Journal of Ethnopharmacology 100 (2005) 15–22

Perspective paper

Ethnobotany/ethnopharmacology and mass bioprospecting: Issues onintellectual property and benefit-sharing

D.D. Soejartoa,b,∗, H.H.S. Fonga, G.T. Tana, H.J. Zhanga, C.Y. Maa, S.G. Franzblaua,C. Gyllenhaala, M.C. Rileya, M.R. Kadushina,b, J.M. Pezzutoc, L.T. Xuand, N.T. Hiepd,

N.V. Hungd, B.M. Vud, P.K. Locd, L.X. Dacd, L.T. Binhd, N.Q. Chiend, N.V. Haid,T.Q. Biche, N.M. Cuonge, B. Southavongf, K. Sydaraf, S. Bouamanivongf, H.M. Ly g,

Tran Van Thuyh, W.C. Rosei, G.R. Dietzmanj

a PCRPS, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 S. Wood Street, Chicago, IL 60612, USAb Field Museum, Chicago, IL, USA

c Schools of Pharmacy, Nursing, and Health Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USAd Vietnamese Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam

e Cuc Phuong National Park, Ninh Binh, Vietnamf Traditional Medicine Research Center, Vientiane, Laos

g Laboratory of Mycobacteria, National Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Hanoi, Vietnamh

o seek andand itsoperation,

tes Nationals (ICBG)

rs, but centralrty and thelearned from

Department of Botany, Hanoi University of Science, Hanoi, Vietnami Bristol-Myers Squibb Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Princeton, NJ, USA

j White Point Systems, Friday Harbor, WA, USA

Accepted 23 May 2005Available online 1 July 2005

Abstract

Ethnobotany/ethnopharmacology has contributed to the discovery of many important plant-derived drugs. Field explorations tdocument indigenous/traditional medical knowledge (IMK/TMK), and/or the biodiversity with which the IMK/TMK is attached,conversion into a commercialized product is known as bioprospecting or biodiversity prospecting. When performed in a large-scalethe effort is referred to as mass bioprospecting. Experiences from the mass bioprospecting efforts undertaken by the United StaCancer Institute, the National Cooperative Drug Discovery Groups (NCDDG) and the International Cooperative Biodiversity Groupprograms demonstrate that mass bioprospecting is a complex process, involving expertise from diverse areas of human endeavoto it is the Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) that recognizes issues on genetic access, prior informed consent, intellectual propesharing of benefits that may arise as a result of the effort. Future mass bioprospecting endeavors must take heed of the lessonspast and present experiences in the planning for a successful mass bioprospecting venture.© 2005 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:Ethnobotany; Ethnopharmacology; Mass bioprospecting; NCI; NCDDG; UIC ICBG; Intellectual property; Prior informed consent; Indigenous andtraditional knowledge; Benefit-sharing

edatd the

0d

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 312 996 8889; fax: +1 312 413 5894.E-mail address:dds@uic.edu (D.D. Soejarto).

1. Introduction

The definition of the term ethnobotany, originally applito the study of the utilitarian relationship [relationship thincludes use for medicinal purposes] between humans anplant environment in primitive settings (Harshberger, 1896),

378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2005 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.oi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.05.031

16 D.D. Soejarto et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 100 (2005) 15–22

has now evolved into a much broader meaning that coversnot only a utilitarian relationship, but also relationships thatembrace the symbolic, ecological and cognitive, as well asthe human–plant relationship in a modern setting (Schultesand von Reis, 1995; Alexiades, 1996). On the other hand, themore recent term ethnopharmacology has undergone onlyslight evolution in meaning since its original definition as “amulti-disciplinary area of research, concerned with the obser-vation, description and experimental investigation of indige-nous drugs and their biological activities” (Rivier and Bruhn,1979). Its contemporary definition addresses the “interdisci-plinary study of the physiological actions of plant, animaland other substances used in indigenous medicines of pastand present cultures” (International Society of Ethnopharma-cology Constitution, 2005). The breath of studies embraces“use of plants, fungi, animals, microorganisms and miner-als and their biological and pharmacological effects based onthe principles established through international convention”,as well as “the observation and experimental investigationof the biological activities of plant and animal substances”,using ethnopharmacological, ethnobotanical, ethnochemical,pharmacological and toxicological approaches (Journal ofEthnopharmacology, 2005).

