Epics in Imprints-1.pdf - Vivekananda Kendra Prakashan

FEBRUARY - JULY 2003

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VIVEKANVIVEKANVIVEKANVIVEKANVIVEKANANDANDANDANDANDAAAAAKENDRAKENDRAKENDRAKENDRAKENDRAPPPPPAAAAATRIKATRIKATRIKATRIKATRIKA

A DISTINCTIVECULTURAL MAGAZINE

OF INDIA( A Half-yearly Publication)

FEBRUARY ‘03 — JULY ‘03 — Vol. 32 No. - 1 63rd Issue

Founder-Editor :EKNATH RANADE

Editor :P.PARAMESWARAN

Editorial Board:

G.VASUDEO

N.KRISHNAMOORTI

EDITORIAL OFFICE :

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About contents :- Views, approaches and information collected and presentedas articles in a comprehensive volume.

An official organ of Vivekananda Kendra,an all-India service mission with service to humanity as its sole motto and

with Headquarters at Kanyakumari.

The views expressed by the authors are not necessarily the views of the journal.

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EPIC IMPRINTSImpact of the characters

of the Epics and thePuranas on the

Life of India

VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Vivekananda Kendra Patrika would like to thank the following publishers fromwhose publications, extracts have been included in this issue.

1. Advaita Ashrama – Dehi Entally – Kolkata 1. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda

2. Myths and Legends of the Hindus and Buddhists Nov.2001

2. Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, Shimla The Mahabharata in the Tribal andand Seagull Books-Kolkata Folk traditions of India—1993.

3. The Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi 1. A History of Indian Literature-19942. The Ramayana Tradition in Asia –

1989

4. The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of The Cultural Heritage of India-1993Culture, Kolkata

5. Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry The Foundations of India Culture-1968

6. The International Institute of Tamil Sangathamizharin Vazhipadum Studies, Madras 113. Chadangukalum 1996.

7. The Anthropological Society of India and Ramakatha in Tribal and Folk TraditionsSeagull books, Kolkata. in India 1993

8. The National Book Trust of India, New Delhi 1. Nagaland – 19812. Folklore in India 19803. Folklore of Kerala 1991

9. Sarvodaya Press Patamata, Vijayawada The growth of the personality of Mahatma Gandhi 1988

10. Ramanashram, Tiruvannamalai Spiritual stories as told byRamana Maharshi 1986

11. Vanati Publishers, Madras 17. Deivathin Kural II 1978

12. Triveni Sangham, Language Dept., Pune Proverbs of India 1978.

The Cover page

Pictures showing Sri Rama embracing Guha the hunter, and Sri Krishna huggingKuchela the poor Brahmin, reveal the fact that our epic heroes transcended differencesof caste and status.

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SYNOPSIS

VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA August 2003 – January 2004 Vol .32 No.2

Next i ssue 64 th Issue

BALA BHARATAMChild in India; i t s Pas t , Present and Prospects

A perfect Jnani is compared to a child in the Upanishads, becauseof its purity and innocence. Worshipping Sri Krishna, Ganesha,Kartikeya and Devi as a child is a Puranic tradition. Prahlada,Dhruva, Jnanasambandha, Adi Shankara, Lava and Kusha and anumber of child prodigies find place in our history and mythology.India has a special way of looking at the factors that go to make ahealthy child. Pre-Natal and Post-Natal samskaras (rituals) helpchildren grow healthily in the physical, emotional, social andspiritual spheres.

In free India, education, nutrition and health programmes forchildren, special opportunities for their growth and for nurturingtheir talents have grown. Child prodigies, special children, girlchildren etc. receive focussed attention. Child labour problems,partly true, partly exaggerated, have caught the attention of themedia.

What prospects does the future India hold for its children, intermsof environmental cleanliness, job, educational and employmentopportunities and health facilities?

All these topics are sought to be dealt with, in the forthcomingissue of the Vivekananda Kendra Patrika

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INDEX FOR ADVERTISERS

247

Published by N Viswanath on behalf of Vivekananda Kendra from5, Singarachari Street, Triplicane, Chennai-5. Printed by N Viswanathat M/s. Hi-Tech Offset (P) Ltd., Anghamuthu Naickan Street, Royapettah,Chennai - 600014. Phone: 28484681. Editor: P. Parameswaran.


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The eight flowers pleasurable to Lord Vishnu are:Non-violence, Control over the organs of perceptionLove towards all beings, Forgiveness, Peace of mindAusterity, Meditation and speaking Truth.

- P a d m a p u r a n a


C O N T E N T S

Editorial 17

Section – I The Epics

1. The Epics and the Puranas - C.P.Ramaswamy Aiyar 33

2. The influence of the Ramayana andThe Mahabharata on the Life of Indians - Nilmadhav Sen 36

3. Indian Mythology - R.N.Dandekar 384. The Tirukkural and the Hindu Mythological lore - N.Krishnamoorti 395. Religion for the common Man - Sri Aurobindo 416. Impact of Vedic Mythology, Epics and Puranas

on the Life of Literature of Sangam Tamils - Prof.M.Shanmukham Pillai 427. Myths and Legends of the Hindus and Buddhists - Sister Nivedita 458. Mythology of India as a source for study of

Mythology everywhere - Sister Nivedita 469. The Motives of Religion and their Records in

Epics and Puranas - Sister Nivedita 4710. Western Interpretations of Psychological

Phenomena - Dr.Shivaram Karikal 4811. Relevance of our Twin Epics - Swami Kritarthananda 4912. Festivals, Fasts, Vows and Pilgrimages

are inspired by the Epics and the Puranas - 5413. Puranas and observances - Kanchi Paramacharya 5514. Vows, observances and Festivals - Compiled 5615. The Epics and the Puranas Teach Mankind

the Ecological Principles - 5716. Two Epics and one Purana - Dr.K.V.N.Raghavan

Smt.K.Amruthavalli 59

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17. Understanding the Common Thread of HinduPhilosophy, Mythology and Ritual - Swami Vivekananda 64

18. Myths and Modern Indian LiteratureThe Popularity of the Pauranika - Sisir Kumar Das 66

19. All India Character of Myths - Sisir Kumar Das 6820. Epic Characters and the Ethical System - Sisir Kumar Das 7021. Epic Metaphor in the Modern Context of

Indian Society - Jawaharlal Handoo 71

Section II Ramayana

1. Ramayana in the Arts of Asia - Kapila Vatsyayan 812. Brahmarshi Vishwamitra - K.R.Krishnamurthi 863. Pilgrimage of Vishwamitra from Greed to

