is between 0.16 % to 0.72 %.

The Young modulus value of copper & iron are serially 817712407.3 Pa & 1230574790 Pa.

Iron & copper is a strong material with high Young Modulus value.

G. Reference

Meyer, Marc Andre & Krishan Kumar Chawla. Mechanical Behavior of Materials. 2009.

London : Cambridge University Press