ERGONOMICS AND OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS AND SAFETY OF TEACHERS IN GHANAIAN SCHOOLS. A CASE OF...

UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA-MAMPONG CAMPUS

FACILITY OF SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND SANITATION

SURVEY ON ERGONOMIC AND OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS

AND SAFETY OF TEACHERS AND RESEARCHERS IN STATE ACADEMIC

INSTITUTION IN GHANAA CASE STUDY OF MAMPONG MUNICIPALITY

BY

DWIRA MARK HAYFORD

1

MAY, 2014

UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA-MAMPONG CAMPUS

FACILITY OF SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND SANITATION

SURVEY ON ERGONOMIC AND OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS

AND SAFETY OF TEACHERS AND RESEARCHERS IN STATE ACADEMIC

INSTITUTION IN GHANAA CASE STUDY OF MAMPONG MUNICIPALITY

BY

DWIRA MARK HAYFORD

(5101930056)

2

A PROJECT WORK PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND

ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION,

WINNEBA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE AWARD BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE

IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND SANITATION EDUCATION

MAY, 2014

3

DECLARATION

STUDENT’S DECLARATION

I, DWIRA MARK HAYFORD, hereby declare that the presentation in

this project work is based entirely on my own work except

references to other people’s work which have been dully

acknowledged. Itherefore declare that this work has never been

presented wholly or partially for any other studies anywhere.

STUDENT’S NAME: DWIRA MARK HAYFORD

SIGNATURE: ………………………………………………….

DATE: ……………………………………………………………

SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION

I hereby declare that, I supervised this work in accordance

with the guidelines and regulations of the University of

Education, Winneba’s Supervision of project work.

SUPERVISOR’S NAME: MR. BENJAMIN TIMUUM

SIGNATURE: ………………………………………………….

DATE: ……………………………………………………………i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Ebenezer, this is where the Lord Almighty has brought me this

far. This project would not have been successful if not

through his protection and guidance showered on me from level

hundred up to this stage of my life in the academic platform.

My sincere gratitude goes to my able Supervisor Mr. Benjamin

Timuum for his encouragement, constructive criticisms,

guidance and suggestions offered during the preparation of

this dissertation

My heartfelt gratitude goes to Mr. Apau the deputy registrar

of the university of Education-Mampong campus, Mr. Oteng

Kwadwo Akyina a lecturer of university of Education-Mampong

Campus, Madam Comfort of University farms, Portia Manu-boafo

of Maakro S.D.A church, Zakiya Yahaya of Buokrom, Alice Dopsey

of Buokrom (South Africa) S.DA. Church, Madam Nadia Moro my

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course mate at the university and GNAAS fellowship member for

sharpening my life to be dedicated to Christ Jesus from level

hundred up to date.

I am equally indebted to all the national executives for their

support in hard times and my land ladies Elizabeth Appiah,

Mary Appiah and Haggai Donkor all in Mampong. All elders of

Mampong New Town S.D.A church and Theresa Donkor also of

Mampong New Town S.D.A Church.

DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to my parents Mr. and Mrs. Dwira and Mr.

Maxwell Afriyie Dwira my brother whose hard work and total

commitment has push me to this far in life.

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May God bless you!!!

My other siblings namely Comfort Anokyewaa and her husband,

Jermina Dwira, Elizabeth Dwira, Thomas Owusu and Owusu Arhin

for their love, physical and spiritual support in prayers,

care they showed in my academic carrier. All that l will say

to them is that may God replenish anything you have lost about

my four University Education in CAGRIC

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ABSTRACT

Work-related ailments that emanate from ergonomics and

occupational hazards among workers especially teachers and

researchers in our academic institutions in the country has

been neglected and this is posing certain health impacts on

the teachers and researchers in the teaching profession. In

view of this problem, the researcher conducted a survey on

ergonomics and occupational health hazards and safety of

teachers and researchers in our academic institutions in Ghana

using Mampong Municipality as case study to find out the

gravity of the problem. Questionnaires containing forty-three

(43) items with contingencies and matrix questions under the

three parts of which the questions made up of thirteen open

ended type and 30 close-ended types were used to collect the

data for the study. The twelve schools from the tertiary,

secondary and basic levels were selected using convenient

sampling and respondents from three levels were also selected

using simple random sampling.Two hundred (200) respondents

were sampled and statistical tool used to analyze data

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collected was the Statistical Package for Social Science(SPSS)

version 16using frequencies, table and Chi-squares to

establish relationships between some test items. The recovery

rate of questionnaires was 75%. The results reveal that 88% of

the teacher and researchers are trained with diploma, degree

and master in the respective field of education and have

taught for more than two years. However, 98% of the teachers

and researchers suffer from certain work-related ailments in

the school arising from compounding ergonomics (furniture they

use), teaching aids, occupational safety, physical environment

and social environment. As many as 62% of the teachers and

researchers have been on health issues. Up to 76% of the

teachers and researchers attributed their health problems to

the furniture they use in their school and 86% of the teachers

and researchers generally suffer from work-related stress as a

result of workload. Up to 82% of the teachers and researcher’s

schools do not have fire extinguishers in place and finally

89% of them lacked training in the operation of the fire-

fighting devices. From the findings, I recommend that the

teaching profession is associated with some health problems so

vi

the government, policy makers, ergonomist and all stakeholders

in education should inculcate the health and safety of

teachers and researchersinto the occupational health and

safety management standards of the country.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENT

CONTENTS PAGES

DECLARATION.................................................i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................ii

DEDICATION................................................iii

ABSTRACT...................................................iv

TABLE OF CONTENT...........................................vi

LIST OF TABLES..............................................x

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION............................................1

1.2 Statement of the Problem...............................4

1.3 Significance of the Study..............................6

1.4 General Objective.....................................7

1.5 Specific Objectives....................................7

1.6 Research Questions.....................................8

1.7 Research Hypothesis....................................8

1.8 Scope of the Study.....................................8

1.9 Limitation.............................................9

1.10 Definition of Terms...................................9

1.11 Theoretical Framework................................10

1.12 Conceptual Framework..................................11

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW.....................................14

2.1 Introduction..........................................14

viii

2.2 Ergonomics and Occupational Health Hazards and Safety of

Teachers (EOHHS):

Historical perspective................................14

2.2.1 Historical Perspectives..............................15

2.3 Ghanaian Case.........................................15

2.4 Occupational safety....................................16

2.4.1 Office Hazards......................................18

2.4.2 Ergonomic Hazards...................................18

2.4.3 Electricity Hazards..................................19

2.4.4 Slips Trips and Falls Hazards........................20

2.4.5 Influence of Occupational Safety on Teacher.........20

2.5 Occupational Health....................................21

2.5.1 Chemical Hazards.....................................22

2.5.2 Work Related Stress..................................23

2.5.3. Influence of Psychological Stress on Teachers.......24

2.5.4 Biological hazards...................................25

2.5.5 Influence of occupational health on teaching.........25

2.6 Physical Environment..................................27

2.6.1 Visual Factors.......................................28

2.6.2 Housekeeping.........................................28

2.6.3 Acoustic Factors.....................................28

2.6.4 Thermal Factors......................................29

2.6.5 Influence of Physical Environment to Teachers

Performance of Duties......................................29

2.7. The School’s Social Environment Influence on Teachers’

Performance................................................30

ix

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHOLOGY....................................32

3.1 Introduction..........................................32

3.2. Location of Study Area................................32

3.3 Climate and Vegetation................................32

3.4 Demography of the Study Area..........................33

3.5 Research Design........................................33

3.6 Target Population.....................................34

3.7 Sample Size and Sample Selection......................34

3.8. Data Collection Procedures............................35

3.9 Research Instruments..................................36

3.10 Instrument Validity..................................37

3.11 Data Analysis Procedures.............................37

3.12 Operational Definition of Variables..................38

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION........42

4.1. Introduction..........................................42

4.2 Response Rate..........................................42

4:3 Demographic Information...............................43

4.4 Qualified Teachers (Train and Untrained)..............44

4.5 Respondents Subjects’ Distribution.....................47

4.6. Ergonomic Safety......................................49

4.7 Occupational Safety....................................55

4.8 Fire Safety Measures.................................57

4:9 Firefighting Training and Techniques..................58

4.10 The Availability of Emergency Doors.................59

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4.11 Safety from Slips and fall............................60

4.12 Influence of Occupational Health on Teachers Performance

...........................................................60

4.13 Analyses of results on the Person in charge of Health

Emergencies in the Schools.................................62

4.14 Analyses of results on Teachers Dining Area..........64

4.15 Analysis of results on Level of Work- Related Stress

among Teachers.............................................65

4.16 Analyses results on Pre Medical Screening for Teachers

before giving their

Appointment letter to Start Work as Teachers.........66

4.17 Analyses results on Common Ailments Teachers Suffered

since they received their

appointment before the Survey and their Percentages...67

4.18 Analyses of results on the Influence of Physical

Environment on Teachers

Performance..........................................68

4.19 Influence of Noise on Performance....................68

4.20 Influence of Social Environment on Teachers Performance

of Duties..................................................69

4.21 Analysis of Data on the Study Hypothesis..............70

4.22 Summary of the Chapter..............................73

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMEDATIONS. . .74xi

5.1 Introduction..........................................74

5.2 Summary of the Findings................................74

5.2.1 Influence of Occupational Safety Hazards on Teacher’s

Performance................................................75

5.2.2 Influence of Occupational Health Hazards on Teachers’

Performance Of Duties......................................76

5.2.3 Influence of Occupational and Environment Hazards on

Teachers Performance.......................................78

of Duties...........................................78

5.3 Conclusions............................................79

5.4 Recommendations........................................80

REFERENCES.................................................82

APPENDIX...................................................87

xii

LIST OF TABLES

PAGES

Table 3.1 Showing the Sampling Size of the Target Population

Table 3.2: Shows the Operationalization of Variables in the

Study

Table 4.1: Return Rate of the Questionnaire Administered

Table 4.2: Respondents Gender

Table 4.3: Category of Schools where the Subjects were Pooled

to Answer

Questionnaires

Table 4.4: Trained and Untrained teachersin the sample

schools.

Table 4.5: Professional Qualification of Train Teachers

Table 4.6: Teaching Duration of the Subject Teachers

Encountered During the Survey

Table 4.7: Respondents Subjects’ Distribution

Table 4.8: Respondents Responsibilities (position held in

school) besides Teaching in

the Classroom

xiii

Table 4.10: The Comfort of Office and Classroom Furniture

(Chairs and Tables) used

by Teachers

Table 4.11: Teaching aids used by teachers in school

Table 4.12: Ventilated Materials used in Schools

Tables 4.13: Nature of Light in Offices and Classroom in

Schools

Tables 4.14: Working Exposure of Respondents

Table 4.15: Laboratory Presents in the Schools of the

Respondents

Table 4.16: Respondents that uses Computers in Teaching

Table 4.17: Teachers level of agreement on the safety of

school structures in schools

Table 4.18: Shows Teachers’ Level of Agreement on availability

of fire Extinguishers

in schools

Table 4.19: Teachers Level of agreement on Firefighting

Training as Needful Exercise

Table 4.20: Teachers Level of agreement on availability of

Emergency Doors in Offices

and Laboratories

Table 4.21: Use of Precautionary Measures against slips and

falls in their schools

Table 4.22: Analyses on the Number of Teachers Trained on

Health Issues

xiv

Table 4:23 Analyses on the number of Teachers who have

received Vaccination

Table 4.24: Analysis of results on Teachers’ use of Protective

Clothing when Handling

Chemicals in School

Table 4.25: Teachers Responses on Handling of Emergencies in

the School

Table 4.26: Teachers Response on first aid box in the School

Table 4.27: Shows the results on Teachers Dining Area in the

School Contacted

Table 4.28: Shows the results on Level of Work- Related Stress

among Teachers

Table 4.29: Shows the results on Pre Medical Screening for

Teachers before giving

their appointment letter to Start Work as

Teachers

Table 4.30: Shows the results on Common Ailments that has

affected Teachers and

Researchers in Schools

Table 4.31: Analyses of results on Noise Control in the

Staffroom and Classrooms

Table 4.32: Results on Management Sensitivity to Teachers

Concerns

Table 4.33: Shows chi-square Analysis on Air Quality in

Classrooms and Offices and

Safety of School Buildings

xv

Table: 4.34: Shows chi – square test Analysis on Ergonomics

Hazards with regard to

comfortability of the Furniture used by

Teachers and one of the Work-

Related Ailments (low back pain) Complained

by Teachers

xvi

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The idea of ergonomics as a discipline migrates from the

culture of ancient Greece in the 5th century B.C. It wasa good

deal of evidence indicates that Greek civilization used

ergonomic principles in the design of their tools, jobs and

workplaces (Wikipedia, 2011). Different bodies and association

have come out with various definitions of ergonomics and

occupational health hazards and safety among workers. Among

them are International Ergonomics Association(IEA,2008) which

defined ergonomics as the scientific discipline concerned with

the understanding of interactions among humans and other

elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory,

principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize

human well-being and overall system performance” (IEA, 2008).

The association has categorized ergonomics into specialization

which centers on physical, cognitive, organization and

environment for all professions in occupational sectors.

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The science of ergonomics and occupational health and safety

was adopted and became useful in the United State of America

in the late 1960’s by occupational health and safety

administration (OHSA) after a policy called “compensation-

safety establishment” when workers safety policy has failed

in US. However, it was enforced by Occupational safety and

health Act, 1970 in America (Judson Maclaury, 1984).

However, in Ghana the health and safety of all employees in

various occupational sectors and professions are supported by

the Ghana Labor Act, 2003, Act 651 is to ensure that employees

are not exposed to conditions that would lead them to work

related injuries or illnesses. Employees are also required to

exhibit their duty of care in ensuring that they work as per

the employers’ standard operating procedures which must

incorporate Safety and Health requirements. However, are the

Ghanaian workers as especially teachers and researchers in our

institutions and the employers aware of their safety and

health responsibilities and obligations? The ergonomics and

occupational health hazards are common in many occupation and

2

http://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/mono-osha13introtoc.htm#jud

occupational fields and affect numerous numbers of workers.

Among them, teaching occupation has got several ergonomics and

occupational health hazards. The hazards are commonly met by

all teachers and others affect teachers of particular

subjects. Consequently, occupational illnesses are not easily

identified as injuries and many go unreported especially when

the employer or worker is unable to link exposure with the

symptoms the employees exhibit (Reese, 2009). This probably

explains the low number of reported injuries and illness among

teachers. Regrettably, not so much is known about the accident

severity and frequency rate among teachers (Litch, 1973) the

situation is further aggravated by lack of effective

legislation guiding ergonomic and occupational health and

safety (E.O.H.S) management in schools, inadequate funds and

changing technology. In addition, teachers do not seem yet

aware of the importance of reporting near miss incidents.