Enlightenment - T.Raghunandan 894. Bharata, The Ikshwaku Prince - V.Ramanathan 965. Mandodari - Prof.Seema Mandavia 996. Ethic of the Ramayana - Ananda K.Coomaraswamy 1037. Ramayana in Kashmiri Literature and Folk-lore - P.N.Pushp 1048. Ramayana in Manipuri Literature and Folk-lore - E.Nilakanta Singh 1059. Ramayana in Oriya Literature and

Oral tradition - Nilamani Mishra 10710. Ramayana in the Folk Literature of Bengal - Bhabatosh Dutta 10811. Ramayana, The Epic of Asia - Lokesh Chandra 10912. The Ramayana ; Its Character, Genesis, History,

Expansion and Exodus - Suniti Kumar Chatterji 11313. The Ramayana Tradition in Asia The Old

Javanese Ramayana - Soewito Santosa 11514. The Relevance of Tulasidasa’s Message to

Modern Age - Rev.C.Bulcke 11715. The Ramayana Tradition in Kannada - V.Sitaramiah 12016. The Ramayana in Lao (Vientiane Version) - Kamala Ratnam 12117. Ramavatar (Ramayana) By Guru Gobind Singh - Baljit Tulsi 122

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18. Oral tradition of the Ramayana in Bengal - Asutosh Bhattacharya 12319. The Role of the Sacred Book in Religion

- The Ramayana - Harry S.Buck 12420. The Tribal view of the Ramayana: An exercise

in the Anthropology of knowledge - N.N.Vyas 126

21. Influence of the Ramayana Tradition onFolklore of central India - Mahindra Kumar Mishra 128

22. ‘From Gandhiji to Gonds Everyone has use forRamakatha’ - K.S.Singh 129

23. Folk Versions of Ramakatha in Early Assamese - Satyendra Nath Sarma 13024. Assam Welcomes Rama - Swami Bangovinda

Parampanthi 13125. Ramakatha Among the Tribal Communities

of the North-East - Birendranath Datta 13226. Sati Ahalya - Prof.Seema Mandavia 13327. Ramakatha in the Tribal and Folk traditions of

India - K.S.Singh 13528. Validity of the Ramayana Values - Sukumari Bhattachariji 13629. The folk and Tribal versions of The Ramakatha

in the North East India - K.S.Singh 14030. Maharshi Atri and Sati Anasuya: The Ideal

Couple - K.Narayanaswami 14131. The Heritage of Ramajayam - N.Subramania Pillai 145

Section III Mahabharata

1. Mahabharata in the Folk Traditions inNorthern India - K.S,.Singh 151

2. Bhishma - V.Ramanathan 1533. Vidura and Sanjaya - Kanubhai Mandavia 1554. Is Karna a Hero? - Dr.K.Subrahmanyam 1575. Matricide and Mind-killing - Dr.K.Subrahmanyam 160

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6. The Mahabharata - Sister Nivedita 1627. The Mahabharata in the Life of the people of India - Sister Nivedita 1638. The Mahabharata in the folk and Tribal

traditions of India - K.S.Singh 1649. Vyasa and Vidura - Swamini Niranjanananda 16710. Specific Folk forms related to the Mahabharata

in Tamilnadu - Saraswati Venugopal 17111. Mahabharata in Tamil - Ranganayaki Mahapatra 17212. The impact of the Mahabharata on folk and

Tribal culture of Himachal Pradesh - B.R.Sharma 17313. Folk Traditions Related to Mahabharata in

South India - T.S.Rukmani 176

Section IV The Puranas

1. Gitas in the Puranas - Parameswara Aiyar 1832. Growth and development of the Puranas - Rajendra Chandra Hazra 1843. The Puranas - Rajendra Chandra Hazra 1864. A dynamic and flexible approach to Truth :

The Puranas and the Indian Mind - Sri Aurobindo 1895. The Puranas as an Extension and Advance of

the Vedic forms - Sri Aurobindo 1916. Puranas: The Reading Glasses for the Vedas - Kanchi Paramacharya 1937. Are Puranas True? - Kanchi Paramacharya 1958. The Authority of the Puranas - Kanchi Paramacharya 1979. Sthala Puranas - Kanchi Paramacharya 19810. Why did the Westerners carry away our

Manuscripts if they are worthless? - Kanchi Paramacharya 20011. Perennial Message of the Puranas - Dr.D.Sri Rama Rao 20112. The Puranas teach Bhakti to the Masses - Swami Vivekananda 20513. Ethics of Puranas - C.S.Venkateswaran 206

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Section V Inspiring Tales

1. Some inspiring Rama-Katha Folk versions - 2192. Epics and Puranas influence proverbs - 2203. Tamil Proverbs show widespread Puranic influence - K.V.Jagannathan 2234. Puzzles full of Puranic imageries - 2245. Shravana - Pitrubhakthi - 2256. Yayati and Manu - Sisir Kumar Das 2267. Epic Heroines Sita and Savitri - Sisir Kumar Das 2278. Epic Heroine with a difference :

A fiery female Draupadi - Sisir Kumar Das 2329. The Mahabharata influences proverbs

in Tamilnadu - K.Lakshmi Narayanan 23410. Ganesha and Krishna in Tamilnadu’s folk Mahabharata 23511. The Tragedy of Draupadi - P.Usha Sundari 23712. Indian Texts and the West - Michael Hahn 238

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EDITORIAL

1)1)1)1)1) IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction

Four different kinds of approaches mark our understanding of the Mythologicalliterature of India, our Epics and Puranas.

The first is the enlightened, spiritualists’ approach. Swami Vivekananda, SriAurobindo, Kanchi Paramacharya, Mahatma Gandhi and Rajaji saw our mythologicalliterature, as the quintessence of Sanatana Dharma. The Epics and Puranas expatiate onthe Upanishadic moral and spiritual truths and in turn pave the way for morally inspiredspiritual action, the rituals. In fact, some of our Epic names and places are as old as theVedas. The writings of Sri John Woodroff and a portion of the writings of Max Mueller alsofall in this category.

The second approach is that of the Western scholars, who, though not spiritual, donot consider Indians as barbarians or our myths as cock-and-bull stories. They feel thatthe Epics and the Puranas are documents of a great past and help the student inunderstanding Bharat and its social life. Scholars like Ninian Smart take this view.

The third is the critic, the Catherene Mayo brand, who with a colonial mind-set saysthat India can contribute nothing except dust and communicable diseases to the world.Columbus, Vascodagama and people of their ilk imagined that Rome was the centre of theworld, and as one proceeded away from Rome, one would meet people of increasingbarbarity; they deserve to be tamed and corrected. They have nothing to contribute to thetotal heritage of humanity. These emissaries of the all-knowing West would treat thebarbarians on merits.