Since these two branches of scientific disciplines carry acommon denominator, namely the human or cultural com-ponent inherent in the word “ethno”, ethnobotanical ande plo-r wl-e ntt con-v arlyp ct ofc out-c daya 989f -d ,1 iza-t es,e

-m( justi-fi nerac ingh t 20y gicala ricul-t thei ono ctinge e att c orb p-r st

2. Recognition of IMK/TMK and “sovereign rights”over genetic resources

The turning point on the formal recognition of owner-ship of indigenous and traditional knowledge took placein 1988 at the first International Congress of Ethnobiology(ICE) in Belem (Brazil), with the “Declaration of Belem”(http://guallart.dac.uga.edu/ISE/iseBelem.html), which isembodied within theCode of Ethics of the InternationalSociety of Ethnobiology (2005)(http://guallart.dac.uga.edu/ISE/iseEthics.html). The Code of Ethics states that“indigenous peoples, traditional societies and local com-munities have a right to self determination (or local deter-mination for traditional and local communities) and thatresearchers and associated organizations will acknowledgeand respect such rights” (Principle 2) and that they “mustbe fairly and adequately compensated for their contributionto ethnobiological research activities and outcomes involvingtheir knowledge” (Principle 12). In the context of IMK/TMK,IMK/TMK represents the property of the holders of thatknowledge and must be respected, and that compensationto the holders must be provided for the utilization and con-version of such knowledge (bioprospecting) into a tangibleproduct. In the second ICE in 1991, in Kunming, PRC, partic-ipants went further to declare that traditional and indigenousknowledge areinventiveand intellectual, therefore, worthyo rks( 5

wl-e hed,a f theiru nsC no

heU ouso entsf heirn e oft oun-tb therc ocesso na-t n ofa onb as itp essa

ple,n xt oft iscus-s redb thes Ki s a

thnopharmacological studies normally involve field exations of indigenous as well as traditional medical knodge (IMK/TMK), together with the biodiversity compone

o which such knowledge is attached, documentation andersion of the knowledge into a product, be it a scholaper, a book, photographic images or a tangible produommercial value. In this process, when the purpose andome are commercial in nature, the activity is known tos “bioprospecting”, a concept originally introduced in 1

or “chemical prospecting” (Eisner, 1989, 1992) and was reefined in 1993 as “biodiversity prospecting” (Reid et al.993). The term applies also to the exploration and util

ion of the biological diversity itself for commercial purposither within the context of IMK/TMK or without.

Twenty-five years ago, when theJournal of Ethnopharacologywas established (Journal of Ethnopharmacology1

1) 1979), bioprospecting was considered natural anded, because the outcome benefits the scientific and geommunities, locally and globally. In fact, bioprospectas been going on for centuries, but only within the pasears has this activity gained prominence due to technolodvances in pharmaceutical, biotechnological and ag

ural sectors. Before this period, little thought was given tossue of ownership of IMK and TMK and of the distributif benefits that may arise as the result of the bioprospeffort. This had been due, in part, to the general attitud

hat time that the world’s biodiversity, namely the genetiiological resources with which IMK/TMK is attached, reesents a common heritage of man (FAO, 1983) and so doehe IMK/TMK.

l

f protection in all legal, ethical and professional framewoInternational Society of Ethnobiology Constitution, 200).

In 1992, the recognition of ownership of traditional knodge and the biodiversity to which the knowledge is attacnd the sharing of the benefits that may arise as a result otilization was enforced in the form of the United Natioonvention on Biodiversity (Secretariat of the Convention Biological Diversity, 2001, Articles 15.1 and 8.j).

