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INTERNATIONAI HYDROLOGICAL P R O G R A M M E
EVALUATION OF THE UNESCO SPONSORED
POST GRADUATE COURSES IN
HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES
by
N . B . Ayibotele (Ghana) with contributions from L.J. Mostertman (the Netherlands)
and U . Maniak (Federal Republic of Germany)
IHP-III Project 13.1
Recommended strategies for the development of education and training at various levels
in the field of water resources
F I N A L R E P O R T
Unesco, Paris, 1988
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1. BACKGROUND 1
1.1 Appointment of Working Group Members 2
1.2 Activities of the Working Group 2
2. METHODS ADOPTED FOR THE EVALUATION 3
2.1 Evaluation of participants and financial support 5
2.1.1 Participants 5
2.1.2 Financial inputs by Unesco/Governments 6
2.2 Evaluation of the course system 6
2.3 Evaluation of the outputs (Graduates) 7
3. FINDINGS 7
3.1 Brief review of the socio-economic and hydrological conditions in the developing countries 7
3.1.1 Climate and Hydrology 10
3.1.2 Manpower needs 10
3.2 Course Inputs 12
3.2.1 Participants 12
3.2.2 Financial subventions 18
3.3 Network of courses 19
3.3.1 Statistics about the courses 19
3.3.2 Evaluation of statistics about the courses 20
3.3.2.1 Geographical location of courses 20 3.3.2.2 Language distribution 20 3.3.2.3 Subjects and duration 21 3.3.2.4 Certificates/diplomas/degrees 27 3.3.2.5 Admission requirements 28
•i-ii.
3.3.3 Outputs (Graduates) from the courses 29
3.3.3.1 Number graduates 29 3.3.3.2 Ability of courses to meet participants'
aspirations 29 3.3.3.3 Evaluation of participants by their
employers six months after returning from courses 31
3.3.3.4 Evaluation of participants by their employers 3 years after returning from courses 32
3.3.3.5 Evaluation of courses by participants 3 years after returning from courses 33
3.3.3.6 Survey of teaching of hydrology in existing undergraduate courses and planned postgraduate courses 33
3.3.4 General impact, effectiveness and relevance of the courses 35
3.3.4.1 Impact of the courses 35 3.3.4.2 Effectiveness with which courses
are offered 36 3.3.4.3" Relevance of the courses to the
socio-economic and hydrological situation of developing countries 38
4. TWINNING OF INSTITUTES CONCERNED WITH POST-GRADUATE STUDIES IN THE WATER SCIENCES 41
4.1 Introduction 41
4.2 Training 42
4.3 Research 43
4.4 Management support 44
4.5 Technical support 44
4.6 Common publications 44
4.7 Recruitment of students 44
4.8 Execution of training projects for third parties 45
5. MAJOR TOPICS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SYSTEM OF CONTINUING EDUCATION IN ASSOCIATION WITH THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NETWORK OF POSTGRADUATE COURSES 45
iv
LIST OF ANNEXES
Annex I List of Unesco-sponsored postgraduate courses in hydrology and water resources
Annex II Analysis of background of participants in Unesco-sponsored postgraduate hydrology courses
Annex III Years spent in primary and university education by participants from different countries
Annex IV Years spent in university education and before university (developing countries) Course: International course for hydrologists 1985/86, Delft
Annex V Cost assessment for the Intrnational postgraduate course on Hydrological methods for developing water resources management (Budapest)
Annex VI Analysis of and statistics on the present 32 Unesco-sponsored postgraduate hydrology courses
Annex VII
Annex VIII
Hours spent on various aspects of course
Hours spent on basic science, hydrological and water resources subjects at various courses
Annex IX Number of participants graduated from the courses (1974-1985)
Annex X Questionnaire 1: Survey of aspirations of course participants
Annex XI Questionnaire 2: Evaluation of Employees by Employers 6 months after return of employees from courses
Annex XII Questionnaire 3: Evaluation of Employees by Employers 3 years after course
Annex XIII Questionnaire 4: Evaluation by participants 3 years after attending course
Annex XIV Survey to find which developing countries offer hydrological and water resources courses at undergraduate level and which have or are planning to establish one at postgraduate level
Annex XV Example of an evaluation of a one-year duration postgraduate course
Annex XVI Model curriculum for courses in hydrology and water resources
v
FOREWORD
When conceiving the educational programme of the third IHP phase the Intergovernmental Council recalled that hydrology was not always accepted as an independent science, it often being considered a subdiscipline of civil engineering, geography or geology. It was the merit of the IHD to contribute to the recognition of hydrology as a distinct scientific branch which encompasses the above aspects. A few undergraduate programmes were developed. The great breakthrough was the establishment of postgraduate courses under the aegis of IHD/IHP. By the end of the IHD, a system of postgraduate courses existed and a first evaluation was made by Unesco in 1974 in order to permit reasonable expansion of the programme. New courses were introduced to fill gaps in subject treatment. A shift to developing countries could be observed during IHP Phases I and II; at present, new post-graduate programmes are being offered in almost all regions.
Following efforts during thé last years of the IHD and .the first years of the IHP, aspects relating to water quality and to the application of hydrology to water resources planning and management are now being offered within several courses. A logical step further is to consider the multi-disciplinary aspects of integrated water resources management. IHP-III is, therefore, embarking on the development of appropriate training programmes.
On the basis of a critical evaluation of the existing training programmes and in the light of needs and requirements of trained personnel strategies necessary for the introduction of new programmes need to be developed.
The IHP Committee on Education and Training, at its session in 1986, recalled the programme under IHP project 13.1 "to recommend strategies for the development of education and training at various levels in the field of water resources". It entrusted the IHP Working Group on education with the following tasks:
(i) assess the existing Unesco-sponsored postgraduate courses in terms of their capacity to meet the demands for postgraduate study under the following criteria:
(a) academic qualifications and practical experience demanded as prerequisites;
(b) balance within the course between research and practical applications;
(c) availability of fellowships;
(d) course duration;
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investigate the mechanisms by which the twinning of institutions concerned with postgraduate studies might be encouraged and established. It is foreseen that the development of this type of arrangement will provide opportunities to meet demands by developing countries for the provision of courses in other languages and with structures more attuned to their needs;
indicate major topics which could form the basis for the development of a system of continuing education in association with the establishment of the network for postgraduate courses;
enunciate the principles upon which model curricula might be developed to meet identified needs for postgraduate training in various regions taking account of the level of development in the countries involved and institutional arrangements.
The Working Group held one meeting in Prague, Czechoslovakia (14-18 October 1985); the subgroup on the model curriculum held one meeting in Vallendar, Federal Republic of Germany (25-29 August 1986); the chairman of the Working Group, Mr. N.B. Ayibotele, met several times with the IHP Secretariat. The input of these various meetings as well as the contributions received from directors of Unesco-sponsored postgraduate hydrology courses enabled the compilation of the present report.
This report attempts to respond to item (i) in Chapters 1-3 that were compiled by the Chairman of the Working Group, Mr. N.B. Ayibotele, in close consultation with the members of the working group. Topics (ii) and (iii) are dealt with in Chapters 4 and 5 that were produced by Professor L.J. Mostertman and reviewed by the working group. Topic (iv) has been treated by Professor U. Maniak with the help of an ad-hoc panel; the outcome is contained in Annex XVI . after revision by the Working Group and a number of course directors. This model curriculum has been included purposely at the end of the report so as to permit its individual utilization by course organizers.
wiH
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
1
1. BACKGROUND
One of the means by which the IHP has been implemented over the years has been the mechanism of education and training through the Unesco-sponsored courses. Most of them are at the postgraduate or professional level and fewer at the technician or subprofessional level. The. developing countries have been the foremost beneficiaries of these courses. These have been aimed at the immediate objective of providing the specialized manpower required to enable the developing countries to carry out their hydrological and water resources development activities themselves as one of the means for achieving the ultimate goals of socio-economic development in these countries.
Because of increased socio-economic development in the developing countries the need to use and control water for the benefit of development has grown considerably over the past decade. Correspondingly the demand for trained manpower in hydrology and water resources management has grown. This has led to a demand for more training courses to meet a variety of needs at various levels. Unfortunately the resources required to support existing courses and establish new ones are limited. Hence it has become necessary to ensure that the system of Unesco-sponsored courses is still relevant and effective and that it has the desired impact in the light of its objectives.
Aware of this situation the Committee on Education and Training of the IHP Council, at its session of March 1984, raised a number of issues about the courses. This includes the relationship between background of students, broadness of subjects offered, level of treatment of course subjects, time given to-practical training in determining the appropriate- duration of the course. Another aspect was the merits between short and long courses, and also courses to train research personnel. Because of the different socio-economic and water resources problems of the different regions the Committee felt that there was merit in encouraging the establishment of new regional courses while at the same time continuing to support the existing international ones.
With resp the area of technician training the need to train them in their own countries and in regional centres was generally agreed, and international level training was recognized to be less efficient.
Against this background of course requirements in terms of subjects, choice, treatment, changing world economic situation affecting the funds available, the Education and Training Committee recommended an evaluation of the course system. The Council of the IHP accepted the recommendation to carry out an evaluation and decided to set up a Working Group (IHP-III project 13.1) with the following tasks:
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(i) evaluation of the present programme of Unesco in the field of water resources training and education with particular reference to the Unesco-sponsored postgraduate courses;
(ii) evaluation and follow-up of the recommendations made by the IHP Working Groups and Rapporteurs, in particular as regards technician training.
This report deals with the evaluation of the postgraduate courses. The evaluation of the technician courses will be the subject of another report.
1.1 Appointment of Working Group Members
The Bureau of the Council at its twelfth session in October 1984 appointed the Working Group comprising the following members:
- Mr. Ayibotele, N.B. (Ghana), Co-ordinator - Mr. Al-Dabbagh, R.H. (Iraq) - Mr. Efremov, P.V. (USSR) - Mr. Farvolden, R. (Canada) - Mr. Liang Ruiju (China) - Mr. Maniak, U. (Federal Republic of Germany) - Mr. Morelli-Tucci, C.E. (Brazil) - Mr. Samad, F.A. (Malaysia) - Mr. Van der Beken, A. (Belgium)
In January 1985, the members of the Working Group were informed of their appointment. They were sent materials relevant to their assignment and were requested to submit their comments to the IHP Secretariat by 15th May 1985.
1.2 Activities of the Working Group
In July 1985, the Co-ordinator prepared in Paris a draft outline paper dealing with the following:
(i) the audience to whom the evaluation should be addressed;
(ii) the methodology for the evaluation and the necessary data and information to be gathered for the exercise;
(iii) the tasks to be performed;
(iv) a timetable for the various tasks and activities.
The paper was based on the comments received from members of the Working Group on the material sent them by the Unesco Secretariat and from discussions with the Secretariat. At the request of the Secretariat the Co-ordinator met the members of IHP-III Project 14.3 - Working Group on Guidance materials for courses (or units of courses) related to the integrated planning and management of water resources for engineers, planners and decision-makers who were also meeting at the same time in Paris. He briefed the members of that Working Group about the evaluation and exchanged ideas and viewpoints with them.
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The draft was sent to members of the Working Group and the accompanying tables and questionnaires to the directorates of the 32 Unesco-sponsored international postgraduate courses. Between 14-18 October 1985 the Group met in Prague to review the draft for submission to the IHP Committee on Education and Training in June 1986, and also prepared guidelines for future action.
After the meeting in Prague the Co-ordinator prepared an Interim Report, in March 1986, for the Seventh session of the IHP Council in June 1986. This report was based on the deliberations of the Prague meeting and further material provided by the courses at the request of the Unesco Secretariat. During the preparation of the Interim Report, various Questionnaires were prepared by the Co-ordinator to gather data to assist in the evaluation. The questionnaires were sent out in May 1986 to the various courses and national committees to complete and return.
The Council debated the report and expressed its views as to the directions along which the evaluation should be finalized. As following the Prague deliberations, and with endorsement by the Council, a small group of specialists under the chairmanship of Professor U. Maniak, a member of the Working Group, met in Vallendar/Koblenz (Federal Republic of Germany) in August 1986 to develop a model curriculum to assist in the evaluation.
Between June and December 1986, completed questionnaires were received at the Secretariat.
In May 1987 the Co-ordinator visited Paris and using the data that had come prepared a final draft report. The report took into consideration the recommendations made by the Council at its 7th session. The Secretariat also requested Professor Mostertman, former director of the Delft courses, to assist the Co-ordinator. Professor Mostertman contributed the paragraphs on twinning of institutes and on continuing education. The final draft was sent to the members of the Working Group for comments.
2. METHODS ADOPTED FOR THE EVALUATION
In view of the difficult nature of the exercise a scheme was developed to help clarify the various aspects of the evaluation to be carried out. This is shown in Fig.l.
(i) An input component consisting of the participants coming from the developing countries, the financial contributions by Unesco and the host Governments supporting the courses.
(ii) A network of courses spread over the world to which belong courses of various durations, in different languages etc. They are listed in Annex I.
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(iii) An output component consisting of graduates from the courses who return to their countries with new knowledge and skills, expected to create an impact on the capabilities of their countries to deal with their hydrological and water sciences development problems to achieve the goals of their socio-economic development programmes.
The evaluation kept in view the following:
(i) the general situation of the social and economic conditions in the developing countries
(ii) different climatological and hydrological regimes
(iii) hydrological and water resources problems - both surface and ground water
(iv) manpower needs to perform various functions at various levels and the job and career opportunities
2.1 Evaluation of participants and financial support
This consisted of:
(i) participants from the various countries having benefitted from the network of courses
(ii) the financial support provided by Unesco and the governments in the countries where these courses have been established.
2.1.1 Participants
For postgraduate training it was assumed that participants will have had a basic training up to the first degree level in the basic natural or applied sciences;
- physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, geography, geology, agriculture, forestry, civil engineering etc.
To assess the background of participants to the courses Annexes II and III were prepared to be filled in by the Unesco-sponsored courses. To assess whether the level of the first degree is sufficient to enable the participants to benefit from the postgraduate training it may be necessary to obtain . insight into the general and university education systems in the various countries in order to have an idea of the formation of the participants. The number of years spent in pre-university and university education is considered as an indicator and Annexes III and IV were prepared to obtain this information. (the information obtained from the Delft course was taken as an example in Annex IV).
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In addition an assessment was made of participants' aspirations regarding the fields they wanted to specialize in, the job description that they expect and whether they want to operate as practising hydrologists, practising engineers, or as academics or researchers. This was achieved with Questionnaire 1 (Annex X).
