Evaluation of Quality Control in the Open University Education ...

Evaluation of Quality Control in the Open University Education System in Nigeria

1

VOLUME 17, NUMBER 2, 2018 ISSN 0795-3607

NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

AND EVALUATION

(Website: www.naere.org.ng)

A PUBLICATION OF

THE ASSOCIATION OF EDUCATIONAL

RESEARCHERS AND EVALUATORS

OF NIGERIAN (ASSEREN)

Nigerian Journal of Educational Research and Evaluation

2

EDITORIAL BOARD

Prof. Ukwuije, R.P.I. (Editor-in-Chief)

[email protected] [email protected] 08033429222

Faculty of Education, University of Port-Harcourt

Rivers State.

Dr. Uzoma, P.(Managing Editor)

[email protected] 08033577195

Faculty of Education, Imo State University,

Owerri, Imo State.

Dr. Osadebe, P.U.


Faculty of Education Delta State University

,Abaraka, Delta State.

Dr. Faleye, B.A.

Faculty of Education, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife

Osun State, Nigeria.

Dr. Abbas Yusuf Mustapha


Faculty of Education.University of Jos,

Plateau State, Nigeria

Dr. Orluwene, G.W.


Faculty of Education , University of Port Harcourt,

Rivers State.

Editorial Advisers

Prof. Ogomaka, P.M. Imo State University, Owerri, Imo State.

Prof. Joe,A.I. University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State.

Prof. Afemikhe,O.A. University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State

Prof. Joshua,M.T. University of Calabar, Cross River State.

Prof. Akanwa,U.N. University of Agriculture Umudike, Abia State

Prof. Abubakar H.T. University of Maidugiri, Bornu State.


3

TABLE OF CONTENTS


Joshua Adetunji Ogunbiyi., Abbas Yusuf Mustapha &

Clementina Hashimu Bulus .................................................................................................. 1

Framing Instructional Strategy and Senior Secondary School Chemistry Students’

Achievement in Stoichiometry in Aba Educational Zone of Abia State

Madu, Adolphus Onuabuchi., Egwuonu Franklin & Ihuoma, Moses ............................ 12

Students’ Evaluation as a Basis for the Promotion of Measurement and Evaluation

Lecturers in Colleges of Education in Nigeria

G.G.Ezugwu ......................................................................................................................... 20

Values Re-orientation in Enhancing Girl Child School Participation in Jema’a Local

Government Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria.

Comfort K. Bakau., James N. Bature & Bawa John ...................................................... 29

Assessment of Quality of Teacher-Made Geography Tests used for Senior Secondary School

Students in Jos, Plateau State

Sayita Sarah G. Wakjissa .................................................................................................... 41

Teachers Continuous Assessment Practices and Secondary School Students’ Biology

Achievement in Obubra Local Government Area of Cross River State

Ayang, Ethelbert Edim ........................................................................................................ 54

Effects of Formative Assessment with Feedback on Junior Secondary School Students’

Attitude and Performance in Mathematics in Barkin-Ladi, Plateau State, Nigeria

Geoginia Cyril Imo & Hwere Mary Samuel ................................................................... 66

The Effect of Using Coefficient Alpha for Estimating the Reliability of Mathematics Test

when the Assumptions Underlying its Utilization are Violated

Michael Akinsola Metibemu, & Chinyere C. Oguoma ..................................................... 74

Achieving Quality Problem-Solving in Junior Secondary School Mathematics Through

Formative Assessment with Feedback

Hwere Mary Samuel., G. C. Imo & A.Y. Mustapha ......................................................... 89

Experimental Study on Using Portfolio Assessment to Enhance Learning in Senior

Secondary School Economics in Ibadan North, Oyo State, Nigeria

T. Godwin Atsua & A.O.U. Onuka .................................................................................... 99


4

Students’ Evaluation of Open Book Assessment in Restoring Value to our Educational

Assessment System. Popoola S.F. .................................................................................... 113

The Effects of Formative Evaluation on Students Achievement and Interest in

Secondary School Geography.

Ame Festus Okechukwu & Ebuoh Casmir .N. ............................................................... 120

Usage of Dice in the Teaching and Learning of Probability in Senior Secondary Two in Jos-

North Local Government Area of Plateau State.

Obadare-Akpata Oluwatoyin C. & Osazuwa Christopher ............................................ 128

Relative Effects of Mediated Instructional Techniques on Senior Secondary School

Students’ Achievement in Vocabulary in Kwara State, Nigeria

Mmohammed, Bola Sidikat & Ogunwole, Opeyemi ....................................................... 141

Assessment of Item and Test Information Functions in the Selection of Senior Secondary

School Certificate Mathematics Examination Items, 2016.

Roseline, Amos Aku., Bako, Gonzwal & Ndulue, Loretta,G. S.E ................................. 154

Violence against children in Northern Nigeria; An appraisal

Ahmed Taminu Mahmoud., Hassan Bukar Adam &

Suleiman Mohammed Saye ............................................................................................... 163


5

EDITORIAL COMMENTS

The Nigerian Journal of Educational Research and Evaluation is one of the official Journals

of the Association of Educational Researchers and Evaluators of Nigeria (ASSEREN). It

publishes empirical and theoretical papers covering a broad range of issues in educational

research, assessment, evaluation and other related issues all emanated from papers presented

at our annual conference held in Jos 2017. It contains well written articles that could serve

locally and internationally.

We have done our best to improve the quality of the Journal. A number of articles were

received and peer-reviewed. Accepted papers are published in this volume 17 in two numbers

1 and 2. We acknowledge the contributors to this Edition, our Editorial Advisers and

reviewers.

Therefore, we present this edition with the hope that you will find it very resourceful and

informative. We look forward to your continuous contribution to the Journal.

Dr. P. U. Osadebe

Member Editorial Board..


6

INFORMATION TO CONTRIBUTORS

i. Each article should not exceed 12 (double-space) typewritten quarto-size pages,

accompanied by an abstract of not more than 200 words.

ii. References for citations in the manuscripts should follow the recent APA format.

iii. Manuscripts which have been submitted for publication elsewhere or which have

previously been published are not welcome.

iv. Subscribers are to pay assessment fee and a publication fee upon the acceptance

of their manuscripts as determined by the Editorial Board.

v. Authors are assured of prompt editorial decisions on manuscripts.

vi. The journal is published once a year, mostly from papers presented at the annual

national conference of ASSEREN.

vii. If the article is the report of a study it should include: Introduction, Method,

Result, Discussion, Recommendation, Conclusion and References.

(a) Introduction includes: Background, Statement of problem, Research

questions, hypothesis and review of literature.

(b) Method includes: Design, Sample, Sampling procedure, Instruments and

their psychometric properties, and procedure.

(Note: a and b are all in running sentences, not as subheadings)

viii. All correspondences are transacted on-line and should be directed to

Prof. Ukwuije,R.P.I.

Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counselling

University of Port-Harcourt.Rivers State.

[email protected]. [email protected] 08033429222.

Or

Dr. Uzoma, P. (Managing Editor)

Faculty of Education

Imo State University,

Owerri, Imo State.


mailto:[email protected]



7

EVALUATION OF QUALITY CONTROL IN THE OPEN UNIVERSITY

EDUCATION SYSTEM IN NIGERIA

Joshua Adetunji Ogunbiyi

[email protected]

Abbas Yusuf Mustapha


&

Clementina Hashimu Bulus

[email protected]

Department of Educational Foundation, Faculty of Education University of Jos, Jos

Abstract

The Open University Education system has been accepted and integrated into the

mainstream of the Nigerian education policy. However, the programme has to contend with

the acceptability of the certificate by labour market because of suspicion and fear of quality

control compromise. Consequently, this study evaluated quality control in the Open

University education system in Nigeria using the survey method. A simple random sample of

450 respondents was selected for the study from five National Open University of Nigeria

(NOUN) study centres located in Abuja, Enugu, Ikeja, Jos and Kaduna. A questionnaire was

used for data collection. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The findings

revealed that the tutorial facilitation to the students in all academic programmes of NOUN is

not adequate and the course materials are not easily accessible to the students. It was

recommended that the Federal Government should diversify sources of educational funds to

the Open University education system in Nigeria and NOUN should establish a full fledge

instructional resource centre.

Keywords: Evaluation, Open University, Distance learning.

Introduction

The significant position occupied by education in national development cannot be over-

emphasized. Education contributes to the growth of national income and individual earnings.

In today’s information societies, knowledge drives economic growth as well as development.

Nationally and internationally, experiences have shown that conventional education is

extremely hard pressed to the demands of today’s social educational milieu, especially for

developing countries like Nigeria (Olubor and Ogonor, 2008). The limitation of spaces and

other learning facilities in the Nigerian Universities impose restrictions on access. If they had

their way, almost every product of the senior secondary school system will want a place in a

conventional university. An example is the 1,543,739 applicants to the 134 universities in

2016 (www.jamb.gov.ng/statistics.aspx).





8

The ever-increasing growth in Nigeria’s population, the attendant escalating demand

for education, the difficulty of resourcing education through the traditional face-to-face

classroom and the need to provide education for all mean that Nigeria must of necessity find

an appropriate and cost-effective means to meet the demand for education. These led to the

establishment of open and distance learning (ODL) in 1983by the Federal Government of

Nigeria in order to meet the educational needs of the country. The programme was however

suspended in 1984 following a change in government.

The resuscitation of ODL in 2001 and subsequent opening of the National Open

University of Nigeria (NOUN), in 2003, has indeed provided opportunity for many

Nigerians that hitherto would not have had access to higher education to be enrolled. NOUN

is designed to provide access to all Nigerians who yearn for education in a manner

convenient to their circumstances. This will cater for the continuous educational

development of professionals such as teachers, accountants, bankers, lawyers, doctors,

engineers, politicians, self employed businessmen and women. The clientele range is elastic

and dynamic, so a constant review is essential to meet ever changing needs.

The Open University system has been accepted and integrated into the mainstream

of the Nigerian education policy. However, the programme has to contend with the

acceptability of the certificate by labour market because of suspicion and fear of quality

control compromise. This is a natural occurrence for any new product (Olubor and Ogonor,

2008). In this respect, the National Universities Commission (NUC), as a regulatory agency

of the universities, has a vital role to play in ensuring that the standards laid down are

strictly adhered to. The programmes of the Open University should compare favourably

with similar programmes in conventional university system based on the approved

minimum academic standards (AMAS) stipulated by the NUC.

The National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) was formally opened in 2003.

The vision of the NOUN is to be regarded as the foremost University providing highly

accessible and enhanced quality education anchored by social justice, equity, equality, and

national cohesion through a comprehensive reach that transcends all barriers. To ensure that

high quality instructional materials are produced by its consultant writers, NOUN has

developed rigorous quality control measures. Consultant writers are selected on the basis of

the quality of their draft course outlines submitted in response to advertisements calling for

course writers. The selected writers are required to attend an instructional designing

workshop where they receive training on how to write for distance learners. The NOUN

Quality Assurance Unit is a unit within the Office of the Vice-Chancellor. Established in

August 2014, the Quality Assurance Unit of NOUN is a reflection of the University’s

commitment to promote institutional excellence through quality enhancement of its

educational provisions in order to meet learners and stakeholders’ expectations, and to

achieve a competitive advantage in the higher education sector.

The Open University is the United Kingdom’s (UK) largest university. In addition to

the quality control arrangements within the University, the Open University also operated the

quality systems common to the rest of UK higher education. Principal amongst these was the


9

external examiner system whereby experienced academics from other universities would be

involved in the assessment of students, including providing written reports to the University

on the comparability of its standards with those of other universities (Brennan, Holloway and

Shah 1997).

The Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) in India, established by an

Act of Parliament in 1985, has continuously strived to build an inclusive knowledge society

through inclusive education. There are 134 active two-way video conferencing centres; all

the regional centres and high enrolment study centres have been provided with network

connectivity, which has made it possible to transact through interactive digital content.

Another initiative is the Flexi Learn platform (www.ignouflexilearn.ac.in). This was

launched on 19th November, 2009 for free and easy access to open courses of IGNOU. A

major quality intervention that has been achieved is the introduction of the Student/Learner

Satisfaction Survey, which has been implemented with the objective of gathering inputs from

each and every learner about the performance of the University and the benefits they receive

from the IGNOU system (Avabrath, 2013).

The Botswana College of Distance and Open Learning (BOCODOL) was instituted

by an Act of Parliament in 1998, as a result of the quest for quality education emphasised by

the Revised National Policy on Education (RNPE 1994). Since its inception, BOCODOL has

been aspiring to be a college of excellence in ODL. Capacity-building in ODL became a

primary tool in ensuring that the college marched towards excellence. Another strategy that

the college adopted in pursuit of excellence was to participate in regional distance education

conferences, seminars and associations’ meetings with a view to learn from other ODL

providers. To make things work and to establish this culture on a sound footing, there is also

funding set aside on an annual basis for quality assurance activities, including training of

staff to ensure they keep pace with emerging quality trends (Tau and Thutoetsile, 2006).

The theoretical foundation for this study was the system theory. System theory

focuses on the arrangement of and relations between the parts, how they work together as a

whole rather than reducing an entity into its parts or elements. The way the parts are

organised and how they interact with each other determines the properties of that system. The

behaviour of the system is independent of the properties of the elements. This is often

referred to as a holistic approach to understanding phenomena (Ansari, 2004). Thus, a

systems approach is a theoretical perspective that analyses a phenomenon seen as a whole

and not as simply the sum of elementary parts. Ansari identifies two versions of system

theory namely; closed system and open system. For the purpose of this research, the open

system is preferable. This is because closed systems approach considers the internal

environment and the organisations interaction with it to be for the most part inconsequential.

Open systems approach views the organisation’s interaction with the external environment as

vital for organisational survival and success. Moreover, closed systems are static and self-

regulated. Joiner (1994) believes that the optimization of any sub-system will result in the

sub-optimization of the entire system. Thus, distance education could be approached through

a systemic view which subdivides all the components of distance education into various


10

groups to facilitate all types of interventions including academic and the evaluative. Also, the

open systems approach is applicable to NOUN programme since the organisation interacts

with the external environment, for example, NUC – for accreditation of its academic

programmes.

The present study was designed to evaluate the application of quality control

measures in the Open University education system in Nigeria since 2003. In order to achieve

this purpose, the following research questions were answered:

1. What are NOUN’s strategies to enhance quality control of its graduates?

2. How effective is NOUN’s quality control strategies in providing quality academic

programmes and education best practices?

3. How adequate are the resources employed by NOUN in its quality control activities?

Method

The study is both analytical and descriptive since it is concerned with a condition that already

exists; that is quality control in the Open University education system in Nigeria. The survey

method was used in this study. The research design was validated through a trial run of the

instrument on 100 respondents from NOUN Study Centre, Abuja, due to its cosmopolitan

nature as the capital of Nigeria. The pilot study report provided insight that gave indication

that the main study would yield viable results.

The target population for the study comprised the staff and students from 77 NOUN

study centres across Nigeria, who did not participate in the pilot study to validate the

instrument. The study used non proportional stratified random sampling technique to draw

two study centres from each of the northern and southern parts of Nigeria and one of the

NOUN Special Study Centres in Abuja, the NOUN Special Study Centre for Nigeria Prisons

Abuja. The sampled respondents were made up of a total of four hundred and fifty (450) staff

and students randomly selected in the Abuja, Enugu Ikeja, Jos, and Kaduna study centres.

The instrument for data collection was the Quality Control Questionnaire, (QCQ), a

close-ended-questionnaire. The QCQ was divided into four: sections A, B, C and D. In

section A, the bio data of the respondents was gathered. Sections B and C gathered data on

strategies to enhance quality control of graduates of NOUN and the effectiveness of the

strategies, respectively. Section D collected data on adequacy of resources employed.

Secondary data were obtained from appropriate documentary materials from National

Universities Commission (NUC), National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN), books and

articles from journals, magazines, newspapers, internet, monographs, published and

unpublished works.

The validation of the instrument was determined through the judgment of six experts,

who are proficient and knowledgeable on education. The six experts were made up of two

senior staff at the NUC (the statutory quality assurance agency in the Nigerian university

education system), two experts in Test and Measurement at the University of Jos and two

staff of Quality Assurance Unit at NOUN. The instrument was judged for its appropriateness

and adequacy to obtain the desired responses for the study.


11

The data for this research were gathered through the administration of the Quality

Control Questionnaire on the respondents in their study centres by the researchers, who

visited the centres during the examination period. The researchers were assisted by the

Director of Study Centre’s nominees. The questionnaire for staff were distributed to them in

their offices and collected later. The questionnaire for the students were distributed to them

after their examination in the hall and collected on completion.

Results

Out of 450 copies of the questionnaire administered, 378 representing 84% were returned.

Data on all the returned questionnaires were analysed by frequency distributions and

percentages. The data analysis is represented in tables.

Research Question One

Seeks to find out the various strategies that can enhance quality control of NOUN graduates.

Table 3.1 presents the respondents opinion.

Table 3.1: Strategies to Enhance Quality Control of NOUN Graduates Opinion Frequency Percentage (%)

Admission requirement and procedures 11 3

Development and production of Instruments 8 2

Structure and Management of the delivery system 13 4

Quality of materials used for teaching and promotion of learning 23 6

The students support services 7 2

Monitoring, evaluation and feedback systems 33 9

Availability of adequate human and material resources for the operation

of the programme 280 74

Total 378 100

Table 3.1 reveals that majority of the respondents 280 (74%) out of 378 were of the opinion

that availability of adequate human and material resources for the operation of the

programme is a strategy to enhance quality control of NOUN graduates. Also, 33(9%)

respondents agreed with monitoring, evaluation and feedback systems and 23 (6%) agreed

with the quality of materials used for teaching and promotion of learning. In addition, 13

(4%) and 11 (3%) respondents agreed with structure and management of the delivery system

and admission requirement and procedures, respectively. The table shows that 8 (2%) and 7

(2%) of the respondents agree with Development and production of Instruments and the

students support services, respectively.


12

Research Question Two

Seeks to find out the effectiveness of strategies adopted to enhance quality control in NOUN.

Table 3.2 presents the respondents opinion.

Table 3.2: Assessment of Effectiveness of NOUN Quality Control Strategies Opinion Frequency Percentage (%)

Very effective 11 3

Effective 66 17

Fairly effective 185 49

Not effective 116 31

Don’t know 0 0

Total 378 100

Table 3.2 shows that 185 (49%) out of 378 respondents assessed NOUN’s quality control

strategies as fairly effective and 116 (31%) assessed them as not effective. Also, 66 (17%)

and 11 (3%) respondents assessed them as effective and very effective, respectively. The

respondents were furthered asked to assess tutorial facilitation in NOUN academic

programmes. Their responses are presented in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3: Assessment of Tutorial Facilitation in NOUN Academic Programmes Opinion Frequency Percentage (%)

Highly adequate 31 8

Adequate 42 11

Fairly Adequate 92 24

Inadequate 209 55

Do not know 4 2

Total 378 100

Table 3.3 indicates that 209 (55%) out of 378 the respondents were of the opinion that the

tutorial facilitation in all academic programmes of NOUN to the student is grossly

inadequate. Also, 92 (24%) and 42 (11%) respondents assessed it as being inadequate and

adequate, respectively. In addition, 31 (8%) respondents assessed it as highly adequate, while

4 (2%) said they do not know.

Research Question Three

Seeks to find out the adequacy of the resources employed by NOUN in its quality control

activities. Specifically, the level of accessibility of course materials, the adequacy of study

centres was assessed and thecost implication of NOUN programmes. The level of

accessibility of course materials (DVD, books etc) is presented in Table 3.4.


13

Table 3.4: Level of Accessibility of Course Materials Opinion Frequency Percentage (%)

Very accessible 6 2

Accessible 24 6

Fairly accessible 68 18

Not accessible 275 73

Do not know 5 1

Total 378 100

Table 3.4 reveals that 275 (73%) out of 378 respondents were of the opinion that the course

material are not accessible. Furthermore, 68 (18%) and 24 (6%) assessed it as fairly

accessible and accessible, respectively. Also, 6 (2%) and 5 (1%) respondents indicated that

the course materials were very accessible and that they do not know, respectively. The

adequacy of NOUN study centres for learning was assessed and results are presented in

Table 3.5.

Table 3.5: Adequacy of NOUN Study Centres Opinion Frequency Percentage (%)

Very adequate 24 6

Adequate 32 8

Fairly Adequate 47 13

Not Adequate 219 58

Do not know 56 15

Total 378 100

Table 3.5 shows that 219 (58%) out of 378 respondents assessed the NOUN study centres as

not adequate for learning. Furthermore, 56 (15%) respondents do not know if the study

centres were adequate or not for learning, while 47 (13%) assessed the study centres as fairly

adequate. Also, 32 (8%) and 24 (6%) respondents were of the opinion that the study centres

were adequate and very adequate, respectively, for learning. The cost implication of NOUN

programmers was examined. The result is presented in Table 3.6.

Table 3.6: Cost Implication of NOUN Programmes Opinion Frequency Percentage (%)

Very expensive 43 11

Expensive 213 57

Fairly expensive 79 21

Inexpensive 32 8

Do not know 11 3

Total 378 100

Table 3.6 indicates that 213 (57%) out of 378 respondents were of the opinion that cost

implication of NOUN programmes was expensive. Also, 79 (21%) and 43 (11%) respondents

assessed the cost implication of NOUN programmes to be fairly expensive and very


14

expensive, respectively. Furthermore, 32 (8%) respondents assessed it as inexpensive, while

11 (3%) do not know.

Discussion

It can be deduced from the responses in research question one that NOUN quality control

strategies are generally effective. Availability of adequate human and material resources for

the operation of the NOUN programmers as well as monitoring, evaluation and feedback

systems are strategies to enhance quality control. The external examiner system whereby

experienced academics from the conventional universities would be involved in the

assessment of students should be sustained. This should include written reports by the

external examiners to the NOUN on the comparability of its standards with those of other

conventional universities as it is being practised by the Open University of United Kingdom

(OU). Another quality intervention can be achieved by the introduction of the

Student/Learner Satisfaction Survey, with the objective of gathering inputs from each and

every learner about the performance of NOUN and the benefits they receive from it, like it is

done in the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) system.

Based on the responses in research question two, the tutorial facilitation in all

academic programmes of NOUN to the student is grossly inadequate. The researchers’

interactions with some NOUN students during visits to the study centres showed that many

students were not available for the tutorial due to various reasons which included inadequate

time to leave other engagements for the tutorials. Also, the researchers gathered, from the

Directors of the study centres visited, that the fund available to NOUN could not sustain the

payment of the facilitators. Indeed, NOUN was indebted to some facilitators for past services

rendered. Therefore, facilitators felt reluctant to participate in the tutorials.

The responses to research question three show that course materials were not

accessible to the students. The reasons for lack of access to course materials were diverse.

According to the Directors of the study centres visited, these included inadequate fund and

bureaucratic bottleneck in going through due process of award of contract to print the course

materials. Also, some materials were out of stock and even when available, there was

problem of logistics for distribution. It was further revealed that there is only one central

warehouse located in Kaduna. The cost of transportation of these course materials from the

central warehouse to the various centres across the country was exorbitant.

Conclusion

As a result of the findings, it is observed that an effective quality control measure will require

adequate human and material resources for the operation of NOUN programme. The study

noted that NOUN is faced with numerous challenges which tend to bedevil its otherwise

laudable course towards educational development in Nigeria. These challenges range from

inadequate human and material resources in quality and quantity, poor infrastructural facility,

and poor funding of NOUN. To maintain quality in teaching and learning, NOUN must use


15

ICT in course content delivery, assessment of students’ performances, admission and

registration of students.

Furthermore, the study revealed that, the poor infrastructural facilities include

inadequate classrooms and office spaces, lack of computer centres and laboratories for

practical work. This was the result of paucity of fund. Both Federal and State Governments

will, therefore, need to collaborate and intensify efforts for all study centres to move to their

permanent sites and minimum equipment and facilities provided as a starter. Arising from the

findings of the study, it is revealed that the Federal and State Governments contribute in

funding the Open University Education system; however, they do not favourably contribute

to the provision of infrastructures and maintenance of the study centres.

Recommendations

In view of the findings of the study, the researchers make the following recommendations

1. The Federal Government should appropriately diversify sources of educational funds to

Open University education system in Nigeria.

2. NOUN should establish a full fledge instructional resource centre.

3. NOUN should explore ways of increasing students’ access to modern technologies so

that learners are not excluded from the benefits of the multimedia instructional

approaches.

4. NOUN should emplace a mechanism to conduct all courses online.

References

Akpan. C. P., (2008), “Enhancing Quality in Open and Distance Education through effective

utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Nigeria,” (Paper

presented at the 2nd African Council for Distance Education (ACDE) Conference

and General Assembly, Lagos, Nigeria, July 8th -11th , 2008).

Ansari, S. (2004), Systems Theory and Management Control, New York: Aldine.

Avabrath, G. (2013). “Quality Assurance in Open Distance Learning: IGNOU a Case Study,”

International Journal of Computer Science and Network, 2(1): 119-124.

Brennan, J., J. Holloway, & T. Shah (1997), Quality Assessment-Open University. Quality

Assurance Fund Project (unpublished).

Chacon-Duque, F. J. (1985), Building Academic Excellence in Distance Higher Education: A

Monograph in Higher Education Evaluation and Policy University Park:

Pennsylvania State University.

Chu, G. & W. Schramm (1975), Learning from Television: What Does the Research Say?,

Stanford, C.A.: Stanford University Press.

Joiner, B. L. (1994), “Fourth generation management”, in Dent, E. B. and S.A. Umpleby

(1998), Underlying Assumptions of Several Traditions in Systems Theory and

Cybernetics, published in Trappl, R. ed. Cybernetics and Systems, Vienna: Austrian

Society for Cybernetic Studies.


16

Kawatra, P. S & N. K. Singh (2006), “E-learning in LIS education in India” in Khoo, C., D.

Singh & A.S. Chaudhry, eds. (Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Conference on

Library & Information Education & Practice 2006 (A-LIEP 2006), Singapore, 3-6

April 2006 (pp. 605-611). Singapore: School of Communication & Information,

Nanyang Technological University).

Kulik, C. L., J. A. Kulik & B. J. Schwalb (1985), “The Effectiveness of Computer-Based

Adult Education”, (Paper presented at the 69th Annual Meeting of the American

Educational Research Association, Chicago).

Kulik, J. A., C. L. Kulik & P. A. Cohen (1979), “Research on audio-tutorial instruction: A

meta-analysis of comparative studies,” Research in Higher Education, (XI): 321-

341.

Leverenz, T. R. (1979), “Student Perception of Instructional Quality of Correspondence

Courses: Report of a Nine Schools Comparative Study”, (ERIC Document

Reproduction Service), 202-267. Jsaer.org/pdf/Vol50/50-00-040.pdf., Retrieved on

May 28th , 2013.

Moore, M. & G. Kearsley (1996), “Distance Education – A systems view”, Belmont, CA:

Wadsworth in Gokool-Ramdoo, S. (2008), “Beyond the Theoretical Impasse:

Extending the Applications of Transactional Distance Theory,” The International

Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 9(3).

Moore, M. G. &M. M. Thompson (1990), The Effects of Distance Learning: A Summary of

Literature, (N.P.): American Centre for the Study of Distance Education).

Nhundu, T. J. (1996), “Alternative Delivery Systems in Higher Education and the Search for

Quality through Distance Education”, Zambezia, xxiii (ii).

Niemiec, R. & H. J. Walberg (1987), “Comparative effects of computer assisted instruction:

A synthesis of reviews,” Journal of Educational Computer Research, III(i):19-37.

NOUN (2012), General Catalogue, 2012-2015: Undergraduate & Graduate.

NUC (2009), Guidelines for Open and Distance Learning in Nigerian Universities.

Olakulehin, F. K. (2009). Strengthening the Internal Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Open

and Distance Learning Systems, Lagos: IGI Global.

Olubor, R. O. & Ogonor, B.O., (2008), “Quality Assurance in Open and Distance Learning in

National Open University of Nigeria: Concepts, Challenges, Prospects and

Recommendations”, (Paper presented at 2nd ACDE Conference and General

Assembly, Eko Hotel Suites, Lagos, July 8th – 11th , 2008).

Olugbile, S. (2012), The Punch, “Tackling inadequate varsity enrolments with ODL,” April

15, 2012. www.punchng.com/education Retrieved on October 28th, 2013.

Pierre, S. &L. K. Olsen (1991), “Student perspectives of the effectiveness of correspondence

instruction,” The American Journal of Distance Education, V, (iii): 61-79.

Republic of Botswana (1994), The Revised National Policy on Education. Gaborone:

Government Printer.

SAIDE (1995), Open Learning and Distance Education in South Africa: Report of an

International Commission, Manzini, Swaziland: Macmillan Boleswa Publishers.

http://www.punchng.com/education


17

Tau, D. R. & T. Thutoetsile (2006), “Quality Assurance in Distance Education: Towards a

Culture of Quality in Botswana College of Distance and Open Learning” in Koul, B.

N. and A.Kanwar, eds. Perspectives on Distance Education: Towards a Culture of

Quality, Vancouver: Commonwealth of Learning.

Willett, J. B., J. M. Yamashita & R. D. Anderson (1983), “A meta-analysis of instructional

systems applied in science teaching,” Journal of Research in Science Teaching, XX,

(v): 405-417.

Zigerell, J. (1984), Distance Education: An Information Age Approach to Adult Education,

Columbus, Ohio: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career and Vocational Education.

Response Theory and their Application to Test Development. Journal of Research &

Methods in Education,5(11),38-45.

Zieba,A.(2013). The Item Information Function in one and two parameter logistics model- A

comparison and use in the analysis of the results of school test. International Journal

of educational Science, 10(14), 54-63.

Framing Instructional Strategy and Senior Secondary School Chemistry Students’ Achievement....

18

FRAMING INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY AND SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

CHEMISTRY STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN STOICHIOMETRY IN ABA

EDUCATIONAL ZONE OF ABIA STATE

Madu Adolphus Onuabuchi

Email: [email protected]. 08035836499

Egwuonu Franklin

Email: [email protected]. 08035805334

&

Ihuoma Moses

Department of Science Education College of Education

Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Abia State, Nigeria

Abstract

The study aimed at examining Framing Instructional Strategy and senior secondary school

chemistry students’ Achievement in Stoichiometry in Aba Educational Zone of Abia State.

The study adopted quasi experimental design. Three research questions and four hypotheses

were formulated to guide the study. The population of the study comprised all the 5,686

chemistry students of 2015/2016 session in public secondary schools in Aba Educational

Zone of Abia State. Purposive sampling technique was used to select 72 chemistry students

and the use of intact classes was involved. A 30 item multiple choice Stoichiometry

Achievement Test (SAT) with option A-D was developed which covered the SS2 Chemistry

curriculum. The content areas are: particulate nature of matter, symbols, formulae and

equations, mass-volume relationship. The reliability of the instrument was established using

Kuder-Richardson KR-20 and it yielded estimate of 0.72. The data collected were analyzed

using mean and standard deviation for research questions while the hypotheses were tested

using Analysis of Co-variance (ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance. The findings of the

study among others showed that there was significant mean difference between achievement

scores of students taught with framing instructional strategy and those taught with lecture

method. It was recommended that chemistry teachers should use framing instructional

strategy in teaching and learning of Stoichiometry among others.

Keywords: Framing Instructional strategy, lecture method, Stoichiometry and Achievement

Introduction

Chemistry is fundamental to everyone’s life and permeates almost every aspect of man’s

existence. Chemistry is essential for meeting basic needs of food, clothing, shelter, health,

energy and plays a vital role in the advancement of technology (Ababio, 2011; Amajuoyi,

Joseph & Udoh, 2013).




19

Chemistry has been identified as the core of the basic sciences and one of the science

subjects stipulated by the National Policy on Education (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2013)

which students must compulsorily offer to enable them gain admission into Nigerian tertiary

institutions to study any of the sciences and science related courses.

Chemistry is involved in several fields of study and candidates are expected to

satisfy the requirement of at least a credit in chemistry in the West African Senior School

Certificate Examination (WASSCE) to qualify to study courses like Medicine, Pharmacy,

Industrial Chemistry, Biochemistry, Chemical Engineering and other applied sciences in

tertiary institutions (Jegede, 2012).

In spite of the importance of chemistry, candidates’ enrolment and performance in

chemistry have not been impressive over the years (WAEC, 2000; Udo & Eshiet, 2009).

WAEC (2007) noted from their analyses, that for a period of ten years (1998-2007), it was

only in 2003 that up to 50.98% of candidates who sat for Chemistry in WASSCE passed at

credit level. Similarly, Ifeakor (as cited in Okonkwo, 2012) reported a consistent trend of

poor performances of students in Chemistry in the National Examination Council (NECO)

between (2004-2007). This trend has always generated concern among scholars, parents,

educators, scientists and the government. It could be blamed on the instructional strategy,

instructional materials or assessment techniques used in teaching (Jegede, 2012).

On this basis, many educationists have suggested different strategies in teaching and

learning of Chemistry topics and these include lecture, discussion, demonstration, field trips,

inquiry and mastery learning methods. Research reports by Inyang and Ekpenyong (2000)

showed that poor teaching strategy seems to be a reoccurring reason for poor achievement in

the science classroom. Ololade (2000) indicated that the teaching of Chemistry in schools in

Nigeria has not completely weaned itself from its historical antecedents in which the class is

dominated by the teacher and the participation of students in verbal interaction and skill

demonstration is limited. The effects of instructional strategy on the science concepts seem to

differ in effectiveness as it concerns areas perceived to be difficult in chemistry especially

Stoichiometry.

Stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative relations between amounts of reactants

and products. It is important that students know the nature of products when other elements

react with each other. Stoichiometry is one of the chemistry concepts that pose strong

difficulties to students’ understanding. It has been considered as unifying concept linking

many aspects of subject matter in Chemistry Curriculum (Olalede, 2006). Majek (2008)

reported that students as well as teachers ranked Stoichiometry as one of difficult

areas/contents to teach. He noted that Stoichiometry is difficult not only to learn but also

difficult to teach because of the poor methods adopted.

One of the methods suggested that can effectively aid in teaching Stoichiometry is

framing instructional strategy which is an aspect of meta cognitive strategy. The framing

instructional strategy was used in this study because it is learner’s centered and activity

based.


20

Framing strategy is a visual arrangement that enables a substantial amount of information to

be put in a grid or matrix or framework. Frames consists of main ideas in rows and columns

which allow information about the main ideas to be entered in ‘slots’ as facts, examples,

descriptions, explanations, processes and procedures in order to show the relationship among

them and within concepts.

In learning the concept of Stoichiometry, students need to move from passive to

active and dependence to independence, students learn the same concept in different ways,

and teachers need to move learning from teacher-centered to student-centered. As the centre

of all learning and teaching revolves around the student, it will be unwise if the teaching

strategy fails to recognize the central position of the student. The teaching strategy based on

the student-centered approach allows the involvement of the student in an open-ended

laboratory exercise.

Furthermore, the uncertainty over the extent instruction in learning strategy is

dependent on gender appear not to have been resolved. For instance, Furio, Azcona and

Guisasola (2002) found significant difference in chemistry achievement in favour of males.

Mariogu (2012) investigated the effects of framing instructional strategy on students’

Achievement and retention in mole concept. The study was a quasi-experimental study of a

non-equivalent control group design. Results revealed that there were significant effect of the

instructional strategy on students’ achievement in the mole concept and retention when

taught with framing instructional strategy than when taught with lecture method.

The result shows no significant interaction effect between instructional approaches and

gender of students’ achievements in mole concept and retention. The result further revealed

that students taught with the framing instructional strategy achieved more than their

counterparts in the control group. It is worthy of note that Miriogu (2012) based his study on

the teaching of mole concept and retention. In effect his work cannot comfortably be used for

basis of generalization in the teaching of Stoichiometry. It accounts for one of the reasons the

present study focused on Stoichiometry.

Similarly, Igwe (2006) determined the effect of concept mapping and framing

instructional strategies on students’ attainment of selected chemistry topics. A quasi-

experimental pre test, post-test control group design was used for the study. The study also

determined possible mediating effects of gender on the attainment of the chemistry topics.

Results indicated that the combined strategy obtained the highest adjusted post-test mean

score to cognitive achievement followed by concept mapping, then framing strategy and the

last lecture method. Result also revealed that gender did not have a significant mean effect on

cognitive achievements towards chemistry. Igwe (2006), covered more content areas in the

study carried out than the present study that focused intensively on Stoichiometry.

On these bases, the effect of framing on students’ achievement in Stoichiometry,

have not been explored and resolved. The questions raised should be how would framing

instructional strategy influence students’ Achievement in Stoichiometry? How would

framing instructional strategy interact with each of gender?


21

Based on the foregoing, the study was to examine the effect of framing instructional

strategy on the students’ achievement in Stoichiometry. The study was guided by research

questions and hypotheses.

The following research questions were formulated to guide the study;

1) What are the mean achievement scores of students taught Stoichiometry using lecture

method as measured by Stoichiometry Achievement Test (SAT)?

2) What are the mean achievement score of students when taught Stoichiometry using

framing instructional strategy based on gender of students as measured by Stoichiometry

Achievement Test (SAT)?

The study was guided by the following hypotheses and were tested at 0.05 level of

Significance

1) There is no statistically significant mean difference between the Achievement of students

taught Stoichiometry using framing instructional strategy and those taught with lecture

method.

2) There is no statistically significant mean difference between the mean Achievement of

students’ taught Stoichiometry using framing instructional strategy and those taught with

lecture method based on gender.

Method

This research work adopted the quasi-experimental design. The non-equivalent control group

design was employed because it was difficult to have complete randomization of subjects due

to practical consideration (for example, school time table and school regulation) which can

prevent assignment of subjects to groups.

The population of the study was 5686 Senior Secondary School two students in

2015/2016 Academic session in Aba education Zone. The population of the study was made

up of 2,814 males and 2,872 females. The Senior Secondary two Students were used because

Stoichiometry was in their Scheme of work and believed that students were familiar with the

work.

Purposive Sampling technique was used to select two schools used for the study.

Purposive sampling was used because the researcher’s discretions were needed for the

selection of schools appropriate for the study. In each school, two intact streams were used

for the study. One stream was randomly assigned to experimental group and the other,

control group. On the whole, there were four groups (2 experimental and 2 control groups)

from two selected schools, which comprised 34 students’ in experimental group and 38 in the

control group.

The instrument for data collection was Stoichiometry Achievement Test (SAT)

developed based on the topics as Contained in Chemistry Curriculum (NEDRC, 2005).It was

a 4-option multiply choice items containing 30 items on Stoichiometry. Two types of lesson

plans were developed for experimental and control groups. The lesson plans were face


22

validated by experts. The content validity of SAT involved the use of Table of specification

and the experts were required to determine the extent to which the items of the instrument

covered a representative sample of Stoichiometry. An estimate of internal consistency was

obtained using Kuder Richardson (KR-20) in estimating the reliability because the test items

used for trial testing were a multiple choice scored dichotomously. The value of 0.72,

reliability Coefficient was obtained.

The researcher administered pre test and post test to both the experimental group and

control groups. The experimental group was taught with framing instructional strategy while

the control group was taught with lecture method. The experimental treatment lasted for a

period of six weeks. Framing strategy as said earlier is a visual arrangement that enables a

substantial amount of information to be put in a form of a grid, framework spatial matrix.

While concept mapping depicts hierarchy and relationships among concepts, framing begins

from the most general, most inclusive concept at the top and proceeds downwards to general

specifics. Based on this, students were taught Particulate Nature of Matter, Symbols, formula

and equations, Mass-volume relationships, Acid-base reactions, Reduction-Oxidation and

Electrolysis. They were taught these topics using researchers’ frames based on topics on

weekly basis. A delayed post-test was administered after one week to allow time between

pre-test and post test.

The data collected were analyzed using mean and standard deviation for research

questions and the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance using analysis of Co-

Variance (ANCOVA). The ANCOVA served as a controller for initial differences across

groups as well as increasing the precision due to the extraneous Variable, thus reducing the

error Variance.

Results

The results of data analysis are presented in tables 1 to 4

Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviation of Experimental and Control groups Groups N Pretest

�̅� SD

Post test

𝑋 ̅ SD

Achievement

Gains

Experimental Group 42 7.12 1.33 19.45 3.81 12.33

Control Group 30 5.87 1.41 10.27 1.93 4.40

The Data presented in Table 1 show that the students taught Stoichiometry using the framing

instructional method had a mean Achievement gain of 12.33 after post test while students

taught Stoichiometry using lecture method had a mean gain of 4.40 after post tests.


23

Table 2: Mean and Standard Deviation of male and female students in control and

Experimental groups as measured by SAT Groups Gender N Pretest Post test Achievement Gains

𝑋 ̅ SD 𝑋 ̅ SD

Experimental Male

Female

26

16

7.15 1.38 19.00

20.19

3.80

3.83

11.85

13.13 7.06 1.29

Control Male

Female

19

11

5.74 1.28 10.26

10.27

2.18

1.49

4.52

4.18 6.09 1.64

The data in Table 2 show that the female students had higher mean score after the post test. It

implies that framing instructional strategy improved the performance of girls than the boys.

On the other hand, the male students in control group had higher achievement gains than the

girls.

Table 3: Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) for mean Achievement scores of students in

SAT when taught using framing and Lecture method. Source Type III Sum

of Squares

Df Mean Square F Sig Partial Eta

Squared

Corrected model 1509.946 2 754.973 77.643 .000 .672

Intercept 394.982 1 394.982 40.621 .000 .371

Pretest 33.343 1 33.343 3.429 .0.68 .047

Fis (treatment) 1056.374 1 1056.374 108.640 .000 .612

Error 670.929 69 9.724

Total 19759.000 72

Corrected Total 2180.875 71

a. R squared = .692 (Adjusted R squared = .683)

The result in Table 3 show that the calculated F (108.64) at 1 and 69 degrees of freedom was

greater than F-critical (3.98) at .05 level of significance. Based on this result, the null

hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there is significant difference between the mean

score of students in SAT when taught using Framing Instructional Strategy and lecture

method.


24

Table 4: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for Mean Achievement scores of male and

female students in SAT Source Type III Sum of

Squares

df Mean

Square

F Sig Partial Eta

Squared

Corrected model 460.676 2 230.338 9.239 .000 .211

Intercept 70.819 1 70.819 2.481 .096 .040

Pretest (Gender) 448.853 1 444.853 18.004 .000 .207

Fis (treatment) 7.103 1 7.103 .285 .595 .004

Error 1720.199 69 24.930

Total 19759.000 72

Corrected Total 2180.875 71

a. R squared = .211 (Adjusted R squared = .188)

Data in Table 4 revealed that the F calculated (0.29) at 1 and 69 degrees of freedom was less

than F-critical (3.98) at .05 level of significance. Based on this, the null hypothesis is

retained. This implies that there is no significant difference between the male and female

students in SAT.

Discussion of Results

The result indicated a significant difference in the mean Achievement of students when

taught using framing instructional strategy. This finding agrees with Mirogu (2012) who

noted a significant effect of the instructional strategy on students’ achievement in mole

concept and retention. Similarly, the present result also agreed with Igwe (2006) who

determined the effect of concept mapping and instructional strategies on selected chemistry

topics and found framing instructional strategy more effective over the conventional method

of teaching Chemistry.

On the other hand, the present finding disagreed with Cheeza and Mirza (2013) who

in their studies found out that male students performed better than the female students in

difficult chemistry concept using collaborative concept mapping. In contrary, this present

study found that gender is not a significant factor when taught using framing as an

instructional strategy and agrees with Igwe (2006) who also revealed that gender does not

have a significant mean effect on cognitive achievement towards chemistry. It implies that

the use of framing as an instructional strategy is very effective in teaching difficult topics in

chemistry and impacts equally on both sexes without discrimination.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made:

1. Chemistry teachers should use framing instructional strategy in the teaching and learning

of Stoichiometry and other concepts in chemistry since it has been found to improve

achievement of students.

2. Framing instructional strategy should be listed in the Curriculum as one of existing

methodologies in teaching difficult concepts in chemistry.


25

3. Grouping of students based on sex should not be considered when framing instructional

strategy is being used in teaching chemistry.

Conclusion

The use of framing instructional strategy in teaching chemistry especially Stoichiometry is

very effective. In doing so, no effort should be wasted in grouping students based on gender

since the use of framing as an instructional strategy impacts equally on both sexes.

References

Ababio, O. Y. (2011). New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary (6th Ed). Ibadan: African

Publishers.

Amajuoyi, I. J., Joseph, E. U. & Udo, N. A. (2013). Content Validity of May/June WASSCE

Questions in chemistry. Journal of Education and practice, 4(7), 15-121.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013). National Policy on Education. Abuja: Government

Press.

Furio, C. O., Azcona, R. &, J. (2002). The learning and teaching of the concepts of substance

and mole: A review of the Literature. Chemistry Education Research and Practice.

3, 277-292.