The Belem Declaration, the Kunming Action Plan, tnited Nations Convention on Biodiversity and numerther Declarations of similar nature represent the instrum

or States to legislate the utilization and protection of tatural resources that include the biological diversity. On

he earlier biodiversity policy regulations enacted by a cry was theExecutive Order 247 (EO 47) (1995)introducedy the President of the Republic of the Philippines. Oountries have also enacted legislation or are in the prf regulating their policy. Numerous national and inter

ional forums have been convened toward the legislationational bioprospecting policy. Central to any policy

ioprospecting are the issues on intellectual property,ertains to IMK/TMK, and the benefit-sharing of the procnd the outcome that may arise from the activity.

Bioprospecting is performed by a diverse class of peoon-scientists and scientists alike. Although the conte

his paper is ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology, the dion that follows covers bioprospecting activities triggey the search and utilization of IMK/TMK, as well as byearch and utilization of the component to which IMK/TMs attached. When the activity of bioprospecting involve

D.D. Soejarto et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 100 (2005) 15–22 17

large-scale effort to search and commercialize IMK/TMKand/or the biological diversity, this effort is referred to as“mass bioprospecting”.

3. Mass bioprospecting: contemporary models

The effort of the United States National Cancer Institute(NCI) in searching for anticancer agents from the biodiver-sity, in the present context, of plants, is one example ofmass bioprospecting. In this effort, field explorations arelargely guided by the so-called biodiversity or “random”collection approach, with ethnobotanical or ethnopharma-cological information playing a minimal or no role. NCIlaunched its effort in 1955, and for the period of 1960–1982,about 114,000 extracts from an estimated 35,000 plant sam-ples (representing 12,000–13,000 species) collected mostlyfrom temperate regions of the world had been screenedagainst a number of tumor systems (Cragg and Boyd, 1996;Cragg et al., 1996). A wide variety of compound classeswere isolated and characterized. Clinically significant can-cer chemotherapeutic agents that emerged from this pro-gram included paclitaxel (Taxus brevifoliaNutt. and otherTaxusspecies, Taxaceae), hycamptamine (topotecan), CPT-11 and 9-aminocamptothecin. The latter three compoundsare semisynthetic derivatives of camptothecin (Camptothecaag asiso cellc gni-t t ofb fort( et-t ent( ra-t CI-s OAc eticr ts ofd gg,2

ase oop-e theD ofC sup-p hest ivedaD er-s tiona n theN dealtw orta wed(

Commencing in 1993, the International Cooperative Bio-diversity Groups (ICBG), a program administered by the Fog-arty International Center (FIC), National Institutes of Health(NIH) and supported through funds from NIH, National Sci-ence Foundation (NSF) and US Department of Agriculture(USDA) Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS), started oper-ation in an effort to integrate the goals of improvement ofhuman health through drug discovery, incentives for con-servation of biodiversity and development of new modelsof sustainable economic activity that focus on the environ-ment, health, equity and democracy. The implementationof this program is based on the belief that the discoveryand development of pharmaceutical and other useful agentsfrom the world’s biodiversity can, under appropriate circum-stances, promote scientific capacity development and eco-nomic incentives to conserve the biological resources fromwhich these products are derived (Fogarty International Cen-ter, 2004). This unique effort is undertaken in such a way thatlocal communities and other source country organizationscan derive direct benefits from the effort and, ultimately, fromtheir diverse biological resources, so that benefit-sharing mayprovide clear incentives for preservation and sustainable useof the biodiversity (Rosenthal, 1996, 1997; Rosenthal et al.,1999; Fogarty International Center, 2004).

The ICBGs’ drug discovery effort is targeted to a broadrange of organisms, including five of the six recognized king-d ungia

4IC

hed( tC G”o ta le-m thep calD thisI titu-t archi nol-o archi ani ght IC-I ntso s form dis-e ssing,n ts ofV omicd reas

cuminataDecne., Nyssaceae) (Cragg et al., 1993). The pro-ram was extended from 1986 to 2004, with an emphn global plant collections and screening against tumorultures. Although no provision was made in the recoion of intellectual property and and in the arrangemenenefit-sharing during the first phase of the NCI’s ef1955–1980), a “Letter of Intent”, later evolving into a “Ler of Collection” (LOC), then a Memorandum of AgreemMOA), was in place as an umbrella for the field opeion of the NCI contractors in the second phase of Nponsored explorations (1986–2004). The LOI/LOC/Montains provisions to recognize the ownership of genesources and an arrangement to share the benefiiscovery (Mays and Mazan, 1996; Hallock and Cra003).