2.1.2 Financial inputs by Unesco/Governmenls
A postgraduate course involves an overall high cost per student.
As regards the financial contributions of Unesco and the governments it is to be noted that in this evaluation report only some cost components can be directly quantified. In addition there are indirect costs which though significant cannot be easily quantified. Some of the direct costs are travel, living expenses and housing of participants, costs and fees of guest lecturers, administration, excursions. The cost of buildings, laboratories, libraries, staff, which are normally provided by universities or institutions in which the courses are organized, are difficult to assess. However, in view of the importance of this type of information, particularly for those institutions, countries and donors which may wish to organize or support courses in the future, the relative cost units of the expenditure components were compiled in Annex V.
2.2 Evaluation of the course system
As stated earlier this is made up of courses in various regions, in different languages, offering various courses in hydrology and water resources to different levels over various durations.
This task included:
(i) the analysis of the list of present Unesco-sponsored postgraduate hydrology courses;
(ii) the analysis of the course structure in terms of hours spent on each course element and course subject.
The list of courses was analysed by geographical location, language, subjects or orientations, level, duration, research training with Ph.D. type of institution, academic or operational character, admission requirements. This is carried out using Annex VI.
The.analysis of the course structure by hours spent on each subject should be effected using Annexes VII and VIII. Annex VII deals with the hours spent in each course on lectures, tutorials, laboratory work, field work and course work. Annex VIII gives more details about the hours spent on the subjects under some of the courses.
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2.3 Evaluation of the outputs (Graduates)
The outputs consist of the graduates turned out by the courses. To evaluate these outputs data was collected and analysed on:
(i) number of participants who pass successfully the various courses over the years. These data were obtained from the courses and assembled as shown in Annex IX.
(ii) evaluation of courses by participants immediately after the course sessions.
(iii) evaluation by employers of the performance of their employees six months after their return. This was obtained by means of Questionnaire 2 (Annex XI).
(iv) evaluation by graduates and employers 3 years after the course of the usefulness of the courses and of the benefits they derive from them. This was obtained by addressing separate questionnaires to past participants/employers as shown in Questionnaires 3 and 4 (Annexes XII and XIII) through the courses.
(v) whether in addition to the Unesco courses the countries in the developing regions are taking steps or have in mind to train their own hydrological and water resources manpower at the national level. The problems they envisaged and the assistance they would want to receive from outside were assessed. The information was obtained by means of Questionnaire 5 (Annex XIV) addressed to the IHP National Committees.
3. FINDINGS
3.1 Brief review of the socio-economic and hydrological conditions in the developing countries
Before giving the findings of the evaluation the socio-economic and hydrological conditions in the developing countries are briefly described in the following paragraphs.
The education and training programmes of the Unesco-sponsored postgraduate courses are expected to produce people with the requisite knowledge and skills to use water resources development in support of the process of socio-economic development and thereby create a better standard of living for the people. The sectors through which water resources development may have an impact on socio-economic development are:
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(i) the productive sector (food and agriculture, industry including manufacturing);
(ii) the service sector (water supply and sanitation, energy, navigation, recreation, etc.;
(iii) the control and mitigation of natural hazards (floods and droughts );
(iv) environmental protection and enhancement (pollution and land degradation).
In order to appreciate the social and economic conditions which the trained manpower are expected to improve by their functions in the water sector it is appropriate to have an idea about some of the socio-economic indicators in the developing countries.
The striking point about the developing countries (made up of the low and middle income countries) is the size of populations that the economies have to support. With a total global population of about 5.0 billion, the developing countries make up about 75% of the total. The annual rate of population growth is very high among them. The child death rate (ages 1-4) ranged between 2 to 71 per thousand of population in 1960 and fell to 1 to 50 per thousand of population in 1982. The population is also predominantly rural with 60% of the total.
For the majority (65% of developing world population) the GNP per capita is less than US$300. Since 1970 the annual rate of growth of GNP has been falling. It dropped from'5.8% per annum in 1970 to 0.3% per annum in 1983. However, it rose to 3.9% in 1984. In some of the developing countries (eg. Africa south of the -Sahara) the per capita growth rate has been negative since 1981. It was -2.1% in 1981, -5.7% in 1983 and -3.8% in 1984.
The annual rate of agricultural production has shown positive but fluctuating trends for all the developing countries. However, in some of the developing regions, particularly Africa south of the Sahara, it has been negative . since 1983. In the developing countries food import occupies between 4% and 39% of all imports. Irrigation is needed to increase and stabilize the food production in the developing countries and also to cut down the use of scarce foreign exchange on food imports. Of the 22.2 million hectares projected to be brought under new irrigation between 1975 and 2000 4.3% is expected to be in Africa, 14% in Latin America, 19.3% in the Near East and 62.3% in Asia. Similarly of 45 million hectares of improvement that will be made to existing irrigation areas, 1.7% is expected in Africa, 10.4% in Latin America, 21.8% in the Near East and 66.1% in Asia.
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The health situation which in the developing countries is very much related to water-borne, water related and water associated diseases like cholera, diarrhoea, schistosomiasis and bilharzia, and can be assessed from the status of water supply and sanitation. According to ECOSOC (1983 ) with regard to the service coverage of community water supply and sanitation in the developing countries in 1980 and 1983, only 29% had acceptable sanitation facilities. The figures for the rural areas are 41% and 12% for water supply and sanitation respectively. In view of the millions of population that are yet to be supplied with potable water and adequate sanitation and in view of the limited financial resources available both internally and externally to accomplish this, it has become absolutely imperative to lower cost and appropriate solutions to the drinking water and sanitation problem.
In the field of energy consumption (World Bank, 1984) it is shown that while the per capita consumption varies on the average from 250,000 to 720,000 kg of oil equivalent in 1981, that of the industrialized countries is around 5,000,000 kg of oil equivalent. These energy consumption figures somewhat relate to the extent of development of the hydro-power resources of the developing and developed countries. In the developing countries only about 20% of the hydro- power potential has been developed, while in the developed countries the available potential is being largely utilized.
The need to protect water resources from pollution is a matter of some concern in the developing world. With the large number of population the loads of household and municipal wastes to be discharged are high. The attempt to produce enough food to feed the population has also meant the increased use of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. Hence the waste waters from agriculture have been increasing. Again with industrial development taking off in the countries of Latin America, and East Asia and the Pacific, industrial pollution is on the increase.
Another problem of concern to the functioning of a viable environment in the developing countries is the loss of vegetation. The humid tropical forests are being cleared for timber at such an alarming rate that this has now attracted world-wide concern. The same applies to the vegetation in semi-arid areas which is disappearing through over-grazing, fuelwood collection, bush fires and inappropriate cultivation practices. All these conditions are affecting the water balances in various places and the consequences are not easy to predict. The land degradation is worsened by a fragile climate in the semi-arid areas, where periodic droughts are common. The current African drought is a typical example.
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3.1.1 Climate and Hydrology
The Education and Training sysmtem must not only enable to appreciate the hydrological and water-resources situation, but it should also impart a sensitivity with regard to the socio-economic conditions of the developing countries. Only then the knowledge and the techniques transferred will have relevance and will make it possible to meet the needs of water resources assessment, planning and management.
It is to be noted that geographically most of the developing countries are within the tropics with a few in the sub-tropics. As such, they are mainly under the influence of the north-south migration of the low pressure belt around the equator, the north-east and south-east trade winds from the sub-tropical high pressure belts of the northern and southern hemispheres, the monsoon winds of the south Atlantic and the Pacific and the moderating effects of warm and cold ocean currents along their coastal areas. They are either large continental land masses as in Africa and South America or small clusters of islands as in the Caribbean, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. They are drained by some of the largest rivers in the world (e.g. Amazon, Nile, Congo, Ganges, Yangtse).
The developing countries are covered with vegetation ranging from thick tropical rain forests, through savannah woodlands and grasses to desert shrubs. Geologically, they are underlain extensively by hard crystalline rocks of the basement complex, and the sedimentary formations as found in the Nubian sandstones in North Africa. Morphologically they exhibit all the major forms viz mountain areas, sloping areas and flatlands. They include some of the largest deserts like the Sahara and Arabian deserts. Because of their tropical locations temperatures are generally high, except where influenced by altitude and ocean currents. There are many types of rainfall, namely monsoon, convectional, orographic, energetic or cyclonic. Run-off is mainly from rainfall but a few places such as Nepal can have a single maximum or a double maximum in the year due to the additional snow run-off. They contain both the wettest.and driest areas of the world such as Cherrapanji, India and the Sahara in Africa respectively. Hence, they exhibit humid conditions as in equatorial Africa and South America, semi-arid conditions as in the Sahel countries of Africa and arid conditions as in the Sahara, Arabian and Chilean deserts.
Water resources assessment and management techniques must take into consideration differences in climate and hydrology.
3.1.2 Manpower needs
The education and training system must have an awareness of the manpower needs required to carry out water resources management to aid the process of socio-economic development in the various countries. The system must take into consideration therefore the various specialized fields in water resources and the jobs that are required to be performed within each field. Fig. 2 shows a matrix of the fields and the job description.
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FIGURE 2
Various categories of manpower with various specialities in different functions
In addition to these, professional, subprofessional, technician and observer levels should be taken into consideration. Since this evaluation is basically concerned with postgraduate training it is important to be aware that the education and training system must cater for the training needs of practising water scientists and engineers, and also of academic/research water scientists and engineers. In this regard it is necessary also to have an appreciation of the institutional frameworks in which water resources assessment planning and management is carried out in the developing countries.
On the institutional framework it should be recognized that generally there are two types. The first is where there are several independent organizations and agencies each with responsibility for an aspect of water resources planning and management. They may or may not have their work co-ordinated. The second is where there is a centralized assessment, planning and management organization.
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The next important information which the education and training system should be aware of is the number of people that must be educated and trained. This is normally obtained through manpower surveys carried out at national, sub- regional, regional and global levels. The validity of the results of these surveys have often been questioned because experience over the years has shown that the results are overestimated. In spite of this they form useful guides for planning training needs.
In this connection some guidance can be obtained for the Unesco-sponsored courses from Tables 2 and 3 which show estimates of manpower requirements for water resources assessment by the year 2000 prepared by WMO and for operation, maintenance and management of water activities for irrigation projects from 1975 to 1990 prepared by FAO.
From the tables, it is seen that for the African region alone, some 550 and 960 professionals are needed for surface and groundwater resources assessment. In the field of irrigation, Table 3 shows that some 240 professionals will be needed in the African region by the year 1990. The estimates for water supply and sanitation, hydropower, navigation and flood control are not included.
3.2 Course Inputs
As stated the course inputs are the course participants, the teachers, and the financial subventions made by governments and Unesco.
3.2.1 Participants
Participants in the courses come from all over the world, including the developed countries. The majority comes from developing countries. Typical examples of the proportion of foreign participants is shown as with examples from the Table 1.
TABLE 1
Course
Budapest
Delft
Galway
Madras
Lahore
Per iod
1974-1986
1974-1984
1979-1984
1983-1985
1979-1984
•
No. from host country
28
1
7
3
70
No. of foreigners
168
295
108
23
3
TOTAL
196
296
115
26
73
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In its initial phase the Lahore course catered for more participants from the home country than from outside.
The information on the background of the participants is summarized in Annex II. There were responses from 18 courses. According to this information participants with a background in civil engineering make more use of the postgraduate training opportunities offered by IHP than persons with another background. Geologists, agriculturalists, geographers, physicists and meteorologists, in that order, follow after this. It can be expected that participants with a civil engineering background will continue to form the largest category, as this reflects their relative importance of the development of water resources in the developing countries.
The Delft Course for Hydrologists has supplied detailed tata on the relation between the backgrounds of its participants and the results of their study. They reveal that for an eleven-year period the numbers of participants not receiving a diploma is as follows:
BACKGROUND Percentage Absolute number
Civil engineering Agriculture Geology Hydrogeology Geography Meteorology Hydrology Physics-Mathematics Others
14 30 65 62 14 38 18 28 44
26 6 15 5
M
5 7 7 4
Average/Total 23 76
In a course requiring a solid background in mathematics most participants trained to be geologists perform relatively poorly.
In general civil engineers, geologists, agriculturalists and geographers seem to be better prepared for the courses, where their undergraduate curricula did already contain hydrological subjects. It seems in this respect recommendable that physicists, chemists or mathematicians who wish to take a hydrology course, first undertake some work with hydrological or water resources organization in order to be better qualified for admission.
It can be assumed that subjects taught in the various undergraduate courses were helpful. For instance civil engineers are taught fluid mechanics, . hydraulics, hydrology, groundwater, water resources management. Geologists were found to have been given courses in hydrogeology, geomorphology, geophysics, etc. Those ,,/ith agriculture background have also been taught courses in hydr iogy and soil and water management.
14
However, in view of the growing importance of environmental issues in water resources development some consideration may be given by the courses to increase the annual intakes of applicants with chemistry and biology backgrounds. In a similar way, in view of the expected impact of the impending climate change that is foreseen for the next 30 to 50 years consideration should also be given to increasing the number of applicants with a background in meteorology. However, environmental and meteorological aspects are not emphasized by admitting participants with a background in biology, chemistry and meteorology, who do not have the required level to follow the postgraduate hydrology course. Instead, the curriculum of the hydrology course must be adapted for this purpose.
It has been known that the courses have been encountering difficulties with the initial ability of some of the participants. For this reason considerable time is spent in upgrading their background in basic science subjects so that they can cope with core subjects of the courses. These difficulties may have something to do with years spent in pre-university and also on first degree university education. This was investigated with data obtained from the participants of the Delft, Lausanne, Kensington and Lahore courses. Those who responded came from a total of 37 different countries. 76% came from Africa and Asia. The results indicate that the time spent on pre-university education varies between 9 and 16 years. In the case of first degree university education the time varies between 3 to 7 years after the pre-university education. For the first degree university education it was found that the highest number of years is generally spent in civil engineering courses although this varies from country to country.
It is obvious that courses attended"-by participants from all over the world have difficulties with the selection of- the candidates. A solution to this problem is. very difficult and was not investigated within the framework of this evaluation project. The institutes organizing international courses respond in a different way to this problem. Some courses take an entrance examination in the country of origin, others organize a pre-course programme followed by an entrance examination, or basic subjects are included in the curriculum to upgrade the level of participants falling short. There is no evidence of a relationship between the number of years of any kind of education and the performance in a postgraduate hydrology course.
