Arnica: A multivariate analysis of the botany and ethnopharmacology of amedicinal plant complex in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands

Concepcion Obon a,n, Diego Rivera b, Alonso Verde c, Jose Fajardo c, Arturo Valdes d,Francisco Alcaraz b, Ana Maria Carvalho e

a Department of Applied Biology, Escuela Politecnica Superior, Miguel Hernandez University, Ctra. Beniel Km 3.2, 03312 Orihuela, Alicante, Spainb Department of Plant Biology, Campus de Espinardo, Universidad de Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spainc Instituto Botanico, Jardin Botanico de Castilla- La Mancha. Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha. Campus de Albacete. 02071 Albacete, Spaind Departamento de Ciencias Ambientales, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spaine Departamento de Biologia e Biotecnologia, Instituto Politecnico de Braganc-a, Escola Superior Agraria, CIMO, Portugal

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 12 June 2012

Received in revised form

18 August 2012

Accepted 19 August 2012

Keywords:

Arnica

Ethnopharmacology

Iberian Peninsula

Traditional medicine

Medicinal plant complex

a b s t r a c t

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Medicinal plant complexes of different species sharing vernacular

names, morphological and aromatic characteristics and uses are common in traditional medicine of

different cultures. A quantitative methodology as a tool for ethnopharmacological studies is presented

for systematically analyzing morphological and therapeutic features shared by several species

integrating such complexes.

Aim of the study: The aim of this paper is to apply a novel methodology to determine whether

complexes are homogeneous and species within the complexes are completely interchangeable or not.

Moreover, to find out if those species giving the name to the complex are also those which provide a

large number of complex descriptors. For this purpose we study the complex of medicinal plant species

which share the vernacular name ‘‘Arnica’’ in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands, through the

systematic recording of past and current local therapeutic uses and administration forms, plant-parts

and localities where the different species are used. Being a newly introduced name in the region,

‘‘Arnica’’ offers an interesting field to study the genesis and dynamics of ethnopharmacological

categories and medicinal plant complexes.

Methods: A systematic review of the botanical, ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological literature

from 1895 to 2010 and of databases was performed in order to obtain information on the use of plants

locally named as ‘‘Arnica’’ or with binomials that include the word ‘‘Arnica’’, in the Iberian Peninsula and

the Balearic Islands.

Results: The ‘‘Arnica’’ complex includes 32 different plant species in the Iberian Peninsula, belonging to

six families of Angiosperms, which partially share morphological characteristics and therapeutic

properties. These are some of the most popular medicinal species of the Iberian Peninsula and are

mainly used to treat inflammation, wounds, hematoma, and contusion. The vegetal materials are

primarily macerated or decocted, and the methods of administration are plasters, washes, frictions or

direct application of the plant.

Conclusions: Medicinal plant complexes are frequent in ethnopharmacological contexts and

require being clearly detected, and systematically studied. Plant species within each complex are

only partly interchangeable because the sharing of characters, including medicinal uses, is low. ‘‘Arnica’’

medicinal plant complex is extremely dynamic in the Iberian Peninsula. In less than two hundred years

up to 32 different plant species belonging to six different plant families became labeled ‘‘Arnica’’.

Medical staff was extremely influential in the adoption of ‘‘Arnica’’ as a vernacular name between 1785

and 1864 in Spain and Portugal but not in the repertory of uses adopted for the plants within the

complex.

In terms of total descriptors shared in the complex, Arnica montana L. is less relevant than other

three species, belonging to the Inuleae Cass. tribe, of the Asteraceae (Chiliadenus glutinosus (L.) Fourr.,

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep

Journal of Ethnopharmacology

0378-8741/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.08.024

Abbreviations: APG III, Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III system; C., Crepis; CORDE, Corpus Diacronico del Espanol; CREA, Corpus de Referencia del Espanol Actual;

D., Doronicum; GTD, Group Total Descriptors Sharing; I., Inula; P., Pulicaria; RD, Relative Descriptors-Sharing index; S., Senecio; TCM, Traditional Chinese Medicine;

TD, total of descriptors present/sharedn Corresponding author.

E-mail addresses: cobon@umh.es (C. Obon), drivera@um.es (D. Rivera), alonsoverde@gmail.com (A. Verde), josefajard@gmail.com (J. Fajardo),

arturo.valdes@uclm.es (A. Valdes), falcaraz@um.es (F. Alcaraz), anacarv@ipb.pt (A.M. Carvalho).

Please cite this article as: Obon, C., et al., Arnica: A multivariate analysis of the botany and ethnopharmacology of a medicinal plantcomplex in the Iberian Peninsula and.... Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.08.024

Journal of Ethnopharmacology ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]

Inula montana L. and Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter). Thus ‘‘Arnica’’ complex is labeled by three different

Inuleae Cass. species and receives the name from a fourth Madieae Jeps. species (Arnica montana L.).

& 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Plant complexes of different species sharing common names,

morphological and aromatic characteristics and uses were

brought out in northern Mexico and the southwestern Unites

States by Linares and Bye (1987) in a medicinal herbs survey. The

distribution analysis of utilization and natural occurrence of

plants in each complex indicated the presence of a dominant or

‘‘label’’ plant whose use extended beyond its natural range and

which had substitutes derived from local plants that were not

registered far beyond their respective natural ranges. Similar

complexes have also been described in Spain, in the case of

gathered food plants, using multivariate analysis and two types

of complexes were characterized: species-labeled and uses-

labeled (Rivera et al., 2007). Plant complexes may be related but

are not equal to folk generic taxa as described by Berlin (1973).

Similar complexes are common under labels such as ‘‘te’’ (Span-

ish) (Pardo et al., 2005), chamomile, thyme or wormwood. This

type of medicinal or edible plant complexes is not unique to

Western culture because in Traditional Chinese Medicine com-

plexes also occur, e.g. ‘‘Longdan’’ (Chinese) includes Gentiana lutea

L., G. sedifolia Kunth, G. manshurica Kitag., G. crassa subsp.

rigescens (Franch. ex Hemsl.) Halda, G. arisanensis Hayata, G.

scabra Bunge, and so on (Chang-Liao et al., 2012). However there

is not a standard methodology for analyzing the genesis and the

factors controlling medicinal plant complexes. ‘‘Arnica’’ complex

in the Iberian Peninsula offers a unique opportunity to develop

such methodology.Leonti (2011) argues that ethnobotanical studies that seek to

provide input to the field of natural products research and to the

development of indigenous pharmacopoeias should differentiate

between local knowledge and widespread as well as newly

generated knowledge reported and introduced through popular

and scientific literature and media. The ‘‘Arnica’’ complex in the

Iberian Peninsula offers an example of how these external

influences are complex and can be analyzed.

‘‘Arnica’’ was a name unknown to Classic Greeks and Romans,

and it was not cited in Early Medieval texts (Opsomer, 1989).