In 1983, the NCI’s mass bioprospecting effort wxtended through the establishment of a National Crative Drug Discovery Group (NCDDG) program byevelopmental Therapeutics Program (DTP), Divisionancer Treatment and Diagnosis (DCT). This programorts broad, innovative and multi-disciplinary approac

o the discovery of new, synthetic or natural-source-dernticancer agents (Hallock and Cragg, 2003; NCI-DTP-CTGCOB, 2005). In the programs that target biodivity as the source of discovery, biodiversity-based collecpproach also formed the basis of organism selection. ICDDG program, issues on IP and benefit-sharing wereith individually by each group. Recently, the overall effnd accomplishments of the NCDDG projects were revieHallock and Cragg, 2003).

oms of biodiversity: Eubacteria, Protoctista, Plantae, Fnd Animalia (NIH News, 2003).

. “Studies on biodiversity of Vietnam and Laos”: anCBG program based at the University of Illinois athicago

A complete review of the ICBGs has been publisRosenthal and Pezzuto, 1999). The University of Illinois ahicago (UIC)-based ICBG, known simply as “UIC ICBr “Studies on Biodiversity of Vietnam and Laos” (Soejarto el., 1999, 2002a,b, 2004a,b), serves as a model for the impentation of the ICBG principles, which are, ultimately,rinciples of the United Nations Convention on Biologiiversity. In its current Phase II operation (2003–2008),

CBG consortium consists of two US-based academic insions (UIC and Purdue University), two Vietnamese resenstitutions (Vietnamese Academy of Science and Techgy; and Cuc Phuong National Park), one Lao rese

nstitution (Traditional Medicine Research Center) andndustrial partner (Bristol-Myers Squibb, BMS). Althouhe drug discovery and development objective of the UCBG is to uncover biologically active molecules from plaf Vietnam and Laos as chemotherapeutic candidatealaria, tuberculosis, AIDS, cancer and CNS-relatedases, the bioprospecting goals are more all-encompaamely: (a) to discover and develop new drugs from planietnam and Laos (as just stated); (b) to promote econevelopment among communities in the ICBG study a

18 D.D. Soejarto et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 100 (2005) 15–22

and to promote institutional-infrastructure strengthening andhuman-resource development of host-country institutions; (c)to undertake biotic survey and to promote conservation ini-tiatives in Vietnam and Laos. In other words, the UIC ICBGis a bioprospecting endeavor that is truly multi-disciplinaryand multi-national, and truly integrates drug discovery, biodi-versity conservation and economic development. Since spaceonly allows a rather narrow discussion, addressing, specifi-cally, the drug discovery and development activities, readersare directed to papers already published that document activ-ities in response to the other two goals of the UIC ICBG’sbioprospecting effort (Hiep and Loc, 2000; Riley, 2001; Soe-jarto et al., 2001, 2002c,d, 2004a,b; Dietzman et al., 2002;Hiep et al., 2002; Loc et al., 2002, 2004; Vu et al., 2002a,b;Bien et al., 2003, 2004; Dzu et al., 2003; TMRC, 2003; Dacet al., 2004; ICBG/AP4, 2005).

In drug discovery and development, approaches utilizedin the selection of plants consist of biodiversity-based col-lection [“random” collection] centered in the Cuc PhuongNational Park in Vietnam, and ethnobotany-driven interviewson the medicinal uses of plants in Laos. Ethnobotanical inter-views were also performed in Vietnam during the first Phaseof the UIC ICBG project (1998–2003), among communities(Muong ethnic minority) in villages surrounding CPNP.