The results are difficult to compare because of the different educational systems around the world. However, it can be generally expected that in countries where more years are spent in pre-university education less years will be spent for the first degree university education and vice versa. The adequacy of the preparation of participants for post-graduate training cannot be assumed nor can the selection of the candidates be made dependent on the number of years spent by applicants on pre-university and university first degree education.
15
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17
It is evident that such deficiencies in educational background will be a serious constraint for participants to derive the maximum benefit from short duration or specialized courses lasting between a few weeks to say 3 months.
In the case of medium to longer duration courses lasting from 6 months to 2 years there may be time enough to fill up and/or upgrade the background of participants in the basic subjects. It is to be recommended, therefore, that for short duration or specialized courses only participants with the required background be admitted so that they derive the maximum benefits. In the case of the medium and long duration ones provision should be made to complete the background knowledge of the participants.
On the other hand, upgrading the level of participants in the long duration courses degrades this part of the course to a refresher course, applicable to participants with the appropriate background who left university long ago. Also, selecting a participant with an unsuitable background for a long duration course means a greater waste of time and money than for a course of shorter duration.
In response to the directive given by the 23rd General Conference of Unesco with regard to giving special attention to the training of women data was gathered from the courses to assess the extent to which women are being trained in the field of hydrology and water resources. Table 4 gives figures for 1984 and 1985 with the number of women in brackets.
TABLE 4
Course
Belgium (French-speaking)
Belgium (English-speaking)
Delft
Madrid
Padova
Year
1984
22 (5)
38 (6)
29 (4)
41 (8)
23 (1)
1985
24 (7)
33 (4)
33 (5)
40 (2)
23 (4)
18
It appears that the courses must make more effort to increase the intake of women participants.
3.2.2 Financial subventions
To support the courses Unesco and the governments of the countries in which the courses are established have been making annual or biennial financial contributions. It is quite clear that without these generous contributions the courses would not have been able to offer the services they have offered for the developing countries in the past several years. This is a matter for which the Member states of the developing countries who benefit from the courses should be grateful.
It is necessary that for the years ahead these contributions should be assured and also that additional funds should be mobilized to support the establishment of new courses.
In order to guide others on the level and structure of expenditures required to establish and run new courses, the Budapest course has prepared its cost structure to serve as an example. This is provided in Annex V. It clearly shows that direct expenditure on the participants is the greatest portion, i.e. about 39.4% of the total cost. It is is followed by administrative costs. The direct expenditure for the participants is the international travel, boarding and lodging and fee. The number of fellowship programmes seems to decrease and more and more applicants are facing the fact that they are requested to pay their share. Because of the foreign exchange involved some countries cannot send their nationals. It is for this last item of expenditure that Unesco's aassistance has been most welcome, because it covers the foreign exchange component of costs which some of the courses find it difficult to bear. In the bid to establish more courses in the developing countries, this aspect is likely to determine their success or failure. Already the support of Unesco, vital as it is, has been limited to the order of US$10,000 per" annum and course.
If more courses are to be established or more applicants have to be supported, even only partially, Unesco's subvention would have to be increased considerably. As this is unlikely it is necessary to mobilise additional financial resources to support the Unesco-sponsored courses in their present state particularly for expanding the network of courses in the developing countries. In this regard, use must be made of bilateral and multilateral assistance schemes. It must be noted that already some participants are supported from these schemes. Where those schemes are specifically for the training of water scientists and engineers they ensure that manpower resources in the water sector in the relevant countries are developed. However since donor countries place different emphases on different socio-economic sectors in the various countries, situations are created where in one country training in the water sector becomes easy because assistance funds have been dedicated to that sector. In another country such training becomes difficult to get because assistance funds are dedicated to other sectors apart from water.
19
Again where assistance funds are not specifically earmarked but have been made available for all kinds of training the large variety of interests does not make it possible to give priority to training in the water sector.
3.3 Network of courses
This evaluation is based on data gathered on the 32 postgraduate courses sponsored by Unesco (See Annex I) . By the end of February 1986 18 courses (representing 56%) had responded with various levels of completeness.
3.3.1 Statistics about the courses
It is instructive to begin this evaluation with an analysis of the list of courses as it gives a broad view of certain basic information about the system of courses. This is because it is the only analysis in which all the 32 courses were covered as far as the data were compiled in Annex VI . Annex VI was compiled on the basis of geographical locations, language, subjects, level, duration, research training, type of institution, character admission -requirements. The following information can be derived from them as presented in Annex VI.
Geographical location: This shows that of the 32 courses 18 are located in Europe, 4 in Asia, 3 in Africa, 2 each in Australia and Central America, 1 in North America, 2 in South America and 1 in the Arab States.
Language: 22 of the courses are offered in English, 4 in French, 5 in Spanish, 1 in Russian and 2 in Portuguese.
Main subjects*: 18 of the courses offer general hydrology and water resources courses; 4 are directed at groundwater and 3 at surface water; 1 deals with sediment transport.
Level*: The majority of 18 of them terminate with a certificate, 11 with a diploma, 6 with an M.Sc.
Duration*: 6 of the courses are up to 1 month, 4 are between 1-3 months; 6 are between 4-6 months; 9 are between 7-12 months; 5 are between 1-2 years. The duration of 3 of them is presently not known to the Secretariat.
Research*: 7 of them indicate that they offer opportunities for research.
Type of institution*: The majority of the courses (23) are hosted by universities while 8 are hosted by non-university institutions.
Character*: 26 of the courses are academic in character while 6 are operational.
Admission requirements*: The majority (22) of the courses require university degrees. Out of these 11 further require some years of working experience as part of the admission requirements.
»These figures do not necessarily add up to 32 as some courses appear several times under different aspects and, on the contrary, some did not supply information
20
3.3.2 Evaluation of statistics about the courses
3.3.2.1 Geographical location of courses
The geographical distribution of the courses can be seen to be obviously eurocentred. There are, however, historical reasons for this. At the start of the International Hydrological Decade (later succeeded by the International Hydrological Programme) Europe had the resources and educational infrastructure to modify some of its university courses and in some cases set up new institutions to teach hydrology and water resources to an international student audience. Although the courses are mainly located in Europe the majority of the participants come from the developing countries. It appears preferable that the geographical imbalance should be redressed to some extent. It must be borne in mind that the education and training offered by the courses are meant to prepare the participants to solve their own development problems as far as hydrology and water resources problems are concerned. Since naturally the European-based courses have a bias towards their existing climatic and hydrological regimes and also towards their own socio-economic circumstances it would be prudent to encourage the establishment of courses in the other regions, particularly Africa, Asia and Latin America while at the same time encouraging the European-based courses to be more responsive to the climatological and hydrological regimes and also to the socio-economic and cultural circumstances of the developing countries for whom they train. The course in Budapest, for example, is redressing its programme towards tropical hydrology The establishment of new courses in developing countries could take advantage of twinning arrangements with the courses in Europe. These new courses will require, in addition to personnel, basic syllabi and curricula, laboratory facilities and other teaching aids. These issues are addressed in Chapter 4 of this report.
3.3.2.2 Language distribution
The obvious point about the language distribution of the courses is that English is the predominant one. There are less courses in French and Spanish and just one in Portuguese (the course in Brazil will open only in 1987) and Russian. It is tempting, on the basis of this information, to propose that more courses in the other languages should be opened. A decision to start new ones must be linked firstly with the geographical distribution of the venue of the courses, secondly with the manpower needed in the field of hydrology and water resources in the various regions and the major languages used in these regions. Experience has shown that assessment of manpower needs is a difficult exercise in view of the numerous factors involved. Not all factors can be quantified. Previous surveys have invariably led to inflated figures of the needs in various fields. Although the results of manpower surveys may be uncertain yet some attempt must be made to assess them in order to establish the basis for new courses in new languages.
21
3.3.2.3 Subjects and duration
It is appropriate to link any comments on the subjects taught at the courses with the duration of the courses. The first point of interest is that most of the courses offer in one and the same session options in one, two or all of the 4 directions indicated in Annex VI viz General Hydrology and Water Resources, Groundwater, Sediment Transport. To this must be added the field of Water Quality. Hence a participant has the opportunity to major in any of the above. The second point is that from the various data obtained with Annexes VII and VIII the courses do not arrange their major options along the classifications in Annex VI. For instance, the course at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in the ''United Kingdom offers two main specializations: Engineering Hydrology and Water Resources Systems Engineering. Yet the course has been structured so as to make it possible to specialize in any of the subject areas shown in Annex VI.
The attempt to determine the time allocated to basic sciences subjects hydrology subjects, and water resources subjects resulted in considerable variations among the courses, as shown in Annex VIII. In order to make the data comparable the data have been grouped together within groups of duration of course as shown in the following tables.
TABLE 5
MEDIUM DURATION COURSES
up to 6 months
Argent ina
Birmingham
Budapest
Padova
Hours spent on
Basic sciences subjects
101
88
179
118
Hydrology subjects
255
179
161
196
Water resources subjects
78
196
190
86
Total
434
463
530
400
22
TABLE 6
LONG DURATION COURSES
1-2 years
Belgium - 1st year 2nd year
Dar-es-Salaam
Newcast1e-upon-Tyne: - Eng. Hydrology - Water Res. System
Engi neer i ng
Roorkee - PG diploma - MSc.
Delft
Basic sciences subjects
190 100
160
85 -
180 180
312
Hours spent
Hydrology subjects
140 210
180
105 100
675 —
304
on
Water resources subjects
80 190
260
125 105
60
" 284
Total
410 530
600
315 205
915 915+390 = 1305 900+304 = 1204
Care should be taken in making comparisons because there is no clear conformity agreement among the courses as to which subjects should be classified as basic science, or hydrology, or water resources subjects are. It is even doubtful that such agreement could be reached. What is interesting may be the total number of hours spent on the three areas. Some courses allow for some flexibility; a portion of about 75% of the curriculum hours offered by the Delft course is to be selected by the course participants. The following table illustrates the diversity of basic science subjects.
TABLE 7
Subjects indicated as basic science
subjects
Mathemat ics Stat ist ics Geology and geomorphology
Meteorology Fluid mechanics Comput i ng Glacierology Basic hydrology Thermodynamic Agr icultural
hydrology Interpretation of aerial photos
Argent i na
X X
X X X
Bi rmi ngham
X X
X
Budapest
X
X X
X
Delft
X X
X X
X
X
X
Lausanne
X
X X X
X X
X
Padova
X X
X X
X X
Again from Annex VII it is seen that different durations are spent on different aspects of the courses (viz lectures, tutorials, laboratory work, field work, course work or research) as shown below.
23
TABLE 8
COURSE
Argentina
Birmingham
Budapest
Padova
Belgium: .1st year .2nd year
Dar-es-Salaam
Lausanne
Newcastle: Eng. Hyd.
WR system Engineerg
Roorkee: pg diploma
M Sc.
Delft
Lectures
264
276
400
400
210 90
600 he
400
235
240
480
180
726
Tutorials
65
114
23 days
165
2( i:
3urs over
250
80
80
345+ 15
180
205
Hours spenl
Lab. work
119
42
50
32
DO 30
- 12 moni
15
up to 15
90
30
16
Field work
41
63
60
112
30 90
hs
230
up to 13
100+ 600
60
—
45
on
Course work or research
14
141
80
150
25%
6 mo
400
100+ 600
1062
170
—
32
TOTAL
502
636
590+ 23 days
859
440 390
600+ 6 mo
1280
1043
1160
390+ 1160 = 1550
1025
REMARKS
Project work 15 weeks at 40 hrs/week
The above does not include time spent on field trips. It is obvious that the durations on the various aspects of the courses cannot be compared because they are all different. Even where the total hours seem comparable their internal distribution over the various aspects is not.
Another comparison concerned the hours spent under the heading "hydrology subjects". The following summary illustrates the situation.
24
TABLE 9
Range of hydrology subjects taught at
some selected courses
Hydrology Groundwater flow Hydrometry Data collection and processing Urban hydrology Hydrology of coastal areas Deterministic hydrology Hydrological models Hydrological forecasting Stochastic hydrology Karst hydrology Groundwater quality Hydrological services Probabilistic hydrology River mechanics Hydrometeorology Statistical hydrology Applied hydrology Groundwater development Free surface flow Groundwater hydrology Watershed hydrology Advanced hydrological
analysis and design Hydrological forecasting Remote sensing and hydrological data collect ion
Flood control and est imat ion
Hydrogeology Evaporation and evapo-transpi rat ion
Surface flow Use of isotopes Hydrological balance Experimental basins Hydrological maps
Delft
X X X
X X X X X X X X X X
X
Gal way
X X
X
X X
X X
X X X X
X
X
Lahore
X
X
X X X X
Madras
X
X X X X
X
X
X X
Prague
X
X
X X
X
X X X X X X
The above shows the diversity of subjects taught under hydrology in just 5 of the courses which have been used as an example. Even the titles of the subjects vary. Under groundwater one can notice different titles such as groundwater flow, groundwater development, groundwater hydrology, hydrogeology, sub-surface flow. It would appear that the courses treat these subjects differently. A deeper analysis of the course curricula has been made in the Unesco publication "Curricula and syllabi in hydrology".
25
Out of the 5 courses reviewed in this particular case, it is only the Delft course which teaches subjects on the hydrology of particular regions viz. urban hydrology, hydrology of coastal areas and Karst hydrology. However, it should be noted that some of the other courses not reviewed here also cover the hydrology of particular regions.
Among the short courses which teach particular subjects (for example, sediment transport which is taught at Ankara) the theme does not change, while in the Moscow course the subject changes year by year. It would seem that if the idea of continuing education is to be promoted the Moscow approach may have to be adopted. This will enable such courses to deal with new and emerging subjects.
As a further example of the diversity of the courses a comparison is made below of the water resources subjects taught in the courses.
TABLE 10
Range of water resources subjects taught at some selected courses
Groundwater recovery Aerial survey Geomorphology Environmental impact
assessment Water law and management Water resources planning Reservoir operations System analysis Erosion and watershed management
Groundwater exploration Remote sensing Groundwater management
pol icy analysis Hydrology of the Nile basin Irrigation Hydropower Water quality Envi ronment Geohydrology Water management Drainage system management Land reclamation Saline and alkali soils Irrigation and drainage projects
Water resources systems analysis
Water resources planning design and management
Water pollution and control
Delft
X X X
X X X
X
X X X
X X
X X
X
X
Gal way
X
X
X
X X X X
Lahore
X
X X X X X
X
Madras
X
X X
Prague
X X X
X
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The above is further evidence of the diversity of the courses taught - this time under Water Resources. It appears the courses have different view points about what must be taught, for instance under irrigation. While Galway teaches irrigation as a subject which might include drainage, Lahore teaches drainage systems management, land reclamation, saline and alkali soils and Madras teaches water resources systems analysis, water resources systems engineering and Prague teaches water resources analysis, water resources systems engineering and also systems analysis.