Igwe, I. O. (2006). Relative Effectiveness of Concept mapping and Framing Instructional

Strategies on Students’ Achievement in selected chemistry topics. Ebonyi State

University Journal of Education, 4(1).

Inyang, N. E. U. & Ekpenyong, H. E. (2000). Influence of ability and gender groupings on

senior secondary school chemistry Achievement on the concept of Redox reactions.

Journal of the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria, 35(1 & 2), 60-65.

Jegede, S. A. (2012). Remediation of Students’ Weakness for Enhanced Achievement in

chemistry: Greener Journal of Educational Research, 2(4): 95-99.

Majek, F. (2008). Chemistry Driver for National Development. A Paper Presented at the

National Conference of Chemical Society of Nigeria, Abuja.

Miriogu, C. A. (2012). Effects of Framing Instructional Strategy on Students’ Achievement

and Retention in Mole concept. [An Unpublished PhD Thesis], University of

Nigeria, Nsukka.

Ololade, O. I. (2006). Enhanced Mastery Learning Strategy of the Achievement and Self

concept in Senior Secondary School chemistry. Humanity and Social Sciences

Journal, 5(1), 9-24.

Udo, M. F. & Eshiet, I. T. (2007). Chemistry of Corrosion of Metals: A Resource for

Teaching Kinetics. Journal of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria, 42(172): 26-

32

West African Examination Council (2007). Annual Report (1998 – 2007)

Students’ Evaluation as a Basis for the Promotion of Measurement and Evaluation....

26

STUDENTS’ EVALUATION AS A BASIS FOR THE PROMOTION OF

MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION LECTURERS IN COLLEGES OF

EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

G. G. Ezugwu

[email protected], +2347038355444, +2348055877540

Department of Educational Psychology School of Education,

Federal College of Education, Zaria Kaduna State of Nigeria

Abstract

The main purpose, among others, in this paper is to examine how effective, or otherwise, the use

of Students’ Evaluation can be a basis for promotion of measurement and evaluation lecturers

in Colleges of Education in Nigeria. On annual basis in Colleges of Education,

administrators/Heads of Departments fill Annual Evaluation Report (APER) as a part of the

overall score for promotion, or otherwise, of lecturers. On the basis of that the researcher feels

that students being closer to lecturers on daily basis, are in a position to know who is effective

among lecturers, and should be allowed to make an impute in the lecturers promotion . A

twenty-six-item questionnaire on a five-point rating scale was developed by the researcher and

validated by two independent lecturers in measurement and evaluation, from FCE ,Zaria and

ABU, Zaria respectively, and used for data collection. A total of 405 copies were produced and

distributed, out of which 390 were correctly filled and returned and used in data analyses.

Using both descriptive and inferential statistical tools, Chi-Square analyses of the tallied copies

show, among other things, that the instrument is significantly very effective in assessing the

teaching performances of the lecturers. It is recommended, among other things, that the

assessments should be done at specified periods and times in all the Departments to avoid halo

effect.

Key Words: Aper, Instrument, Teaching, Assessment and Colleges.

Introduction

The main purpose, among others, in this paper was to examine how effective and relevance, the

use of students’ evaluation of lecturers in Measurement and Evaluation should be in Colleges

of Education in Nigeria. With the apparent fallen standards of education or in examination or

both, teacher or lecturer assessment for effectiveness has become a burning and controversial

issue in Nigeria. This controversy is hinged on two main issues, thus:

a. To justify the relatively enhanced salaries and allowances the lecturers receive at the end of

the month.

b. As an objective tool for promotion and discipline for effectiveness and ineffectiveness

respectively. That objective tool seems to have been found in the use of students evaluation

of lecturers in colleges of Education in Nigeria.



27

The Colleges of Education in Nigeria are charged with the responsibility of providing the

middle manpower teachers needed for both the primary and junior secondary school system

(FRN, 2005). The National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) fashions out a

policy necessary for the full development of teacher education; seeing to the quality of

academic staff; accreditation of NCE courses; certification and other academic awards;

disbursement of funds to the Federal, State and privately-owned Colleges of Education based

on prescribed rules (Lassa, 1998).

The mandate of the NCCE on face value appears relevant, useful, credible and

adequate. Still, there is an evidence that NCE graduates have not distinguished themselves as

having received quality teaching in the Colleges they attended in this present dispensation.

For instance, Ezugwu (1997) observed that many Colleges of Education authorities play

down standards in their recruitment of academic staff, which apparently, bring low quality

products. To this, he advised that all the institutions producing teachers should make sure that

they follow the laid-down minimum standards especially for Colleges of Education and

Universities. This may have prompted Lassa (1998) to recommend that in recruiting

academic staff for Colleges of Education, it has to be a holder of Masters Degree who is

proficient in his field of study. In the same vein Ali, (1998), described academic staff as

highly experienced and frontline scholars in their various disciplines and those who may

utilize the required essential teaching and learning facilities as well as opportunities for

professional and career growth in such system.

Ultimately, it is the responsibilities of the academic staff of the different Colleges to

perform this obvious task creditably. For this goal to be achieved, the lecturers who teach and

perform their academic duties in the Colleges must be effective in doing so. Teaching

effectiveness serves as a benchmark against which measure the performance in the general

preparation of teachers for the task of teaching (Baikie, 2002).

One way of determining if these lecturers are effective is through the appraisal of

their teaching effectiveness. Definitely, there is an annual appraisal exercise known as

“Annual Performance Evaluation Report” (APER) which is filled by every worker annually

for the purposes of promotion. This annual exercise is usually carried out by the superior

officers on their subordinates. This is made possible because they work closely with each

other. As was the practice, the Heads of department and the Deans do the appraisal of the

lecturers or academic staff. Even though they have roles to play in the appraisal exercise,

they should not be the principal actors.

It is clear that students who are always with the lecturers in the classroom are, and

should be in a better position to correctly do the appraisal of the lecturers’ teaching

competence. Hence, the opinion of those who eat the dinner should be considered, if we

want to know how it tastes (Arubayi, 2003). According to Centra (1974), the implication of

this is that students are in a better place to determine who the effective or ineffective lecturer

is. Therefore, the problem of this study put in question form: Is it possible for students to

evaluate the lecturers’ teaching effectiveness in Colleges of Education in Nigeria?


28

A College of Education is primarily designed and programmed to produce middle

manpower needs of the country vis-à-vis teachers who will teach at the Primary School level

with NCE as the minimum qualification. With establishment of Teachers’ Registration Council

of Nigeria (TRCN) charged with the responsibility of regulating teaching as a profession,

inducting education graduates and issuing certificates to them, the status of teachers in Nigeria

appears to have been better enhanced now than before. Bravo to TRCN!

To address the title squarely four null hypotheses were formulated.

1. The instrument for students’ evaluation is not significantly effective in assessing the

Cognitive Performances of measurement and evaluation lecturers in Colleges of Education

in Nigeria.

2. The instrument for students’ evaluation is not significantly effective in assessing the

Affective Performances of the measurement and evaluation lecturers in Colleges of

Education in Nigeria.

3. The instrument for students for students is not significantly effective in assessing the

Psychomotor Performances of the measurement and evaluation lecturers in Colleges of

Education in Nigeria.

Methods

Geo-Political Zones:Nigeria is structured into six Geo-Political Zones:

1. North-East Zone comprising Adamawa, Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Taraba and Yobe

States.

2. North-Central Zone which is made up of six states and Federal Capital Territory (FCT)

Abuja, Benue, Kogi, Nasarawa, Niger and Plateau States.

3. North-West Zone comprising seven states thus: Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi,

Sokoto and Zamfara States.

4. South-East Zone comprising five states: Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo States.

5. South-South Zone consisting of six states: Akwa-Ibom, Cross-River, Bayelsa, Delta, Edo

and Rivers States.

6. South-West Zone which is made up of six states: Ekiti, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Osun and

Oyo States.

All the six Geo-Political Zones, Colleges of Education therein and all the Departments of

Educational Psychology, which houses measurement and evaluation comprise the material

population for the study. All the measurement and evaluation students of NCE programme and

their lecturers comprise the human population for the study. From these populations, samples

were drawn.

In specific terms, and according to TRCN, (2011) there are 84 Colleges of Education in

Nigeria partitioned out as follows:


29

Table 1: Colleges of Education in Nigeria, Samples: S/N OWNERSHIP NUMBER LECTURERS

1. Federal FCE 21 5,727

2. State COE 44 10,447

3. Private COE 19 1,071

Source: TRCN (2011). Total: 84 17,245

For purposes of uniformity, objectivity and highest form of standards, only the Federal-owned

Colleges were used. From the remaining 13 colleges, a sample was drawn as shown in Table .2..

Table 2: Zones, States, FCE and Samples

SAMPLES USED

S/N ZONES STATES COLLEGES (FCE) Zone/State FCE Students Staff

1. North-East AD 1. FCE Yola AD Adamawa

2. North-Central NG 2. FCE Kotangora NG:NG Kotangora 40 10

KD 3. FCE Zaria PL Pankshin 40 10

KG 4. FCE Okene NW

PL 5. FCE Panshin KN,KT Kano 40 10

KT Katsina 40 10

3. North-West KN 6. FCE Kano

4. South-East KT 7. FCE Katsina

EN 8. FCE Eha-Amufu SE Enugu 40 10

IM 9. FCE AlvanOwerri SE Imo 40 10

5. South-South CR 10. FCE Obudu SS Obudu

6. South-South OG 11. FCE Abeokuta SW: Abeokuta

OD 12. FCE Adeyemi Ondo OD Ondo 40 10

OY 13. FCE Oyo OY Oyo 40 10

Total 08 08 320 80

Source: The Researcher’s Design (2017).

Only measurement and evaluation staff and students were sampled. Simple random sampling

technique without replacement was used in all the samplings. The details of the steps taken in

the sampling are beyond the space allowed for this paper.

The sampling and use of Guidance and Counseling staff in validation exercise was

aimed at conferring objectivity, reliability and validity on the ratings by students as shown in

the questionnaire (Agbo, 2006).

A twenty-six item structured questionnaire on a five-point rating scale was designed by

the researcher and used as the instrument for data collection. The scale is as follows:

1. Excellently Effective EE = 70 = 100% = A

2. Very Effective VE = 60-69% = B

3. Moderately Effective 50-59% = C

4. Fairly Effective FE = 40-49% = D

Not Effective NE = 30-39% =E

The instrument consists of four (4) sections as follows:


30

SECTION I. Bio-data of Respondents.

SECTION II. Cognitive Domain Assessment of the lecturers.

SECTION III. Affective Domain Assessment of the lecturers.

SECTION IV. Psychomotor Domain Assessment of lecturers.

Using split-half method, a reliability co-efficient of 0.94 (r =0.94) was established.

A total of 405 copies of the questionnaire were produced and distributed to the respondents by

the Researcher and his four (4) Research Assistants, one from each of the sampled zones. They

waited on the spot to retrieve the copies. The exercise lasted for two weeks. The responses

were tallied and built into simple frequency tables.

Statistical Applications: Descriptive statistics of frequency (f), percentage (%) and (mean x)

were used in analyzing the data.

A Chi-Square statistics was used in testing for significance of effectiveness of the

assessment instrument. Alpha level was set 0.05, one tailed test, for the rejection or otherwise

of the hypotheses.

Results

Of the 405 copies distributed, 390 copies were correctly filled and retrieved. This is represents

96.3% return rate. Therefore, only the 390 copies were used in data analyses (n= 390).

Using a tabular format, the results are presented thus:

Table 3: Assessing the Cognitive Performance of Measurement and Evaluation Lecturers (n=390)

Cognitive Responses R E S P O N S E S (R) Mean RmkX2

S/N Assessment Indices EE5 VE4 ME3 FE2 NE1 X

1. Clear and understandable explanation 100 250 26 10 4

26% 64% 7% 2% 1% 4.0 VE 619.816

2. Presents material in well or organized way 105 261 10 14 5

27% 67% 2% 3% 1% 4.2 VE 241.819

3. Adjusts price to the need of the class. 140 200 15 25 10

36% 51% 4% 6% 2% 4.1 VE 386.283

4. Gives factual cover of the topic. 130 200 35 10 15

33% 51% 9% 2% 4% 4.1 VE 359.362

5. Shows good knowledge of the course(s) 121 229 20 14 6

31% 59% 5% 3% 2% 4.1 VE 477.828

6. Points out the link among courses. 101 209 50 16 14

26% 54% 13% 4% 3% 4.0 VE 338.641

Critical Chi-Square (X2) value = 9.488; df=4; P=0.05 (one tail)

Source: The Researchers’ Survey (2013)

Key: EE = Excellently Effective; VE = Very Effective; ME = Moderately Effective; FE = Fairly

Effective; NE = Not Effective; RMK = Remark

Table 3 shows, among other things, that in the six-variable cases, the responded agreed that the

APER form was very effective in assessing the cognitive performances of the Measurement and


31

Evaluation lecture’s in the Federal Colleges of Education in Nigeria. This view is reflected in

the mean response of 4.0 and above.

The Table further shows that in all the six cognitive assessment indices, the obtained

Chi-Square (X2) values are by far greater than the critical value of 9.488 at 4 degrees of freedom

and alpha level of 0.05 one tail. Consequently, null hypothesis one (H01) is rejected in each

index. The alternative is accepted.

This implies that the APER form is significantly very effective in assessing the

cognitive performance of the lecturers in the colleges.

Table 4: Assessing the Effective Performances of the PHE Lecturers (n=390)

Cognitive Responses R E S P O N S E S (R)

S/N Assessment Indices EE5 VE4 ME3 FE2 NE 1 X2 Rmk X

1. Sensitive to the feelings and 140 190 28 22 10

problems of students. 36% 49% 15% 6% 2% 4.2 VE 314.641

2. Is enthusiastic about the students 121 193 35 26 15

31% 49% 9% 7% 4% 4.1 VE 302.513

3. Is readily accessible to the students 130 140 100 10 10

outside the classroom. 33% 36% 26% 2% 2% 4.0 VE 208.718

4. Encourages students to express their 101 200 46 30 13

own opinions. 26% 51% 12% 8% 3% 4.0 VE 294.436

5. Encourages students’ active participation 121 229 20 14 6

in lecturer. 31% 46% 13% 8% 2% 4.0 VE 254.871

6. Adjusts his language to the level of 100 206 50 20 14

the students. 26% 53% 13% 5% 3% 4.0 VE 321.556

7. Gives praise or reward when due. 105 206 54 18 12

27% 52% 14% 5% 2% 4.0 VE 312.693

8. He is emotionally stable (i.e . 143 147 48 32 20

not hot-tempered or apathetic.). 37% 38% 12% 8% 5% 4.0 VE 196.998

Critical X2 value = 9.488; df = 4; P = 0.05 (one tail), Overall X2 value = 551.601

Source: The Researchers Survey (2013)

KEY: df = degree of freedom; n = responses minus one

The major highlights in Table 4 are as follows: The respondents agreed that the APER form

was very effective in assessing the Affective domain performances of the PHE lecturers in the

Colleges. This view is reflected in the mean responses of 4.0 and above.

Furthermore, the obtained X2 values in all the eight-variable indices are far much

greater than the critical value of 9.488. Therefore, null hypothesis two (H02) is also rejected. The

alternative is accepted. This implies that the APER form is significantly very effective in

assessing the Affective domain performances of the PHE lecturers in the Colleges.


32

Table 5: Assessing the Psycho-Motor Performances of the Measurement & Evaluation

Lecturers (n=390)

Psycho-Motor Assessment R E S P O N S E S (R) Rmk X2

S/N Indicesor Variables EE5 VE4 ME3 FE2 NE1 X

1. Makes genuine effort to get 210 100 40 26 14

students involved in discussions. 54% 26% 10% 7% 4% 4.2 VE 335.283

2. Returns written work in good 250 101 25 10 4

time with corrective comments. 64% 26% 6% 2% 1% 4.5 VE 551.564

3. Is always prepared for his classes. 200 130 35 15 10

51% 33% 9% 4% 2% 4.3 VE 359.360

4. Is always punctual to his class 229 121 20 10 20

are reliable. 59% 31% 5% 2% 5% 4.4 VE 461.564

5. Allows ample opportunity for 101 210 45 21 13

questions by students. 26% 54% 12% 5% 3% 4.0 VE 138.903

6. Uses teaching aids when and 200 140 25 15 10

Where necessary. 51% 36% 6% 4% 2% 4.3 VE 386.283

Critical Chi-Square value = 9.488; df = 4; P = 0.05 (one tail), Overall X2 value = 490.326

Source: The Researcher’s Survey (2013)

In Table 5, the respondents are of the view that APER form is very effective in assessing the

psycho-motor domain performances of the lecturers. This is evidenced in the mean response of

4.0 above.

The Table also shows that the obtained X2 values in all the Six-variable indices are far

much greater than the critical value of 9.488. Therefore, null hypothesis three (H03) is rejected.

The alternative is accepted.

This implies that APER form is significantly very effective in assessing the psycho-

motor domain performances of the PHE lecturers in the Federal College of Education in

Nigeria.

Discussions

In educational assessments, there are three domain objectives which are: cognitive, affective and

psycho-motor. The cognitive domain objectives cover knowledge, comprehension, analysis,

synthesis and evaluation. Affective domain emphasizes, appreciation, valuing, we-feeling and

cooperation; while the psycho-motor domain lays emphasis on manipulative skills. The APER

form seeks to assess how well, or otherwise, the lecturers apply these domains in teaching and

learning in Teacher Education.

The assessment should not be restricted to teaching and learning only, but should cover

conduct of examinations, marking of scripts and releasing of results. The fact that APER is

found to be very effective in the assessment of the lecturers, teaching skills and ability is not

surprising considering the fact that it has stood the test of time over the years (NCCE, 2012 and

Omoniwa, 2012). It is likely that the assessments in other teaching disciplines will reveal the

same or similar findings.


33

Implications in Teacher Education

The merits notwithstanding, due to the unpredictable nature of human behaviour, the APER

form could be subjected to manipulations, abuses and misuses in the areas of favouritism,

vendetta and witch-hunting by administrators in the Public Sector.

Some administrators can use the APER form to unduly favour their “errand boys and

girls” by awarding them unmerited and undeserved high scores. Some can also use it to settle

scores with their perceived imaginary or real “enemies”. It can also be used as a tool for witch-

hunting lecturers who oppose the views of such administrators. In this era of sexual harassments

in campuses, some female students could score lecturers low marks as a way of paying such

lecturers in their own coins.

Conclusions and Recommendations

In this paper, it has been established that the APER form is a very effective instrument in

assessing the cognitive, Affective and Psycho-motor domains of teaching performances of

Measurement and Evaluation Lecturers in Colleges of Education in Nigeria. Consequently, it

stands a very veritable and reliable tool for use by both students and administrators in the Public

Sector in assessing the teaching performances of lecturers within and outside the classroom in

Teacher Education.

Therefore, it is recommended as follows: In this era of Computer Revolution, the APER

form should be revised every year to increase its objectivity; reliability as well as both face and

content validities.

Only students who have spent at least one academic session should qualify to participate

in the assessment of the lecturers with regard to academic, social and psychological maturity

and experiences.

The APER form should continue to be used by students to assess the teaching

performances of lecturers not only in Measurement and Evaluation, but in other teaching-

learning disciplines in Teacher Education.

There should be specified periods and times for the assessments to avoid halo effects.

References

Agbo, AA (2006). Evaluation Research for Political Applications; Enugu: Chestron Publishers.

Ezugwu, G.G. (1998). Monitoring Teachers’ production in Colleges of Education:

Implication for Primary Education in the 21st Century Nigeria. Journal of Problems

Solving in Education 1,(1)

Federal College of Education, Zaria (2012).Revised Annual Performance Evaluation Report

(APER); Zaria: FCEZ.

Federal Government of Nigeria (1998).Annual Performance Evaluation Report (APER); Lagos:

Federal Ministry of Information.

Federal Ministry of Education (2006).Annual Performance Evaluation Report (APER); Abuja:

Federal Government Press.


34

Lassa, P.N. (1998). Vision and Mission of Teacher Education in Nigeria. Kaduna. NCCE

Publications.

National Commission for Colleges of Education (2012).Revised Edition of Annual Performance

Evaluation Report; Abuja: NCCE.

Omoniwa, O. (2012). “A Memo Presented to Members of the Academic Board during the 101th

Meeting on the Revised Edition of the APER Form on Tuesday 31st July.

Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria (2011). Statistical Digest of Teachers in Nigeria;

TRCN for Quality Education, Vol.6, Abuja: TRCN.

Values Re-Orientation In Enhancing Girl Child School Participation In Jema’a Local Government Area

35

VALUES RE-ORIENTATION IN ENHANCING GIRL CHILD SCHOOL

PARTICIPATION IN JEMA’A LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF

KADUNA STATE, NIGERIA.

Comfort K. Bakau

Ministry of Education Kaduna State.

08022667567 [email protected]

James N. Bature

Department of Educational Foundations,

Faculty of Education, University of Jos, Jos.


&

Bawa John

Department of Educational Foundations,

Federal University Kashere, Gombe.


Abstract

This study investigated cultural values/values education and community participation in

enhancing school retention of girls in Jema’a Local Government Area of Kaduna State,

Nigeria; so as to provide solution to the problem of girls’ retention in school and completing

of programme of study for national and global participation. Two research questions guided

the study. The descriptive survey was used following an Action Research Plan. A targeted

311 respondents in the area of study consisting of various groups in the community made up

the population at the survey from which a sample of 174 and 64 respondents were drawn at

the “Look” and “Think” Stages respectively. Two instruments namely Data on Records

(DOR) and Factors and Solution to Girls Retention in School (FSGRS) were used for data

collection. The validity of the instruments was determined by three experts in the Faculty of

Education, University of Jos. Data collected was analyzed using percentages, frequency

counts and rank ordering to answer the research questions. The study revealed among other

findings that there is a break down in the cultural values in the communities studied. It was

recommended that community leaders should reinvent and articulate measures of enforcing

the cultural values on community members, especially the girls.

Keywords: Values re-orientation, Community participation and Retention.

Introduction

Girl-child of school age will be the wife, mother and member of her wider society tomorrow.

She will be expected to perform certain roles/responsibilities in her community. To equip her

for effective living as well as to develop her potential for self, family, community and





36

national development, she needs to be educated. But certain cultural issues seem to

undermine her participation in school; issues such as male preference, roles expected of girls,

religious misinterpretation, the fear of girls becoming pregnant and too independent if sent to

school. Values that were once regarded as important in our communities such as the care for

each other, respect for elders, obedience to constituted authorities, parental care, value placed

on virginity and shame at becoming pregnant out of wedlock, to mention but a few, seem to

be absent in most of our communities today.

Cultural/religious issues are important indices in determining girl-child participation

in school. The attitude of parents determine to a large extent who to invest in with regards to

education. Some believe that investing in boys is more beneficial since they are more

intelligent than girls and perform better (Umar, 2009). However, Sada, Adamu and Ahmad

(2004) are of the view that it is more of a preference for the male-child as found in most

African countries. They observe that in Northern Nigeria the issue is closely linked to that of

inheritance of family assets. According to this tradition, investing in the boy child who would

remain within the family is better than “wasting” the resources on the girl who would

eventually marry and go to another man’s house. In Chad for example, some parents believe

that their daughters will be driven to prostitution if they are sent to school while in some

parts of Cameroun, educated girls are seen to be too independent and likely to challenge the

traditional role expected of them in marriage (Cammish & Brock in Odaga & Heneveld,

1995).Others believe that educated girls are a disgrace to the community because they

usually may not get married to men in the community who may be less educated than them.

Studies by UNESCO (2006) showed that after participation in some cultural rites,

some girls find it difficult to return to school. Genital mutilation for girls in southern Nigeria,

and early marriage and teenage pregnancy in the North are some of the cultural practices

hindering girls’ attendance and retention in school. After participating in these social

festivals, they usually find it difficult to return to school. For some, it is the feeling that they

have attained some level of maturity and can no longer accept discipline from the school

authority. Others, however, feel uneasy associating with those pupils who might not have

undergone such cultural rites.

Religious misinterpretation especially in Islam and Christianity has negative effects

on girl-child education. Adeyanju (2008) posits that this misinterpretation is more prevalent

among parents of Islamic faith, who fear that their daughters will be converted to Christianity

if sent to schools where western education could be acquired (since formal education has

long been associated with Christianity). Girls are indoctrinated early in life to believe that

fulfillment in life is not found in getting formal western education (Oleribe, 2008) but in

marrying early, having children and making one’s husband happy. To such girls, education is

not a priority. They wait eagerly for the arrival of the man who would marry them. Anderson,

Bloch and Soumare (in Odaga & Heneveld, 1995) report that in Guinea, religious beliefs

hinder children especially girls from attending public schools. They report that in some

villages, no children were sent to school at all while in some, parents prefer to send their

children to Koranic schools. More boys than girls are often sent to public schools with the


37

belief that girls only need to learn ‘prayers’. The girls sent to the Koranic schools spend

shorter years than the boys. Cammish and Brock (in Odaga & Heneveld, 1995) reported that

although the seclusion of women and their low status is justified by men as being Islamic in

northern Cameroun, elite Muslim families in urban areas educate their daughters with

enthusiasm. Those parents who believe that schooling undermines their daughters’ religious

beliefs are based in the rural areas. The Christian faith, according to Kwashi (1997) teaches

the oneness of male and female as found in Galatians 3:28 which states: “There is neither

Jew or Greek, slave nor free, male nor female for we are all one in Christ Jesus”. The

researcher observes, however, that the truth of this teaching is usually overshadowed by

cultural practices in most communities which often give rise to unequal treatment especially

when it comes to educational opportunities given to males and females.

Girls are given out as brides in Ethiopia with possibility of early pregnancy and the

responsibility to their in-laws and husbands will not allow them access to school. Mgwangi

in Offorma (2009) reported that in Kenya, girl child education is hindered by factors such as

backward cultural practices, poverty and disease. Also, child marriage, house chores, death

of a mother and looking after sick family members keep girls from school despite the

introduction of free primary education in the country. Most of the girls are usually given out

in marriage against their wish by the parents for a bride price. The reason given by some

parents is to avoid girls bringing shame to the family by becoming pregnant outside

marriage. Girls are given early in marriage (sometimes forcefully), they become pregnant,

take family responsibilities which do not allow them access to school. Backward cultural

practices such as parents fearing that girls will become pregnant at home thereby bringing

shame to them and that an educated girl is a disgrace to the community among others,

apparently constrain commitments to enrol and support the girl child to complete circle of

educational programmes. Early pregnancy/marriage are factors that affect school retention of

girls. Aku (2011) and Ajaja (2012)observed that 30% of Nigerian teenagers drop out of

school having already begun child-bearing. Once they become pregnant, it becomes difficult

for them to continue in school. School retention rate is low among these girls; very few of

them are able to return to school and complete their education.

The need to revisit and reinvent our values that we once held in high regard cannot

be overemphasized. Speaking on value reorientation, Ogude (2017) observed that all is not

well with our nation and that the values that were once held dearly belong to another era:

values such as honesty, integrity, good neighbourliness, religious tolerance that once defined

our society are no longer practiced. For the girl child to be retained in school, there is need

for values re-orientation where those cultural issues that seem to undermine her participation

in school are articulated and addressed. In doing so, girl child will be enrolled and retained in

school to complete at any given level of education.

Low retention of girls in school, if left unchecked, will have implications not only for

the girls but also the family, community and the nation at large. It makes great negative

impact on the education, employment and income earning opportunity of the girls later in

life. It is not only girls that pay for early marriage but also the society as a whole; population


38

pressure, health care costs and loss of opportunity of human development (because of lack of

education) are just a few of the growing burdens that society shoulders because of teenage

pregnancies (Aku, 2011; Ajaja, 2012). There is need, therefore, for all stakeholders to work

collaboratively to ensure that the girl child is not only enrolled in school but retained until

she completes a given level of education and transits to the next.

The Ecological Systems Theory (EST) usually credited to Bronfenbrenner (1979)

was used to underpin this study. The Ecological Systems Theory emphasizes that:

(1) there are environmental factors that play important role in an individual’s

development from birth to adulthood,

(2) there is interaction between these systems, none operates in isolation and

(3) working together, they influence one’s behaviour and outlook on life.

The relevance of the Ecological Systems Theory to this work is that it was used to collect

data by engaging the various clusters of the community members in identifying, defining,

categorizing and discussing respondents’ views on the factors undermining school retention

of girls in the community and to suggest solutions.

Girls in Kaduna state need to complete school for self and national development.

But this has not been the case as many girls (over the years) are not retained in school to

complete a given level of education, mainly as a result of some cultural factors. The

implication of low retention of girls in school in Jema’a LGA is that it has contributed to the

non-realization of the objectives of the National Policy on Education (NPE), the Education

for All (EFA) and the education-related Millennium Developments Goals (MDGs) of

providing education for all school age children by 2015. Also, with many girls not retained

in school, Jema’a LGA is in danger of producing illiterate mothers in future; those incapable

of making meaningful contributions to self, family, community and national development.

There is also the problem of low self esteem among the girls and loss of life-time

opportunities for development as provided in the NPE. There is the need to create a

conducive environment for the retention of girls in schools today. How can community

participation through values reorientation enhance school retention of girls in Jema’a LGA

of Kaduna State?

The purpose of the study is to examine community participation through values

reorientation in enhancing girl child retention in Junior Secondary Schools in Jema’a Local

Government Area of Kaduna State. The objectives of the study are to:

1. Find out the retention rate of girls in junior secondary schools in Jema’a Local

Government Area of Kaduna State.

2. Find out what the community believes are the factors affecting girl child retention in

Junior Secondary Schools in Jema’a LGA.

Method

This study employed the descriptive survey, following an Action Research Plan of “Look”

and “Think” stages. The descriptive survey design followed the Look and Think stages of the


39

Action Research Plan. The purpose was to gather baseline data by identifying and defining

the factors undermining school retention of girls in the communities under investigation and

to identify effective intervention based on those factors. Jema’a Local Government Area of

Kaduna State has a population of 278,202 by the 2006 population census (Kaduna State

Population Statistics, 2016). Community members from two communities (n1 and n2)

comprising of community leaders, teachers, girls, boys, women and men formed the

population for the study (311 at the survey stage). The choice of this population was

informed by the existing clusters in the communities by these groupings. This fitted well into

the nature of the study that required interaction (from start to finish) with these various

clusters in the communities. The breakdown of the targeted population in n1and n2

respectively is as follows: community leaders (18 & 26), teachers (35 & 35), girls (24 & 24),

boys (24 & 24), women (24 & 24), and men (24 & 24). The rationale for the inclusion of all

the clusters is that they are the representatives of the various groups in the communities.

Therefore, their views can reflect those of their group members. The sample at the Look

Stage consisted of 174 community members (community leaders, teachers, girls, boys,

women and men; (n1 = 92 & n2 = 82). The distribution of the sample at the Look Stage for

communities n1 and n2 respectively are: community leaders (15 & 24), teachers (13 & 11),

girls (14 & 7), boys (24 & 14), women (20 & 15) and men (7 & 11). The sample for the

Focus Group Discussion was 64 community members; this number was further narrowed

down for effective analysis of data collected during the interview sessions. Out of the number

left, some were chosen as their districts representatives. The purpose was to get community

members to participate in the process of reviewing, identifying and analyzing the data

collected. Two instruments were used for data collection namely; Data on Records (DOR)

and Factors and Solutions to Girls Retention in School (FSGRS). DOR was used to collect

data on enrolment and progression of JSS1-3 girls from 10 schools for a five year period

(2010-2016) to compute the retention rate of the girls. FSGRS consisted of various interview

schedules for the different clusters of respondents identified for the interview: community

leaders, teachers, girls, boys, women and men. Interview sessions were held at individual

levels. Questions asked were mostly open ended to allow interviewees express freely their

opinions on the issues under investigation. At the focus group discussion, questions similar to

those on FSGRS were asked to guide categorization, analysis and discussion of the interview

responses. Data collected was analyzed using frequency counts, percentages and rank

ordering to answer the research questions.

Results

What is the retention rate of girls in junior secondary schools (JSS) in Jema'a Local

Government Area (LGA) of Kaduna State? Data on enrolment and progression was collected

from 10 schools over a five-year period (2010–2016). Retention rates were computed by

cohorts in each school, then the overall rate for the LGA. The retention rate is presented in

Table 1.


40

Table 1: Retention Rate of JSS Girls in Jema'a LGA

S/N School Percentage Retention Ranking

1. s1 65.83% 8th

2. s2 88.87% 3rd

3. s3 67.84% 7th

4. s4 85.30% 4th

5. s5 118.45% 1st

6. s6 60.38% 9th

7. s7 92.70% 2nd

8. s8 71.12% 6th

9. s9 - -

10. s10 81.63% 5th

Total 81.35%

Source: Bakau (2017).

Table 1 reveals that the school with the lowest retention rate of girls in the LGA is school s6 =

60.38% followed by school s1 = 65.83% and school s3 = 67.84%. The percentages of these

schools are far below the LGA average of 81.35% as seen in Table 1. The LGA average in

turn is lower than the expected 100% retention rate for pupils/students at the UBE level. The

exceptional case in which school s5 has 118.45% retention rate of girls is attributed to

increased awareness raised in the community on the importance of girls’ education resulting

in the re-entrance of some of the girls to school and/or some intervention by government. On

the whole, however, the result shows that there is a low retention of girls at the junior

secondary school level in Jema'a LGA of Kaduna State.

What does the community believe, are the factors affecting girl-child retention in the

Junior Secondary Schools? This research question was answered during the survey of the

study under the Look Stage of the Action Research Plan. The participants were asked to state

in their opinions, the factors affecting school retention of girls in the community. The factors

identified by both communities are presented in Table 2.


41

Table 2: Stakeholders’ Opinions of Factors Affecting Girl Child Retention in Junior

Secondary Schools in Jema'a LGA. Factors (Themes) Clusters Community

n1 n2

Total X1 M % Total X2 %

Early Pregnancy/Marriage Community leaders 1 5 10 67 24 5 21

Teachers 13 3 23 11 7 64

Girls 14 14 100 7 3 43

Boys 23 9 39 14 5 36

Women 20 16 80 15 8 53

Men 7 3 43 11 5 45

Disobedience/lack of Community leaders 15 10 67 24 5 21

interest/desire for Teachers 13 8 62 14 3 27

worldly things Girls 14 6 43 7 4 57

Boys 23 11 48 14 10 71

Women 20 11 55 15 12 80

Men 7 2 29 11 8 73

Parental negligence Community leaders 15 8 53 24 5 21

Teachers 13 7 54 14 4 36

Girls 14 1 7 7 2 29

Boys 23 8 35 14 5 36

Women 20 6 30 15 4 26

Men 7 3 43 11 3 27

Economic factor/ Community leaders 15 10 67 24 5 21

poverty Teachers 13 8 62 14 8 73

Girls 14 5 38 7 6 86

Boys 23 11 48 14 5 36

Women 20 7 35 15 5 33

Men 7 2 29 11 6 55

Culture/religion Community leaders 15 11 73 24 7 29

Teachers 13 3 23 14 7 64

Girls 14 3 21 7 2 28

Boys 23 7 30 14 6 43

Women 20 7 35 15 6 40

Men 7 5 71 11 3 27

Peer Group influence Community leaders 15 4 27 24 1 4

Teachers 13 4 31 14 3 27

Girls 14 1 7 7 3 43

Boys 23 4 17 14 2 14

Women 20 1 5 15 3 20

Men 7 2 29 11 4 36

Government/school Community leaders 15 1 6 24 1 4

Teachers 13 - - 14 2 18

Girls 14 - - 7 - -

Boys 23 2 9 14 1 7

Women 20 - - 15 4 27

Men 7 - - 11 2 18



42

Table 2 presents the opinions of the various stakeholders/groups on factors undermining girl

child retention in the schools by themes. This enabled assessment of the views of the various

groups on the factors that influence school retention of girls. The over 50% of respondents in

each group agreed that the factors undermining girls retention in school included early

pregnancy/marriage, disobedience, parental negligence, economic/poverty, cultural/religious,

peer group and government/school related factors. A further analysis using rank ordering of

factors (from highest to lowest) was made and the result is presented in Table 3:

Table 3: Ranking of Factors Influencing Retention of Girls by Communities (n1 & n2)

Factors (Themes) (n1) (n2)

Total % Ranking Total % Ranking

Early pregnancy/ 55 (59%) 1st 33 (40%) 3rd

marriage

Disobedience/lack 48 (52%) 2nd 42 (51%) 1st

of interest/Desire

for material gains

Economic factor/ 43 (47%) 3rd 34 (41%) 2nd

Poverty

Culture/religion 37 (40%) 4th 30 (37%) 4th

Parental negligence 33 (36%) 5th 23 (25%) 5th

Peer group influence 16 (18%) 6th 16 (20%) 6th

Government/School 3 (3%) 7th 10 (12%) 7th


Table 3, a rank ordering of factors (from highest to lowest) revealed that early

pregnancy/marriage (n1 = 1st, n2 = 3rd), disobedience/lack of interest in school/desire for

material gains (n1 = 2nd, n2 = 1st) ranked highest followed by economic factor/poverty (n1 =

3rd, n2 = 2nd). The school factors received the least ranking of the factors influencing school

retention of girls.

Discussion

The average retention rate of junior secondary school girls in Jema'a LGA was found to be as

low as 60.38% in some schools as shown in Table 1. The finding in this study is consistent

with the report by Universal Basic Education Commission (FRN, 2012) which reports that

there is a low participation of girls at the UBE level especially in the North West Zone of the

country (in which this LGA is part of). Although some level of attention has been given at

raising the enrolment of girls in school, not equal attention has been directed at their retention

and completion. It is not enough to have girls enrolled in school, attention should also be

given to their retention and completion. This will ensure that they receive the necessary skills

that will enable them contribute meaningfully to self, community and national development.

Also, Onwueme (2001) and Aluede (2006) maintain that if basic education is universal, it


43

implies that all children of the said age bracket, without exception, irrespective of gender or

geographical location, should be in school. But this is not the case in Jema'a LGA as evident

in the worrisomely low percentage (as low as 60.38%) of school age girls being retained in

school in some cases.

Community members’ beliefs of the factors affecting school retention of girls were

found to be many. These include socio-cultural factors, early pregnancy/marriage and

parental negligence among others.

Socio-cultural factors were identified by respondents (40%, 4th); (37%, 4th) in

communities n1 and n2 respectively as influencing school retention of girls as shown in Table

3. Some of the interview responses were:

Breakdown of the family structure is at the centre of girls drop out from

school.

Some girls do not sleep at home and the parents care-less.

There is no fear of God in the girls.

Some parents prefer sending boys not girls to school.

These findings are consistent with the studies of Sada, Adamu and Ahmad (2004) who found

that preference for the male child as found in most African countries and also in Northern

Nigeria is closely linked to the issue of the inheritance of family assets. According to this

tradition, investing in a boy who would remain within the family, is better than wasting the

scarce resources on the girl who would eventually marry and go to another man’s house.

Bukoye (2007) also found that parental preference for the male-child is a major factor

hindering girl-child participation in school with a mean score of 3.85. Further, Adeyanju

(2008) observed that religious and cultural misinterpretation have negative effects on girls’

education. According to him, this misinterpretation is more prevalent among parents of the

Islamic faith who fear that their daughters will be converted to Christianity if sent to western

education schools.

The findings of this study also revealed that teenage pregnancy and early marriage

are major factors affecting school retention of girls (n1 = 1st, n2 = 3rd) as seen in Table 3.

Some views expressed by the respondents were:

I am a victim, my daughter is pregnant.

Some girls see their mate marry so they want to compete, I will also marry.

The girls go wayward and become pregnant so drop out of school.

This finding is consistent with the works of Obeng-Denteh and Amedeker (2011) and Uche

(2013) which found that teenage pregnancy is a major factor in school drop out of girls (with

both studies having mean scores of 74%) and that most of the girls who drop out of school

are at the junior secondary school level of education.


44

Conclusion

There is low retention of girls in junior secondary schools in Jema’a Local Government Area

of Kaduna State. This is evident by the worrisomely low retention rates found in some

schools that participated (as low as 60.38% in some cases).

The phenomenon of low retention of girls in school is of concern to Jema’a LGA in

particular and the nation at large. Low retention of girls means that the LGA is at risk of

having illiterate adult women in future, who are incapable of making meaningful

contribution to self and national development. This situation calls for urgent and appropriate

interventions by all stakeholders to ensure that girls do not only enroll but are retained in

school. This could be done through value re-orientation that will ensure that cultural issues

that have constrained girls’ participation in school are identified and interventions are

articulated to address them. These issues include among others: male preference, parental

neglect and early pregnancy/marriage due largely to lack of the fear of God, disobedience to

constituted authority and community/parental neglect of their roles.

Recommendations

1 Educational policy planners should rise to the challenge of low school retention of

girls by partnering with communities to articulate strategies at enhancing retention of

girls in school. This way girls will be retained in school.

2 Given the dynamics of the society, solutions at enhancing school retention of girls in

communities should be suggested by community members. In doing so, communities

will not feel that the solutions were imposed on them from outside, but that they are

the owners of such suggestions.

3 Community Opinion Molders should highlight and ensure compliance with the roles

of each group in the community. In this way everyone becomes an active participant

(not α passive on-looker) at ensuring that girls remain to complete school in the

community.

References

Adeyanju, T.K. (2008). Challenges to ensuring equity participation in education in the

northern states. A paper presentation at the Northern Governors’ pre-summit

workshop on repositioning education in the Northern States. Challenges for the 21st

Century. Arewa House, Kaduna, 14th-15th April.

Ajaja, O.P. (2012). School dropout pattern among senior secondary schools in Delta State

Nigeria. International Education Studies, 5(2), 145-153.

Aku, P.S. (2011). Girl child pregnancy: Problems and prevention. Zaria: Depeak Publishers.

Alika, I.H., & Egbochukwu, E.O. (2009). Dropout from school among girls in EdoState:

Implications for counselling. Edo Journal of Counselling, 2(2), 135-141.

Aluede, R.O.A. (2006). Universal basic education in Nigeria: Matters arising. Journal of

Human Ecology, 20(2), 97-101.


45

Bakau, C.K. (2017). Community participation and girl child retention in junior secondary

schools in Jema’a Local Government Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria. (Unpublished

Doctoral thesis), Faculty of Education, University of Jos, Jos.

Bello, H.M. (2006). The Nigerian women in quest for peace and stability: Challenge to

Teacher Education. Journal of Educational Studies,12(1), 1-6.

Bukoye, R.O. (2007). Factors militating against girl- education in Nigeria: Implication for

counselling. The Nigerian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 2(1), 4-6.

Bronferbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and

design. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Creswell J.W. (2012). Educational research, planning, conducting and evaluating and

quantifying research (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013). National policy on education (6th edition). Lagos:

NERDC Press.

Gimba, V.K., & Ayodele, J. (2014). The socio-economic effect of early marriage in northern

Nigeria. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(14), 582-592.

Kwashi, B.A. (1997). Religious and cultural constraints in the education of the girl-child: A

Christian perspective. In family support prograamme (Ed.). Girl-child development

on the Plateau (pp. 61-66). Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books.

Obaji, C.N. (2005). Nigeria’s experience with girls’ education and linkages with action on

adult literacy to impact on poverty alleviation. United Nations Girl’s Education

Initiative. Technical Consultation Beijing, China, 26th – 27th November.

Obeng-Denteh, W., & Amedeker, M.A. (2001). Causes and effects of female school drop

outs and the financial impact on government budget. Case study: Ayeduase

Township, Ghana. Continental Journal of Social Sciences, 4 (2), 1-7.

Odaga, A., & Heneveld, W. (1995). Girls and schools in sub-Saharan Africa from analysis to

action. Washington, D.C: The World Bank.

Offorma, G.C. (2009). Girl-child education in Africa. A Keynote Address presented at the

Conference of the Federation of the University Women of Africa. Lagos-Nigeria,

16th – 19th July.

Ogude, E. (2017). Value re-orientation in Nigeria: The role of women as change agents.

International Journal of Innovative Social Sciences & Human Resources, 5 (1): 36-

41.

Oleribe, O. E. (2007). Neglect of girl-child education: Bridging the Gap. A case study of a

Nigerian agrarian northern community. International NGP Journal, 2 (2), 30-35.

Onwueme, M.S. (2001). Management of the free and compulsory education in Nigeria:

Issues and problems. In N. A. Nwagwu, E. T. Ehiametalor, M. A. Ogunu & M.

Nwadiani (Eds). Current issues in educational management in Nigeria. A publication

of Nigerian Association of Educational Administration and Planning (NAEAP)(pp.

12-22). Benin City: Ambik Press Ltd.

Osuola, E.C. (2001). Introduction to research methodology. Onitsha: Africana Feb

Publishers.


46

Sada, I.N., Adamu, F.L., & Ahmad, A. (2004). Promoting women’s right through Sharia in

northern Nigeria. ABU Zaria: Centre for Islamic Legal Studies.