WHO (1994) writes “In the most favorable circumstances work

provides the income and quality outcomes and also have

positive impact on social, psychological and physical health

3

and well-being. In spite of these the fact that conditions at

work and work environment, in many countries still involve

distinct and even severe hazards to health that reduces the

span of working of individuals”

(http://www.who.Int/occupationalhealth/publications/

globstrateg y/en/print.html)(1994).

As stated early in the first paragraph about the categories

of ergonomics in major occupations, there are physical

hazards, cognitive hazards, organizational hazards and

environment hazards which affect workers who operate at the

place of work; these hazardous factors can influence

occupational health discomforts of teachers and researchers.

Aryal (2007) documents that most of the teachers faced

numerous physical and psychological problems as a result of

work load and stress at the school. Hazards are arising from

psychosocial environment as well as working hours and physical

agents. In the teaching profession teachers and researchers

are exposed to combination of hazards e.g., noise, shift work,

stress (Smith, Namara and Wellens, 2004). Work and ergonomic

factors may be harmful to health and working capacity, and

4

http://www.who.Int/occupationalhealth/publications/globstrateg%20y/en/print.html)(1994)

http://www.who.Int/occupationalhealth/publications/globstrateg%20y/en/print.html)(1994)

equal number of working people report psychological overload

at work resulting in stress symptoms (Dangol, 2007).

Occupational health hazards can threaten the health of many

workers. In some cases, materials involved in a person’s job

may result to a long terms damage that appears only after many

years (http:// www.dore as dezines.com, 2001). Teachers and

researchers in our country’s institutions face a series of

problems within the school the same at home as a result of

school associated causes. Not only in Ghana but in other

developed or developing countries too teachers and researchers

face numerous health deteriorating incidences. Since teachers

are powerful stake holders of the school, many teachers and

researchers spend their life in such hazardous work

environment, which cause a lot of adverse effect on their

health. Even though in Ghana ,there are some strategies that

have been adopted by employer(government and private owners)

that monitors the increasing performance, such as use of

incentive schemes and numerous reform measures like awarding

study leaves and other incentives to the deserving teachers

5

http://www.dore/

and researchers, and better remuneration. However, the health

hazard that is associated with the work which ranges from

physical to psychosocial has been trampled upon by the

employers (Milan, 2011). Therefore, this study seeks to

contribute to the development of education in the country by

investigating the potential ergonomic and occupational health

hazards and safety of teachers and researchers and the need to

inform those in the authority to factor it into the national

occupational health and safety management standard.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Occupational health has received increasing attention in

recent years as a result of mounting concerns over exposure to

carcinogens in the workplace (http://www.dore as dezines.com,

2001).

The duties of teachers and researchers in Ghana are not only

limited to teaching or lecturing in classes. However, it

involves additional work which may requires extra hours in

order to discharge the other duties like prepare for lessons,

(lesson planning) assess students exercises, prepare

6

http://www.dore/

teaching/learning resources (such as charts), laboratory work

with students, the use of laptops by tertiary institution

lecturers to carry on their research work, carry out guidance

and counseling of students, perform non-teaching clerical

duties and satisfy requests from management. They also head

the institution (principals), department and classes, take

charge of home science room, computer lab, and workshops (in

case of woodwork and metalwork), maintain students discipline

both inside and outside classrooms and train students for

different sports and games. They too, accompany students to

field visits and other trips. As a result, teachers are

exposed to many occupational health, safety and environmental

hazards, emanating from their variety of job functions

(Kuria,2009).

(NUT,2012) writes “Most teaching staff spend most of their

working hours each day on their feet teaching or lecturing and

due to the seating arrangement in the classroom, on lifting

and handling, working with computers, health and safety when

using computers at home and inhaling certain chemicals from

laboratory are also at greater risk of health problems

7

including: varicose veins; poor circulation; bunions/corns,

painful swelling in the feet and legs; foot problems; joint

damage, low back pain, heart and circulatory problems; and

specific problems in the case of pregnant women, including

pre-term birth, spontaneous abortions and slower foetal growth

rates” (www.teacher.org.uk , 2008 ).

The causes of health hazards of teachers and researchers are

not fully known. The working environment exposes many teachers

to health hazards that lead to injuries in vocal cord,

respiratory diseases, cancer, musculoskeletal disorder,

reproductive disorders, mental and neurological illness (WHO,

1996). The positive impact of introducing occupational safety,

health and environment (O.S.H.E.) management systems at the

organizational level, both on the reduction of hazards and

risks and on productivity, is now recognized by employers and

governments (I.L.O, 2001). In U.K for example, adherence to

O.S.H.E. regulations in all workplaces, is enforced by Health

and safety executive (H.S.E.) created through an act of

parliament (http://www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk , 2001 ). In

8

http://www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/

http://www.teacher.org.uk/

U.S.A the same is done by occupational safety and

administration in the department of labor

(http://www.OSHA.gov , 1990 ).

In the case of Ghana, even though the country has different

agencies like a the Environmental Protection Agency,

Department of Factory Inspectorate, Inspectorate Division of

the Ghana Minerals Commission and the Ghana Labor Commission

and other agencies under different jurisdictions which monitor

different industries for workplace and employee safety,

however, there is no national body, policy nor process that

govern Occupational Safety & Health management in Ghana

(Annan, 2013). So this study aims to bring into light some

ergonomic and occupational health hazards that affect teachers

and researchers in the teaching profession in our institution

ranging from basic schools, second cycle and tertiary schools

(colleges of educations, polytechnics, health institutions

(nursing training schools) and the universities) in the

country using Mampong Municipality as a case study.

9

http://www.OSHA.gov/

1.3 Significance of the Study

The study revealed the possible ergonomic and occupational

health hazards associated with the teaching profession

andwhich normally affect the teachers and researchers who work

in such environment. The outcome of this study will be useful

to the teachers and researchers in our schools to be

sensitized on the need to observe safety, health and the care

of social and physical environment, whether at work or at home

in order to avoid any consequences that will impede their work

efficiency. They would also benefit from the results of the

study as this may be used to institute certain intervention

measures. It would be useful for safety designers in the

educational sector to consider teachers and researchers from

different perspective which may include(stature , weight etc.)

in their design of equipment like office tables and seats,

desks ,cupboard and office book shelf in the schools in

Mampong Municipality.

The study would also be beneficial to the public policy

makers as they would understand that the teaching

10

profession has a wide range of hazards that need certain

consideration when formulating policies so that they can have

some compensations due to the ill-health injuries they

experience at the work which sometimes seem unreported for the

law to take its course as enshrined in the Workmen’s

Compensation Act 1987 (PNDCL 187) section 2. It would also

benefit the government to realize the need of establishing a

body or an agency to take charge of ergonomic and occupational

health and safety issues that exist in our workplaces and

workers as a whole especially teachers in Ghana. They would

also provide data useful for planning purposes. Finally, it

would be useful to the academia and researchers as it will

contribute to a new knowledge.

1.4 General Objective

The general objective of this study is to establish the fact

that teachers and researchers in the country’s institutions

encounter certain ergonomic and occupational health hazards in

their work.

11

1.5 Specific Objectives

The following are the specific objectives of the research:

1. To find out the physical and psychological occupational

health hazards among teachers and researchers in our

schools.

2. To determine the causes of ergonomic and occupational

health hazards among teachers and researchers in our

schools.

3. To examine whether occupational safety has any effect on

the performance of the teachers and researcher in their

work.

4. To examine the extent to which the seating conditions and

other gadgets used affect teacher’s health either in the

classroom or in the office.

1.6 Research Questions

1) Have you ever experienced any hazards in the course of work

before?

2) What were causes of the hazards you encountered?

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3) Do the hazards have any influence on your performance as a

teacher or researcher?

4) Have you ever been affected by the tables and chairs you

use in your office or classroom before?

1.7 Research Hypothesis

In order to answer the research questions adequately, the

following null hypothesis were formulated;

HO1 There is no significant relationship between occupational

health hazards of teachers and their performance in Mampong

municipality

HO2 There is no significant relationship between ergonomic

hazards of teachers and their effect in teaching.

1.8 Scope of the Study

The study is focused on the ergonomics and occupational health

hazards that are associated with the teaching profession in

state institutions in Mampong Municipality. The total sample

size of teachers and researchers was 50% which ranged from

13

primary to the tertiary institutions. It is organized into

five chapters.

Chapter one comprises of the background of the study, problem

statement, research questions, research objectives, scope of

the study and limitations. Chapter two covers related

literature under the topic, chapter three covers the

methodology of the research. Chapter four covers the data

analysis and presentation and finally, chapter five deals with

the major findings conclusions and recommendations.

1.9 Limitation

A project of such caliber if not time and financial

constraints on the part of the researcher, should been given a

approach nationwide research in order to obtain the true

reflection of the impact of ergonomic and occupational health

hazards that exist among teachers and researchers in our state

institutions.

14

1.10 Definition of Terms

Occupation: It is the teaching processes that transpire in

our various institutions for the purpose of this study.

Ergonomic: refers to designing of the workplace furniture,

equipment and environments to fit the user and prevent

repetitive strains and injuries.

Occupational safety: Reduction of school-work related injuries

and illnesses among teachers and researchers.

Occupational health: It is the promotion and maintenance to

the highest degree of physical, mental and social wellbeing of

teacher in their profession.

Occupational hazards: Any condition at workplace (school)

that can cause temporary and permanent injury to the health of

the teachers and researchers

15

1.11 Theoretical Framework

The following is a brief examination of the theories informing

this research study.

Social ecology theory

This theory is founded on systems theory. It offers a set of

theoretical principles for understanding the relationship and

complex interactions between diverse personal and ergonomic,

social environmental influences on human behavior and health

(Stokols, 2000). It is defined as the study of individuals and

groups within the context of their various social systems. The

theory comprises of several core assumptions, namely interplay

between facts of both the physical and social environments in

combination with personal attributes such as temperature and

behavior patterns. Social ecological theory contends that

certain behaviours, social roles and environmental conditions

within an individual’s life situation can exert a

disproportionate influence on his or her well- being (Grzywacz

and Faqua, 2000). For example, a person’s lifestyle may

include several unhealthy sets of circumstances, such as a

high stress job which also requires a lengthy commute between

16

home and work. This coupled with factors in workplace, may

contribute to unhealthy behaviors such as smoking, alcohol

consumption and lack of physical exercise. Social ecology

theory is attributed to Murray Bookchin (Stokols, 1992) who

was the first person to develop the set of principles used

today to describe this field. These principles provide tools

for examining health issues in relation to present day to day

physical and social environments. It confirms that

interpersonal strain in workplace, if the workplace itself

fails to provide adequate social support and personal

fulfillment; all the properties are in place for negative

health outcomes.

1.12 Conceptual Framework

Conceptual framework is a graphical depiction of

interrelationship between concepts and constructs. In this

survey, five variables were singled out. Ergonomics which

constituted sitting postures and working postures.

Occupational safety, which constituted electricity hazards,

fire hazards and slips and fall .occupational health which

17

constituted chemical hazards, biological hazards and work

related stress. Physical environment hazards constituted

thermal, lighting, acoustics and ventilation hazards. Social

environment hazards included work related violence hostility.

Indicators of teachers’ performance of duties include minimum

Absenteeism, lesson attendance, and attendance to staff

meetings.

18

Diagrammatically the study’s conceptual framework is shown in

fig 1

Ergonomic safety hazards

Sitting posture

Working posture

19

Dependent Variables

Teachers outputs in

their work in public

school in Mampong

Municipality

Absenteeism

lesson attendance

participation in

staff meetings

Occupational safety

hazards

Electric hazards

Fire hazards

Physical health

occupational hazards

Chemical hazards

Biological hazards

Work related stress

Moderating Variables

School Leadership

Physical environment

hazards

Noise

Ventilation

Lighting

Teacher’s performance is important; it is the most crucial

input in the education setup in any country, thus it is

important that their safety, health and environment at their

places of work be promoted. Attainment of this ideal is

dependent on control and consequent elimination of a number of

hazards namely ergonomics hazards, occupational safety

hazards, occupational health hazards, and occupational

environment hazards. The dependent variables in this study

were tested to find out if they influenced curriculum

implementation by teachers through effective performance of

their duties. The extent to which performance is dependent on

these variables was the gist of the study.

20

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter will evaluate recent research studies that have

been carried out on the ergonomic and occupational health

hazards and safety of teachers and researchers in our public

schools in Mampong municipality. The literature begins with a

review on: the historical perspectives of ergonomic and

occupational health safety hazards in the teaching profession,

21

Ghanaian perspective, and then goes on to review the

literature on ergonomic hazards, occupational safety hazards,

occupational health hazards, occupational environment hazards-

physical and social environment on teachers.

2.2 Ergonomics and Occupational Health Hazards and Safety of

Teachers (EOHHS):

Historical perspective

According to CRIOP (2010) "Ergonomics is a scientific

discipline that applies systematic methods and knowledge about

people to evaluate and approve the interaction between

individuals, technology and organization. The aim is to create

a working environment and the tools in them for maximum work

efficiency and maximum worker health and safety. Human factors

are a scientific discipline that applies systematic methods

and knowledge about people to evaluate and improve the

interaction between individuals, technology and organizations.

The aim is to create a working environment (that to the

largest extent possible) contributes to achieving healthy,

effective and safe operations.

22

2.2.1 Historical Perspectives

The industrial revolution that swept across Europe in the 19th

century triggered concerns about health threats posed by

dangerous working conditions (W.H.O, 2001). Concerns about

occupational safety, health and ergonomics continued into the

20th century and led to the creation of the International

labor organization (I.L.O) in 1919. The I.L.O constitution

emphasized the global nature of the threats to occupational

safety and health, by assessing the existing conditions of

labor and calling for urgent improvement. It was developed in

USA, to assure safe and healthy conditions for workers, by

authorizing enforcement of the standards developed under the

act and also assist the states by providing research

information, education and training in the field of

occupational safety, health and for other purposes. In

European Union (E.U.), the Health and Safety Act of 1974,

resulted from the findings of the Roberns Report published in

1972. It produced conclusions and recommendations upon which

23

the health and Safety Act (1974) was based. In summary, health

and safety in the workplaces has been improved in most

industrialized countries over the past 20-30 years. The

situation in developing countries however, is relatively

unclear, largely because of independent accident and disease

recognition methods, record keeping and reporting mechanism.

However, it is estimated that at least 250 million

occupational accidents occur every year worldwide, most of

them occurring in developing countries.

2.3 Ghanaian Case

Working standards or conditions for all employees in Ghana

are being monitored and controlled by the Workman’s

Compensation Act 1987 (PNDCL 187). This act explains into

details what is supposed to be granted to an employee in case

of injuries when working in public and private agencies.