Seemingly, it was first introduced in 1533 by the editor of

St. Hildegard’s ‘‘Physica’’ to name a magical plant species (Rivera

et al., 2010). This name was adopted by Dalechamps in the 16th

century (Sala, 1786; Teixidor, 1871; Font, 1981; Mayer and

Czygan, 2009), who assumed it was derived from the Greek

‘‘Ptarmike’’ (meaning something that makes sneezing), and Haller

and Linnaeus are responsible for the subsequent wide use of the

name ‘‘Arnica’’ in botany and pharmacy, from the 18th century

onwards linked to the species Arnica montana L. (Asteraceae)

(Rivera et al., 2010).The name ‘‘Arnica’’ was introduced in Spain c. 1785 associated

with the reports of successful use in hospitals of Arnica montana L.

to treat amaurosis, a loss of vision that occurs without an

apparent lesion affecting the eye (Sala, 1786; Font, 1981). Arnica

montana L., was known before in northern Spain where it was

named: ‘‘betonica de los montes’’, ‘‘tabaco de montana’’, ‘‘talpa’’ or

‘‘talpica’’ (Sala, 1786). ‘‘Arnica’’ complex expanded soon in Spain, c.

1786, due to some confusion among Arnica montana L. and other

species of the family Asteraceae (Doronicum pardalianches L. and

Inula montana L.) (Sala, 1786; Rodrıguez and Cano, 1987). Pardo-

Sastron (1895) refers to ‘‘Arnica’’ as the medicinal plant most

frequently used in Aragon to treat contusions, but such plant

actually corresponds to Inula helenioides DC., I. montana L., andI.

salicina L. instead of Arnica montana L. In fact, Pardo-Sastron

(1895) prepared an alcoholic tincture of I. helenioides DC., that

showed similar results to those of Arnica montana L. Teixidor

(1871) complains of Arnica montana L. being confused with

numerous species of plants by collectors in Spain.

Thus, the ‘‘Arnica’’ medicinal plant complex was developed in

the Iberian Peninsula between 1785 and 1895 influenced by the

medical advances of the time and the work of local apothecaries

and plant collectors.

The aim of this paper is to demonstrate that medicinal plant

complexes are not homogeneous, that species within these

medicinal plant complexes are not fully interchangeable and that

the labeling species is not necessarily the one which contributes

to most descriptors of the complex. To achieve such objectives we

focus on the complex of medicinal plant species which share the

vernacular name of ‘‘Arnica’’ in the Iberian Peninsula and the

Balearic Islands and that includes some of the most popular

medicinal species used to treat inflammation, wounds, hematoma

and contusion, using the systematic recording of past and current

local therapeutic uses and administration forms, plant-parts and

localities where the different species are used. Being a newly

introduced name in the region ‘‘Arnica’’ offers an interesting field

to study the genesis and dynamics of ethnopharmacological

categories and medicinal plant complexes.

2. Methodology

2.1. Data-collection procedures

The analyzed evidence included several studies and considered

a coming together of different perspectives: dictionaries and

thesauri (Masclans, 1981; Alvarez, 2006), ethnopharmacology

(Mulet, 1991; Obon and Rivera, 1991; Verde et al., 2008),

ethnobotany (Lastra, 2003; Fajardo et al., 2007) and traditional

medicine surveys (Triano, 2007; Vallejo et al., 2007).

As the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) and the Balearic

Islands correspond to the surveyed areas, we have reviewed

Spanish and Portuguese botanical, ethnobotanical and ethnophar-

macological papers from 1786 to 2011 (cited in Table 1) in order

to collect the information on uses of plants that shared the name

‘‘Arnica’’, single or in binomials e.g. ‘‘arnica de piedra’’. Although

we have attempted to be exhaustive, after finishing the analysis

we found that Jasonia tuberosa (L.) DC. is used in Jaen under the

name ‘‘Arnica’’ to treat dermatitis and wounds (Guzman, 1997),

therefore in this revision almost all the species named as ‘‘Arnica’’

have been included.

We have also reviewed the CORDE (RAE, 2012a) and CREA

(RAE, 2012b) data-bases of the Spanish language in order to

determine when and where the word ‘‘Arnica’’ began to be used

in non-medical literature. All references are cited in Table 1.

For the nomenclature of genera and species we followed The

Plant List, 2010 and for the plant families the APG III (Reveal and

Chase, 2011). Names of tribes follow Reveal (2012). However the

scientific name Chiliadenus glutinosus (L.) Fourr. is somewhat

controversial: in the EuroþMed Plant Base (Greuter, 2006–

2009) appears as an accepted name, in The Plant List (2012) as

unresolved but with a list of synonyms, and in numerous papers

in Spain the species is cited under Jasonia glutinosa (L.) DC. (Pardo

and Morales, 2004).

C. Obon et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]2

Please cite this article as: Obon, C., et al., Arnica: A multivariate analysis of the botany and ethnopharmacology of a medicinal plantcomplex in the Iberian Peninsula and.... Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.08.024

Table 1

Species known as ‘‘Arnica’’ in the Iberian Peninsula. Codes for part used: F: Flower heads, inflorescences, flowers; H: Leaves; PA: Fresh aerial parts; S: Seeds. Codes

for pharmaceutical form (preparation): D: decoction; Exc: plant fried in olive oil; I: Infusion; Mac: macerated in olive oil; Malc: macerated in brandy or alcohol;

Mv: macerated in wine; O: Distilled essential oil; P: powdered; Tr: fresh plant ground; UDP: The plant without preparation. Codes for method of administration: AD:

directly applied; B: beverage (internal); Ba: baths; C: compresses; E: plasters and poultices; F: frictions; L: wash the affected area; PC: hot packs; S: smoked (like tobacco).

V: vapors directly applied to the affected area. Underlined: core medicinal uses, preparation and administration forms (c.f. Table 3).

Scientific

name and

authors

Vernacular

Names (arnica

and similar)

Other

vernacular

names

Localities Medicinal uses Parts

used

Preparation

form

Administration

form

References

Asteraceae

Achillea

ageratum L.

arnica Ciudad Real,

Toledo

Inflammation, Pimples,

Wounds. Veterinary:

Wounds

F, PA Exc, D, Mac,

Malc,

L, P Verde et al. (2001),

Verde et al. (2008)

Andryala

integrifolia L.

arnica, flor de

annica, flor de

arnica

liria Jaen Contusion, Hematoma,

Inflammation, Sprains,

Wounds. Veterinary:

Pains

PA D B, C, L Carazo et al. (1998a),

Espinosa et al. (2001),

Fernandez–Ocana et al.

(1994), Lara (1992),

Nieto (1992)

Andryala

ragusina L.

arnica Jaen Inflammation PA D C Fernandez-Ocana et al.

(1994)

Arnica

montana L.

arnica, arnica,

arnique

flor de tabac,

herba capital,

erva-dos-

golpes

Asturias,

Barcelona Gerona,

Huesca, Lerida,

Lugo, Menorca

Teruel, Valencia.

Portugal (Beira,

Braganc-a Minho,

Ribatejo)

Analgesic, Contusion,

Bowels ache, Common

cold, Cough, Cuts,

Febrifuge, Hematoma,

Headache, Phlebitis,

Rheumatism, Stimulant,

Stomach ache, Wounds.

Veterinary: Cuts

F, H,

PA

D, I, Mac,

Malc, O, Tr

AD, B, C, E, F, L,

PC

Agelet et al. (2002),

Blanco et al. (1999),

Agelet et al. (2002)

Bonet and Valles (2006),

Carvalho (2010), Feij~ao

(1952), Fresquet et al.

(2001), Moll (2005),

Parada et al. (2002),

Rigat et al. (2006), Rigat

et al. (2007), San Miguel

(2008), Sebastian-

Domingo (1988),

Vasconcellos (1949)

Asteriscus

spinosus

(L.) Sch. Bip.

arnica, arnica

borda, arnica de

secano, flor de

arnica,

corona de

capell�a, gravit,

herba febrera,

parepic, pares

i fills,

Barcelona,

Castellon,

Cordoba, Granada,

Huesca, Jaen,

Lerida, Menorca

Analgesic, Brucellosis,

Chest pain, Contusion,

Hematoma, Infections,

Myalgia, Rheumatism,

Sprains, Stomach ache,

Vascular diseases.