Stringer, E. T. (2007). Action Research (3rd ed.). California: Sage Publications Inc.

Uche, R. D. (2013). Drop out syndrome among girls in secondary schools and human

resources development in Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice,4, 26.

Umar, F. M. (2008). Impediments in girl children’s enrolment and retention in schools. A

Paper presented at a conference on Girl-Child Education in Nigeria. Kaduna, 5th – 6th

August.

UNESCO (2006). Winning people’s will for girl-child education: Community mobilization

for gender equality in basic education. Retrieved March 6, 2013 from

http://www.unesco.org/kathmandu.

UNICEF Information Sheet (2007). Girls’ education. Nigeria Country Office.

Universal Basic Education Commission (2012). 2010 national personnel audit

report. Abuja:

.

http://www.unesco.org/kathmandu

Assessment of Quality of Teacher-Made Geography Tests Used for Senior Secondary School Students....

47

ASSESSMENT OF QUALITY OF TEACHER-MADE GEOGRAPHY TESTS USED

FOR SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN JOS, PLATEAU STATE

Sayita Sarah G. Wakjissa

[email protected] (08031146318)

Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, University of Jos

Abstract

The rapid improvement in technology calls for changes in our educational programmes,

including assessment strategies so as to equip students with learning and success levels that

involve knowledge construction and application of skills as found in real world. Quality

instruction and assessment produce authentic results of student mastery level. The issues of

quality accountability in education are vital to the improvement of education and can only be

realized through quality assessment. The study assesses the quality of teacher-made tests

constructed for use by secondary school teachers in Jos. The cross sectional survey design

was adopted where 20 schools were randomly selected out of the 58 secondary schools in Jos

North and South local government areas of Plateau State. The instruments used for data

collection were the 2017 geography test questions used for SSII students in the selected

schools. Six research question were formulated for the study. The research questions were

answered using frequency counts and simple percentages. The findings of the study revealed

that the geography tests questions constructed by the teachers mostly assessed lower levels

thinking. The test items were mostly multiple-choice items and most of the test items

constructed did not employ the use of action verbs and the instructions were inadequate in

some of the tests. The tests lacked content validity and the test length were inadequate in

some schools. It was also found that few of the items were not logically arranged in order of

difficulty and content areas. The findings revealed that the teacher’s quality of tests were

independent of their qualifications and years of experience. The study recommended among

others that the Plateau State+ Ministry of Education should employ test experts and post to

schools and should organise seminars and workshops on how to teachers in the state could

construct quality tests in geography for the students.

Key words: Assessment, teacher made test, authentic results, validity.

Introduction

The quality of any education system depends a great deal on accountability. One of the ways

by which accountability in education is derived is through assessment of learners’ level of

mastery which is obtained from assessment tools such as quizzes, assignments, projects,

examinations and tests among others. The desire for school effectiveness and improvement at

all levels of education calls for quality assessment in the school system for improving

teaching and learning. Assessment plays a central role in the school system because it

produces results that are used for improving teaching and learning as well as for placement



48

and certification of students. Measuring the achievement of students is a vital process for

improving students’ learning. This is because decisions on students are based on feedback

derived from results of instruments (tests) used to measure students’ level of mastery

(achievement) in schools. Two types of tests that are used in assessing student learning are

teacher-made tests which are tests developed by classroom teachers and standardized test

which are the tests developed by subject and tests experts, examining bodies and curriculum

planners.

Classroom assessment is an integral part of instruction. It involves a day-by-day

appraisal of learning contents based on the expected learning outcomes. Most of the tests

developed and used in schools for monitoring learning progress are the teacher-made tests.

Classroom tests are developed and used by teachers for formative and summative purposes.

Formative tests are those given in the course of instruction or programme and are used to

monitor teaching and learning progress and are referred to as assessment for learning.

Summative tests on the other hand are tests given at the end of instruction, a course or

programme and are termed as assessment of learning. The results are of summative tests are

used for the purpose of grading, promotion and certification of learners. It is used by teachers

as part and parcel of the teaching and learning process to monitor learning progress and

diagnose students’ areas of difficulty so as to provide remediation. Furthermore, classroom

assessments provide feedback that would enable students adjust how they are learning or for

teachers to adjust how they are teaching (Frey, n.d.). Teacher-made tests are the primary

tools used in determining student learning that dominate the assessments used for decisions

about learners, regardless of the purpose, education level or subject area (Oescher & Kirby,

1990).

There is the assumption that students’ performance in teacher-made tests can be used

to predict their potential performance in standardized tests such as external examinations

(Kinyua &.Okunya, 2014). This is because as a day-by-day method of assessing student

learning, the teacher-made tests regularly inform students about their progress in learning and

they are encouraged to learn better due to the feedback they receive from the teacher-made

tests (Wrightstone, 1961). Teacher-made tests serve as part of the learning process because

they are usually criterion-referenced tests that are designed to assess student mastery of a

specific body of knowledge. By implication, the thinking is that if students perform well in

teacher-made tests, then they are more likely to earn good grades in external examinations.

The relevance accorded to teacher-made demands that such tests should be valid,

reliable and objective for any meaningful decisions to occur (Ugodulunwa & Wakjissa,

2016). Hence, there is the need for teachers to develop quality test items that will produce

valid and reliable results for proper decision making. The key to teacher-made tests is to

make them part of instruction - not separate from it. Teachers should follow valid item-

writing rules in order to construct quality teacher-made tests. They should construct test

items using tables of specifications which specifically outline the topics students have been

exposed (taught) for the period under review and how many items will be allocated the topics

covered as suggested in the guidelines for quality classroom test item writing rules. Due to


49

the need for developing quality teacher-made test items, experts have made great

advancements in providing all that is needed to develop quality tests in schools. For instance,

test construction has been built into the course contents of teacher training programmes under

the Research, Measurement and Evaluation (RME) units of faculties of education in the

universities, colleges of education and related teacher training institutions and programmes to

equip teachers on training to quality test construction procedures. The course equips teachers

on how to construct quality test items using action verbs including how to allocate items on a

test based on contents and behavioural objectives set for the topics under consideration. The

course is intended to provide teachers with the necessary skills needed to develop quality

tests that would provide results of student learning could serve for proper decision-making

about learners. The guidelines for writing teacher-made tests as identified by Ugodulunwa,

2008; Kinyua, 2012 are:

1. Determine the purpose of the test.

2. Outline the topics to cover in the test

3. Make an outline of the instructional objectives.

4. Develop a table of specifications

5. Write relevant test items.

6. Select appropriate item format; vary the question types (true/false, fill-in-the-blank,

multiple choice, essay, matching). Limit to 10 questions per type.

7. Arrange the questions from simple to complex.

8. Group item types together.

9. Give point values for each section (e.g., true/false count for two points each).

10. Type or print clearly. (Leave space between questions to facilitate easy reading and

writing.)

11. Make sure appropriate reading (language) level is used.

12. Include a variety of visual, oral and kinesthetic tasks.

13. Make allowances for students with special needs.

14. Give students some choice in the questions they select (e.g., choice of graphic organizers

or essay questions).

15. Give clear directions for each section of the test.

Despite all the efforts made at developing quality tests, it is worrisome that when practicing

teachers are asked about the quality of tests they develop, they seem to indicate lack of

confidence about the effectiveness and validity their test items. Furthermore, researches have

shown that teacher-made tests are flawed and characterized by the following: having about

80% of their items constructed at the lower level of Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive

objectives, using of short and ambiguous items, grammatical errors and lack of direction

among others (Oescher & Kirby, 1990; Wakjissa, 2011). There is little assurance as to

whether the tests serve the purpose for which they are designed. In addition, there seem to be

problems on how prepared, committed and dedicated teachers are to their tasks of test item


50

construction. Teachers need to understand that they can assure quality only when they

believe that it is in their power to improve student learning.

The foregoing implies that assessment derives learning and that the use of quality assessment

tools is inevitable because it is assessment results that are used to judge whether mastery has

occurred or not (Griwold, 1990; Henard & Leprince-Ringuet, 2008). Thus, there is the call on

teachers to construct valid and reliable test items that are comprehensive, precise and

adequate so enable them evaluate properly the learning objectives. Hence, the present study

assesses the quality of teacher-made geography tests constructed for use in secondary schools

in Jos north and Jos south LGAs of Plateau State. The study will assess the quality of

teacher-made test items in terms of the test item types used, frequency of use of various item

types, use of action verbs in developing test items, length of the tests, cognitive objectives

covered by the tests, test item format, test instructions, teachers’ qualifications and years of

experience. Five research questions were posed to aid the study.

1. What are the types of test items used by the teachers in constructing their test items?

2. To what extent do the teachers employ the use of action verbs in constructing their test

items?

3. To What extent do the teachers’ test items cover the content areas intended by the tests?

4. To what extent do the teachers’ tests cover the six levels of cognitive objectives of

Bloom’s taxonomy?

5. To what extent are the test formats in compliance with test item writing rules?

6. How adequate and clear are the test instructions of the teachers?

Method

The study was a descriptive survey geared towards assessing the quality of tests constructed

and used by geography teachers in senior secondary schools in Jos North/South LGAs of

Plateau State. Twenty secondary schools out of the 58 secondary schools in the study area

were selected using a table of random digits. The teachers and their test items were used for

the study. Five out of the 20 teachers had M.Sc. (Ed/ PGDE), 11 had B.Sc. (Ed) and four

were holders of NCE. Out of these teachers, three had between 1-5 years teaching

experience, eight had 6-10 years teaching experience while nine had 11plus teaching

experience. The SSII geography test questions constructed by the geography teachers in the

20 schools were the instruments used for the study. Six research questions were formulated

to guide the study. The research questions sought the quality of the geography tests based on

the senior secondary school two (SSSII) geography curriculum for compliance with test item

writing rules in terms of content coverage among others. The five variables assessed in the

study were; the length of the tests (with particular emphasis on content areas and behavioural

objectives covered by the tests), item types used, action verbs used in developing the test

items, levels cognitive objective covered by the tests, formatting of the test items and test

instructions. These were rated using a five-point scale of excellent, very good, good, fair and

poor rated as 5, 4, 3, 2 & 1 respectively while very adequate, adequate and inadequate were

employed in rating the adequacy and clarity of the test instructions. The study also looked


51

into whether or not qualifications and years of experiences of the teachers determined the

quality of the teacher-made tests. The 20 schools were; GSS Hwolshe, GSS Kufang, GSS

Laranto, GSS Chwel-Nyap, GSS Anglo Jos, GSS T/Ship, GSS Kabong, GSS Hei R/field,

Canaan High, COCIN D/Kowa, GSS West of Mines, St Theresa Girls, St John’s College,

Methodist High School, GSS Gwong, GSS T/Wada, GSS Abattoir, FGC, Jos, King’s Sec

School, GSS Rantya.

Results

Table 1. Qualifications/Years of Experience of teachers and types of test items

constructed School Test type used

Qual Exp True/False Matching Fill-in-the-blank Multiple-choice Essay Total

A 1 3 - - - 40 6 46

B 3 2 - - - 40 5 45

C 2 2 - - - 30 5 35

D 2 3 4 - - 26 5 35

E 3 2 - - - 40 5 45

F 1 3 - - - 40 6 46

G 2 3 - - - 30 5 35

H 2 3 - - - 40 5 45

I 2 2 - - - 50 6 56

J 3 1 - - - 30 6 36

K 2 1 1 - - 39 6 46

L 2 2 - - - 30 5 35

M 1 2 - - - 40 5 45

N 2 2 - - - 20 7 27

O 3 1 - - - 30 5 35

P 2 3 - - - 40 5 45

Q 2 3 - - - 30 5 35

R 1 3 - - - 30 5 35

S 1 2 - - - 20 5 25

T 2 3 - - - 30 5 35

Note:

1. Qual = Qualification; 1 = M.Sc. Ed/PGDE; 2 = B.Ed; 3 = NCE

2. Exp = Years of Experience; 0-5 = 1; 6-10 = 2; 11plus = 3

Table 1 presents the qualifications and years of experiences of the teachers in the selected

schools and the types and number of test items developed and used for their students. The

table reveals that all the teachers used only multiple-choice items with the exception of the

teachers in schools D and K who included four and one alternative response (True/False)

items in their tests respectively. Table 1 indicates there were no any significant variations in

the type and number of items developed by the teachers based on their qualifications and/or

for how long they had been teaching. Table 1 also show that only one school, that is, school I

had 56 items while eight schools constructed between 45&46 items each. The table also


52

reveals that nine schools had 35-36 items and schools N & S had 27 and 25 items each

respectively. This shows some variations in the number of test items developed for each

school. The table shows that the number and types of items used were not based on

qualifications or years of experience of the geography teachers.

Table 2. Number of Items and Use of Action Verbs in Test Items for Each School School No of Objective Items No with action verbs No of Essay items No with action verbs

A 40 1 6 6

B 40 0 5 4

C 40 0 5 4

D 30 2 5 2

E 40 1 5 4

F 40 0 5 5

G 30 0 5 3

H 40 1 5 4

I 50 2 6 6

J 30 0 6 5

K 40 0 6 6

L 30 5 5 5

M 40 1 5 5

N 20 1 7 7

O 30 0 5 4

P 40 1 5 5

Q 40 0 5 3

R 40 2 5 5

S 20 2 5 5

T 30 0 5 4

Table 2 indicates the number of objective and essay type items set and the use of action verbs

in construction of test items for each school. The Table reveals that most of the teachers did

not employ the use of action verbs in the construction of their objective type items. Table two

shows that nine schools did not use action verbs at all in their objective test items, six schools

had one item each using action verbs and four schools had two items each with action verbs

while only one school had five items that engaged the use of action verbs. For the essay

items, all the schools had most of their items developed using action verbs with the exception

of school D which had only two items with action verbs. On the whole, Table 2 indicates that

the teachers did not employ the use of action verbs in their test construction since about 88%

of the items were objective test types in each of the schools.


53

Table 3. Ratings of Content Area Coverage of Test Items School Ratings

Excellent Very good Good Fair Poor

A ✓

B ✓

C ✓

D ✓

E ✓

F ✓

G ✓

H ✓

I ✓

J ✓

K ✓

L ✓

M ✓

N ✓

O ✓

P ✓

Q ✓

R ✓

S ✓

T ✓

Table 3 reveals the ratings based on content areas of the curriculum covered by the teacher-

made tests. The table shows that only five schools out of 20 had very good coverage of the

secondary school two (SSII) curriculum. Five schools also had good coverage of the

curriculum, seven had a fair coverage while three schools had poor coverage. From the

question papers, it was noticed that some of the tests were based only on five to six topics.

Again, some of the schools had more questions on topics that had fewer objectives in the

curriculum. For instance school K had between six to seven items on each topics covered by

the test and covered only about six topics. This shows that most of the teacher-made tests

lacked content validity and some topics were over represented while others were under

represented or did not appear at all in the tests.


54

Table 4. The Test Items’ Coverage of Bloom’s Six Levels of Cognitive Objectives School Cognitive Objectives Coverage

Knowl Comp App Anal Syn Eval Toatl

A 39 4 - 2 - - 45

B 40 1 4 - - - 45

C 30 4 1 - - - 35

D 27 6 2 - - - 35

E 39 4 2 - - - 45

F 40 5 1 - - - 46

G 28 4 3 - - - 35

H 38 6 1 - - - 45

I 52 4 - - - - 56

J 30 4 2 - - - 36

K 41 3 2 - - - 46

L 28 5 2 - - - 35

M 40 4 1 - - - 45

N 19 6 2 - - - 27

O 34 1 - - - - 35

P 39 5 1 - - - 45

Q 40 4 1 - - - 45

R 38 5 2 - - - 45

S 18 7 - - - - 25

T 30 5 - - - - 35

Total (%) 681 (85.4) 87(10.9) 27(3.4) 2 (0.3) 0 0 100

Table 4 shows the cognitive levels objectives covered by the teacher-made tests for the 20

schools. The table reveals that about 96% of the test items constructed required the students

to simply recall or provide simple explanations concerning some facts and ideas. It was

discovered that 85% of the items required simple recall and remembering while 11% sought

explanations from the students. Only about four percent of the items required higher level of

thinking from students which involved application and a little bit of analysis. This indicates

that the tests did not involve and engage the students in knowledge construction or creating

their own meaning as required in real life situation.

Table 5. Results of Test Items’ Format Compliance with Test Item Writing Rules School Ratings

Excellent Very good Good Fair Poor

A ✓

B ✓

C ✓

D ✓

E ✓


55

F ✓

G ✓

H ✓

I ✓

J ✓

K ✓

L ✓

M ✓

N ✓

O ✓

P ✓

Q ✓

R ✓

S ✓

T ✓

Table 5 presents the extent to which the test items were arranged in terms of formatting and

arrangement of the items. Particularly this was based on arrangement according to test item

types, order of complexity, arrangement of options for each item and the spacing/font size

used as well as beginning of stems of items. Table 5 revealed that only three schools were

had their test items developed in compliance with test item writing rules. Eight schools fairly

complied and 9 had poor compliance. For instance, single line spacing was used for tests in

schools B, I, J, K, P and T making it difficult to determine where one question ended and

another began. Also, the options for the items were not arranged vertically but horizontally

written on a single row which is not in compliance with test item writing rules. It was also

found that some of the teachers used small font sizes that were not bold. Again, it was

discovered that the stem of some items that required incomplete sentences had the blank

spaces at the beginning of the stems.

Table 6. Results of Adequacy and Clarity of Test Instructions School Ratings

Very Adequate Adequate Inadequate

A ✓

B ✓

C ✓

D ✓

E ✓

F ✓

G ✓

H ✓

I ✓

J ✓

K ✓


56

L ✓

M ✓

N ✓

O ✓

P ✓

Q ✓

R ✓

S ✓

T ✓

Table 6 shows the ratings of the test instructions of the teachers in the 20 schools based on

clarity of instructions, specifications on marks allocations and provision of instructions on

the two sections of the tests as well as time allocation to the tests. The Table reveals that six

schools gave adequate instructions on their tests while instructions on the remaining 14

schools were inadequate. It was observed that some tests did not indicate the time allowed for

writing the tests while others lumped up the time for the two sections of the tests. It was also

observed that there was no mention about the marks allocated to the questions to indicate

whether there were specifications about the marks and if some questions carried more marks

than others.

Discussion

The variations observed in the number of test items developed for each school is an issue of

concern because this may affect any decisions taken about the performance of the students

from each of the schools. It is most likely that the contents covered by each of the tests from

the 20 schools are not comparable. The result that most of the test were only multiple-choice

items may suggest that the teachers did not make deliberate efforts to properly plan the tests

in terms of topics students were exposed to and determining appropriate objective test type

that will best measure the behavioural objectives. It may also suggests that the teachers did

not engage the use of tables of specifications in their test construction procedures. This

contradicts the efforts of teacher training programmes and opinions of test experts

(Ugodulunwa, 2008; Wakjissa, 2011; Kinyua, 2012) on test writing rules. It means that

taking decisions about the students based on their performances on these tests will not be

valid and reliable since the tests do not present a common basis for comparison. In addition,

the use of only one type of objective test items suggests that the teachers have not put into

use the test taking skills taught in the teacher- training programmes. Furthermore, the

teachers’ non-use of action verbs in test items may difficult for them to determine the level of

cognitive objectives the test items measure. It may also explain why most teacher-made tests

are said to measure lower level thinking and are not challenging. This serves as a threat to the

quality of the teacher-made test items developed.

The teachers’ inadequate involvement of action verbs also suggests their non

compliance with test item writing rules. This action of the teachers will affect the quality of

test items because the items may not cover the behavioural objectives set in the lesson plans


57

using action verbs. The action verbs determine the cognitive objectives being tested. The

results reveal that care was not taken by the teacher to ensure that the test items measured

students’ critical thinking but only the lower thinking of simple recall and understanding of

facts and ideas. It also implies that students were not involved and engaged in constructing

their own meaning that is expected of them in real life situation. This will make the learning

of geography abstract and will hardly be of any relevance to the students and the society.

Again, the finding that some topics were over represented while others were under

represented or did not appear at all in the tests will affect the validity of the tests and the

reliability of the tests results. This finding agrees with the findings of (Kinyua, 2012) that

teacher-made tests lack content validity. The observation that only about four percent of the

items measured higher level thinking also supports the earlier findings (Oescher & Kirby,

1990; Wakjissa, 2011) that most teacher-made test measure only lower levels of students’

thinking. The poor arrangement/spacing and formatting of items/option as well as poor

structuring of stem of items supports further that the teacher-made tests are of poor quality as

argued earlier in literature by these researchers. Again, the finding that single line spacing

was used in producing the test items in six schools, the options for the items were arranged

horizontally instead of vertically and small font sizes were used are all in violation of test

item writing rules. This may not be unconnected with the issue of cost but should be

discouraged because of the importance attached to tests results. They serve for vital decisions

that determine the future of learners and so should be accorded the desired attention. Again,

it was discovered that the stems of some items were not appropriately developed. In addition

there were inadequate and/or absence of instructions in some of the tests constructed which is

an indication that the tests were haphazardly written without adopting the use of test

construction skills which also question further the reliability and validity the tests.

Conclusion

The use and purposes for which teacher-made tests serve cannot be overemphasized. This

makes it imperative that teachers should develop their tests with caution. When efforts are

made at constructing quality tests in schools, test results can be meaningfully used to monitor

instructional progress and for proper placement of students in schools. Constructing quality

test items will produce valid and meaningful test results on areas of students’ mastery and

what they can do in real life situation. Tests that involve and engage students in performing

tasks while making adequate allowances for individual differences will provide authentic

information on what students can really do that resemble real world experiences. On the

other hand, haphazardly written test makes all time spent in school a waste because the

results obtained can hardly be relied on for any meaningful and reliable decision since test

results illuminate how schools are faring. Teacher-made tests lay the foundations for other

tests developed outside the school system hence constructing quality teacher-made tests to

use for valid judgments and decisions about instructional process as well as growth and

development of students is inevitable.


58

Recommendations

1. The Plateau Stat Ministry of Education should organise seminars and workshops to

update teachers’ knowledge on quality test construction for the geography teachers.

2. The Plateau Ministry of Education should employ Research, Measurement and

Evaluation experts and post to schools to be charged with the responsibility of setting

and/or moderating test items before they are used.

3. The principals of schools should set up committees that will moderate all tests developed

for students in their schools to ensure they are valid and reliable.

4. The principals of schools should encourage subject teachers to sit together to develop test

items and subject to moderation before they are administered to students.

5. The teachers should ensure they develop test items in conformity with test item

rules/guidelines.

6. The teachers should employ the use of tables of specifications in the construction of test

items.

7. The teachers should make sure they design tests to cover appropriate test item formats so

as motivate and challenge students to be creative.

8. The teachers should ensure that they construct test items that are relevant to students and

reflect what students have learnt

9. The teachers should plan adequately for tests in schools by according the desired time

and attention to constructing the test items.

References

Frey, B. B. (n.d). The University of Kansas (KU). Quality test construction. Retrieved from

http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/?q=assessment/quality_test_construction

Griwold, P. A. (1990). Assessing relevance and reliability to improve the quality of teacher-

made tests. Retrieved fromhttp://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/

10.1177/019263659007452305?journalCode=buld

Henard F. & Leprince-Ringuet S. (2008). The path to quality teaching in higher education.

Retrieved from https://www1.oecd.org/edu/imhe/44150246.pdf

Kinyua, D.K. (2012). ).Validity and reliability of teacher made tests in Kenya: Case study of

physics form three in Nyahururu District. Retrieved from

http://www.erepository.uonbi. ac.ke/handle/11295/96250

Kinyua, D. K & Okunya, D. (2014).Validity and reliability of teacher-made tests: Case study

of year 11 physics in Nyahururu District of Kenya. African Educational Research

Journal Vol. 2(2), 61-71. Retrieved from http://www.netjournals.

org/pdf/AERJ/2014/2/14-015.pdf

Oescher, J & Kirby, P. C. (1990). Assessing teacher-made tests in secondary math and

science classrooms. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED322169.pdf

http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/?q

https://www1.oecd.org/edu/imhe/44150246.pdf

http://www.erepository.uonbi/

http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED322169.pdf


59

Ugodulunwa, C. A. (2008). Fundamentals of educational measurement and evaluation. Jos:

Fab Annieh.

Ugodulunwa, C. A. & Wakjissa, S. G. (2016). What teachers know about validity of

classroom tests: Evidence from a university in Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Research &

Method in Education (IOSR-JRME) 6 (I) 14-19 Retrieved from

http://www.iosrjournals.org-jrme/ Vol-6%20Issue-3/Version-1/C0603011419.pdf

Wakjissa, S. G. (2011). Appraisal of Senior secondary II geography teachers’ competencies

in assessing students using Bloom’s level of cognitive objectives in Plateau State,

Nigeria. Journal of Educational Assessment in Africa (AEAA)5, 177–189.

Wrightstone, J.W. (1961). Teacher-made tests and techniques can help in evaluating growth.

Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed.lead/el_196112

wrightstone. pdf

http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jrme/papers/Vol-6%20Issue-3/Version-1/C0603011419.%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20pdf

http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed.lead/el_196112%20wrightstone.%20pdf

http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed.lead/el_196112%20wrightstone.%20pdf

Teachers Continuous Assessment Practices and Secondary School Students’ Biology Achievement....

60

TEACHERS CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT PRACTICES AND SECONDARY

SCHOOL STUDENTS’ BIOLOGY ACHIEVEMENT IN OBUBRA

LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF CROSS RIVER STATE

Ayang, Ethelbert Edim


Department of Educational Foundations and Administration

(Measurement and Evaluation Unit)

Cross River University of Technology, Crutech - Calabar

Abstract

This research investigated teachers’ continuous assessment practices’ influence on public

secondary school students’ biology achievement in Obubra Local Government Area of Cross

River State. Three null hypotheses guided the study. Related literature was reviewed

accordingly. Eighty five science related tutors and 235 SS-II students were randomly selected

from 6 (out of 15) public secondary schools as the representative sample for the study, using

simple random sampling technique. The research design was survey. A 15 items

questionnaire and students records of biology achievement scores were the instruments used

for data generation. The questionnaire was validated and tested for reliability (a Crumbach

alpha of .612 was recorded) by the researcher-a professional measurement and evaluation

expert. The instrument was then administered on the sample to generate the data used for

hypotheses testing. The Pearson Product Moment Coefficient (r)and simple linear regression

statistics analyses were used in testing the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The

findings revealed that two of the hypotheses (2 and 3) were significant while hypothesis one

did not show significance with the dependent variable- students’ biology achievement. While

it was concluded that teachers’ continuous assessment practices do influence students

Biology achievement in secondary schools, recommendations among others was that;

teachers should be exposed to train-the-trainers workshops, seminars, etc. to enhance their

utilization of classroom assignment scores for effective students’ achievement outputs in not

only Biology but in other science-related subjects in secondary schools.

Keywords: Continuous Assessment, Practices Teachers, Secondary School Achievements

Introduction

Cowley, Callanan, Jipson, Galco, Topping, and Shrager, (2001) defined assessment as any

procedure or activity that is designed to collect information about the knowledge, attitude or

skills of the learner or group of learners. Assessment is therefore a process through which the

quality of an individuals’ work or performance is judged; when carried out as an on-going

process, assessment is known as Continuous Assessment (CA). Continuous Assessment is a

formative evaluation procedure concerned with finding out, in a systematic manner, the over-



61

all gains that a student has made in terms of knowledge, attitudes and skills after a given set

of learning experience (Cakiroglu, 2006).

In order to reform the educational system, the Federal Government of Nigeria in

2004, reviewed the National Policy on Education. One of the highest provisions in the

National Policy in education instrument is the emphasis laid on continuous assessment

practices in various levels of education and programmes. The intention is to make assessment

of the learners more reliable, valid, objective and comprehensive. In short, continuous

assessment is an integral part of the new system of education in Nigeria otherwise known as

the 9-3-3-4 system. According to this document; Federal Ministry of Education Nigeria

(FMEN, 2004), continuous assessment was introduced as a mechanism through which the

final grading of a student in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of behaviour

takes account in a systematic way. In the context of this study, continuous assessment is a

system of assessment that is carried out in biology at predetermined intervals for the

monitoring and improving the overall performance of students. Assessment is an important

element in not only biology teaching but also in other sciences., Houston in Anaf, &

Yamene, (2011) opines that teachers must regularly assess the effectiveness of the learning

experiences which they have organize to enable students achieve the earlier stated objectives.

Biology is one of the core science subjects and it is all encompassing as a mother

science and all science related subjects are embedded in the subject. Biology which is the

study of life and its dynamic (Anaf & Yamene 2011) is important in the sense that it is only

core science that is loved and liked by all students including those in the pure arts and

humanities. Hence Anaf & Yamene (2011), stated that biological knowledge is dynamic

which implies that sciences instructional practices of teachers should also be dynamic.

Pearse & Tesi (2004) defined achievement as anything that brings about or that is

accomplished by effort, skill or courage. The level of knowledge attained connotes

achievement in a school subject as symbolic by a score or grade in an achievement lest.

Lewis, (1995) also stated that students achievement connote the level of knowledge, skill or

accomplishment in an area of endeavour. Thus, it is explained that students’ achievement

should be measured by classroom tests (continuous assessment) and examination. The author

stated further that continuous assessment and examination are clear indicators of

performance in any subject.

High academic achievement is an indication of the attainment expected of secondary

school students including those in Obubra Local Government Area, but unfortunately it had

been observed by the researcher that the performance of the students in biology is often poor

and considering this fact, one wonders whether the continuous assessment practices carried

out by teachers in Obubra Local Government Area are adequate to enhance the academic

achievement of students in biology, hence the reason for carrying out this research work.

To back up this study, a brief explanation of Pavlov’s 1929’s classical conditioning

theory became inevitable. This theory relates that: Pavlov performed an experiment on dogs

and discovered that these organisms learnt to salivate in response to a bell. Many trials had

been given in each of which the bell was sounded and food was simultaneously (slightly


62

later) presented. It was thus correlated that students in Biology will get good grades

whenever the teachers taught, and students were exposed to many trials of continuous

assessment activities. According to Pavlov, condition response (CR) is the response that is

developed during training, while conditioning stimulus (CS) is the stimulus, which include

trainings/teaching activities intended to evoke the CR that is good grades in the subject

(biology).

A lot of literature abound that relate to teachers’ continuous assessment practices in

secondary schools. Only a few of such literature was reviewed in this study as follow: Onuka

(2006) found out that between 1948 and the early 1990s there was a comprehensive

implementation of continuous assessment and feedback for the improvement of the education

system in Nigeria for the effectively accomplishment of learning objectives by students. This

is concurred by the findings of Onuka and Oludipe (2005), that there was a significant

remediation for poor achievement in biology as a result of the application of the feedback

mechanism resulting from formative evaluation of learners activities. Furthermore,

Etiene(2007:2) contended that, the project against final examination in biology by students in

France in May 2002 was the perfect opportunity for students to point at the unfair and risky

final assessment in their schools. Thus according to Etiene (2007) students made it clear that

such examination merely represented the achievement of the moment (or immediate course

content) and not the efforts made through the year. Students insisted on the risk that even the

best prepared student could have a problem on the day of examination, leading a poor grade.

Furthermore, that such problem could be able score favour of the continuous assessment

activity, thereby reducing the risk of some difficulties are likely to occur during

implementation of the recap exercises of these activities.

Grauma and Naidoo, (2004).Also noted that in secondary schools, the assessment of

students is done through terminal, half yearly and annual examinations at the schools.

Larnoy, (1999) contents that, when continuous assessment practices are applied over a while

period of time, they do not give an indication whether improvement is taking place or not.

But before 999, Ogunnyi (1984) had noted that continuous assessment is cumulative in that

any decision made at any time about a learner still has much to talk about the learner.

Continuous assessment also provides the students with maximum opportunities to learn and

demonstrate from time to time the knowledge, skills and the attitudes that they learners have

during the teaching-learning processes, especially in biology. However, this researcher felt

that in the secondary schools in the area of this study, it cannot be over emphasized that the

measurement in the various domains, using varieties continuous assessment models makes it

a good stool for achieving learning objectives in biology in particular. This is so because in

his research, Kalleghan and Greaney (2003) noted a deficiency in the practice of continuous

assessment involving only one-shot test or teacher-made test in Africa (where Nigeria is

part). This therefore may account for the variances in performance or achievement among

students of science biology (especially) in secondary schools. Since there is need to improve

students achievement in biology the need exist to establish what continuous assessment

practices are being used for by teachers in secondary schools. The need also exists to


63

investigate whether any relationship exists between continuous assessment practices being

used in secondary schools and students’ achievement in sciences; finally, the need exist to fin

gut the teachers perception on whether students exposed to numerous continuous assessment

practices perform better than their counterpart who are not exposed to such practice

activities.

Graume and Naidoo (2003) conducted a study to determine whether teachers’

utilization of assignment enhances students’ academic achievement in Biology, using a

survey research design. To achieve the purpose, three research questions and hypotheses

were formulated. The population of the study comprised 109 teachers and 898 students 25

items questionnaire was developed and administered to a sample of 308 respondents (30

teachers and 278 students). Mean scores and standard deviations were used to answer the

research questions. While 2 test statistics were used to test the null hypotheses. The result

showed that assignments enable students to get exposed to variety of questions more often

and when given feedback from teachers; students were able to learn the best ways of

approaching questions and presenting their answers. It was therefore concluded that

assignments which is one of the continuous assessment practice model, positively relates to

students achievement in biology. This findings were supported by Bassey, Akpama, Ayang

& Obeten (2015) whose study on effect of assignment scores on students’ academic

achievement in mathematics showed a positive correlation effect on their overall

performance.

Greaney (2001) conducted a study on teacher-made test as a critical factor for

students’ academic achievement in Biology, evidence from multi levels of post primary

schools. The main purpose of the study was to determine if teacher made test as a continuous

assessment practice enhance students’ academic achievement in biology. The study was a

survey. It was guided by four research questions and four hypotheses. A total sample of 282

teachers and 788 students from a population of 2,282 teachers and teachers and 4,678

students purposive sampling questionnaire with a four point rating scale were the instrument

used to collect data for the study. The data collected were analyzed using mean, standard

deviation and t-test statistic. This study revealed that through written test, students were

informed of their main weak areas, which helped them to devise ways of improving on their

performance. Teacher-made-test contained questions selected from various topics already

learnt after a given period of time. Therefore when students failed the questions, they could

easily be forced to revise more which will enhance their knowledge of the content.

Lewis studied the relationship between teachers’ utilization of projects assessment

and students’ academic achievement in biology in Abu Ohabi. The study which was a survey,

was guided by three each of research questions and null hypotheses. A total of 555 students

and 209 teachers were selected from a population of 22,526 students and 4837 teachers using

purposive sampling. The data collected were analyzed using means, standard deviations and

t-test statistics. The study revealed that this practice (use of projects for students assessment)

is rarely used and most teachers have never used project to assess students in biology.


64

This is because projects are difficult to monitor due to limited time available during

term. Findings showed that teachers are always teaching to complete the syllabus, and

anything beyond that is useless to them. This implies that teachers are only interested in

assessment of teaching instead of assessment of learning (Ivan Pavlov, 1936; Yigzaw, 2013,

&Bassey et al., 2015, etc). However, these project issues were used to enable readers

understand how the variables of the study inter-related in studies of this nature; that is

predicting future behaviour of learners on the basis of already determined pre-scores of

Continuous Assessment (CA). This would also create anxieties on the part of learners if the.

pre-achievement scores of Continuous Assessment (CA)are not used in the determination of

the overall achievement of the learners, etc. In general, the literature review had exposed

some loop-holes in the aspects of utilization of assignment, classroom test and project; which

and were hoped to be closed at the end of the research.

The general need to promote learning and improve students’ performance in

secondary schools in the country (particularly in Obubra Local Government Area), resulted

to a range of related but different development in continuous assessment at classroom levels.

The resultant feature has not been consisted with achievement of students in science

especially biology as performance still varies from school to school. This endangers the

future of many students who are in schools that perform poorly (particularly in the sciences).

On the basis of the above introduction, it becomes glaring obvious that the only hope of

ascertaining somewhat near good academic achievement in sciences is assessment practices.

And the assessment practices adopted by teachers in secondary schools in most states, and

Local Government Areas in the country, even in Obubra Local Government of Cross River

State, still have much to be said than written. It was on the premise that this study became

necessary, to determine the extent to which utilization of scores from class assignment,

classroom test, and field-trip contribute to students’ academic achievement in the science

subjects, particularly in biology in secondary schools.

The main purpose of this study was to find out teacher’s continuous assessment practices

and secondary school students achievement in Biology in Obubra Local Government Area of

Cross River State. The specific objectives were:

i) To examine the extent to which teacher’s utilization of assignment scores influence

students’ academic achievement in Biology.

ii) To determine the extent to which scores of teachers made test influence students

achievement in biology.

iii) To determine whether teachers utilization of project scores influence students

achievement in biology.

On the basis of the specific purposes, the following null hypotheses were formulated to guide

the study:

i) There is no significant influence of teachers’ utilization of assignment on the academic

achievements of students in Biology.


65

ii) There is no significant influence of teachers’ utilization of teacher-made test on the

academic achievement of students in Biology.

iii) There is no significant influence of utilization of project assessment scores on students’

academic achievement in Biology.

Method

The survey inferential research design was adopted for conducting this study. This was

because according to Isangidighi, Joshua, Asim & Ekuri (2004), and Isangidighi (2012), the

survey research design involves collection of data to accurately and objectively describe

existing phenomena. Studies that make use of this approach are employed to obtain pictures

of the present (prevailing conditions) of particular phenomena, hence the survey research

design was considered appropriate for this study, because it allowed the researcher to make

inferences about the population under study.

This study was conducted in public secondary schools in Obubra Local Government

Area in Cross River State. This local government lies between latitudes 5o 3′ and 6o3′ North

of the equator and longitude 8o5′ and 9o5′ East of the Greenwich Meridian (NEST, 1991). It

is bounded on by North by Ikom LGA, on the South and East by Yakurr and Akamkpa

LGAs, and in the West by Yala LGA and Ebonyi State respectively. Obubra covers an areas

of 313.39sqkms and is mainly an agrarian community with farming in yam, cocoyam,

fishing, trading etc as their main stay.

Traditionally, the Obubra peoples have a cultural heritage that is reflected in some of

their festivals and dances such as cultural carnivals, Obam, Obarike, Idang and Abu/Otawha

festivals. Obubra is multi-dialectal with major languages such as Mbembe, Isobo/Izikwo,

Yala, Ekuri, Nkukoli, etc (Wikipedia 2015).

The target population for this study was all SS-II graders in six (6) out of the fifteen

public secondary schools in Obubra Local Government Area, Cross River State. This

population was given as 647 and it was from this population or group that a sample of 230

(122 or 53.04%, male and 108 46.96% female) respondents was randomly drawn for the

study.

The representative sample of the study was 230 SS-II students randomly selected

from 6 (out of 15) secondary schools. The sample was drawn by simple random procedure

base on ratio and proportions since the spread of students was not homogenous in all sampled

schools.

The instrument used for data collection was a 15-items structured questionnaire,

designed, validated as well as tested for reliability by the researcher and his colleague –

‘both’ being professional measurement and evaluation experts, in faculty of education

CRUTECH, Calabar.

The questionnaire consisted of two parts, (A and B). Section A was designed to elicit

respondents personal data such as their school, sex and age, while Section B with 20

argumentative items was to elicit data from respondents on the 3 major independent variables

of teachers utilization of assignment, utilization of classroom test and utilization of project


66

work for continuous assessment operations to determine students’ academic achievement.

Section B was design on the 4-points modified Likert scale type of SA for Strongly Agree, A

for Agree, D for Disagree and SD for Strongly Disagree respectively.

The data were prepared by scoring/coding of the retrieved copies of instrument from

field survey. The scoring was based on the 4-points modified Likert scale type with ‘SA’

scored 4-points; ‘A’ scored 3-point, ‘D’ scored 2-points and ‘SD’ scored 1-point (for all

positively warded items) this order was reversed for all negatively worded statements. The

scored data where extracted and stored in a data bank from where they were extracted and

used for all data analysis for the study.

Data was analyzed hypothesis-by-hypothesis, using Pearson Product Moment

Correlation Coefficient (r) and simple linear regression statistical procedures as follows:

Results:

Hypothesis one: There is no significant influence of teachers’ utilization of assignment on

students’ academic achievement in Biology. To test this hypothesis Pearson Product Moment

Correlation Coefficient (r) statistics was employed. The result of this analysis was presented

in table 1.

Table 1: Pearson product Moment correlation coefficient (r) analysis of the influence of

teacher’ utilization of assignment on students’ academic achievement in biology N=235

Variables Assignment

utilization

Academic achievement

Assignment

utilization

Pearson (r) 1 .018

.784

Correlation sign (2-

tailed) N

235 235

1

Academic

achievement

Pearson .018

Correlation sign (2-

tail0 N

235 235

Correlation (r) not significant at P>.05, df = 233, P-cal = .784

From table 1, the calculated R-value of 0.018 was found not significant at P = 0.784. That is,

the P-value of s0.784 for which the calculated r-value was got, was far higher than the

stipulated P-value of 0.05. With these results, the null hypothesis was retained. This means

that there is no significant influences of teachers’ utilization of assignments scores on

students’ academic achievement in Biology.


67

Hypothesis two: There is no significant influence teachers’ utilization of classroom test on

students’ academic achievement in biology. To test this hypothesis, summarized data was

extracted from the data bank and subjected to analyses using simple linear regression

statistics. The result were presented in table 2.

Table 2: Simple linear regression analysis of influence of classroom test scores utilization on

students’ academic achievement in biology. N= 235

a) MODEL SUMMER Model R R2 Adjusted

R2

Standard error of estimate

1 .184a .034 .030 3.03688

A predictors: (constant) CRm test utilization

b) ANOVAa Model Sum of

Squares (SS)

Df Means

Squares

(MS)

f-cal Sign

1 Regression 75.608 1 75.608 8.198* .005b

Residual 2148.877 233 9.223

Total 2224.485.234

c) B-Coefficients.

Unstandardized B Coefficient Error standardize beta Coefficient Model b Std error Beta t Sign

1 Constant 9.919 1.042 9.522 .000

Project .192 .067 .184 2.863* .005

a) Dependent variables: academic achievement

b) Regression

From table 2a (showing model summary) with a calculated r-value of 1.184a, r-value of .034

and an adjusted R2-value of .030. The R2-value of .034 showed that all the factors influencing

students’ academic achievement in biology, Teachers use of classroom test scores accounted

for 3.4% (the remaining 96.6% was due to factors not used in this study. To confirm this

result, table 2b (one way ANOVA of the regression model) was used. Here a calculated

fishers value of 8.198* was given-off at a p-value og.005b. This p-value was found to be far

lower than the stipulated p-value of .05, with these results the null hypothesis was rejected.

This means that there is significant influence of teachers’ utilization of classroom test scores

in students’ academic achievement in biology. To determine the regression line of-fit, table

2c (bi-variates coefficients) was used. Here, with a regression constant of 9.919 and a b-

coefficient of 2.863* the model was given as Y = K1 + bX1., where Y = criterion or


68

dependent variable (or students biology achievement), K = regression Constance, and b1X1 =

regression coefficient of the variable-2 teachers utilization if classroom test scores.

Hence: Ycacada achievement = 9.919 + 2.863 test scores utilization

Hypothesis three: There is no significant influence of teachers’ utilization of academic

project scores on students’ academic performance in biology. To analyze this hypothesis data

were extracted from the data bank and summarized data were then subjected to analysis using

simple linear regression statistics.

Table 3: Simple linear regression analysis of influence of academic projects scores on

students’ academic achievement in biology

a. MODEL SUMMER

Model R R2 Adjusted Standard error of estimate

1 .310a .096 .092 2.93757

b. ANOVAa Model Sum of

Squares (SS)

Df Means

Squares

(MS)

f-cal Sign

1 Regression 213.860 1 213.860 24.783 .0006

Residual 2010.625 233 8.629

Total 2224.485.234

c. Unstandardized B Coefficient Error standardize beta Coefficient Model b Std error Beta T Sign

1 Consent 7.743 1.045 7.242 .000

Project .386 ..076 .310 4.978 .000

c) Predictors (constant): project scores

d) Depivar: Academic achievement

From table 3a, shown in an R-value of 310a, R2-value of .096, and an adjusted R2-value of

.92, the R2-value of .086 mans that of the total factors influences students’ academic

achievement in Biology, 9.6% was contributed by (or was due to) utilization of projects

scores. The remaining 90.4% was due to agene values (or factors not used) in this study. This

means that there is significant influence of academic project scores on students’ academic

achievement in biology. To confirm this result, table 3b (ANOVA of the estimate was

employed). This table gave a calculated R-ration of 24.783 at a P-value of .000b. That is, this

P-value of .000b for which the P=value was significant, was found to be far lower than the

stipulated P-value of .05. Based on these results, the significant of the hypothesis was

confirmed. Therefore, to determine the regression line of best fit, the table 7c was used. This

table showed a regression constant of 7.43, a bi-viriate coefficient (t-value) of 4.978 and a P-


69

value of .000. The line of best-fit was thus given as: Y = k + bx; i.e Y = 7.43 + 4.978 project

academic scores.