However, the act does not include employees in the armed

forces of the country. Occupational health and safety of

employees has been overlooked until the inception of the Ghana

labour act 2003 which compelled the employers in the country

be it public or private to utilized Act 651of the labour act

24

2003 to ensure that all their employees are not exposed to

conditions that would lead them to free from work related

injuries or illnesses. What this act does is that it expels

out the health and safety mechanisms that need to be put in

place by the employers so that employees will work in an

incidence free environment.

In the case of the teaching profession, Ghana national

association of teachers in collaboration with the government

brought out some monitoring mechanisms which took in

consideration the health and safety of teachers. This

encompasses the allowances and compensatory policies that need

to put in place to care its employees in case of injuries or

ill health as a result of work. The Nation has different

agencies under different jurisdictions which monitor different

industries for workplace and employee safety; however, there

is no national body, policy nor process that governs

ergonomic, Occupational Safety & Health Management in Ghana.

The agencies include; environmental protection agency which is

monitored by EPA Act490. There is a Road Safety Commission but

25

with little standards, guidelines and impact on the safety of

the transport industry and the pedestrian. The Minerals

Commission has the Mining Regulations 1970, which contains

some guidelines in Occupational Safety and Health but just for

the Mining Industry.

2.4 Occupational safety

Safety should be a concern in virtually all workplaces, it is

an important element to consider during the design stage of a

job, any equipment, or procedures associated with the job

(Hughes & ferret, 2003). Safety hazards are associated with

numerous accidents and injuries experienced in workplaces.

Physically matching the job to the person will ensure that the

possibility of human error is minimized. Every organization

(school) too, should have a clear policy for the management of

safety so that everybody associated with the organization is

aware of its safety aims and objectives. A proper prevention

of accidents and ill-health through management systems of

control should be focused on rather than looking for

individuals to blame when an accident occurs. Clear

responsibilities and lines of communications for everyone in26

the organization ought to be maintained (Hughes & ferret

2003).

In USA, approximately 10% of workplace accidents occur because

of unsafe conditions, processes or facilities up to 15% of

these are due to human error, 75% are due to oversights or

omissions in policies, procedures and practices (Meres et al,

2007). Direct safety inspection may also prevent risk and

hazard potential in workplaces. Available data from developing

countries, indicate that occurrence of occupational injuries,

illnesses and accidents, is higher in these countries than in

developed countries (I.L.O, 2000). Perhaps due to the fact

some organizations (school included) hinder workplace safety

efforts by placing a higher emphasis on productivity than on

safety measures (Mathew & Krush, 1990). Occupational safety

has been cited as an important program to measure teachers

(and other workers) well-being (Geyer et al, 1990).

In Ghana there is an enormous literature addressing safety

promotion and, evaluating various interventions in schools,

however few have looked at school setting from the perspective

27

of being a workplace. Therefore, the emphasis is more on

students/pupils safety than on teachers. Occupational safety

with its focus on teachers as integral part of the school

environment includes the dimension of school as a workplace in

a framework aimed at enhancing safety of school personnel.

This being the case, there are unlimited safety hazards

outlined in the O.S.H.E. Act to which teachers (workers) are

exposed to generally as a group or individually due to

handling of specific subjects deemed risky. Such hazards may

be outlined as follows:

2.4.1 Office Hazards

Offices are vulnerable to safety hazards generally met by all

teachers. They include open doors and drawers, sharp corners

of filing cabinets, telephone and computer cables that are

crossing is less and, carpets with bulges or broken seams that

often cause tripping accidents, cuts, abrasions and sprains.

Office design is also linked to ergonomic safety problems such

as lifting, climbing and repetitive motions which are

associated with backaches and neck aches (Angle, 2005).

28

Working in limited space, and in overcrowded offices – though

being in a crowd is sometimes good - can become increasingly

uncomfortable in other circumstances for teachers (Wanner and

Keys, 1988) .The British health and safety executive (1995)

showed that, congestion in offices can lead to “sick -

building syndrome “ . Where staff complains of illness more

commonly than reasonably expected

2.4.2 Ergonomic Hazards

The large and increasing number of teachers affected by poor

workstations design, make ergonomic issues important (Linus,

2007).An ergonomically designed workstation or office will be

designed for the comfort and safety of the operator. In

Finland, school ergonomics are widely implemented, supported

and extended in education by universities. The goal of

ergonomic principle is to look for ways to make the job fit

the worker, not vice versa. A comfortable table and chair are

essential to teachers, as they spend long hours seated

especially when marking student work. For most of the last

century, ergonomists widely assumed that we should sit upright

(Hooton, et al 1945). This emphasis on what Dainoff (1994)

29

described as the “cubist posture” (with 90°knee, torso and

elbow positions) aimed to prevent ergonomic risk factors that

lead to discomfort and health disorders.

The late 1980’s saw a recognition that office work is more

hazardous than had been believed and that constrained sitting

postures can cause health disorders, particularly when other

risk factors are present (NIOSH, 1997) on the side of

teachers. They should be designed to support the back

properly throughout the working day. The chair should also

allow the worker to change legs and general working position

easily (Linus, 2007). In offices, lack of chairs and tables in

sizes and shapes appropriate for teachers is an ergonomic

problem. And so is the carrying of heavy materials to, and

around the school, such as upstairs, downstairs or to classes.

The introduction of ICT in schools, means teachers and

students spend long hours working with a computer. It is

important therefore, to have Constant application of

ergonomics in computer laboratories. This has been associated

with increasing efficiency of computer teachers, increased

30

performances, reduction of fatigue and retention of skilled

staff on the job (Peter and Button, 1992). Proper positioning

of computers is crucial to prevent injury and pain. Computers

should be placed directly in front of the teacher,

perpendicular to light and should have screen protectors to

protect eyes from glare.

2.4.3 Electricity Hazards

Electricity as a source of power in our schools and/or offices

is accepted without much thought to associated hazards (I.L.O,

2006). It is considered safe, clean and a quiet method of

transmitting energy. When not well handled, it can lead to

safety hazards. These include electric shock, burns, electric

fires and explosions (Tylor, 2002). In schools, teachers are

exposed to electric accidents, such as those caused by unsafe

electric equipment or faulty electricity installations,

(Hughes et al, 2005). There is also a tendency in offices to

overuse multi-sockets and unfused outlet adapters, which can

create overload problems. Lose cable connections are also

31

common and are likely to cause overheating leading to fire

outbreaks (Tweedy, 2005).

2.4.4 Slips Trips and Falls Hazards

Slip and falls incidents are a significant safety problem in

workplaces environments. Same level falls accounted for 20-40%

of occupational injuries in developed countries in

2005(Courtney et al, 2006). Liberty mutual workplaces safety

index, estimated that, in USA, the direct cost of disabling

workplace falls from the same level was £6.9 billion annually.

In Taiwan such falls are cited as the leading cause of

occupational injuries (Theodore, 2006). Slips hazards are

caused by wet or dusty floors and unsuitable footwear or floor

coverings or sloping floors. Trips hazards are caused by

obstructions, poor housekeeping- obstacles left on walkways,

poor lighting levels, uneven floors, cables and trailing leads

across walkways.

2.4.5 Influence of Occupational Safety on Teacher

Within the school, application of ergonomics result in

improved working techniques, reduced human errors and

32

accidents and increased efficiency (Patkin, 1987). Poor

ergonomics have been associated with diseases such as

musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) repetitive strain injuries

(RSIs) cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs) and occupational

overuse syndrome (OOS). Good ergonomic considerations promote

effective lesson delivery and creativity in class. (Moore,

1990) suggests that the skills of good teachers are likely to

be stretched to the greatest advantage in buildings designed

to provide greatest amount of flexibility that is least

hindrance to anything teachers may wish to do. Electric shock

in offices can cause cardiac arrest, fibrillation of the

heart, asphyxia and burns of the skin. Such burns may be deep,

slow to heal and often leave permanent scars, they may also

occur inside the body along the path of electric current

causing damage to muscle tissue and blood cells. As a result

performance of the teacher in terms of mental and physical

skills will usually start to fall (Davis et al 1967) Training

teachers on electricity safety is therefore required, as a

control measure for electrical hazards. Teachers should also

be conversant with cardiovascular resuscitation and treatment

33

of electric burns. Working in limited space and in overcrowded

offices, can become uncomfortable for teachers (Warner and

Keys, 1988).

This can translate to negligence of some duties such as

preparation of professional documents like lesson plans,

subject scheme of work and lesson notes which are crucial in

teaching since they help a teacher manage time in class assess

the available resources for teaching plan the content to

disseminate in class, therefore boost their confidence.

(Sanders & Horn, 1998). The British health and safety

executive (1995) also showed that it can lead to “sick

building syndrome” where staff complain of illness more

commonly than would reasonably expect. Likewise slips, falls

and trips lead to injuries, cuts, abrasions & sprains which

lead to absenteeism. This unlike in other professions is a

serious problem because the students can cause chaos if left

unattended (Bray et al, 1986). Falls are also the leading cause

to near-miss incidences. According to research, every 10 ‘near

misses’ at a particular location leads to a minor accident.

34

2.5 Occupational Health

The world health organization (W.H.O, 1948) defines health as

a state of complete physical mental and social well-being and

not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Occupational

health operates within this framework. It is an area concerned

with occupational illnesses of worker caused by both long term

and short term exposures to health hazards in their work; they

are categorized as follows:

2.5.1 Chemical Hazards

Chemical hazards arise from excessive airborne concentration

of mists, vapours, gases or solids (Gordon and Eric, 1985).

They have inhalation hazard which can lead to poisoning. In

addition, they may act as skin irritants or may be toxic by

absorption through the skin. They can also be ingested,

although this is not usually the principal route of entry into

the body. Schools as workplaces, expose teachers to enormous

chemical hazards (Hughes & ferret, 2003). School laboratories

are potentially hazardous places to teachers than normal

classrooms because there is presence of chemicals (irritants,

corrosives, toxic, harmful and carcinogenetic substances).

35

Science teachers who work daily in these places are at a risk

of being exposed to the related hazards (Bray et al 1986).

Classrooms too have their measure of chemical hazards. The

indoor air has special pollutants sources such as dust and

particles of chalk. (Lowenstein, 1991), Technical / industrial

subjects such as metalwork, agriculture, home science and

woodwork, expose teachers to chemical hazards. In a study done

by Michal and Jolida (2005), it was established that metalwork

exposes workers (teachers included) to metal oxides that

contain organic compounds injurious to the body. While the

noise associated with metal working caused hearing loss; the

work itself caused distorted posture over a long period, as

well as reproductive problems. Exposure to ultra violet light

caused inflammation of the cornea while equipments used in

metal work are safety hazards to the teachers if not properly

handled. (Frey, 2005) Lozorich (2002) established that

woodworking exposes workers (teachers included) to dust, which

is associated with several cancers, like those of nasal

cavity, lung and gastrointestinal track. Diseases like

36

bronchitis and dermatitis have shown high correlation to wood

dust exposure. Pesticides used by agriculture teachers are

also hazardous.

2.5.2 Work Related Stress

Teachers are subjected to heavy occupational stress that may

adversely affect their mental health status and with an impact

on professional performance (Kyriacou and Sutcliffe, 1978).

The prevalence of workplace stress within the United Kingdom

is believed to result in an average of 13½ lost working days

each year with one in five employees believing their job to be

extremely stressful (Smith et al, 2000).

In Ghana, the changes in educational system that have occurred

in the past decades, brought about new demands to the teachers

and has also increased precarious working conditions. Social

transformations coupled with new teaching models have

aggravated the problem. They have escalated the teacher’s

activities and social demands for teachers role, on one hand

and demands for quality teaching and positive results on the

other hand (Zaragoze M, 1999). Growing responsibilities and

37

demands on teachers, and not adapting to the new demands of

the profession has certainly exposed them to work related

stress. This has consequently resulted to health problems

among them: musculoskeletal disorders, voice problems,

psychiatric disorders to name a few. Medical and social costs

due to these problems have grown increasingly in the past few

years, with figures reaching billions of shillings or dollars

in various countries (Silvis, 2004). Absenteeism and tirdiness

are also greatly influenced by occupational stress, with high

economic costs (Hughes&ferret2003). A stress level among

teachers is also increasing to a worrying level due to the

increasing teachers’ workload, Student misbehavior, which

includes reluctance to follow instruction and handling of

problematic students (Abdul, 2005). Others like responsibility

for students success in examination, having a large class,

difficulty in completing the syllabus in the time available

and lack of material resources, coupled with administrative

work like managing department, stock and inventory and too

much work in one time, have also been cited as stressors

(Chin,2006).

38

Interpersonal relationship issues such as receiving unclear

instruction from management, lack of participation in decision

making, lack of autonomy, lack of consultation or

communication, lack of colleague support and co-operation, and

lack of appreciation for work done, have contributory role on

teachers work related stress (chan1998, kyriacou & Sutcliffe,

1978) as quoted by chin 2006.

2.5.3. Influence of Psychological Stress on Teachers

Teachers also encounter health problems as a result of some

psychological disorders that occur in the teaching profession.

This emanate from anxieties towards their work, problem of

insufficient month salaries for workers, limited incentive

measures, violence among teachers and students and

inconsistent flow of information from the administrative

level. Dyson (2005) suggests that the purpose of teacher

education is to prepare and develop teachers, and that this

process is continual throughout a teacher’s career. Physical

complaints such as back pain, chest pain, shortness of breath,

heart palpitations, problems with sleep or appetite, and

39

fatigue are commonly used by the general population, rather

than psychological complaints, when claiming inability to work

(Donaghy, 2004).

Alcohol abuse has also been linked to psychological distress,

and may contribute to frequent absence without explanation,

lateness, interpersonal conflicts and decreased performance

(Baldisseri, 2007). The impact of psychological distress has

potentially serious implications (Jorm, et al., 2002) for the

community, including teacher education. Thus, understanding

psychological distress, and individual coping strategies, has

the potential to contribute to teacher education.

2.5.4 Biological hazards

Biological hazards are transported through some forms of agent

such as fungi, moulds-which grow under dump conditions,

bacteria and viruses. They can cause diseases such as athletes

foot, asthma attacks H.I.V (aids), ringworms among others.

Most studies of airborne bacteria in schools have referred to

total bacteria counts, rather than identifications, (Jo and

Seo 2005, HESE 2006) or they have separated bacteria according

40

to whether they are Gram-positive and Gram-negative (Scheff et

al. 2000b).

Bacteria counts ranged from 577 to 1000 CFU/m3with an average

of 785 CFU/m3 (Scheff et al, 2000b, Godwin and Batterman 2007,

Viegas et al, 2010). In a study of classrooms in Turkey, the

most commonly observed bacteria were Staphylococcus (42.7%),

Corynebacterium (20.4%) and Bacillus (6.9%) (Aydogdu et al, 2005).