The fourth type of people are the Western scholars and their Indian counterparts ofanalytical intelligence. They not only presented to the world our mythology as wronglessons in history and geography. They read evidence of Aryan-non-Aryan conflicts inthem. In all other respects the Epics and Puranas were worthless products of dreamy,barbarous, native, fearful minds. The only acceptable portion of the Epics and the Puranas

Editorial

Epic Imprints

Vivekananda Kendra PatrikaVol. 32 No. 1 February - July 2003

Impact of the characters of the Epics and thePuranas on theLife of India

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VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA FEBRUARY - JULY 2003

were those that present us as a divided and warring society, reeling under the impact ofaggressive colonising alien rulers. Since India has always been ruled by colonising aliens,the present Western world views, Christianity and Marxism are not wrong in trying totake hold of our country. This is their interpretation.

The Marxian interpreters taking a cue from their European mentors, continued thetradition of Aryan aggression theory in interpreting Indian Mythology. When the invasiontheory started losing its appeal even among leftist scholars, the word Brahmin wassubstituted for Aryan and the substance of the interpretation remained the same.Brahminical hegemony instead of Aryan hegemony - that was the core of Marxianinterpretation of Indian Mythology.

2)2)2)2)2) Components of India’s Religious lore:Components of India’s Religious lore:Components of India’s Religious lore:Components of India’s Religious lore:Components of India’s Religious lore: The essential components of India’s religiouslife are 1) the Vedas 2) the Upanishads 3) the Dharma Shastras 4) the Epics and the Puranasand 5) the Rituals. The Vedas, the revealed scriptures of the Hindus, show man how toreach God, the transcendental. The Rishis, the Seers of truth, the pure souls, had the visionand the language to present total truths through the Vedas. The Upanishads are the casehistories of individuals who experienced the divine within them. The divinity pervading theentire creation, the divinity of man, and the one truth being called by many names are thebasic teachings of the Vedas, confirmed by the personal experiences of the Upanishadicteachers. Ramana Maharshi, in modern times, rediscovered these maxims throughindependent spiritual experiments, substantiating the validity of the Vedic scriptures. Asall particulars of the creation are expressions of one underlying Divinity, the relationshipamong the particulars, the individuals, was one of unity at depth and harmony and bondingat the middle and apparent variation at the surface. The norms for the relationship and thecode of behaviour a) for man towards God (the Ultimate Truth) b) between man and manand c) between man and the animate world, and d) finally between man and the ‘inanimate’world, are presented by the Dharma Shastras. Love, truth, non-stealing, self-control,simplicity, purity, contentedness, effort, God-consciousness and ‘self’ study are the moralcodes for this harmonious relationship. The Mythologies- a) the narratives forming a partof the Vedas and Upanishads, the Dharma Shastras and b) the Puranas themselves alongwith c) the Epics- concretize the scriptural teachings, through real-life episodes. The ritualsare authenticated by the Puranas and Epics, so that the common people have something“to do” in the religious sphere.

3) 3) 3) 3) 3) The Epics and the Puranas coThe Epics and the Puranas coThe Epics and the Puranas coThe Epics and the Puranas coThe Epics and the Puranas covvvvver the entire spectrum of Hindu teachings:er the entire spectrum of Hindu teachings:er the entire spectrum of Hindu teachings:er the entire spectrum of Hindu teachings:er the entire spectrum of Hindu teachings:Though Philosophy, Mythology and Rituals form the three components of all religions ingeneral, in India, these water-tight compartments do not work. The Epics and the Puranasof India present our doctrines and philosophy, the basic intellectual frame work of ourspirituality and religion as authoritatively as the Vedas themselves. The Bhagawad Gita,the Ashtavakra Gita, the Bhagawata, the Vishnupurana, etc. are part of our Mythologyand their authoritative influence on the mind of the common people is as striking as theVedas. The ritual dimension of the sacred, the vows, observances, pilgrimages and templefestivals are all derived from our Mythology.

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EDITORIAL

The narrative dimension of our religion is provided by our Epics and Puranic stories as aliving commentary on our Vedas.

Swami Vivekananda went to the extent of saying “Without studying the life of SriRamakrishna (a living example of Scriptural teachings) the common people cannotunderstand the Vedantic teachings.” The Narrative dimension, perpetuates the collectivememories of a Nation, giving its people, an identity, a pride and a tradition. Actions andNarrations bind people together more meaningfully than an inert ideology.

Perhaps the greatest contribution the Epics and the Puranas have made for India isthe emotional, experiential dimension of religion. Bhakti, love, experience of various formsof God, etc. are uniquely Puranic in nature, though the roots of love of God are found in theVedas themselves. It can be safely said the entire domain of Bhakti rests on Puranic tales,the Epic and the Puranic heroes and goddesses. Prahlada, Narada, the Nayanmars, andthe Alwars have opened the doors of religion and spirituality to the common man bringingabout a sort of spiritual republicanism.

Love of God as an enlightened man would see Him, love of God as a lover, father ora mother, as a child, and as an employer are described by the Puranas. It has been possiblefor a large number of our common people to experience higher states of consciousnessthrough the simple technique of love as described by the Epics and the Puranas.

The moral and ethical norms of a society are defined by its ultimate goals of life.Where does the individual want to reach? Where does he want the society to go? The values,the lifestyles, the actions, the do’s and don’ts of that society are encoded in the moral, andlegal norms of that society and that Nation. Bharat has stipulated that the goal of every lifeis God-realisation through the medium of a harmonious social life. That behaviour whichpromotes the core value of the society in an individual or a group is moral. That whichdeflects the person from the norm is immoral. The Epics and the Puranas of India not onlyhelp to inculcate the universal values of God-consciousness, love and truth among Indians,they also help the individual to practise his/her Swadharma, the values specific to a person.Region-specific, and time-specific, (Desha acara, and Kala acara))))) behavioural norms aretaught by the Puranas. The role of Epics and the Puranas in preserving subcultures, withinthe broad framework of Universal and National values is immensely great. By an elaboratesystem of feasts and fasts, vows, do’s and don’ts, pilgrimages, etc. the Epics and the Puranashave succeeded in building a society in which a smooth, natural and spontaneous practiceof ethical and spiritual values is possible for every one.

At the societal level the Epics and the Puranas have helped the consolidation of thefamily, kula, tribe, caste, and community. Binding individuals together in marriage, infilial relations, planning and prescribing behavioural patterns for specific situations, theEpics and the Puranas of India have reduced inert, difficult ideals to vibrant, living practicalrelationships. Binding the society in traditions and, clamping down restrictions, the Epicsand the Puranas have made it easy for the members of the society to learn these values as a

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process of growing up in a climate of peace and love. While the caste system is being blamedfor perpetuating inequalities across the caste-boundaries, we cannot forget that within caste,the system has great amount of social stability and identity that come out of a well settledweb of relations and sociability. They are essential components of life for easy learning ofskills. By using the key persons of priests, prophets, the contemplative, the healer, the guru,the incarnation, the sage, the preacher, the judge, the king, the monk, the nun, the hermit,the theologian, the philosopher, the saint, the martyr and the icon maker, a religion buildsa society and a civilization within its bounds. These experts, functionaries, charismaticfigures and holy persons “express” religion in comprehensive ways. From the smallestreligio-social unit of ‘Kutumb’’’’’- family-, to the ultimate social unit of the family of the entirecreation Vasudha eva Kutumbakam, the entire spectrum of social units are supported andpromoted by the Epics and the Puranas.