Seven years after the start of the UIC ICBG project(1998–2005), 3331 plant samples have been collected fromV bio-d s offl sultso atet ca col-l about> otani-c m-m nicc col-l wasc otherh

wsc xtrac-t dis-e ts) ofa isola-tf lim-i toi

aref per-t typi-c lashS epar-a rents onal

methods include vacuum, gravity, flash or low–medium pres-sure column chromatography using a variety of adsorbentsand media. Early LC/MS/MS-based dereplication strategiesthat favor novel bioactive molecules over non-specific, knownand/or unwanted compounds from mixtures are employed tosupport the bioassay-directed fractionation and isolation pro-cess. Chemical profiling by HPLC–MS is used, especially, forchemotaxonomically related species under investigation.

State-of-the-art physical and spectroscopic methods, suchas high field nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry(NMR), time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOF-MS), chem-ical ionization (CI), field desorption and fast-atom bombard-ment (FAB) MS, are employed in structure elucidation ofactive compounds. Stereochemistry is determined by the useof ORD and CD, coupled with high-field1H and13C NMRspectroscopy, with appropriate two-dimensional (2D) anddecoupling experiments. The use of single crystal X-ray crys-tallographic analysis is routinely performed to solve difficultstereochemistry assignments.

At the end, new compounds that are routinely isolatedbased on a particular biological activity are included in theUIC ICBG natural products library and incoporated in theNAPIS Database, the computerized documentation systemutilized in the ICBG program, for periodic submission tothe ICBG’s Global Data Center (GDC) based in Friday Har-bor, Washington State. These compounds may eventually bee

5

om-p ed ina wella s ofa puren lex-i omt ICI thek iso-l ndn herp igor-o tingb andg trat-e . Thec desa teno-l penesa 04

car-b firstt ter-p

ietnam (Cuc Phuong National Park/CPNP) based oniversity (“random”) approach, comprising >950 specieowering plants identified to species level. Since the ref the taxonomic inventory of plants in this park indic

hat 1926 species of Angiosperms (Soejarto et al., 2004)re found at CPNP, >900 species still remain to be

ected and screened. In addition, 960 plant samples (700 species) have been collected based on ethnobal/ethnopharmacological field interviews with Muong counities surrounding CPNP in Vietnam, and with eth

ommunities throughout Laos. For every plant sampleected, a set of seven voucher herbarium specimensollected for deposit at the consortium’s herbaria and aterbaria of collaborating botanical institutions.

The drug discovery process in the UIC ICBG follolassic pharmacognosy methods, through sample eion, high-throughput screening of extracts in the targetase system, recollection of samples (same plant parctive species and bioassay-guided fractionation and

ion. CH2Cl2-soluble extracts or CHCl3- or CH2Cl2-solubleractions from MeOH/EtOH extracts are assayed, after enation of tannins and polyphenols, which are knownnterfere with certain enzyme-based assays.

Extracts that have shown confirmed activityractionated/isolated using an effective combination of exise and advanced separation technology protocol,ally based on the combination of flash (Isco CombiFG100C Separation System), semi-preparative and prtive HPLC chromatography, while droplet counter-curystems are employed to maximize efficiency. Traditi

xposed to multiple screens across the ICBGs.

. UIC ICBG bioprospecting effort: results

Of the 3331 samples collected, extracts of 2309 (crising approximately 800 species) have been screennti-HIV, antimalaria and anti-TB disease systems, ass in a tumor cell lines panel. Twenty-two recollectionctive samples have been made and approximately 280atural products of varying degrees of structural comp

ty and/or biological activity have been isolated. Aside frhe discovery of biologically active compounds, the UCBG studies have also made significant contribution tonowledge of natural products chemistry through theation and elucidation of 80newsecondary metabolites aovel chemical entities, reported for the first time from higlants. This high number may have been the result of rus prioritization criteria in the project, based on pre-exisiological and chemical information (both at specieseneric levels), as well as on a chemical dereplication sgy using the resources and expertise available at UIChemical diversity of these new natural products inclulkaloids/amides, macrocyclics, lignans, neolignans, bu

ides, phenylpropanoids, terpenes, norditerpenes, triternd steroids (Zhang et al., 2001, 2002a,b; Chien et al., 20).