Kim et al. (2007) identified bacteria in 57 classrooms in

Swedish schools, with Pseudomonas sp being the most commonly

reported (57%), followed by Steptomyce ssp (17%) and Bacillus sp

(4%).

2.5.5 Influence of occupational health on teaching

Exposure to chemical and biological hazards poses serious

health threats to teachers; voice disorders including symptoms

of soreness, hoarseness, weak voice and sore throat are

occupational illnesses that have been described among teachers

and have been shown to emanate from exposure to chemical and

biological hazards (Hughes et al., 2003).Many substances used in

agriculture are irritants e.g. fungicides and pesticides.

41

Irritant (noncorrosive) substances can cause skin (dermatitis)

or lung (bronchial) inflammation (Hughes et al., 2003). Presence

of water, gas taps, additional power points, apparatus and

chemicals in the laboratories expose science teachers to a

huge chunk of health and safety problems (Bray et al., 1986).

A study about quality life related to teachers’ voice health

problems in Greece revealed that, majority of teachers have a

good voice, however, there are job aspects that can have

implications on teachers’ voice and vocal health. Among those

mentioned are dirty classrooms, internal and external noise,

stressful social relationships, irritation and sound

competition and voice abuse or misuse. Stress problems may

adversely affect mental and physical health of teachers. It

may cause a range of unpleasant mental effects on teachers

such as tension, frustration, anxiety, depression and poor

concentration. It can lead to lack of interest at work, and

reduced job satisfaction which combine to worsen their

performance. (England Education Service Advisory Committee,

42

1998) Self-confidence is an essential for successful teaching

may be seriously affected as well (Pithers & Fogarly, 1995).

Stressful situations can contribute to voice misuse generating

extra effort and forcing adaptations in phonetic production,

making the profession more vulnerable to development of

dysphonia. It also leads to burnout which results to

relatively impaired teachers in the quality of teaching and

commitment (Wiley 2000). Other aspects of teacher’s work, like

increase in tone of voice, speaking frequently and competition

with environmental noise also expose them to dysphonia. Lack

of vocal health cause physical sensations or discomfort such

as burning, cough, infections of the Larynx and hoarseness

(England Education Service Advisory Committee, 1998). All

these conditions can contribute to increased sickness and

absenteeism which can also create stress among other teachers

who have to cover for absent colleagues but still do their own

work. This ultimately affects the school outcomes (Yin ling’s,

2006) and poor performance of teachers in their job. Work-

related stress contributes to musculoskeletal problems which

43

are associated with high economic costs due to compensating

schemes, medical expenses, disability pensions, lost days of

work and reduced productivity. Human errors made under the

effect of occupational stress may lead to injuries or loss of

lives. Work related burn out is also caused by stress and it

is linked to emotional exhaustion, depression, irritability

and boredom (Schultz & Schultze, 1998).

2.6 Physical Environment

The physical environment of the school describes the physical

and aesthetic surroundings of the school. The physical

environment and the working conditions which it provides have

been of interest to industrial and commercial organizations,

particularly if they affect health, safety and welfare of

employees. The aim of this is to search for those designs and

conditions which maximize the efficiency or productivity of

factories, offices and other workplaces (Sundstrome, 1987).

Although the physical working environment in schools is not as

dangerous as those of manufacturing or construction

industries, it is not entirely free of occupational hazards.

For instance, proper design and maintenance of ventilation44

system is essential in providing a healthy school environment.

In the planning of physical environment of a school therefore,

various aspects need to be considered to enhance teachers and

other workers performance (Bray et al., 1986). These include:

2.6.1 Visual Factors

This refers to the quality of illumination in a place. Two

aspects which need to be considered to achieve this are: first

the quality of illumination in different parts of the room,

which will be determined by the level of natural and

artificial light available and Secondly, the way classrooms

and the staffroom (offices) are arranged, such that, there are

no unwanted distractions, such as windows overlooking the

playing field (Bray et al ,1986) Lighting system should

support tasks to be done and also minimize glare from

ceilings, walls and floors. Window coverings for workers

facing the playing field should be provided to reduce glare in

his study on physical settings Glynn (1982) indicated that,

45

visual factors not only influence behavior but also conveys

information about people associated with the setting, such as

level of effectiveness and efficiency in their work.

2.6.2 Housekeeping

Good housekeeping refers to the cleanliness and good order of

equipment and facilities in the school. The quality of indoor

air may deteriorate when one or more of these processes are

inadequate.

2.6.3 Acoustic Factors

This refers to level of noise, both internal and external. In

schools administrative areas, high speed copiers, telephones,

cell phones, fax machines, hallways, back areas and human, can

be noisy and distracting, hence become an occupational hazard

(Hughes & Ferret 2003). Porteous (1977), clearly shows that

the extent to which a classroom or office is affected by noise

depends on the organization of the physical environment.

46

2.6.4 Thermal Factors

This refers to temperature regulation. Temperature per seconds

has little effect on man’s performance unless it is too low or

too high (Walton P, 1980). The effects of temperature

especially high temperatures must be considered in relation to

humidity. A good school heating, ventilation and air

conditioning system (HVAC) is important in offices and classes

to provide air at comfortable temperature and humidity levels

and free of harmful concentrations of air pollutants.

2.6.5 Influence of Physical Environment to Teachers

Performance of Duties

Teachers who work in a school which is neat, pleasant and has

modern facilities are likely to experience a job satisfaction

and motivation than those working in an unpleasant school

environment (Hayward, 1997). Motivation has a substantial

effect on the attribution of teacher efficacy which in turn

has a positive effect on learners performance (Enderlin-Lampe,

1997). As Likeje (1991) puts it so succinctly “motivation

could make a mule dance” and when it is absent, teachers are

likely to consider their commitment as only “a fair day’s work

47

for a fair day’s pay”. Classroom physical environment presents

risk agents such as chalk dust, which can negatively interfere

with the teachers’ voice. Environmental factors are known to

influence behavioral outcomes. A school physical environment

that promotes orderly behavior by students also encourages

interaction between teachers and students and efficient

administrative support seen to be critical conditions for

teachers to work effectively (Smith, 1989). Noise hazards

affect teachers’ performance in two ways: in short term it can

prevent voice communication by the interference with reception

of speech, while in the long term, it can lead to the damage

of the ear (Davis & Tyler, 1967).

Noise is a hazard in teaching of music, due to poorly

constructed rehearsal halls. Prolonged working in such an

environment causes a major hearing loss, the unfortunate part

is that, loss of hearing related to acoustics, is never

compensated by insurance companies as these cases are very

difficult to prove (Douglas,2003).This ironically, makes

teachers become victims of the very profession they diligently

48

trained for. Effective teaching requires intensive vocal use,

but for it not to harm the teaching profession the voice has

to be comfortable for the speaker and correctly projected and

noise well controlled (Lillian et al, 2004).

Exposure to indoor contaminants can cause serious health

problems to the teacher. The most common include headaches,

dizziness, nausea, allergy attacks, respiratory problems and

sometimes life threatening conditions such as legionnaire’s

disease. This can lead to increase in absenteeism, poor lesson

delivery and attendance or in serious cases death, (USA

Environmental Agency, 2010).Due to their occupational

environment being characterized by permanent contact with

people particularly students, teachers are at a higher risk of

contracting infectious diseases such as hepatitis A (Lehman et

al., 1999). Excessive exposure to high temperature may lead to

disorders such a heat exhaustion and cramps.

49

2.7. The School’s Social Environment Influence on Teachers’

Performance

The social environment describes any emotional and social

conditions that affect the well-being of teachers.

Successfully managing a school social environment is necessary

and essential educational investment. Research increasingly

shows that there is a clear link between social environment,

quality of schools and educational performance. Prevention of

harassment and interpersonal hostility in workplace is

important (Salin, 2008). Harassment may emanate from colleague

teachers, principal or from students. Extremely negative

consequences are associated with it, such as high costs, in

the form of increased absenteeism, high turnover of personnel,

decreased commitment and productivity. It also contributes to

work related stress (Andrea Russo et al., 2008). Violence and

violence threat are becoming more and more frequent in public

institutions.

In Croatia a survey conducted in E.U member states revealed

that 12 % of those employed in education sector in all member

states experienced some form of violence making the sector

50

have the second largest percentage of violence just below

government and defense. Incidents of bullying at schools

arouse much attention locally due to the sudden increase in

number of cases of school violence reported by the media. This

has put more pressure on teachers. Unfortunately not many

teachers are confident enough to handle school violence. A

study undertaken by bureau of labour statistics (USA, 1991),

showed that assaultive behavior in workplaces often produces

injury, psychological distress and economic loss. Hostility is

a social hazard that has major health problems and disease end

points. It may lead to absence spells, risky behavior, alcohol

consumption and even drug abuse (Smith et al., 1985). These

consequently have a share of problems such as mental disorders

like depression and anxiety disorders (Thomas and Morris,

2003).

51

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the methodology that was used to

conduct the study. This includes location and demography of

the study area, climate and vegetation, schools in the study

area, research design, target population, sample size,

sampling procedure, research instruments, data collection

procedures and data analysis techniques and operational

definition variables.

3.2. Location of Study Area

Mampong Municipal, which is one of the Thirty (30)

Administrative Districts in the Ashanti Region of Ghana, is

located on the northern part of the region, and shares

boundary with Atebubu District, Sekyere East, Afigya-Sekyere,

and Ejura-Sekyeredumasi to the north, east, south, and west

respectively. The Municipal is located within longitudes 0.05

degrees and 1.30 degrees west and latitudes 6.55 degrees and

52

7.30 degrees north, covering a total land area of 2346km². It

has about 220 settlements with about 70 percent being rural.

The rural areas are mostly found in the Afram Plains portion

of the District where Communities with less than fifty (50)

people are scattered hithertho.

3.3 Climate and Vegetation

The municipality has an average annual rainfall of 1270mm and

two rainy seasons. The major rainy season starts in March and

peaks in May/June. There is a slight dip in July and a peak

in August, tapering off in November. The period between

December and February is usually dry, hot and dusty. The

municipality lies within the wet semi-equatorial forest zone

and has a beautiful undulating land forms which ranges from

scarps, hills to low laying tropical paradise. The vegetation

of parts of the municipality particularly the north, is

reduced to a savannah grass land. This phenomenon has

therefore considerably changed the flora and fauna in the area

thus, reducing the number of streams and springs as well as

animal wildlife in the municipality. However there have been

53

constant efforts by the Municipal Assembly, the Forestry

Division Unit within the municipality

3.4 Demography of the Study Area

The population of the Sekyere South Municipality is currently

88,625 (2008 projection), as against 78,056 as at (Ghana

Population and Housing Census 2000). The municipality

experienced a marginal increase in population growth. The

current projected growth rate is 1.4% as against 1.6% of the

2000 population and housings census.

3.5 Research Design

A research design is a plan showing how the problem under

investigation can be solved (Orodho, 2003). It functions as

the research blue print (Crezwell, 2003). To tackle the

questions posed in this study, the researcher used descriptive

survey. Mugenda (1999) noted that a survey research attempts

to collect data from members of the population and describes

the existing phenomena by asking individuals about their

perception, attitudes, behavior and values. Descriptive survey

research is designed as a method for collecting information by

54

interviewing or administering a questionnaire to a sample of

individuals to collect the information on their attitudes

opinions and habits (Orodho and Kombo, 2002). The study also

employed qualitative and quantitative methods to analyze the

data. A mixed method approach converge findings and extend the

breadth of inquiry (Creswell, 1994). Qualitative method was

used as a tool, because of its broad approach towards

understanding and explaining the meaning of social phenomenon

in naturalistic setting (Marshal and Rossman, 1999).

Quantitative method was employed to analyze Likert- scale data

found on the survey questionnaire.

3.6 Target Population

Target population as defined by Best and Khan (1999) is the

small portion of the population selected for observation and

analysis. It is the population to which a researcher wants to

generalize the results of a study. Based on this

understanding, the target population was teachers and

researchers from the 12 public schools ranging from the

university to the basic schools in Mampong municipality of

Ghana. Public schools were chosen for this study because they55

form over 90% of all schools in the Municipality. The public

schools especially the secondary were either, boarding or day.

Other characteristics associated with the schools included

boys only or girls only but most of the schools were mixed.

3.7 Sample Size and Sample Selection

The study adopted both probability and non-probability

sampling methods. Probability sampling is the process where

random selection is used to select respondents with each of

them having an equal chance of being included in the sample

(Singleton, 1988). In non-probability sampling, there is no

way of specifying the probability of each unit inclusion in

the sample and there is no assurance that every unit has some

chance of being included. In this method, a desired number of

sample units are selected deliberately or purposively,

depending upon the objective of inquiry so that only the

important items representing the true characteristics of the

population are included in the sample (Nachmias and Nachmias,

1996). Convenient sampling was used in selecting the twelve

public schools out of 174 public schools and 4 private schools

which have been classified into tertiary, secondary and basic56

schools (See table 3.1 below). The enrollment of teachers in

the municipality were thousand three hundred and seventy-eight

(1378).Out of this number200 of them were sampled randomly

from the three levels of schools but 150 which represent 75%

were received after the questionnaire administration from the

twelve sampled schools. Purposive sampling technique was used

to sample the schools into three main categories, that is:

boys only, girls only and mixed schools. This was crucial in

order to establish whether the category of the school was

significant to the research questions. Simple random sampling

was used to select the teachers from the three levels of

schools in the municipality as mentioned above.

Table 3.1 Showing the Sampling Size of the Target Population

LEVELS AND

CHARACTERISTICS OF

SCHOOLS

TOTAL NUMBER OF

SCHOOLS IN THE

MUNICIPALITY

TOTAL NUMBER

OF SAMPLE

SCHOOLSTERTIARY: Mixed Boys

only

3 2

SECONDARY (Mixed and

Girl only )

4 3

BASIC Mixed 167 7

57

Total 174 12

3.8. Data Collection Procedures

The data was collected from 200 teachers from the sampled

schools using self-administered questionnaires. According to

kotler (1998), the advantage of using self-administered

questionnaire is to ensure the respondents privacy. In this

sense, the researcher dropped the questionnaires personally to

keep such level of confidentiality. This is important as it

helped the researcher establish a rapport with respondents

while introducing the survey. The researcher used pick and

dropped approach (i.e. where the researcher submits the

questionnaire to the respondents and return for the

questionnaires after it has being answered within the

stipulated period). Some of the questions were responded

instantly and the researcher collected them back on that same

today. However, to some respondents, one (1) week was given to

them to respond to the questions after which the researcher

picked them. This was done to allow respondents to have enough

time to respond positively to the questions.