Also it can be seen that while, for instance, Remote Sensing is taught under hydrology in Madras, it is taught as a water resources subject in Delft.
From the above analysis one can draw a number of conclusions:
(i) The courses are not comparable as to what can be considered Basic Hydrology or Water Resources subjects. What is basic to one course may appear as a Hydrology or Water Resources subject to another.
(ii) The number of subjects treated as Basic Hydrology or Water Resources differ widely. While, for instance, Delft has 13 subjects under Water Resources, Galway teaches 5, Lahore teaches 6 and Prague teaches 12. The same difference in the number of subjects taught can be seen under Basic subjects.
(iii) There is no comparison between the time spent on various aspects of the courses (viz lectures, tutorials, laboratory work, field work and coursework or research)
(iv) No comparison can also be made on the time spent on Basic, Hydrology and Water Resources subjects.
(v) It appears that the same subjects are given different names in different courses.
(vi) Some short course subjects are fixed, like the Ankara course, and some change, like the Moscow course.
The reason for this diversity is that the courses were set up in institutions by Member States on the basis of their own educational programmes and methods of developing courses. As these are different in the Member States it is inevitable that these differences should occur.
It would appear useful if some order would be established within the system of Unesco sponsored courses and secondly, if principles would be established by which a post-graduate curriculum in hydrology and water resources should be evolved.
To achieve the first, several models have been discussed by the IHP Working G.roup at its Prague meeting taking into consideration the duration, purposes and set up of the courses. The result is the following scheme for the courses:
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TABLE 11
Purpose
Special i zed
General Hydrology
Research-oriented
Duration Up to 3 months
3-6 months 1-2 academic year(s)
As a general rule short courses, seminars and workshops should result in reports, proceedings and professional papers. Medium-term courses should normally provide a certificate and long-term courses should lead to a diploma or an academic degree.
For the establishment of principles, a sub-group of the Working Group under the chairmanship of Professor Maniak was assigned to propose guidelines in the form of a model curriculum to meet identified needs for post-graduate training in various regions, taking into account the level of development in the countries involved and the institutional arrangements. The report of the sub-group and the model curriculum are contained in Annex XVI.
The approach can be used by any institution interested in establishing a post-graduate course in•- hydrology and water resources to meet its special needs. If these principles are accepted it can be used as one of the criteria by which a course can be designated as a Unesco sponsored course.
3.3.2.4 Certificates!diplomas!degrees
The results of the co'urses in terms of certificates, diplomas and academic degrees are presently not comparable (as shown in Annex VI) because of the lack of uniformity. For instance, a course of 1 to 2 months ends with a certificate while courses of 6 months' duration may either end with a certificate or with a diploma or academic degree. Of course, there are difficulties in doing such comparisons because of the academic traditions of the universities in which the courses are offered. This problem is related to the acceptability of the qualification obtained at the end of the courses in the home countries of participants. It is also related to their future progression in their jobs and to the chances for making use of- the knowledge they have acquired.
28
It will be unrealistic to expect that the certificates awarded will be changed to satisfy a common criteria. As stated above these are based on the academic traditions of the awarding institutions.
3.3.2.5 Admission requirements
By definition the courses are postgraduate. The admission requirements are generally a first university degree plus several years of working experience, normally about three years. Hydrology and water resources are multidisciplinary subjects and as such they require various disciplinary backgrounds. The data collected in Annex II show ten clearly defined disciplines: Civil Engineering, Geology, Agriculture, Forestry, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Mathematics, Geography, Meteorology. There are some more classified as 'Others' and this includes Rural Engineering, Hydrotechnics, Environmental Engineering, Marine and Mechanical Engineering. This variety in background will make it possible to become qualified in various specialized fields of hydrology and water resources development. Before a participant with one of the less common backgrounds is being admitted the management of the course should consider with care his or her objectives and mission. Other determining factors with respect to the admission of participants may be: seniority, the mission of the organization where they are employed and their function therein, the relevance of the course programme to their task at home, whether there will be an opportunity to apply into practice what they learned from the course.
Still other admission requirements take into account the relationship (technical assistance or cultural) between the host country and the foreign country from which the participants come. The presence of a UNDP project in a country within which there is a component for training in hydrology and water resources facilitates admission. Under such circumstances funds are readily available under the projects to finance participation. It must be mentioned that in view of financial constraints in the host countries not all participants can be given fellowships. Under these circumstances the ability to meet the cost of participation, partially or fully, is another requirement. Yet another requirement demanded by some of the courses is a recommendation from the IHP National Committees. This is done in order that a first level of screening of applicants from a country can be done at the country level itself and to simplify the final selection at the host country level.
29
3.3.3 Outputs (Graduates) from the courses
3.3.3.1 Number of graduates
13 courses provided information on the turnover of some 1200 graduates over the 1974-1984 period. If the rest of the courses are taken into consideration the total number of graduates could double this figure. Table 12 is a record of the Delft hydrology course; this example has been chosen in order to demonstrate the ration between the number of students admitted and the number of diplomas awarded. The table also permits to visualizes the variety of backgrounds of the students.
The estimated requirements, as shown in Table 2 are 3505 professionals to be trained for surface and groundwater resources needed between 1975 and 2000. The estimated number of professionals needed for operation, maintenance and management of new irrigations between 1975 and 1990 is 5540 (Table 3).
If the estimates for water resources assessment are realistic it would mean that progress in training hydrologists and water resources specialists is good. Even if the requirements of irrigation are added it still looks that the current training programmes would meet the estimated demand. If consideration is given to the fact that there are training courses in hydrology and water resources which have not been listed but which are available in the developed countries and which are attended by participants from developing countries then the output of trained water scientists and engineers is much higher. Of course, the requirements indicated do not cover all fields like water supply and sanitation, hydropower, navigation and natural hazards mitigation. Hence, even though the output of the system of education as a whol'e is higher than that of the Unesco sponsored courses only, one can state that likewise the total demand for water engineers and scientists will be higher than the estimates drawn from Tables 2 and 3.
3.3.3.2 Ability of courses to meet participants' aspirations
Apart from the assessment of the numbers of graduates turned out an attempt was made to find out the extent to which the present system of Unesco sponsored courses meet the aspirations of the graduates from the courses. Questionnaire 1 was used for this. There were responses from participants who attended the courses in Padova, Dar-es-Salaam, Delft, Kensington, Ouagadougou and Brussels. In all, 108 participants from 46 countries responded. Of the number of participants 85% were unanimous in pronouncing the courses as offering excellent to good opportunities for them to realize their aspirations. The remaining 15% felt that:
(i) the courses though good were too short and wanted more time to be spent on certain subjects (participants in Padova course);
(ii) certain subjects should have been included: they would do further studies (participants in Dar-es-Salaam course);
(iii) course was incentive for further studies (participant in Delft course);
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TABLE 12
Analysis of background of participants in the Unesco-sponsored hydrology course in Delft
and ratio between the number of students and diplomas awarded
(1974-1984)
Area
Civil engineering
Geology
Agriculture
Forestry
Physics
Chemistry
Biology
Mat nemat ics
Geography
Meteorology
Hydrology
Other
Total admitted
No. of diplomas awarded
No. of participants with background in the area indicated
1974
8
3
2
2
4
1
20
17
1975
14
2
2
1
1
1
5
1
27
23
1976
10
2
2
1
2
5
22
18
1977
10
4
2
1
4
21
15
1978
19
1
1
9
31
29
1979
18
2
1
1
1
2
8
33
28
1980
17
2
1
1
9
1
31
18
1981
12
4
1
2
8
1
28
20
1982
18
3
1
1
2
1
26
21
1983
21
1
3
2
27
21
1984
20
3
3
2
2
30
18
TOTAL
167
27
11
2
9
3
5
9
51
12
296
228
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(iv) some wanted more subjects taught and some will continue with their studies. The resources and infrastructure at home will not enable them to put what they have learnt into practice (participants in Delft course).
Of the 108 graduates who responded the following are the proportions of those who aspired to be practising hydrologists, practising engineers, and academics or researchers or other:
TABLE 13
% of respondents wanting to be:
Practising hydrologist
22
Pract ising engineer
35
Acdemic or
resarcher
23
Various combinations of 1, 2, 3
20
It is important to note the proportion of those who wanted to be practising engineers. It appears the preference given by the courses to the admission of civil engineers is significant. It is further a significant finding that almost a quarter of those trained want to become academics or researchers. It appears that research training needs more emphasis than has been given to it so far.
3.3.3.3 Evaluation of participants by their employers six months after returning from courses
The questionnaire to obtain information on this was responded to by 33 employers in respect of graduates who attended the 1985 courses in Padova, Ouagadougou, Lausanne, Kensington, Delft and Brussels. The results are summarized below:
TABLE 14
Knowledge of work
Willingness to shoulder responsibi1ity
Relevance of his solutions to problems
Willingness to work with available facilities
Percentage of employers
No change
0
3
0
3
Improved
42
42
45
45
saying:
Very much improved
58
55
55
52
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It is evident from the above scores that the courses have had a very positive impact on the majority of participants, as their employers were satisfied with their performances.
3.3.3.4 Evaluation of participants by their employers 3 years after returning from courses
Responses were received from 12 employers in respect of graduates who attended the Delft, Lausanne, Padova and Brussels courses between 1982 and 1984. The results are summarized below:
TABLE 15
(i) Position 3 years after course
(ii) Assessment of performance
Percentage
Remaining the same
42
Promoted
58
Percentage saying:
Very much
42
Improved
58
Not much
0
The results show that for the majority of participants (58%) the courses have contributed to their promotion. The rest (42%) have remained in the same position as when they left to attend the courses.
On the assessment of performance the employers show that their employees have improved or very much improved in their performance on the job. Of course, this improvement in some cases may have been contributed to by further courses which the employees have taken since returning from the Unesco sponsored courses.
The fact that the majority have attended further courses in the period since their return could be interpreted either as not being satisfied with Unesco sponsored courses or as a desire for continuing education. Since the majority of the graduates have already evaluated the courses as giving them good to excellent opportunities to meet their aspiration, the interpretation that a desire exists for continuing education is more appropriate. It is necessary to take note of this. Chapter 5 of this report will deal with some aspects of continuing education.
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3.3.3.5 Evaluation of courses by participants 3 years after returning from courses
11 graduates from the Delft, Lausanne and Padova courses responded to this question. They were asked whether their positions have changed (promoted), to comment on their performances and whether they had attended other courses since returning from the Unesco sponsored courses. The replies are summarized as follows:
TABLE 16
(i) Position 3 years after course
( i i) Assessment of course (ii) on performance
(iii) Attendance at other courses since returning
Percentage
Remaining the same
45
Promoted
55
Percentage remarked:
Good to excel lent
45
No response
55
Percentage who:
Have attended
other courses
55
Have not attended
other courses
45
The results of this evaluation are similar to those provided by employers on the participants 3 years after courses. The courses have contributed to the promotion of the majority (55%) of the participants. 45% rate the courses as having a good to excellent impact on their performance. This again may have been contributed by the fact that the majority (55%) have had other training since returning from the Unesco sponsored courses.
3.3.3.6 Survey of teaching of hydrology in existing undergraduate courses and planned postgraduate courses
The teaching of hydrology in existing undergraduate courses was assessed in order to check, and buttress the findings on the formation and suitability of applicants to participate in the Unesco sponsored courses. It was also to find out which countries have plans to set up post-graduate courses and what form of assistance they would need.
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Teaching of hydrology at undergraduate courses
On the whole 33 National Committees for the IHP responded to the questionnaire. There were 25 from the developing countries and 8 from the developed countries.
With regard to countries where hydrology is taught as a subject in various undergraduate courses it was found that 79% of the respondents teach hydrology while the remaining 21% do not. The teaching of hydrology in various disciplines at the undergraduate level was responded to by 25 countries. Of this number the following is a summary of the results:
TABLE 17
Percentage of countries where hydrology and water resources are taught in:
Civil Engineering
96
Physics Biology
Chemistry
27
Geology
54
Geography
46
Agriculture
46
Others
42
The above shows the preparation which participants receive in hydrology for the Unesco sponsored courses. It also confirms the earlier finding that those with a background in civil engineering, geology, geography and agriculture are the preferred applicants for participation in the Unesco sponsored courses.
Existence of postgraduate courses
With regard to the existence of postgraduate courses in hydrology and water resources in the countries, all 33 countries responded. The results show that 52% of the countries run postgraduate courses in one form or another in hydrology and water resources.
Regarding difficulties or constraints being faced with running the postgraduate courses responses were received from 17 countries. The summary of the responses is as follows:
35
TABLE 18
Percentage of countries having difficulties with:
Laboratory faci1 ities
71
Teaching staff
47
Audio-visual aids
35
Books
59
Adequate student intake
24
The results show that laboratory facilities, books and teaching staff are the main constraints facing the postgraduate courses. These indicate the areas to which Unesco's assistance should be directed.
Regarding plans to set up postgraduate courses in the future of the 17 countries that responded 37.5% had plans, another 37.5% had no plans and the remaining 25% were not decided. It is to be expected that those who intend to establish postgraduate courses will face similar difficulties as the existing ones.
In the case of the teaching staff constraint, it should be possible for the courses to adapt and meet this demand. It has been shown already that some 23% of the 108 graduates surveyed on their aspirations wanted to end up as academics or researchers. The emphasis on the courses so far has concentrated on the practising hydrologists and practising engineers. There is a need to look into the future at the training of teachers who will lecture and carry out research at the postgraduate courses, particularly in the developing countries.
Training up to the Ph D level for teaching and research must be given more conscious emphasis than has been in the past.
3.3.4 General impact, effectiveness and relevance of the courses
The following evaluations are made on the above based on the earlier results:
3.3.4.1 Impact of the courses
The impact of the courses on the manpower trends of the developing countries in hydrology and water resources can be described as positive.
36
This is borne out firstly by the fact that the estimated number of graduates being produced does not fall short of the project demand. This is at least true in respect of manpower for water resources assessment. The position is not so clear with manpower in other fields of water resources management (e.g. irrigation hydropower etc. ) because no data was available to evaluate this. Secondly, it can be said that the needs of hydrological services, water resources departments and consulting firms and university and research institutions are being met, as assessed from the aspirations of course participants. However, it seems the training of university lecturers and researchers should be given more attention than it is receiving now.