Perhaps the great role of the Epics and the Puranas of India in enthroning love asthe central theme of human existence can be rivalled only by their material dimension ofpromoting artefacts of exquisite beauty. India’s temples, icons, architecture, pictures, are allproducts of its mythology. Apart from oceans, mountains and trees, which are the naturallyoccurring physical expressions of God, man-made expressions of art have specialsignificance as symbols of the Divine. Indian temple architecture, iconography, etc. and thebeautiful rituals derive their relevance mostly from the Epics and the Puranas. Paintings,dresses, books, amulets, memorials of saints, etc. staple the memory of the Epic and thePuranic heroes to the minds of the people. Even professedly secular and non-religiousdepartments of life copy these statues, paintings and icons. Some books themselves havecome to be worshipped as in the Sikh tradition.

The political effects of religion have come to be studied with great interest in recenttimes. Man-made ideologies such as capitalism and communism, have not been tested orapproved by the flow of time. They have failed in their efforts to organise people intomeaningful societies. Whatever effect they had in their horizontal spread, is lost when oneintensely ideologically conscious generation passes away. God-inspired, time-tested,multigenerational groupings like religious societies, provide ready-made units, civilizationalconglomerates, co-operation groups, action groups, vote banks, etc. which the politiciansuse and exploit. Welding people into emotionally related groups which behave in anelectorally and socially predictable pattern cannot be the work of dry intellect. Nor can ademocratic society, taking all decisions on the basis of its short term interests, be able toserve the long term cultural and social needs of the people. That is why political partiesseem to fall back on the option of tapping caste vote banks, religion-based vote banks, etc. Itis a direct admission of failure of non-cultural organizations of the society. Perhaps whatone has not inherited from his father cannot be passed on to his son. The concepts of economicexpression of religious ideas have been studied by Weber. The effect of the ‘Social Capital’on the economic growth of the society is being studied with interest by the World Bank.Francis Fukuyama has commented on the political expression of mutual personal trust ofthe citizens. This ‘trust’ could be a part of one’s religious faith. Ultimately the cultural andcivilizational background of a Nation acting through its economic and political instruments

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EDITORIAL

is vital to the destiny of a Nation. The Epics and the Mythologies of India chronicle thecultural history of the Nation and catalogue its abiding values. They serve the great purposeof perpetuating these values in lifestyles.

4)4)4)4)4) The History and the Mythology of IndiaThe History and the Mythology of IndiaThe History and the Mythology of IndiaThe History and the Mythology of IndiaThe History and the Mythology of India

The scriptures, especially the Mythologies of India were utilized fully by the Nationalleaders during the freedom movement. Masterly commentaries on the Bhagawad Gita cameto be written by Lokamanya Tilak, Sri Aurobindo, Mahatma Gandhi and Vinoba. Thecoming of Gandhi and his aspiration of India achieving ‘Ramarajya’ were turning pointsin expanding the mass base of the freedom struggle. The Epic and the Puranic icons suchus Harischandra, Draupadi, Hanuman and Appar were utilised to awaken the massesand educate them on the sacredness of the mission of our freedom struggle. The VivekanandaKendra Patrika issue on the Role of Spiritual Literature in India’s Freedom Movementalso highlights the Epic and the Puranic inspiration. A crisis situation often helps a Nationto rediscover its original identity and endows it with the courage to shed all unwanted andirrelevant accretions of history. India utilised the critical period of its foreign rule to rediscoveritself. The reaction was widespread. From the ascetic Vinoba to fiery Madanlal Dhingra awide spectrum of Indian youth was inspired by its Mythology and spirituality.

Madanlal Dhingra’s final testament read:

“As a Hindu I feel that the wrong done to my country is an insult to God. Her causeis the cause of Sri Rama. Her service is the service of Sri Krishna. Poor in wealth andintellect a son like myself has nothing else to offer to Mother but his own blood and so Ihave sacrificed the same on Her altar” From the extremists like Dhingra to a moderateleader like Gopalakrishna Gokhale, from a serious philosopher-Karmayogi likeLokamanya, to totally ascetic Vinoba, from a crowd-puller like Gandhiji to a recluse like SriAurobindo, every member of the freedom movement was inspired by the imagery of SriRama, Sri Krishna, Durga and Savitri. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee found a new use forthe Puranic imagery when he composed the immortal song ‘Vandemataram.’ He foundthat “every idol in every temple is the image of Mother Bharat.” Subrahmanya Bharatilikened Panchali’s plight to that of Bharatamata in a most powerful song.

5)5)5)5)5) The Epic and the Puranic Images and Hinduism The Epic and the Puranic Images and Hinduism The Epic and the Puranic Images and Hinduism The Epic and the Puranic Images and Hinduism The Epic and the Puranic Images and Hinduism TTTTTodayodayodayodayoday

Today Sri Rama, Sri Krishna, Shiva, Hanuman, Vinayaka and Parvati arehousehold names, inspiring people in their worldly as well as spiritual life. Sri Krishna thechild is the universal archetypal trickster of Carl Jung. His love for Radha so divinelyreciprocated, is the ultimate statement in selfless love. His philosophy of the Gita is a truecommentary on the Vedas.

Hinduism is the only religion that accepts that the ultimate reality can have a feminineform. The worship of Parashakti, as the Goddess of Valour, Wealth and Learning has

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tremendous social impacts. India has enthroned feminine values as divine values and hasmade ‘Sneha, Prema, Daya and Bhakti’ as the sine-qua-non of spiritual growth. A Westernsociologist has called Hinduism a feminine religion. In a war-torn, violent world, femininevalues have a vital place. Feminine values in Indian society are portrayed and promotedby our mythological literature. Sita, Shakuntala and Savitri are the symbols of grace,strength, chastity, courage They are daring, yet loving and serving.

Hanuman and Ganesha are the most popular and common versions of Gods.Hanuman is the ideal of the folk as well as classical literature, a true Karmayogi, devoteeand scholar all in one. Ganesha is the children’s delight, and a jnani’s jnanisimple,profound, happy prasanna vadanam-, most accessible and easy to please, thereforefirst to be remembered.

It is in Shiva the dancer-destroyer, that the Hindu Epics and the Puranas have hit anear peak. He is the father figure of Indian Art, a World ruler. The serene, meditative, yetmost dynamic figure is praised by Ilya Prigogine, the Nobel Laureate as the symbol ofultramodern science.