58

3.9 Research Instruments

The instrument used for the study was Questionnaire. It was

prepared for teachers who perform dual functions in the school

settings (that is those in classroom and administrative

setting). A questionnaire is a carefully designed instruction

for collecting data direct from the people (Kasomo, 2006). It

has an advantage of achieving rapid contact with a large

number of people (Krathwohl, 1998). It was divided into three

parts namely part 1, part 2 and part 3. Part 1 consist of

questions aimed at obtaining information on the profile of the

teacher (i, .e Biodata), part 2 also consist of questions

aimed at getting information on ergonomic in the teaching

profession and finally,thepart 3 was sub-divided into four

sections labeled A, B, C, D. These sections consisted of

questions aimed at getting information on occupational safety,

occupational health and occupational environment of teachers

respectively. The researcher used questionnaires which consist

of both open-ended/unstructured and closed-ended/structured

questions. Contingency questions and matrix questions were

59

also used. The aim of using the open-ended questions was for

the researcher to allow respondents to freely discuss issues

without limiting the score. The close ended questions were

utilized because they are quicker and easier to complete

therefore touching on a wider range of information. The

contingency questions were used because follow up questions

were needed to get further information. Matrix questions were

used to get information from questions which share the same

set of responses.

3.10 Instrument Validity

According to Borg and Gall (1998) validity is defined as the

degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure.

Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) also define it as the accuracy or

meaningfulness of inferences which are based on research

results. To ensure the validity of the questionnaire the

researcher in collecting the data, a pre-test was conducted

using the various principals from the tertiary institutions,

headmasters from the secondary schools the researcher sampled

since they were not used as part of target group and their

60

experiences they have had due to their long services in the

profession as teachers and now principals and headmasters of

their institutions. This helped to check the appropriateness

of the language used in constructing each item, construct

validity and content validity of the questionnaire. The

researcher also consulted further with the study supervisor

for further insight into the validity of the instruments and

then made the appropriate modifications.

3.11 Data Analysis Procedures

Kerlinger (1986) defines data analysis as the process of

categorizing, manipulating and summarizing data in order to

obtain answers to research questions, once data was collected

it was edited by carefully inspecting it in order to identify

the mistakes and any wrongly answered and not responded to

items, it was then coded. The quantitative data was analyzed

using descriptive statistics to describe, summarize and

explain or make sense of a given data.

The chi-square test of independence of attributes was used to

test whether there was any association or relationship between

61

the identified occupational and ergonomic hazards on

questionnaire sections A, B, C .D and part 2 and to access the

teachers’ performance of duties in the Mampong Municipality.

The test was done at 0.05 level of significance and

appropriate degrees of freedom on the formulated hypothesis.

According to (Vaughan D, 1998) Ch.-square test of independence

is a statistical technique used to compare the difference

between categorical frequencies when data is categorical and

drawn from a population with uniform distribution in which

alternative responses are equally likely. Other statistics

such as percentages, frequencies of distribution were used to

give face values of the influence of occupational safety,

health and environment on teachers. Correlation coefficient(r)

test was done at a significance level of 0.05 to analyze the

degree of relationships between the variables measured in

sections A,B.C.D. of questionnaire with teachers work related

ailments as measured in section 2, B of the questionnaire.

There searcher used statistical package for social sciences

(SPSS) version 16 software to analyze the qualitative data.

62

The quantitative data was then presented using tables and

graphs while qualitative data was presented in prose.

3.12 Operational Definition of Variables

Kerlinger (1973) says that an operational definition assign

meaning to a concept or construct by specifying the activities

or operations necessary to measure it. He continues to say

that, it gives meaning to variables by spelling out what the

investigators must do to measure it.

Table 3.2: Shows the Operationalization of Variables in the

Study

Objective Variables Indicators Measures ScaleInfluence

of

physical

health

occupatio

nal

hazards

Independe

nt

variable

Chemical

hazards

Dependent

variables

Safe use of

chemicals by

preventing

them from

exposure.

Execution of

control

measures.

Are Training

opportunities

available to

acquire

information

Are there

Personal

protective

clothing

Ordinal

Nominal

Ordinal

Ordinal

63

Teachers

performan

ce of

duties

and equipment

Is there a

School

nurse available

all

the times

Maintenance

of

cleanliness in

the

School.

Eating

arrangements

Proper

ventilation

Ordinal

Ordinal

Ordinal

Influence

of

ergonomic

and

safety

hazards

to

teachers

performan

ce of

duties

Independe

nt

variable

Ergonomic

hazards

Safe use of

work

equipments/

facilities

Availability

of

Computer

antiglare

Computer

desk in

proper size for

the

user and space

available.

Are the

Nominal

Ordinal

Ordinal

Ordinal

Ordinal

64

Chairs &

Tables

comfortable?

Is there

enough

space in the

office

Number of

furniture per

teacherIndepende

nt

variable

Electrici

ty

hazards

Safe use of

electricity

appliances in

the

school

Maintenance

of

electric

appliances

Fire safety

measures

Number of

sockets in

the

staffroom.

Safe

installation

of electric

equipment.

Rules for

operating

and switching

off

electrical

appliances

Fire

fighting

Nominal

ordinal

Ordinal

Nominal

Ordinal

65

equipment

Fire safety

drills/trainingFalls and

slips

Cleaning

Sufficient

lightning

Permanent

stairs

have guard

rails

Regular

cleaning of

floors

Nominal

Ordinal

Influence

of

psycholog

ical

stress on

teachers

performan

ce.

Independe

nt

variable

Psycholog

ical

hazards

Better

policies on

salaries and

incentives.

Compensatory

policies for

workers

Is there any

good

policies on

the

salaries,

Good

Incentive

packages

Flexible

compensate

for workers

Ordinal

Ordinal

Ordinal

Influence

of

physical

environme

nt on

Physical

condition

s

Facilities

for rest

and eating

meals.

Drinking

Where meals are

taken in.

Are there

Facilities

for rest and

Ordinal

66

teacher

performan

ce

water

Sanitary

conveniences

Sufficient

Ventilation

eating meals?

Availabili

ty of

clean

drinking

water

Availabili

ty of

Sanitary

facilities,

Separate for

man and woman

Nominal

Nominal

Lighting Adequate

level

Must be

suitable

and

sufficient

.

Emergency

lighting

system

If there

is glare

from sunlight,

are there

suitable blinds

for protection?

Ordinal

Nominal

Nominal

67

Noise

hazards

Reaction to

exposure

Control

measures

loss of

concentrat

ion

Fatigue

Ordinal

Ordinal

Social

environme

nt

Physical

assaults

Frequency Ordinal

Violence

occurrence

Cases of

harassment.

Communication

channels

Frequency

Frequency

efficiency

Ordinal

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

4.1. Introduction

This chapter presents the results of the data collected and

further discusses the findings. Descriptive statistics such as

frequencies and percentages were used to analyze responses to

various questionnaire items. An inferential statistic the chi-

square (X²) test of independence was also used to analyze

responses to various items on the questionnaire and to test

68

the study hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance and

appropriate degrees of freedom.

4.2 Response Rate

A total of 200 questionnaires were issued to the respondents

from the sampled schools. One hundred and fifty (150) out of

the two hundred (200) questionnaires given were answered. The

analysis was therefore done using the seventy seven

questionnaires received from the respondents. The results are

presented as shown below.

Table 4.1: Return Rate of the Questionnaire Administered

VARIABLES FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE (%)

Response 150 75%

Non-Response 50 25%

Total 200 100

The research targeted 200 respondents with 150 respondents

answering the questionnaires which constituted 75% and the

remaining 50 respondents constituted 25% of which the

questionnaires were either not answered or had been displaced

by respondents

69

4:3 Demographic Information

The following information was sought from the respondents on

their occupation: gender, category of schools, qualified

teachers in the sample schools, level of professional

training, teaching experience and responsibilities, the

respondents have in their school besides classroom teaching.

Table 4.2 indicates gender distribution of the teachers’

interviewed.

Table 4.2: Respondents Gender

The teaching as an occupation has become competitive among

genders and my study conducted in Mampong municipality on

teachers from table 4.2 indicates that 69.3% were males while

30.7% were also females. When you critically observe the table

well, there was a significant difference between gender in the

70

Gender Frequency Percentage (%)

MALE 104 69.3FEMALE 46 30.7

Total 150 100.0

responses; the male teachers were twice more than female

teachers because the promotion of girl child education in the

municipality is low, Ghana Education service branch in the

municipality do not often post female teachers to the various

schools and finally, even the tutors in the two girl schools

namely (Saint Monica’s Senior High and Saint Monica’s College

of Education) all in the study area were mostly males. This

research is in line with Abakisi’s (2009) findings when he

worked on the employment satisfaction of teachers in Junior

High School in the Ejisu-Juaben District Assembly

whichunveiled that the maleteachers dominated femaleswith 64%

of males and 36% of females.

Table 4.3: Category of Schools where the Subjects were Pooled

to Answer

Questionnaires

Categories

of Schools

Frequency Percentage

(%)BASIC LEVEL 76 50.7

SECONDARY LEVEL 48 32.0TERTIARY 26 17.3Total 150 100.0

71

Table 4.3: shows the category of schools covered by the

respondents and indicates that 51% (76) respondents were

teaching at the basic level, 32% (48) respondents were

teaching at the secondary level while 17% (26) respondents

were teaching at tertiary level. This showsthat majority of

the respondents were from the basic level due to the large

number of basic schools that are found in the Municipality.

4.4 Qualified Teachers (Train and Untrained)

Table 4.4: Trained and Untrained teachersin the sample

schools.

Qualify Teachers Frequency Percentage (%)TRAINED 132 88.0UNTRAINED 18 12.0Total 150 100.0

Training is very important in the field of life of which the

educational sector specifically the teaching profession which

is more sensitive in behavioral aspect of life of students in

various schools. Training is way of guiding, educating and

instructing one to keep up to the demand ofhis or her master.

72

In view of this, table 4.4 shows that teachers trained are

represented by 88% and those that are untrained constitute

12%. Information on trained and untrained teachers was sought

because the systematic and logical nature of delivery of

lesson is found to be paramount in teaching profession to

bring out the total change in the students or pupils in the

schools. From the analysis, it is seen that the number of

trained teachers far out weight the untrained ones. This means

that the level of competence in performance of teacher and

systematic delivery of lessons to the pupils or studentsin

various schools ranged from primary to tertiaryin the

municipality.

Table 4.5: Professional Qualification of Train Teachers

Professional Qualification Frequency Percentage

CERTIFICATE,O AND A' LEVEL 10 6.7

DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION 35 23.3

DEGREE IN EDUCATION 75 50.0

MASTER IN EDUCATION 17 11.3

OTHERS LIKE BSC,BA,MSC 13 8.7

Total 150 100.0

73

Table 4.5 shows the various qualifications of the respondents

who are trained and untrained and are teaching in the sampled

school. From the analysis we can deduce that 87% of the

respondents have being trained with 50% of teachers having

degree in education, 23% of the teachers having diploma in

education, 11% of them having master in education and

remaining respondents were 7% and 9% for respondents with

certificate O and A level and others like Bachelor Science

(BSC), Bachelor of Art (BA), Master of Science (MSC). The

information on professional training was sought to monitor the

kind of qualifications the teachers who are teaching and

lecturing in the sampled schools have and verify whether they

really qualify to be working at their stations and from the

analysis it shows that the teachers qualified to teach at the

various schools.

Table 4.6: Teaching Duration of the Subject Teachers

Encountered During the Survey

Years Frequency Percentage

74

of Teaching (%)

LESS THAN 1 YEAR 22 14.7

1-5 YEARS 47 31.3

6-10 YEARS 31 20.7

11-15 YEARS 21 14.0

16-20 YEARS 17 11.3

ABOVE 20 YEARS 12 8.0Total 150 100.0

From table 4.6: The findings indicate that teachers had varied

teaching experience, 31% had teaching experience of between 1

to 5 years, 21% had teaching experience of 6 to 10 years, 15%

had teaching experience below one(1) year, 14% had the

experience of 11 to 15 years, teachers who had teaching

experience of 16 to 20 years recorded11% while 8% had

teaching experience above 20 years. This implies that 53% of

the respondents had experience of more than 5 years which

translate to a good performance, building on the premise that

performance improve with experience.

75

4.5 Respondents Subjects’ Distribution

The distribution of teachers according to the subjects groups

is shown on table 4.8.2 below.

Table 4.7: Respondents Subjects’ Distribution

The finding from table 4.7 above indicates that 60 teachers

(40%) taught science subjects which include biology, chemistry

and physics and other related science courses that were taught

in the tertiary institutions namely histology, entomology and

crop science, 29 teachers (19%) were teaching all subjects, 24

76

Subject Distribution to

Respondents

Frequenc

y

Percenta

ge(%)

SCIENCES 60 40TECHNICAL APPLIED 24 16

HUMANITIES 16 10.7ALL SUBJECTS 29 19.3LANGUAGES 21 14.0

Total 150 100.0

teachers (16%) taught technical applied subjects namely

technical skill, Information Communication Technology (I.C.T),

Home Science, Agricultures, 21 teachers (14%) taught languages

namely English, Twi, Hausa while 16 teachers (11%) taught

humanities subjects namely geography, history, social studies,

Christian Religious Studies (C.R.S). This indicates that all

the subjects taught in various levels of schools are fairly

represented in the sample. This would enable relevant

information to be obtained as different subjects expose

teachers to different occupational risks and hazards

differently.

Table 4.8: Respondents Responsibilities (position held in

school) besides Teaching in

the Classroom

Positions Frequency Percentage

(%)

ADMINISTRATOR 2 1.3

REGISTRAR 1 .7

EXAM OFFICER 15 10.077

DEAN OF STUDENTS 2 1.3

HEADMASTER/HEADMISTRESS 8 5.3

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT 20 13.3

SPORTS/MASTER/MISTRESS 17 11.3

OTHER POSITIONS (FORM MASTER,

ACADEMIC COUNSELERS,WELFARE,

GHNATOC OFFICIAL,ETC)

85 56.7

Total 150 100.0

To check the other responsibilities of teachers apart from the

normal teaching done in the classroom, the findings from table

4.8indicates that, 57% respondents were having or holding

other responsibilities or positions such as Form Masters,

Academic counselors, Welfare and GNAT Official in the school

as teachers, 13% respondents were head of department, 11%

respondents are sport masters and mistresses, 10% respondents

were exam officers while 5%, 1%, 1% and 1% were respondents

who were teachers and the same time as Headmaster/

Headmistress, Dean of students, Administrators and registrar

respectively. This information was sought to investigate78

whether there were other responsibilities that teachers

perform aside their teaching and also monitor how they combine

the respective duties in the school to ensure efficient and

effective teaching and learning. From table 4.9 it proves that

teachers perform different duties part from the already known

duties in schools as subjects of academic delivery.