Ten of the 80 new chemical entities have a novelon skeleton, being described and communicated for the

ime, all of which are structurally related anti-HIV sesquienes (litseaverticillols A–J) isolated fromLitsea verticillata

D.D. Soejarto et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 100 (2005) 15–22 19

Hance (Lauraceae). These compounds are unique, becausethey are�,�-conjugated pentacyclosesquiterpenes with anine-member side chain (Zhang et al., 2003, in press). Anumber of the active anticancer compounds are in variousstages of preclinical testing, including evaluation in animalmodels.

Central to the existence and operation of the UIC ICBG isthe Memorandum of Agreements (1999–2005, 2004–2010),which spell out issues on access to genetic resources and toIMK/TMK, recognition of intellectual property rights on dis-covery and on IMK/TMK, and the sharing of benefits as partof the bioprospecting process, as well as of the benefits thatmay materialize (long-term benefits, namely royalties), as aresult of the bioprospecting effort (Soejarto et al., 2004a,b).

6. Mass bioprospecting in the future

Estimates place the number of species of organ-isms at between 1,392,485 (Wilson, 1988) and 1,750,000(Hammond, 1995), classified into Kingdoms Eubacte-ria (bacteria, cyanobacteria “blue-green algae”), Archaea(halobacterians, methanogens, eocytes), Protoctista (proto-zoa, “algae”), Plantae (land plants), Fungi (molds, lichen-forming, yeasts, mushrooms) and Animalia (mesozoa, inver-tebrates, mammals) (Hammond, 1995).

beds om-p akeu er-s ,00s factt ween2r undsb omA hilet 5%o umet et tob tivec myc-e entlyk

,000)( urceo thatb n usemo ses.A eciest pine,t ine,m 0%o euti-c ated

medicinal plants, continue to represent a significant pool ofraw material for the discovery of new drugs.

With the biodiversity statistics presented above, theworld’s biodiversity and the ethnobotanical and ethnophar-macological treasure house that remains in store will continueto present an attractive target for future mass bioprospectingeffort.

7. Discussion and conclusions

From the experiences gained through the participation inthe NCI (Soejarto, 1993; Soejarto et al., 1996), NCDDG(Kinghorn et al., 2003) and ICBG (Soejarto et al., 1999,2002a,b, 2004a,b) bioprospecting projects described above,clearly, such endeavors are a highly complex process. Futuremass bioprospecting effort must incorporate lessons learnedfrom these experiences. The most important considerationis the broad spectrum of requirements that must be amalga-mated: team scientific expertise (of all relevant disciplines)together with expertise in a wide range of human endeavors,including diplomacy, international laws and legal understand-ings, social sciences, politics, anthropology and good com-mon sense. Equally important is the fact that such endeavorsmust be international in nature, with the participation andcooperation of partner institutions located in biodiversity-r strialp thep

ands ofU ueso n IPr parto verya ella r thef rma-c ire-m gni-t ousI andl ntoa

thee reli-a tiont lini-c e ofG ons,m om-p or theU tlasoi lei

Examination of the statistics on number of descripecies shows that arthropods (Kingdom Animalia), crising about 1,085,000 species, including insects, mp the largest portion (75.4%) of the earth’s biodivity (Hammond, 1995). Insects alone, estimated at 950pecies, comprise 62% of global biodiversity. Despite thehat the number of insect species is estimated to be bet,000,000 and 100,000,000 (Hammond, 1995), this groupemains relatively untouched as a source of novel compoy the drug discovery community. Animal species [Kingdnimalia], excluding the arthropods, comprise 13%, w

he fungi and the protists [protoctists] represent 4% andf global biodiversity, respectively. It is reasonable to ass

hat the overwhelming majority of fungal species have ye isolated and tested for the production of biologically acompounds, even though members of the order Actinotales, like Streptomycetes, have been the most prominnown microbial producers of natural products.