“Each great period of science has led to some model of nature. For classical scienceit was the clock; for nineteenth-century science, the period of the Industrial Revolution, itwas an engine running down. What will be the symbol for us? What we have in mindmay perhaps be expressed by a reference to sculpture, from Indian or pre-Columbian art toour time. In some of the most beautiful manifestations of sculpture, be it the dancing Shivaor in the miniature temples of Guerrero, there appears very clearly the search for a junctionbetween stillness and motion, time arrested and time passing. We believe that thisconfrontation will give our period its uniqueness.” (Quoted from Fritjof Capra’s “The Webof Life”). Writing on Shiva as the Dancer, Ananda K. Coomaraswamy says “Purelyintellectual formulae could not satisfy the children of this world who will not hurry alongthe path of release and the mystics who find a foretaste of freedom in the love of every cloudin the sky and flower at their feet. It may well be doubted if art and idolatry, idolatry andart are not inseparable. Precisely as love is reality experienced by the lover and truth isreality as experienced by the philosopher, the beauty is reality as experienced by the artist;and these are--the three phases of the absolute” Such an image of Shiva is a gift of Indianmythology to the world of art, to the realm of beauty.

6)6)6)6)6) The Puranas and the Indian Spirit of UnityThe Puranas and the Indian Spirit of UnityThe Puranas and the Indian Spirit of UnityThe Puranas and the Indian Spirit of UnityThe Puranas and the Indian Spirit of Unity

The Puranas are not mere rehashing of old values and old tales. They exhibit atremendous integrating spirit that is uniquely Indian. Vyasa, after editing the Vedas, foundthe thread of unity of all existence running through the scriptures. He explicitly expressedit in the Brahma Sutras. Then there was a second pulsation of human spiritual experiencebeing recorded in a rich variety of spiritual literature. Sri Krishna came and unified themagain in the advaitic vision - the Bhagawad Gita. He prised expressions such as Sankhya,Yoga, Yagna and Karma from the earlier scriptures and endued them with new meanings,

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EDITORIAL

relevant in the advaitic philosophy without destroying the relevance of these terms in theearlier scheme of things. Again a third phase of spiritual activity ensued. Came Shankaraand unified Vedanta with Tantra (temple worship and an emotional approach to Reality -Bhakti.) It was he who tempered the steely Vedanta with loving devotion and wove intellectualstrands of Vedanta into the soft tapestry of devotion. All these examples showed SriRamkrishna and Swami Vivekananda that all religious experiences both Indian and aliencould be wound around the central spindle of Advaita. But all these great teachers did notdestroy and consign as waste the earlier social systems, icons, scriptures, doctrines anddogmas, rituals and books, temples and forms shaped by so much of human effort. Theysimply took over the past achievements and breathed the advaitic prana into them. SwamiVivekananda talks of breathing advaitic life into European body, Islamic body etc. in thissense. “Have that faith, each one of you, in yourself that eternal power is lodged in everysoul and you will revive the whole of India. Aye, we will then go to every country underthe sun, and our ideas will before long be a component of the many forces that are workingto make up every nation in the world. We must enter into the life of every race in India andabroad; we shall have to work to bring this about.”

Every prophet or seer who stands on the turning points of human history, makesuse of traditional and well worn words and phrases, examples and similes, morals andtales. This is for communicating with his fellow-men in an intelligible language. At thesame time he infuses into those words and expressions a new life, which was neverexperienced before by humanity. His letters are old. His words are new. His words are old.His sentences and combination of words are fresh. His usages are old. His force, meaning,import and impact are astonishingly fresh and novel. Great men of the world, take theirfellow beings to new heights of awareness, employing as their stepping stones, mere words,worn out with time.

The writers of the Puranas and Epics took the local folk tales, regional myths, villagecharacters of charm and grace, proverbs, wisdom of the common people and wove theminto immortal Epics and lively Puranas. Again in the reverse direction, the oral traditions,the preachers and singers scattered the Epic and the Puranic tales and episodes among themasses. The masses took up the stories and their characters, morals and events, simplifiedthem, readopted them to suit their local needs and tastes. All over the world the inter relationbetween folk tales and classical forms are being studied with great interest. There appearsto be a two-way traffic. The folk elements got sanskritised in course of time and added to theclassical treasures of a society. On the other hand, the classical tales are demythified, brokenup and the key elements are folk-ised for popular use.

7)7)7)7)7) SanskritisatiSanskritisatiSanskritisatiSanskritisatiSanskritisation of Fon of Fon of Fon of Fon of Folk-Tolk-Tolk-Tolk-Tolk-Traditiraditiraditiraditiradition - on - on - on - on - A Natural Process:A Natural Process:A Natural Process:A Natural Process:A Natural Process:

Folk saints, folk traditions and their followers are able to maintain their spontaneityfor only a short period-say-for 4 or 5 generations. Their spiritualised anarchy often getstransformed into a system. They are deified, (e.g. Shirdi Sai Baba) organised into a cult,(Nath tradition) or into a separate sect (Kabir Panth). Sometimes their philosophy and

24


teachings are recognised as a part of Indian tradition, the temporarily lost links gettingretraced. For example, Ramana Maharshi read no scriptures and followed no traditionuntil his spiritual sadhana was completed. But within a period of one generation of hispassing away, he has been reabsorbed into the Advaitic tradition of India. Nandanar as aNayanar (a Saivite saint) too marks this trend. When this happens the teachings of a newsaint become part of the Hindu traditional scriptures. The birth place of the saint is venerated.His samadhi, if any, becomes a pilgrim centre. All this is not a part of studied and contrivedacculturation but a natural process of assimilation for which India is well-known.

In fact, such processes of Sanskritization can be recognised in all facets of Indianfolk life, folk arts, folk music, folk drama, folk ritual, folk painting, folk legend, etc. showingthe same convergence. That is why Hinduism is said to be an ever-growing tradition. AsSri Aurobindo says, the last sentence about Hinduism has not been pronounced and itslast spiritual discovery has not yet been made; and the last Hindu saint is not yet born.

We are witnesses to the folk tales of Ayyappa, Santoshimata, etc. being absorbedinto the classical tradition of India. Sister Nivedita remarks that the process of absorptionof these elements in the mainstream of Hinduism is always incomplete. We can see theoutlines of partly digested inset stories in the host stories such as the Mahabharata.