4.6. Ergonomic Safety

This section presents data of findings on the ergonomic

materials that are used by teachers in their schools. These

encompass the comfortability of the furniture the teacher used

in various offices and classroom, teaching aid, means of

ventilation, nature of light in the classroom and offices,

working exposure and computers used by teacher in teaching or

lecturing.

Table 4.10: The Comfort of Office and Classroom Furniture

(Chairs and Tables) used

by Teachers

Variables Frequency Percentage (%)

YES 36 24.0

NO 114 76.0

79

Total 150 100.0

The comfort of using materials like chairs, table etc at

workplace is very important to every worker because it keeps

him or her healthy and also prevents them from any health

complications. From the data on table 4.10 above, it indicates

that 76% (114) of theteachers said “No” which means they

were uncomfortable about the furniture they used in their work

while 24% (36) of the teachers responded “yes” in the

affirmative that their level of comfort actually depend on the

quality of the furniture they use for either storing of books

or sitting when marking exercises or for relaxation in the

school. The information was sought to cross examine whether

the furniture the teachers use has some associated adverse

health effects on them and from the analysis it indicates

clearly that more than twice of the teachers expressed their

discomfort about the furniture when using them and have had

certain health complications such as backaches. It could be

that the design of the furniture did not favour the teacher’s

80

height (i.,e be it longer and shorter). This research is in

line with Beach, (2005) from findings which affirmed that

furniture used by teachers has reflected many impacts on their

health in schools.

Table 4.11: Teaching aids used by teachers in school

Teaching aids Frequency Percentage (%)

CHALK 92 62.0

MARKER 57 38.0

Total 150 100.0

From table 4.11 the data there indicates that 62% (92) of the

respondents were using chalk for teaching in the classrooms

while 38% (57) of them depended on markers when teaching in

the respective classroom. From the study the researcher

realized that most of the basic and few secondary schools

teachers were using chalk and tertiary schools mostly used the

markers. The information was sought to investigate teacher’s

level of comfort in the aids that they used in teaching. We

could deduce that the majority (62%) of the teachers who used

chalk complained so much about the health problems they had

81

since they started using it and being soiled everyday by dust

particles of the chalk.

Tsable 4.12: Ventilated Materials used in Schools

Ventilated materials Frequency Percent

WINDOWS,GLASS LOUVERS AND DOORS

OPENED INTERMITTENTLY

119 79.3

FAN 18 12.0

AIR CONDITION 6 4.0

OTHERS 7 4.7

Total 150 100.0

Table 4.12 shows the means of ventilation at the various

offices and classrooms in the sampled schools in municipality.

It is clear form above that the main source of most

ventilation in the schools were windows, glass louvers and

doors which could be opened intermittently and represents 79%

which constituted 119 respondents, 12% (18) respondents use

fans in the classrooms and offices while 5% (7) depended on

others source such as like block moldings while 4% (6) of the

82

respondents were using air conditioners in their offices. From

the research, it was deduced that almost all the tertiary

schools like the University and Colleges of Education were

using fans in the classrooms and air conditions were used in

some of the offices of the lecturers. It could be concluded

from the above that in terms of modernized ventilation, the

tertiary schools in the municipality were better than those at

the basic and secondary levels.

Tables 4.13: Nature of Light in Offices and Classroom in

Schools

Nature of light in classroom and

offices

Frequency Percentage

(%)

NORMAL BRIGHTNESS 121 80.7

BRIGHTER THAN EXPECTED 4 2.7

DIM 7 4.6

DO NOT HAVE ALL 18 12.0

Total 150 100.0

83

Table 4.13 shows the nature of light in the classrooms and

offices of the teachers in the schools and it indicated that

81% (121) of the respondents expressed that the light in the

classroom and offices had normal brightness, 12% (18) had no

access to electricity in their school while 5% (7) depended on

dimlights in classroom while 3% (4) of the subject were

utilizing brighter lighting system. This information was

sought to check the glare of the light used in the classrooms

and offices of the teachers since light could also have

detrimental effect on the health of the teachers when it

becomes dim and brighter than expected in the classroom. From

the analysis, it could be concluded that light used in the

classrooms are normal and may not bring any health

complications to teachers if it is uninterruptedly available

84

Tables 4.14: Working Exposure of Respondents

Indicative response factor Frequency Percentage(

%)STANDING WHEN TEACHING OR

LECTURING

129 86.0

SITTING WHEN TEACHING OR

LECTURING

2 1.3

STANDING, SITTING AND WRITTING ON

BOARD WHEN TEACHING

19 12.7

Total 150 100.0

The kind of postures workers undertake to discharge his duties

is important and even determines how productive the worker

will be in the working environment. Therefore, this

information was sought to survey the working posture of the

teachers and researchers in the schools. From table 4.14 the

data shows that 86% (129) teachers teach or lecturewhile

standing, 13% (19) teachers also teach while standing and

writing on the board in the course of delivery of lessons,

85

sitting while marking or relaxing during break hours and even

sitting during delivering hours. Only 1% of teachers sit when

teaching or lecturing in the classroom and lecture halls. From

the analysis, there may be certain potential health risks to

teachers since standing postures are associated with greater

pelvic tilt and lumbar lordosis (De Carvalho et al, 2010).

This clearly show that most teachers stand while teaching in

the classrooms.

Table 4.15: Laboratory Presents in the Schools of the

Respondents

Variables Frequency Percentage

(%)

YES 61 40.7

NO 89 59.3

Total 150 100.0

86

The purpose of the laboratory in schools is to bring abstract

sciences into practical setting for the understanding of

students. In view of this, table 4.15 shows the number of

laboratories available for the respondent’s work. About 89

teachers representing 59% said no which means that their

schools were not having it in place while 61 teachers

representing 41% yes which also indicate that they have it in

place. From the analysis, we can say that the study of science

in our schools is not as effective as wanted because the

schools do have needed facilities to practicalzed the subject

for the understanding of the students. Even the 41% of

teachers who were having laboratories in their schools, about

39% of them practice proper laboratory safety cautions which

means they have some of personal protective clothing in place

which protect some of the students when they attend their

practical lessons in the laboratory. Since we have less than

half of the laboratories having the personal protective

clothing in place, the students will be exposed to many health

risks that could either be through inhalation or skin

contacts.

87

Table 4.16: Respondents that uses Computers in Teaching

Variables Frequency Percentages (%)

YES 40 26.7

NO 110 73.3

Total 150 100.0

Presentation of lessons in the classroom takes different

format which includes the use of PowerPoint which normally

goes with the use of computer in the classroom. In view of

this, table 4.16 shows teachers who were using computers

(laptops) when teaching and 100 teachers representing 73%

responded “No” while 40 teachers representing 27% responded

yes which means they use computers in teaching. The

information was sought to check whether they have some

protective covers at screens of the computers the individual

teachers used and those that were found in the computer labs88

of the schools in the Municipality. From the study, it was

observed that even the 27% of teachers who were using

computers were not having the screen filters and other

protective gadgets in place.

4.7 Occupational Safety

This section presents data on teachers’ level of agreement on

implementation of occupational safety in their schools.

Table 4.17: Teachers level of agreement on the safety of

school structures in schools

Response Frequency Percentage

(%)

STRONGLY DISAGREE 18 12.0

DISAGREE 19 12.7

NEUTRAL 22 14.7

89

AGREE 62 41.3

STRONGLY AGREE 29 19.3

Total 150 100.0

The findings from table 4.17 indicate that 37 (25%) teachers,

disagreed that their school buildings were safe enough to work

in. 22(15%) teachers were neutral while 91(60%) of the

teachers agreed the buildings were safe and secure and

therefore did not hinder their performance and do not threaten

them when they are teaching in the various classrooms. Safe

structures /buildings promote use of skills by teachers since

they do not hinder anything a teacher may wish to do to ensure

effective lesson delivery such as displaying charts on the

wall.

90

4.8 Fire Safety Measures

Table 4.18: Shows Teachers’ Level of Agreement on availability

of fire Extinguishers

in schools


(%)


DISAGREE 39 26.0

NEUTRAL 13 8.7

AGREE 9 6.0


Total 150 100.0

The data on table 4.18 reveal that 124 (83%) teachers

disagreed that their school had fire extinguishers that are in

perfect working conditions to use in case of fire outbreak.13

(9%) teachers were neutral and 4 (3%) teachers agreed they had

fire extinguishers that are in working state. Majority of

teachers therefore confirmed their schools do not have

91

firefighting preparedness. Having such preparedness is a

control measure for fire hazards. Fire accidents lead to

injuries that hinder teachers’ mental and physical skills.

This may also cause the stationary of the teachers used for

references burnt up, which may affect them psychologically.

4:9 Firefighting Training and Techniques

Table 4.19: Teachers Level of agreement on Firefighting

Training as Needful Exercise


(%)STRONGLY DISAGREE 103 68.7

DISAGREE 32 21.3NEUTRAL 15 10.0AGREE 0

STRONGLY AGREE 0Total 150 100.0

92

The data from table 4.19 indicate that 135 (90%) of the

teachers disagreed on having received firefighting training

and techniques since their appointed before the survey. 9 (6%)

teachers were neutral. This shows that teachers are not aware

of what to do in case of fire incidence either in class or in

the offices. Science teachers, whose work in the laboratory

puts them at a higher risk of fire hazards were indeed

concerned about this, one of them commented that “I avoid

performing some experiments for fear of fire outbreak, and

instead emphasized the claim on basis of theoretical

explanations” a factor that he attributes to poor performance

of questions set from that particular area of the curriculum.

93

4.10 The Availability of Emergency Doors

Table 4:20: Teachers Level of agreement on availability of

Emergency Doors in Offices

and Laboratories


(%)


DISAGREE 27 18.0

NEUTRAL 15 10.0

AGREE 26 17.3


Total 150 100.0

From table 4:20 the findings indicate that 60% of the

respondents disagreed with the view on having emergency doors

in their offices and laboratories, 10% were neutral, while 29%

agreed. Those in agreement however, specified that, such doors

did not open from outside. This poses a great danger of

trapping victims inside a room in case there is fire, as there

is always a tendency to crowd behind the door in attempt to

escape. They also reported most of the windows have been

94

covered with metal nets which makes it impossible for them to

escape in case of fire outbreak in the classroom and offices.

4.11 Safety from Slips and fall

Table 4.21: Use of Precautionary Measures against slips and

falls in their schools


(%)


DISAGREE 14 9.3

NEUTRAL 21 14.0

AGREE 60 40.0


Total 150 100.0

95

The results above indicate that 17% of teachers felt that the

floors of their offices and the classrooms including the

staircases are not kept dry enough to avoid slips and falls,

14% were neutral while 69% were in agreement that indeed

precautions are taken to protect them from slips and falls in

their schools. The respondents admitted that the floors and

staircase were kept dry all the time so most of the teachers

avoided slips and falls in the various classroom and offices.

These findings established is in line with the findings of the

British health and safety executive that slips and falls lead

to injuries, cuts and abrasions which lead to absenteeism of

workers.

4.12 Influence of Occupational Health on Teachers Performance

The study further investigated whether occupational health

hazards have any influence on public school teachers’

performance of duties in the survey. This section presents

data on teachers’ responses on occupational health in their

respective schools, and the influence these have on the

performance of their duties.

96

Table 4.22: Analyses on the Number of Teachers Trained on

Health Issues

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

YES 57 38.0

NO 93 62.0

Total 150 100.0

Table 4.22 reveals that 62 percent of the interviewed teachers

had not been trained on any health issues, 38 percent had been

trained, most of them on general health issues which includes

(sex education and sanitation related diseases) and the

current pandemic disease HIV/AIDS and Hepatitis. The findings

of the study are that most of the respondents had little

information on health hazards related to their work. This

implied that most of the teachers were in danger of passive

exposure to work related health hazards.

Table 4:23 Analyses on the number of Teachers who have

received Vaccination

Variable Frequency Percentage (%)

YES 69 46.0

NO 81 54.0

97

Total 150 100.0

From analysis above, it indicated that 54% of the respondents

had not received vaccination to protect themselves against

infectious diseases, 46% of them had received vaccination

against infectious diseases. This can be attributed partly to

lack of strictness by the authorities in charge of recruitment

section of the Ghana Education Services in receiving such

vaccination and partly due to lack of information.

Table 4.24: Analysis of results on Teachers’ use of Protective

Clothing when Handling

Chemicals in School


YES 14 9.3

NO 106 70.7

NOT APPLICABLE 30 20.0

Total 150 100.0

Table 4.24 reveals that 20% (30) of teachers- who are

required to wear protective clothing due to the subjects they

98

teach do not wear them, only 9%(14) teachers wore such

clothing while 71% (106) teachers did not .This findings

reveal that majority of the teachers are in danger of being

exposed to chemical hazards which include concentration of

mists vapor gases, acids and alkaline and solids especially

for most sciences and other teachers in the respective

schools. These are associated with voice disorders, soreness

and hoarseness which interfere with lesson delivery.

4.13 Analyses of results on the Person in charge of Health

Emergencies in the Schools

Table 4.25: Teachers Responses on Handling of Emergencies in

the School


(%)

SCHOOL NURSE 38 25.3

COLLEAGUE TEACHER 85 56.7

DON'T KNOW 27 18.0

Total 150 100.0

The results from the table 4.25 above reveals that 25 percent

of teachers agreed with having a school nurse to take care of

99

health emergencies in their school, 57 percent of the teachers

revealed that such emergencies are handled by colleague

teachers, regardless of their knowledge on health problems of

the patients. These findings reveal that teachers may be

exposed to chemical hazards and biological hazards such as

infectious diseases which can inflict them in the course of

administering first aid either to students or colleague

teachers since they have little knowledge on the precaution to

be taken first before the treatment.

Table 4.26: Teachers Response on first aid box in the School

Response Frequency Percentage (%)YES 123 82.0NO 18 12.0

I DON'T KNOW 9 6.0Total 150 100.0

From analysis of the data on table 4.26 above it reveal that,

82% (123) of the teacher have first aid box in the schools.

However, most of the teachers commented that the first aid box

was not well-equipped and they also commented that the boxes

were stored in open places in the staff common room and which

100

affected the efficacy of the drugs since most of them are not

to be exposed to the sun and other conditions, 12% (18) of the

teachers admitted having no first aid kit in their schools.

Only 6% (9) of the teachers could not specify whether the

school has first aid kit in place. Even most of the teachers

admitted having the first aid box in their school but it was

not useful to either the teachers or students in terms of

sickness. Those who are in charge of administering the drugs

to a sick teacher or student when not available all the time

there will be chaos as to who is supposed to be performing

such duties in the school.