The statistical analyses of each hypothesis that directed the study, which could also

be taken as an addition of this study to knowledge bank were as follow:

i) Teachers’ utilization of classroom assignment scores does not significantly relate with

students’ achievement in biology in Obubra Local Government Area of Cross River

State.

ii) There is significant influence of teachers’ utilization of classroom tests for students’

academic achievement in biology.

iii) There is significant influence of utilization of project assessment scores on students’

academic achievement in biology.

Discussion of findings

The statistical analysis of hypothesis one of this study has exposed the fact that there is no

significant influence of teachers utilization of classroom assignment on the students’

academic achievement particularly in Biology as a subject in Obubra Local Government

Area of Cross River State. Moreso, the non-significant value of -.018 recorded, was negative;

this was indicative that the more teachers refuse to utilize classroom assignment for students’

academic achievement the more students performance continues to be poor. These findings

are at variances with the findings of Gaume and Naidoo (2003) who conducted a study to

determine whether teacher’s utilization of assignment enhances students’ academic

achievement in biology. The result of this study which was a survey, showed that

assignments enabled students to get exposed to self-studies that would enhance their son

independency of learning and self-discovery as proposed by Pavlov (1929).

Teachers’ utilization of field trip and academic achievement of students: The statistical

analysis of hypothesis two of this study has revealed the facts that there is significant

influence of utilization of teacher made test on the academic achievement of students

particular in biology. That is, the more teacher-made tests are utilized by the teachers, the

better the achievement of students in schools.

These findings are in consonance with Greaney (2001) who conducted a study on

teacher-made test as a critical factor for students’ academic achievement in biology, evidence

from multi levels of post primary schools. The result of this study revealed that through

written tests, students were informed of their main weakness areas, which helped them to

devise ways of improving on their performance. Teacher-made test contain questions

selected from various topics already learnt after a given period of time. Therefore when

students failed the questions, they could easily be forced to revise more which will enhance

their knowledge of the content.

With regards to Teachers’ utilization of projects assessment academic achievement

of students in school, the statistical analysis exposed the facts that there is significant

influence of teachers’ use of project assessment on academic achievement of students


70

particularly in biology. That is, the more teachers utilize the project assessment, the better the

academic achievement of students in this science subject.

These findings tend to be in agreement with Lewis (2009) who studied the

relationship between teachers’ utilization of projects assessment and students’ academic

achievement in biology. The results of the study revealed that the practice is rarely used and

most teachers have never used project to assess students in biology. This is because projects

are difficult to monitor due to limited time available during the term. This finding still

showed that teachers are always teaching to complete the syllabus and anything beyond that

may be useless to them. This implied that the limited times available in schools does not

allow the diversity of continuous assessment practice available for use to be realistically

practicalized. The researchable concluded that, in order to manage the efficiency within the

implementation of projects as a continuous assessment practice in secondary school, teachers

should use group works for students.

Conclusion of the study: On the basis of the statistical findings, the study concluded that;

teachers’ continuous assessment practices significantly influence secondary school students’

biology achievement in public secondary schools (only with respect to teachers’ utilization of

classroom test and project assessment scores but not with utilization of classroom

assignment) in Obubra local Government Area of Cross River State.

Recommendations among others, was that teachers’ must be motivated through trained-the-

trainers’ workshops, to enhance their modalities of utilizing classroom assignment for proper

determination of students achievement not only in biology but in all sciences related subjects

for effective evaluation of students’ science and technology knowledge advancement in

schools.

References

Akinbobola, A., & Afolabi, F. (2009). Constructivist practices through guided discovery

approach: The effect on students’ cognitive achievement in Nigerian Senior

Secondary School Physic. Bulgarian Journal of Science and Education Policy, 3(2),

233 – 252.

Aluko, S. A. (2012).

Anaf, Y. S. & Yamin, S. B. (2011). Difference and similarity of Continuous Assessment in

Malaysian and Nigerian Universities. Journals of education Practical. 2: 73 – 82.

Angela, k., & Harms, U. (2008). Acquiring knowledge about Biodiversity in a Museum are

Worksheets effective? Journal of Biological Education, 42 (4), 157 – 162.

Ashworth, J. & Evans, J. L. (2001). Modelling students subject choice at secondary and

Tertiary level: A cross section study. Journals of Economic Education, 32 (4) 311 –

320.


71

Bamberger, Y. & Tal. T. (2008). Multiple outcomes of class visits to natural history

Museums: The students view. Journals of Science Education and Technology, 17 (3),

274- 284.

Bassey, S. W., Akpama, E., Ayang, E. E. & Obeten, I. (2015). An investigation into teachers

compliance with the best assessments practices in the Cross River Central Senatorial

District. African Journal of Education and Technology 2(1), 21 - 29

Cakiroglu, J. (2006). The effect of learning cycle approach on students’ Achievement in

Science. European Journal of Education Research. (22), 61 – 73.

Cooper, H. (1980). Synthesis of research on Homework. Educational Leadership,47, 85 – 91.

Cowley, K., Callanan, M., Jipson, J., Galco, J., Topping, k., &Shrager, J. (2001). Shared

scientific Thinking in everyday parent child activity. Science Education. 85(6), 712.

Isangidighi, A. J., Joshua, M. T., Asim, A., & Ekuri, E. E. (2004). Fundamentals of research

and Statistics in Education and Social Sciences. Calabar: University of Calabar

Press.

Isangidigi, A. J., (2012). Essentials of research and statistic in education and social sciences.

Etinwa& Associates.

Kisiel, J. (2006). An examination of field trip strategies and their implementation within a

natural history Museum. Science Educations, 90 (3), 434 – 452.

Maria, A. J. (2012). Academics Performance in terms of the Applied Assessment system.

European Journal of Education Respiration Assessment Evaluation, 18: 1-14.

NEST, (1991). Nigeria Threatened Environment. Ibadan NEST.

Pavlov, I. P. & Anrep, g. U. (2003). Conditioned Reflexes. Courier Corporation. Retrieved

03/07/17.

Pavlov, I. P. (1929). Classical Conditioning Theory, Oxford UK John Hopkins.

Pearse, S., & Tesi, R. (2004). Adults perception of the field trips taken within grades K-12:

Eight case studies in the New York Metropolitan Area Education, 125 (1), 30 – 40.

Wikipedia. (2015). Nkukoli language, Retrieved on 070/07/17 from

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/.../nkokoli

Yigzaw, A. (2013). High school English teachers’ and students’ Perception, attitudes and

actual practices if continuous assessment http://www.academicjournals.org/ERR, 8

(16) pp. 1489 – 1498.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/.../nkokoli

http://www.academicjournals.org/ERR

Effects of Formative Assessment with Feedback on Junior Secondary School Students’....

72

EFFECTS OF FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT WITH FEEDBACK ON JUNIOR

SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ ATTITUDE AND PERFORMANCE IN

MATHEMATICS IN BARKIN-LADI, PLATEAU STATE, NIGERIA

Geoginia Cyril Imo1

[email protected] (08032859893)

Hwere Mary Samuel 2

(08024212996)

1. Department of Educational Foundation Faculty of Education University of Jos

2. Government Girls Model Junior Secondary School Zaron, Barkin Ladi Local

Government Area, Plateau State.

Abstract

The study found out the effects of formative assessment with feedback on students’ attitude

and achievement as instructional strategy on Junior Secondary School students’ achievement

in Mathematics. Three research questions and a hypothesis guided the study. Researchers’

developed instruments titled Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT) and Mathematics

Attitudes Questionnaire (MAQ) were used to collect data for the study. Results from the study

revealed significant effects of treatment on students’ achievement in Mathematics. It also

revealed that attitude of students improved after administering treatment. However, no

significant effects of gender on achievement. The paper concluded with suggestions that all

school administrators should emphasis to teachers the need for the use of formative

assessment with feedback as instructional strategy to raising students’ motivation by giving

adequate feedback.

Keywords: Formative Assessment, Feedback, instructional strategies, improved attitude,

improved achievement.

Introduction

One does not need to tell any individual or the society about the importance of Mathematics

education in Nigerian educational System and the nation technological development. Obodo

(2001), Odumosu et al (2012), Ale (2012) to mention but a few viewed on the importance of

Mathematics to be a precise and logical language, the most serviceable science subject to all

discipline and field of human work and study, a system of concept of shape, size, quantity

and order used to describe device phenomena.

In spite all these importance accorded Mathematics in the society, majority of

Nigerian school children generally dread Mathematics to be complex, difficult and abstract

(Harbor-Peter 2001). Worse still, some teachers of Mathematics are either not convinced

themselves to let students know the benefits that could be derived from the study of

Mathematics beyond being a necessity for entry into high institutions. The implication of



73

these is that examination malpractice would be on the increase and majority of these students

would always fail the subject each year and end up forfeiting the pursuit of many careers that

would have benefited them and the country better. More importantly, they would also be

losing in the basic knowledge, skills and habits that effective Mathematics learning is

expected to equip students with. Thus, frequent failure of Nigerian students in Mathematics

which is a core subject has been the concern of all stakeholders in the education industry

Olagunju, 2015). One of the major problems identified is that teachers often times give

assessment, but with inadequate or no feedback.

Gronlund and Linn as (cite in Ajogbeje, 2013) stipulated the uses of formative

assessment with feedback to include: Planning corrective action for overcoming learning

deficiencies, motivating learners and increasing retention and transfer of learning. Formative

assessment with feedback therefore has great impact and potential to transform learners and

indeed the entire educational system.

It does appear however that some of the strategies of formative assessment with

feedback have not been fully explored. Views and studies that in the time past show that

practices of formative assessment with feedback in our schools do not reflect the strategies as

outlined above. [ Hornby (2005), Crooks (2001), Nicol, 2009, Ajogbeje, 2012, OECD.

(2005), Adeniji, 2001, Mato and Dela Torre (2010), Abdul-Raheem (2010] of Primary

interest of this paper is the disheartening observation of stakeholders in the education

industry about the frequent failure of Nigeria students in Mathematics which is a core

subject, as a result, to exam malpractice or forfeiting career pursuit in students.

To achieve effective Mathematics teaching and learning, assessment is an essential

component. It affords the teachers and students opportunity to measure the extent to which

the stated objectives have been achieved or will be achieved. Assessment whether formative

(on the process) or summative (at the end of instruction), the interaction between teachers

and students as feedback tool is vital in teaching and learning quantitative subjects especially

Mathematics that topics are linked from simple to complex tasks. Ugodulunwa, (2008)

posits that educational assessment entails the process of gathering information on

performance of students, interpreting the information and using it to improve teaching and

learning process in school and national level.

Assessments are important whether formative or summative, they serve the

following purposes: motivating students, directing and enhancing learning, providing

feedback to students’ strengths, weaknesses and how they might improve as well as checking

whether learning outcomes are being achieved (Zou,2008). Bloom, Hasting and Madus (as

cited in Philas, 2012) opines that formative assessment with feedback is useful to both

students (as away of diagnosing students’ learning difficulties and the prescription of

alternative remedial measures) and to the teach (as means of locating the specific difficulties

that the students are experiencing with subject matter content) and forecast summative

assessment result. The above objective will be achieved if the learner and teacher get the

feedback on the outcome of assessment at the formative stage and use the information to play

respective legitimate roles towards improvement. However, the focus of this study is on the


74

learner since the learner is the central person in the whole process of teaching and learning.

Effort should be directed towards improving the learner.

Irons (2008) defined formative assessment as any task that creates feedback for

students about learning. To see further, formative feedback strategy is the notion of students

being given strategic guidance on how to improve their work that resides at the centre of

formative assessment practice. According to Clark (2011) formative assessment is central to

good instruction in several ways, focusing learning activities on key goals, providing students

with feedback so they can rework their ideas and deepen their understanding, helping

students develop Meta cognitive skills to critique their own learning products and processes,

and providing teachers with systematic information about students’ learning to guide future

instruction and improve achievement. The advantages of this practice will be beneficial to:

students, teachers, school counselors, school administrators, parents.

The main purpose of the study was to find out the effects of formative assessment with

feedback on students’ achievement in Mathematics. Specifically the study was to

1. Determine the level of achievement of students in Mathematics

2. Find out the effect of formative assessment in students’ achievement in Junior Secondary

School Mathematics

3. Find the effect of formative assessment on students’ attitude towards Mathematics

To guide the study three research questions were posed and a hypothesis stated

1. What is the level of students’ performance in Mathematics before exposure to

formative assessment with feedback?

2. What is the level of students’ performance in Mathematics after exposure to formative

assessment with feedback?

1. There is no significant difference between the pre-test and post-test Mathematics

performance mean scores of students in the experimental group.

Method

The study espouses a quasi-experimental design. The population for the study constituted all

JSS II students in 40 Junior Secondary Schools in Barkin- Ladi LGA, Plateau State. The

sample for this study was made of two (2) Junior Secondary Schools out of 21 selected

Secondary Schools in Barkin-Ladi LGA. Two instruments used for data collection in this

study were Mathematics Attitude Questionnaire (MAQ) and Mathematics Achievement Test

(MAT). The frequency counts, mean, standard deviations were used to answer the research

questions and a t-test for independent samples was used for testing the hypothesis. It was a

rating scale and marking scheme. The response type of the question was patterned in form of

modified four point Likert rating scale of Strongly Agree 4 points, Agree 3 points, Disagree 2

points and Strongly Disagree I point was used the scorning of items were scored (1) for

correct and (0) for wrong answers. The frequency counts, mean, standard deviation and a t-


75

test for independent samples at 0.05 level of significance to determine the P-Value The mean

gain shows the difference between the Pre-test and Post-test scores.

Results

Table 1: Students’ Mathematics Performance before Exposure to Formative Assessment with

Feedback.

Number of students Mean Maths performance

score

SD

120 7.96 3.21

Table 2: Analysis showing the Mathematics performance means scores of students after

exposure to formative assessment with feedback.

Group Pre-test Mean Score Post-test Mean Score Mean Gain

Experimental 7.87 12.87 5.0

Control 8.00 9.75 1.75

Table 3: A ( correlated t-test Analysis for Pre-test and Post-test Mathematics performance

Mean Scores of Students in the Experimental Group.

Test N Mean SD df t P-value Remark

Pre-test 60 7.87 3.09

59

-25.324

.000

Significant

Post-test 60 12.87 3.19

P < 0.05

Discussion of Results

The findings of this study revealed that formative assessment with feedback has tremendous

impact on the attitude and performance of JSS II students in Mathematics. Three research

questions were raised and answered and a hypothesis tested. The researcher went further to

compare the students’ performance mean scores to get their mean gain score. The mean gain

scores revealed that the post-test of the experimental group gained more in performance than

their pre-test mean scores and the following findings were reached.

The table 1 above shows the mean and standard deviation of 7.96 out of 20 and 3.21

respectively of 120 students who were given a pre-test in Mathematics. This shows that the

performance of students before exposure to formative assessment with feedback was on the

average. The minimum score was 2 and maximum score of 14.

Analysis from the table 2 above shows that the mean gain of students in the

experimental group is 5.0 while that of the control group is 1.75. This implies that the

treatment was effective since the mean gain of the experimental group is greater than that of

the control group.


76

Table 3 above shows the t-test for the paired samples that the P-value of 0.000 is less

than 0.05 level of significance, by this result, the null hypothesis is rejected and the

alternative which states that there is a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test

Mathematics performance mean scores of students in the experimental group is retained. The

post-test mean scores 12.87 is higher than 7.87 for the pre-test. The statistically significant

difference in the students’ performance mean scores and standard deviations implies that

students who were exposed to formative assessment with feedback (experimental group)

outperformed those who were not exposed.

Having positive attitude towards Mathematics, leads to improved performance in

Mathematics. This therefore corroborate with the submission of Blair, Jones & Simpson in

Murphy, (2003). Adeniyi (2001) and Ojugo et’al (2003) that positive attitude towards

learning are associated with success, while unfavourable attitude cause backwardness and

retardation. The study goes on to reveal that formative assessment with feedback helps in

increasing positive attitude of students towards Mathematics which translated into high

achievement for students. Teachers therefore, need to understand the various dimensions of

attitudes so as to help the students build positive attitude towards learning.

Using formative assessment with feedback to teach students, leads to better

performance of students as findings in the study shows that there is no significant difference

in the performance of students in the control and experimental groups before they were

exposed to formative assessment with feedback. But after the treatment was administered, the

results revealed that there is a significant difference between the performance of students

who were exposed to the treatment and those who were not. Students who were exposed to

the treatment outperformed the students who were not exposed. The above findings is in line

with the findings of the following literature Irons, (2008), Ajogbeje & Folorunso (2012) and

Tahir, Tarig and Khalid (2012) who reported that formative assessment with feedback is an

important tool with great tendency of improving students’ performance when it is rightly

applied.

Since this method of assessment and instruction has been found to uncover

opportunities for instructional intervention and help in information delivery while there is

still time in the school year to improve students’ achievement, it’s the researchers’ judgment

that Mathematics teachers should adopt the formative assessment feedback strategies in

teaching the subject so as to help improve the learning of Mathematics.

Conclusion

The study discovered the following as the effect of formative assessment with feedback on

student attitude and performance in Mathematics:

1. Students in both experimental and control groups performed averagely before the

administration of treatment.

2. Students in the experimental group showed a more positive attitude to Mathematics

after treatment which entailed the effectiveness of formative assessment with

feedback.


77

3. The treatment of formative assessment with feedback affects students positively since

treatment group outperformed higher than no treatment group

4. Both male and female students indicated high performance in Mathematics after

receiving treatment.

With the above, the following conclusions were made:

• Attitude of students towards the learning of Mathematics improved through the effective

use of formative assessment feedback strategy in teaching and learning process.

• Formative assessment with feedback as an instructional strategy has a great potential of

improving the performance of students who are exposed to it because the performance of

students in the experimental group greatly improved after they were exposed to the

treatment.

Recommendations

The following recommendations were made based on the findings of the study:

1. Mathematics teachers should adopt formative assessment strategy in teaching the

subject so as to help improve the learning of Mathematics that appears difficult to

students.

2. Teachers should always ensure that prompt feedback is given to students either orally

or in hard copies while students’ areas of weakness should be attended to through a

tutorial or remedial class.

3. Mathematics teachers should receive training programs to equip them with knowledge

and skills to enable them use formative assessment with feedback for their

Mathematics lessons.

References

Abdul-Raheem, B. O. (2010). Relative effect of problem-solving and Discussion Methods on

Secondary Schools Students’ Achievement in Social Studies. PhD. Thesis,

Unpublished . Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria; University of Ado-Ekiti.

Adeniji, J. T. (2001). West African Examination Council, reports on low candidature

subjects. STAN 41st annual conference national officers report. Ibadan.

Ajogbeje, O. J. (2012). Effect of Formative testing on Students’ Achievement in Junior

Secondary School Mathematics, European Screntific Journal, 8(8), 94-105.

Ajogbeje, O. J. & Folorunso, A.M. (2012). Effect of Feedback and Remediation on students’

Achievement in Junior Secondary School Mathematics. International Journal of

Education studies, 5(5), 153-162.

Ajogbeje, O. J. (2013). Effect of Formative Testing with Feedback on students Achievement

in Junior Secondary School Mathematics in Ondo state Nigeria: International

Journal of Education Researrch Vol 2, 08-20.


78

Clark, I. (2011). Formative assessment: Policy, Perspectives and practices. Florida Journal

of Educational Administration & policy, 4(2) 158-180.

Crooks, T. (2001). The validity of Formative Assessment, Paper presented to the British

Educational Research Association Annual Conference, University of Leeds, 13-15

September.

Harbor-Peters, V. F. A. (2001). Unmasking some aversive aspects of school Mathematics and

strategies for averting them. Inaugural lecture, University of Nigeria, Nsuks. Enugu:

Snap Press Ltd.

Hornby, W. (2005). Dogs, Stars, rolls royces and old double – decker buses: efficiency and

effectiveness in an assessment. in Quality Assurance Agency Scotland (Ed.)

Reflections on assessment volume 1. Mansfield: Quality Assurance Agency, 15- 28.

Irons, A. (2008). Enhancing Learning through formative assessment and feedback. London;

New York: Routledge.

Mato, M. & De la Torre, E. (2010). Evalucio’n de las actitudes hacia las malematicas y el

rendimento acade’ mico, PNA, Vol. 5, no. 1,197-208.

Murphy, J. (2003). Reculturing the profession of educational leadership: New blueprints.

Commission papers, national commission for the Advancement of Educational

Leadership Preparation.

Nicol, D. (2009). Quality enhancement themes: the first year experience – Transforming

assessment and feedback: enhancing integration and empowerment in the first year.

Mansfield: Quality Assurance Agency.

Obodo, G.C. (2010). Promoting Mathematics teaching and learning in schools. An essential

factor for universal basic education in Nigeria. “ Proceedings of the annual

conferences of Mathematics association of Nigeria” Abuja September 12.

Odumosu, M. O., Oluwayemi, M.O. & Olatunde, T.O. (2012). Mathematics as a tool in

Technological acquisition and Economical Development in transforming Nigeria to

attend vision 20;20;20 A Proceeding of Mathematical Association of Nigeria (MAN)

Annual National Conference , 199-207

OECD, (2005). Formative Assessment: Improving Learning in Secondary Classrooms,

OECD, Paris.

Ojugo, A. A; Ugboh, E; Onochie, C. C; Eboka, A. O; Yerokun, M. O. & Iyawa, I. J. B.

(2013). Effects of Formative Test and Attitudinal Types on Studennts’ Achievement

in Mathematics in Nigeria: African Educational Research Journal. Vol. 1(2), 113-

117.

Olagunju, A. M. (2015). Effect of Formative assessment on students’ academic achievement

in Mathematics in Senior Secondary School. International Journal of Education and

Research. Vol. 3 No. 10 October 2015 ISSN: 2411-5681.

Philas, O. Y. (2012). Teaching/Learning Resources and Academic performance in

Mathematics in Secondary School in Bondo District of Kenya; Asian Social. Vol.

No. 12, 126-132.


79

Tashir, M; Tariq, H. & Khalid, M. (2012). Impact of Formative Assessment on academic

achievement of Secondary School students. International Journal of Business and

Social Science.Vol. 17(3).

Ugodulunwa, C. A. (2008). Fundamentals of Educational Measurements, Jos: Fab.

Educational Books Nig.

Zou, P. X. W. (2008). Designing effective assessment in postgraduate construction project

management studies. Journal for Education in the Built Environment, 4(2), 80-94.

The Effect of Using Coefficient Alpha for Estimating the Reliability of Mathematics

80

THE EFFECT OF USING COEFFICIENT ALPHA FOR ESTIMATING THE

RELIABILITY OF MATHEMATICS TEST WHEN THE ASSUMPTIONS

UNDERLYING ITS UTILIZATION ARE VIOLATED

Michael Akinsola Metibemu..

Research Consultancy and Data Analysis Unit,

Amazing Love Global investment Limited, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria

E-mail: [email protected]; Phone: +2347058539888

&

Chinyere C. Oguoma.

Department of Psychology, Alvan Ikoku College of Education, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

E-mail: [email protected]; Phone: +2348036745446

Abstract

Coefficient alpha (CA) represents the reliability of a test when the test is unidimensional and

tau-equivalent. When the assumptions are violated, estimating reliability using composite

reliability (CR) has been recommended. Thus testing the assumptions of unidimensionality

and tau-equivalent is critical to selecting the appropriate method for estimating test’s

reliability. However, in Nigeria, test developers and researchers estimate test reliability with

coefficient alpha without assessing the assumption underlying its utilization. The study

therefore assessed the assumption of unidimensionality, of Mathematics test items and the

effect of using CA instead CR in the estimation of Mathematics test reliability. The study

adopted survey design. The sample consisted of 1142 senior secondary school three students

of 30 schools randomly selected from the 274 public schools in Imo State having a total of

37036 students. The instruments used were the Mathematics multiple-choice tests

administered by NECO in 2011. Data were analyzed using, Stout’s Test of Essential

Unidimensionality (DIMTEST), Bootstrap Modified Parallel Analysis test (BMPAT),

coefficient alpha formula (KR 20), full information item factor analysis, and coefficient

omega. Results showed that the 2011 Mathematics test items of NECO violated

unidimensionality assumption. The reliability estimate of the Mathematics test using KR 20

was 0.15. When, coefficient omega was used, the estimate of reliability was 0.77. Using

coefficient alpha for estimating the test reliability of a multidimensional test underestimates

reliability coefficient. It is therefore our conclusion that coefficient alpha was not suitable for

estimating the reliability coefficient of a multidimensional test. Hence we recommend that

test developers and researchers assess the dimensionality of test before estimating its

reliability.

Keywords: Dimensionality, Coefficient alpha, Composite Reliability and Reliability

coefficient




81

Introduction

In assessing students’ performance in school subjects, achievement tests are used. The

reliability of these achievement tests provides the measure used in assessing the precision of

the test scores obtained on the tests. Reliability is defined as the correlation between

observed total scores of two parallel tests or between test scores on two repeated

administrations (Spearman, 1904). In the same vein, Oosterwijk, Ark and Sijtsma, (2017)

state that reliability measures the degree to which test scores can be repeated under identical

test administration conditions, in which neither the examinee (with respect to the measured

attribute) nor the test (with respect to content) has changed. Test score reliability is

important for the following reasons: it provides a measure of the extent to which an

examinee’s score reflect random measurement error and; it’s a precursor to test validity

(Wells &Wollack, 2003). Thus assessing test score reliability is of utmost importance in

educational assessment.

In assessing test reliability several methods have been developed. Carmines &Zellar,

1979) listed four methods which include: the retest methods, the alternative-form method, the

split-halves method, and the internal consistency method. Some scholars postulate that there

are three types of coefficients of reliability: stability (which is test re-test method), alternate

forms and internal consistency (under which are the split-half technique, Spearman-Brown

prophecy method, Flanagan method, Kuder-Richardson (KR) method of rational equivalence,

Cronbach alpha, Composite reliability) (Thomas, Nelson and ,Silverman 2015; Miller &

Lovler, 2016; Dilorio2005)

The test retest method is described as one of the easiest ways to estimate the

reliability of empirical measurement. In the retest method, the same test is given to the same

people after a period of time (Carmines & Zellar (1979)). The scores from the first and

second administrations are then compared using correlation. This method of estimating

reliability allows the examination of the stability of test scores over time and provides an

estimate of test’s reliability/precision (Miller & Lovler, 2016). The rate of change of a

variable is important in determining the length of time between the administrations of the

tests. Most authors suggest a minimum of two weeks to reduce the effects of memory and no

more than one month to reduce the chance of change in the amount of the phenomenon

reported (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994; Dilorio, 2005). The interval between the two

administrations may vary from a few hours to several years. The test-retest reliability will

decline as the interval between the two administrations lengthens (Miller &Lovler, 2016).

Thomas et al (2015) emphasize that the interval cannot be so long that actual changes in

ability, maturation and learning occur between the two administrations of the test. Intra class

correlation can be used to compute the coefficient of stability of the scores on the two tests.

Using ANOVA procedures, the tester can determine the amount of variance accounted for by

the separate days of testing, test trial differences, participant differences and error variance

(Thomas et al, 2015).

The alternate-forms or alternative-form method is used extensively in education and

is also referred to as parallel-form method or the equivalence-method (Thomas et al, 2015;


82

Carmines & Zellar, 1979). The alternate-form involves examinees taking two whole-test

replications, each on a different occasion. The time interval between the two administrations

is usually shorter than the test retest reliability, but should be long enough to minimize

fatigue (Meyer, 2010). In addition, the alternate-form method differs from the test retest

method as it is an alternative form of test that is given on second administration and not the

same test as is the case with the test retest method (Carmines & Zellar, 1979). The two tests

administered in this method are intended to measure the same thing and the two tests

typically are at approximately the same level of difficulty. The scores on the two tests are

correlated to obtain a reliability coefficient (Thomas et al, 2015). The alternate-form method

is widely used with standardized tests (i.e. those of achievement and scholastic aptitude).

Thomas et al. Explaining the alternate-form method succinctly Webb, Shavelson & Haertel

(2006) state that designing an alternate-form reliability study involves creating two parallel

forms of the test, say Form 1 and Form 2, and giving the two forms of the test on the same

day. In this case, the correlation between scores on Forms 1 and 2 yields the test’s (either

form’s) reliability, also referred to as a coefficient of equivalence. This method is based on

comparison of forms and not occasions. It is therefore not a coefficient of stability but a

coefficient of equivalence. The primary source of error is test forms but other sources of error

like fatigue and learning are also at play. The coefficient shows the degree to which test

forms are substitutable. The alternate forms co-efficient is high when test forms are similar

and observed scores are not unfavorably affected by test-form specific content. On the other

hand, as the compositions and difficulty between the two forms diverge, alternate form co-

efficient decreases. The alternative test forms have been criticized as creating two test forms

can be cost prohibitive (Meyer 2010). Also, it is also practically difficult to construct two

tests that are parallel. It is often difficult to construct one form of a test talk less of two forms

that display the properties of parallel measurement (Carmines & Zellar, 1979).

The stability and alternate forms are fraught with weaknesses because of the factor of

memory and fatigue involved in repeated testing. Therefore, reliability is usually based on

single administration because it is rare to have either parallel tests or repeated testing (Sha &

Ackerman, 2017). Corroborating this view Oosterwijk, Ark and Sijtsma, (2017) state that

since, perfect repeatability of test is hampered by random influences beyond the test

administrator’s control, researchers usually collect item scores based on one test

administration and use methods to approximate reliability based on this single data set. The

test retest and alternate-forms reliability are logistically inconvenient. This is because its

either the same sample of people must be tested on two occasions or more than one form of a

test needs to be developed to find the reliability of a single form. The difficulties inherent in

the test retest and alternate forms led to the advent of the solution to calculate reliability of a

single form of a test has a long and illustrious history (Webb, Shavelson & Haertel, 2006;

Dilorio, 2005).

The internal consistency is the single administration method of reliability

assessment. Reliability coefficients can be obtained by several methods that are classified as


83

internal consistency techniques. These methods are: split-half technique, flanagan method,

Cronbach alpha, Gutterman’s methods etc.

The split-half method has been widely used for written tests and occasionally in

performance tests that require numerous trials (Thomas et al, 2015). This method requires the

division of the administered test into two, and the two halves are then correlated. This

method has been considered controversial by several authors. This is because of the difficulty

in defining halves of a test- the first versus the last half? Odd-even halves?Random halves?

(Webb, Shavelson & Haertel, 2006; Carmines & Zellar, 1979). For example, there are twenty

possible ways for a six-item scale to be divided into two equal parts. The reliability estimates

for these twenty divisions are likely to vary, and in some cases these differences could be

large (Dilorio 2005). The method is also deemed unsatisfactory because fatigue may setting

in at the end of the test and easier questions can be placed in the first half. Dilorio (2005)

considered the split half method to be conceptually similar to the alternate form method as

each half of the instrument is considered to be one form of test is divided into two equal

parts.

The split half method tends to underestimate reliability (Jaeger, 1993) because the

correlation is between the two-halves of the test, the reliability coefficient represents only

half of the total test; that is, behavior is sampled only half as thoroughly (Thomas et al,

2015). This led to the development of a step-up procedure Spearman-Brown prophecy

formula regarded as the adjustment formula, which is used to estimate the reliability of the

entire test because the total test is based on twice the number of items (Thomas et al, 2015).

Dilorio 2005 also stated that because shorter tests (half of the test) generally have lower

internal consistency reliability than longer ones, an adjustment is needed to reflect the

reliability of the total instrument. The Spearman-Brown formula is used for this adjustment.

Jaeger (1993) emphasized that the split-half reliability coefficients when adjusted using the

Spearman-Brown prophecy formula might overestimate the true reliability of a measurement

procedure.

Flanagan method is a process for estimating reliability in which the test is split into

two halves, and the variances of the halves of the test are analysed in relation to the total

variance of the test (Thomas et al, 2015). Another alternative method to the split-half method

of estimating reliability is the Cronbach alpha. Cronbach’s α is the mostly widely used

reliability estimate (Sha & Ackerman, 2017; Sijtsma 2009 ). This is because it solves the

problems of deciding which two-part split is best for estimating reliability. Coefficient alpha

(eponymously referred to as Cronbach’s alpha) is the average of all possible split-half

Spearman-Brown reliability estimates (Cronbach, 1951) .In this approach, each item is

correlated with every other item on the instrument. Coefficient alpha is computed by taking

the average of the individual item-to-item correlations and adjusting for the number of items.

Its advantage as compared to split-half is that only one value of coefficient alpha can be

computed for an instrument. Coefficient alpha can be computed using either the correlation

or the variance-covariance matrix (Dilorio, 2005). This method of estimating reliability is

suitable for binary and polytomous items or a combination of both (Meyer, 2010). Kuder-


84

Richardson formula, a special case of Cronbach alpha is used when the test data is

dichotomously scored. In the study dichotomously scored test items was used. Thus, the

Kuder-Richardson formula is emphasized.

The Kuder-Richardson (KR) method requires only one test administration and no

correlation is calculated. The two formulas under Kuder-Richardson (KR) method; KR-20

and KR-21 is used for items scored dichotomously. The KR-20 which is a complex, more

accurate version of the KR-21 involves the proportion of students who answered each item

correctly and incorrectly in relation to the total score variance (Thomas et al, 2015).

However, the Kuder-Richardson 20 appeared to be the most popular and used (Meyer, 2010;

Cohen &Swerdlik, 2009). Mathematically, the Kuder and Richardson formulae twenty KR20

is defined by:

KR20 = ------------------- egn (i)

Where, is the number of items contained in the test, is the proportion of examinees who

got the item correctly, is the proportion of examinees who got the item wrongly and is

the variance of the total test score.

In assessing test score reliability based onKuder-Richardson 20 (Kuder & Richarson,

1937), it is required that the data fulfills unidimensionality and tau-equivalent assumptions.

Unidimensionality refers to the number of factors or dimensions underlying scores produced

from a measurement procedure. Authors use the term unidimensional or homogenous test to

describe a measurement procedure in which items corresponds to one and only one factor,

but the measure may involve one or more factor (Meyer, 2010). The choice of the method to

test unidimensionality hinges on the nature and amount of data. When data is adjudged to

have been normally distributed, exploratory and confirmatory factor may be used to evaluate

unidimensionality. On the other hand, the DIMTEST is used for the evaluation of

unidimensionality of non-normally distributed data such as the binary items (items that

provide only two possible response options, such as yes/no, agree/disagree, or true/false)

(Dilorio 2005 , Meyer 2010).

Tau-equivalent assumption requires that the true score components of the models are

assumed to be the same, but error components are allowed to differ (Maruyama, 1998). A

tau-equivalent indicator model embodies the assumption that a latent variable’s indicators

assess the same construct in the same units of measurement (Raykov & Marcoulides, 2006).

Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis has been recommended for assessing tau-

equivalent in tests. Therefore, in addition to unidimensionality, before assessing reliability

with the KR20 methods items must have same true score(same factor loading).

When test data violates unidimensionality and tau-equivalent measures assumptions,

Guttman’s lower bound to reliability approach, greatest lower bound and reliability omega

have been recommended (Sha & Ackerman, 2017). Among these methods, Sha and

Ackerman (2017), found reliability omega to be the most appropriate when data is


85

multidimensional. The reliability omega estimates reliability based on result of factor

analysis. Mathematically the estimate is represented by:

𝜔 = 1 − ∑ ℎ𝑗

2𝑗𝑗=1

𝜎𝑡2 ------------ eqn(ii)

Where h is the communality of the test items and 𝜎𝑡2 is the total score variance.

According to Widhiarso and Ravand (2014), the total score variance is given by:

∑ (∑ ℷ𝑖𝑗𝑝𝑖=1 )2𝑘

𝑗=1 + ∑ 𝑒𝑖𝑝𝑖=1 ------------- eqn (iii)

Where ℷ𝑖𝑗 is the factor loading of i-indicators on j-factor and 𝑒𝑖 is the unique variance of the

indicators. On substitution of eqn (iii) into eqn (ii), eqn (ii) becomes

𝜔 = 1 − ∑ ℎ𝑗

2𝑗𝑗=1

∑ (∑ ℷ𝑖𝑗𝑝𝑖=1 )2𝑘

𝑗=1 + ∑ 𝑒𝑖𝑝𝑖=1

-------------- eqn (iv)

Equation iv represents the reliability omega formula for estimating test score reliability.

In Nigeria, KR 20 is widely used. However, researchers hardly assess the assumptions

underlying its use. Research conducted in other climes such as USA and UK, that have

assessed the impact of violation unidimensionality on the reliability coefficient of test when

coefficient alpha was used, showed that the reliability of multidimensional test estimated

using coefficient alpha is underestimated (Cortina, 1993; Cronbach, 1951; Feldt& Qualls,

1996; Osburn, 2000). For example Osburn (2000), demonstrated that with a true reliability

value of 0.76, Cronbach’s alpha was only 0.70 when scores were multidimensional. Meyer

(2010), noted that there is no guarantee that the difference observed in the study of Osburn in

the true value and estimated reliability value under violation of unidimensionality will always

be small as it seemed.

Metibemu and Ojetunde (2016), assessed the reliability of the Test anxiety scale

(Sarason, 1980) using Omega reliability as the test was found to be multidimensional among

the respondents used in the study. The finding of the study showed that the reliability

estimates obtained using Omega reliability, a multidimensional test reliability approach, was

higher than the reliability reported for the scale when it was originally developed and

estimated with coefficient alpha.

The literature search showed that no study has assessed the impact of violation of

unidimensionality on test score reliability of real test data. The only study, Metibemu and

Ojetunde (2016) that have used the multidimensional reliability assessment method at least in

Nigeria, did so without assessing the impact violation of unidimensionality on the reliability

test scores. Other studies that expressly assessed the impact of violation of unidimensionality

on test reliability did so using simulated data set. Thus the information regarding the impact

of violation of unidimensionality in test data on the test’s reliability estimate in real testing

situation is largely unknown. Therefore, this study assess the impact of violation of

unidimensionality in Mathematics multiple choice test items administered by the National

Examinations Council on the reliability estimates of the test. To achieve this, the authors

assess the unidimensionality and the number of dimensions underlying the test data when


86

violation of unidimensionality is evident in the test data. Thereafter the reliability of the test

scores was estimated using KR20 formula and omega reliability based on the number of

factor underlying the test data.

Research question

1. How does the 2011 NECO Mathematics multiple choice test fulfill unidimensionality

assumption?

2. How many dimensions underlie the 2011 NECO Mathematics multiple choice test?

3. What is the reliability coefficient of 2011 NECO Mathematics multiple choice test under

KR20 formula?

4. What is the reliability coefficient of 2011 NECO Mathematics multiple choice test under

Omega reliability method of reliability?

Method

The study adopted survey design. The sample used consisted of 1142 senior secondary

school three students of 30 schools randomly selected from the 274 public schools in Imo

State having a total of 37036 students. Data was analyzed using, Stout’s Test of Essential

Unidimensionality and full information Item factor analysis. The instrument used for data

collection is the 2011 NECO Mathematics multiple choice test. Prior to the analysis of the

data, the responses of the examinees to the test items were marked. Correct answers attracted

a score of 1, while incorrect answers attracted a score of 0. Thereafter, the scored responses

were collated.

Results

Research question 1: Does the 2011 NECO Mathematics multiple choice test fulfill

unidimensionality assumption?

To answer this research question, the collated marked Mathematics test was subjected to the

Stout’s test of essential unidimensionality, a procedure implemented in DIMTEST (Stout,

2005).

Stout’s test of essential unidimensionality, implemented in DIMTEST 2.0 (Stout,

2005), was used to test the assumption of unidimensionality. Using a sample of 30% of the

examinees, items 3, 11, 12, 18, 22, 24, 30, 38, 40, 41, 45, 48, 49, 51, 57 and 60 were

empirically identified by the HCA/CCPROX cluster procedure as the cluster most likely to

form a secondary dimension. Using the remainder of the sample for the test of essential

unidimensionality under the null hypothesis that the responses are unidimensional (the

average covariance within groups = 0), so failure to reject the null hypothesis indicates that

the assumption of unidimensionality is tenable. Table 1 presents the result.


87

Table 1: Unidimensionality of 2011 WASSCE Mathematics test

TL TGbar T p-value

13.5480 5.9197 7.5905 0.000

Table 1 showed that the items that found to form the secondary were dimensionally distinct

from each the remaining items of the test (T = 7.505 (p-value = 0.00, one-tailed)); therefore

the assumption of unidimensionality was rejected. This showed that the Mathematics test

data violated the assumption of unidimensionality.

Research question 2: How many dimensions underlie the 2011 NECO Mathematics multiple

choice test?

Table 2 presents the analysis of the number of dimensions underlying the Mathematics test

data using full information item factor analysis.

Table 2: Number of dimensions underlying 2011 WASSCE Mathematics multiple choice test Dimension AIC AICc SABIC BIC logLik X2 df p

one and two-dimension models compared

1 58100.36 58168.16 58435.92 59007.65 -28870.18 2 57125.81 57252.99 57571.36 58330.49 -28323.9 1092.55 59 0


2 57125.81 57252.99 57571.36 58330.49 -28323.9 3 56436.29 56646.02 56989.97 57933.33 -27921.15 805.514 58


3 56436.29 56646.02 56989.97 57933.33 -27921.15 4 55803.75 56123.11 56463.69 57588.1 -27547.88 746.541 57 0


4 55803.75 56123.11 56463.69 57588.1 -27547.88 5 55471.97 55933.01 56236.31 57538.59 -27325.99 443.776 56 0


5 55471.97 55933.01 56236.31 57538.59 -27325.99 6 55396.07 56037.17 56262.94 57739.92 -27233.04 185.901 55 0


6 55396.07 56037.17 56262.94 57739.92 -27233.04 7 55070.49 55938.27 56038.03 57686.53 -27016.24 433.583 54 0


7 55070.49 55938.27 56038.03 57686.53 -27016.24 8 55029.87 56181.92 56096.21 57913.06 -26942.94 146.615 53 0


8 55029.87 56181.92 56096.21 57913.06 -26942.94 9 55105.06 56613.76 56268.34 58250.35 -26928.53 28.818 52 0.996

Table 1 presents model-data fit analysis of the 2014 WASSCE Mathematics multiple choice

test. On the table 1-dimension model was hypothesized to underlie the test. In the same vein,

2-dimension, 3-dimension, 4--dimension, 5-dimension, 6-dimension, 7-dimension, 8-


88

dimension and 9-dimension models were respectively hypothesized to underlie the data. To

find the model-data best fit, which in turn represents the number of dimensions underlying

the Mathematics test the fitness of the individual hypothesized model relative to one another

was compared. The results showed that when the fitness of one and two-dimension models

were compared, the two-dimension-model had AIC, AICc, SABIC and BIC values

(57125.81, 57252.99, 57571.36,and 58330.49 respectively) were respectively lesser than the

AIC, AICc, SABIC and BIC values (58100.36, 58168.16, 58435.92 and 59007.65

respectively) of the one-dimension model. In addition, the Likelihood ratio was statistically

significant (χ2 (49) = 1092.55, p < 0.005). These results showed that the two-dimension

model fitted the data better than the one-dimension model. In search for a better fit for the

test data, the two-dimension model was in turn compared with three-dimension model. The

result showed that the three-dimension model fitted the data better than the two-dimension

model (three-dimension model’s AIC, AICc, SABIC and BIC values were respectively lesser

than the two-dimension model’s AIC, AICc, SABIC and BIC; the Likelihood ratio was

statistically significant, (χ2 (48) = 443.776, p < 0.005)). The model-data fit comparison of

pairs of dimension model showed that when 3-dimension and 4-dimension model were

compared, 4-dimension model fitted the test data better; for 4-dimension and 5-dimension

models the 5-dimension model fitted the data better; for 5- and 6-dimension model, 6-

dimension model fitted the test data better; for 6- and 7-dimension, 7-dimension model fitted

the test data better; when 7- and 8-dimension model were compared the 8-dimension fitted

the test data better. But when the 8-dimension and 9-dimension model model-data fit were

the 8-dimension model fitted the test data better than the 9-dimension model hypothesized to

fit the test data. At this point where a better model-data fit no longer exist, the iterative

terminated. These results showed that the 8-dimension model fitted the data better. The

implication of this result is that 8 traits underlie the variation observed in the performance of

the examinee on which the Mathematics test data was administered.

Research Question 3: What is the reliability coefficient of 2011 NECO Mathematics

multiple choice test under KR20 formula?

To answer this research question, the reliability of the Mathematics test was estimated using

the KR20 formula,

KR20 =

Where, = 60, is the proportion of examinees who got the item correctly, is the

proportion of examinees who got the item wrongly and is the variance of the total test

score. The p and q values are presented in Table 3 below.