8)8)8)8)8) Mythologies of India compared to those of the West:Mythologies of India compared to those of the West:Mythologies of India compared to those of the West:Mythologies of India compared to those of the West:Mythologies of India compared to those of the West:

Very often attempts are made to compare the Epics and the Puranas of India with the Greekmythologies. First of all the Greek mythologies are a dead literature and they do not haveany relation with the life of the people of Europe today. India’s Epics and the Puranas are aliving literature, a part of the religious and spiritual tradition being put to day-to-day useeven now. There is no Western equivalent of Ram Rajya of Gandhiji, Sri Rama of SaintTyagaraja’s vision or Sri Krishna of Sri Aurobindo’s vision.

It is doubtful whether Zeus and Apollo have any contemporary validity or emotionalimpact on the life of Europeans. There is no question of Greek mythology contributinganything to the European spiritual consciousness. Attempts are also made to compare theimpact of the Epics and the Puranas on Indian society with the influence of the Bible on theEuropean society. Authorities such as Swami Vivekananda and Mahatma Gandhi haveexpressed the opinion that the impact of the Bible on Europe is restricted, limited andsomewhat superficial. Swamiji goes to the extent of saying that Europe has shaken off theteachings of Jesus Christ as represented by the Papal authority in order to survive as anaggressive, colonising, materialistic civilization. Aggressive Europe had no use for JesusChrist with his “Avritta chakshu” eyes turned inward. To make matters worse, the Westtried to interpret the story of Christ in historical terms shearing it of all its mythologicalhalo.

Writes Swami Nityabodhananda: “Coming to the question, ‘Why is history?’ lethistory interrogate itself and it cannot get out an answer, though it has a need for an answer.

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EDITORIAL

Let myth interrogate itself ‘Why is myth?’ and the answer is: ‘God’s need to love man.’ Thislove lived by man is mythology.

There is a cry in the West that we have lost our myth. Jung says it definitely that theWest has lost its myth and that the anguish of the unconscious can be remedied only whenit is rediscovered. Before the West came to lose its myth, partly or fully, the West treated thequestion in a slovenly manner. Since the coming on the scene of science and the increase ofthe prestige of reason and precision, the West thought that prestige attaches itself to a religionwhich is historical. Linked to this is the attachment to a historical Christ. Since the Westarranged things in the above way, it has been complaining of increasing secularization.Secularization does not come from outside, but from our inside, from our attitude to religionand what we want it to be. If we want it to be historical, then naturally we clip its wings bywhich it would have climbed to mythical heights. Before the search to make Christianityhistorical started, civilization was a part of religion. But now religion has become a part ofcivilization.”

Within India the Epics and the Puranas have produced a vast treasure of folk arts,dances, tales and fables. That is why the rural people, mountain tribes, and the forest-dwellers have absorbed the classical tales, kept them stored in their heart until the classicalangularities are rounded off and re-expressed the tales in spontaneous outbursts as if theyhave newly created these characters and events. The art forms are in direct contact with lifein its most vital and raw essence. This is true of every classical tale of the Epics/Puranas.Maybe, one region prefers one story and another region is partial to some other story. Butthere is a full parallel folk literature comparable in intensity of emotion, volume andrelationship to ritual to the classical traditions. But the Christian tradition, claimed variouslyas 500 to 2000 years old in India, has made little or no impact on the ‘spontaneous’ literatureof India, on its folk tales, folk arts, rituals, songs, puzzles, and proverbs. This is a proof thatIndia’s common man considers Christian mythology and tradition as an artificial super-imposition unrelated to life in its essence. Of course, there are a few folk Christian tales andsongs, “odams” ‘dramas’ and ballads, but their quantity and quality do no justice to thenumber of years Christianity has been current in India.

Leon Uris in his ‘Armageddon’ describes how during the second world war,Germany had to fall back to its pre-Christian local legends to rally her people around. ANagaland elder wrote a letter to an Arunachali tribal Chief how Christians have takenaway their culture without giving the Nagas new dances, folk songs or legends.

The point is that the onslaught of Westernisation and religious conversion alienatesthe people from their cultural capital of which mythologies, legends, beliefs, healing processes,pilgrim centres, heroes and heroines and art form are the most important components. InIndia, the Epics and the Puranas have a great role to play in preserving and conservingthem. Guha and Sabari relate with Rama with ease. So does Sri Krishna with a shop-keeper woman.

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9) 9) 9) 9) 9) The Role of The Role of The Role of The Role of The Role of TTTTTraditiraditiraditiraditiradition in Innoon in Innoon in Innoon in Innoon in Innovativativativativation and Creation and Creation and Creation and Creation and Creativity:vity:vity:vity:vity:

How traditions, habits, usages and legends help the innovative and creative spirit of man isan absorbing field of study. One interpretation is that traditional and legendary namesand episodes provide the raw material from which the creative artist draws a copious supply.Another interpretation is that Tradition acting hand in hand with language has made alarge space for itself in the consciousness of the people. A word such as Sita, Hanuman,Karna or Kumbhakarna brings up a bundle of thought associations which the artist canuse - ready made. A new name or icon would consume a thousand words or a thousandyears to build up an equally effective image. An artist using a traditional figure simplyinherits this space, and builds his creative edifice on this legendary foundation.Pudumaipittan writing on Ahalya, (Tamil) Nanabhai Bhat writing on Rama-Sita,(Gujarati) Narendra Kohli writing on the Ramayana and on Swami Vivekananda (Hindi)have adopted this technique.

Or it may be that a historically and socially well entrenched legend, with a rhythmand pattern of its own, keeps the conscious portion of the artist’s or poet’s, mind engagedand occupied, freeing the creative spirit to innovate. That is how a great poet like Kambancould create his version of the Ramayana, unawed by the reputation of his predecessor inthe profession, Maharshi Valmiki.

Anyway, the Mahabharata, the Ramayana and the Bhagawata, as a whole andtheir characters in individual cases, have spawned wonderful offsprings in every one of theIndian languages. Easily the Ramayana adaptations are the best in every languagevirtually. The stories of Rama, Krishna, Shiva, Devi, Shakuntala, Savitri, Nala Damayanti,Harischandra, Draupadi and Prahlada, have been very successfully retold with all creativeadornments in every Indian language.

Further, every generation sees its own face in the Epics and the Puranas. The versionwritten during an era, reflects the moods, aspirations and the culture of the people. Theevolution of the people is mirrored in the Epics and the Puranas. Ramakatha from Valmikito Kamban and Tulasidas picturises, how each generation of Indians had readapted itsown religious philosophy or details of moral codes. Valmiki’s Sita is carried away by Ravana,lifting her by her hair. Kamban’s is Sita would not submit herself to this treatment. Hemakes Ravana scoop the mass of earth with the hut in which Sita was residing in Panchavatiand carry it to Lanka. Tulasidas’s divine Sita creates a Maya Sita, a shadow of herself, to becarried away by Ravana. The original Sita hides herself in a facade of fire, to be releasedafter the fire test in Lanka. Evolution of characters such as Shakuntala, Savitri and Draupadihas been studied by historians, literary critics and innovative poets. The studies show thatthese characters or the public images of them change as one marches down the lanes ofhistory. The basics remain. The superstructure is transformed. Sri Ramakrishna says thatthe Indian tradition, like a lizard, can drop its tail whenever it wants, retain its body andgrow a new tail. This innovation built upon the substratum of stability and constancy isuniquely Indian. This proves that India has its basic acts alright. But the details can always

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EDITORIAL

be altered. Swami Vivekananda says that a similar relation exists between Smritis (amenableto change) and Sruti (eternal).