Based on the number of known species (300,000–500Hammond, 1995), plants represent the second largest sof biodiversity (15%). Estimates have been madeetween 20,000 and 55,000 species of plants have beeedicinally (Penso, 1976; Schippmann et al., 2002), of whichnly a small portion has been investigated for drug purpomong those that have been investigated are plant sp

hat produce important drugs such as quinine, reserubocurarine, vincristine, vinblastine, pilocarpine, atroporphine, coccaine, to mention a few. Overall, only 15–2f terrestrial plants have been evaluated for pharmacal potential. Consequently, plants, including univestig

d

ich countries. For drug-targeted bioprospecting, an induartner is a necessity, which will move a discovery intoipeline toward commercial product.

Central in any mass bioprospecting is the draftingigning of an international agreement or Memorandumnderstanding (MOU) or MOA, that should cover issn access to the genetic resources [the biodiversity], oelated to discovery, on the sharing of the benefits asf the process (short-term) and in the event of discond commercialization of a product (long-term), as ws on the conservation of the biological resources fo

uture generations. When ethnobotanical or ethnophaological approach is utilized, additional specific requents that relate to prior informed consent (PIC), reco

ion of Indigenous Intellectual Property (IIP) and Indigenntellectual Property Rights (IIPR), as well as short-ong-term benefit-sharing are “priority” items to take iccount.

Collection methodology that facilitates recollection, invent of active species, is essential in order to ensure able supply of biomass for larger scale compound isola

o meet the requirements of in vivo and late-stage precal studies. This includes good field documentation, uslobal Positioning System (GPS) to pinpoint site locatiapping of sites and the ready availability of superior cuter database support. As an example, the field data fIC ICBG program are posted on the Internet in the “Af Seed Plants of Cuc Phuong National Park” (http://uic-

cbg.pharm.uic.edu). This information is also made availabn hardcopy form (Soejarto et al., 2004c). Good collection

20 D.D. Soejarto et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 100 (2005) 15–22

methodology is especially important for marine sites, thoughcollection technology is different (Wright et al., 1996). Need-less to say, precise taxonomic identification of organismsinvolved either in the field, or with subsequent support fromtaxonomic specialists, is crucial for accurate recollectionof organisms or targeted collection of specific organisms(Soejarto, 1996).

Another important tool is plant tissue or cell culturetechnologies, which are suited for scale-up production ofbioactive metabolites once they have been determined tobe of interest (DiCosmo and Misawa, 1995; Kirakosyan etal., 2004). In the UIC ICBG, plant cell culture has beenapplied to eliminate the uncertainty of re-accessing nativeplant samples that have exhibited interesting chemistry. Fur-ther development of sustainable supplies of compounds forclinical trials or commercialized drugs is critical, and mayproceed by exploring sustainable harvest methods, cultiva-tion (including aquaculture), microbial fermentation, geneticengineering and semi-synthesis or synthesis of candidatedrugs or analogs (Wender et al., 1999). Such effort willensure adequate supply of the compound while protectingthe source organism and its habitat from overexploitation.Planning for sustainability should begin early in productdevelopment (Cragg et al., 1993; Cragg, 1998). In the UIC-based Vietnam–Laos ICBG, plant tissue culture is also beingused to produce biomass of rare and threatened speciesa bio-l thep enta pingm dis-t ables

A

io-d s 1-U -06( upsP nsti-t nalS viceo A-A ritieso cessp aos,r

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ing486.

D tives.

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t Cuc Phuong National Park, for purposes of bothogical evaluation and increasing species population inark. It is also intended to promote economic developmmong communities in the ICBG research site by helembers of the community to generate income from

ributed starter plants, in cases of economically valupecies.

cknowledgements

The UIC ICBG bioprospecting project, “Studies on Biversity of Vietnam and Laos”, is supported by GrantO1-TW01015-01 (1998–2003) and 2-UO1-TW001015

2003–2008), International Cooperative Biodiversity Grorogram, at the Fogarty International Center, National I

utes of Health (NIH), through funds from the NIH, Natiocience Foundation (NSF) and Foreign Agriculture Serf the United States Department of Agriculture (USDFS). The authors express thanks to government authof Vietnam and Laos for their cooperation and for the acrovided to the biological resources of Vietnam and Lespectively, for the ICBG study.

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