89

Table 3: distribution of the p and q values of 2011 NECO Mathematics objective test items

Item P q pq Item P q pq

1 0.143608 0.856392 0.122985 31 0.358144 0.641856 0.229877

2 0.158494 0.841506 0.133374 32 0.214536 0.785464 0.16851

3 0.614711 0.385289 0.236841 33 0.109457 0.890543 0.097476

4 0.161996 0.838004 0.135754 34 0.053415 0.946585 0.050562

5 0.176883 0.823117 0.145595 35 0.124343 0.875657 0.108882

6 0.134851 0.865149 0.116666 36 0.077058 0.922942 0.07112

7 0.133975 0.866025 0.116026 37 0.274956 0.725044 0.199355

8 0.070053 0.929947 0.065145 38 0.569177 0.430823 0.245215

9 0.11296 0.88704 0.1002 39 0.174256 0.825744 0.143891

10 0.139229 0.860771 0.119845 40 0.441331 0.558669 0.246558

11 0.369527 0.630473 0.232977 41 0.395797 0.604203 0.239142

12 0.344133 0.655867 0.225706 42 0.180385 0.819615 0.147846

13 0.083187 0.916813 0.076267 43 0.096322 0.903678 0.087044

14 0.117338 0.882662 0.10357 44 0.183888 0.816112 0.150073

15 0.16725 0.83275 0.139278 45 0.331874 0.668126 0.221734

16 0.15324 0.84676 0.129757 46 0.154116 0.845884 0.130364

17 0.116462 0.883538 0.102899 47 0.171629 0.828371 0.142172

18 0.415061 0.584939 0.242785 48 0.425569 0.574431 0.24446

19 0.151489 0.848511 0.12854 49 0.565674 0.434326 0.245687

20 0.118214 0.881786 0.104239 50 0.103327 0.896673 0.092651

21 0.091068 0.908932 0.082775 51 0.486865 0.513135 0.249827

22 0.341506 0.658494 0.22488 52 0.108581 0.891419 0.096792

23 0.188266 0.811734 0.152822 53 0.065674 0.934326 0.061361

24 0.527145 0.472855 0.249263 54 0.123468 0.876532 0.108223

25 0.126095 0.873905 0.110195 55 0.246935 0.753065 0.185958

26 0.059545 0.940455 0.055999 56 0.107706 0.892294 0.096105

27 0.125219 0.874781 0.109539 57 0.475482 0.524518 0.249399

28 0.190018 0.809982 0.153911 58 0.056042 0.943958 0.052901

29 0.097198 0.902802 0.08775 59 0.087566 0.912434 0.079898

30 0.492119 0.507881 0.249938 60 0.584063 0.415937 0.242933


90

∑ 𝑝𝑞 = 𝑛=1𝑗=1 26.90788

𝝈2 = 10.53844

K = 60

𝑟 = 𝐾𝑅2𝑂 =60

60 − 1 (1 −

8.941537261

10.53844)

𝑟 = 0.1541

The result showed that the reliability coefficient estimated using Coefficient alpha method,

KR20 was 0.15.

Research Question 4: What is the reliability coefficient of 2011 NECO Mathematics multiple

choice test under Omega reliability method of reliability assessment?

To answer this question, the Omega reliability formula was used. The equation as presented

in eqn (iv) is given by:

𝜔 = 1 − ∑ ℎ𝑗

2𝑗𝑗=1

∑ (∑ ℷ𝑖𝑗𝑝𝑖=1 )2𝑘

𝑗=1 + ∑ 𝑒𝑖𝑝𝑖=1

Where h is the communality of the test items and 𝜎𝑡2 is the total score variance, ℷ𝑖𝑗 is the

factor loading of i-indicators on j-factor and 𝑒𝑖 is the unique variance of the indicators.

To obtain these parameters needed for the estimation of the omega reliability, factor analysis

based on the number of factors found to underlie the test data (i.e., 8) was conducted. The

factor analysis conducted was the item factor analysis implemented in MIRT package

(Chalmers, 2012) of R program (R Core Team, 2016). The results are presented in Table 4

below:

Table 4: factor loadings, cummunality and unique variances of Mathematics test data

2q Variabl

e

ℷ1

ℷ2

ℷ3

ℷ4

ℷ5

ℷ6

ℷ7

ℷ8

h

h2

e

V1 -0.99 0.11 -0.16 0.07 -0.16 0.08 -0.03 0.06 0.98 0.97 0.02

V2 -0.76 -0.10 0.12 0.08 -0.10 -0.29 -0.04 -0.09 0.87 0.76 0.13

V3 0.36 0.04 -0.19 -0.27 0.31 0.42 0.03 -0.38 0.89 0.80 0.11

V4 -0.31 -0.01 0.05 -0.17 -0.14 -0.64 -0.12 0.07 0.70 0.48 0.30

V5 -0.56 0.02 0.16 0.01 -0.16 -0.54 0.02 -0.09 0.86 0.73 0.14

V6 -0.10 -0.07 0.17 -0.31 -0.24 -0.65 -0.01 0.15 0.71 0.50 0.29

V7 0.08 0.21 -0.03 -0.18 0.84 0.04 -0.15 0.10 0.84 0.70 0.16

V8 0.12 -0.07 0.69 -0.02 0.02 0.02 0.29 0.43 0.98 0.96 0.02

V9 -0.32 0.22 0.47 -0.10 -0.01 -0.05 -0.33 0.11 0.43 0.19 0.57

V10 -0.24 0.39 0.22 -0.32 0.19 -0.12 -0.04 0.22 0.39 0.15 0.61

V11 0.51 0.01 -0.24 0.05 -0.34 0.19 -0.22 -0.12 0.66 0.43 0.34

V12 0.55 -0.20 0.19 0.25 -0.18 0.35 0.14 -0.12 0.69 0.48 0.31

V13 -0.24 -0.07 0.42 0.01 0.22 -0.15 0.14 -0.11 0.35 0.12 0.65

V14 -0.03 0.13 0.03 -0.26 0.19 -0.02 0.24 0.47 0.42 0.18 0.58


91

V15 -0.51 -0.13 0.15 -0.17 0.27 0.13 0.54 0.03 0.70 0.48 0.30

V16 0.04 -0.14 0.37 -0.08 0.28 -0.43 0.08 -0.09 0.45 0.20 0.55

V17 -0.31 -0.09 0.20 -0.09 -0.02 -0.15 -0.19 -0.12 0.23 0.05 0.77

V18 0.34 0.17 -0.41 0.26 -0.29 0.11 0.02 -0.31 0.78 0.61 0.22

V19 -0.25 0.15 0.31 -0.06 -0.33 0.03 -0.12 0.21 0.31 0.10 0.69

V20 0.30 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.03 -0.08 0.01 0.76 0.65 0.42 0.35

V21 -0.01 -0.09 0.52 -0.37 -0.16 -0.10 -0.08 0.40 0.65 0.42 0.35

V22 0.31 -0.02 0.33 0.08 -0.52 0.22 -0.44 -0.26 0.79 0.63 0.21

V23 0.03 -0.04 0.09 -0.02 0.10 -0.67 0.00 0.21 0.58 0.34 0.42

V24 0.29 0.16 0.00 -0.07 -0.17 -0.18 -0.19 -0.63 0.71 0.50 0.29

V25 -0.34 -0.18 0.11 -0.03 -0.14 -0.01 0.18 0.24 0.36 0.13 0.64

V26 0.04 -0.18 -0.27 -0.22 0.58 0.38 -0.26 0.33 0.98 0.96 0.02

V27 -0.24 0.15 0.26 -0.25 0.07 0.02 0.11 0.06 0.21 0.04 0.79

V28 0.20 -0.20 -0.29 -0.05 0.01 -0.63 0.04 0.19 0.51 0.26 0.49

V29 0.04 -0.46 0.56 -0.21 0.00 -0.10 -0.18 -0.11 0.58 0.33 0.42

V30 0.00 0.34 0.00 -0.37 0.06 0.43 -0.22 -0.25 0.74 0.55 0.26

V31 -0.35 0.00 -0.82 -0.20 0.09 0.02 -0.08 -0.02 0.93 0.86 0.07

V32 -0.34 -0.11 -0.25 -0.04 -0.01 -0.74 0.08 -0.02 0.91 0.83 0.09

V33 0.02 -0.11 0.12 0.17 -0.30 -0.19 0.31 0.40 0.53 0.28 0.48

V34 -0.07 0.06 0.08 0.96 -0.06 0.12 -0.07 -0.02 0.95 0.90 0.05

V35 -0.12 0.21 0.25 0.53 0.17 0.03 -0.55 0.27 0.86 0.74 0.14

V36 -0.05 0.16 -0.14 0.15 0.29 -0.15 -0.84 -0.11 0.98 0.96 0.02

V37 -0.40 -0.24 -0.20 0.00 0.40 -0.31 -0.10 -0.02 0.69 0.47 0.32

V38 0.61 0.42 -0.11 0.10 -0.03 -0.16 -0.03 0.05 0.59 0.34 0.42

V39 0.10 0.01 0.03 0.45 -0.06 -0.59 0.21 0.14 0.68 0.46 0.32

V40 0.41 0.39 0.12 -0.42 -0.14 0.28 0.16 -0.06 0.86 0.74 0.14

V41 0.53 0.41 -0.09 -0.27 -0.11 0.22 0.24 0.01 0.88 0.77 0.12

V42 0.13 -0.13 0.04 0.17 0.57 -0.45 -0.32 -0.12 0.76 0.57 0.25

V43 0.16 -0.39 0.14 0.22 0.74 0.21 -0.05 0.04 0.97 0.94 0.03

V44 -0.13 -0.36 -0.11 -0.08 0.01 0.29 -0.81 0.02 0.89 0.79 0.11

V45 0.50 0.46 0.44 0.08 0.16 0.20 -0.18 0.10 0.86 0.74 0.14

V46 0.17 -0.18 0.24 0.11 0.09 -0.63 0.04 -0.22 0.54 0.29 0.46

V47 0.16 -0.49 -0.22 -0.03 0.04 0.04 -0.35 0.16 0.46 0.21 0.54

V48 0.03 0.74 -0.06 -0.07 -0.05 0.22 0.00 -0.24 0.90 0.82 0.10

V49 -0.14 0.69 -0.25 0.19 -0.10 -0.13 0.10 -0.20 0.74 0.55 0.26

V50 -0.03 -0.19 -0.05 -0.12 -0.39 -0.10 -0.19 0.38 0.31 0.09 0.69

V51 0.09 0.69 -0.11 0.05 -0.08 0.30 -0.22 -0.09 0.89 0.79 0.11

V52 -0.26 -0.13 0.30 0.07 0.01 0.28 0.39 0.16 0.42 0.18 0.58

V53 0.08 -0.32 0.23 -0.28 0.01 -0.14 -0.02 -0.19 0.23 0.05 0.77

V54 0.05 -0.41 0.07 0.08 -0.09 0.04 0.25 0.17 0.31 0.10 0.69

V55 0.28 0.10 -0.82 -0.24 0.03 -0.01 -0.19 0.01 0.95 0.91 0.05

V56 0.14 -0.09 -0.11 0.23 0.25 -0.11 -0.02 0.16 0.21 0.04 0.79

V57 0.12 0.47 0.04 -0.02 -0.12 0.08 0.20 -0.57 0.87 0.76 0.13

V58 0.17 -0.17 0.40 0.33 0.40 -0.12 -0.06 0.40 0.95 0.90 0.05

V59 -0.07 -0.29 -0.10 0.06 0.10 -0.11 -0.11 0.30 0.32 0.10 0.69

V60 0.40 0.05 -0.31 0.00 -0.10 0.25 0.24 -0.10 0.50 0.25 0.50

sum 0.18 1.28 2.58 -0.59 1.95 -3.79 -2.75 2.17 29.92 20.09


92

From the table the table∑ 𝜆1 = 0.1860𝑖=1 , ∑ 𝜆2 = 1.2860

𝑖=1 , ∑ 𝜆3 = 2.5860𝑖=1 , ∑ 𝜆4 =60

𝑖=1

−0.59 , ∑ 𝜆5 = 1.9560𝑖=1 , ∑ 𝜆6 = −3.7960

𝑖=1 , ∑ 𝜆7 = −2.7560𝑖=1 , ∑ 𝜆8 = 2.1760

𝑖=1 , ∑ ℎ𝑗2𝑗

𝑗=1 =

29.92 and ∑ 𝑒𝑖𝑝𝑖=1 = 20.09.

Thus,

∑(∑ ℷ𝑖𝑗

𝑝

𝑖=1

)2

𝑘

𝑗=1

= 0.182 + 1.282 + 2.582 + (−0.592) + 1.952 + (−3.792) + (−2.752)

+ 2.172 = 39.17

Hence,

𝜔 = 1 − 29.92

39.17+ 20.09= 0.51

The result revealed that the reliability of the 2011 NECO Mathematics test under Omega

reliability assessment method was 0.51.

Discussion

The study assessed the impact of violation of unidimensionality in test data on the reliability

estimates of test under coefficient alpha method of estimating test’s reliability. To achieve

this feat, responses of students to 2011 NECO Mathematics multiple choice test was

analyzed. The results showed that the Mathematics test violated the assumption of

unidimensionality, a condition that must be met before coefficient alpha formula can be used

to estimate test’s reliability. To assess the effect of using coefficient alpha for estimating the

reliability coefficient of multidimensional test data, coefficient alpha and omega reliability

were used to estimate the reliability coefficient of the Mathematics test. The result revealed

that coefficient alpha, underestimated the reliability coefficient of the Mathematics test data.

This implies that the coefficient alpha underestimates reliability coefficient Mathematics test

when unidimensionality is violated. The finding of the present study validates the finding of

the study of Cortina, 1993; Cronbach, 1951; Feldt & Qualls, 1996; Osburn, 2000. In Osburn

study for example, it was found that true reliability of test are underestimated when the test

violated unidimensionality assumption.

Conclusion and recommendation

Based on the finding of this study, the authors concluded that coefficient alpha

underestimates reliability coefficient of multidimensional test and not suitable for estimating

the reliability coefficient of a multidimensional test. Hence we recommend that test

developers and researchers assess the dimensionality of test before estimating its reliability.


93

References

Carmines, E.G & Zellar, R.A (1979).Reliability & Validity assessment.In Sulivian, J.L;

Niemi, R.G (Eds).Quantitative Application in the Social Sciences. 07.017: 9 – 71.

Cohen & Swerdlik, (2009). Psychological testing and assessment: An introduction to tests

and measurement. 7th ed. California: Mayfield Publishing House.

Di lorio, C.K. (2005).Measurement in Health Behaviour:Methods for Research and

Education San Francisco:Jossey-Bass

Jaeger, R.M. (1993).Statistics: A Spectators’ Sport. 2nd ed. Newbury Park:SAGE Publication

Kuder, G. F., & Richardson, M. W. (1937).The theory of the estimation of test

reliability.Psychometrika, 2(3), 151–160.

Maruyama, G.M. (1998). Basics of Structural Equation Modeling. 1st ed. Thousands Oak:

SAGE Publications Inc.

Meyer, P.J. (2010). Understanding Measurement: Reliability (Understanding Statistics).

Oxford: Oxford University Press

Miller, L.A.& Lovler,R.B. (2016). Foundations of Psychological Testing: A practical

approach. 5th Edition. Singapore: SAGE Publications

Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994).Psychometric theory.New York: McGraw-Hill.

Oosterwijk, P.R., Ark, L.A. van der, &Sijtsma, K. (2017). Overestimation of reliability by

Guttman's λ4, λ5, and λ6 and the Greatest Lower Bound. In L.A. van der Ark, S.

Culpepper, J.A. Douglas, W.-C. Wang, & M. Wiberg (Eds.), Quantitative

psychology research: The 81th Annual Meeting of the Psychometric Society 2016.

New York: Springer. pp. 159-172

R Core Team (2016).R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation

for Statistical Computing,. Retrieved from https://www.R-project.org/ on 1st of July

2017

R. Philip Chalmers (2012). mirt: A Multidimensional Item Response Theory Package for the

R Environment. Journal of Statistical Software, 48.6:1-29. Retrieved from

http://www.jstatsoft.org/v48/i06/ from 1st of July 2017

Raykov, T. & Marcoulides,G.A.(2006). A first course in structural equation modeling.2nd

edition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Sha&Ackerman, (2017).The Performance of Five Reliability Estimates in Multidimensional

Test Situations In L.A. van der Ark, S. Culpepper, J.A. Douglas, W.-C. Wang, & M.

Wiberg (Eds.) Quantitative psychology research: The 81th Annual Meeting of the

Psychometric Society 2016 New York: Springer. (pp. 173 - 181).

Spearman, C. (1904).The proof and measurement of association between two things. Am. J.

Psychol. 15:72–101

Thomas,J.R., Nelson , J.K & Silverman, S.J. (2015). Research methods in physical activity.

United States: Human Kinetics

Webb,N.M., Shavelson, R.J. & Haertel, E.H. (2006) Reliability Coefficients and

Generalizability Theory. Handbook of Statistics, 26

https://pure.uvt.nl/portal/en/publications/overestimation-of-reliability-by-guttmans-4-5-and-6-and-the-greatest-lower-bound(8ccf8e72-974f-4994-a28c-ab4bcef576af).html

https://pure.uvt.nl/portal/en/publications/overestimation-of-reliability-by-guttmans-4-5-and-6-and-the-greatest-lower-bound(8ccf8e72-974f-4994-a28c-ab4bcef576af).html

https://www.r-project.org/

http://www.jstatsoft.org/v48/i06/


94

Wells, C. S. & Wollack, J. A. (2003).An Instructor’s Guide to Understanding Test

Reliability. Testing & Evaluation Services University of Wisconsin: Madison, WI

53706

Widharso, W. & Ravand, H. (2014).Estimating reliability coefficient for multidimensional

measures: A pedagogical illustration.Review of Psychology. 21.2: 111-121

Achieving Quality Problem-Solving in Junior Secondary School Mathematics through Formative....

95

ACHIEVING QUALITY PROBLEM-SOLVING IN JUNIOR SECONDARY

SCHOOL MATHEMATICS THROUGH FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT WITH

FEEDBACK

1Hwere Mary Samuel 2G.C. Imo & 3A.Y. Mustapha


Government Girls’ Model Junior Secondary School, Zaron, Plateau State1

University of Jos Faculty Of Education (Department of Educational Foundations)2, 3

Abstract

Today, Junior Secondary Schools in Nigeria are facing challenges in Mathematics that

hinders effective learning which could enhance quality problem solving in Mathematics. This

paper argues the fact that to achieve quality problem-solving in Mathematics formative

assessment with feedback should be applied regularly in teaching and learning of

Mathematics in Junior Secondary School. Concepts of Problem solving in Mathematics and

formative assessment with feedback were discussed to seeing their meaning. The strategies of

problem solving in Mathematics were also seen to show the step by step procedures of

solving mathematical problems. This article proffered a framework of designing formative

assessment with feedback in Junior Secondary School Mathematics. Challenges were

identified which if not addressed, students would have difficulties in solving mathematical

problems that can cause anxiety. Finally a recommendation was given that could lead to

improving problem-solving in Junior Secondary School Mathematics.

Key Words: Problem-solving, Formative Assessment, Formative Assessment Feedback,

Junior Secondary School, Mathematics, Strategies.

Introduction

In Nigeria, cultivating the attitude of problem solving in school children is one of the

government top priorities. The forth goal of national policy on education states that problem

solving is the purpose of acquisition of appropriate skills and the development of mental,

physical, and social abilities and competencies as equipment for the individual to live and

contribute to the development of the society, (Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN), 2004).

There are many definitions of problem solving in literature, but that given by Polya (1945)

will be sufficient for this discussion. According to him, problem solving is to find “A way

where no way is known, off-hand - - - - out of a difficult - - -around an obstacle”. He further

states that he knows that Mathematics is to solve problems. Problem solving is at the core of

learning in Mathematics. Personal classroom experience as a teacher and results of the

private examinations show that most learners are yet to acquire the vital problem solving

skills required for success in Mathematics and related disciplines.

Assessment is one of the critical components of teaching and learning process. It

affords the teacher opportunity to measure the extent to which the stated objectives have been



96

achieved or will be achieved. Assessment whether on the process (formative) or at the end of

instruction (summative), the interaction between teacher and students as feedback tool is

vital in teaching and learning quantitative subjects especially Mathematics that topics are

linked from simple to more complex. Ugodulunwa, (2008) posits that educational assessment

entails the process of gathering information on performance of students, interpreting the

information and using it to improve teaching and learning process in school and national

level. According to Black and Williams (as cited in Yorke, 2003), formative assessment is

all those activities undertaken by teachers and/or by their students which provide information

to be used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning activities which they are engaged.

Knight (2001) and Yorke (2003) acknowledged that assessment and feedback are

inter-related and the effectiveness of each one relies on the other. Feedback becomes

formative when students are provided with scaffold instruction or thoughtful questioning that

serve as prompts for sustained and deeper discussion. This instructional approach closes the

gap between their current levels of understanding and the desired learning goals. Clark

(2011) asserted that students develop a deeper understanding of their learning when the

essential components of formative assessment with feedback are effectively incorporated as

central features of the formative assessment process.

Concept of Problem Solving in Mathematics

Naturally enough, problem solving is about solving problems. When one thinks about it, the

whole aim of education is to equip children to solve problems. But the researchers would

want to restrict the thinking to Mathematical problems. In Mathematics Curriculum

therefore, problem solving contributes to the generic skill of problem solving in the Nigeria

curriculum framework. Problem solving is a Mathematical process that consists of skills and

processes as stated by Farayola and Salaudeon (2009) to be a complex mental process that

involves visualizing, imagining, manipulating, abstracting, analyzing and associating ideas.

To do this, three words are useful to distinguish between them are “method”, answer” and

“solution”. By “method” we mean the means used to get an answer. This will generally

involve one or more problem solving strategies.

On the other hand, we use “answer” to mean a number, quantity or some other entity

that the problem is asking for. Finally, a “solution” is the whole process of solving a

problem, including the method of obtaining an answer itself. Method + answer = solution:

But to answer the question what is problem – solving? Or how do we do problem solving?

These will be seen in the framework.

Padgette (1991) defined problem solving as “goal directed cognitive learning process

that makes use of previously learned knowledge and cognitive strategies”. This view of

problem solving is not relying on previous knowledge only, but also a learning process

involving cognitive controls such as cognitive styles. That is, a proffered way an individual

processes information and Meta cognition (thinking and thinking). The characteristics of

problem solving were noted by him to be the “givens” as goals and “obstacles”. The givens

are the elements, their relations and the conditions that compose the initial stage of the


97

problem, the goal is a desirable scientific end and obstacles are the characteristics of the

problem solver and the situation that makes it difficult for the solver to know how to

transform the initial stage of the problem into the final stage. In order to solve problems

successfully, the problem solver needs to understand the content of the subject matter.

Concept of Formative Assessment with Feedback

Formative assessment is defined as any task that creates feedback for students about their

learning (Irons, 2008). The essence of using assessment and other evaluation instruments

during the instructional process is to guide, direct and monitor students’ learning and

progress towards attainment of course objectives.

The starting point for the work on formative assessment is the idea of providing

feedback (Clark, 2010). It is the notion of students being given strategic guidance on how to

improve their work that resides at the centre of formative assessment practice. Torrance and

Pryor (2001) reported that many teachers focus on praise as a form of feedback because of

the efficacy of behaviorist systems. Feedback has no effect in vacuum; to be powerful in its

effect there must be learning context to which feedback is addressed to achieve, Formative

feedback in itself will have the potential to make crucial effect on students’ learning. In

another study, MCLaughlin and Kelly (2012) admit that feedback is the reinforcement in

which students responses and teachers giving feedback occur closely at the same time. That

is, teachers must provide feedback during students’ responses to help them correct their

errors easily.

Formative assessment with feedback is described as verification and elaboration.

Bloom, Hasting and Madus (as cited in Philas, 2012) were of the opinion that formative

assessment is useful to both the students (as way of diagnosing students’ learning difficulties

and the prescription of alternative remedial measures, and to the teacher (as means of

locating the specific difficulties that the students are experiencing within subject matter

content and forecast summative assessment.

In view of the above, to have quality problem solving is mathematics, the writers

claim that formative assessment with feedback is a strong tool to enhance teaching – learning

process in Mathematics to serve as an aid of problem solving which is done in stages.

Strategies for Formative Assessment with Feedback

Formative assessment includes a variety of strategies such as observation, feedback, self –

assessment, peer –assessment, questioning and journalizing. However, there are some general

principles that contribute effective formative assessment which include the use of quality

assessment tools and the subsequent use of the information derived from these assessments to

improve instruction. To achieve quality problem solving in Mathematics, this study considers

the following strategies to be needful:

i. Dylan, (2010) posits observation as an important strategy where a teacher observes a

student’s level of engagement, academic and effective behavior. Observation is a

valuable tool in assessing students, but must be beyond a casual glance to see those


98

students who are on task. Interacting with students as they complete the tasks reveals the

students’ grasp of the formation and provides for immediate feedback to correct

misunderstandings.

ii. “Teach smarter not harder” asserted in Stiggins et al, (2007) outlines seven strategies of

Assessment for learning target.

a. Where am I coming?

Strategy 1: Provide students with a clear and understandable vision of the learning

target.

Strategy 2: Use examples and models of strong and weak work.

b. Where am I now?

Strategy 3: Offer regular descriptive feedback.

Strategy 4: Teach students to self – assess and set goals.

c. How can I close the gap?

Strategy 5: Design lesson (assessment to focus on learning target or aspect of quality

at a time.

Strategy 6: Teach students focused revision.

Strategy 7: Engage students in self-reflections, and let them keep track of and share

their learning.

Where am I going?

Strategy 1: Provide a clear and understandable vision of the Learning Target.

Share with your students the learning target(s), objective(s), or goal(s) in advance of teaching

the lesson, giving the assignment, or doing the activity. Use language students will

understand and check to make sure they understand. Ask “why are we doing this activity”?

“What are we learning”? “Convert learning targets into student-friendly language by defining

key words in terms students understand”. Ask students what they think constitutes quality in

a product of performance learning target, then show how their thoughts match with the

scoring guide or rubric you will use to define quality. Provide students with scoring guides

written so they can understand them. Develop scoring criteria with them.

Strategy 2: Use examples and Models of Strong and weak

Use models of strong and weak work-anonymous student work, work from life beyond

school, and your own work. Begin with work that demonstrates strengths and weaknesses

related to problems students commonly experience, especially the problems that most

concern you. Ask students to analyze these examples for quality and then to justify their

judgments: Use only anonymous work. If you have been engaging students in analyzing

examples or models, they will be developing a vision of what the product or performance

looks like when its done well.

Model creating a product or performance yourself. Show students the true

beginnings, the problems you run into, and how you think through decisions, along the way.

Don’t hide the development and revision part, or students will think they are doing it wrong


99

when it is messy for them at the beginning, and they won’t know how to work through the

rough patches.

Where am I now?

Strategy 3: Offer Regular Descriptive Feedback:

Offer descriptive feedback instead of grades on work that is for practice. Descriptive

feedback should reflect student strengths and weaknesses with respect to the specific learning

target(s) they are trying to hit in a given assignment. Feedback is most effective when it

identifies what students are doing right, as well as what they need to work on next. One way

to think of this is “stars and stars” – What did the learner accomplish? What are the next

steps? All learners, especially struggling ones, need to know that they did something right,

and our job as teachers is to find it and label it for them, before launching into what they need

to improve.

Remember that learners don’t need to know everything that needs correcting, all at

once. Narrow your comments to the specific knowledge and skills emphasized in the current

assignment and attention to how much feedback learners can act on at one time. Don’t worry

that students can successfully act on at one time, independently, and then figure out what to

teach next based on the other problems in their work.

Providing students with descriptive feedback is a crucial part of increasing

achievement. Feedback helps students answer the question, “Where am I now?” with respect

to where do I need to be?” You are also modeling the kind of thinking you want students to

engage in when they self-assess.

Strategy 4: Teach students to self-Assess and set Goals.

Teaching students to self assess and set goals for learning is the second halves of helping

students answer the question, “Where am I now?” Self-assessment is a necessary part of

learning, not an add-on that we do if we have the time or the “right” students. Struggling

students are the right students, as much as any others. Self-assessment includes having

students do the following:

- Identify their own strengths and areas for improvement.

You can ask them to do this before they show their work to you for feedback giving

them prior thoughts of their own to “hang” it on your feedback will be more

meaningful and will make more sense

- Write in a response log at the end of class, recording key points they have learned

and questions they will still have.

- Using established criteria, select a work sample for their Portfolio that proves a

certain level of, explaining why piece qualifies.

- Offer descriptive feedback to classmates.

- Use your feedback, feedback from other students, or their own self-assessment to

identify what they need to work on and set goals for future learning.


100

How can I close the gap?

Strategy 5: Design Lessons to Focus on One Aspect of Quality at a time:

If you are working on a learning target having more than one aspect of quality, we

recommend that you build competence one block at a time. For example, mathematics

problem solving requires choosing the right strategy as one component. A science

experiment lab report requires a statement of the hypothesis as one component. Writing

requires an introduction as one component. Look at the components of quality and then teach

them one part at a time, making sure that students understand that all of the parts ultimately

must come together. You can then offer feedback focused on the component you just taught,

which narrows the volume of feedback students need to act on at a given time and raises their

chances of success in doing so, again, especially for struggling learners. This is a time saver

for you, and more instructionally powerful for students.

Strategy 6: Teach Students focused Revision

Show students how you would revise an answer, product, or performance, and then

let them revise a similar example. Begin by choosing work that needs revision on Single

aspect of quality. Ask students to brainstorm advice for the (anonymous) author on how to

improve the work. The ask students, in pairs, to revise the work using their own advice. Ask

students to analyze your own work for quality and make suggestions for improvement.

Revise your work using their advice. Ask them to again review using their advice. Ask them

to again review it for quality. These exercises will prepare students to work on a current

product or performance of their own, revising for the aspect of quality being studied. You

can then give feedback on just that aspect.

Strategy 7: Engage Students in Self-Reflection, and let them keep Track of and share their

learning

Engage students in tracking, reflecting on, and communicating about their own progress. Any

activity that requires students to reflect on what they are learning and helps them develop

insights into themselves as learners. These kinds of activities give students the opportunity to

notice their own strengths, to see how far they have come, and to feel in control of the

conditions of their success. By reflecting on their learning, they deepen their understanding,

and will remember it longer. In addition, it is the learner, not the teacher, who is doing the

work.

Here are some things you can have students do:

- Write a process paper, detailing how they solve a problem or created a product or

performance. This analysis encourages them to think like professionals in your

discipline.

- Write a letter to their parents about a piece of work, explaining where they are now

with it and what they are trying to do next.

- Reflect on their growth. “I have become a better reader (solver) this year. I used to - -

- - -, but now I - - - -


101

Understand

Look back Strategy

Solve

- Help plan and participate in conference with parents and/or teachers to share their

learning.

Framework for Designing Formative Assessment with Feedback in JSS Mathematics

The process of problem –solving in Mathematics needs to be taken note when preparing and

designing formative assessment. Polya (1945) proposed a four step general framework for

problem solving thus:

- Understand the problem.

- Devising a plan to solve the problem.

- Carrying out the plan.

- Looking back.

The Model below is much more like what happens in practice.

There is no chance of being able to solve a problem unless you can first understand it.

Although we have listed the four stages of problem solving in order, for difficult problems it

may not be possible to simply move through them consecutively to produce an answer. It is

frequently the case that students move backwards and forwards between and across the steps.

This process requires not only knowing what you have to find but also the key pieces of

information that somehow need to be put together to obtain the answer. During the solution

process, students may find that they have to look back at the original question from time to

time to make sure that they are on the right track. Polya’s stage of finding a strategy tends to

suggest that it is a fairly simple matter to think of an appropriate strategy. However, there are

certainly problems where learners may find it necessary to play around with the information

before they are able to think of strategy that might produce a solution as seen in Stiggins

(2007) proffered seven strategies. Having explored the problem and decided on a plan of

attack, the third problem –solving step, solve the problem, can be taken. Hopefully now the


102

problem will be solved and an answer obtained. During this phase it is important for the

students to keep track of what they are doing. This is useful to show others what they have

done, and it is also helpful in finding errors should the right answer not found. At this point

many students, especially mathematically able ones, will stop.

But it is worth getting them into the habit of looking back over what they have done.

There are several good reasons for this. First of all it is good practice for them to check their

working and make sure that they have no made any errors. Second, it is vital to make sure

that the answer they obtained is in fact the answer to the problem and not to the problem that

they thought was being asked. Third, in looking back and thinking a little more about the

problem, students are often able to see another way of solving the problem. This new

solution may be a nicer solution than the original and may give more insight into what is

really going on.

Finally, the better students especially, may be able to generalize or extend the

problem. Generalizing a problem means creating a problem that has the original problem as a

special case.

Therefore, what is needed in the strategies which is very important if one must assist

the learners discover and learn from his mistakes during problem solving process the

assessment and feedback stage. The instructor should present students with open questions

and tasks, observing students and examining students’ work.

Challenges of Formative Assessment with Feedback

Formative assessment has been neglected in both public policy and everyday practice.

Teachers generally accept the concept of formative assessment, but they have difficulties in

putting it into practice. Students can with difficulty escape the effects of poor teaching, they

cannot escape the effects of poor assessment quality and develop better instruction delivery

methods (Hormby, 2005). Hence, assessment results which are not indicative of what

students expect or conceive of themselves, produce negative effect on their academic

performance. Students now seem to be more concerned with marks rather than what they

understood, this result is a mismatch between marks and learning outcomes (Yorke, 2005).

There is therefore, a tension between having to give marks to motivate students to complete

their work as opposed to educating students to receive feedback and act upon it. A study

found out that formative feedback was often negative and variable in quality. It found that

many students do not read and often misunderstand the feedback, and even when it is

understood it is rarely acted upon (Crook, 2001).

Another major challenge with formative assessment feedback is that, it becomes

difficult for teachers who take formative assessment seriously to maintain high quality of

feedback in a large class condition. It takes to active deep learning, develop critical and

transferable skills, thus, giving feedback can be very expensive and time consuming and not

automatically helpful or effective: it can de-motivate or be useless or too brief (Nicol, 2009).

Accordingly, it may well be that there are other aspects of the environment which influence

feedback effect of formative assessment. It is a common feature in most of our school


103

systems for students’ scripts to be stock piled in the teachers’ offices only to be dashed out or

destroyed after a period of time. In some cases, students are provided feedback of their

performances after they might have written the final assessment (summative) on the subject

infrastructure and inadequate equipment in schools, especially government owned schools

make the implementation process of formative assessment with feedback difficult to be

achieved.

New teachers joining the school in new academic year is another challenge to

formative assessment where some of the new teachers might not have the professional

knowledge and skills in school-based formative assessment with feedback. On the same vain,

Ajogbeje, (2012) grants one key factor which seems to contribute more to the problem of

poor students’ achievement in Mathematics is the essence of using assessment and other

evaluation instruments during the instructional process. Teachers who have mindset that the

purpose of assessment is to find ways or to find out what students don’t know and this might

mean designing assessment to ‘tap’ or ‘trick’ them. These teachers have great difficulty

accepting the validity of good assessment practices that aim to make the process, as

transparent as possible (Ross, 2005).

Conclusion

Quality- Problem solving in Mathematics is critical if Mathematics teachers are to stand the

test of formative assessment with feedback as a tool of assessment. The strategies are a

mirror to good assessment if well followed. Indeed, no assessment strategy can be complete

without the issue of regular feedback. The challenges which teachers encounter are so varied

that the most appropriate means to tackle them is the class size should be considered and

teachers given assessment with feedback appropriately.

Suggestion.

This work therefore, suggests that the Stiggins Strategies when incorporated into Polya’s

Model will help to achieve quality problem solving in Mathematics.

References

Ajogbeje, O. J. (2012). Effect of Formative Testing on Students’ Achievement in Junior

Secondary School Mathematics, European Scientific Journal, 8 (8), 94 – 105.

Clark, I. (2010). The development of project. Formative assessment strategies in UK schools,

current issues in education, 13(3). Retrieved from

http://eie.asu.edu./ojs/index.php/cieatasu/article/view/file/382/27

Clerk, I .(2011).Formative assessment : policy, perspectives and practices. Florida Journal of

educational Administration and policy, 4(2) 158-180.

Crooks, T. (2001). The validity of Formative Assessment, Paper presented to the British

Educational Research Association Annual Conference, University of Leeds, 13-15

September.

http://eie.asu.edu./ojs/index.php/cieatasu/article/view/file/382/27


104

Dylan, W. (2010). An integrative summary of the research literature and implications for a

new theory of formative assessment in Handbook of formative assessment, in

Handbook of formative Assessment Heidi L.

Farayola, P.L. & Salaudeen, K. A. (2009). Problem solving difficulties of pre-service NCE

teachers in Mathematics in Oyo State, Nigeria. Abacus.34 (1), 126-131.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004), National Policy 2004 Lagos: Federal Government Press.

Hormby, W. (2005). Dogs, Stars, rolls Royce and old double – decker: efficiency and

effectiveness in an assessment in Quality Assurance Agency Scotland (Ed.)

Reflections on assessment Volume 1. Mansfield: Quality Assurance Agency, 15 –

28.

Irons. A (2008). Enhancing learning through formative assessment and feedback. London;

New York: Routledge.

Knight, P. (2001). A briefing on key concepts: Formative and summative, criterion and non-

referenced assessment, assessment series No.7 York: LTSN Generic centre.

M.CLaughlin, A.C.M & Kelly, C.M. (2012). Different in feedback use for correct and

incorrect responses. Proceedings of Human Factor and Economics Society 26th

Annual Meeting, 56, 2427-2431.

Nicol, D. (2009). Quality enhancement themes: the first year experience – transforming

assessment and feedback: enhancing integration and empowerment in the first year.

Mansfield: Quality Assurance Agency.

Padgette, W.T. (1991).The long list and art of solving physics problem. Physics teacher

29(4), 238-239.

Philas, O.Y. (2012) Teaching/Learning Resources and Academic Performance in

Mathematics in Secondary School in Bondo District of Kenya; Asian Social. Vol.

No. 12, 126-132.

Polya, G. (1945). How to solve it. A new aspect of mathematics method. U.S.A, Princeton

University Press.

Ross, D.A. (2005). Streamlining assessment – how to make assessment more efficient and

more effective an overview in Quality Assurance Agency Scotland (Ed.) Reflections

on Assessment volume 1. Mansfield: Quality Assessment Agency.

Stiggins, R., Art, J., Chappuis, J. & Chappuis, S. (2007). Classroom Assessment for Students

Learning. Doing it Right using it well. New Jersey; Person Education INC.

Ugoduluwa, C.A. (2008). Fundamentals of educational measurements, Jos.Fab. Educational

Books Nigeria.

York, M. (2005). Formative assessment and student success in Quality Assurance. Agency

Scotland (Ed.) Reflections on assessment volume 2. Mansfield: Quality Assessment

Agency, 125-137.

Yorke M. (2003). Formative assessment in higher education: moves towards theory and the

enhancement of pedagogic practice. Higher Education, 45,477-501.

Experimental Study on Using Portfolio Assessment to Enhance Learning in Senior Secondary School....

105

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON USING PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT TO ENHANCE

LEARNING IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL ECONOMICS IN IBADAN

NORTH, OYO STATE, NIGERIA

T. Godwin Atsua & A. O. U. Onuka

Institute of Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria

[email protected] & [email protected]

Abstract

The use of some alternative assessment methods to evaluating students’ learning

achievement has gained popularity in education in the last two decades in Nigeria and else

in Africa. In particular, portfolio assessment methods give students opportunity to

participating in evaluating their own learning progress and keeping records of their best

works. These enable them to monitor their individual progress as well as make efforts to

remediate their weak areas of performance. Due to the absence of sufficient empirical

evidence in support of teachers using portfolio assessment methods to enhance teaching and

learning Economics, the study was undertaken to determine the extent to which portfolio

assessment can be used to engender the study of Economics by male and female students and

concomitantly their learning achievement in Ibadan North. Three hypotheses guided the

study. A pre-test post-test control group quasi-experimental design was adopted. The

population of the study was senior secondary school II Economics students. A simple random

sampling technique was used to select a sample of four senior secondary schools, whereby

two were used for the experimental while two served control group. An intact class of SSII

was used in each selected school. Four hundred and seventy seven students participated in

the study. The resulting data were analysed using ANCOVA. Findings revealed that portfolio

assessment helped in improving students’ achievement in Economics. Gender of students did

not significantly influence their achievement. It was recommended that teachers should

employ portfolio assessment technique in teaching in order to help improve achievement of

secondary school students in Economics.

Keywords: Portfolio, Assessment, Learning, Achievement, Economics

Introduction

One most significant area of teaching is assessment because it is an integral part of teaching

and learning. It takes into account learning styles, strengths and needs of learners in the

school. It promotes students learning in that it defines what learners take to be important,

how they spend much of their study time and in many ways how they value learning.

Therefore, promoting learning through assessment is one of the fundamental responsibilities

of teachers. This can be achieved through good assessment practice. Assessment that is

capable of supporting teaching and learning. Hence, assessment ought to be flexible and


106

reflect learner’s achievement. This explains why schools are gradually replacing traditional

assessment methods with alternative assessment techniques.

In education, alternative assessment refers to assessment that is in direct contrast to

what is known as traditional testing, traditional assessment or standardized assessment.

Instead of traditional selected-response or constructed-response tests that look for discrete

facts or knowledge students recall in a standard way, alternative assessment allow students to

apply knowledge in alternative, novel ways. Conducting market survey to identify different

prices of goods and services in an Economics class, writing poetry in a language arts class,

performing in a play in a theatre class or a mock-trial in a Government class are alternative

assessments. These performances are assessed with rubrics which are also used to give

feedback to students and stakeholders.

The use of alternative assessment methods to evaluate students’ learning

achievement has gained popularity in education in the last two decades in Nigeria and else in

Africa. Some of the alternative assessment techniques that are gradually replacing traditional

assessment methods include: Portfolio assessment, hierarchical assessment, performance

assessment among others. Portfolio assessment in particular gives students opportunity to

participate in evaluating their own learning progress and to keep records of their best works

(Onuka & Atsua, 2016). It allows students to monitor their individual progress as well as

make efforts to remediate their weak areas of performance. A portfolio according to Atsua

(2017) is a container, folder, envelop, box or file that holds evidence of a student’s work

sample that show skills, ideas, interests and accomplishments in school. The use of portfolio

assessment as stated by Bryant and Timmins (2001) is a move toward authentic application

of task which students have greater control and clarity about their assessment obligations and

teachers can come to understand that assessment results are meaningful and useful for

improving instruction.

By definition, portfolio assessment is a systematic collection of students work

samples into a container, folder, envelop, box or file that exhibits efforts, progress and what

they have achieved in one or more areas in their field of study. The collection must include

student participation in selecting contents, the criteria for selection, the criteria for judging

merit and evidence of student self-reflection (Macmillan, 2007). This makes portfolio

assessment a collection of students’ work that is carefully selected by both the student and

the teacher for a specific reason which they can explain. According to de Valenzuela (2011),

portfolio assessment is a systematic, longitudinal collection of student work created in

response to specific instructional objectives and which is evaluated in relation to the same

criteria. This means that evaluation of portfolio assessment is done by measuring the

individual works and the portfolio as a whole against set criteria.

Portfolio creation is the responsibility of the learner, with teacher guidance and

support, and often with the involvement of peers and sometimes parents. Driessen, Overeem,

Tartwijk, van der Vleutenand Muijtjens(2006) stated that the strength of portfolio assessment

is derived from its ability to offer rich and authentic evidence of learners’ development and

achievements. This makes portfolio assessment highly suitable not only for monitoring, but


107

also for assessing learners’ competence development. Marx (2001) asserted that portfolio-

based assessment is a means of individualized, student-centered evaluation that has the

potential to improve the complex task of student assessment, as well as to contribute to a

more positive attitude toward the educational process.

Ugodulunwa and Wakjissa (2015) explained that, portfolio assessment allows

students to present the best pieces of their work over time indicating progress and

achievements made, while teachers support through questioning and dialoguing with learners

(engaging learners) until mastery is attained. It collects best pieces of students’ work and

allows students to reflect on and self-assess their work through integrative learning as they

construct their own meaning, allowing flexibility in measuring students’ accomplishments,

with students judging the worth of their work for improvement of achievement levels. Davis

and Ponnamperuma (2005) stated that portfolio assessment enables students to self-evaluate

and builds their own knowledge as they produce their best pieces and related materials that

depict their efforts, accomplishments and achievements in different subject areas.

The overall purpose of portfolio assessment is to enable students demonstrate

learning progress to other stakeholders in education. The greatest value of portfolios

assessment is that students become active participants in the assessment and learning process.