Thirdly, the positive impact of the courses can be judged from the participants on returning to the countries by their willingness to accept responsibility, and ability to work independently. This has the salutary effect of making the developing countries acquire the capability of handling their hydrological and water resources problems by themselves.
3.3.4.2 Effectiveness with which courses are offered
Difficult though it is, an attempt has been made to evaluate the effectiveness with which the courses are being offered. It was noted that each course organizer prepares a report on each course session and makes it available to Unesco. So far administrative reports have prevailed. A few have attempted an evaluation by the course organizer and by the participants and these evaluations have been included in the reports.
The following is an extract from one such report. The evaluation is based on the score collected from 19 participants who attended that particular course. It is a specialized course of 4 weeks duration.
1. General evaluation of the course:
Excellent 11 Good 8 Average 0 Below average 0
2. The choice of the subject matter for the course:
Excellent 10 Good 9 Average 0 Below average 0
3. The updating of the subject matter:
Up-to-date 19 Out-of-date 0
4. The allocation of time to various parts of the course:
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Too much About right Too little
Lectures Laboratory work Field trips Seminar and discussion Home work
1 0 1 0 2
18 3 17 6 16
0 8 1 12
i-i
The quality of teaching:
Good Average Poor
15 4 0
Evaluation of teaching characteristics:
Preparation of material Expertise and experience Delivery of lectures Willingness and ability to promote discussion in the class
Good Average Poor
13 16 8
5 2 10
0 0 0
13
Another extract from an evaluation by students of a longer duration course on general hydrology, research-oriented has been reproduced in Annex XV. An evaluation questionnaire has been filled in by most of the students who left the programme.
It should be noted that self-evaluations, desirable as they may be, do not necessarily lend themselves to comparisons within the context of this project. It would probably be more meaningful to evaluate the lecture notes, the experience and effectiveness with which the lectures are given, the teaching aids, laboratory facilities and the quality of the examinations in testing how well the participants have learnt. This type of comparative evaluation to ensure that certain minimum standards are met is presently not available. For reasons stated earlier it is also considered not productive. This can be explained by the fact that the courses have grown by themselves and have developed in the absence of a coordinating mechanism. The courses were set up by Member States and Unesco was asked to ensure their existence within a certain framework and to assist them financially to the extent possible. However, if a comparison and evaluation at the international basis is to be carried assistance to external examiners and a defined accreditation system will have to be developed. The external examiners might be appointed by Unesco and they would have to moderate examination questions, markings and the granting of certificates at possibly all the courses. Whether a course meets with defined minimum standards would constitute one important criterion for a continuation to be accredited as a Unesco-sponsored course. Certain courses have already introduced this kind of external evaluation.
38
3.3.4.3 Relevance of the courses to the socio-economic and hydrological situation of developing countries
From the results of the evaluation overall the general conclusion can be drawn that the system of Unesco sponsored post-graduate courses is certainly relevant to the socio-economic conditions and hydrological situation of the developing countries. The positive assessment by participants regarding the ability of the courses to meet their aspirations can be taken as a measure. A second measure is the positive evaluation of employers of graduates six months and three years after the courses. Yet a third measure is the positive evaluation by graduates regarding their performance three years after the courses.
However, a few points need to be noted which, if attended to, could make the courses even more relevant. The first one is a comment by a few graduates that the resources and infrastructure available in their countries will not enable them to put the knowledge that they gained from the courses into practice. As it will be more difficult to change the infrastructure and increase the resources in the developing countries in the near future, one could question whether the courses should rather be adapted to the conditions. Many courses in Europe are considering closer interaction with institutions in developing countries and to adapt to the resources and facilities available there so that their course programmes become even more relevant. The twinning arrangement elsewhere proposed in this report between developed country and developing country institutions may help solving this.
The second comment to be noted refers to the subjects taught. It appears very useful for courses to concentrate on teaching the hydrology of particular regions (urban hydrology, hydrology of coastal areas and karst hydrology). Even though the principles taught under various headings by more general courses can be applied to different regions, the courses would gain in relevance if more subjects could be offered that deal with the hydrology of particular regions. The model curriculum in Annex XVI has been developed in response to this observation as it specifies the subjects that are indispensable and those that could be selected for a more profound treatment and so that a course obtains a more individual image.
Conclusions and recommendations
(i) It is concluded that even though the courses are eurocentred the majority of participants come from the developing countries. The problem with the initial ability of the participants to cope with the courses will be a constraint to their deriving the maximum benefits from short courses. For longer duration courses it is possible to make this up with remedial lectures. It is recommended that more efforts be made by the courses to include women. In view of the environment impacts of water resources and the impending climate change, participants with backgrounds in biology/chemistry and meteorology should be increased.
39
(ii) The government of the host countries where the courses are offered make substantial financial contributions to keep the courses running annually or biennially. Unesco's contribution while filling important gaps particularly in covering international travel and fellowship is limited. Additional financial resources need to be mobilized to the existing courses and for the establishment of new ones. Bilateral and multilateral sources should be considered. In addition, donor governments may wish to consider to make available a part of their training assistance funds directly to Unesco to ensure high priority for the training of water scientists and engineers. It is recommended that countries wishing to establish new courses should avail themselves of the cost structure of courses as shown in Annex V and also twinning arrangements as outlined in Chapter 4.
(iii) It is concluded that the present system of Unesco sponsored courses cannot be compared in terms of subjects taught, duration spent on the subjects or aspects of the courses. There is need to bring about some order in the system and as such the principles for establishing a model for post graduate curricula in hydrology and water resources has been evolved. This is recommended to the courses to restructure themselves wherever possible. These principles are also recommended to those carrying out postgraduate courses that are not listed and for those intending to start new ones.
(iv) It appears that the present output of the courses are not out of step with the estimates of manpower requirements made in 1975 to enable national water resources assessments to be carried out, by the year 2000. However, the projected demand for specialists in community water supply and sanitation for instance are not known, but it may be infared that these members are being taken care of by postgraduate courses which are not listed among the Unesco sponsored courses.
(v) It is concluded that overall the courses have relevance to the socio-economic and hydrological conditions of the developing countries judging from the positive assessment by graduates regarding the ability of the courses to meet their aspirations, and the positive evaluations of employers 6 months and 3 years after the courses. However, it is recommended that efforts should be made by the courses to adapt even more to the socio-economic and hydrological conditions. There is also a need for new courses to be established in the developing countries. One of the means to do this is by twinning.
40
(vi) On the effectiveness with which the courses are offered it was concluded that the evaluation by participants after each session is useful. However, for international comparison it might be necessary to compare lecture notes, qualifications and experience of lecturers, laboratory facilities etc. and also to have common external examiners for the course examinations. Useful as this may be, its implementation will very much depend on the willingness of the courses.
(vii) Regarding the impact of the courses, the conclusion is drawn that the courses have had a positive impact in meeting the manpower needs of the developing countries in hydrology and water resources. The capability of the countries to handle their hydrological and water resources problems have been increased over the years. However, some emphasis should be given to continuing education and also to the training of lecturers to teach and carry out research needs.
It is recommended that the following be included in the list of major topics for continuing education:
a. Comparative hydrology of the humid, arid and semi-arid areas of the tropics and sub-tropics. This should deal also with the mountainous and flatland areas.
b. The impact of the impending climate change on hydrological and water resources systems and how these could be mitigated.
c. The exploration, assessment, development and management of groundwater hard rock aquifers.
d. Land degradation and the management of water resources for sustainable development in the developing countries.
e. Application of remote sensing to hydrology and water resources assessment.
f. Computer applications in hydrology and water resources
(viii) overall the Education and Training programmes of the IHP will have to concentrate on:
a. rationalizing the system of courses using the principles for establishing curricula to fill specific needs;
b. encouraging the establishment of new courses in the developing countries through twinning arrangements wherever possible;
41
c. assisting the existing postgraduate courses with laboratory facilities, books, audio-visual aids and teachers.
d. emphasizing the training of lecturers and researchers up to Ph.D level.
e. transfering the postgraduate education to the developing countries,
f. encouraging the network of courses to specialize wherever possible in continuing education.
4. TWINNING OF INSTITUTES CONCERNED WITH POST-GRADUATE STUDIES IN THE WATER SCIENCES
4.1 Introduction
The notion of twinning refers to a long duration close co-operation between two institutions. Such a co-operative effort should be based on an ad-hoc formal arrangement. In order to reap fully the advantages of such an arrangement it can best encompass a variety of activities, including the exchange of staff, fellowships, co-operative research and material assistance.
Twinning arrangements might be concluded between an .institution in a donor country and one in a receiving country, but the formula can also yield very good results where both institutes concerned are situated in a developing country. In the latter case an outside donor (international organization or country) might finance and foster the arrangement without directly being involved in it at the operational level.
Although it may seem at first glance that co-operation works best between institutes that are congruent in their structure and programmes of work, experience has shown that also twinning arrangements between dissimilar institutions may be successful. A department of a university or another type of training or research establishment may quite well work closely together along these lines with a technical or scientific government department or e.g. with a public water-supply company. The arrangement can so be attuned to the specific conditions and needs of the countries where the participating institutions are located.
By language instruction to a limited number of staff members of the participating institutes and, where needed and appropriate, by the provision of translation services on a limited scale, both participants can be enabled to continue working in their own national language. Twinning may hence be an excellent instrument for the provision of training courses in other languages.
42
The following activities may be undertaken as part of a twinning arrangement: training, co-operative research, management support, technical services, common publications and the execution of projects for third parties. These activities will often depend on the availability of financial resources. One of the participating institutions may act here as a donor to its partner or the raising of funds may depend on their mutual co-operation.
In the following a few remarks will be made on each of these categories.
4.2 Training
The primary objective of the training component of a twinning arrangement would, in most cases, be the establishment of new programmes at the receiving institute or the strengthening of existing ones by training the teaching staff. Until such a new programme becomes operative other personnel from the receiving institute may also be trained at the donor institute. The twinning arrangement will enable the donor institute to focus its activities on the needs and conditions of its partner. The economy of scale so obtained will make it possible to prepare for these programmes training material relevant to these conditions, that may continue to be used after the transfer of the training programme to its definitive location.
The conduct of a course programme for the future teaching staff of the receiving institute requires special care. Beside the organizational and pedagogical aspects of water resources training, also the didactics of specific course subjects (like fluid mechanics, hydraulics and water resources planning) should be presented. Unfortunately* there exists only very little material published on this issue, so that it will have to be developed. The preparation of these future teachers should not be too narrow or too theoretical. Provisions should be made for field visits and observation tours where information useful for the illustration of the future lectures can be collected.
The donor institute can also be requested to assist in improving and guaranteeing the quality of the instruction at the receiving institute. A classical way towards this objective is the making available of external examiners or supervisors. As it is hignly desirable, if not essential, that key members of the teaching staff hold doctor's or other higher degrees, also assistance in this respect will often be needed. The methods described in this report under the heading 'Research' may be applied for this purpose.
It may be useful, if not necessary, to send teachers from the donor to the receiving institute during a transitional period of often several years' duration. Such visiting teachers should be engaged as little as possible in organizational work so as not to impair the independence or unduly influence the own character of the receiving institute. The general scarcity of high level teachers will anyhow limit the duration of each tour of duty abroad of these external teachers.
43
The twinning arrangement will also lead to an improvement of the own training programmes of the donor institute. Students and researchers may be sent to the receiving country to undertake field work under conditions that are different from those that they find in their home country. The widened outlook obtained in the process of co-operation may enable the staff to improve their teaching and research.
Personnel of both partners may also co-operate in curriculum development. This should not be a one-way effort. The curricula at both the donor and receiving institutes may gain considerably from the input of experience and know-how from both sides.
4.3 Research
For the maintenance of a sufficient level of post-graduate training it is necessary that the teachers are personally engaged in research in their field of studies. For many scientifically oriented subjects research is furthermore, on its own right, an important vehicle for teaching.
Even where the physical equipment for research is available, the quality and relevance of the research work are not yet guaranteed. Most researchers cannot work in isolation; they should work in an environment where they can feel themselves part of the world-wide scientific community. The researcher from a developing country should remain aware of the needs of his country and, at the same time, he should be in a position to maintain the link between his work and the investigations undertaken elsewhere in his field.
The twinning arrangements described in this paper should, therefore, contain provisions for co-operative research effort. Staff members of both institutes will then have an opportunity to participate in the research undertaken at the other end. In this way, the donor institute may be enabled to orient part of its investigations to the needs and conditions of the partner. Researchers from both sides, but especially those from the receiving institute, will get the opportunity to spend more time for research training at the other side or to do short term visits for consultation.
This research work will, at the same time, serve in the preparation for the doctor's degrees required for nomination to professorial ranks.
Research co-operation will also serve for mutual refereeing of research reports, for advising on how to overcome roadblocks raised in the course of an investigation and for help in the calibration of instruments.
44
4.4 Management support
Those who have to conduct a newly established training programme may need advice on a number of organizational issues, as e.g. the recruitment of students, the conduct of laboratory and field work, the organization of examinations, student administration and financial management. The twinning arrangement will offer a good vehicle for the transfer of such know-how by an exchange of the staff- members concerned.
4.5 Technical support
The breakdown of a piece of equipment will present a major problem where spare parts can only be procured after a lengthy procedure for obtaining the required foreign currency. Under a twinning arrangement such spare parts could be forwarded on first request. Also urgent needs for literature and computer software could be catered for in this way. With virtually no visible expenses a donor institute can in this way help keeping its partner operational.
4.6 C o m m o n publications
Co-operation in the publication of research reports and textbooks can be mutually beneficial. Most of the donor institutes have good contacts with internationally recognized scientific and technological periodicals, whereas the institute in the developing country is better aware of the interest of the users of such publications.
Within the framework of co-operation in this field, help may be extended to building up the library collections of the partner institutes.
4.7 Recruitment of students
Fellowships for courses in industrialized countries are in heavy demand, whereas programmes in developing countries often find it difficult to attract good students. The transfer of training capabilities to developing countries will only have a lasting effect if a better balance can be obtained in this respect. Ideally, the recruitment of students for the courses of the two partners should be closely co-ordinated. In principle, applicants would be referred to the course that seems to be most appropriate for their needs, taking into account the interest of a good co-ordination between courses. The donor institute or an outside donor should have the possibility to validate a fellowship for study with its partner. An exchange of information on credentials and demands for training can support an action of this kind. Such an arrangement does not only reduce the cost of training, it also helps avoiding the difficulties of adaptation of the student to conditions in another region.