But the Western scholars, get stuck with the fixations of images. They take eachimage, icon, book as a final fixed entity and fail to see any continuity, when a new form orname emerges in a subsequent era. For example the names and forms of God changecontinuously from the Vedic period to the Upanshadic era. The Epics and the Puranaspresent a totally “different” image, role, name and story of a God. Max Mueller encounteringthis feature in Indian scriptures for the first time gave it the name, “Henotheism” (Treatinga given god as the only one in a certain context; for example in a hymn to Indra, Indra istreated as supreme and unique). Others, finding long Epical mother stories such as theMahabharata, interspersed with short local inset stories of interest classify them as “greattraditions” and “little traditions.”

It is left to Swami Vivekananda the Master Surveyor of the Epic and the Puranicchronicles to solve the problem. He says “They (the various godheads) occupy the positionof the personal god in turns. But the explanation is there in the book, and it is a grandexplanation, one that has given the theme to all subsequent thought in India, and one thatwill be the theme of the whole world of religions: “Ekam Sat Vipra Bahudha Vadanti-Thatwhich exists is One; sages call It by various names.” In all these cases where there hymnswere written about all these gods, the Being perceived was one and the same; it was theperceiver who made the difference. It was the hymnist, the sage, the poet, who sang in differentlanguages and different words, the praise of one and the same Being. “That which exists isOne; sages call It by various names.” “Tremendous results have followed from that oneverse. Some of you, perhaps, are surprised to think that India is the only country wherethere never has been a religious persecution, where never was any man disturbed for hisreligious faith. Theists or atheists, monists, dualists, monotheists are there and always liveunmolested-”meaning that the Hindu concept of One God with many names has taughtthe Nation the art, science of sociology of tolerance. This shows that the uniqueness ofIndian spiritual history and that the history of evolution of our Mythology calls for newtools of analysis and understanding. The tools developed for studying Greek Epics,contemporary exploitative European society, etc. would not serve the purpose in the Indiancontext.

10) European and Marxian Interpretati10) European and Marxian Interpretati10) European and Marxian Interpretati10) European and Marxian Interpretati10) European and Marxian Interpretation of Indian Culture and Scriptureson of Indian Culture and Scriptureson of Indian Culture and Scriptureson of Indian Culture and Scriptureson of Indian Culture and Scriptures

When European interpreters started studying Indian scriptures, they had a baggageto weight their opinions. They invented the Aryan invasion theory to drive a permanentwedge between sections of the Indian society. For them every war, conflict, skirmish, battlebetween groups in India was an Aryan-Dravidian war. This theory had its basis neitherin Indian history, nor in our literature nor in Indian Archaeology. In fact the laterarchaeological data were interpreted to suit the West’s earlier/divisive theories for interpretingVedas, the Epics and the Puranas. That this Aryan-Dravidian theory was condemnedroundly by linguists, spiritual giants such as Swami Vivekananda and Kanchi

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Paramacharya, later-day archaeologists and a section even of later day communists, didnot deter the West from persisting with the theory obviously for political reasons.

Perhaps the greatest reason for the West interpreting the Eastern mythological eventsas conflicts between man and Nature and as wars between the invader and the invadedpeople, is in the psychological groundings of the West. Write the authors of the book the“Blinded Eye 500 Years of Christopher Columbus.”

“The foundations on which Western civilization are grounded, its attitudes to natureand to people living beyond its frontiers, were first set not in the time of the Greeks butmuch earlier, in the soils of the ancient Near East where an itinerant people, the Israelites,eked out a constant struggle for survival as a ‘chosen people’ in a hostile environment. Therecord of the evolution of that struggle is available in the Old Testament Bible which formsthe first half of the scripture of Western civilization”.

Even a casual reading of the Old Testament will indicate that the Israelitesunambiguously saw the earth as hostile and that they had an almost murderous conceptionof it.

As Frederick Turner observes, Adam’s punishment in the Genesis myth is to remainin exile from the Garden of Eden. Under the Creator’s curse, man enters the wilderness ofthe world, estranged forever from nature. Nature, in fact, becomes a cursed adversary,eternally hostile to man’s efforts for survival. Likewise, Adam is fated to be an enemy of theanimal kingdom. Human existence in this world takes on the character of an unremittingcontest with nature in which man toils to fulfil God’s command that he subdue the thorny,thistled earth and establish dominion over it. Thus the spiritual message of a tormentedand suffering human existence (the central idea of Judaic and Christian thinking) affectsthe valuation of nature as peripheral and sundered, even where the actual experience ofnature and the environment were otherwise.

Subsequent Old Testament events have a cumulative effect of confirming thisdestructive aspect of nature and of reinforcing the anthropomorphic, adversary attitudetowards the natural world announced in the Garden of Eden myth.”

Such a mindset can never understand Sri Rama relating with Guha, Sabari, theSquirrel, the monkeys, vultures, bears, and a Rakshasa (Vibhishana), in a friendly andbrotherly manner.

With the Marxian outlook, the materialists of the West were not equipped to interpretthings spiritual. Ninian Smart, a world level authority on comparative religion says: “Inprinciple too there is a defined focus in Hindu theism, even if the question of what that focusmight be is answered differently according to diverse sub-traditions. Suffice it to say thataccording to our analysis the interpretation of ritual is relatively straightforward. I wouldlike to pause to dispose of one theory of sacrifice, largely because it illustrates how unwise itis to devise, or to take seriously, a theory which is based on a wider ignorance of the history

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EDITORIAL

of religions (indeed this is a general trouble: some of the most influential figures such asMarx, Freud and Durkheim were by modern standards rather ignorant of the facts ofreligion).”

The West in general and the Marxists in particular have got stuck with the Cartesiananalytical approach to life, science and religion. They are not able to see the meaning andpurpose of religion the significance of higher levels of consciousness, the ultimate truthpermeating all levels of living. Their kind of approach ends up in trivialising profoundtruths, or giving forth a highly lop-sided, one-sided glimpse of truths. Cartesian approachto science, Darwinian vision to Biology and Newtonian view of the physical world havebeen discarded by the scientific community as outmoded, incomplete and as missing theessential. But unfortunately Marxian sociology based on obsolete Cartesian science continuesto thrive interpreting anthropology, mythology, religion etc. A holistic, most modernscientific study of Mythologies presents them as integrative, providing the psychologicaland cultural bedrock of the society. Such studies bring out the influence of the dearly heldmyths of each society on the morals, behavioural patterns, values, lifestyles and languagesof its people.