Atsua (2017) explained that portfolio assessment is purposeful because it promotes students

learning, demonstrate, exhibit or provide evidence of achievement, improvement, the

student’s self-reflection and student’s growth. Gómez (1999) maintained that portfolios

provide a broader picture of student achievement than do tests alone, and can include a great

deal of information that shows what students know and can do on a variety of measures.

Murphy (1999) asserts that no system of assessment is as perfect as portfolio assessment,

because students are required to write, they can choose the topic, audience, responses in the

class, revision strategies, and so on. They can freely select from their works the pieces they

want to include in their portfolios. This makes portfolio assessment a strong element of self-

evaluation and feedback for students and teachers (Bryant & Timmins, 2001). This shows

that portfolio assessment may be used as a holistic process for evaluating course work and

for encouraging learner autonomy in Economics.

Assessment theories that explain the application of portfolio assessment seems

sparsely. However, the theory of constructivism have often times been used in this regard.

Developed by Jean Piaget and expanded by Vygotsky, constructivism theory suggests that

human beings generate and build their own knowledge and meaning from an interaction

between their ideas and experiences (Kristinsdottir, 2001). Constructivism sees the learner as

actively involved in creating new meanings, where teacher dialogues and helps learner to

make meaning out of learning content until mastery is attained. It is a student-centred

strategy which suggests that instruction and assessment should be built together such that in

planning for an instructional process, what should be assessed and how it should be assessed

should be planned alongside. Since portfolio assessment involves learners through active

participation during instruction, it shows that learning through portfolio assessment is


108

student-centred which serves as an avenue for stimulating student reflection and

demonstration of focus and responsibility for learning in all disciplines.

Assessment theory that could explain the application of portfolio assessment in

school is the principles of assessment theory propounded by McAlpine (2002).According to

McAlpine, assessment must be understood, first of all, as a form of communication,

primarily between teacher and student and also between teachers on one hand and employers,

curriculum designers and policymakers on the other hand. According to McAlpine,

assessment is thus a social function, a communication link between the education system and

the wider society. Portfolio assessment provides that communication link between learners

and stakeholders in education. It provides evidence of students learning, demonstrate, exhibit

or confirm achievement, improvement, the student’s self-reflection, the process and the

student’s growth. Miller (2006) reaffirmed this position with evidence that candidates could

be assessed according to certain predetermined performance indicators and based on

evidence they produce, and presumes that a student will pass examination. Failure to pass is

seen as a fault of the learning process, not the individual.

McAlpine also explains convergent/divergent assessment. Convergent assessment

takes a predetermined thing and sets out to discover whether a learner knows, understands or

is able to do it. Divergent assessment is an open-ended process that aims to find out what the

learner can do. While on the surface convergent assessment seems naturally suited to

summative purposes and divergent to formative, in truth, which portfolio assessment fits into

both of them since it serves both formative and summative purposes.

The two theories situate assessment at the heart of instruction and made portfolio

assessment to take the form of a communication link between the education system and the

wider society on one hand and positioned the learner in between instruction and assessment

on the other hand allowing the learner to take responsibility of creating learning experiences.

It shows that instruction and assessment should be built together such that in planning for an

instructional process, what should be assessed and how it should be assessed should be

planned alongside by both the teacher and learner.

Researchers have at different levels of education attempted to provide evidence to

show how portfolio assessment encourages students learning. Empirical evidence abounds in

literature on the claim that portfolio assessment helps to improve instruction and student

learning (Reeves, 2004;Alsadaawi, 2008; Fan & Zhu, 2008; Shumei, 2009; Nezakatgoo,

2010). These studies have proven that portfolio assessment helps to improve learning and

performance. For example, Nezakatgoo (2010) study revealed that students whose work

were evaluated by a portfolio system (portfolio-based assessment) had improved in their

writing and gained higher scores in final examination when compared to those students

whose work were evaluated by traditional evaluation system (non-portfolio-based

assessment).The findings highlighted the fact that portfolio assessment could be used as a

complementary alternative along with traditional assessment to shed new light on the process

of writing. Chung (2012) study did not yield statistically significant results but did provide

some evidence for improvement in English as Second Language(ESL) academic writing


109

courses. It seems that genre and topic familiarity could have influenced students’ writing

abilities because many international graduate students were assumed to have accustomed to

writing to specific audiences in their fields.

A study by Nezakatgoo (2011) found significant difference between the

performances of portfolio-based group and of non-portfolio-based group. This means that

students in portfolio-based group outperform students in non-portfolio-based group. The

number of errors in portfolio-based group under examination conditions was less than in non-

portfolio-based group.Ugodulunwa and Wakjissa (2015) findings on use of portfolio

assessment technique in teaching map sketching and location in secondary school Geography

revealed that portfolio assessment helped to improve students’ performance in map sketching

and location. The experimental group recorded higher mean gain scores of 33.32 as

against1.65 gain scores recorded by the control group. Results of t-test analysis revealed a

significant mean difference between the pre-test and post-test GAT mean scores of the

experimental group. Gender had no significant effect on the post-test GAT of the

experimental group. The study recommended that teachers and schools should employ

portfolio assessment technique in teaching to help improve performance in secondary school

Geography.

Portfolio assessment has been found to be an effective assessment instrument that is

capable of providing quality information about students learning in different subjects.

Literature however, has not provided sufficient evidence on the use of portfolio assessment in

Economics in secondary schools in Nigeria. Due to the absence of sufficient empirical

evidence in support of teachers using portfolio assessment methods to enhance teaching and

learning Economics in senior secondary schools in Nigeria, the study was undertaken to

determine the extent to which portfolio assessment can be used to engender the study of

Economics in senior secondary schools among students and concomitantly their learning

achievement in Ibadan North.

The following hypotheses guided the study:

Ho1: There is no significant main effect of treatments on students’ achievement in Economics

Ho2: There is no significant main effect of gender on students’ achievement in economics.

Ho3: There is no significant interaction effect of treatments and gender on students’

achievement in Economics.

Method

The design adopted for the study was a randomized pre and post-test control group quasi-

experimental design with a 3 X 2 X 2 factorial matrix. The layout of the design is shown as

follow:

Experimental Group 1 – O1 X1 O2

Experimental Group 2 – O1 X2 O2

Control Group – O1 X3 O2


110

Where:

O1 = Pre-test achievement in Economics

O2 = Post-test achievement in Economics

X1 = group assessed with portfolio assessment

X2 = group assessed with portfolio assessment

X3 = control group

Table 1: Showing 3 X 2 X 2 Factorial Design Treatment Gender

Portfolio Assessment 1 Male Female

Portfolio Assessment 2 Male Female

Control group Male Female

The independent variables of the study treated at two levels were portfolio assessment and

the control group. The moderator variable that was controlled for in the course of the study

was gender. The dependent variable of the study was students’ achievement in Economics.

The target population of the study was senior secondary school II Economics students in

Ibadan North, Oyo State, Nigeria. A simple random sampling technique was used to select a

sample of four senior secondary schools, whereby two schools were used for the

experimental while two served as the control group. An intact class of SSII was used in each

selected school. Four hundred and seventy seven students participated in the study.

The instruments used for the study was Economics Achievement Test (EAT) and a

treatment package called Portfolio Assessment Enhancement Package (PAEP). Economics

Achievement Test (EAT) was constructed by the researchers. It consisted of 200 multiple

choice items covering the fourhigher levels of cognitive domain which include Applying,

Analysing, Evaluating and Creating. These items were based on the Senior Secondary School

Economics Curriculum for Nigerian studentsby the Nigerian Education Research and

Development Council (NERDC) (2008). The items were subjected to review for clarity of

words, ambiguity of items and also plausibility of the distracters. The information obtained

on each of the items was used to re-write those that required review. The EAT items were

then subjected to Item Response Theory parameter estimates for validation where their

difficulty level and discrimination indices checked based on the criterion set (P-value 0.3 –

0.8, d-value 0.3 – 0.9) for selection of items. Moreover, Rasch model approach was used to

determine unidimensionality of items, locally-independence, item Characteristics Curves

(ICC),how best the items fit into the 3PL model of IRT, Differential Item Function (DIF) and

items that survived as good items. The result obtained was considered as being trial tested

result where 50 items were finally selected for the final instrument. Test blue print was

prepared to facilitate the selection of test items that covered the topics from the contents

areas as contained in the subject’s curriculum. This was to ensure content validity of the

items. From the table of specification, fifty Economics test items were generated that


111

constituted the final EAT for administration to the sampled schools. The reliability of the

EAT was established using Kuder Richardson 20 Formula (KR20) with r = .962.

The pre-experimental activity commenced with obtaining an official permission from

the school authority to use the schools for the study. The second stage was the recruitment of

Economics teachers from each school that served as research assistants. They were trained

for the experiment on how to use the treatment packages for two weeks. The training manual

was provided to all the research assistants. At the end of the training, pre-test was given

before the research assistants commenced the implementation of the treatment package in

their respective schools with the students.

The treatment lasted for six weeks and post-test was given immediately after

treatment. Participants in experimental groups were engaged in portfolio assessment on a

weekly basis. For every week a new topic was introduced. The students and the teacher

would collectively decide on the assessment tasks to be done for week. Students would then

execute the task with the teacher’s impute where necessary. Their work samples are collected

and kept in a portfolio. This was observed throughout the period that the experiment lasted.

Participants in control group were engaged in assessment from the same topics based on the

discretion of the teacher on a weekly basis but no portfolio was kept.

Table 2: Portfolio Assessment Treatment Package Week Topic Objectives Activity

1 Tools of Economic Analysis Students should be able to:

Show simple economic relationship with

tables, graphs and charts

i. To calculate measures of

dispersion e.g. range, mean

deviation, variance and standard deviation

2 Production Possibility

Curves

i. Define the PPC

ii. Show how to plot the graph from a possible data

From the products identified and

agreed on by the teacher and students

i. Draw the PPC on a graph sheet

ii. Calculate the AP and MP 3 Theory of Costs i. Distinguish between the difference

between the different cost concepts

(variable, fixed, total, average, marginal, short-run and long-run)

ii. Draw different cost curves

iii. Explain the relationship between costs and production

From the product identified in week

3, students to

i. distinguish among the different costs concepts

ii. draw the different cost

curves iii. explain the relationship between

costs and production

4 Concept of Demand and Supply

i. Explain the meaning of demand and supply and market equilibrium

ii. Explain factors affecting demand

and supply iii. Distinguish between factors causing

shift in demand and supply curves

and those causing movement along demand and supply curves

iv. Draw the demand and the schedule

curves to explain the changes

v. Explain the meaning of demand, supply & market

equilibrium

vi. Using local competitive products to explain factors

affecting demand and supply

of such products (products to be decided by the teacher and

students).

vii. Plot the demand and supply schedules and curves.


112

5 Price Determination i. identify and explain the interaction between the forces of demand and

supply in determining the market

price ii. explain the effect of changes in

demand/supply on the equilibrium

price and quantity

From the products identified, students should go to a local market

and

i. price goods, obtain their prices at different levels of quantity

ii. Use the price and quantity at

different levels to plot equilibrium price and quantity

on demand and supply schedule

and curve 6 Portfolio Conferencing Students and the teacher to come

together and discuss and evaluate

samples of works done

Data collected frompre-test and post-test were analysed using Analysis of Covariance

(ANCOVA) using the pre-test scores as covariates. Scores of students obtained were

analysed to determine the effects of treatment and gender for pre-test, post-test and their

interactions. ANCOVA corrected for the initial differences in the dependent variables and

other extraneous factors, using the pre-test scores as covariate. Sidak Post Hoc test was

further conducted to determine the source of the significant main effect. All hypotheses were

tested at the 0.05 level of significance.

Results and Discussion

Ho1: There is no significant main effect of treatments onstudents’ achievement in Economics

Table 3: Summary of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) Showing Tests of Between-

Subjects Effects Dependent Variable: Post-test

Variable Type III Sum of

Squares

df Mean

Square

F P-value Partial Eta

Squared

Corrected Model 896.314a 12 74.693 8.922 .000 .295 Intercept 2856.822 1 2856.822 341.254 .000 .571

Pre-test 280.335 1 280.335 33.487 .000 .116 Main Effects

Treatment 1

484.667

2

242.334

28.947

000

184

Gender .364 1 .364 .043 .835 .000 Treatment 2 49.258 1 49.258 5.884 .016 .022

2-Way Interaction Effects

Treatment 1 * Gender 15.188 2 7.594 907 405 007 Treatment 1 * Treatment 2 24.226 2 12.113 1.447 .237 .011

Gender * Treatment 2 .681 1 .681 .081 .776 .000

3-Way Interaction Effects Treatment1 * Gender * Treatment 2 7.777 2 3.888 .464 .629 .004

Error 2143.114 256 8.372

Total 49310.000 269 Corrected Total 3039.428 268

a. R Squared = .295 (Adjusted R Squared = .262)


113

Table 3 shows that after adjusting for the covariance pre-test, the effect of treatment on

students’ achievement in Economics was statistically significant, (F(2,256) = 28.947, P < 0.05.

Consequently, the null Hypothesis was rejected. The Partial Eta Square (𝜂2)was .184 which

was considered to be large effect size. In order to determine which group differs significantly

among the treatment groups, Sidak Post-hoc analysis was conducted and the result is

presented in Tables 4 and 5.

Table 4: Estimated Marginal Means of Achievement by Treatment and Control Group Dependent Variable: Post-test

Treatments Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval

Lower Bound Upper Bound

Treatment Group 1 14.610a .312 13.996 15.225 Treatment Group 2 13.030a .325 12.391 13.669

Control Group 11.210a .319 10.582 11.838

a. Covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: Pre-test = 7.43.

Table 5: Pairwise Comparison of Achievement by Treatments and Control Group

Dependent Variable: Post-test

(I)Treatments (J) Treatments Mean

Difference (I-J)

Std.

Error

Sig.b 95% Confidence Interval for

Differenceb


Group 1 Group 2 1.581* .451 .002 .498 2.663

Control Group 3.400* .447 .000 2.326 4.475

Group 2 Group 1 -1.581* .451 .002 -2.663 -.498 Control Group 1.820* .454 .000 .727 2.912

Control Group Group 1 -3.400* .447 .000 -4.475 -2.326

Group 2 -1.820* .454 .000 -2.912 -.727

Based on estimated marginal means

*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. b. Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Sidak.

Table 4 revealed that Experimental Group I has the highest mean score of (�̅�= 14.610)

followed by participants in Experimental Group 2 with the mean score of (�̅�= 13.030) while

Control Group has the least mean score of (�̅�= 11.210). Table 5 confirmed the difference

between the two Experimental Groups and the Control Group with statistically significant

difference. The findings aligned with Nezakatgoo (2010) study whereportfolio-based

assessment showed improvement in writing and subsequent higher scores in final

examination when compared to those students whose work were evaluated by non-portfolio-

based assessment. The result however negates that of Chung (2012) where portfolio based

assessment could not yield statistically significant results but did provided some evidence of

improvement. The findings highlighted the fact that portfolio assessment could be used as an

alternative assessment to traditional assessment. This underscore Bryant and Timmins (2001)

assertion that portfolio assessment is a move toward authentic application of task which

students have greater control and clarity about their assessment obligations and teachers can

come to understand that assessment results are meaningful and useful for improving

instruction. The implication is that portfolio assessment is one of the best assessment method


114

that is inclusive of all students and thus, capable of effectively enhancing teaching and

learning of Economics.

Ho2: There is no significant main effect of gender onstudents’ achievement in Economics

Result fromTable 3 shows that there was no significant main effect of gender on students’

Achievement in Economics, F (1,258) = .043, P > 0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not

rejected. A pairwise comparison of the mean score in Table 6 shows a mean difference of

.077 between male and female students.

Table 6: Pairwise Comparisons of Students’ Achievement by Gender

Dependent Variable: Post-test (I) Gender (J) Gender Mean Difference

(I-J)

Std.

Error

Sig.a 95% Confidence Interval for Differencea


Male Female .077 .370 .835 -.651 .805

Female Male -.077 .370 .835 -.805 .651

Based on estimated marginal means

a. Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Sidak.

This finding is synonymous with the findings of Ugodulunwa and Wakjissa (2015) whose

study show that gender had no significant effect on the post-test GAT of the experimental

group. Although the findings disagreed with that of Nezatagoo (2010), it however confirmed

the findings of Chung (2012). The fact that the findings did not yield statistically significant

results in respect to gender, it however, did provide some evidence for improvement in

academic achievement between males and female students. It seems that topic familiarity

could have influenced students’ achievement because students were assumed to have

accustomed to group assessment and general topics they were exposed to. It also means that

students’ achievement could not be necessarily ascribed to whether a student is a male or

female but the capacity of the student to put extra effort especially when assessment becomes

so practical and participatory.

Ho3: There is no significant interaction effect of treatments and gender on students’

achievement in Economics.

Table 3 revealed that the interaction effect of treatments and gender on students’

achievement in Economics was not statistically significant, F(2,258) = .907, P > 0.05. The null

hypothesis is not rejected. The partial Eta square (𝜂2) = .007 confirmed a very low effect size.

Table 7 shows the estimated marginal means by gender.


115

Table 7: Estimated Marginal Mean of Students’ Achievement by Treatment and

Gender Dependent Variable: Post-test

Treatments Gender Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval


Group 1 Male 14.580a .386 13.819 15.341

Female 14.640a .490 13.674 15.606

Group 2 Male 13.403a .388 12.639 14.168

Female 12.656a .520 11.631 13.681

Control Group Male 10.982a .467 10.062 11.902

Female 11.438a .435 10.582 12.294

a. Covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: Pre-test = 7.43.

The findings of the study are similar to that of UgodulunwaandWakjissa (2015) and the

findings of Chung (2012). The implication of the findings is that students might have

understood that portfolio assessment could serve as a direct communication link of their

achievement not only to the teachers but to the entire school and to an extension their parents

as such dedicated their energy to the entire process. Driessen, Overeem, Tartwijk, van der

Vleuten and Muijtjens (2006) stated that the strength of portfolio assessment is derived from

its ability to offer rich and authentic evidence of learners’ development and achievements.

This makes portfolio assessment highly suitable not only for monitoring, but also for

assessing learners’ competence development. Marx (2001) asserted that portfolio-based

assessment is a means of individualized, student-centered evaluation that has the potential to

improve the complex task of student assessment, as well as to contribute to a more positive

attitude toward the educational process.

The results confirmed McAlpine (2002)assessment theory that assessment must be

understood, first of all, as a form of communication, primarily between teacher and student

and also between teachers on one hand and employers, curriculum designers and

policymakers on the other hand. This social function of assessment has shown that portfolio

assessment can provide a veritable means of promoting students learning, demonstrating,

exhibiting or providing evidence of achievement, improvement, the student’s self-reflection,

the process and the student’s growth. Miller (2006) reaffirmed this position with evidence

that candidates could be assessed according to certain predetermined performance indicators

and based on evidence they produce, and presumes that a student will pass examination.

The constructivist theory has helped in explaining the findings of the study. It shows

that students were able to generate and build their own knowledge and meaning from an

interaction between their ideas and experiences on the assessment as explained by

Kristinsdottir (2001). This is because students were actively involved in creating new

meanings, where teacher dialogues and helps them to make meaning out of learning content

until mastery was attained. It also shows that students were able to build and construct

knowledge together during the planning for instructional process. By involving in planning


116

what should be assessed and how it should be assessed they were able to learn through active

participation during instruction.

Conclusion

From the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn that portfolio

assessment has been able to effectively enhanced students learning. In portfolio assessment,

gender is not a necessary determining factor for learning provided that all students are

actively involved in the planning and implementation of the assessment process. Students

were able to build and construct knowledge together during the planning for instructional

process.

Implications of Findings

The implications of the findings are that portfolio assessment did provide some evidence for

improvement in academic achievement of students. It also means that students’ achievement

could not be necessarily ascribed to whether a student is a male or female but the capacity of

the student to put extra effort especially when assessment becomes so practical and

participatory. By understanding the application of portfolio assessment, learners might

understand that portfolio assessment could serve as a direct communication link of their

achievement not only to the teachers but to the entire school and to an extension their parents

and as such dedicated their energy to the entire process.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were provided:

1. Teachers should adopt portfolio assessment as a means of assessing students learning

outcomes in Economics

2. Teachers should use portfolio assessment as a means of communicating teaching and

learning outcomes to all concerned.

3. Students should be involved in processes of planning and implementing assessment as it

make them part of the process.

References

Alsadaawi, A. (2008). An investigation of performance-based assessment in science in Saudi

primary schools. Retrieved on the 22nd January, 2016

fromhttp://faculty.ksu.edSa/30505/Documents/conference paper.pdf.

Atsua, T. G. (2017). Portfolio assessment: Meaning, planning and implementation. In U. C.

Ogbebo-Kigho, E. O. Durowoju, & D. A. Oyegoke (Eds.). Perspectives on effective

classroom assessment (pp124 – 144). Lagos: International Educational Management

Network


117

Bryant, S. L. & Timmins, A. A. (2002). Assessment: Instructional guide (2nd Ed.). Tai Po,

Hong Kong: Carves Books.

Chung, S. J. (2012). Portfolio assessment in ESL academic writing: Examining the effects of

reflection in the writing process. Master’s thesis Submitted to the Graduate College

of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Davis, M. H., Ponnamperuma, G. G. & Ker, J. S. (2009).Student perceptions of a portfolio

assessment process. Medical Education, 43(1),89 – 98. Retrieved on the 22nd

January, 2017 fromhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?

de Valenzuela, J. S. (2011). Portfolio assessment in the foreign language classroom. National

Standards for Foreign Language Learning NCLRC. Retrieved on the 16th February,

2016 from http://www.nclrc.org/portfolio/7-1.html.

Driessen, E. W., Overeem, K., Tartwijk, J., van der Vleuten, C. P. M. & Muijtjens, A. M. M.

(2006). Validity of portfolio assessment: Which qualities determine ratings? Medical

Education, 40, 862 – 866. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2929.2006.02550.x.

Fan, L. & Zhu, Y. (2008). Using performance assessment in secondary school mathematics:

An empirical studyin a Singapore classroom. Retrieved on the 22nd January, 2016

fromhttp://educationforatoz.com/images/_11_using_performance_Assessment_proof

reading_done_pdf.

Kristinsdottir, S. B. (2001). Constructivist theories. Retrieved on the 29th January, 2017 from

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/.

Marx, G. (2001). Educating children for tomorrow’s world. The Futurist, 35(2), 43 – 48.

McAlpine, M. (2002). The principles of assessment. University of Luton: CAA Centre.

Miller, M. (2006). Assessment: A literature review. Research and Information Bulletin, 19, 7

– 11. Available from www.sqa.org.uk.

Murphy, S. (1999). Assessing portfolio. In C. Cooper & L. Odell (Eds.), Evaluating writing

(pp. 114 – 136). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

Nezakatgoo, B. (2010). The effects of portfolio assessment on writing of EFL students.

English Language Teaching, 4(2), 231 – 242. doi:10.5539/elt.v4n2p231.

Nezakatgoo, B. (2011). Portfolio as a viable alternative in writing assessment. Journal of

Language Teaching and Research, 2(4), 747 – 756. doi:10.4304/jltr.2.4.747-756.

Onuka, A. O. U. &Atsua, T. G. (2016). Types and procedures of assessment used in the

Polytechnic Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. Paper presented at the 11th Regional

Conference Organized by Higher Education Research Network Held at the Main

Auditorium NABTEB, Benin City, Edo State from 30th October – 4th November.

Reeves, D. B. (2004). Accountability for learning: How teachers and school leader can take

charge. UAS: ASCD.

Shumei, Z. (2009). Has portfolio assessment become common practice in EFL classrooms?

Empirical studies from China. Retrieved on the 22nd January, 2016

fromwww.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/elt/Article/view/2375.


118

Ugodulunwa, C. & Wakjissa, S. (2015). Use of portfolio assessment technique in teaching

map sketching and location in secondary school Geography in Jos ,Nigeria. Journal

of Education and Practice, 6(17), 23 – 32. Retrieved on the 2ndJanuary, 2016 from

www.iiste.org.

Students’ Evaluation of Open Book Assessment in Restoring Value to our Educational....

119

STUDENTS’ EVALUATION OF OPEN BOOK ASSESSMENT IN RESTORING

VALUE TO OUR EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT SYSTEM

Popoola S.F.


Department of Educational Foundation, Faculty of Education, University of Jos.

Abstract

In the paper, open book assessment is being considered from students’ point of view as a

means of reducing examination malpractice that has negatively affected our educational

assessment system. The research design used was survey. The target population for this study

was the 300 level undergraduate education students of university of Jos estimated at 1200.

Random sampling technique was employed to sample 300 students. Data were collected

using structured questionnaire. The data was analysed using t-test statistics (SPSS version

17.0). The findings revealed that open book assessment can reduce examination malpractice

because it reduces examination tension in students, promotes active learning and extensive

reading, stops all forms of leakages of examination questions and develops confidence in

them towards examination. The researcher recommends that open book assessment should be

employed as a means of restoring value to our educational assessment system.

Key Words: open book assessment, students’ evaluation, examination malpractice and

restoring value.

Introduction

The Nigeria educational assessment system has lost its value long ago due to the negative

influence of examination fraud. Nigeria students have seen examination or assessment as a

force to be reckoned with because of its being used as a basis for promotion in educational

setting, for placement in courses, for qualifying for higher studies as well as for certification

which invariably becomes a basis for employment (Kolawole & Adekeye, 2007). Seeing that

their future prospects depend on certificates, students are bent on securing them by all means;

hence examination fraud has a very fertile ground to breed. The evil of this menace has

completely eroded the basis of certification by falsely conferring honor on those not due for

it. Examination fraud has brought in corruption into the educational assessment system and

devalued it.

An assessment or examination is intended to reveal a student’s ability in a given

course of study. Unfortunately, fraud in such assessments has defeated the purpose. Closed

book assessment which is mostly used in our educational assessment requires that students

rely upon memory to respond to specific items. Therefore, when students use unauthorized

means or methods for the purpose of obtaining a desired test score or grade, it becomes

unacceptable. This practice ranges from bringing and using notes for a closed book

assessment, copying from other people’s work, or even sending in a paid proxy. Most of our


120

examinations are plagued with malpractice. Malpractice is a deliberate act of indiscipline

adopted by students or their privileged accomplices to secure undeserved success and

advantage before, during or after the administration of assessment or examination in

violation of established regulation (Oyekanmi in Popoola 2012).

Several means have been adopted to combat this ugly menace, all to no avail. For

example, the Federal Government Promulgated Decree 27 of 1973 and miscellaneous decree

20 of 1984, WAEC embarked on public campaign on effect of examination malpractice as

well as some other measures. Our method of assessment which is mostly open book has

equally fueled the fire of assessment fraud. In a bid to seek some measures of solution

therefore, the researcher considers an alternative of Open Book Assessment whereby a

student is allowed to use one or more supplementary tools such as reference book or others.

An open book exam allows students to consult some form of reference materials. Students

are allowed to review reference materials during the examination (Chan, 2009). The theory

on open book assessment is based on the view that changing the form of assessment changes

learning patterns (Thomas in Maharg, 1999). While a closed book exam places a premium on

accurate and extensive recall, an open book exam places the focus on higher level learning

(Gupta, 2007). Eilertsen and Vandermo in Akresh-Gonzales (2015) equally argued that an

open book examination encourages greater engagement and improves understanding of

course material than close-book examination.

This assessment technique is an alternative approach to the closed book evaluation

approach. It is an assessment where students are allowed to use relevant reference text

materials for consultation during examination within a given period of time (Satyanarayun

2014, Aduloju, Lornienge, Aodohemba (2016). This technique relieves students of the

assiduous task of memorization. Rather, it requires critical thinking to know which

information is relevant as a way of acquiring critical thinking skills for life-long learning that

is relevant to problem solving. Feller in Akresh-Gonzales (2015) suggested that the open

book examination is superior to that of closed book as it is more realistic, that is, it is similar

to problem solving situations students are likely to face outside of academia. According to

Philipsin Akresh-Gonzales (2015) students prefer open-book to closed book examination and

find them less stressful. Having the material or text as a reference source, a student can think

critically and creatively with a reduced burden. This can take his mind from engaging in

examination malpractice. In the same vein, (Amaechi and Akujiobi, 2013) opined that as we

approach 21st century, the goal and the mode of study have to change with the onset of the

Information Technology (IT) age. They equally confirmed that with this technology, students

no longer have to waste time on memorizing. Students need to move away from passive

reading of prescribed texts to the process of acquiring skills for life-long learning. This

requires ability to think critically and creatively as needed to achieve the goals of promoting

active learning. (Soh and Jack, 2014).

In the same vein, Weimer, 2013 asserted that in this age of technology, we need to be

purposely teaching students how to assess, organize and apply information and not to simply

memorize it.


121

Assessment is a learning tool to objectively rank student according to ability and to

enhance and enrich the learning environment over an extended learning period of time. Open

book assessment has fulfilled this requirement of an assessment and student-centered

approach to education as a technique that reduces the level of anxiety experienced by

students. This is thought to result in more comprehensive student’s examination preparation

and more consistent learning throughout the course of study, with students avoiding

“cramming” (Theophilides and Koutselini, 2000).

Furthermore, investigations into the effectiveness of open-book examinations have

shown that they reduce students’ test anxiety as well as the need to memorize factual

materials (Francis, 2006).

It is suggested that open-book tests, including challenging application questions that

relate directly to the course material, may help overcome the problem of cheating in

examination (Wikipedia, 2017).

Also within this technique, students could develop more confidence to face

examination and be dissuaded from examination fraud.

It is evident that educators perceive open-book examinations as providing the

opportunity to promote thinking rather than memorizing. Open book assessment evaluates

understanding rather than recall and memorization, thereby relating to higher order of

learning which are: application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Students need not

underestimate the necessary preparations for open book examination because the given time

may be limited.

It is hoped that this research work can be of immense benefit to various stakeholders in

educational system. In order to achieve this aim, the researcher set the following research

questions:

1. To what extent can Open Book Assessment be free from examination malpractice?

2. Will Open Book Assessment reduce examination anxiety in students?

3. Can Open Book Assessment encourage hard work in students?

4. Will Open Book Assessment reveal students’ true ability?

Method

The research design was survey. The target population for this study was the 300 level

undergraduate education students of university of Jos estimated at 1200. Random sampling

technique was employed to sample 300 students. Data were collected using structured

questionnaire. Likert’s five point scale was used to do the analysis. The data was analysed

using t-test statistics (SPSS version 17.0). The scale was scored as [ SA(5) A(4) U(3) D(2)

SD(1)] for the positive question and [ SA(1) A(2) U(3) D(4) SD(5)]. The mean of each

item was calculated to know whether it is higher than the criterion mean (3) and that shows

that the item measured is accepted.

A criterion for comparing the mean was obtained. That is:

5+4+3+2+1 15

5 = 5


122

Table 1.Research question one: To what extent can Open Book Assessment be free from

examination malpractice? S/N ITEM CRIT.

MEAN

N Mean

Response

S.D. Remarks

1 Open Book Assessment will discourage

the practice of scouting for ‘EXPO’

3.42 1.45 Agree

3 Open Book Assessment will drastically

reduce exam malpractice

3.30 1.41 Agree

4 Open Book Assessment will stop all

form of leakages of examination

questions

3 300 3.24 1.45 Agree

10 Open Book Assessment will not stop

examination malpractice

2.84 1.49 Disagree

14 Open Book Assessment may not be

susceptible to examination malpractice

3.53 2.66 Agree

Mean Average = 3.42 + 3.30 + 3.24 + 2.84 + 3.53

5 = 3.27

From table 1, four of the items are agreed while one is disagreed. Since the calculated mean

is greater than the critical mean, it shows that open book assessment can be free from

examination malpractice.

Table 2 Research Question Two: Will Open Book Assessment reduce examination anxiety in

students? S/N ITEM CRIT.

MEAN

N Mean

Response

S.D. Remarks

5 Open Book Assessment increases

fear of failure in students

3.42 1.44 Agree

6 Open Book Assessment makes

students feel at ease and more

composed

3.79 1.25 Agree

12 Open Book Assessment will

develop confidence in students for

assessment

3 300 3.50 1.40 Agree

15 Open Book Assessment will

drastically reduce students’ anxiety

about examination

3.85 1.21 Agree

16 Open Book Assessment will reduce

stress of memorization for students

3.87 1.17 Agree

Mean Average = 3.42 + 3.79 + 3.50+ 3.85 + 3.87

5 = 3.69


123

From table 2, the whole items are agreed. Since the calculated mean is greater than the

critical mean, it shows that open book assessment will reduce examination anxiety in

students.

Table 3 Research Question Three: Can Open Book Assessment encourage hard work in

students? S/N ITEM CRIT.

MEAN

N Mean

Response

S.D. Remarks

2 Open Book Assessment promotes active

learning

3.14 1.45 Agree

9 Open Book Assessment will encourage

laziness on the part of the students

2.96 1.63 Disagree

18 Open Book Assessment will promote

wide reading in students

3 300 3.26 1.59 Agree


students to take notes during lectures

3.89 1.69 Agreet


students’ attendance to lectures

3.71 2.40 Agree

Mean Average = 3.14 + 2.96 + 3.26+ 3.89 + 3.71

5 = 3.39


is greater than the critical mean, it shows that open book assessment will encourage hard

work in students.

Table 4. Research Question Four: Will Open Book Assessment reveal students’ true ability? S/N ITEM CRIT.

MEAN

N Mean

Response

S.D. Remarks

7 Open Book Assessment will discourage

the practice of scouting for ‘EXPO’

3.23 1.53 Agree

8 Open Book Assessment will drastically

reduce exam malpractice

3.07 1.45 Agree

11 Open Book Assessment will stop all form

of leakages of examination questions

3 300 2.94 1.53 Disagree

13 Open Book Assessment will not stop

examination malpractice

3.29 1.43 Agree

17 Open Book Assessment may not be

susceptible to examination malpractice

3.25 1.46 Agree

Mean Average = 3.23 + 3.07 + 2.94 + 3.29 + 3.25

5 = 3.16


is greater than the critical mean, it shows that open book assessment can reveal students’ true

ability.


124

Conclusion

Findings from this research reveals that:

1. Open Book Assessment reveals students’ true ability because it drastically reduces

examination malpractice.

2. Open Book Assessment can encourage hard work in students because it promotes active

learning and extensive reading.

3. Open Book Assessment can be free from examination malpractice because it stops all

form of leakages of examination questions.

4. Open Book Assessment will reduce examination anxiety in students in the sense that it

develops confidence for examination and students feel at ease and more composed

(Francis 2006).

Recommendation

The researcher recommends that open book assessment should be employed as a means of

restoring value to our educational assessment system.

References

Aduloju, M.O., Iornienge, T.M. & Aondohemba, S.T. (2016).Emerging Trends in

Educational Research and Evaluation. ASSEREN Journal of Education. Vol. 1 no. 1,

31-40.

Akresh-Gonzales, J. (2015).Open-Book vs. Closed-Book Exams., retrieved from NEJM

Group, a division of the Massachusetts Medical Society. Copyright © 2017

Massachusetts Medical Society

Amaechi, C.T. & Akujobi, C.R. (2013). Constraints to 21st Century Technology

Development in Secondary Schools in Owerri Education Zone of Imo State. GIRD

International Journal of Science and Technology, 1(1), 24-31.

Chan C. (2009) Assessment: Open-book Examination, Assessment Resources@HKU,

University of Hong Kong. http://ar.cetl.hku.hk/am_obe.htm

Francis, J. (2006). A case for open book examinations. Educational Review Published online.

Gupta, M. (2007). Open-Book Examinations for assessing Higher Cognitive Abilities. IEEE

Microwave Magazine.http://www.waqtc.org/other/executive-2011-07-obe.pdf

Kolawole, S.A., Adekeye, R.B. (2007).Counseling Strategies for Curbing Examination

Malpractice among University Students. Conference Proceedings edited by

Ugodulunwa, C. & Mgboro, C.U. Official Publication of the Nigerian Society for

Educational Psychologists

Maharg, P. (1999). The Culture of Mnemosyne: Open-Book Assessment and the Theory and

Practice of Legal Education. vol. 6 no. 2

Popoola, S.F., (2012). Predictive Validity of University Matriculation Examination and Post

University Matriculation Examination Scores for Students Achievement in Federal

Universities of Northern Nigeria. Unpublished PhD. thesis

http://www.nejmgroup.org/

http://www.nejmgroup.org/

http://www.massmed.org/

http://ar.cetl.hku.hk/am_obe.htm

http://www.waqtc.org/other/executive-2011-07-obe.pdf


125

Satyanarayan, G. (2014). Open-Book Examination to Develop Thinking Skills in English.1-

BELIEVE ELT International Journal, 1(1), 1-6.

Soh, L.L., & Jack, C.C. (2014).The Impact of Open Book Examinations on Students

Learning. A Report to the School of Accountancy and Business, Nanyang

Technological University, Singapore.

Theophilides C. & Koutselini M. (2000).Study Behavior in the Close-Book and the Open-

Book Examination: A Comparative Analysis. Educational Research and Evaluation:

An International Journal on Theory and Practice, 6(4), 379 (Abstract only).

Weimer, M. (2013). Crib Sheets Help Students Prioritize and Organize Course Content.

Teaching Professor Blog, Faculty Focus. Wikipedia (2017)

The Effects of Formative Evaluation on Students Achievement and Interest in Secondary....

126

THE EFFECTS OF FORMATIVE EVALUATION ON STUDENTS ACHIEVEMENT

AND INTEREST IN SECONDARY SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY

Ame Festus Okechukwu

Department of Poly Work and Study

Institute of Management and Technology, Enugu

Email. [email protected] 08035356804

&

Ebuoh Casmir N.

Department of Science and Computer Education

Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Enugu.

E-mail: [email protected] 08037445718

Abstract

The study investigated the effect of formative evaluation with feedback as an instructional

strategies on senior secondary I students achievement and interest on geography map work

in Enugu state. The sample for the study consisted of 156 senior secondary I (SSI) students in

intact classes of three co-educational schools purposively selected from Igboeze North Local

Government Area of Enugu State. The study employed quasi – experimental design with

treatment at two levels namely: formative test with feedback and control group. The

treatment levels were crossed with gender (male and female). Five research instruments

namely formative test I, II and III and geography map work Achievement Test(GMAT) and

geography map work interest scale (GMIS) were constructed, validated and used for the

collection of all relevant data. The data collected were analyzed using mean, standard

deviation and paired t-test statistics. Results from the analysis showed that formative

evaluation has strong significant difference in the mean achievement- scores of students that

were exposed to it (21.20) while there was no significant difference in the mean achievement

scores of students who were not exposed to it (14.43). There were no significant effect of

gender on achievement and interest in geography. It was recommended that teachers be

encouraged to attend seminars, workshop and conferences regularly so as to acquire

necessary skills for construction and use of formative evaluation.

Keywords: formative, evaluation, test, assessment, interest, feedback, gender, map work and

achievement.

Introduction

Teaching and evaluating are the two most important responsibilities of every teacher in his

quest to bring about effective comprehension of whatever content that is taught and

learnt(Ame, 2013).They show students’ progress and ultimate level of performance in school.

Evaluation generally involves collection, collation, analysis and interpretation of data. The

search light of instructional evaluation focuses on both human and non-human components




127

of teaching-learning outcomes and processes (Garrette, 2007). Evaluation includes both

quantitative and qualitative description of the learner’s behavior plus value judgment (Ebuoh,

2004). Evaluation, according to Idoko (2012) entails passing value judgment based on the

result of the preliminary processes associated with evaluation. The preliminary processes

associated with evaluation include test, measurement, and assessment which are often used

by some people as if they are synonymous with evaluation. They are correlates or

components or elements of evaluation.

A jogbeje (2013) opined that the utilization of formative testing in the teaching-

learning process involves breaking up the subject matter content into smaller hierarchical

units for instruction, specifying objective for each units, designing and administering

validated formative test, offering a group based remediation in areas where students are

deficient before moving to another units and then administration of summative test on

completion of all units. The essence of using various evaluation instruments like test,

assignment, project etc during instructional process is to guide, direct, and monitor students

learning and progress towards students’ attainment of course objectives. Teachers and

learners cannot perform optimally without the availability of adequate information on

students standing at any given time. Formative evaluation with feedback given periodically

as continuous assessment removes threatening effects of single evaluation (summative)

generally given at the end of course of study. Bandura (1981) submitted that feedback is the

information which a teacher provides a student about his/her performance on a particular task

or test. He further argued that when such information is provided, the student concerned

begins to have a better understanding of his/her capabilities and might begins to have a

different perception of himself or herself. studies have shown that feedback provides

reinforcement effect and correctional information on the learners. (Bardwell, 1981;Ajogbeje

(2012), Gronlund & Linn (1990)). Feedback following wrong responses has the greatest

positive effect (Katty, 2013). Bridgeman (1974) opined that feedback motivates the learners

intrinsically. Effect of feedback on students achievement and interest on geography students

in particular has been inconclusive.

Related to achievement as a variable is interest. Interest engenders academic

achievement and learning. Thus, there is a tendency of a positive correlation between the

level of achievement and level of interest in such subject. (Adikwu, 2005). Interest is a

feeling of curiosity or concern about something that makes the attention turn towards it. A

child who is interested in something pays attention to it or devotes time to it. Therefore the

failure by students to achieve or do well in a test could be attributed to lack of interest and

use of inappropriate evaluation method. It was for this purpose that this study was carried

out. The present study therefore investigated the effect of formative evaluation on students’

academic achievement and interest in senior secondary school geography in Igboeze North

Local Government Area of Enugu State.

The students' result in senior secondary school geography have been very poor

(WACE 2007 -2014). The frequent failure of Nigeria students in geography subject has been

the concern of all stakeholders in education industry (Moyosore, 2015; Adikwu, 2005,


128

Ilesanmi, 2001). One of the major problems identified is poor evaluation methods adopted by

many geography teachers in senior secondary schools. This study investigated the effect of

formative evaluation on students’ achievement and interest in geography in senior secondary

school in Igboeze North Local government Area of Enugu state.

In order to address the problems inherent in the research, a hypothetical study was designed

to test the validity or otherwise of the following propositions.

1. There is no significant difference in the students’ mean achievement scores of an

experimental group that are exposed to formative evaluation and control group that are

exposed to summative evaluation.

2. There is no significant difference in the students’ mean interest score of an experimental

group and control group.

3. There is no significant gender difference in the achievement scores of geography

students that are exposed to formative evaluation.

4. There is no significant difference in the academic achievement of students in the

experimental and control groups in their post test-scores in geography.

Method

Quasi-experimental design was employed for the study. The purposive random sampling

technique was used to select three public schools out of thirty nine (39) in Igboeze North

local government area of Enugu state, Nigeria. The sample for the study consisted of 156 SSI

students from these three schools who were relatively beginners in geography subject. The

experimental group, that is, the formative evaluation with feedback, was exposed to

expository class teaching followed by a formative class evaluation 1,11,&111 with feedback

after each unit. The second group (non-formative evaluation or control group) was also

exposed to the expository class teaching without class evaluation and feedback after each

unit.

Five instruments namely formative evaluation I,II,& III, which were administered on

the respondents after the coverage of each selected topic during treatment. Geography

achievement test (GAT) and Geography interest scale (GIS) which served as pre-test and

post-test to the respondents on the topics covered during treatment were used to collect all

the relevant data for the study. The GAT, GIS, the formative evaluation I, II, and III were

received and vetted for face and content validities by three experienced geography teachers

and two experts in measurement and evaluation. Kuder Richardson formula 21(KR21) was

used to establish a reliability coefficient estimate of approximately 0.75 for GAT, 0.79 for

GIS, 0.84, 0.86, and 0.83 for the formative evaluation I, II, III respectively.

The Geography achievement test and Geography interest scale were administered to

both groups on the first day of the experiment as pre-test and the scripts were marked and

collated by the researcher. The GAT and the GIS were administered by the respective

geography teachers in the selected schools who were trained for the study. They used their

intact classes. The same GAT and GIS were re-administered to both groups at the end of the

experiment to test the effect of formative evaluation with feedback on the academic


129

achievement and interest of the experimental group. The data were collected and analyzed.

The statistical tools used included the mean, the standard deviation and t-test. The study

hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Results

The results of the data analysis carried out are presented here.

Ho1: There is no significant difference in the students’ mean achievement scores of an

experimental group that are exposed to formative evaluation.

In order to find out if there is significant difference in the students’ achievement of

those that are exposed to formative evaluation, their pre-test and post-test scores are analyzed

and presented in table I:

Table I: Result of the paired t-test of the pre-test and post –test that are exposed to formative

evaluation with feedback. Variable N Mean Standard

deviation

Df t-cal t-tab Remark

Pre-test scores of

experimental group

78 15.26 4.80 77 2.84 1.96 Significant .000

Post-test scores of

experimental group

78 21.20 4.56

The mean score of the experimental students in the pre-test is 15.26 while the mean score in

the post-test is 21.20. This implies that for the mean score of these students to be higher

during post test, the formative evaluation with feedback has significant impact on the

students which has made the t-calculated of 2.84 to be significant as P<0.005. Since the

calculated value (2.84) is greater than the critical value (1.96) then there is the rejection

which stated that there is no significant difference on the achievement scores of students who

underwent formative evaluation on geography in secondary school.