Wounds. Veterinary:

Inflammation

F, PA D, I, Malc B, E, F, L, V Agelet and Valles (2003),

Benıtez (2007), Bonet

(1993), Bonet et al.

(2008), Bonet and Valles

(2006), Espinosa et al.

(2001, 2002), Ferrandez

and Sanz (1993), Moll

(2005), Mulet (1991),

Palacın et al. (1984),

Ruiz and Triano (1998),

Sanchez-Romero (2003),

Triano (2007), Villar

et al. (1992)

Centaurea

granatensis

Boiss. ex DC.

flor de arnica Granada Contusion, Inflammation F I, D C, L Gonzalez-Tejero (1989),

Gonzalez-Tejero et al.

(1995)

Chiliadenus

glutinosus (L.)

Fourr.

acnica, anica,

annica, arnica,

atnica, aznica,

arnica basta,

arnica de piedra,

arnica-ge del

campo, ernica, flor

de anica, haxnica,

manzanilla de

sierra,

mosquerilla, te

de monte, te

de serra, te de

risca, te de

roca, te de

tajas

Albacete, Alicante,

Jaen, Murcia,

Valencia

Allergy, Appetite

stimulant, Astringent,

Bites, Bowels ache,

Broken arm, Sprains,

Circulatory troubles,

Common cold,

Contusion, Depurative,

Dermatitis, Dirty

stomach, Digestive,

Eczema, Febrifuge, Feet

inflamed, Heart tonic,

Infections, Influenza,

Kidney pain and stones,

Phlebitis, Sores, Sore

throat, Stomach ache and

inflammation,

Tranquilizer, Ulcers,

Wounds. Veterinary:

Wounds

H, PA I, Mac, Malc,

P

AD, B, L, V Barco, (1992), Cantero

et al. (1987), Carazo

et al. (1998b), Espinosa

et al. (2002), Fajardo

et al. (2000), Fresquet

et al. (2001), Gaudens

and Sanz (1984), Jordan

and De la Pena (1992),

Obon and Rivera (1991),

Olmo, (1992), Pellicer

(2005), Perez (2007),

Rıos and Martınez

(2003), Rivera et al.

(2008), Rivera and Obon

(1996), Verde (2002),

Verde et al. (1998a,

1998b), Verde et al.

(2008)

Conyza

bonariensis

(L.) Cronquist

flor de anhnica Jaen Contusion PA Mac E Carazo et al. (1998a),

Gonzalez (1992)

Crepis

paludosa (L.)

Moench

arnica Huesca Contusion, Rheumatism

Wounds

F D, Malc F, L, PC Palacın et al. (1984),

Villar et al. (1992)

C. Obon et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]] 3

Please cite this article as: Obon, C., et al., Arnica: A multivariate analysis of the botany and ethnopharmacology of a medicinal plantcomplex in the Iberian Peninsula and.... Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.08.024

Table 1 (continued )

Scientific

name and

authors

Vernacular

Names (arnica

and similar)

Other

vernacular

names

Localities Medicinal uses Parts

used

Preparation

form

Administration

form

References

Crepis

vesicaria L.

subsp.

taraxacifolia

(Thuill.) Thell.

arnica, flor de

arnica

Granada Antiseptic, Blood

circulation, Bone

dislocations, Contusion,

Inflammation, Sprains,

Stomach ache

F D, I B, C, E, L Gonzalez-Tejero (1989),

Gonzalez-Tejero et al.

(1995)

Dittrichia

viscosa (L.)

Greuter

arnica, ernica, flor

de annica, flor de

arnica,

apagafocs,

artabaca,

cholibarda,

mata

mosquera,

matavinyes,

mosquera,

olivarda,

tabaquera,

tarraga

Alicante, Almerıa,

Barcelona,

Castellon,

Cordoba, Granada,

Huesca, Jaen,

Murcia, Valencia

Analgesic, Burns,

Contusion, Diabetes,

Digestive , Eczema,

Erysipelas, Eye sore,

Febrifuge, Hematoma,

Hemorrhoids,

Inflammation,

Insecticide, Kidney pain,

Painful corns,

Pneumonia, Respiratory

troubles, Rheumatism,

Sprains, Stomach ache,

Tobacco, Wounds.

Veterinary: Bowels ache

F, H,

PA

D, Exc, I,

Mac, Malc,

P, Tr

AD, B, Ba, C, E, F,

L, PC, S

Benıtez, (2007), Bonet

and Valles (2006), Bonet

et al. (2008), Espinosa

et al. (2001), Fernandez-

Ocana et al. (1994),

Gonzalez-Tejero (1989),

Martınez-Lirola et al.

(1997), Mesa (1996),

Molina (2001), Mulet

(1991), Palacın et al.

(1984), Rıos and

Martınez (2003), Rivera

et al. (2008), Rivera and

Obon (1996), Ruiz and

Triano (1998), Villar

et al. (1992)

Doronicum

carpetanum

Boiss. & Reut.

ex Willk.

& Lange

arnica Asturias Cuts. Veterinary: Cuts PA D L San Miguel (2008)

Doronicum

grandiflorum

Lam.

arnica Barcelona, Huesca,

Lerida

Contusion, Rheumatism F D, I, Malc B, F, L Agelet and Valles (2003),

Bonet (1993), Palacın

et al. (1984),

Villar et al. (1992)

Doronicum

pardalianches

L.

arnica Huesca Contusion, Rheumatism F Malc F Palacın et al. (1984),

Villar et al. (1992)

Hieracium sp. arnica Asturias Cuts PA D L San Miguel (2008)

Inula

britannica L.

arnica tabaquera Guadalajara Contusion, Hematoma F D PC Verde et al. (2008)

Inula

helenioides

DC.

arnica tabaco de

montana,

tabaquera

Barcelona,

Cantabria, Cuenca,

Guadalajara,

Huesca, Segovia,

Teruel

Analgesic, Arthritis,

Burns, Contusion,

Hematoma, Dirty

stomach, Myalgia,

Rheumatism, Stomach

ache and inflammation,

Swellings, Wounds.

Veterinary: Colic,

Chafing, Inflammations,

Sores, Wounds

F, PA D, Exc, I,

Mac, Malc,

Mv, O

AD, B, Ba, C, F, L,

PC, V

Blanco (1998), Bonet and

Valles (2006), Fajardo

et al. (2007), Ferrandez

and Sanz (1993),

Palacın et al. (1984),

Pardo (2004, 2008),

Pardo-Sastron (1895),

Verde (2002),

Verde et al. (2008),

Villar et al. (1992)

Inula helvetica

Weber

arnica, arnica

borda

Lerida (Pallars) Analgesic, Contusion,

Inflammation,

Rheumatism, Sprains,

Wounds

F Exc, Mac,

Malc

F Agelet and Valles (2001)

Inula montana

L.

arnica, arnica vera,

arnica borda,

arnica fina, ernica

gargallo,

guarnica,

hierba de las

caıdas, ınula,

jolivarda,

tabaquera,

tabaco de

montana

Albacete, Alicante,

Asturias,

Barcelona,

Cantabria,

Castellon, Cuenca,

Granada, Huesca,

Lugo, Murcia,

Segovia, Teruel,

Valencia

Analgesic, Burns,

Contusion, Cuts, Dirty

stomach, Febrifuge,

Hematoma,

Inflammation, Joint pain,

Myalgia, Mouth infected,

Rheumatism, Sprains,

Stimulant, Stomach ache,

Toothache, Wounds.