45
4.8 Execution of training projects for third parties
There is a growing demand with governments and international financing bodies for ad-hoc training programmes. Funds for such activities are then available out of international loans or grants.
Government-sponsored or private organizations in industrialized countries get such contracts because they have the appropriate organization for such tasks. Their costs are high, however, because of the level of their salaries and social charges and because of the required international travel by students or staff. Twinned institutes may offer their services as one entity and act as one executing party for such projects. This will not only lead to cost reduction, it may also increase the effectiveness of such an ad-hoc training programme. This procedure will, in addition, foster international co-operation also among developing countries.
Recommendations
1) Unesco should consider using part of its funds for post-graduate training in the water sciences for the promotion of twinning arrangements between institutions in different countries. Governments that finance Unesco- sponsored courses should be encouraged to set funds aside for such twinning arrangements sponsored by Unesco.
2) A twinning arrangement should be based, as much as possible, on a project approach. According to this the objectives of the arangement should be clearly stated in advance, setting on the same occasion a time frame within which these objectives should be attained. Provisions should be made from the onset, however, for a continuing mutual support and exchange for the time after which the primary objectives have been reached.
5. MAJOR TOPICS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SYSTEM OF CONTINUING EDUCATION IN ASSOCIATION WITH THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NETWORK OF POST-GRADUATE COURSES
As stipulated by the IHP Committee on Education and Training at its 1986 session the present report was also to contain an analysis of the major topics which could form the basis for the development of a system of continuing education.
The Unesco-sponsored courses already constitute by themselves an important instrument of continuing education. It will be necessary, however, that graduates in the water-sciences keep
46
continually abreast of newer scientific and technical developments. In addition, a complementary instruction will be needed when the hydrologist or water-resources engineer will have to perform a new job due to her or his promotion or where the service adapts new procedures. If the previous training has been of sufficient scope and of a good quality, refresher courses of limited duration and scope will suffice. Such refresher courses could in principle be organized either in the service where the hydrologist or engineer is working or at a specialized training institute. Where the number of participants or the available equipment does not warrant the organization of these refresher courses at national level they could be held at the regional or international level. The Unesco sponsored postgraduate courses can perform in this respect an important task. Where a twinning arrangement exists between an institute in a developing country and one in an industrialized country, refresher courses can be arranged in the national language of the participants and the topics of the course can be best adapted to their needs.
Short-term refresher courses in the water sciences have been organized at various places in the last few years. Examples of the subjects of these courses are:
- Water quality control: organization and the enforcement of its legislation Project management for water resources schemes Sedimentation: measurement and control Policy analysis for water resources management Training of technician trainers Remote sensing of water resources Dredging in rivers Hydrology of estuaries and deltas
If requests for refresher courses are regularly sent to the Unesco Secretariat by the interested governments Unesco could act as a liaison with the institutes that are able to organize them. Unesco could use then part of its training funds as seed money to encourage other donors to participate. In many cases the training needs may arise from specific water resources projects and the course could be financed from the project funds. By making a good use of the joint capabilities of the Unesco sponsored courses the Organization could offer refresher programmes on a wide range of subjects and in various languages.
The conduct of formal courses is not the only instrument for refresher training however. Good results can also be obtained by making good study material available, giving at the same time the student the opportunity to ask for additional information, followed by checking whether the subject matter has been assimilated.
47
Under the IHP a wealth of published material has been produced and most Unesco sponsored courses of long standing have excellent lecture notes available. This material is insufficiently known outside the circle of those directly concerned. The IHP would perform an outstanding service to refresher education in the water sciences if a short systematic analysis could be made of the subjects treated in the Studies and Reports in Hydrology and other technical papers produced under Unesco's sponsorship. Many of these documents could then form the basis for specialized refresher courses and for less formal types of transfer of know-how.
One of the divisions of the Science Sector of Unesco is presently preparing an International Open University for Science and Technology. It is the intention that a number of fields be identified in which this International OU will offer courses. The material will be centrally compiled and produced and the training based on this material will be conducted by national OU Centres in a number of developing countries. The material already produced under IHP will make it possible to profit from the opportunities offered by the International OU also for continuing education in the water sciences.
Recommendations
1. The IHP Secretariat will make its services available to act as a switchboard between the organizations in need of refresher training and those able to impart this.
2. The Unesco-sponsored courses in hydrology and the water sciences should be encouraged to act as one co-operative system for specialized training.
3. The material already produced for the IHP or under Unesco's sponsorship should be made better accessible for training purposes.
4. Unesco should consider how the opportunities offered by the new International Open University for Science and Technology can best be used for specialized training in the water sciences.
5. The Unesco Secretariat should consider how part of its funds for education in hydrology and the water sciences can best be used to promote continuing education.
ANNEXES
ANNEX I
LIST OF UNESCO-SPONSORED POSTGRADUATE COURSES IN HYDROLOGY
AND WATER RESOURCES
Place
ANKARA (Turkey)
Argent i ne: Buenos Aires, Santa Fé. Mendoza, San Juan
BARCELONA (Spain)
Belgium
BELGRADE (Yugoslavia)
BIRMINGHAM (United Kingdom)
Brazi 1
BUDAPEST (Hungary)
CAIRO (Egypt)
CR ICA (Central Amer i ca and the Caribbean)
Subject of course
Sediment technology
General hydrology, with emphasis on groundwater.
Groundwater hydrology
Hydrology - French language programme
- English language programme
Water resources engineering
Water resources technology in developing countries
Water resources management
Hydrology
Environmental hydrology for arid and semi-arid zones
Changing subjects (for subject and date inquire with organizer)
Durât ion
4 weeks
6 months
6 months
1 or 2 years
1 or 2 years
3 months
6 months
6 months
2 months
4 weeks
Frequency
annually. in June
1987, 1989, etc.
annually, January-
July
annually, begins in Sept.
annually, begins in Sept.
annually, from June
annually
annually, from January
annually, May-June
annually
-i in
S
S
F
E
E
E
P
E
E
S
Deadline
Apr i l
1 April
30 Sep.
1 March
i Febr.
1 March
1 Oct.
15 Sept.
March
Inqu i re
Address
Dr Ergun Demiroz DSI Teknik Arastirma ve Kali te Kontrol Dairesi Baskanligi 06100 ANKARA (Turkey)
Sr. M.C. Fuschini Mejia Director del Curso Comité Nacional para el Programa Hidrológico Internacional
Av. 9 de Julio 1925 - 15° Piso 1332 BUENOS AIRES (Argentina)
Curso Internacional de Hidrología Subterránea
Calle Beethoven, 15, 3° 08021 BARCELONA (Spain)
Programme post-gradué interuniversitaire en hydrologie Coordinateur : Prof. A. Monjoie Université de l'Etat a Liège Laboratoires de Géologie de l'Ingénieur et d'Hydrogéologie
Faculté des Sciences Appliquées 7, place du Vingt Août B-4000 LIEGE (Belgiaue)
Interuniversity Postgraduate Programme in Hydrology (IUPHY)
Programme Director: Prof. A. van der Beken
vrije Un i vers i te it Brüssel Laboratory of Hydrology Pleinlaan, 2 B-1050 BRUSSELS (Belgium)
Dr. Stevan Bruk "Jaroslav Cerni" Institute for the Development of Water Resources
Postanski Fan 530 Bel i Potok BELGRADE (Yugoslavia)
The Registrar Department of Civil Engineering University of Birmingham P.O. Box 363 BIRMINGHAM B15 2TT (United Kingdom)
Director. Research Centre for Water Resources Development (VITUKI) International Postgraduate Course in Hydrology
P.O. Box 27 H-1453 BUDAPEST 92 (Hungary)
Prof. Dr. Mostafa M. Soliman Course Manager International Course on Hydrology for Arid and Semi-arid Regions Institute for Environmental Studies and Research
Ain Shams University ABBASIA CAIRO (Egypt)
Mr. N. Kawas Executive Secretary Comité Regional de Recursos Hidráulicos (CRRH)
P.O. Box 718 TEGUCIGALPA (Honduras)
ANNEX I - page 2
DAR-ES-SALAAM (Tanzania)
DELFT (Netherlands)
GALWAY (Ireland)
GRAZ (Austria)
Guatemala
KENSINGTON (Australia)
LAHORE (Pakistan)
LAUSANNE (Switzerland)
LISBON (Portugal)
MADRAS (India)
MADRID (Spain)
MONASH (Australia)
MONTPELLIER (France)
Water resources engineering
(a) Hydrology (b) Hydraulic
engineering
Hydrology
Groundwater tracing techniques
Hydraulic resources
Hydrology, covering principles, practices and applications of surface and ground water hydrology
water resources management
Operational and appli ed hydrology
"Troisième cycle" inter-university course in hydrology and hydrogeology
Operational hydrology
Hydrology and water resources engineering
General and applied hydrology
Hydrology and water sciences
Hydrology of fractured rocks
18 months
11 months
l year
5 weeks
11 months
3 months
10 months
15 months
2 months
1 year
6 months
Course-work
3 weeks
annually, begins 1 July
annually
annually, begins October
1387, 1989, etc.
annually
annually
1988. 1990, etc.
annually from 1988
annual ly
annually, begins i Sept.
annually, from
January
half of course-work each year
annual ly in May
15 Feb.
1 July
No dead-l i ne. Apply early
15 Apr.
Inquire
December
i May
1 May
1 Sept -
31 May
31 Oct.
Selection takes place in Dec.
Inquire
Mr. Eustace Gondwe Disciplinary Area Coordinator for water Resources Engineering P.O. Box 35131 DAR-ES-SALAAM (Tanzania)
The Registrar, IHE Netherlands Universities Foundation for International Co-operation
P.O. Box 90734 2509 T H E HAGUE (The Netherlands)
Professor J.E. Nash Department of Engineering Hydrology
University College Galway GALWAY (Ireland)
Dr. H. Zojer Postgraduate Training Course on
Groundwater Tracing Techniques Institute for Geothermics and
Hydrogeology Elisabethstrasse 16/II A-8010 GRAZ (Austria)
Ing. Arturo Pazos S. Director de la Escuela Regional de Ingenieria Sanitaria y Recursos Hidráulicos
Facultad de Ingeniería Ciudad Universitaria, Zona 12 GUATEMALA CITY (Guatemala)
Mr. T.G. Chapman Professor of Civil Engineering Head of Department of water Engineering University of New South Wales P.O. Box 1 KENSINGTON, New South wales (Australia)
Dr. N.M. Awan Director Centre of Excellence in Water Resources Engineering University of Engineering and Technology LAHORE (Pakistan)
Professeur A. Musy Directeur de la Formation postgrade en hydrologie opérationnelle et appliquée Institut de Génie Rural DGRG Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne - Ecublens
CH-1015 LAUSANNE Curso Internacional de Hidrología Operativa Direccao-Geral dos Recursos e Aproveitamentos Hidráulicos Av. Almirante Gago Coutinho, 30 1000 LISBOA (Portugal)
Centre for Water Resources College of Engineering Anna University 600 025 MADRAS (India)
Centro de Estudios y Experimentación de Obras Publicas y Urbanismo Alfonso XII, Num. 3 MADRID 7 (Spain)
Course Director Department of Civil Engineering
Monash University Clayton 3168 VICTORIA (Australia)
Professeur C. Drogue Laboratoire d'Hydrogéologie Université des Sciences et Techniques du Languedoc
Place Eugène Bataillon 34060 MONTPELLIER (France)
ANNEX I - Page 3
Moscow (USSR)
NANJING (China)
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE (United Ki ngdom)
OUAGADOUGOU (Burkina Faso)
PADOVA (Italy)
PRAGUE (Czecho-siovakia)
ROORKEE (India)
U.S.A.
WALLINGFORD (United Ki ngdom)
Changing subjects
Hydrology (advanced)
(a) Hydrology (b) Water resources
(a) Mobilization of water resources;
(b) Agriculture hydraulics;
(c) Sanitary engineering;
(d) Miscellaneous
Hydrology
Hydrolog i cal data for water resource planning
Hydrology (and several additional options)
Changing subjects
Estimation of hydrolog i cal variables
2 months
2 months
1 year
9 months
9 months
1 1 months
4 or 10 weeks
6 months
6 months
1 year
1-2 weeks
3 weeks
annually, begins around 10 June
Irregular (special announcements)
annually, from
October
annually
annually
annually
6/year
annually. from
February
1988, 1990, etc. from Febr.
annually
annually
Irregular (special announcements)
E R
E
E
F
F
F
F
E
E
E
E
E
15 Jan.
Inquire
3 1 May
1 April
1 Apr il
1 Apr i 1
Perman.
31 Dec.
30 Sept.
31 March
Inquire
Inquire
International Higher Hydrological Course
Geography Department Moscow State Lomonosov University V-234 MOSCOW, 117234 (USSR)
International Activities Office East China Technical University of Water Resources 1 , Xikang Road NANJING 210024 (China)
The Registrar Department of Civil Engineering University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE NE 1 7RU (United Kingdom)
Mr. le Directeur de l'ElER Ecole Intel—Etats d'Ingénieurs de l'Equipement rural B.P. 7023 OUAGADOUGOU (Burkina Faso)
Professor A. Ghetti Centro Internas ionale di Idrologia "Diño Tonini"
Via Sette Chiese 35043 MONSELICE (Italy)
Professor j. Dvorak International Postgraduate Course in Hydrology
Department of Water Resources Prague Agricultural University 160 21 PRAHA 6 SUCHDOL (Czechoslovak i a)
The Co-Ordinator School of Hydrology University of Roorkee ROORKEE 2476S7 Upper Pradesh (India)
Assistant Chief Hydrologist for Research and External Coordination U.S. Geological Survey 436 National Center RESTON, Virginia 22092 (U.S.A.) The Director Courses Department The British Council 65, Davies Street LONDON W1Y 2AA (United Kingdom)
English, French, P = Portuguese, R = Russian, S = Spanish
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ANNEX V
COST ASSESSMENT
for the
International Post-graduate Course on Hydrological Methods for Developing Water Resources Management (Budapest)
1.
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
2.
2.1 2.2 2.3
2.4 2.5
3.
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6
4.