Ho2: There is no significant difference in the students mean interest scores of an experimental

group.

In order to test the above hypothesis, the pre-test interest and post-test interest mean score of

the students were analyzed to find out whether formative evaluation has any effect on

students interest in geography. The result of the analysis is presented in table 2.


130

Table 2: Result of the paired t-test on the students mean interest scores of formative

evaluation group N Mean Standard

deviation

Df t-cal t-tab Remark

Pre-test score

experimental group

80 14.43 3.38 154 24.39 1.96

Variable

Significant

Post-test scores of

experimental group

76 27.45 3.34

In the table 2 the pre-interest mean of the students was 14.43 while post test interest mean

rose to 27.45 with a standard deviation of 3.38 and 3.34 respectively. The result further

showed that the students interest in geography was significant since the calculated value of

24.39 was greater than the critical value of 1.96. so there is significant difference in the

students mean interest score of an experimental group.

Ho3: There is no significant gender difference in the achievement scores of geography

students that are exposed to formative evaluation with feedback. The focus of the above

hypothesis is on gender group that are exposed to formative evaluation with feedback. The

result of the independent sample t-test of post test score of the experimental group according

to gender is presented in table 3.

Table 3: The result of the t-test of the post-test mean scores of Experimental group by

gender. Variable Gender N Mean Standard

deviation

Df t-cal. t-tab Remark

Post-test

results of

experimental

group

Male 82 29.01 5.22 154 0.112 1.96 Not

significant

Female 74 29.07 6.68

Table 3 shows that the mean scores of male students in the experimental group is 29.01, and

that of the female students is 29.07. The above result shows that both male and female have

the same scores of approximately 29. Although the result showed that there is difference but

the difference is not statistically significant as the t-cal.= 0.112 at 5% level of significant is

less than t-tab = 1.96 which makes p = 0.053 not significant since P> 0.005. Therefore the

null hypotheses was accepted, that there is no significant gender difference in the study.

Ho4: There is no significant difference in the academic achievement of students in the

experimental and control groups in their post test scores in geography.


131

Table 4: mean score of experimental and control group post test scores in geography. Groups N Mean Standard

deviation

Df t-cal t-lab Remark

Experimental

group( formative

evaluation with

feedback)

82 21.20 4.56 154 10.48 1.96 Significant

Non-formative

(control group/

summative

evaluation)

74 14.43 3.34

Table 4 shows the comparison between the mean scores of the experimental group and the

control group using t-test statistics. The t-cal> t- tab in the table shows that the observed

difference in the performance of students is in favour of the experimental group. The

hypothesis was therefore rejected and may be concluded that expository teaching with

formative evaluation with feedback significantly results in higher achievement in geography

than summative evaluation.

Discussion

The result of the study showed that formative evaluation (with feedback) enhanced the

performance of students. This supported previous findings which established the

effectiveness of formative evaluation in improving performance (Afemikhe, 1985; Erinosho,

1988; Ajogbeje, 2012; Moyosore, 2015).

Moreso, Masrsh (2009) stated that formative assessment is an evaluation method

designed to correct the students difficulties on the content of subject with the aim of

enhancing the performance of students in the subject.

The result of this study agrees with the findings of such researchers as Johnson

(2009; Kathy, 2013), Christian et al., (2015) that formative evaluation is one of the

assessment strategies that defines students learning difficulties on a subject with the aim of

improving their academic performance through prescription of alternative remedial measures.

The result from this research concluded that there is no significant gender difference in the

achievement scores of geography students that are exposed to formative evaluation. This

study agrees with Ajogbeje (2013), Oladumi (1995), Moyosore (2015) who stated that gender

difference is not significant issue in the use of formative evaluation. They concluded that the

performance of the students depends on how the evaluation/ assessment strategies have been

effectively implemented and dedication of students to their learning process.

Lastly, the result of this study agrees with those conducted by Ojugo, (2013),

Afemikhe (1985), Ajogbeje (2012) which found that students exposed to formative

evaluation achieved higher than students exposed to summative evaluation.


132

Conclusion

Based on the findings of this study, it could be concluded that when formative evaluation are

used for diagnostic purposes, the cognitive results obtained are usually better than when

given as a series of summative evaluation. This is when the result of formative evaluation

served a basis for finding out the sources of difficulties.

Recommendations

In the light of the findings from this study, the following recommendations are being made.

1. Governments and school administrators should allow and provide incentives to teachers

to attend seminars, workshops, conferences and in-service training to enhance their

performances and to acquire necessary skills for constructing formative test.

2. Curriculum designers should take into cognizance while designing task for learners that

learning in geography is not solely a cognitive affair. Hence, geography curriculum

should be designed to include the use of psychomotor evaluation methods/strategies

which would make the learning of geography very attractive, investigative and

adventurous.

3. School administrators should emphasize to their teachers on regular basis that the

teaching of geography in secondary schools should be matched with equal provision of

regular formative evaluation for regular diagnosis of students learning difficulties on

contents of the subject and adequate feedback and remediation for learners to improve

their academic achievement.

References

Adikwu O. (2005). Development and Standardization of Achievement test in Geography for

senior secondary School in Benue state . Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of

Nigeria, Nsukka.

Afemikhe O.A. (1985). The effect of formative testing on students achievement in secondary

school Mathematics. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis. University of Ibadan.

AjogbejeOke James (2013). Effect of formative testing on students achievement in Junior

secondary school Mathematics. European scientific Journal. 8.(8) 94 -105

Ame F.O. (2013). Gender Equality in Educational opportunities for National Development.

CWGDS International Journal of Gender studies. 1(1) 13 -18.

Bandura .A. (1981). Staff efficiency mechanism in human agency, American Psychologists.

77 (2) 122 -147

Bardwell, R (1981). Feedback: How does it function? Journal of Experimental Education. 50

(1) 87 – 95.

Bridgeman, B . (1974). Effects of test performance feedback on immediately subsequent test

performance. Journal of educational psychology. 6 (1), 62 – 66.

Christiana, Amaech; Ugodulunwa Uzoamaka, & Okolo Priscilla (2015). Effect of formative

Assessment on Mathematics test Anxiety and performance of senior secondary


133

school students in Jos. Nigeria. Journal of research and Method in education. 5(2)

38 -47.

Ebuoh .C. N (2004). Educational Measurement and Evaluation for effective teaching and

learning. Enugu: Sky Printing Press.

Erinosho, S.Y. (1988). The effect of formative evaluation on the performance of students in

physics. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis. University of Ibadan, Ibadan.

Garret, H. E. (2007). Statistics in Psychology and Education. New Delhi: Paragon

International Publishers.

Gronlund .N.E & Linn R.L. (1990). Measurement and Evaluation in teaching (6th edition).

New York, Macmillan.

Idoko C.C (2010). Science Education and Instruction: A practical Approach Enugu: Cheston

Agency Press ltd.

Illesanmi, J. (2001). Elementary Geography for Nursery and Primary schools. Oshogbo:

Graphical Nigeria publishers.

Johnson, D.W & Johnson R.T. (2002). Meaningful Assessment. A manageable and

cooperative process. Boston: Allyn and Bacon

Kathy Dyer (2013). Essay Assessment technique for Measuring in teaching and Learning. the

Education blog. www.nwea.org. 1-22 essay formative assessment.

Marsh, C.J. (2007). A critical Analysis of the use of formative Assessment in school

Education research and policy Practice 1(6). 25 – 29.

Moyosore O.A (2015). The effect of formative Assessment on students’ Achievement in

secondary school mathematics. International Journal for Educational

Research.45(12).116-122.

Ojugo, A. A. (2013). Effect of formative test and attitudinal types on students’ Achievement

in mathematics in Nigeria. African Educational Research Journal. 1(2). 113 -117.

Oladunni, M. O. (1995). Effects mathematics language and problem solving strategies on

achievement of students in mathematics. Journal of Educational Research and

Evaluation.

WAEC (2007). Chief examiners Report. Lagos: Nigeria. Megavous (WA) Ltd.

http://www.nwea.org/

Usage of Dice in the Teaching and Learning of Probability in Senior Secondary Two in Jos....

134

USAGE OF DICE IN THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF PROBABILITY IN

SENIOR SECONDARY TWO IN JOS-NORTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF

PLATEAU STATE.

Obadare-Akpata Oluwatoyin C. & Osazuwa Christopher

Email: [email protected]

07037199498, 07034226462

Department of Science and Technology Education, University of Jos

Abstract

The study investigated the usage of dice in the teaching and learning of probability in senior

secondary schools in Jos-North Local Government Area of Plateau state. The research

design was quasi-experimental pretest-posttest control group design. The sample size was

one hundred and thirty (130) students from a population of eight thousand, one hundred and

eighty-three for 2016/2017 academic session from ninety-nine public and private co-

educational senior secondary schools in Jos-North Local Government Area. The use of dice

was applicable in teaching the experimental group while withheld in the control group. Mean

and Standard deviation were used for the research questions while ANCOVA was used in

testing the hypotheses at 5% level of significance. Results indicated that the usage of dice

was effective in enhancing students’ achievement on probability as it was found that the

experimental group with mean of 60.76 outperformed the control group with mean of 42.73.

Therefore, there is significant difference in the mean achievement score of students taught

probability using dice and those taught without dice. Furthermore, female students with

mean of 62.19 performed higher than their male counterparts with mean of 59.03 in the

experimental group. However, the analyses for the two hypotheses for both school type and

gender showed there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students

in probability taught using dice.

Keywords: Dice, Probability, Gender and School type.

Introduction

There is a branch of Applied Mathematics called statistics which plays a central role

especially in every field of human activity. It helps in describing measurements more

precisely. The large number of statistical methods are probability, averages, dispersions, etc.

(Gurunet, n.d). Therefore, Probability is part of most secondary school Mathematics curricula

and it is also a component of many science curricula. The language of probability is also part

of everyday discourse, used increasingly to create eye-catching headlines and sound-bites.

For all sorts of reasons, therefore, students need to engage in the study of probability at

school. However, the problems associated with the teaching and learning of probability are

well-documented by Moore (1997) while Pratt (2011) corroborated it. A number of reasons

for this include difficulty with proportional reasoning and interpreting verbal statements of


135

problems, conflicts between the analysis of probability in the Mathematics lesson and

experience in real life, and premature exposure to seemingly abstract areas. Teacher’s

knowledge may also be an issue, since not all teachers would have studied probability during

their own school education (Papaieronymou, 2009).

Probability has come to gain importance as a content area that students need to have

experience with in order to be well-informed citizens since its study “can raise the level of

sophistication at which a person interprets what he sees in ordinary life, in which theorems

are scarce and uncertainty is everywhere” (Cambridge Conference on School Mathematics,

1963, p.70 as cited in Jones, 2004).

Although there have been calls for an increased attention on probability in the school

curriculum, one of the problems encountered is the inadequate preparation of teachers in

probability (Penas, 1987; Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences (CBMS), 2001).

Furthermore, Batanero, Godino and Roa (2004) suggested that educators need to provide

better initial training for teachers so as to attend to students’ difficulties and misconceptions

in probability.

Comparative study of Public versus Private schools and their effectiveness has been

the topic of a large number of studies. Several studies have been conducted in all over the

world to compare the various features of Public and Private schools. Researchers and

research bodies, for instance, Alderman, Orazem and Paterno (2001), U.S. Department of

Education (2012) to make the sense of superiority of either by focusing on different measures

of performance. Below are their findings:

Reports by National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) which is

representative at national level for the assessment of American’s students’ knowledge in

various subject areas, that, Private schools performed better than Public schools in all major

subject areas including Mathematics and Science (U.S. Department of Education 2012).

Some findings show that Private school has an advantage of better performance as

compared to Public school. In the case of household choice for Public and Private schools in

Pakistan, parents prefer Private schooling, even poorest parents send their children to Private

schools (Alderman, Orazem & Paterno, 2001). Overall performance of Private schools in the

world for provision of education outshines in the majority of cases (Coulson, 2009).

A study which was conducted in Kenya to find out the determinant of emergent of

private education in Africa, where the private primary schools increased 4.6 %. - 11.5% from

2004 to 2007 after the introduction of free primary education policy (FPE) by the Kenyan

government in 2003, the public schools are crowded. The pupil - teacher ratio increased in

Public schools, this caused parents to react by transferring their children to Private schools.

High teacher-pupil ratio in Public schools is the probability of the emergence of Private

schools (Nishimura & Yamano, 2013). Private schools are not out performed in developed

countries even in poor areas of developing countries. A survey was conducted in a poor area

of Lagos State, Nigeria and it was found that 75% children were enrolled in Private schools,

while the teaching activities were higher in Private schools as compared to Public schools

(Tooley, Dixon & Olaniyan, 2005).


136

The issue of low achievement with under representation of female children in Mathematics

has been the focus of many Mathematics educators and the womenfolk of some countries in

the recent times. Maduabum (2000) authenticates this point saying “The under representation

of girls and women in Science, Technology and Mathematics (STM) education has been a

worldwide phenomenon and a point of focus in recent researches in science education” (p.

25). This implies that there is low participation of female students in Mathematics compared

to their male counterparts generally. Maduabum substantiates this statement which showed

that there were still far fewer females than males in Nigerian Universities by year and sex,

faculty and sex, and level of courses and sex despite the fact that women constitute 50% of

Nigeria’s population. Similarly, Olagunju (2001) expresses the same view that in most

mathematics-related fields (scientific courses), there tends to be more males than females.

Durojaye, Ajie and Aiyebusi (2006) stated that “Girls and boys start off equal in

Mathematics and science performance in school, they appear to do equally well in both

subjects in elementary school. The same girls begin to lose interest in Mathematics and

science around the age of twelve. These girls then drop out of mathematical classes often

closing the doors on many career opportunities” (p. 313). This observation touches on the

fact that the low participation and performance of students at the higher level of

mathematical classes is obvious but may not be due to inability to cope naturally as their

male counterparts.

Grootenboer and Hemmings (2007) in a review noted that historically, the

achievement of girls in Mathematics, across a range of different contexts, was lower than that

of boys. Glenmon and Callahan in Fennema (2009) stated categorically that boys will

achieve higher than girls on tests dealing with mathematical reasoning while girls will

achieve higher than boys on test of computational ability. Caygill and Kirkham comment on

the distinct performance areas of girls compared with boys from their own studies as thus:

While there were no overall differences in mean Mathematics achievement between girls and

boys, there were some distinct differences in terms of content domains. On average, girls had

higher scores in data display, while boys had higher scores in number. Boys and girls

performed similarly on the geometric shape and measures domain and over the cognitive

domain (p. 1).

Therefore, the effective use of instructional materials is of the essence in the teaching

and learning of Mathematics, and also requires a lot of creativity as well as sound knowledge

in its operations. Hence, for students to understand and internalize the concept of probability

the teacher should have mastery of the concept and then how to use the appropriate

instructional materials. This instructional material will not only improve the technical quality

of teaching but also enrich the content quality of learning (Ajayi & Ema, 2006). The

researcher shall consider dice as an example of instructional material. Since teacher is a

major player in determining effective use of instructional material on students’ achievement

of probability in secondary schools, it is necessary to note in the words of Odili (2006) on the

role of Mathematics teacher in respect of the foregoing; that considering the pedagogical

aspect of the problems, one can see that almost all schools in spite of the much talked-about


137

modern approach, the traditional classroom approach still prevails. He added that it is a

common defect in our educational set up that most of the subject teachers are not adequately

qualified in the subjects concerned. And hence, there is a serious lack of mathematical

instructions in our schools.

In a more specific term, to be able to teach effectively this concept of probability in

secondary schools, teachers of Mathematics should have the apt knowledge of using dice.

The teacher should bear in mind that this instructional material should have some artistic and

scientific appeal to the students and to appear real to them; this would help to avoid the

concept from being abstract thereby enabling the learner to understand and conceptualize it.

Students will not only learn effectively if this instructional material under consideration is

properly harnessed, they will also retain this concept for a longer period.

Students’ performance in Probability poses some concern and raises some obvious

questions: What would be the fate of science and technology education that depends to great

extent in Mathematics for its development? And what model will be effective for probability

in Mathematics instruction? It has been noted that though students underperform in this topic

under study, most fingers are pointed at the Mathematics teachers. The lack of using

instructional materials such as non-usage of dice to demystify this concept and lack of initial

training for teachers offering courses at the college level specific to probability are some

challenges encountered by students while schooling. Furthermore, The National Examination

Council (NECO) Chief examiners’ report on probability between 2005 and 2012 noted the

following problems students encountered: Many students could not decipher the questions

properly to know what was given. Generally, candidates perform below average in this

question on probability. Majority of the students attempted the questions without accuracy.

Most students could not understand some basic terms used in probability. Many candidates

found the interpretation of “at least” and “at most” difficult as these are common terms used

in probability. One of the problems students found was to look at the different fact as

identical. They lack the logical approach to the questions. Most candidates have not grasped

the basic concept of probability; hence, the questions were poorly attempted. The candidates

found this question a difficult one and as a result only 20% attempted the question. This

implies that students lack proper understanding of probability which makes them avoid it in

examination (NECO, 2005-2012). Therefore, the table below gave in a glance students’

percentage failure in Mathematics between 2005 and 2012.

Table 1: WAEC results displaying percentage failure in Mathematics from 2006-2012

(WAEC, 2012)

Year : 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

% Failure: 58.88 53.15 66.91 74.01 60.43 69.30 61.19


138

Thus findings indicated that probability has a place in nation building and daily usage of

individuals in the society. Therefore, from this backdrop and in a bid to correct this anomaly

that the researchers are undertaking this study on usage of dice in teaching and learning of

probability in senior secondary two in Jos-North Local Government Area of Plateau State.

The study is designed to find out the usage of dice in the teaching and learning of

probability in Senior Secondary II. Specifically, the study is geared towards finding out the

following:

1. To find out whether the use of dice will enhance students’ achievement in probability.

2. To determine whether gender has effect on students’ achievement in probability when

taught using dice.

3. To determine if there exist any difference between students’ achievement and school

type when taught using dice.

The following research questions are formulated to guide the researcher:

1. To what extent does the use of dice enhance students’ achievement in probability when

taught using dice and those taught without it?

2. To what extent does the use of dice influence male and female students’ achievement in

probability?

3. How do students in Public schools perform when taught probability using dice compared

to their counterpart in Private schools?

The following null hypotheses are formulated and will be tested at 5% level of significance:

HO1: There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of

students in probability using dice and those taught without it.


male and female students in probability taught using dice.


students in the Public schools and those in the Private schools taught using dice.

Method

The research design for this study was quasi-experimental pretest-posttest control group

design. In this design, the treatment was only assigned to the experimental intact classes that

were randomly selected from the secondary schools in Jos-North local government area of

Plateau State.

The target population of the study consisted of all the SS II students in Jos-North

Local Government Area of Plateau State. The students’ population is eight thousand, one

hundred and eighty-three for 2016/2017 academic session from ninety-nine co-educational

schools. There are twenty-one Public schools and seventy-eight Private schools (Educational

Resource Centre, Plateau State).

Four schools were randomly selected, that is, two schools from Public schools and

two from Private schools was randomly selected according to the proportion. The sample size


139

of this study is one hundred and thirty students. Four intact classes were randomly selected to

represent the experimental and control groups. The experimental group was taught using dice

while the control group was taught without the use of dice.

The instrument that was used for the study is Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT)

which was used as both pretest and posttest; this consisted of a thirty-item objective and two

essay tests and was adopted from compendium of Past Questions and Answers for SSCE,

GCE and NECO (1988-2015).

The validity of the test used for this study was based on content validity as the

researcher adopted and revalidated the questions that were selected from recommended

examining bodies’. The test was designed strictly to measure students’ achievement in

probability using dice. The items were selected based on table of specifications with respect

to the cognitive objectives of knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and

evaluation.

The researchers administered the test first as pre test to both groups to identify the

students’ previous knowledge or fore-knowledge on the study under investigation as it

reflects in the eight sets of lesson plan developed for the two groups.

The teaching for the periods of five weeks was done simultaneously in the four

selected schools. Students in the experimental and control groups received the same content

area of instruction using equal length of time, however the control group was taught without

the practical use of dice. Thereafter, the researchers administered the same test as post test to

the students having taught them the concept of probability using dice for the experimental

group and without dice for the control group. An improvised dice was used for the

experimental group but withheld from the control groups.

At the end of the experiment, the participants for both the experimental and control

groups were administered post test by the researchers and their scripts were marked and

marks awarded. Both the experimental and control groups scores were used for the analysis.

Descriptive statistics; mean and standard deviation methods were used for the research

questions. ANCOVA was used for the hypotheses and was tested at 5% level of significance.

Results

The data collected and analysis are presented in order of research questions and hypotheses.

Research Question 1

To what extent does the use of dice enhance students’ achievement in probability when

taught using dice and when taught without it?

Table 1: Mean and Standard deviation of scores of experimental and control group Group n Pre test Post-test Post test Difference in mean

Mean score Mean score Standard deviation

Experimental 66 21.09 60.76 13.72 39.67

Control 64 23.89 42.73 16.58 18.84

Diff.-in-mean 2.8 18.03


140

Table 1 shows that the experimental group had a pre test mean score of 21.09 and a post test

mean score of 60.76. This gives a mean difference of 39.67. The control group had a pre test

mean score of 23.89 and a post test mean score of 42.73 given a mean difference of 18.84.

Similarly, the experimental group had a post test standard deviation 13.72 and the control

group had a post test standard deviation 16.58. Hence, the mean difference of experimental

and control groups in the pre test and post test are 2.8 and 18.03 respectively.

HO1: There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of students in

probability using dice and those taught without it.

Table 2: ANCOVA on usage of dice on students’ achievement in Mathematics by Group. Source Type III Sum df Mean Square F-ratio Sig.

Of Squares

Corrected Model 11420.536a 2 5710.268 25.268 .000

Intercept 35294.476 1 35294.476 156.177 .000

Pre test 865.872 1 865.872 3.831 .052

Group 8824.282 1 8824.282 39.047 .000

Error 28700.733 127 225.990

Total 390083.000 130

Corrected 40121.269 129

Table 2 shows that the result of the main effects on experimental and control groups

indicated by F (1,127) is 39.047. This f-ratio is significant at 0.05 alpha level. Thus, the null

hypothesis is therefore rejected. The result indicates that there is significant difference

between the mean achievement scores of students taught probability using dice and those

taught without dice. Therefore, the experimental group achieved higher in the post test scores

than the control group.

Research Question 2

To what extent does the use of dice influence male and female students’ achievement in

probability?

Table 3: Mean and Standard deviation of scores of male and female experimental group Group n Pre test Post test Post test Difference in mean


Male 30 21.60 59.03 14.10 37.43

Female 36 20.67 62.19 13.42 41.52


Table 3 shows that the male students had a pre-test mean score of 21.60 and a post-test of

59.03, given a mean score difference of 37.43. The female students had a pre-test mean score

of 20.67 and post-test mean score of 62.19. This gives a pre-test-post-test gain of 41.52.

Also, while the absolute mean difference of male and female students in the pre-test is 0.93

and 3.16 mean difference in the post-test.


141

HO2: There is significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female

students in probability taught using dice.

Table 4: ANCOVA on usage of dice on students’ achievement in Mathematics by Gender. Source Type III Sum df Mean Square F-ratio Sig.

Of Squares

Corrected Model 166.224a 2 83.112 .434 .650

Intercept 14882.924 1 14882.924 77.657 .000

Pretest 2.708 1 2.708 .014 .906

Gender 158.661 1 158.661 .828 .366

Error 12073.897 63 191.649

Total 255878.000 66

Corrected 12240.121 65

Results in Table 4 indicate that gender is not a significant factor on students’ achievement in

probability. The f-ratio for gender at (1.63) degrees of freedom is .828, hence, is not

significant at 0.05 alpha level. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant different in the

mean scores of male and female students taught using dice is retained.

Research Question 3

How do students in Public schools perform when taught probability using dice compared to

their counterpart in Private schools?

Table 5: Mean and Standard deviation of scores of Public and Private experimental groups Group n Pretest Posttest Posttest Difference in mean


Public 39 21.62 61.56 12.68 39.94

Private 27 20.33 59.59 15.28 39.26


Table 5 shows that the public school had a pretest mean score of 21.62 and a posttest of

61.56, given a mean score difference of 39.94. The private school had a pre-test mean score

of 20.33 and posttest mean score of 59.59. This gives a pretest-posttest gain of 39.26. Also,

the absolute mean difference of public and private schools in the pretest and posttest are 1.29

and 1.97 respectively.

HO3: There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of students in

the Public schools and those in the Private schools taught using dice.


142

Table 6: ANCOVA on usage of dice on students’ achievement in Mathematics by School

Type. Source Type III Sum df Mean Square F-ratio Sig.

of Squares

Corrected Model 75.731a 2 37.865 196 .822

Intercept 15454.189 1 15454.189 80.038 .000

Pretest 13.718 1 13.718 .071 .791

School Type 68.167 1 68.167 .353 .555

Error 12164.391 63 193.086

Total 255878.000 66

Corrected 12240.121 65

Results in Table 4 indicate that gender is not a significant factor on students’ achievement in

probability. The f-ratio for gender at (1.63) degrees of freedom is .353, hence, is not

significant at 0.05 alpha level. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant different in the

mean scores of Public and Private school students taught using dice is retained.

Discussions

The result in Table 1 shows that the students in experimental group performed better on the

posttest than those in the control group. This was confirmed by the test of hypothesis in table

2. The null hypothesis was rejected, showing a significant difference in the mean

achievement on the students taught probability using dice and those taught without dice. This

shows that dice was effective in the achievement of students in probability.

This result agrees with works of Ekwueme and Igwe in Apondi (2015) who found

that a teacher who makes use of appropriate instructional materials to supplement his

teaching will help enhance students’ innovative and creative thinking as well as help them

become enthusiastic. Similarly, Agwagah (2001) corroborated it when he added that the use

of instructional materials (such as dice, for instance), has positive effect on students’

academic achievement. Thus, with the use of dice, students will understand better and

internalize the knowledge of the concept; probability.

The results of the analyses in Tables 3 and 4 also show that the mean achievement

score of the female students taught probability with dice in posttest was higher than that of

the males. The researcher observed that the attention level exhibited by the female students

was quite higher than the boys’. However, the ANCOVA shows no significant gender

difference in terms of achievement. This finding agrees with Caygill and Kirkham (2008)

that girls can compete with boys equally in Mathematics and achieve higher than boys in

some mathematical domains. This idea is in line with Ukeje and Obioma (2002) when they

opined that amusement and pleasure ought to be combined with instruction to make the

learning more interesting. When the teaching of Mathematics becomes practical, meaningful

and interesting, it helps to develop students in Mathematics.

The results of the analyses in Tables 5 and 6 also show that the mean achievement

score of the public school taught probability with dice was slightly higher than that of the

private school. However, the ANCOVA shows no significant difference in terms of


143

achievement. This confirmed the contributions of Lubienski, Lubienski and Crane (2009)

who said that public schools perform just as well if not better than private schools. Hence,

this finding indicated that the type of school classified as public or private did not make any

difference on students’ academic achievement. In addition to this, the researcher found that

when these schools (public and private) are exposed to similar academic treatment or

condition like the one used in this study where they were exposed to same style of teaching

using the same instrument and materials, there may be no significant difference in their

academic achievement.

The role of instructional materials in teaching cannot be overemphasized. Some

teachers teach without any instructional materials. The students are, then, bored and perform

poorly since they do not understand the concepts being taught by the teachers. The use of

dice even in playing ludo game, for instance, will make the students to be actively involved

in the daily lessons as they will be interested also in learning Mathematics as a game. It is a

fact that behind every successful Mathematics lesson is a good teacher. Effective teaching

implies productive, result-oriented, purposeful, qualitative, meaningful and realistic teaching.

The essence of being an effective teacher according to Amoo (2000) lies in knowing what do

to foster students’ learning. This implies that an effective teacher develops mathematical

ideas and skills in students so that they can be used for personal needs, further study and for

everyday life.

Therefore, the Mathematics teachers should ensure that new materials are related to

relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive basis. The teacher should

also build positive attitude, interest and problem solving skills in the students that are broader

in application than knowledge for its own sake. In order to achieve this, Mathematics

teachers could teach Mathematics in application-oriented form using constructional materials

such as dice whose materials are readily available in the child’s environment or within the

reach of the child.

Conclusion

Based on the findings from this study on the usage of dice in the teaching and learning of

probability in senior secondary schools, it follows that:

1. The attitude of teachers towards teaching mathematical concepts should be a major point

of emphasis and thus should be redressed.

2. The state of indiscipline and high rate of corruption are quite alarming among secondary

schools owners and principals and as a result, they hardly make instructional materials

available for use in their various schools hence, no motivation for the students to learn.

Also, most teachers are underpaid in many private schools while late payment of salaries

in public schools has discouraged many teachers into going extra mile to improvise

instructional materials for their students.

3. The type of school classified as public or private did not make much difference on

students’ academic achievement on probability. In addition to this, the researcher found

that when these schools (public and private) are exposed to similar treatment or condition


144

like the one used in this study, there may be no significant difference in their academic

achievement.

Recommendations

Based on the findings, the following recommendations are made:

1. Mathematics teachers as curriculum implementers should be trained and have refresher

training by the National Mathematics Centre (NMC), Mathematics Association of

Nigeria (MAN) and any other relevant body on different ways of using appropriate

instructional materials and improvising when the need arises in teaching Mathematics .

This will enable teachers to be well informed on innovations in their respective fields

since learning is dynamic. Furthermore, this body should also intensify their level of

follow-up programme on Mathematics teachers.

2. An instrument that is both diagnostic and prognostic like the Mathematics Achievement

Motivation Scale (MAMS) for Senior Secondary Schools in Nigeria that was constructed

and validated by Obadare-Akpata O.C. in 2015 if well implemented will go a long way

in determining the assessment of the students in order to discover their major challenges

and offer applicable solution in the teaching/learning system.

3. Ministry of education should come up with a special Mathematics Educators Task Force

(METAF) whose sole responsibility is to monitor and ensure that Mathematics teachers

across board are truly carrying out their expected duty. This, if genuinely executed, will

help unseat most Mathematics teachers from their complacency.

References

Agwagah, U.N.V. (2001). Teaching number bases. In V. F. Harbor-Peters (ed). Mathematics

language for new millennium: Implications for the society. Proceeding of Science

Teachers’ Association of Nigeria, 125-127

Ajayi, D.T. & Ema, E. (2006). Education Technology Methods, materials, Machines. SEEYE

PRINTS 82/13 Bauchi Road, Jos

Alderman,H., Orazem, P. F. & Paterno, E. M. (2001), “School Quality, School Cost, and the

Public/Private School Choices of Low-Income Households in Pakistan”, Journal Of

Human Resource, 36, 304-326.

Amoo, S. A. (2002). Analysis of problem encountered in teaching and learning Mathematics

in secondary schools. Abacus of mathematical association of Nigeria (MAN). Vol.

127: 16-20.

Apondi, J.A. (2015). Impact of Instructional materials on academic achievement in

Mathematics in public primary schools in Siaya county, Kenya

Batanero, C., Godino, J. D., & Roa, R. (2004). Training teachers to teach probability. Journal

of Statistics Education, 12(1).

Caygill, R. & Kirkham, S. (2008). Mathematics: Trends in year five mathematics

achievement 1994-2006. Mathematics Achievement by Gender-Education Count.


145

Retrieved January 29, 2017 from http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications

/series/257/tinss.

Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences. (2001). The Mathematical Education of

Teachers. Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society.

Coulson, A. J. (2009), “Comparing Public, Private, and Market Schools: The International

Evidence”, Journal of School Choice, 3(1), 31–54.

Durojaye, N.O., Ajie, I.J. & Aiyebusi, S.M. (2006). Improving the participation and

performance of female students in mathematics. International Journal of Research in

Education 2006, 3 (2), 313-315.

Fennema,E. (2009). Mathematics Learning and the sexes: A review. Journal for Research in

Mathematics Education,5,2-3. Retrieved January 29, 2017 from

http://www.jstor.org/pss/748949.

Grootenboer,I. & Hemmings, B. (2007). Mathematics Performance and the role played by

Affective and Background Factor. Mathematics Education Research Journal 2007,

19(3), 3-20.

Gurunet(n.d). The importance of Statistics in Mathematics. Retrieved on February 21, 2017

from www.answer.com

Jones, D. L. (2004). Probability in middle grades mathematics textbooks: An examination of

historical trends, 1957-2004. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of

Missouri, Columbia.

Lubienski, S., Lubienski, C. & Crane, C. (2009). ‘Public Schools Outperformed Private

Schools in Mathematics’, Publication of College of Education, Illinois University,

USA.

Maduabum,M.A. (2000). Gender Disparity in Science, Technology and Mathematics (STM)

University Education; Nigeria in International Perspectives. Journal of Education

Studies, 6,25-27.

Moore, D. S. (1997). Probability and Statistics in the Core Curriculum. Confronting the Core

Curriculum, 93-98. Retrieved February 27, 2016 from

http://www.stat.purdue.edu/~dsmoore/articles/StatInCore.pdf

National Examination Council (NECO, 2005-2012). Chief Examiners’ Report.

Nishimura, M & Yamano,T (2013), “Emerging Private Education In Africa: Determinants

of School Choice in Rural Kenya”, World Development, 43(2013), 266–275.

Obadare-Akpata O.C. (2015) Construction and Validation of Mathematics Achievement

Motivation Scale (MAMS) for Senior Secondary Schools in Nigeria (unpublished

doctoral thesis), University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria.

Odili, G.A. (2006). Mathematics in Nigeria Secondary Schools: A Teaching Perspective.

Port-Harcourt. Rex Charles & Patrick Limited.

Olagunju, S.O. (2001). Sex Age and Performance in Mathematics. Abacus 26(1), 8-14.

Oshadumi, J.A. (2003). Impact of Instructional Materials on Students’ Academic

Achievement in Agricultural Science at Secondary Schools in Okene LGA, Kogi

State, Unpublished M.Sc. (ED) thesis, University of Ado Ekiti, (UNAD), Nigeria.

http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications%20/series/257/tinss

http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications%20/series/257/tinss

http://www.jstor.org/pss/748949


146

Papaieronymou, I. (2009). Recommended Knowledge of Probability for Secondary

Mathematics Teachers. Proceedings from Proceedings of CERME 6, Lyon, France.

Pratt, D. (2011). Re-connecting probability and reasoning about data in secondary school

teaching. Proceedings from 58th World Statistics Congress of the International

Statistical Institute.

Penas, L. M. (1987). Probability and Statistics in Midwest high schools in American

Statistical Association 1987 Proceedings of the Section on Statistical Education, (p.

122). Alexandria, VA: American Statistical Association.

Tooley, J., Dixon, P. & Olaniyan, O. (2005), “Private and Public Schooling In Low-Income

Areas of Lagos State, Nigeria, A Census and Comparative Survey”, International

Journal of Educational Research, 43, (3), 125–146.

Ukeje, B.O. & Obioma, G.O. (2002). Mathematics Games for Primary and Secondary

schools, Abuja: National Mathematics Centre, Sheda, Nigeria.

U.S. Department of Education (2012), “Student Achievement in Private Schools”, National

Assessment to Educational Progress, NCES 2006.

West African Examination Council (WAEC, 2012). Mathematics Chief Examiners’ Report

Yaba:

Relative Effects of Mediated Instructional Techniques on Senior Secondary School Students’....

147

RELATIVE EFFECTS OF MEDIATED INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES ON

SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN

VOCABULARY IN KWARA STATE, NIGERIA

Mohammed, Bola Sidikat

Kwara State Teaching Service Commission, Ilorin

[email protected]; 08062424568

& Ogunwole, Opeyemi

Kwara State Teaching Service Commission, Ilorin

[email protected]; 07060416643

Abstract

This study investigated the effects of mediated instructional techniques on Secondary School

Students’ achievement in English Vocabulary in Kwara State, Nigeria. Quasi-experimental

design was adopted for the study. A sample of 239 Senior Secondary One (SS1) Students’

from public co-educational secondary schools in Kwara State was used for the study. Four

major groups were involved in the study; three experimental groups and one control group.

The instrument for data collection was a forty (40) item English Vocabulary Achievement

Test (EVAT) adapted from SSCE was used for the collection of data. The reliability

coefficient of the instrument of 0.72 was obtained using Pearson Product Moment

Correlation Co-efficient. Six hypotheses generated for this study were tested at 0.05 levels of

significance. Data collected were analyzed using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). The

findings of the study showed that the mediated instructional technique was effective in

enhancing students’ vocabulary achievement. There was a significant difference in the

vocabulary achievement of students in the experimental and control groups while at gender

and ability levels there was a significant difference in the vocabulary achievement of male

and female students. It was recommended that English vocabulary should be taught using

new innovation of mediated instructional techniques to improve the teaching and learning of

English language in secondary schools

Keywords: Relative Mediated, Techniques, Achievement, Vocabulary.

Introduction

Vocabulary is an essential part of the English language curriculum. It plays a significant role

in the understanding of the language skills. Without the knowledge of vocabulary it will be

difficult for man to speak, read or write. This is because vocabulary takes the students

through one important factor that contributes to using English language or any language

effectively. Vocabulary is central to any language acquisition and learning which is required

for thought and expression of feeling. The students’ inability to select and use the appropriate

words in every given situations like speech, composition writing, answering comprehension




148

and summary questions, or selecting the best option to given items in English objective tests

unveil students’ words knowledge. Poor academic achievement in English language at both

internal and external examination could be attributed to many factors among which are

inappropriate teaching methods, dearth of instruction materials Ayodele (1983) and lawal

(1987) wrong spellings of words, concord and poor usage, The Chief Examiner reports

(2013) decried the poor performance of students in the mechanical accuracy.

…very few of the candidates scored marks under the mechanical accuracy.

Examples of errors discovered in the mechanical accuracy area are: their for there,

loose for lose, wrong concord; this days, wrong tense usage: since we leave school.

English language teaching is rather a difficult and complex process that requires careful and

diligent work. Educators in the field of language teaching have over the years been trying to

find ways to make language learning enjoyable and attractive for the students. Developing an

extensive vocabulary is a challenge faced by many students of English language, both native

speakers and students of English as a second or foreign language. While some develop an

extensive knowledge in vocabulary, however, many have difficulty in using the words

accurately in their speech and writing or lack the ability to translate the definition of the word

into a usable part of their lexicon. This impacts negatively on personal growth because

vocabulary knowledge contributes greatly to the ability to express oneself effectively, a trait

that is highly sought after in today’s job market (Zuiker, 2012).

Insufficient vocabulary knowledge is a critical problem for many students,

particularly, English language learners (Silverman, 2009). Students need to know a wide

range of words to understand the text they will encounter in school. Many English language

learners who come to school with limited or non-English language background find that

vocabulary is their most frequently encountered obstacle in attempting to access information

from classroom tests (Silverman, 2009).

The core of any language involves the sound system, the syntax, and the vocabulary.

Adeniyi (2006), but of paramount importance is the vocabulary. It is through vocabulary that

sentences can be conveyed and made meaningful. This is in line with an adage which says

“without grammar very little can be conveyed; without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed”

(Wilkins, 1972).

The foregoing indicates the centrality of vocabulary to language acquisition, learning,

teaching and communication. The study of language as it is now is the paramount concern in

linguistics today. However, in the study of vocabulary in particular, etymology still plays a

key part. It is considered useful for learners and users of the words to have some awareness

of the origin and evolution of the words they use. Such knowledge is supposed to enhance

the retention of words and precision in their use (Inyang, 2004).

A good knowledge of vocabulary induces and sustains good retention. Students’

ability to use appropriate words, terms and expressions in a given context reveals the levels

of vocabulary acquisition. The ability to select and use the appropriate words in every given


149

situations like writing an essay/letter, answering comprehension and summary questions, or

selecting the best option to given items in English objective tests unveil the knowledge of

words. For instance vocabulary learning is often used with strategies such as words lists or

paired associations in which new words are presented with their translations (Kim and

Gilman, 2008). Games, and interesting stories helped language teachers to achieve this aim

through many years and they still do (Kilickaya, 2011).

In making teaching and learning of vocabulary much more effective and attractive,

teachers must be ready to be abreast with innovations in teaching. Mediated instructional

techniques involve the use of multimedia instruction. It involves multimedia presentations

such as pictures, texts, animation and sounds that are intended to foster learning. It is used

with the aim of promoting learning. The case for mediated instructional learning rests on the

premise that learners can better understand an explanation when it is presented in animation

forms than when it is presented in words alone, (Mayer, 2009).

For hundreds of years, verbal messages such as lectures and printed lessons (i.e.

reading) have been the primary means of explaining ideas to learners. Although, verbal

learning offers a powerful tool for humans, an alternative to purely verbal presentation in

which students learn from words, animation, text and pictures. Recent advances in graphic

technology have prompted new efforts to understand, a potential that is called the promise of

mediated learning (Mayer, 2009).

Mediated instruction could also be seen as the presentation of material using both

words and pictures with the intention of promoting learning. By pictures, it means, the

material is presented in pictures, such as illustrations, graphs, photos, maps or dynamic

graphics such as animation (Baddeley, 1992). In view of the above learning is more

accurately called dual-mode, dual-format, dual-code or dual-channel learning (Mayer, 2009).

The case for mediated instructional technique is based on the idea that instructional

messages should be designed in light of how human mind works. It is assumed that humans

have two information processing systems-one for verbal material and the other for visual

material (Mayer, 2009). When materials are presented only in the verbal, it is believed that

the potential for contribution of capacity to process material in the visual mode is being

ignored.

Furthermore, Mayer (2009) notes that the conception of learning has charged from

being able to remember and repeat to being able to find and use it. Similarly Branford,

Brown and Cocking (1999) note that in the last 30 years, “…views of how effective learning

proceeds have shifted from the benefits of diligent drill-and-practice to focus on students’

understanding and application of knowledge”. In short, the knowledge construction view

offers a more useful conception of learning when the goal is to help people to understand and

to be able to use what they have learned.

Information-delivery view is when different presentation formats-such as words,

pictures and animation are vehicles for presenting the same information. A basic premise of

this view is that information is an objective commodity that can be transported from the

outside world to inside the human mind. This delivery can be made by words or by pictures,


150

but the results in the same-information are stored in a great ware house that we call long-term

memory. The presented words allow the learner to add more information to his or her

memory, so that cause-and-effect chain can be added to memory (Mayer, 2009).

Mayer, Fennel, Farmer and Campbell (2004) have argued that there are two paths for

fostering meaningful learning in mediated learning environments:

a. Designing ways that reduce the learners cognitive load, thus freeing the learner to

engage in active cognitive processing and,

b. Designing mediated messages in ways that increase the learners’ motivational

commitment to active cognitive processing. Although cognitive consideration have

received priority attention in research on mediated learning (Mayer, 2005; Mayer and

Moreno, 2003; Pass, Renki and Sweller, 2003; Sweller, 1999), progress in designing

computer-based learning environment also can be made by attending to social

consideration that affect the learner’s motivation to engage in cognitive processing

(Mayer, 2009).

There are three assumptions underlying cognitive theory of learning. These are dual

channels, limited capacity and active processing.

1. Dual-Channel Assumption is that humans’ posses separate information processing

channels for visually represented materials and auditorially represented material. The

dual-channel assumption is summarized in the table on page (66 project). The top

frame shows the auditory/verbal channel highlighted and the bottom frame shows

visual/pictorial frame highlighted. When information is presented to the eyes (such

as animated), people begin by processing that information in the visual channel.

When information is presented to the ears (such as narration or non-verbal sounds)

people begin processing that information in the auditory channel. The concept of

separate information-processing channels has a long history in cognitive psychology

and currently is most closely associated with Paivio’s dual-coding theory (Clark and

Paivio, 1991; Paivio, 1986-2006) and Baddeley’s model of working memory

(Badedeley; 1992, 1999).

2. Limited-Capacity Assumption: The second assumption is that humans are limited in

the amount of information that can be processed in each channel at one time. When

an animation is presented, the learner is able to hold only a few images in working

memory at any one time, reflecting portions of the presented material rather than an

exact copy of the presented material. When a narration is presented, the learner is

able to hold only a few words in the working memory at any one time, reflecting

parties of the presented text rather than a verbal recording. The conception of limited

capacity in consciousness has a long history in psychology, and some modern

examples are Baddeley’s (1992, 1999) theory of working memory and Sweller’s

(1999, 2005; Chandler and Sweller’s, 1991) cognitive load theory, (Mayer, 2008).


151

3. Active Processing Assumption: The third assumption is that humans are actively

engaged in cognitive processing in order to construct a coherent mental

representation of their experiences. These active cognitive process include paying

attention, organizing incoming information and integrating incoming information

with other knowledge. In short, humans are active processors who seek to make

sense of common view of humans as passive processors who seek to add as much

information as possible to memory. That is, as tape recorders which file copies of

their experiences in memory to be retrieved later (Mayer, 2008).