Veterinary: Chafing,

Inflammation, Wounds

F, H,

PA

D, Exc, I,

Mac, Malc,

Mv, UDP

AD, Ba, B, C, E, F,

L, PC, V

Alcazar et al. (1990),

Bermejo et al. (1995),

Blanco (1996, 1998),

Bonet (1993), Bonet and

Valles (2006), Fajardo

et al. (2007), Fresquet

(2001), Gonzalez-Tejero

et al. (1995), Gonzalez-

Tejero (1989), Lastra

(2003), Mulet (1991),

Palacın et al. (1984),

Pardo (2004, 2008),

Pardo-Sastron (1895),

Rıos and Martınez

(2003), Rivera et al.

(2008), Verde (2002),

Verde et al. (2008), Villar

et al. (1992)

C. Obon et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]4

Please cite this article as: Obon, C., et al., Arnica: A multivariate analysis of the botany and ethnopharmacology of a medicinal plantcomplex in the Iberian Peninsula and.... Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.08.024

2.2. Data management and analysis

The information was systematized in a crude matrix with 32

OTUS which are plant species (Table 1) and 147 not mutually

exclusive presence–absence descriptors, belonging to seven cate-

gories (Table 2). Categories include: (1) vernacular name (‘‘Arnica’’,

binomials with ‘‘Arnica’’ and synonyms), (2) morphology and habitat

(yellow flowers, flowers in heads or capitula), basal rosette of leaves,

herbaceous, opposite cauline leaves, rocky places, wet meadows),

(3) plant-parts used, (4) medicinal uses (Table 1), (5) forms of pre-

paration and (6) administration and (7) zones where the plants are

used. The crude matrix was used to compute a dissimilarity matrix

with the Sokal-Sneath index of dissimilarity (un2) (dij¼2(bþc)/

aþ2(bþc)), where dij is the dissimilarity between species i and j,

a is the number of variables where xi¼presence and xj¼presence, b is

the number of variables where xi¼presence and xj¼absence and c is

Table 1 (continued )

Scientific

name and

authors

Vernacular

Names (arnica

and similar)

Other

vernacular

names

Localities Medicinal uses Parts

used

Preparation

form

Administration

form

References

Inula salicina

L.

arnica tabaquera Barcelona, Cuenca,

Teruel

Aches, Contusion, Dirty

stomach, Hematoma,

Inflammation

F D, I, Malc B, F, L, PC Bonet (1993), Fajardo

et al. (2007), Pardo-

Sastron (1895), Verde

(2002), Verde et al.

(2008)

Pulicaria

odora (L.)

Rchb.

arnica Badajoz Veterinary: Contusion PA D F Penco and Gordon

(2003)

Pulicaria

paludosa Link

flor de anica Cordoba Sprains PA D Ba Sanchez-Romero (2003)

Senecio

doronicum

(L.) L.

arnica Huesca Contusion, Rheumatism F, PA D, Malc F, L Palacın et al. (1984),

Villar et al. (1992)

Senecio

jacobaea L.

arnica, annica,

ernica,

flores mil Badajoz, Ciudad

Real, Huesca

Bites, Burns, Chafing,

Contusion, Dermatitis in

babies, Herpes,

Inflammation, Liver

inflammation; Myalgia,

Rheumatism, Scratches,

Scuffs, Skin spots,

Smarting, Wounds

F, PA D, Exc, I,

Mac, Malc

B, C, F, L Ferrandez and Sanz

(1993), Molero et al.

(2001), Palacın et al.

(1984), Vallejo et al.

(2007), Vallejo et al.

(2008a, 2008b), Villar

et al. (1992)

Senecio

pyrenaicus L.

arnica Huesca Contusion, Rheumatism PA Malc F Palacın et al. (1984),

Villar et al. (1992)

Hypericaceae

Hypericum

ericoides L.

arnica fina Murcia Aperitif, Ulcers PA I D Obon and Rivera (1991)

Hypericum

perforatum L.

arnica, annica hierba de San

Juan, hiperico,

lechuguilla

amarilla,

pericon,

pericote

Badajoz, Caceres,

Salamanca

Bowels ache, Burns,

Contusion, Dermatitis in

babies, Hemorrhoids,

Herpes, Inflammation,

Scratches, Scuffs, Skin

spots, Sores, Sprains,

Wasp bites, Wounds.

Veterinary: Infections,

Vermifuge, Wounds

F, PA D, Exc, Mac,

Mv

AD, B, C, E, L Tejerina (2010), Vallejo

et al. (2008a, 2008b),

Velasco et al. (2010)

Lamiaceae

Ajuga iva (L.)

Schreber

flor de arnica Granada Contusion, Inflammation,

Poisoning, Wounds

F, PA D B, L Benıtez (2007)

Salvia

verbenaca L.

arnica, arnicon, salvia Huesca,

Salamanca

Herpes, Eye infection,

Stomach ache, Wounds

H, S D, I, Malc, Tr B, C, E, L Ferrandez and Sanz

(1993), Velasco et al.

(2010)

Liliaceae

Lilium

pyrenaicum

Gouan

arnica, azucena Huesca Contusion, Rheumatism,

Wounds

F Mac, Malc F, L Ferrandez and Sanz

(1993), Palacın et al.

(1984), Villar et al.

(1992)

Plantaginaceae

Plantago

major L.

anica orejillas de

conejo, yantel

Jaen Common cold,

Inflammation of mouth,

Sore throat, Wounds

PA D B, L Carazo et al. (1998b)

Rosaceae

Sanguisorba

minor Scop.

arnica, arnica fina yerba del

pastor

Jaen Contusion, Sprains,

Wounds

PA D, Exc, UDP AD, L Carazo et al. (1998b),

Fernandez-Ocana et al.

(1994), Hervas (1992)

C. Obon et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]] 5

Please cite this article as: Obon, C., et al., Arnica: A multivariate analysis of the botany and ethnopharmacology of a medicinal plantcomplex in the Iberian Peninsula and.... Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.08.024

the number of variables where xi¼absence and xj¼absence. These

dissimilarities are even and are Euclidean distances. The dissimilarity

is¼0 for two species sharing the 147 descriptors and ¼1 for two

species which present 0 descriptors shared. This and subsequent

analyses and graphics were carried out with DARwin 5.0.158 (Perrier

et al., 2003; Perrier and Jacquemoud-Collet, 2006). Principal coordi-

nates analysis (PCoA), which is a member of the factorial analysis

family working on distance matrices, was used to give an overall

representation of diversity within the ‘‘Arnica’’ complex. In order to

realistically represent individual relations a hierarchical tree was

constructed to describe the relationships between units based on the

common agglomerative heuristic that proceeds by successive

ascending agglomerations. For updating dissimilarity during the tree

construction theWard criterion was adopted, which searches at each

step for a local optimum to minimize the within-group or equiva-

lently to maximize the between-group inertia. The maps were drawn

using GMT (2011).