4.14 Analyses of results on Teachers Dining Area

Table 4.27: Shows the results on Teachers Dining Area in the

School Contacted

Response Frequency Percent

STAFF COMMON ROOM 100 66.7

CLASSROOM 20 13.3

CAFETERIA 11 7.3

DINING AREA 6 4.0

UNDER TREES 13 8.7

101

Total 150 100.0

From table 4.27 the results reveal that, majority of the

respondents 100(67%) expressed that they take their meals in

the staffroom, 20 (13%) stated other areas like classroom, 13

(9%) expressed that they take meals under trees, 11(7%) of

teachers were patronizing the school cafeteria while 6 (4%)

took meals from a dining hall. These findings indicated that

most schools do not have dining facilities for teachers, this

poses a danger of Biological hazards which include rodents,

virus, bacteria which are attracted by food particles left

behind especially when thorough cleaning is not done

regularly. Some of respondents stated they sometime take

snacks when they are in the laboratory, this does not only

expose them to biological hazards but chemical hazards as

well.

102

4.15 Analysis of results on Level of Work- Related Stress

among Teachers

Table 4.28: Shows the results on Level of Work- Related Stress

among Teachers

Response Frequency Percentage (%)YES 129 86.0NO 21 14.0

Total 150 100.0

The findings from table 4.28 above reveal that majority of the

respondents 86% (129) of teachers suffered from work related

stress in the preceding of the first year as a teacher before

the survey while 14 % (21) expressed that they did not suffer

from any work related stress in the preceding of the first

year as a teacher before the survey. From the analysis,

majority of teachers who complained aboutwork-related stress

attributed it to workload on teachers in their various

schools. This is because from the study it was realized that

most of the basic and secondary schools teachers handle more

than one subject with enrolment of about 60 in each class and

the teachers need to discharge their duties bygiven the

103

students exercises to all the classes he taught that very day

for assessment sake and this put a lot of stress on the

teachers especially the marking of the exercises. Stress

contributes to burnout and low motivation to work. Human

errors made under the effect of occupational stress can reduce

productivity in teachers. This trickles down to the students

hence affecting their performance.

4.16 Analyses results on Pre Medical Screening for Teachers

before giving their

Appointment letter to Start Work as Teachers

Table 4.29: Shows the results on Pre Medical Screening for

Teachers before giving

their appointment letter to Start Work

as Teachers


YES 19 12.7

104

NO 131 87.3

Total 150 100.0

The findings on table 4.29 indicates 87% (131) of teachers

admitted that they did not receive any pre-medical screening

before given their appointment letters to them while only 13%

(19) of teachers agreed to have received pre-medical screening

before they were given their appointment letter as teachers.

The information was sought to investigate the teacher’s health

status before they start working so that health problems that

may occur as a result of their work could easily be identified

by health experts and the teachers themselves. From the

analysis, it indicates that most of our teachers in the

educational sector do not receive any pre-medical screening

before ushering them to the work as teachers and this may

bring untimely death to teachers who are asthmatic which may

occur as a result of their frequent exposure to the dust

produced by chalk in the classrooms.

105

4.17 Analyses results on Common Ailments Teachers Suffered

since they received their

appointment before the Survey and their Percentages

Table 4.30: Shows the results on Common Ailments that has

affected Teachers and

Researchers in Schools

Variables Frequency Percentages (%)

Neck pain

Chest pain

Itchy eyes

Allergy

Flu

Low back pain

Skin dermatitis

Anxiety

Heart burn

Voice disorder

15

9

15

7

20

25

10

9

5

30

10.0

6.0

10.0

4.7

13.3

16.7

6.7

6.0

3.3

20.0

106

Joint pain 5 3.3

Total 150 100.0

Table 4.30 shows work related ailments that teachers have been

suffering from since their appointment as teacher in the

educational sector. Apart from voice disorders which recorded

a little higher percentage of 20 with 30 teachers, the rest of

them have suffered from a significant work-related ailment

which originated from the work they do as teachers. Among the

work-related ailments, the one the teachers complained as

severe was flu, low back pain and voice disorders of which

they attributed to frequent talking, frequent exposure of dust

for chalk and the problems associated with the furniture they

use in school. Even though these illnesses are considered

minor, however, it may become chronic when it persists for a

longer period of time in the teacher’s life in teaching.

107

4.18 Analyses of results on the Influence of Physical

Environment on Teachers

Performance

In this section the researcher wanted to establish whether

there was any influence of physical environment on teachers’

performance of duties .To achieves this objective the

respondents were asked their opinions on physical environment

in their schools and their responses were tabulated as shown

below.

4.19 Influence of Noise on Performance

Table 4.31: Analyses of results on Noise Control in the

Staffroom and Classrooms


(%)


DISAGREE 24 16.0

NEUTRAL 29 19.3

AGREE 10 6.7


Total 150 100.0

108

Results from table 4.31, indicates that 89 (59%) teachers

found the noise levels in the staffroom uncomfortable to work

in. About 29 (19%) teachers, were Neutral, while 32 (21%) of

them indicated that noise in their staffrooms were controlled,

therefore not a hindrance to their performance .This indicated

that majority of the respondents did not work comfortably in

their respective staffroom or offices and in classrooms due to

noise hazard. Control of noise enhances concentration and

proper utilization of time. Noise in classes can prevent

communication through its interference with reception of

speech. It can also cause ear damage. Noise control can

encourage teachers to work in their offices when doing lesson

preparation and when marking students work.

4.20 Influence of Social Environment on Teachers Performance

of Duties

In this section the researcher wanted to establish whether

social environment in public school teachers had any influence

on their performance of duties. The pooled responses were

tabulated as follows.

109

Table 4.32: Results on Management Sensitivity to Teachers

Concerns


(%)


DISAGREE 36 24.0

NEUTRAL 18 12.0

AGRRE 38 25.3


Total 150 100.0

The resultson table 4.32 indicate that 73 teachers, (49

percent) felt the management staffs in their school are not

sensitive to teachers concerns, 18 teachers, (12%) were

neutral, 59 teachers, (39%), felt the management staff

listened to teachers concerns. This findings reveal that

majority of the respondents felt the management was

insensitive to their concerns. This can also affect the

teachers psychologically because they may feel inferior in the

management of the school.

110

4.21 Analysis of Data on the Study Hypothesis

This aspect of the study aimed to assess the influence of each

independent variable on the dependent variable and was tested

using the chi –square test. According to (Kelinger 1993)

hypothesis will be considered to be significant, if the

calculated chi- square statistic exceeds a critical value at

alpha 0.05 level of significance and at appropriate degrees of

freedom after the analysis. One of the objectives of the study

was to find out whether there was any influence of

occupational safety on teachers performance of duties in

selected public schools in Mampong Municipality.

To establish thischi– square test of independence was used to

test the hypothesis.

HO1: There is no significant relationship between occupational

health hazards of teachers and their performance in the

Mampong Municipality. The hypothesis was analyzed by assessing

if there was a relationship between, clean air quality in

offices and classrooms that is motivating to work, and safety

and maintenance of the school buildings.

111

Table 4.33: Shows chi-square Analysis on Air Quality in

Classrooms and Offices and

Safety of School Buildings

LEVEL OF AIR QUALITY IN THE OFFICE

AND CLASSROOM

TotalMEASURES SD D N AG S AG

SCHOOL

BUILDING

AREN SAFE

AND WELL

MAINTAIN

SD 4 4 2 5 3 18

D 7 5 1 5 1 19

N 3 7 6 3 3 22

AG 6 12 13 23 8 62

SAG

4 7 3 9 6 29

112

TOTAL 24 35 25 45 21 150

KEY:

SD: strongly disagree. D: Disagree A: Agree, SAG: Strongly

agree, N: Neutral

N= 150

Pearson Chi-Square= 18.422

Degree of freedom = 16 Critical Value= 0.310

P>0.05

From the chi- square (X²) computation, the calculated value

was 18.422, which was greater than the critical value of 0.310

at 5% confidence level and 16 degrees of freedom. In this case

of the judgment, the null hypothesis is rejected and the

alternative hypothesis accepted. There is therefore

significant relationship between provision of safe maintained

school buildings and teachers’ motivation to work. The

findings further imply that there is a significant

relationship between occupational safety and teacher’s

performance of duties in public schools in Mampong

Municipality.

113

HO2 There is no significant relationship between ergonomic

hazards of teachers and its influence on teaching.

The hypothesis was analyzed to find if there was a

relationship between ergonomics hazards with regard to the

type of furniture used by teachers and one of the work-related

ailments (low back pain) that teachers complained during the

study.

114

Table: 4.34: Shows chi – square test Analysis on Ergonomics

Hazards with regard to

comfortability of the Furniture used by

Teachers and one of the Work-

Related Ailments (low back pain)

Complained by Teachers

MEASURE

LOWBACKPAIN

Total

COMPLAI

N

NOT

COMPLAIN

FEELCOMFORTUSING

FURNITURE

YES 30 6 36

NO 78 36 114

Tota

l108 42 150

Pearson Chi-square = 3.018

Degree of freedom= 1

Critical value= 0.08

P>0.05

From the chi – square test computation the calculated value

was 3.018 which was greater than the critical value of 0.08 at

5% confidence level and the degree of freedom. In this case

the judgment made was to reject the null hypothesis and accept

115

the alternative hypothesis. This implies that there is a

significant relationship between the level of comfortability

of teachers using the furniture in schools and the low back

pain they have experienced since they used them.

4.22 Summary of the Chapter

In the survey, the researcher grouped the variables into two

namely Independent variables which includes ergonomics

hazards, occupational hazards, physical health occupational

hazards physical environment hazards and social environment

hazards were analyzed using SPSS so as to identify their

effect on the dependent variable –influences on teacher’s

performance of duties in Mampong Municipality.

From the analysis, presentation and interpretation of the data

collected, it is crucial to note that ergonomics, occupational

safety, health and environment immensely contribute to the

teachers’ performance of duties in schools within the

Municipality. The researcher came up with ergonomics hazards

which attributed to furniture used by teachers, occupational

safety hazards, physical health occupational hazards, physical

116

environment hazards and social environment hazards as

pertinent factors that affect teachers’ performance of duties

in public schools.

Therefore, the ministry of education should adapt this report

to assist in setting up the relevant policies and procedures

which will help correct the situation, so as to help them

achieve the set goals and objectives and inculcate it into the

occupational health and safety management standard that is not

given recognition in the country.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMEDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the analysis of the data collected so as

to make informed conclusions through interpretation and

presentation. The overall objective of the researcher was to

find out whether teachers and researchers in our institutions

encounter some ergonomics and occupational health hazards that

117

are related to their work. The researcher had four major

objectives; to find out the influence of occupational safety,

whether there are physical and psychological occupational

health hazards among teachers and researchers in schools, the

cause of causes of the ergonomics and occupational health

hazards among teachers and researcher in our schools and to

examine the extent to which the seating conditions and other

gadgets used affect teacher’s health either in the classroom

or in the office. The findings have been analyzed above and

the researcher comes up with the following summary of

findings, conclusions and recommendations to the research

conducted in Mampong Municipality.

5.2 Summary of the Findings

The study sought to establish whether teachers and researchers

in the country’s institutions encounter certain ergonomics and

occupational health hazards in their work places. Chapter 4

presented the results of the data collected and further

discussed these findings. Entirely, 150 (100%) respondents

were interviewed. Out of these, 69 % were male and 31 % were

female. 88% of them were trained in education course either at118

diploma level or degree and masters level while 12% were

untrained with Bachelor of Science, Art and Master of Science

from courses that qualify them to handle subjects at the

basic, secondary and tertiary school level.

The third objective of the study was to determine the

relationship between occupational safety and teachers’

performance of duties. The data analysis and interpretation of

responses from the respondents revealed the following major

findings under the objectives.

5.2.1 Influence of Occupational Safety Hazards on Teacher’s

Performance

The data showed that, most school buildings in Mampong

Municipality are safe and well maintained,(91) 60 percent of

the interviewed teachers felt the building , were safe and

well maintained enough for use by both teachers and students..

However, 24percent of the respondents felt the buildings were

not safe in terms of structural designs. Fire-fighting tools

like fire extinguishers were not available in most schools,

124 (83%) teachers disagreed with having a fire extinguisher

in their schools. Out of 11 teachers who agreed with having a

119

fire extinguisher, only 3 teachers knew the location of the

gadget. Further analyses showed that where fire extinguishers

were available they were either inadequate for all the

buildings, or they were not accessible to teachers and most of

them were out of order due to lack of regular servicing.

The survey also revealed that all the respondents did not know

how to operate a fire extinguisher, including those from

schools where such gadgets were available. These findings were

further supported by self-reports from respondents in which

135 (89 %) of the teachers disagreed with receiving fire-

fighting training and safety including those teachers that

taught science and computer subjects which require them to

work in fire prone areas such as science and computer

laboratories. Sixty (60%) teachers strongly disagreed to

having emergency doors in their offices and laboratories which

opens from outside, to serve as a precautionary measure

against suffocation in case of fire incident.

Electrical installation in the offices and classrooms in most

schools were reported to be properly located. About 92

120

respondents representing (61%) of the teachers agreed that

electrical wires are located properly in their respective

schools and that there was no chance of accident from them.

The responding teachers felt, precautions were not taken to

ensure that, no accidents occurred from such installation for

instance provision of enough sockets to avoid overloading.

On slips and falls the data analysis indicated that 104 (69%)

teachers agreed with having precautionary measures taken in

their schools to prevent slips and falls, both in offices,

laboratories and classrooms. These findings were further

supported by data that showed that most offices, laboratories

and classrooms of the schools contacted were regularly cleaned

to keep the floors dry and free from such dangers. The survey

also revealed that the furniture (tables and chairs) used by

teachers in their offices and classrooms were unsuitable.

About 114 (76%) of the teachers disagreed with having

comfortable furniture in offices and classrooms in their

respective schools.

121

5.2.2 Influence of Occupational Health Hazards on Teachers’

Performance Of Duties

Work related ailments have been associated with increased

absenteeism among teachers, as outlined in the literature

review of this study. Table 4.30 shows the work – related

ailments suffered by teachers since their appointment even

before the interview and the percentage of teachers who

experienced such ailments. Only work – related complaints were

included for the figures shown.From the survey, the duration

of health complaints since their appointment among the

sufferers was also investigated, 8 out of 10 single health

complaints showed an average duration of one year or longer.

These findings indicated that teachers suffered from health

problems in the long term. The average duration of anxiety was

longest among the 10 health complaints. Anxiety is mostly

associated with work related stress, which has been shown to

be a result of heavy workload and affect the teachers

psychologically.While itchy eyes ranked third. prolonged

reading of teaching materials, assessing assignments or doing

computer work, and insufficient sleep could be the cause of

122

the itchy eyes due to eyestrain, while use of poor quality

chalk could be the cause of the high rate of skin dermatitis.