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4
Cost items
Infrastructure
Lecture room Library Water quality laboratory Instrumentation laboratory Aerial photo laboratory Hydraulic laboratory Soil mechanics laboratory Computer terminal room Current meter calibration laboratory
Administration
Directorate and secretariat Propaganda and information Postal expenditures and correspondence/ telex, télégrammes etc. Taxes Overhead
Teaching aids
Purchase of books Copying of lecture notes Computer programmes Audiovisual aids Instruments and equipment for field work Pocket calculators
Lecturers
Lecturers from VITUKI staff Outside lecturers Foreign/guest/lecturers Tutorials
Main items
o, "6
11.7
18.2
11.2
.6.5
Sub-items
'S
15 5 10 10 5 20 10 20 5
10 10
6 37 37
10 40 5 5 26 14
36 32 23 9
Main items are broken down in sub-items totalling in 100% per main item
ANNEX V - Page 2
Cost items Main items
5. Participants 39.4
5.1 International travel costs 5.2 Board and lodging 5.3 Fellowship 5.4 Public transport, insurance 5.5 Book, allowance 5.6 Stationery
6. Training 9.7
6.1 Laboratory work and materials 6.2 Computer time 6.3 Field work 6.4 Excursions 6.5 Dissertations 6.6 Final examination
Social and cultural activities 3.3
7.1 Sightseeing tours, excursions 7.2 Club meetings 7.3 Opening and closing ceremonies
TOTAL 100
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X
Q U E S T I O N N A I R E 1: Survey of aspirations of course participants
ANNEX X
1. Name of Unesco-sponsored course being attended
2. Name of participant (optional)
3. Country of participant
4. Organization employed in (optional)
5. Function of organization (optional)
6. Position (optional)
7. Educational qualification
8. What are you aspiring to be after course ?
(a) (b) (c) (d) Practising Practising Academic or Other Hydrologist Engineer Researcher
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
9. How do you assess the present organization from which you have come
to the course to offer you the opportunities to attain your
aspirations as indicated at 8.
10. Remarks:
A N N E X XI
QUESTIONNAIRE 2: Evaluation of employees by employers 6 months after return of employees from courses
1. Country
2. Name of employer
3. Name of participant/employee
4. Name of course attended
5. Date when returned from course
6. Position before attending course
7. How do you rate employee since returning from above course ?
Improved Very much improved
( i ) Knowledge of work ( )
(ii) Willingness to shoulder responsibility ( )
(iii) Relevance of his solution to problems ( )
(iv) Ability to work independently ( )
(v) Willingness to work with available facilities ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
NO change
(
Name and position of person answering this questionnaire
9. General remarks
A N N E X XII
QUESTIONNAIRE 3: Evaluation of Employees by Employers 3 years after course
COUNTRY
1. Name and address of Employer
2. Name and address of Employee
3. Name of course attended
4. Date since returned from course
5. Position of Employee before course
6. Position of Employee as at present
7. Since attending course at 3. how do you rate Employee ?
Remarks: (Very much improved) (Improved) (Not much)
8. Has Employee attended other courses since attending course at 3 ?
YES NO
( ) ( )
9. If yes give
Nature of course
Country
Year of attendance
Duration
A N N E X XIII
QUESTIONNAIRE 4: Evaluation by participants 3 years after attending course
1. Name and address of participant
2. Name and address of employer
3. Name and address of course attended . .
4. Date since returning home from course.
5. Position before attending course
6. Present position
7. Remarks
8. Have you attended other courses since the course at 3 above ?
YES NO ( ) ( )
9. If yes, give
Name of course
Country
Year of attendance
Duration of course
10. General remarks
A N N E X XIV
Q U E S T I O N N A I R E 5: Survey to find which developing countries offer hydrological and water resources courses at undergraduate level and which have or are planning to establish one at postgraduate level
1. Country
2. Name and address of person filling questionnaire
3. Are hydrology and water resources subjects taught in your country's universities at undergraduate level ? YES NO
( ) ( )
4. If yes, indicate subjects by courses as below
Course Subjects taught
1. Civil Engineering
2. Physics/Biology/Chemistry
3. Geology
4. Geography
5. Agriculture
6. Others
Add separate sheet
5. Does your university offer courses in hydrology and water resources at postgraduate level ? YES NO
( ) ( )
6. If yes, do you have difficulties With the following ?
YES NO Remarks
(i) Enough student intake ( ) ( )
(ii) Teaching staff ( ) ( )
(iii) Relevant syllabi/curricula ( ) ( )
ANNEX XIV • page 2
(iv) Laboratory facilities and equipment ( ) ( )
(v) Books ( ) ( )
(vi) Audio-visual aids ( ) ( )
7. Are there definite plans to start postgraduate training in hydrology and and water resources in the next 2 years ? YES NO
( ) ( )
(i ) Give details
(ii) Does the IHP National Committee approve the plan ?
YES NO ( ) ( )
ANNEX
Example of an evaluation of a one-year duration postgraduate course
(general hydrology; research-oriented)
Results based on 8 questionnaires
Before the course Quotation
1. How were you informed about the programme ?
through information from the Embassy of the host country 4
- by the Unesco representative in your country 2 through former hydrology students 2 other
Journal of hydrology Unesco Bulletin Department
2. Was the information sent to you early enough to prepare the programme ?
yes 4 - no 3
no answer 1
During the course
3. On the whole, how would you rate the programme ?
poor 0 average 1 good 3 very good 4 no answer 0
4. Your programme consisted of several courses and seminars. List them in the following table and give your comments.
ANNEX XV - page 2
Course or seminar
0C-A1 A2 A3 A4 B1 B2 B3 B4 C1 C2 C3 C4 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
Seminars
Usefulness of course sections
Very useful
1 2 3 2 1
2 1
1 1 1
1
1
Useful
2 1 1 2 1 1 2
1 1
1
2
Not very useful
1
1
1
3
No reply
T
Insuf-f icient
3 1 1
1 1
1 1 1
me allocation
Sufficient
4 1 3 3 2 2 2
1 2 2 2
3
Too much
1
No reply
Did you find the field training and/or the excursion:
not very useful useful very useful no answer
2 4 2
Comments: more sediment transport more groundwater higher level needed more individual training
6. Was the time allocated to individual work, including your report:
insufficient sufficient too much no answer
On the whole, was the material presented to you in lectures, exercises and seminars relevant to the problems in your own country
irrelevant relevant very relevant
5
2
ANNEX XV • page
On the whole, given the range of courses covered, did you find the length of the programme:
too short short adequate too long no answer
What would be the best length:
- 1-1/2 years 1 year more time for thesis
Is there any other course or topic you would like us to include in the programme:
hydraulic structures, hydraulic engineering micro-computers engineering economoy environmental aspects
How did you find relations between participants and:
Bad Average Good
teaching staff other participants non-teaching staff
6 4 5
1 4 2
1 1 1
No reply
1
How did you find* the arrangements with respect to:
Bad Average Good No reply
Organization Time schedules Room space Secretarial aid Library Language use
3 2 2 3 2 2
4 4 2 4 4 4
Comments: Library directory
How did you find the housing accommodation
unsatisfactory - adequate
good
Would you prefer to be housed in a University housing
- yes no
2
1
4 1
ANNEX XV - page 4
13. What do you suggest the course could do to keep in touch with you (example: list of publications, new information about the programme, ...)
- Newsletter, publications 3 information about programme 1 personal contact 1
14. Please suggest ways and means for future co-operation between IUPHY and your institutions or organization:
research co-operation 2 short courses 2 contacts alumni-new students 1
15. Give your general comments on the programme:
improvement since 1984 2 very good well organized 3 good 1 more social life 2 interesting 1
ANNEX XVI
INTERNATIONAL HYDROLOGICAL PROGRAMME
MODEL CURRICULUM FOR COURSES IN
HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES
Unesco, February 1988
FOREWORD
In 1983 Unesco published the second version of Curricula and Syllabi in Hydrology This publication, in its A n n e x 1 A , contains a syllabus based on the recommendations formulated by the former I H P Working G r o u p during the first phase of the I H P and, in its A n n e x 1 B , a syllabus for advanced studies. T h e first syllabus contains m a n y subjects which are outdated or belong to under-graduate education rather than post-graduate. O n the other hand, A n n e x 1 B contains a n u m b e r of subjects which should normally be compulsory for all post-graduate students.
It appears that the present Unesco-sponsored courses include too m a n y subjects which the students should already k n o w and that such cost-intensive post-graduate education should be strictly limited to subjects which, by nature, belong to the post-graduate level.
At its first session in Prague, in October 1985, the I H P Working G r o u p on the evaluation of the Unesco-sponsored post-graduate hydrology courses (IHP-III Project 13.1) r e c o m m e n d e d the compilation of a model curriculum which would serve:
(a) for evaluating the existing Unesco-sponsored courses; (b) for enabling existing courses to review this curriculum; (c) for assisting n e w courses in establishing their curriculum; (d) for helping course applicants to select an appropriate course.
At its session in June 1986, the I H P Committee on Education and Training emphasized the usefulness of a model curriculum for the above purposes.
T h e I H P / O H P National Committee of the Federal Republic of G e r m a n y has contributed to this task in financing the Panel session which was held at the premises of the Federal Institute of Hydrology ( B R G ) in Vallendar, in the vicinity of Koblenz, from 25 to 29 August 1986. It was attended by Messrs. W . H . Gilbrich (Unesco), K . Hofius ( F R G ) , P . Kovar ( C S S R ) , P . J . M . de Laat (Netherlands), K . Lecher ( F R G ) and V . Maniak ( F R G ) . Prof. Maniak, in his capacity as m e m b e r of the I H P Working G r o u p , acted as Chairman; M r . Gilbrich was the secretary of the meeting.
For the compilation of the model curriculum the following material was utilized:
Curricula and syllabi, 2nd edition, Unesco, 1983; Unesco-sponsored international post-graduate courses in hydrology, 7th Edition, Unesco, 1986; Guidelines for the education and training of personnel in meteorology and operational hydrology, W M O Publication N o . 258, Geneva, 1984; Report on an expert panel session on the inclusion of environmental subjects in the the curricula of post-graduate hydrology courses, Galway, Ireland, April 1986; Reports, curricula and descriptive material from various courses.
T h e panel compiled a first draft which was distributed to the Panel m e m b e r s , to organizers of courses of a duration of six months or m o r e and to all the m e m b e r s of the I H P Working G r o u p 13.1. O n the basis of the numerous c o m m e n t s received a consolidated version has been prepared by the Chairman and the Secretary and the assistance of so m a n y experts is gratefully acknowledged.
vii.
INTRODUCTION
The present model curriculum is the result of about twenty years of experience with the Unesco-sponsored post-graduate hydrology courses. These courses are constantly modifying and improving their curricula and such developments have been reflected in the two versions of the Unesco publication "Curricula and syllabi" as well as in the present booklet.
The model curriculum has been compiled taking into account the following criteria:
the curriculum should be valid for as great a number of courses as possible; the subjects listed should be compulsory for all courses of six months' duration. For courses of longer duration, the treatment of selected subjects could be intensified or additional subjects included; those basic subjects which are supposed to be k n o w n should not be included in the post-graduate curriculum; they should either be taught at under-graduate level or in a special introductory course; the knowledge of these subjects should be a pre-requisite for admission to the post-graduate course.
It consists of four sections:
A . Subjects to be taught at under-graduate level or during a special preparatory session but not in the post-graduate courses; their knowledge is a prerequisite and should be used by course organizers as an acceptance critérium. Since Group A subjects are not considered part of the actual course no time allocations have been m a d e . W h e r e , however, for special reasons, Group A subjects must be taught the whole group should not exceed one tenth of the total course duration. Group A subjects have also been listed in order to draw the attention of the organizers of under-graduate courses on the necessity to provide their students with the desired entry level.
B . Basic subjects (1. to 4. in the model curriculum) are suggested to be taught in post-graduate hydrology courses to prepare the student to the understanding of hydrological subjects. The level and extent will depend on the emphasis of the course and of the availability of computer and laboratory facilities. For details, the reader is referred to pertinent Unesco publications: "Experimental facilities for water resources education", "Teaching the application of computers in water resources studies" (out of print), "Teaching aids in hydrology"). In teaching G r o u p B subjects an attempt should be m a d e to relate basic sciences to hydrological problems in order to fully exploit the short time available for post-graduate training.
C . Hydrological subjects (5. to 8.) form the core group of the instruction. T h e subjects have been selected with a view to training practitioneers in water resources management rather than scientific hydrologists. Group C contains intentionally environmental subjects which should not occupy less than one tenth of the total lecturing hours for subjects under para. 7. For more details on the inclusion of environmental subjects in post-graduate hydrology education the reader is referred to a report n o w under preparation by Unesco.
D . Subjects of this group pertain to the hydrology of specific regions, different land uses and water resources engineering aspects. These subjects are considered as options it being understood that some of them must be taught in depth while others could be omitted. The
iv
selection should be left at the discretion of the course organizer and will take into account regional needs and peculiarities.
T o achieve a successful education, subjects belonging to Group D must be treated in such a way as to m a k e students capable not only of understanding but also of solving hydrological problems.
Although all post-graduate courses have their o w n profile the knowledge of Groups A , B and C should be a c o m m o n feature and the differences will largely result from the selection a m o n g group D subjects.
The degree of concentration or limitation of subjects should be based on the duration of the course. Unless the courses are long enough, it is recommended that they concentrate on fewer subjects rather than strive at covering the whole range of hydrological subjects. This idea is reflected in the proposed time allocations.
The proposed model curriculum is based on the availability of six months from which one month should be deducted for opening, excursions and final examinations. There remains about 20 weeks (approx. 750 hrs) for lecturing, tutorials, practical exercises as well as time for the students' individual work. Considering the high cost of international post-graduate courses, the authors of this report recommend to fully exploit the time available.
The following breakdown is suggested:
Groups B and C Aprox. 410 hours Group D Approx. 140 hours
Total Approx. 550 hours
leaving some 200 hours for tutorials, exercises etc. If a course organizer feels that Group D should be expanded without extending the whole course duration he is advised to do so at the expense of either Group B or free periods. As stated above courses of longer duration can expand the 410 basic hours to give certain subjects a deeper treatment or for an introductory course destined to those students whose level is insufficient to be admitted to the post-graduate course. Such longer courses can also m a k e a larger selection a m o n g the sub-topics listed under Group D (See para. 9.).
The tight schedule given above underlines the necessity to reduce any time losses, particularly during the opening and adaptation period and also the necessity to strictly apply the admission requirements in order to avoid Group A subjects.
The authors believe that the present model curriculum will stimulate and improve post-graduate education in hydrology throughout the world. T h e inclusion of environmental subjects is a response to increasing needs to protect man's environment.