The degree of integration of each species in the complex is

quantified by the TD absolute index: total of descriptors present

in/shared by the species and the TD relative index: TD absolute/total

number of descriptors used (147). A species that share all the

descriptors TD has absolute value¼147, and TD relative value¼100%.

The leadership of each species within the complex is repre-

sented by the RD index (Relative Descriptors Sharing), which is

calculated by dividing each species TD index value by the

maximum TD index value recorded. The species that present the

greatest TD will have a value of RD¼1.

The degree of approximation of the complex and each one of

the subcomplexes to the hypothetical prototype is calculated by

the Group Total Descriptors Sharing (GTD) which is the average of

the values of TD relative index of species belonging to the group.

For a prototypical complex GTD¼100%.

3. Results and discussion

We found that total of 34 species of medicinal plants belong-

ing to seven families that share the name ‘‘Arnica’’ in the Iberian

Peninsula. However, information recorded about Senecio gallicus L.

(Asteraceae) and Ononis natrix L. (Leguminosae) is limited to the

name, and therefore our analysis only focused on the 32 remain-

ing species (Table 1).

3.1. Vernacular names

In the surveyed area a total of 36 different vernacular names

are given to plants of the ‘‘Arnica’’ complex. Languages (named

after Lewis 2009) in which names have been registered for the

‘‘Arnica’’ complex in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands

are Aragonese, Aranese, Asturian, Catalan-Valencian-Balear,

Extremaduran, Galician, Portuguese and Spanish. ‘‘Arnica’’ is a

name given to 29 species and ‘‘flor de arnica’’ to three species.

Frequently, the plant also receives other local names that can be

binomial with ‘‘Arnica’’ or synonyms, preexisting or not (Table 1).

The use of some of the synonyms is documented for long, before

the introduction of the name ‘‘Arnica’’ in 1785 AD (RAE, 2012a):

‘‘azucena’’ in 1499 AD, ‘‘hierba de San Juan’’ and ‘‘pericon’’ in 1565

AD, ‘‘llanten’’ in 1435 AD, ‘‘manzanilla’’ in 1438, ‘‘tabaco’’ in 1535

AD. Some evidences are almost quite simultaneous such as

‘‘inula’’, ‘‘mosquera’’ and ‘‘olivarda’’ in 1797 AD. Laguna (1555)

recorded other names and medicinal uses for Achillea ageratum L.,

Hieracium sp., Plantago spp., Pulicaria spp., and Senecio spp.

In the official Portuguese Pharmacopoeia the mentioned Portu-

guese names are: ‘‘tabaco-dos-saboianos’’, ‘‘betonica-dos-saboianos’’,

‘‘cravo-dos-Alpes’’, ‘‘dorico-da-Alemanha’’, ‘‘tabaco-dos-Vosgos’’ and

‘‘tanchagem-dos-Alpes’’ all relating to the Alpine origin of the plant,

also ‘‘quina-dos-pobres’’ referring to the use of the plant as anti-

malarial (Feij~ao, 1952; Proenc-a da Cunha and Roque, 2008).

Obviously the names around ‘‘Arnica’’ are the descriptors that

really contribute much to the structure of the medicinal plant

complex (Tables 2 and 3).

3.2. The botanical families

The 32 species known as ‘‘Arnica’’ belong to six botanical

families. A total of 24 species are Asteraceae, belonging to eight

tribes:

� Anthemideae Cass. (Achillea ageratum L.).

� Astereae Cass. (Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist).

� Cardueae Cass. (Centaurea granatensis Boiss. ex DC.).

� Cichorieae Lam. & DC. (Andryala integrifolia L., A. ragusina L.,

Crepis paludosa (L.) Moench, C. vesicaria L. subsp. taraxacifolia

(Thuill.) Thell., and Hieracium sp.).

� Doroniceae Panero (Doronicum carpetanum Boiss. & Reut. ex

Willk. & Lange, D. grandiflorum Lam. and D. pardalianches L.).

� Inulaeae Cass. (Chiliadenus glutinosus (L.) Fourr, Dittrichia vis-

cosa (L.) Greuter, Inula britannica L., I. helenioides DC, I. helvetica

Weber, I. montana L., I. salicina L., Asteriscus spinosus (L.) Sch.

Bip., Pulicaria odora (L.) Rchb., and P. paludosa Link.).

� Madieae Jeps. (Arnica montana L.).

� Senecioneae Cass. (Senecio doronicum (L.) L., S. jacobaea L., and S.

pyrenaicus L.).

Inuleae Cass. represents the core of the ‘‘Arnica’’ complex not

only by the high number of species but because they share a

greater number of descriptors of the ‘‘Arnica’’ complex.

Other families are:

� Hypericaceae (Hypericum perforatum L. and H. ericoides L.).

� Lamiaceae (Ajuga iva (L.) Schreber and Salvia verbenaca L.).

� Liliaceae (Lilium pyrenaicum Gouan).

� Plantaginaceae (Plantago major L.).

� Rosaceae (Sanguisorba minor Scop.).

3.3. The ‘‘Arnica’’ complex

3.3.1. General features of the complex

The complex is defined by a group of characters that collec-

tively indicate or characterize ‘‘Arnica’’, in this sense is like a

medical syndrome, which does not requires the presence of all

symptoms to diagnose the disease. ‘‘Arnica’’ syndrome, or pattern,

Table 2

Categories of descriptors used for the ‘‘Arnica’’ complex in the Iberian Peninsula.

Codes: Av. Average number of species that share the core descriptors within each

category, SD. Standard deviation for the number of species that share the core

descriptors. Core descriptors are those which are present in at least 1/3 of the

species that integrate the complex.

Categories Descriptors Core descriptors Av SD

Vernacular names 36 1 29 0

Morphology and habitat 8 6 23.3 7.43

Plant parts used 4 2 20 2

Medicinal uses 66 4 15.5 3.5

Preparation 11 4 16.25 4.96

Administration 9 4 16.25 4.81

Zones 13 2 13 1

Totals 147 23

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Please cite this article as: Obon, C., et al., Arnica: A multivariate analysis of the botany and ethnopharmacology of a medicinal plantcomplex in the Iberian Peninsula and.... Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.08.024

is the sum of properties and uses of the different species that are

named ‘‘Arnica’’ and derivatives. These are represented by 147

presence/absence descriptors. However the proportion of species

sharing these descriptors is low. Ninety percent of the 32 species

sharing the name ‘‘Arnica’’, present yellow flowers and are

herbaceous and perennial. Of the 147 descriptors used, only 14

are present in/shared by 50% or more and 23 core descriptors are

present in/shared by 33% or more of the 32 species analyzed

(Table 3).

The degree of approximation of the complex to the prototype

is represented by the GTD. Considering the prototypical complex

GTD¼100%, the calculated GTD is low and only 15.5%.

Using the 23 core descriptors, we can describe the syndrome

for the ‘‘Arnica’’ complex as follows:

Morphology: Herbaceous perennial plants, occasionally with

a basal rosette of leaves and with heads of yellow flowers.

Habitat: Rocky places.

Distribution: Mainly Aragon and Andalucıa.

Parts used: Aerial parts including flowers or only flower-

heads.

Uses: Used to treat up to 66 different pathologies, but contu-

sion, wounds, rheumatism and inflammation are the most

frequent.

Preparation: Decoction, infusion or macerated in alcohol or in

olive oil.

Administration: Internal as beverages or topical as washing,

frictions or compresses.