The study further revealed that, most of the teachers 62% were

not trained on how to deal with health issues, including the

need to receive vaccination against infectious diseases,

despite the fact that their work involved interacting with

people from different areas. Other findings indicate that most

of them 105(69%) teachers did not wear protective clothing

when handling chemicals at their schools which could cause

skin dermatitis to teachers at the laboratories. First aid box

was also available to most schools but they were inadequate

for both teachers and students. However, there was no training

for teachers on how to provide appropriate first aid.

The study also revealed that most teachers handle health

emergency cases in their respective schools, since most

schools do not have qualified school nurses , this exposes

teachers to both biological and chemical hazards since, they

lack health training to cater for such cases. Biological

hazards have been cited in the study as causes of occupational

123

health ailments among teachers. However, from the survey table

4.27 reveals that, 66.7% of the interviewed teachers took

their meals in the staffroom and other areas. This could

attract rodents like rats, moulds and fungi and can cause

odour in the staffroom due to the food particles that may be

left in these places especially if they are not regularly

cleaned.

5.2.3 Influence of Occupational and Environment Hazards on

Teachers Performance

of Duties

From the study the responding teachers reported that social

environment influenced their performance. Most of the

teachers, 42 percent felt the management was insensitive to

the teachers concerns. The study further revealed that

decisions made in schools are not clearly communicated to all

teachers. Other findings revealed that most of the responding

teachers did not feel comfortable when interacting with their

colleagues in their school especially those in management.

124

The physical environment has been cited in this study’s

literature review as influencing teachers’ performance. This

is in relation to factors such as acoustic levels, ventilation

in building, proper housekeeping and thermal factors. From the

survey, it was reported that noise levels in the staffroom

were uncomfortable to work in, for most teachers, noise from

humans increase if they work in limited space. This interferes

with concentration and also proper time utilization. The

survey further revealed that most teachers felt the premises

they work in are not clean enough, which was demotivating to

work. Sanitary fixtures like toilet, hand wash basin were

reported not to be well maintained and even in some schools

they were using the public latrine because they were not

available in the schools for the teachers. Additionally,

healthy drinking water was also not available to most of the

respondents in their offices.

5.3 Conclusions

The study is to establish the fact that teachers and

researchers in the country’s institutions encounter certain

125

ergonomic and occupational health hazards in their work places

which needs to inform those in the authority to incorporate it

into the national occupational health and safety management

standard to consider that teaching as a profession is also

associated with some health implications. In view of this, the

researcher concluded based on the results obtained from

chapter four using the objectives of the study.

The study sought to establish whether there were some physical

and psychological occupational health hazards among teachers

and researchers in schools. The results indicated that there

were some dermatitical effect and the anxieties of teachers as

a result of work-related stress in their work.

The study sought to examine whether seating conditions and

other gadgets used by teachers has any effect on their health.

The study showed that most of the furniture used in school by

the teachers is given them certain health complications since

they expressed their level of displeasure in using the

furniture. The teachers complained of backaches anytime they

used them for longer period.

126

The study also sought to establish whether occupational

environment influenced teachers’ performance. Results from the

study established that, lighting systems in most schools

supported the tasks teachers were doing in offices and

classrooms, Acoustic hazards were however found to dominate

most offices probably due to congestion. This can lower

motivation and job satisfaction. Noise was seen to prevent

voice communication and also contributed to improper

utilization of time. Air quality in offices and classrooms was

found to be uncomfortable by most teachers due to inadequate

ventilation.

The study further established that welfare arrangements which

included provision of drinking water and facilities for rest

and eating meals, proportional to size of workforce, were not

available to most of the teachers. Sanitary fixtures like hand

wash basins, soap and hand drying materials were not available

for teachers use in many schools hence posing the danger of

spreading germs. The study further established that teachers

lacked training in fire-fighting techniques, most schools,

consequently lacked fire-fighting preparedness which was

127

clearly shown, by lack of fire-fighting tools like fire

extinguishers and horse reel. Fire control measures to some

schools were found to be missing in most schools. However,

the tertiary institutions within the Municipality have them

but are not effective. Such measures include: fire alarms and

emergency doors in offices, classrooms and laboratories.

5.4 Recommendations

I urged in this document that teachers and researchers in our

state institutions really encounter certain ergonomics and

occupational health hazard that affect their health and

performances as well in school within the Mampong

Municipality. It is against this background that the

recommendations below are made:

The ministry of education should collaborate with ministry

of health to have pre-medical screening for any teacher

before he or she begins to work as a teacher.

Since the research brought out some work-related ailments

about teaching, the government and policy makers should

inculcate it into the existing policies about government

128

workers so that incentive should also be given to teachers

and researchers in our institutions in Ghana

Designers of furniture used by teachers and researchers in

classrooms and offices to discharge their duties should be

made considering all sizes, height and weight of users

before distributing them to the various schools.

Teachers should report any problem they encounter that

emanate from the teaching to the appropriate authority for

them to be aware that there are some health risks

associated with the teaching profession.

With regard to occupational health, it is recommended that

teachers wear protective clothing’s when handling

chemicals to avoid ailments related to such exposures. The

schools should ensure that there are facilities for rest

and eating meals for teachers, as this will ensure

reduction in exposure to both chemical and biological

hazards.

There is the need to provide a good occupational

environment for teachers by ensuring unnecessary noise is

controlled in and around the school buildings. Such

129

buildings should also be well ventilated, and proper

housekeeping maintained. Proper records regarding

accidents and injuries sustained and suffered by teachers,

and their causes should be kept in schools to provide

information to teachers, as well as serving as measures to

control reoccurrence of similar incidences.

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`

APPENDIX

TEACHERS QUESTIONNAIRE

137

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2010.07.010

DATA GATHERING QUESTIONNAIRE FOR RESEARCH ON ERGONOMIC AND

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS AND SAFETY OF TEACHERS AND

RESEARCHERS IN STATE INSTITUTIONS

This questionnaire will be used in gathering data for the

purpose of an academic research and full confidentiality will

be maintained. It is my hope that the recommendations that

will come out from the research findings will be useful to

reduce employee’s accident and the improvement working

conditions in workplaces. It will assist the ergonomists and

safety planners in the educational sectors to consider all

factors in the design of equipment (tables and chairs) that

are used by the teachers and researchers in the offices and

classroom which can pose some health threat to their life in

school. It will bring into light some hazards that are

associated with the teaching profession which will draw the

attention of the government and other policy makers to factor

it into occupational health and management standards of the

country. The response and complete of this questionnaire is

purely voluntary. However, your participation completing the

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questionnaire will highly be appreciated. Please kindly

respond to the following questions.

BIODATA

1) What is your gender? A) Male 〔〕 B) Female 〔〕

2) What is the name of your school? ……………………………………………………

3) Category of the school you work. A) Primary level 〔〕B)

Secondary 〔〕

C) Tertiary 〔〕

4) Teacher training A) Trained B) Untrained

5) Highest Professional training attained A)

Certificate A〔〕

B) diploma in education〔〕 C)Degree in education 〔〕 d)

Master’s in education 〔〕e) any other specify…………………

6) Teaching experience (tick √) where applicable Less than 1

year 〔〕1-5 years 〔〕6-10 years〔〕11-15 years 16-20 years

〔〕above 20 years 〔〕

7) Category of school you teach

Boy only 〔〕Girl only 〔〕 Mixed school 〔〕Others〔〕

8) Which subject do you teach? Please

specify………………………………………..

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9) How many teachers teach subject with you in the school?

Please specify the number

………………………………………………………………………………………..

10) Are you member of discipline or guidance team?

Yes 〔〕 No 〔〕 Please specify which…………………………….

11) Position held in the school (tick √ where appropriate)

Principal 〔〕Administrator 〔〕 Registrar 〔〕Examine Officer

〔〕

Dean of student’s 〔〕Headmaster /Headmistress〔〕Head of

Department 〔〕Sport Master/mistress 〔〕 others, please

specify………………………………………………………….

PART 2ERGONOMIC

I. Do you have a place of work? Yes ⎕ No ⎕

If yes, where is it?

a) In an organized school ⎕

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b) In church as school ⎕

c) In a house as school ⎕

d) Community Centre as school ⎕

e) School under trees ⎕

II. You have light in your classroom or lecture halls and the

respective offices for staff?

Yes ⎕ NO ⎕

III. Are you having offices for each teacher at these places of

work? Yes ⎕ No⎕

If yes, how is the nature of room?

a) Roofed and sealed with doors and windows ⎕

b) Roofed and not sealed but with doors and windows ⎕

c) Roofed but without doors and windows ⎕

d) Furnished with all the above. ⎕

IV. Is the room furnished with which kinds of furniture?a) Ordinary table and chair without backrest⎕b) Table and Cushion chair with backrest ⎕c) Stuffing table and swerving chair ⎕d) Table and cushion beach ⎕e) Plastic table and plastic chair ⎕f) Ordinary table and chair with backrest. ⎕

V. Do you feel comfortable using the furniture? Yes ⎕ No ⎕

If no, why?

a) I have been experiencing backache any time l used it ⎕b) I had backache because of it ⎕c) The chair is longer than the table ⎕

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d) The chair is smaller than table ⎕e) The table is longer than the chair ⎕f) The table is smaller than the chair ⎕g) Both table and chair are longer than my height ⎕h) Both table and chair are smaller than my height ⎕

VI. Which of the teaching aids do you use in writing on the

board?

a) Chalk ⎕b) Marker ⎕ Other, please

specify……………………………………

VII. What are means of ventilation found in your classroom?

a) Windows, glass rovers and doors opened intermittently.

⎕ b) Fan ⎕

c) Air condition ⎕ d) Others

specify………………………………………………

VIII Source of light in the classroom apart from sunlight

for both day and night studies.

a) Generator ⎕ b) VRA ⎕ c) ECG ⎕ d)

Lantern ⎕ e) Absent of light ⎕

IX). Is the source of power available all the time? a) Yes

⎕ b) No ⎕

X). How is the nature of the light you use in your

classroom and office?

a) Normal Brightness ⎕ (b) Brighter than expected

⎕ c) Dim ⎕

d) Do not have at all ⎕

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XI). Working Exposure a) Standing when teaching or

lecturing ⎕

b) Sitting when teaching or lecturing ⎕

c) Standing, Sitting and writing on the board when

teaching. ⎕

XII). Do you have laboratory in your school? a) Yes ⎕

b) No ⎕

XII). If yes, which are some of the personal protective

equipment do you use when teaching

or lecturing? a) Gloves ⎕ b) Goggles ⎕ c)

Lab coat and boot ⎕

d) Nose mask ⎕ e) All the above ⎕

XIII). Do you use computer (laptop) in your teaching or

lecturing? a) Yes ⎕ b) No ⎕

XIV). If yes, what do you use reduce the glare of the computer

rays?

a) Screen filter ⎕ b) Transparency

white robber ⎕ c) Other, specify……………

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PART 3SECTION (A)

Occupational Health

1. Have you ever been trained on health issues? a) Yes⎕

b) No ⎕

If the answer is yes, which issues? Please specify

…………………………………………

2. Have you ever been vaccinated against infectious

diseases………………………………

3 Do your wear protective clothing when using chemicals in

the school?

a)Yes ⎕ b) No⎕ c) not applicable ⎕

4) Who takes care of health emergencies in the school? Please

tick where appropriate)

a) School nurse⎕ b) Colleague teacher ⎕ c) Don’t know ⎕5) Do you have a first aid box in the school? a) Yes ⎕ b) No ⎕ c) I don’t know ⎕

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6) If the answer above is yes, where is it kept? Please specify……………………………….

7) Where do you take your meals in school? Please specify the area…………………………

8) Do you suffer from work-related stress? a) Yes ⎕ b) No ⎕

9) The stress that you mentioned in the last question mainly

comes from? (Tick all that

apply) a) Heavy workload ⎕ b) Guidance work ⎕ c)

Getting along with colleagues ⎕ d) Lack of enough time to

cover the syllabus others, specify……………

10) In the last 12 months, how many days of sick leave have

you taken due to work-related

health problems? a) No time off work ⎕ b) less than

1 day ⎕ c) 1 – 5 day’s ⎕

d) 6-10 days ⎕ e) 10days plus ⎕

11) Did you go through any pre- medical screening prior to

your current job appointment?

Yes 〔〕 No 〔〕

12. For what approximate period after job appointment did you

suffer from the following health problems or illnesses? Please

tick (√) the appropriate boxes to indicate the severity as

well as the cause and fill in the last column to indicate the

duration (within years) of the corresponding health problem or

illness.

ordinary health

SEVERITY CauseIn your

Duration of the healthproblems (within) in

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problem andcomplains (please tick appropriatebox)

opinion wasthe health problems caused or worsened bythe job?

years

Notat all

A little

Some Serious

Yes No 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕

Neck pain 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕

Low back pain

1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕

Anxiety 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕

Heartburns 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕

Nasal disorders

1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕

Voice hoarseness

1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕

Skin-dermatitis due to the use of chalk and chemical.

1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕

Allergy 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕

Chest pain 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕

Flu 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕

Itchy eyes 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 ( ),after 20years〔〕

Joint pain 1-5〔〕6-10 ( )11-2( ),after 20years ()

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Other, specify………………………………………………………………………………

SECTION B

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY

13. Please provide your opinions for the following statements.

Your response to the statement will be based on a 5 – point

scale ranging from ‘1’ to ‘5’. Your response can be any number

between 1 & 5 depending on how much you agree with the

statement. The more you agree the higher the score. Please

bear in mind that there are no right or wrong answers.

The scale mean 1) strongly disagree

2) Disagree

3) Neutral

4) Agree

5) Strongly agree

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 51 The school buildings are safe and well

maintained2 There is ample number of fire

extinguishers in the school and all ofthem are in working condition

3 Fire drills take place once in every month

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4 Everyone in the school is aware of do’s and do not’s in case of an emergency

5 The floors especially the staircase are always kept dry to avoid slips & falls

6 The electrical wires are located in the proper way and there is no chanceof accident from them

7 There are emergency doors opening fromoutside, in the offices & laboratories

SECTION C

14: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5A I find the level of temperature in

my office

comfortable to work inB I find the level of air quality in

the office and classroom very clean

and motivating to workC I find the noise levels in the

staffroom well

Controlled.D I find the lighting of the

classrooms and office to be

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excellent when I am workingE I find the external physical

appearance of the school very

appearingF Sanitary fixtures (toilets, hand

wash basin) in the school are very

well maintained and enough for all.

15 SECTIONS D

SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT

1 2 3 4 5A Decision are clearly communicated

to all teachersB I find the management sensitive to

the teachers concerns.C I am comfortable when interacting

with colleagues in the school,

including those in management

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