Gender is a factor that could have effect on students’ achievement in vocabulary because

several theoretical and empirical studies have been conducted on gender issues and mediated

instructional techniques generally. Furthermore, research findings on human brains reveal

that female brains are much stronger in the left hemisphere which rules language (Tunla,

2006). As a result, they do better when they are tested for language ability and speech

articulation than their male counterparts. Adeniyi (2006) observes that some gender

differences in second language learning are socio-culturally bound because it is more

acceptable in some cultures and sub-cultures than in others for men and women to

communicate freely and casually with each other at work and in social situation. She had

earlier argued that syntax develops out of conversation and that conversation provided the

input that learners used for building spelling and syntactic structures in vocabulary.

From the above observations, it is evident that the effect of gender on the

achievement of students in vocabulary plays an important role in the learning of English

vocabulary and in the use of mediated instructional techniques. Therefore, consideration and

equal opportunities should be given to both the male and female groups in the preparation of

mediated software packages (Tunla, 2006).

Students’ performance is a factor that may influence the use of mediated

instructional technique in English language vocabulary. Good (1973) defines performance as

scores obtained by students in an aptitude or achievement test and generally accepted as

official level of attainment of scholarly excellence. Abiri (1988) declares that students’

academic performance have significant relationships with variables like language of

instructions, quality of teachers and instructional techniques.

Olawuyi (2012) opines that many teachers make the subject very dull and boring as a

result of bad approach, method and techniques of teaching. She also posits that students’

negative attitude affects their performance and also of the opinion that students’ poor

performance is connected with social, psychological and health factors. More so, only few

instructional materials are available.

In this study, performance and achievement of the students in the pre-test and post-

test of the English Vocabulary Achievement Test (EVAT) would be seen as capable of

influencing the general achievement of the students.

The poor performance of students in English language in both the internal and

external examinations in Nigerian secondary schools is a major problem that is noticed by the


152

stakeholders in the education sector. This problem is attributed to a lot of things among

which are instructional techniques. Ayodele (1983) and Lawal (1987) observed the following

as contributing factors to the poor performance of students in examinations as inappropriate

method and techniques of teaching, dearth of instructional materials and size of the class

among others. Several research efforts have been conducted on the use of mediated

instructions, such as Fakomogbon (1997), Yusuf (1997), Kinsey (1989) among others.

However, little or nothing has been done in the area of mediated instructional technique for

the teaching of vocabulary in Kwara State, part of the gap of this research is what the present

study intents to fill. Therefore, it is worth investigating the effectiveness of mediated

instructional techniques on students’ achievement in vocabulary in Kwara State, Nigeria.

The purpose of the study is to investigate the relative effects of mediated

instructional technique on secondary school students’ achievement in vocabulary in Kwara

State, Nigeria. It aimed to investigate the relative effects of the students’ general achievement

in vocabulary. Specifically, the study investigated the relative effects of animated

instructional technique on the students’ achievement in the five vocabulary aspects of

pronunciation, spelling, word-formation, grammar and meaning; to investigate the effect of

still-pictures instructional technique on the students’ achievement in the five vocabulary

aspects, to investigate the effect the combination of animation and still-pictures instructional

technique, effect of gender on the students achievement in the five vocabulary aspects and to

investigate the effects of ability levels of students’ achievement in the five vocabulary

aspects.

HO1: There is no significant difference in the achievement of students exposed to

the mediated instructional technique and the Conventional Instructional

Techniques (CIT) in the five vocabulary aspects.


the still-picture instructional techniques and the CIT in the five vocabulary

aspects.

HO3: There is no significant difference in achievement of students exposed to

animated instructional technique and the Conventional Instructional

Technique (CIT) in the five vocabulary aspects.


the combination of animated and still-pictures instructional techniques and

the CIT in the five vocabulary aspects.

HO5: There is no significant difference in the achievement of male and female

students exposed to the mediated instructional technique and the CIT in the

five vocabulary aspects.

HO6: There is no significant difference in the achievement of high, medium and

low scorers exposed to the mediated instructional technique in the five

vocabulary aspects.


153

Methods

This is a quasi-experimental study with pre-test, post-test, non-randomized and non-

equivalent control group design. The study consisted of 239 students from Senior Secondary

Schools in Ilorin, Nigeria.

The study adopted a factorial design of 4 x 2 x 3 x 5 to test the null hypotheses. An

intact class was used for each of the group, that is the experimental groups and the control

group. There are three experimental groups (i.e. Animated, still-pictures and combination of

still-pictures and animated), and one control group.

This is illustrated in table 2

Table 2: Schematized Factorial Design of 3 x 2 x 3 x 5 S/N Independent Variables Moderator Variables Dependent Variable

1. Animated Instructional

Technique (AIT).

Gender Ability Level

Male/Female High, Medium, Low

Vocabulary Aspect

Pronunciation

2. Still-pictures Instructional

Techniques (SIT).

Male/Female High, Medium, Low Spelling

3. Combination of (SAIT) Male/Female High, Medium, Low Word-Formation

4. Conventional Instructional

Technique (CIT)

Male/Female High, Medium, Low Grammar

Meaning

In carrying out the study, the researcher developed English Vocabulary Achievement Test

(EVAT). The test was adapted from WAEC (SSCE) English language. It was used as pre-test

to find out the ability of the students before exposing them to the mediated instructional

techniques. The test comprises Fifty (50) multiple-choice items. The post-test was

administered on the students after exposing them to the mediated instructional techniques to

know the effects of the instructions on the students’ achievement. All the six (6) research

hypotheses were tested using analysis of co-variance at 0.05 level of significant. For the

reliability of the instrument, it was subjected to a test-re-test technique using Pearson Product

Moment Correlation Co-efficient. It was found to be 0.715 which is found reliable. The test

was validated by English language experts. Their suggestions were taken into consideration

and necessary corrections were made before applying the test. The software programme for

the mediated techniques was designed by animation and graphic expert using FLV (Flash

Video Version). This was validated by education technology experts from the Education

Technology Department, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.

Results

The analysis of the data collected and the results are reported. The first hypothesis was used

to investigate the general achievement of students exposed to the mediated instructional

techniques in each of the five vocabulary aspect. The result is indicated on the table 3


154

Table 1 Source Type III Sum of

Squares

df Mean

Square

Cal

F-value

Table F-

value

Sig. Decision

Corrected

Intercept

Pretest

Gender

Error

Total

Corrected

82066.098a

17838.462

43.387

54743.685

4069.225

677153.000

86135.322

4

1

1

1

234

239

238

20516.524

17838.797

43.387

18247.895

17.390

174.213

32.665

316.405

.227

2.6049

.000

.000

.000

.635

HO1: Rejected


The second hypothesis was used to test the students’ achievement when exposed to the

animated instructional technique (AIT) and the conventional technique.


Squares

df Mean

Square

Cal

F-value

Table F-

value

Sig. Decision

Corrected

Intercept

Pretest

Gender

Error

Total

Corrected

2412.091a

670.130

.114

1456.841

318.693

12929.000

2730.784

2

1

1

1

131

134

133

1206.045

670.130

.114

1456.841

2.433

495.750

275.460

.047

598.841

.000

.000

.829

.000

HO1: Rejected

R P < 0.05 (Adjusted R Squared = .882)

The third hypothesis was used to test the students achievement when exposed to the still-

picture instructional technique (SIT) and the conventional technique.

Table 3 Source Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected

Intercept

Pretest

Gender

Error

Total

Corrected

926.266a

347.672

.742

717.091

153.187

6701.000

1079.453

2

1

1

1

114

117

116

463.133

347.672

.742

717.091

1.344

344.658

258.733

.552

533.650

.000

.000

.450

.000

R Squared = .858 (Adjusted R Squared = .856

The fourth hypothesis was used to test the students’ achievement when exposed to the

combination of animated and still-picture instructional techniques and the CIT.


155


Squares

df Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected

Intercept

Pretest

Gender

Error

Total

Corrected

3655.853a

910.473

.060

2406.387

307.243

15576.000

3963.097

2

1

1

1

121

124

123

1827.927

910.473

.060

2406.387

2.539

719.882

358.567

.024

947.694

.000

.000

.450

.000


The fifth hypothesis was used to test the students achievement of male and female students

when exposed to the mediated instructional techniques and the CIT. in the five vocabulary

aspects.


Squares

Df Mean Square Cal

F-value

Table F-

value

Sig. Decision

Corrected

Intercept

Pretest

Gender

Error

Total

Corrected

29184.725a

427.637

28200.537

1862.313

56950.597

677153.000

86135.322

2

1

1

1

236

239

238

14592.363

427.637

28200.537

1862.313

241.316

60.470

1.772

116.861

7.717

3.8415

.000

.184

.000

.006

Rejected

R Squared = .339 (Adjusted R Squared = .333)

The sixth hypothesis was used to test the achievement of high, medium and low scorers

exposed to the mediated instructional techniques in the five vocabulary aspects.


Squares

df Mean Square Cal

F-value

Table F-

value

Sig. Decision

Corrected

Intercept

Pretest

Ability

Error

Total

Corrected

81326.131a

20167.753

55.009

54003.718

4809.192

677153.000

86135.322

3

1

1

1

235

239

238

27108.710

20167.753

55.009

27001.859

20.465

1324.661

985.492

2.688

1319.439

2.996

3.00

.000

.000

.102

.000

Rejected

Discussion

The study investigated the relative effects of mediated instructional techniques on Senior

Secondary School Students’ achievement in vocabulary in Kwara State, Nigeria. Because of


156

the difficult, involved in the learning of the second language (English language), most

students find it rather tasking to acquire the proficiency needed in English language.

Two hundred and thirty-nine (239) students, made up of four groups (i.e. AIT, SIT,

SAIT and CIT) were engaged for the study. Hypothesis one was used to investigate the

difference in the general achievement of the students exposed to the mediated instructional

techniques and the CIT in each of the five vocabulary aspects. The data were subjected to

analysis at co-variance (ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance and the hypothesis was

rejected. This is in support at Mayer (2009), that the case for mediated instructional learning

rests in the premise that learners understand an explanation when it is presented in words and

pictures better than when it is presented in words alone.

Hypothesis two was used to investigate students’ achievement when exposed the

still-picture instructional technique and CIT in the five vocabulary aspects. The data were

subjected to analysis of co-variance (ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance, the hypothesis

was rejected.

The finding is in support of Norman (1993) that technology can make us smart. He

refers to tools that aid the mind as cognitive artifacts: “anything invented by human for the

purpose of improving the thought or actions as artifacts” (p.15).

The third hypothesis was used to investigate the students’ achievement in animated

instructional techniques and CIT in the five vocabulary aspects. The data collected were

subjected to analysis of co-variance (ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance. The finding is

in support of Oberg (2011) that keyword method has been referenced as an effective tool in

learning vocabulary because it involves deep mental processing. Also Zuiker (2012)

concludes that innovative method that linguzz employ is the combining definitions with

visuals and real-world examples to reinforce the new words the students have just learned.

The fourth hypothesis was used to investigate the students’ achievement in the

combination of still-picture and animated instructional techniques and CIT in the five

vocabulary aspects. The data collected were subjected to analysis of co-variance (ANCOVA)

at 0.05 level of significance and the hypothesis was rejected. The finding is in support of

Mayer, Fennel, Farmer and Campbell (2004) that there are two paths for fostering

meaningful learning in mediated learning environment: first by designing ways that reduce

learners’ cognitive load and secondly by designing mediated messages in ways that increases

the learners’ motivational commitment to active cognitive processing.

Hypothesis five and six were used to investigate the achievements of male and

female students and achievement of high, medium and low scorers exposed to the mediated

instructional techniques and CIT in the five vocabulary aspects. The data collected were

subjected to analysis at co-variance (ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance and the

hypotheses were rejected. The findings are in support of Adeniyi (2006) that some gender

differences in second language learning are socio-culturally bound. The finding negates the

study of Tunla (2006) that research finding on human brain reveals that female brains are

much stronger in the left hemisphere which rules language, as a result, they perform better

when they are tested for language ability and speech articulation than their male counterparts.


157

On the ability levels, the finding indicated that the high ability level students achieved better

than other levels. This is in support of Abiri (1988) that students’ academic performance has

significant relationships with variables like language of instructions, quality of teachers and

the instructional techniques.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Findings from this study revealed the importance of mediated instructional techniques to the

teaching and learning of English vocabulary to the Secondary Schools Students (SSS1) as

indicated by Mayer (2009), that humans possess separate information processing channels for

visually represented material. Also, he asserts that when information is presented to the eyes

(such as animated and still-picture) students begin by processing that information in the

visual channel. When information is presented to the ears, students begin processing that

information in the auditory channel (Mayer, 2009).

The finding is also in support of Jocklova (2009) that “it counts as general

methodological knowledge that in learning languages, students should perceive the input

through as many channels as possible. Therefore, it is important to include a variety of

stimuli in teaching”.

The finding is also in support of Baddeleys (1992, 1999) theory of working memory and

Sweller’s (1999, 2005) cognitive load theory which says when a narration is presented, the

learner is able to hold only few words in the working memory at any one time rather than a

verbation recording.

In view of these the study recommended that English language teacher should

include mediated instructional techniques alongside conventional instructional technique in

the teaching of vocabulary in specific, and English language and other subjects in general.

Computer literacy programmes should be made compulsory for all teachers and education

managers. Computer software and hardware must be made available and at affordable prices

in schools. Teacher trainers, curriculum developers and publishers should also be duely

informed on the issue of computer and language teaching. Also, there should be constant

electricity supply in order to give room for the use of computer hardware.

The Universities and Colleges of Education that are in charge of teacher training

might need to modify their teacher training programme to re-orientate trainee teachers.

Software packages for the teaching of vocabulary and other aspects of English language are

very paramount. Above all, it is recommended that such software packages should be

learner-centred and friendly. This will help to guide, sensitize, arouse and sustain the interest

of the students during the course of learning.

Visual are highly effective in the transfer of knowledge. A 1982 study by Levies and

Lentz, comparing a text only learning environment to a text and illustrated one, found that

approximately 87% preferred text and visuals over just text alone (Zuiker, 2012). One recent

article on the subject describes the evidently limit less capacity of long-term memory to store

concepts, and then point to studies that seem to indicate that visuals have a direct route to


158

long-time memory, each image storing its own information as a coherent ‘chunk’ or concept

(Zuiker, 2012).

References

Abiri, J. (1988). Relationship between Teachers’ Qualification, experience and students’

performance in selected subjects, (an Unpublished M.Ed. Thesis). University of

Ilorin, Ilorin.

Adeniyi, F. O. (2006a). Comparative Effects of Multisensory and Meta cognitive

Instructional Approaches on English Vocabulary Achievement of the under-

Achieving Nigerian Secondary School Students. An Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis,

University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.

Adeniyi, F. O. (2006a). Comparative Effects of Multisensory and Meta cognitive

Instructional Approaches on English Vocabulary Achievement of the under-

Achieving Nigerian Secondary School Students. An Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis,

University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.

Adeniyi, F.O. (2006b). The English Structure and Teaching Methodologies: Ilorin, Haytee

Press.

Adeniyi, F.O. (2006b). The English Structure and Teaching Methodologies: Ilorin, Haytee

Press.

Ayodele, S.A. (1983.). Teaching Structure in Situations. Journal of English Language

Teaching in Nigeria.

Baddeley, A.D. (1992). Working Memory. Science. 255, 556-559.

Baddeley, A.D. (1992). Working Memory. Science. 255, 556-559.

Baddeley, A.D. (1999). Human Memory. Boston: Allyn & Bacch.

Branfords, J.D., Brown, A.L., & Cocking, R.R., (Eds.). (1999). How people learn.

Washington: D.C National Academic Press.

Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991). Cognitive loads theory and the forest of instruction.

Cognition and instruction, 8, 293 – 332

Clark, J.M. & Paivio ,A. (1991). Dual Coding theory and educational psychology. Review 3,

149-210.

Good, C.V. (1973). Dictionary of Education New York: McGrew Hill Book Company. 3rd

Ed.

Joklova, K. (2009). Using pictures in teaching vocabulary: Bacholars

thesis.http://is.muni.Cz/th/123676edf_b/bachelor_Thesis_using_pictures_in_teaching

_vocabulary.pdf.Retrieved from Informachi System Masarykovy University. Jan.

2013

Kim, D., & Gilman, D.A (2008).Effects of text, audio, and graphic aids in mediated

instruction for vocabulary learning. Education technology & Society, 11 (3), 114-

126.

http://is.muni.cz/th/123676edf_b/bachelor_Thesis_using_pictures_in_teaching_vocabulary.pdf

http://is.muni.cz/th/123676edf_b/bachelor_Thesis_using_pictures_in_teaching_vocabulary.pdf


159

Lawal, R.A. (1987).An analytical study of the reading habits of same secondary students in

Oyo Town, Literacy and Reading in Nigeria.

Mayer, R.E. (2005a). Principles of mediated learning based and social cues; personalization,

voice and image principles. In R.E. Meyer (Ed).The Cambridge hand books of

mediated learning (pp. 201-212). New York: Cambridge university press.

Mayer, R.E. (2008) Applying the science of learning: Evidence-based principles of mediated

instruction. America Psychology 63, (8) 760 769.

Mayer, R.E. (2009). Mediated learning. Cambridge: University Press.

Mayer, R.E. Fennoll, S., Farmer, L., & Campell, J.(2004). Personalization effect in mediated

learning student learn well when wards are in conversational stile rather than formal

styled. Formal educational psychology, 96, 386 – 395.

Mayer. R.E. & Moreno, R. (2002). Nine ways to reduce cognitive loads in mediated learning.

Educational psychologist, 38, 43 – 52.

Olawuyi, D.F. (2013). Effects of crossword puzzle game on secondary school students

performance in English language vocabulary in Omu-Aran, Kwara State. (An

Unpublished M.Ed. Thesis) University of Ilorin, Ilorin.

Silverman, R. (2009). The Effects of mediated – Enhanced instruction on the vocabulary of

English-language learners and non-English language Learners in pre-kindergarten

through second grade. Journal of Educational Psychology 2009, Vol. 101, No 2,

305-314.

Tunla, M. (2006).Girls and Boys like read and write different texts. Scandinavian Journal of

Education Research 50 No. 2

Wilkins, D.A. (1972). Linguistics and language teaching. London: Edward Arnold

Assessment of Item and Test Information Functions in the Selection of Senior Secondary School....

160

ASSESSMENT OF ITEM AND TEST INFORMATION FUNCTIONS IN THE

SELECTION OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL CERTIFICATE

MATHEMATICS EXAMINATION ITEMS, 2016.

Roseline, Amos Aku

Dept of Educational Foundations, University of Jos

Email:[email protected]

Bako, Gonzwal

Federal Government Girls’ College Langtang, Plateau State

Email: [email protected]

&

Ndulue, Loretta,G.S.E

School of Education,Aminu Saleh College of Education Azare, Bauchi State

Abstract

The study sought to establish the assessment of item and test information functions in

enhancing test reliability. Four research questions and two hypotheses were formulated to

guide the study. The study employed descriptive survey design. The population of the study

was 2,948 SSIII students from 98 senior secondary schools in Jos metropolis. The samples

consisted of 1,200 SSIII students drawn from five senior secondary schools Xcalibre 4 and

Pearson r statistical techniques were used to answer the research questions and analyze the

hypotheses respectively. Eighty-eight percent of the items have information function greater

than 1.49 and there was significant relationship between item discrimination and item

information in a positive direction; furthermore there was a significant relationship between

standard error of estimate and item information function in a negative direction. Therefore

examining bodies such as the West African Examination Council (WAEC) and National

Examinations Council (NECO) should employ the use of item information in their items

selection.

Keywords: item information, test information, discrimination, standard error of estimate

Introduction

Tests are stimuli presented for testees to respond to, in order to measure the level of their

academic achievement. (Taiwo,2015). Test items are built according to the purpose of the

test. Some of these purposes are placement, certification or for diagnosis of student's strength

and weakness. To achieve these purposes, item analysis is carried out on the test items to

judge the quality or worth of the items (Denga,2013). Items are judged in term of their

difficulty, discrimination, reliability and validity parameters. Currently there are two

measurement frameworks that can be used for item analysis. Classical Test Theory (CTT)

and Item Response Theory (IRT)


161

Classical Test Theory expresses examinee observed test score (X) in terms of true score

(T) and error score (E) (X= T+E). CTT views item difficulty as the proportion of examinees

who answer an item correctly which is also referred to as the item P- value; it ranges from 0

to 1. Item with P- value of 1 indicates that the item is easy, that is, every examinee got the

item correctly. While item discrimination is the difference between the percentage of high

performers and low performers. It determines how efficient an item is discriminating

between those who know the correct answer to the item and those who do not know it. The

indices of item discrimination range from -1 to 1 (Chong,2016).

Reliability is the consistency of the test in measuring what it purports to measure.

Methods of estimating reliability are: test- retest, split- halve, equivalence andCronbach

Alpha. Parallel form of reliability is used to ascertain the equivalence of a parallel test, while

test re-test is used to measure the stability of tests.Reliability coefficient represents the

whole test, that is, all items have the same reliability, irrespective of the contribution of each

item to the test. Hence items selection depends on the whole testand consequently high

standard error of estimate, which is the imprecision in theitem parameterestimation (Taiwo,

2015). Additionally, validity describes the degree to which a test measures what it purports

to measure, in other words, the test is only valid to the extent to which it measures those

things it sets out to measure.

Examinee’s score using CTT depends on a particular test that is, easy items produce

high scores while item that are difficult will produce low score, while the characteristics of

the items depend on group of examinees, that is, higher item parameters for high ability

students and low items parameters for low ability examinees resulting to inconsistencies in

item parameters hence poor reliability (Obinne (2011),Ojerinde (2013), &Adegoke (2013).To

overcome this shortcoming, psychometricians recommended the use of alternative

measurement framework known as Item Response Theory (IRT).

Item Response Theory assumes that for an examinee to response correctly to an

item he/she must possess some amount of ability known as theta (θ) which is not directly

observable. The relationship between an examinee and the probability of answering an item

correctly is specified by a monotonically increasing function known as Item Characteristics

Curve (ICC).


162

Fig 1 Item Characteristic Curve

Item response theory has three basic assumptions. Unidimensionality, local independence and

Item Characteristics Curve.Unidimensionality assumes that the item measures one and only

one ability that is, all items on a test must measure a single latent trait while the local

independence assumption specifies that the probability of an examinee getting an answer

correctly is not affected by the answer given to any other item (Ojerinde, 2013).

In Item Response Theory, difficulty parameter (b) is the point on the ability

continuum where an examinee has a 0.5 probability of correctly endorsing the item, item with

higher difficult parameter requires an examinee with higher ability to answer the item

correctly. Therefore ability parameter and difficulty parameters are on the same scale. While

discrimination parameter (a) is the slope of the item characteristics curve at the point of

inflexion (Nydick, 2012). It also shows how well the item discriminates between examinees

above 0.5 and those below 0.5 ability scale. A negative discrimination index implies that

candidates with low ability performed better than candidates with high ability. The third item

parameter is the guessing parameter (c) which is the probability of an examinee with low

ability getting the answer correctly in a multiple choice item. While validity is the extent to

which the model fits the data that is how good the item is rank on the ability continuum the

test measures.

Furthermore IRT replaces reliability with item and test information functions. Item

information is the degree of precision of an item to estimate examinee ability along the ability


163

continuum while test information is the summation of all the items information function

(Mamum, 2013). Test information largely depends on item parameters, the higher the item

parameter the more information provided by the test. Hence there is the need for test

developers to use item and test information functions in order to assess items that are reliable.

The formula for item information for three parameter model is given as

𝐼 (𝜃) = a2[𝑄1 (𝜃)

𝑃1 (𝜃)] [

𝑃1(𝜃)− 𝐶2

1− 𝐶2 ] Equation 1 (Mamun, 2013)

Where a = discrimination parameter

c = guessing parameter

P (θ) = probability of answering the item correctly

θ= ability level (theta)

Maximum information is provided at an ability level slightly higher than its b parameter.

Formula for test information is

T(θ) = ⅀I(θ) Equation 2.

Where I(θ) is as earlier defined

Consequently item with higher discrimination parameter contribute more information which

peaks at the maximum value of the item information curve (Daiban, 2009). While item with

low discrimination parameter has a flatter curve, indicating less information within a wider

range of ability, item with higher guessing parameter provides less information. Ronald and

Russel (2010) recommended that item with high discriminations but moderate difficulty and

lower guessing parameters are better at assessing test items.

The amount of information provides by the item is inversely related to standard error

of estimate. Obinne (2011) added that the higher the item discrimination the greater the

information provided by the item at a given level of theta and inversely the smaller the

standard error of estimate. In addition a smaller standard of error of estimate is associated

with items with b value close to examinee’s ability. Item and test information values from 1.5

to 3.5 is moderate while values from 0.0 to 1.49 is regarded as poor (Zieba,2013).

In spite of the benefits provided by item and test information functions, findings by

Adegoke (2013) and Taiwo (2015) revealed that examination bodies in Nigeria are yet to

employ itin assessing and selection of quality items. Therefore the purpose of this study is

to apply item and test information function in assessing test items in order to improve

reliability and precision of test items in the selection of appropriate items to enhance

students’ performance, grading and certification in mathematics.

Consequently, the following research questions are raised to guide the study

1. How many items of SSCE WAEC 2016 Mathematics possess maximum item

information?

2. What is the mean of item information of SSCE WAEC 2016 Mathematics?


164

3. How many SSCE WAEC 2016 Mathematics items have high Standard error of estmate?

4. What is the mean Standard error of estmate of SSCE WAEC 2016 mathematics?

Similarly, the following hypotheses were formulated to be tested at 0.05 level of significance.

1. There is no significant relationship between item discrimination parameter and item test

information function.

2. There is no significantly relationship between item informationand standard error of

estimate.

Method

The population of the study comprised of 98 senior secondary schools in Jos Metropolis with

2,948 SSIII students. Five senior secondary schools and 1200 students were drawn through

simple random technique to form the sample for the study.

The study adopted WAEC 2016 multiple choice items. The instrument has been

standardized by the examination body. The multiple choice item compriseditems with four

options (a,b,c,d). The time allowed for the examination is 11

2 hours, candidates are expected

to select the letter that corresponds with the correct answer.

The researchers took permission from principals of the selected schools, with the

assistant of two mathematics teachers from each school; administered the instrument to the

students. Responses of students were dichotomously scored with 1 for correct answer and 0

for incorrect answer with X calibre4 computer software for IRT analysis.

The research questions were answered using the output obtained from the responses

of students which was analysed using Xcalibre4, while the research hypotheses were

analysed with Pearson r statistics.

Results

Items and test information output were presented in table 1

Table1 Item Information and Parameters

Item ID IIF CSEM a b

1 1.41 0.41 0.42 4.00

2 1.20 0.53 0.32 4.00

3 2.80 0.32 0.79 3.58

4 2.50 0.27 0.68 0.55

5 3.11 0.15 1.83 3.43

6 3.71 0.13 1.32 3.46

7 2.41 0.41 1.69 3.39

8 2.90 0.30 0.72 -0.44

9 2.40 0.14 0.69 3.43

10 3.38 0.13 0.12 3.20

11 3.11 0.16 1.83 2.17


165

12 3.81 0.12 1.58 3.01

13 2.48 0.43 0.67 3.38

14 2.92 0.41 0.73 1.74

15 1.91 0.32 0.32 3.40

16 0.32 0.51 0.86 3.39

17 1.89 0.32 0.55 3.24

18 2.39 0.39 0.68 0.54

19 2.79 0.28 0.78 2.96

20 2.80 0.28 1.88 3.13

21 3.71 0.13 1.48 0.50

22 2.32 0.33 0.51 -0.18

23 0.47 0.32 0.48 2.57

24 2.38 0.32 0.51 0.17

25 2.47 0.33 0.84 3.40

26 1.82 0.51 1.70 1.54

27 3.41 0.14 0.69 1.98

28 2.92 0.31 0.61 3.33

29 2.75 0.37 0.61 1.29

30 2.32 0.29 0.52 2.90

31 3.11 0.15 1.83 3.16

32 2.13 0.38 0.44 3.40

33 3.41 0.14 1.87 3.27

34 3.43 0.14 1. 87 3.09

35 2.92 0.28 0.82 3.09

36 2.92 0.29 0.72 3.32

37 2.84 0.29 0.88 2.89

38 1.48 0.31 0.62 3.40

39 3.01 0.15 0.62 -0.66

40 3.44 0.12 1.79 3.26

41 2.43 0.37 0.59 0.51

42 2.89 0.28 0.61 0.40

43 2.77 0.29 0.78 3.17

44 2.89 0.29 0.13 0.33

45 0.42 0.43 0.12 3.30

46 0.38 0.41 0.68 3.03

47 2.79 0.29 0.43 3.05

48 2.88 0.28 0.58 3.28

49 2.44 0.29 0.43 2.30

50 2.89 0.32 0.58 3.09

Item information mean = 2.52,

Standard error of estimate mean = 0.29


166

Research questions 1 and 3

Research question1 sought to know number of items that have high information, while

research question 3 sought to know the number of items that have high standard error of

estmate. 6 items have low information values between 0.0 and 1.49, these items are

1,2,16,38,45 and 46 representing 12% of the items. While 44 (88%) items have item

information function from moderate to high items, these are items

3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36

,37,39,41,42,43,44,47,48,49,50.

In the same vein, 6 (12%) items have high standard error of estmate, they are

items1,2,16,38,45 and 46 . While 44 (88%) items have low standard error of estmate. These

are items

3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36

,37,39,41,42,43,44,47,48,49,50.

Similarly 7 items have poor discrimination parameters (0.0 - 0.49), these are items

1,2,24,32,44,45 and 49 representing 14% of the items. 43 (86%) items have moderate

discrimination parameters between (0.50 - 1.89). These are items

3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36

,37,39,41,42,43,44,47,48 and 50.

Research questions 2 and 4

Research question 2 sought to know the mean of item information while research question 4

sought to know the mean of the standard error of estimate.From table 1 the mean of the

item information was 2.52 while the mean of the standard error of estimate was 0.29.

Hypothesis One

The Pearson r statistics indicated that there is a strong, positive correlation between the item

information and item discrimination parameter, r(48) =0.89 and p<0.5.indicating that there

was a significant relationship between item information and discrimination parameter.

Hypothesis 2

The valueof Pearson r indicated a negative correlation between the item information and

standard errors of estimate,r (48)= -0.89 and p<0.05. Showing that there was a strong

correlation between item information ad standard error of estimate but in a negative

direction.

Discussion

The purpose of the study was to apply item and test information in assessing the quality of

items for SSCE WAEC mathematics 2016 items. The results of the finding showed that


167

SSCE WAEC 2016 have their item information ranging from 0.32 to 3.44 with amean of

2.52 indicating that 88% of the items possessed high information. The standard error of

estimate ranged from 0.12 to 0.53 with an average of 0.29 indicating that 88% had low

standard error of estmate while difficulty parameter ranged from 0.12 to 1.87.

This showed that the higher the item information the lower the standard error of

estimate,

This is in agreement with earlier findings by Obinne (2011) and Adegoke (2014).

The results of the Pearson r correlation indicated that there was a significant relationship

between item information and item discrimination parameter in a positive direction with

r(48)= 0.89, p<0.05, in the same vein there was a significance relationship between item

information and standard error of estimate but in a negative direction, r(48) = -0.89 and

p<0.05 indicating that item with higher information gives low standard error of estimate,

this is consistent with earlier finding by Moghadamzadeh (2011).Henceitems with low item

information function will be identify and reconstructed. While items with high information

function will help to guide the teachers in item selection for assessing students.

Conclusion

The study sought to apply item and test information in the assessment of items in order to

improve test reliability and by implication students’ performance in mathematics. The major

findings are that item with high information produce low standard error of estmate while

items with high discriminating parameter yield higher items information which in turn

produce item with high reliability. The implication is that examination bodies in Nigeria in

particular and Africa in general should employ item and test information in their item

selection to minimize errors associated with estimation of examinees’ ability, this will

eliminate wrong classification and certification of candidates. Furthermore teachers should

be encouraged through training and retraining to imbibe the practice of constructing items

with high information functions.

Referrences

Amasingha,K.J.,&Ibebietei, O.T. (2014). Item Response Theory : The way forward to

objectivity in Educational Measurement in the school system. WillberforceIsland:

Niger Delta university

Adegoke, B.A. (2014). The role of item analysis in detecting all improving faculty

Physicsobjective test item.Journal of Educational Practice,5(4), 125-130.

Chong,H.Y.(2016). A Simple Guide to Item Response Theory(IRT) and Rasch

Modeling.Retrieved from http//www.ceative_wisdom.com

Daiban, S.A. (2009). The examinationof the psychometric quality of the common educational

proficiency assessment English test,(PhD thesis). Middle Tennesse State University.


168

Mamun, A.N.Q. (2013).A comparative study of classical test theory and item response

theory, in relation to various approaches of evaluating the validity and reliability of

research tools. Journal of Research Report,10(4),342-351.

Moghadamzadeh, A. (2011). A comparison the information functions of the item and test in

one, two and three parametric model or item response theory (IRT). Journal of

Social and Behavioural Sciences,29(11), 112-120.

Nydick,S.W. (2012). IRT parameter estimation: Marginal Maximum Likelihood in IRT.

Journal of Psychology of Education,7(3),68-90.

Obinne, A.D.E. (2011). A psychometric analysis of two major examinations in Nigeria:

Standard error of measurement. International Journal or Education Science, 3(2),

88-120.

Taiwo, A.R. (2015). Introduction or item response theory (IRT) models in the development

and validation of College mathematics in attaining quality education for national

values. International Journalof Research, 2(4).Available online.

http//international.journalofresearch.org.

Violence Against Children in Northern Nigeria: An Appraisal

169

VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN IN NORTHERN NIGERIA:

AN APPRAISAL

Ahmed Tanimu Mahmoud,

Department of Social Sciences, Nahda University, Khartoum-Sudan

[email protected]: +249997585970

Hassan Bukar Adam

Department of Psychology, Federal College of Education, Kano

[email protected]:+234 806 264 9386

&

Suleiman Mohammed Saye

Dean of Social and Management Science, Nigeria Police Academy, Wudil, Kano

+2348029720506: [email protected]

Abstract

This paper is an attempt to look at the roles of violence against children in school

environments of Nigeria. In doing this, the paper gives a brief insight into the concepts of

violence against children in Nigeria. The paper highlights issues in violence against children

in school environments, causal factors, effects and damages of violence in school. Lastly the

paper offers some recommendations towards getting the National Assembly to legislate the

creation of special bills for the protections of children in school environments.

Keywords: Children, Environment, School, Violence

Introduction

Education is the backbone of country's progress and perhaps a means to human

empowerment and national progress. It is a powerful tool for socio-economic transformation

and social thinking. The school environment enables the children to be self-reliant and

efficient by developing a new idea for the development of the society. The school

environment must be of quality in order to train pupils or students who would be self-reliant

and dependent thinkers (Alabi and Okemakinde, 2010).The children should be taught some

hand crafts or some manual skills by which they may be supported but manual labour should

also be incorporated to assist everyone learn to use their hands and be self sufficient (Alabi

and Okemankinde, 2010).

Conceptual Framework

Meaning of Violence

The definition for violence against children includes the physical, emotional mistreatment,

sexual abuse, neglect and negligent treatment of children as well as exploitation (sexual

mailto:[email protected]:+249910348332




170

exploitation and child labour). It is a complex issue that occurs in many different settings.

The factors surrounding child violence, abuse and neglect as well as effective prevention and

response strategies differ according to the child age, the setting and the relationships between

the child victim and the perpetrator (WHO & ICOMP, 2006).

Meaning of School

School can be defined as an institution for educating children or any institution at which

instruction is given in a particular discipline.

A school is an institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for

the teaching of students (or "pupils") under the direction of teachers (Wikipedia, 2017).

Issues in Violence against Children: The School Environment

Considering the strategic importance of education to the society, Nigerian educational system

is not expected to be in shambles. But it has been argued that, the standard of Nigerian

educational system is either falling or has fallen (Suleiman, 2003). People in the academic,

employers of labour, business and others have joined in the argument on the unsatisfactory

standard of the Nigerian educational system (Aver, 2013). This is reflected more specifically

in the areas of structure, curriculum content and context as well as the methods of imparting

knowledge by the teachers in Nigerian schools (Orban, 2014). These challenges are pervasive

syndrome in the country’s educational settings. As such erosion of values and norms, lack of

good governance, bad and inconsistent policy implementation as well as overdue emphasis

on certification. Boko Haram insurgency has made the Nigerian educational system lost its

glory (Orban, 2014).

On the 29th September, 2013 Boko Haram stormed students dormitories at a College

of Agriculture in the town of Gaijb, in the northern Yobe state opening fire on sleeping

students and killing 40 (Abubakar, 2013). Book Haram has destroyed 209 schools in Yobe.

In Borno state, Governor Kashim Shetima confessed that in August 2013 alone, the Islamist

rebels had destroyed 825 classrooms (Abubakar, 2013). In May 2013, about 15,000 children

were out of school in Borno state (Abubakar, 2013).

In a report, Amnesty International said that at least 70 teachers and more than 100

school children and students have been killed or wounded. “The attacks have generally

crippled the educational environments in some parts of Nigeria. There is a lot of fear among

pupils, teachers and parents. Teachers are not only targeted in schools, but also at home.

Parents are afraid to send their children to school because they fear that their children may

not return home alive and so on. On the 14th day of April 2014, Boko Haram abducted about

276 girls of Government Secondary School, Chibok who were to take their WAEC

Examination (Soriwei, 2014). UNICEF Representative in Nigeria Jean Gough observed

during the “Day of African Child” that due to security challenges numerous children

currently have no access to schools in parts of the North and particularly the North East

(Alokor, 2014).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institution

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_space

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_environment

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher


171

Like the testimony of children, parents, teachers and others during the Children’s

Forums and Regional Consultations held as part of a study suggests that extreme violence in

schools needs to be studied more thoroughly. A study in Jamaica found that 61% of students

had witnessed acts of violence at school, 29% of those acts had caused injuries, and that

many children felt unsafe in schools. In Jamaica, the homicide rate was 55 per 100,000 in

2004, and 25% of those arrested for all violent crimes were school-aged children, mainly

boys. Most of those crimes took place away from schools; however, a separate study has

concluded that crimes that did occur in schools were due to factors in wider Jamaican

society, suggesting the need for comprehensive solutions.

Effects and Damages of Violence in School Environment

In recent times Boko Haram resorted attacking schools as soft targets following Military

operations launched on the 14th day of May 2013 (Soriwei, 2014). Soriwei (2014) further

maintained that about 30 pupils were killed in Yobe as Boko Haram wages war against

Nigerian school children. Secondary schools are closed down in Yobe, following Boko

Haram attacks on children in the area. Denying the children their other fundamental human

rights and effectively denying the children their right to quality education and effectively

denying them all other fundamental human rights and shrink them the chances of succeeding

generations particularly the chances of the child to develop to their fullest potentials of

human being.

Folbiya Adetayo and Idowu with News Agency of Nigeria (2014) reported that Boko

Haram Islamists killed 43 people when they attacked the Federal Government College in

Buni Yadi, Gujba Local Government Area, Yobe state. The sect locked the hostels and set it

on fire, thereafter shooting slitting the throats of those who tried to climb out of the window.

Some students were burnt alive. The report further indicated that 40 houses, hostels,

classrooms and staff quarters were burnt in the school. Sahara Reporters (2014) reported 8

deaths in bombing at school of Hygiene in Kano. According to that report eight people died

in the explosion that occurred at the school of Hygiene in Kano on Monday afternoon. It

further maintained that, the number of fatalities is expected to rise with an undermined

number of injuries at the site. The blast occurred as students were struggling to meet

registration deadline for the new academic session (Sahara Reporters, 2014).

A report by Amnesty International in Abubakar (2013) asserted that at least 70

teachers and more than 100 school children and students have been killed or wounded by

Boko Haram. The attacks have generally crippled the education system in North Eastern

Nigeria. There is a lot of fear among students, teachers and parents; teachers are now not

only targeted in schools, but also at home. Teachers are now killed even at home with their

children (Abubakar, 2013). Parents are afraid to send their children to school because they

fear that their children may not return home successfully. As such violence in school

environment often has life-long effects for social functioning which gave rooms to economic

and social underdevelopment in the society.


172

Table showing Violence that occurs in various School Environment Date Place Casualty Source

February 25th ,

2014

Federal Government

College, Buni Yadi

59 students http://bringbackourgirls.ng/list-of-

attacks-across-nigeria-since-

january2014

July 2nd, 2013 Yobe 30 pupils Wikileaks investigation Nigeria

April 10th & 11th

2014

Dikwa, Kala Balge,

Gambulga and Gwoza

towns of Borno State

201 persons including

UTME candidates

http://bringbackourgirls.ng/list-of-


january2014

April 14th, 2014 Kidnapped 276 females Government Secondary

Chibok, Borno State

http://bringbackourgirls.ng/list-of-


january2014

June 23rd, 2014 School of Hygiene,

Kano

8 students http://bringbackourgirls.ng/list-of-


january2014

November, 10th,

2014

Potiskum 48 students The telegraph, July 10th, 2014

November 13th,

2014

Kontagora 10 students Vanguard, November 13th, 2014

Source: (Nigerian National Dairies Report 2013 and 2014)

Conclusion

As a result of the various violence that occurs in our school environment which hinder some

goals to be achieved in the educational system of the country. This paper has shown that

violence has brought several setbacks in Nigeria’s educational system which has affected

school environment and other educational sectors of the nation building significantly. As

such Nigeria s and other stakeholders must work together to meet the needs of the society’s

educational setup or system.

Suggestions

The following suggestions can facilitate the process of empowering school environment in

Nigeria in order to allow educational system to flourish or progress by allowing the

communities and other relevant authorities to safeguard school environment as well as to

protect the children, by commitment on the side of the government.

Adequate attention should be given to security officers’ education and re-training.

The Federal Government should commit resources that will enable training and retraining of

entire security agencies on counter terrorism in school environment of the country. Because

the insufficient training, indiscipline and corruption pervasive that has characterised

constraints undermining performance of Nigerian security agencies especially during

violation of rights.

Instead of giving up in life, Nigerians should endeavour to exploit their school

environments for better welfare. Hard work and Human Collaboration are realised as remedy

to human problems and that will spring up development, as it is inhuman in taking the life of

others.

http://bringbackourgirls.ng/list-of-attacks-across-nigeria-since-january2014













173

Concretize the efforts of professionalism and other stakeholders to work together towards

getting the National Assembly to legislate the creation of special fund for the maintenance

and protection of school environment as well as severe punishment to anyone caught as a

actor of the violence incidence.

References:

Abubakar, M.H. (2013). Boko Haram Violence takes Toll on Education, School Destruction

in the Wake of Boko Haram Attack, IRIN October 4th, 2013.

Alabi, A.O. & Okemakinde, T. (2010). Effective Planning as a Factor of Educational Reform

and Innovation in Nigeria, Current Research Journal of Social sciences, December,

20, 2010; 2(6): Pp. 316-321.

Alokor, F. (2014). Girls Enrolment Drops in North East Schools-UNICEF Punch, JUNE 15th,

2014.

Aver, T.T. (2013). The Sociological Consequences of Emphasis on Paper Qualification in

Nigeria, African Dynamics Social and Science Research, Makurdi, at Mihad

Publishers, 2(2) Pp. 98-106.

Collins, R. (1985). Benue State: Pupils Learn under Makeshift Fatty Structures, Tree and

Sandy Floors. Power Steering Magazines, Kaduna State, Powerhouse Publishing

Ltd. Pp. 43-45. www.Powersteeringmagazine.com June, 2014.

Foibiyi, O. Adetayo, O. & Idowu, K. With News of Nigeria Reports (2014). Boko Haram

kills 43 School Children; The Punch, February 26, 2014.

Madashir, I. & Musa, I. (2014). School Send Away Students Over Abduction Threat.

DailyTrust Thursday, May 29th, 2014.

Orban, H. (2014). Easy Targets: Violence against Children Worldwide. New York: Human

Rights Watch.

Soriwei, V. (2014). Violence and Children with Disabilities. Vol. 24, 1: 2-19. New York:

Rehabilitation International/ UNICEF. http://www.rehabinternational.org/publication

s/10_24.htm.

Suleiman, A. O. (2003) Crisis of Morality Among Youths. Enugu: Computer Edge

Publishers.

WHO & IPSCAN. (2006). Prevention of child maltreatment: A guide to taking action and

generating evidence. Geneva: WHO.

http://www.powersteeringmagazine.com/

http://www.rehabinternational.org/publications/10_24.htm

http://www.rehabinternational.org/publications/10_24.htm

Evaluation of Quality Control in the Open University Education ...

Documents

Transcript of Evaluation of Quality Control in the Open University Education ...