Remarkably, shared medicinal uses are much less relevant

than morphology and name. However, the description of uses

mentioned above is coherent with the external uses approved by

the Commission E for Arnica flower (Arnica montana L.): hema-

toma, dislocations, contusions, edema due to fracture, rheumatic

muscle and joint problems, inflammation of the oral and throat

region, forunculosis, inflammation caused by insect bites, and

superficial phlebitis (Blumenthal et al., 1998), as well as with

those given in the Dioscorides’ Materia Medica to some of the

species of the complex (Achillea ageratum L., Dittrichia viscosa (L.)

Greuter, Hypericum perforatum L., Plantago major L., Sanguisorba

minor Scop.): to treat bites, burns, erysipelas, herpes, fistula,

inflammation, sciatica, toothache, ulcers and wounds, and as a

cholagogue, diuretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, laxative and pana-

cea (Laguna, 1555; Lopez, 2012). This can be part of the ancient

local traditional knowledge or simply a result of the impact of the

earliest Spanish versions of Dioscorides’ Materia Medica in the

16th century as shown by Leonti (2011) for Matthioli’s Italian

editions of the same work.

Though, the uses given to A. montana L. in 1785 which deter-

mined the introduction of the ‘‘Arnica’’ name in Spain are much

more inconsistent with ethnopharmacological evidence: since

this was recommended to treat amaurosis, epilepsy, paralysis,

dysentery, fever, spasms, tuberculosis, pleurisy, inflammation and

hemorrhoids, and as a diuretic and antiseptic (Sala, 1786).

Although morphology and ecology are the most characteristic

features of the complex and can lead to invoke the doctrine of

signatures, there is no evidence for such approach within the

revised texts and interviews.

According to Linares and Bye (1987), a medicinal plant com-

plex is a set of species sharing common names, morphological

characteristics and medicinal uses. Our study shows the high

variability within these complexes, and the possibility offered by

the combined use of the Principal Coordinates Analysis (Fig. 1)

and hierarchical tree construction (Fig. 2) to distinguish subcom-

plexes and to analyze the degree of coherence and thus of

‘‘sharing’’ within such complexes. In the case of the ‘‘Arnica’’

complex three different groups can be distinguished.

3.3.2. The core group of the complex

This group includes the nine species (Figs. 1 and 2) which present

/share the highest proportion of descriptors for the group (Table 4)

(numerous uses and names and a broader distribution range) (Fig. 3).

Seven species are Asteraceae, five of them belonging to the Inuleae

Cass. tribe (Chiliadenus glutinosus (L.) Fourr., Dittrichia viscosa (L.)

Greuter, Inula montana L., Inula heleniodes DC. and Asteriscus spinosus

(L.) Sch. Bip., one to the Madieae Jeps. tribe (Arnica montana L.), and

Table 3

List of the 23 core descriptors of the ‘‘Arnica’’ medicinal plant complex of the Iberian

Peninsula, which are shared by at least 1/3 of the species that integrate the complex.

Explanation of codes: Tot. Total of species that present/share the descriptor.

Core descriptors Categories Tot

1 Herbaceous Morphology 30

2 Perennial Morphology 30

3 Arnica (acnica, annica, arnica vera,

ernica, haxnica, arnica fina)

Names 29

4 Yellow Flowers Morphology 28

5 Flowers in heads (Capitula) Morphology 25

6 Decoction Preparation 24

7 Washing Administration 24

8 Aerial parts Parts used 22

9 Contusions Medicinal uses 21

10 Flowers Parts used 18

11 Macerated in alcohol Preparation 17

12 Rocky places Morphology 17

13 Beverages Administration 16

14 Wounds Medicinal uses 16

15 Frictions Administration 14

16 Aragon Zones 14

17 Infusion Preparation 13

18 Rheumatism Medicinal uses 13

19 Andalucia Zones 12

20 Inflammation Medicinal uses 12

21 Compresses Administration 11

22 Macerated in olive oil Preparation 11

23 Basal rosette of leaves Morphology 10

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Please cite this article as: Obon, C., et al., Arnica: A multivariate analysis of the botany and ethnopharmacology of a medicinal plantcomplex in the Iberian Peninsula and.... Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.08.024

one to the Senecioneae Cass. tribe (Senecio jacobaea L.), and the

other two species are Hypericaceae (Hypericum perforatum L.) and

Lamiaceae (Salvia verbenaca L.).

The degree of approximation of the core group to the proto-

type calculated by the GTD is low to medium, GTD¼30.2%, but

much higher than the observed for whole ‘‘Arnica’’ complex

GTD¼15.5%.

We can describe the ‘‘Arnica’’ core group (Figs. 1 and 2) as

follows:

Morphology: Herbaceous (8 species) perennial plants (8), with

heads (8) of yellow flowers (8) (except Salvia verbenaca L.).

Distribution: Mainly Aragon (8).

Parts used: Aerial parts including flowers (8).

Factorial analysis: Axes 1 / 2

-.4 -.35 -.3 -.25 -.2 -.15 -.1 -.05 .05 .1 .15 .2 .25 .3 .35

.45

.4

.35

.3

.25

.2

.15

.1

.05

-.05

-.1

-.15

-.2

-.25

-.3

Achillea ageratum L.

Ajuga iva (L.) Schreber

Andryala integrifolia L.

Andryala ragusina L.

Centaurea granatensis Boiss.

Chiliadenus glutinosus (L.) Fourr.

Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq.

Crepis paludosa (L.) Moench

Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq.

Crepis vesicaria L. subsp. haenseleri (Boiss.) P.D. Sell

Andryala integrifolia LDittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter

Doronicum carpetanum Boiss et Reuter ex Willk.

Doronicum grandiflorum Lam.

Doronicum pardalianches L.

Hieracium sp.

Hypericum ericoides L.

Hypericum perforatum L.

Inula britannica L.Inula helvetica Weber

Inula montana L.

Inula salicina L.

Asteriscus spinosus (L.) Sch. Bip.

Plantago major L.

Pulicaria odora (L.) Reichenb.

Pulicaria paludosa Link.

Salvia verbenaca L.

Sanguisorba minor Scop.

Senecio doronicum (L.) L.

Senecio jacobaea L.

Senecio pyrenaicus L.

Core group

Peripheral

subcomplex

Secondary subcomplex

Arnica montana L.

Inula helenioides DC

Lilium pyrenaicum Gouan

Fig. 1. Scatter diagram for the two principal axes of the results of a principal coordinates analysis of the ‘‘Arnica’’ medicinal plant complex.

Arnica Hierarchical Clustering Ward

0 0.2

Achillea ageratum L.

Ajuga iva (L.) Schreber

Andryala integrifolia L.

Andryala ragusina L.

Arnica montana L.

Centaurea granatensis Boiss.

Chiliadenus glutinosus (L.) Fourr.

Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq.

Crepis paludosa (L.) Moench

Crepis vesicaria L. subsp. haenseleri (Boiss.) P.D. Sell

Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter

Doronicum carpetanum Boiss et Reuter ex Willk.

Doronicum grandiflorum Lam.

Doronicum pardalianches L.

Hieracium sp.

Hypericum ericoides L.

Hypericum perforatum L.

Inula britannica L.

Inula helenioides DC

Inula helvetica Weber

Inula montana L.

Inula salicina L.

Lilium pyrenaicum Gouan

Asteriscus spinosus (L.) Sch. Bip.

Plantago major L.

Pulicaria odora (L.) Reichenb.

Pulicaria paludosa Link.