V
A. Subjects not to be included in the post-graduate curriculum but expected to be known by the student (entry level)
1. Elementary mathematics
- General mathematics up to and including geometry, linear algebra, simple functions, logarithms, differentiation, integration, analytical geometry
- Ordinary differential equations
- Simple matrix algebra
- Introduction to statistics
- Graphic representation of data, evaluation of graphs
2. Elementary physics
- Elementary physics, including heat, light and electricity
- Molecular structure
- Elements of nuclear physics
- Kinematic theory of gases; gas laws
- Heat transfer, radiation
- Elementary thermodynamics
3. Elementary chemistry
- Atomic-molecular theory, the periodic system of elements
- Chemical bonds and the structure of molecules
- Kinetics and chemical equilibrium
- Basic principles of electrochemistry
- Principles of physico-chemical analysis
- Surface phenomena and absorption
- Basic principles of colloidal chemistry
2
4. Elementary mechanics
- Statics (including hydrostatics), forces and moments , equilibrium
- Dynamics, forces, work energy, Newton's laws of motion; simple harmonic motion, Coriolis force
5. Introduction to hydraulics
do be seen in connection with B.2.J )
- Laminar and turbulent flow
- Concepts of energy, critical flow and alternative states
- Steady and unsteady flow
6. Elementary surveying
7. Course language
3
B. Basic subjects
1. Mathematical methods and computer application (80 hrs)
1.1 Mathematics (15)
- Matrix algebra
- Laplace transforms and Fourier series
- Z transforms
- Input-output mathematics
- Differential (also partial) equations (special application to surface water or groundwater problems will be dealt with under respective sections)
1.2 Numerical methods (20)
- Classification of differential equation (elliptic, parabolic, hyperbolic)
- Difference equations
- Solution methods (finite difference and introduction to finite elements)
- Initial and boundary conditions
1.3 Statistics and probability (25)
- Probability problems in hydrology
- Statistical parameters
- Distributions
- Extreme values
- Regression and correlation
- Likelihood and hypothesis testing
1.4 Computer application (20)
- Types of computers
- Computer programming
- Data handling
h
2. Fluid mechanics (30 hrs)
2.1 Fluid mechanics (10) (lo be seen in connection with A.5)
- Mechanics of ideal fluid
- Potential flow, flow nets
- Laplace equation
- Flow in porous media
- Mechanics of viscous flow
- Navier-Stokes equation (optional)
- Reynold stresses, Reynold's equation (optional)
- Boundary layer theory, velocity distribution (optional)
2.2 Hydraulics (20)
- Physical properties of water
- Uniform flow in open channels
- Equation of continuity and motion
- Gradually varied non-uniform flow (back water curves)
- Flow over and in hydraulic structures, hydraulic jump and head losses
- Hydraulic models
- Theory of groundwater flow
- Mathematical treatment of a number of important flow problems
3. Geosciences (40 hrs)
3.1 Hydrometeorology/Climatology (8)
- Atmospheric physics (atmospheric gas laws, radiation, water vapour flux)
- Climate of various regions
5
- Climatic variation in time
- Intercontinental exchange of air masses versus local variation and microclimate
3.2 Morphometry (8)
- Evolution of land forms
- Morphometric indices
- Introduction to erosion and sedimentation processes (in-depth treatment under 5.5, 7.5, 8.4, and 9.6)
3.3 Soil sciences (8)
- Physical and chemical properties of soils
- Soil formation, mapping and classification; land evaluation
3.4 Hydrogeology (16)
- Geologic formations in view of their hydraulic properties
- Properties and occurrence of rocks
- Rock-water-air relationship
- Introduction to hydrogeology
4. Hydrological observations (32 hrs)
4.1 Hydrometeorological measurement (10)
- Precipitation (type of recording; rain, snow; radar and satellite pictures; accuracy and reliability)
- Synoptic climatological measurements (temperature, humidity, wind speed, radiation)
- Evaporation (pan evaporation, lysimeter, areal evaporation)
4.2 Hydrometry * (12)
- Organization of hydrometric works
- Water level
* Sediment transport, soil water, groundwater and water quality measurements will be treated under the respective chapters
6
- Discharge measurement (velocity-area methods, tracer methods * , hydraulic measurement structures)
- Establishment of rating curves, river bed stability and influence of vegetation
4.3 Primary data processing (10)
- Observational procedures (time step, type of recording)
- Collection and transmission
- Data banks; storage and retrieval
- Primary and secondary data
- Processing and publication
7
C. Hydrological subjects
5. Hydrological processes and analysis (80 hrs)
5.1 Introduction (2)
- Hydrological cycle
- Terminology
5.2 Precipitation (6)
- Forms of precipitation and accuracy of measurement
- Distribution and characteristics of rainfall
- Determination of areal rainfall (representativeness of point measurements)
- Intensity-duration and depth-duration relationships
- Snow
5.3 Evaporation (10)
- Evaporation from open water, intercepted water and bare soil
- Transpiration
- Evapotranspiration
- Concepts of actual and potential évapotranspiration
- Theories and formulae of évapotranspiration (the energy and mass transfer approaches)
- Determination by measurements (pans, lysimeters etc.)
5.4 Infiltration (5)
- Factors governing infiltration
- Formulae for estimating infiltration
- Relation to surface runoff and groundwater recharge
- Measuring techniques
8
5.5 Soil water (5)
- Water in the unsaturated zone (capillary rise, percolation, depth to water table)
- Soil moisture content
- Soil water potential
- Soil moisture characteristics
- Soil-water-plant relationship
- Measuring devices (gravimetric methods, electrical resistance methods, neutron probes etc.)
5.6 Surface runoff (10)
- Depression storage, overland flow, surface detention, discharge
- Floods
- Analysis of flood hydrograph, separation of base flow and direct runoff
- Unit hydrograph method
- Synthetic hydrograph
- Maximum flood and frequence of occurrence
- Flood routing
- Low flow
- Droughts
5.5 Solid matter transport (15)
- Sampling techniques
- Sediment yield
- Sediment properties (suspended and bed load), initiation of motion
- Theories of sediment transport
- Bed forms, alluvial roughness
- Deposition and bed erosion, stable channels, local scour
- Sediment transport and water quality
9
5.8 Groundwater (20)
- Origin and occurrence of groundwater
- Types of aquifers, hydrolgy of fissured and fractures rocks, types of springs
- Hydrological properties of porous media
- Geohydrological investigations and mapping
- Interaction of surface water and groundwater
- Darcy's law and equation of continuity
- Confined, semi-confined and unconfined steady flow
- Principles ofsuperposition and methods of images
- Flow nets, numerical solution methods; introduction to groundwater models
- Measurement of piezometric head, hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity; water quality and temperature
- Groundwater level forecasting
- Tracer and nuclear techniques
- Fresh and saline water
- Effects of groundwater extraction (land subsidence, crop yield, river discharge etc.)
5.9 Mapping, photo interpretation (7)
- Cartography, projections
- Hydrological legends
- Presentation on maps of variables in space and time, computer maps; presentation of three-dimensional problems
- Surface water maps, water quality maps, groundwater maps, continental
ftydrogeological maps
- Remote sensing, aerial surveying; interpretation of aerial photographs and space imaginary
10
6. Hydrological modelling (54 hrs)
6.1 Description of network (7)
- Network design
- Characteristics of hydrological elements with reference to network design
- Systems analysis and design theory
- Techniques for network design, regionalization
6.2 Criteria for the use of data for modelling (3)
- Accuracy
- Time intervals
- Error detection and correction
6.3 Classification of models (3)
- Terminology, model technique (physical models, analog and mathematical models), model-prototype relationship, limitations
- Deterministic and stochastic principles
- L u m p e d and distributed models
- Linear and non-linear models
6.4 Stochastic models (15)
- Introduction to stochastic processes
- R a n d o m events, stationarity
- T ime series analysis
- Markovian processes
- Filtering
6.5 Deterministic models (16)
- Deterministic methods in system hydrology
- Analytical and numerical solution of equation of motion and continuity
11
- Blackbox analysis
- Conceptual models
- Mathematical physical models
- Flood routing models
- Optimization of model parameters, criteria, techniques
6.6 Hydrological forecasting (10)
- Forecast methods: short-term forecast, on-line systems, updating of parameters; long-term forecast for seasonal runoff, off-line systems
- Application to floods, low flow, ice, water temperature
7. Environmental aspects (50 hrs)
7.1 Water chemistry and water biology (10)
- Composition and characteristics of surface and groundwater
- Biochemical cycles, C , N , P and S
- Main chemical water quality parameters
- Introduction to instruments
- Genetics, breeding of plants and animals
- Ecosystems (principal system, baseline surveys)
- Aquatic ecology
- Population dynamics, carrying capacity
7.2 Surface water quality (10)
- Factors affecting water quality and pollution by human, industrial and agricultural wastes
- Water quality criteria
- Stratification and eutrophication in lakes and reservoirs
- Thermal pollution
- Self-purification
12
- Water-related diseases
- Water quality monitoring; water quality classification
- Accumulation of heavy metals and toxic organic metals in sediments
7.3 Groundwater quality (10)
- Processes determining groundwater quality
- Sources of groundwater pollution and effects on groundwater quality (N-, P-organic micro-pollutants, heavy metals, nuclear wastes)
- Artificial groundwater recharge
- Flow lines and residence time of polluted groundwater
- Leaching from waste disposals
- Protection of groundwater, sanitation and prevention
- Groundwater quality monitoring, sampling techniques
7.4 Soil conservation and erosion control (12)
- Continental erosion and sediment transport to the ocean
- Factors affecting surface erosion
- Soil loss tolerance
- Surface and linear erosion control
- Wind erosion
7.5 Environmental impact assessment (8)
- Environmental conservation and public health objective for water resources and civil engineering projects
- Environmental planning and conservation strategies
- Land use and soil conservation; groundwater protection
- Case studies (implementation of irrigation schemes; d a m construction; land reclamation)
- Identification, prediction and assessment of environmental impacts
13
8. Application to water resources m a n a g e m e n t (44 hrs)
8.1 Water demands (5)
- Water demands and resources
- Water balance as a tool for water resource management
- Quality requirements and standards for different types of water use
- Estimation of water use for domestic, industrial and agricultural water requirements (peak water demands, long-term trend, water use pattern)
8.2 Economics of water resources planning (7)
- Engineering economy; financial and economic analysis
- Cost-benefit analysis and rate of turnover criteria
- Cost models for water resources schemes
- Tarification policy
- Analysis of project returns
8.3 Systems analysis (15)
- Analysis of linear input-output systems
- Identification of objectives, economic benefits, cost and decision variables
- Application of systems analysis to problems of water resources engineering and environmental management
- Optimization methods (linear programming, dynamic programming, simulation, sensitivity analysis etc.)
8.4 Reservoir sizing and operation (12)
- General requirement for the design
- Compatibility of various uses
- Analysis of factors affecting the operation
- Sizing of single and multipurpose reservoir (effective storage, dead storage, losses, design -flood, freeboard)
- Silting-up of reservoir
Ill
- Optimization of operation rules
- Series of reservoirs
- Flood retention basins
8.5 Integrated management and master plans (5)
- Principles for integrated basin management
- Conjunctive use of surface and groundwater
- Impact on the hydrological regime
- Hydrological data for design purposes
15
D . Optional subjects
9. Hydrology of specific regions, different land uses and engineering
aspects (option)
9.1 Arid/semi-arid zones
- Climatic conditions; rainfall distribution; droughts
- Runoff (wadis, oasis, intermittent rivers, groundwater recharge from transient rivers and precipitations, fossile groundwater)
- Arid flatlands
- Brackish and saline waters, salinization
- Advection
- Land use practices and environmental aspects
9.2 Tropical
- Climatic conditions
- Monsoons
- Rain-forest hydrology, deforestation
- Erosion
- Water weeds
- Tropical sanitation aspects
- Environmental problems
9.3 Temperate
- Climatic conditions and effects of urbanization
- Acidification
- Agricultural, urban, industrial'water quality and quantity problems
- Thermal pollution
- Solid waste disposal
- Integrated water management problems; environmental protection
16
9.4 Snow, ice and high mountains hydrology
- Mountain hydrology
- Formation and metamorphism of snow, snow melt
- Snow properties; mechanics of snow pack, creep and glide
- Melt water forecast
- Fundamentals of glaciers; energy and mass balance
- Ice physics
- Avalanches (formation, dynamics, forecast, control)
- Sediment transport
- Instrumentation
- Torrent control
- Erosion and increased runoff due to deforestation
- Terracing
9.5 Swamps and marshes
- Various types of marshes, stagnant water, swamps and peatland; flatlands
- Hydrology of wetlands and their surroundings
- Physical, chemical and biological properties in marshes and swamps
- Salt swamps, chotts
- Consequence of drainage of wetlands
- Acidification, salinization
- Environmental aspects
9.6 Deltas, estuaries, coastal areas, polders
- Hydrology of exogenously-fed areas
- Tides
- Flood control intrusion and protection
17
- Drainage
- Salt water intrusion, fresh/salt water interface
- Hydrology of small islands- lagoons, dune belts
- Sedimentation and siltation problems
- Reclamation of low-lying areas, coastal reservoirs
7 Lakes and reservoirs
- Various types of lakes according to climate, morphonometry and their natural function
- Water balance of lakes and reservoirs
- Stratification and water circulation
- Water level fluctuations
- Siltation
- Introduction to limnology
- Eutrophication
- Littoral ecology
8 Karst
- Karstic forms and the karstification process
- Physical and chemical processes
- Theories of flow of water in karstic rocks
- Relation between surface and subsurface water
- Karst hydrological zones, karst springs
9 Forest
- Hydrology of forests (interception, surface runoff, groundwater rechar
- Erosion and sediment yield
- Effect of deforestation (clearing or acid rain) on the hydrological regime
- Effect of forests on water quality
18
9.10 Agriculture
- Agroclimatology
- Soil-water-plan relationship
- Soil moisture dynamics
- Crop water and leaching requirements
- Irrigation and drainage
- Erosion and soil conservation
- Diffuse pollution (nutrients, pesticides, herbicides)
9.11 Urban and mining-affected areas
- Types of runoff (storm, domestic, industrial, groundwater)
- Design rainfall storm profile
- Storm water drainage design methods for separate and combined systems
- Simulation models for urban areas
- Water quality (pollutographs)
- Effects of mining on the hydrological regime (water table, runoff, leakage from fills, heavy metals pollution)
- Land subsidence
9.12 Water resources engineering
- D a m sites
- River training works, flood protection
- Water supply
- Waste water treatment; thermal pollution
- Waste disposal