Salvia verbenaca L.

Sanguisorba minor Scop.

Senecio doronicum (L.) L.

Senecio jacobaea L.

Senecio pyrenaicus L.

Peripheral

subcomplex

Secondary

subcomplex

Core group

Fig. 2. Hierarchical tree constructed with the minimum variance Ward’s criterion.

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Please cite this article as: Obon, C., et al., Arnica: A multivariate analysis of the botany and ethnopharmacology of a medicinal plantcomplex in the Iberian Peninsula and.... Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.08.024

Uses: Contusion (8) and wounds (9).

Preparation: Decoction (8) or macerated in alcohol (8).

Administration: Internal as beverages (9) or topical as wash-

ing (9).

This group includes prototypical species with the highest

proportion of descriptors shared with RD values: 0.41–1 (average

0.77) (Table 4). The Relative Descriptors-Sharing index (RD) is

calculated for each species dividing his TD value (Total of Descrip-

tors present/shared) by the maximum value of TD among the 32

species. It is worth emphasizing that the core of the ‘‘Arnica’’

medicinal plant complex is defined by three species of the tribe

Inuleae Cass. (Chiliadenus glutinosus (L.) Fourr., Inula montana L. and

Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter) to which Arnica montana L. is attached

(Table 4). Chiliadenus glutinosus (L.) Fourr. is usually consumed as a

herbal tea in numerous places of Spain (Pardo et al., 2005) where it

is named ‘‘Te’’ and derivatives. This suggests the preexistence of a

medicinal plant complex in the Iberian Peninsula long before the

adoption of labels such as ‘‘Te’’ in the 18th century or ‘‘Arnica’’, in

the 19th century, which was most likely labeled by Chiliadenus

glutinosus (L.) Fourr. This preexisting complex could be obscured

with the adoption of the new names and the growth of the new

complexes under the influence of international commerce and

medical staff. The methodology proposed in this paper applied to

the complex labeled ‘‘Te’’ in Spain could provide new insights into

such topic. The core group also includes other species than

Asteraceae species (Salvia verbenaca L., Hypericum perforatum L.)

(Table 4), which together with Senecio jacobaea L. comprise a

satellite to its main nucleus (Fig. 2). Hypericum perforatum L.,

particularly, replaces in numerous medicinal uses the Asteraceae

species of the group in western Spain (Table 1).

3.3.3. The secondary subcomplex

This group includes ten species: nine Asteraceae (Achillea

ageratum L., Crepis paludosa (L.) Moench, Doronicum grandiflorum

Lam., D. pardalianches L., Inula britannica L., I. helvetica Grauer, I.

salicina L., Senecio doronicum (L.) L., S. pyrenaicus L.), and one

Liliaceae (Lilium pyrenaicum Gouan).

The degree of approximation of the secondary subcomplex to

the prototype is low, GTD¼11.2%, and less than the whole

‘‘Arnica’’ complex GTD¼15.5%.

We can describe the ‘‘Arnica’’ secondary subcomplex

(Figs. 1 and 2) as follows:

Morphology: Herbaceous (8 species) perennial plants (8), with

heads (9) of yellow flowers (10).

Habitat: Rocky places (7).

Distribution: Mainly Aragon (6).

Parts used: flowers (7).

Uses: Contusion (7) and rheumatism (7).

Preparation: Macerated in alcohol (7).

Administration: Topical as frictions (7).

This group comprises species with RD values from 0.21 to 0.38

(average 0.28) (Table 4).

3.3.4. Peripheral subcomplex

The 13 remaining species present the lowest RD values,

0.16–0.33 (average 0.22) (overlapping in part with those of the

previous group) and form a third group which includes nine

Asteraceae (Andryala integrifolia L., A. ragusina L., Centaurea gran-

atensis Boiss. ex DC., Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist, Crepis

vesicaria subsp. taraxacifolia (Thuill.) Thell., Doronicum carpetanum

Boiss. & Reut. ex Willk. & Lange, Hieracium sp., Pulicaria odora (L.)

Table 4

Diversity of descriptors for each species of the ‘‘Arnica’’ complex in the Iberian Peninsula. Species appear in descendent order in

terms of total number of descriptors present (names, zones, uses, parts used, morphology, preparation and administration).

Explanation of codes: SC. Subcomplex (cf. Figs. 1 and 2). VN. Number of different vernacular names. M. Morphology. PR.

Preparation. ADM. Administration. TD. Total of Descriptors present in the species. RD. Proportion of TD in the species with respect

to those present in the species with the highest TD value.

Species SC VN Zones Uses Parts M PR ADM TD RD

Chiliadenus glutinosus (L.) Fourr. 1 9 4 30 2 5 4 4 58 1.00

Inula montana L. 1 7 8 19 3 5 7 9 58 1.00

Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter 1 8 5 21 3 3 7 8 55 0.95

Arnica montana L. 1 4 6 15 3 7 7 7 49 0.84

Asteriscus spinosus (L.) Sch.Bip. 1 10 5 14 2 3 3 5 42 0.72

Inula helenioides DC 1 2 5 16 2 5 6 8 44 0.76

Senecio jacobaea L. 1 2 3 14 3 5 6 5 38 0.66

Hypericum perforatum L. 1 3 1 14 2 4 4 4 32 0.55

Salvia verbenaca L. 1 3 2 5 2 4 4 4 24 0.41

Achillea ageratum L. 2 1 1 4 2 6 4 2 20 0.34

Inula helvetica Weber 2 2 1 6 1 5 3 1 19 0.33

Inula salicina L. 2 2 3 5 1 5 2 4 22 0.38

Andryala integrifolia L. 3 3 1 5 1 4 1 3 18 0.31

Crepis vesicaria L. subsp. haenseleri (Boiss.) P.D. Sell 3 2 1 4 1 5 2 4 17 0.29

Crepis paludosa (L.) Moench 2 1 1 2 1 6 3 4 16 0.28

Doronicum grandiflorum Lam. 2 1 2 2 1 5 3 3 14 0.24

Senecio doronicum (L.) L. 2 1 1 2 2 6 2 2 14 0.24

Centaurea granatensis Boiss. 3 1 1 2 1 6 2 2 13 0.22

Inula britannica L. 2 2 1 2 1 6 1 1 12 0.21

Plantago major L. 3 3 1 4 1 3 1 2 18 0.31

Lilium pyrenaicum Gouan 2 2 1 3 1 3 2 2 19 0.33

Sanguisorba minor Scop. 3 2 1 3 1 2 3 2 15 0.26

Senecio pyrenaicus L. 2 2 1 2 1 5 1 1 15 0.26

Andryala ragusina L. 3 1 1 1 1 6 1 1 14 0.24

Doronicum carpetanum Boiss. et Reuter ex Willk. 3 1 1 2 1 5 1 1 12 0.21

Doronicum pardalianches L. 2 1 1 2 1 5 1 1 12 0.21

Ajuga iva (L.) Schreber 3 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 11 0.19

Hieracium sp. 3 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 11 0.19

Pulicaria odora (L.) Reichenb. 3 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 10 0.17

Pulicaria paludosa Link 3 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 10 0.17

Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. 3 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 9 0.16

Hypericum ericoides L. 3 1 0 2 1 3 1 2 10 0.17

C. Obon et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]] 9

Please cite this article as: Obon, C., et al., Arnica: A multivariate analysis of the botany and ethnopharmacology of a medicinal plantcomplex in the Iberian Peninsula and.... Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.08.024

Rchb., P. paludosa Link), one Hypericaceae (Hypericum ericoides L.),

one Lamiaceae (Ajuga iva (L.) Schreb.), one Plantaginaceae

(Plantago major L.,) and one Rosaceae (Sanguisorba minor L.).

The degree of approximation of the peripheral subcomplex to

the prototype is extremely low, GTD¼8.7%, nearly half of the

whole ‘‘Arnica’’ complex (GTD¼15.5%).

We can describe the ‘‘Arnica’’ peripheral subcomplex

(Figs. 1 and 2) as follows:

Morphology: Herbaceous (12 species) perennial plants (12),

with heads (9) of yellow flowers (10).

Habitat: Rocky places (6).

Distribution: Mainly Andalucıa (9).

Parts used: Aerial parts including flowers (11).

Uses: Contusion (5).

Preparation: Decoction (11).

Administration: Topical as washing (9).

This group is the most inconsistent in terms of shared

descriptors and presents a wider area, though mainly in Andalu-

sia. Five species share the name ‘‘Flor de Arnica’’. Another

characteristic of the subcomplex is the low number of medicinal

uses recorded.

3.3.5. Medicinal plant complexes and drug-prolific clusters

The species used as ‘‘Arnica’’ show strong phylogenetic signal:

most come from Asteraceae and some are even from the same

tribe. This is partly due to similar morphology occurring in such

species. However, recent studies have shown that there are

phylogenetic patterns in medicinal properties in plants. For

instance Zhu et al. (2011) compared the species origins of 939

approved and 369 clinical-trial drugs with those of 119 preclinical

drugs and 19,721 bioactive natural products. In contrast to the

scattered distribution of bioactive natural products, these drugs

Chiliadenus glutinosus Inula montana

Dittrichia viscosa Arnica montana

Pallenis spinosa Inula helenioides

Fig. 3. Zones where the species of the core group are used under the name ‘‘Arnica’’. Note: dots denote zones of use, not necessarily zones where the plant grows

spontaneously or is cultivated.

C. Obon et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]10

Please cite this article as: Obon, C., et al., Arnica: A multivariate analysis of the botany and ethnopharmacology of a medicinal plantcomplex in the Iberian Peninsula and.... Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.08.024

are clustered into 2% of the known families in nature, with 80% of

the approved drugs and 67% of the clinical-trial drugs concen-

trated in 17 and 30 drug-prolific families, respectively. Four lines

of evidence from historical drug data, 13,548 natural marine

products, 767 medicinal plants, and 19,721 bioactive natural

products suggest that drugs are derived mostly from preexisting

drug-productive families.

Asteraceae is prolific in approved and clinical-trial drugs.

Drug-productive clusters expand slowly by conventional tech-

nologies. Medicinal plant complexes are certainly involved in

this particular pattern of drugs expansion.

The distribution of active compounds is significantly con-

strained by the phylogeny below the family rank in particular

tribes, genera and species groups, e.g. alkaloids with acetylcholine

esterase inhibitory activity in Narcissus (Amaryllidaceae) (Rønsted

et al., 2008). The high Asteraceae species proportion in the

‘‘Arnica’’ complex is not random and may be related with a high

level of bioactive compounds.

Saslis-Lagoudakis et al. (2011) used phylogeny and biogeogra-

phy to interpret processes that shape traditional usage and

particularly cross-cultural patterns. Their community phyloge-

netic approach demonstrates that similar ethnobotanical uses can

arise in parallel in different areas, when related plants are

available there. Therefore we cannot exclude that in the 19th

century the name ‘‘Arnica’’ was used to label and describe

preexisting medicinal plant species and complexes previously

known and used in the Iberian Peninsula. However ethnobotani-

cal — historical evidence for such periods — is extremely

fragmented to determine what these complexes were.

4. Conclusions

Medicinal plant complexes of different species sharing verna-

cular names, morphological and aromatic characteristics and uses

are frequent in ethnopharmacological contexts. These are not

homogeneous and must be clearly detected and systematically

studied.

Plant species within each complex are only partly interchange-

able because the number of shared characters, including medic-

inal uses, is low. Thus special attention should be paid to the

correct botanical identification of the materials and to the

exhaustive collection of voucher specimens, since very different

species can be found under the same vernacular name.

The proposed methodology, based in the combined use of

vernacular names, morphology and habitat, plant-parts used,

medicinal uses and forms of administration in the form of

presence/absence descriptors allows, through calculation of a

dissimilarity matrix, principal coordinates analysis, hierarchical

tree construction and simple indices, to determine the degree of

coherence, core descriptors, leading species and internal patterns

of grouping within medicinal plant complexes, and produces

quantitative results which make possible to compare different

complexes.

The ‘‘Arnica’’ medicinal plant complex is extremely dynamic in

the Iberian Peninsula. In less than two hundred years up to 32

different plant species belonging to six different plant families

were named ‘‘Arnica’’. Medical staff was extremely influential in

the adoption of ‘‘Arnica’’ as a vernacular name between 1785 and

1864 in Spain and Portugal but such influence had not the same

effect on the range of uses adopted for the plants within the

complex. Since ‘‘Arnica’’ is also a vernacular name adopted for

numerous plant species in Latin America (particularly in Mexico)

it should be of great interest to use this methodology to analyze

Latin America ‘‘Arnica’’ complexes in order to compare with the

present results.

The analysis shows that Arnica montana L. is less relevant in

terms of total descriptors shared in the complex (49 of a total of

147, Table 4) than the other three species belonging to the Inuleae

Cass. tribe of the Asteraceae (Chiliadenus glutinosus (L.) Fourr. (58),

Inula montana L. (58) and Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter (55)).

Two main features of the ‘‘Arnica’’ complex in the Iberian Peninsula

are responsible for these results: the wide use of oral dosage forms

(internal use) and the type of habitat. The three Inuleae Cass. species

are used in several beverages and are found in rocky places, while

Arnica montana L. is approved almost exclusively for topical use

and grows in swamps and bogs. Moreover, the highest values of

the RD index are those from these three Inuleae species, thus

‘‘Arnica’’ complex is labeled by the characteristics of three different

Inuleae species and receives its name from a fourth Madieae species

(Arnica montana L.).

It is very important to consider the different local availability

of each of the different species, as it is very likely to be one of the

reasons that determine the replacement of species within the

complex, as noted by Linares and Bye (1987). However most of

the sources revised do not include this type of data so it could not

be included in the analysis. Therefore, it is desirable that, in the

future, the field work systematically include data on availability

of resources, if only as a qualitative scale.

It would be useful to use this methodology to analyze several

complexes of medicinal plants such as ‘‘chamomile’’, ‘‘thyme’’,

and/or ‘‘sage’’, and to clarify the numerous medicinal plant

complexes of the TCM Pharmacopoeia.

Acknowledgments

This research received partial support from the Spanish Min-

isterio de Ciencia y Tecnologıa Grant no. CGL 2008–04635 and the

Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha (Etnobiologıa de la

Flora Medicinal de Castilla-La Mancha No. PAC08-0173-4838).

We are grateful to the referees who reviewed this paper for the

careful revision and interesting approaches and Patricia Marie

Holbrook and another for reviewing the English text.

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Please cite this article as: Obon, C., et al., Arnica: A multivariate analysis of the botany and ethnopharmacology of a medicinal plantcomplex in the Iberian Peninsula and.... Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.08.024