11)11)11)11)11) Need fNeed fNeed fNeed fNeed for Educating Our Children in Our Epics:or Educating Our Children in Our Epics:or Educating Our Children in Our Epics:or Educating Our Children in Our Epics:or Educating Our Children in Our Epics:

Sister Nivedita urged that the National education is just and foremost an educationin the National idealism. Instead of holding up the ideals of honesty courage and self-sacrifice from the lives of foreigners, it is necessary to present the example of these andsimilar other virtues from Indian history and literatures. According to her, true Nationaleducation is learning the Nation’s epics. She translated, abridged and presented a numberof stories from the Epics and the Puranas as a part of her scheme for educating Indianchildren especially girls. She persuaded great artists like Abanindra Nath Tagore to paintour National heroes and heroines, and bring alive the inspiring events from these stories.

The modern West believes in a linear movement of time, and ridicules India’s ideasof cyclicity of time and events. But the Epic and the Puranic ideals of chaturyuga, cyclicityof events, avataras and rebirth keep Indians optimistic of a glorious future, based on theeternal principles of Dharma. When Vyasa stands in the river and loudly proclaims thegreatness of the women and the Sudras in the Kaliyuga, he dangles the great carrot ofhope in front of a tired and colonised people somewhat wallowing in poverty, squalor andself-pity. The Epics and the Puranas keep alive this hope - a single sign of a living people.

12) Conclusion12) Conclusion12) Conclusion12) Conclusion12) Conclusion

In this manner the Epics and the Puranas of India have taken the messages of theVedas and the Upanishads to the common people. They bring the entire message of theVedantic ideal to the masses, and inspire them to a life of the spirit. The Epic and the Puranasof India have taken up the essentials of Dharma Shastras and have made these ideals livein flesh and blood. They cry aloud that the immortal life is not beyond in some unseen

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heaven, but here and now in this world expressed through righteous life, a life of Dharma.The Epics and the Puranas have consecrated our pilgrim centers, breathed life into ourrituals, and have concretised the spirit in the body of all our art forms. Again and againthese Mythologies have reminded our people of our National Unity and of their spiritualdestiny. They have served as Indian encyclopaedias of astronomy, medicine, linguistics,anthropology and a host of sciences. Our Mythologies and their by-products have inspiredour greatest saints, nation builders, interpreters of our culture and seekers of the spirit. Astheir independent contribution to our civilization, the Epic and the Puranas have shown usLOVE AS THE PATHWAY TO GOD. It is not for nothing that Swami Vivekananda hassaid Hinduism today is Puranic in Nature.

True to its avowed theme, this issue of the Vivekananda Kendra Patrika, deals withthe impact of our Epics (and Puranas) on the life of the people of India and related matters.The influence of the Epics and the Puranas on the Literature of India has been left almostuntouched, as it will be a full topic for discussion on its own. Only the response of Indianliterature related to them at the time of British rule has been discussed to show how oldmetaphors react to new forms.

This issue has been divided into five parts for the sake of convenience. A generalintroduction is followed by articles on the Ramayana, articles on the Mahabharata, andthose on the Puranas. A few inspiring anecdotes round off the volume. Efforts have beenmade to maintain some balance between general theory on one side and particular charactersand regional presentations on the other.

FEBRUARY - AUGUST 2003

1

RAMAYANA IN KASHMIRI LITERATUREAND FOLK-LORE

P.N.PUSHP

The Rama-theme entered the Kashmirilanguage much later than the Krishna-legend. This was so in spite of the fact thatSanskrit literature produced in Kashmirrecorded not only awareness of the Rama-tradition but also its incorporation intocritical as well as creative writing.

Therefore, the folk-tale, traditionallyhanded down in Kashmiri about thetravails of Rama and Sita, and theaffectionate devotion of Lakshmana are notconfined to the Hindus but are widelyshared among the non-Hindu populationas well, most of whom (by the way) happento be converts. In fact the Kashmirilanguage itself has crystallized this legacyinto telling expressions, including place-names, allusions, idioms and proverbs.Thus we have not only Rama-naga, Rama-kunda and Sita-Kunda, but alsoRamabhadruny duny (i.e., the bow ofdarling Rama) for the rainbow. The wordRamayana itself has come to signify inKashmiri ‘a lengthy tale of unmerited woe’,indifference to which is caricatured in theproverb:

“Ratas vonmay ramayan;Subhan prutshhtham, Ram kya

vatihe Sitaye”

Throughout the night I narrated theRamayana; on the morn (yet) you askedme ‘Who was Rama to Sita indeed’.

Even some modern poets like Rasal Mirand Mahjoor have used the names of Ramaand Sita for telling effect in tragicsituations, and the name of Ravana forspiritual loss caused by evil endeavour, as

ravun in Kashmiri means: ‘Ravana’ as wellas ‘to get lost’.

In the light of such a situation it is quiteunderstandable that the Rama-legendshould have been very much there inKashmiri folklore too. True, it is not asprominent as the Krishna legend. Yet, it isthere even in the earliest strata of theKashmiri folk music as preserved inVanavun, the traditional wedding-songs ofthe Kashmiris, in which allusion to theRama-story may not be as frequent as thatto the Krishna theme. Thus, for instance,in the symbolic improvisation withreference to the grooms and their parents,the names of Rama and Sita, Dasarathaand Kausalya, or even those of Janaka,Visvamitra and Vasistha occur quite often.

(Extracted from the Ramayana Traditionin Asia: Sahitya Akadami

Ed.V.Raghavan, New Delhi 1989)


2

RAMAYANA IN MALAYALAM FOLKLITERATURE

N.V.KRISHNA WARRIOR

“Many of the Kerala temples had withintheir precincts, buildings specificallydesigned for dramatic performances basedmainly on the stories of the two great Epics.The texts for these performances were inSanskrit, but each sentence and each wordin these texts was lucidly explained in thelocal language with plenty of hilarioushumour and all sorts of interestinganecdotes thrown in, so that the rusticpeople enjoyed immensely andcongregated in large numbers at theseperformances which thus played a veryeffective role in the process of theiracculturation. What concerns us here isthe fact that the regional language, whichwas a dialect of Tamil, was completelytransformed in the course of thesediscourses not only by extensiveborrowings from the rich vocabulary, butalso by unrestricted adoption of idioms,phrases and even morphological devicesof Sanskrit”.

(Extracted from “The RamayanaTradition in Asia” Sahitya AcadamiEd.V.Raghavan, New Delhi 1989.)

RAMAYANA IN NEPALI

KAMALA SANKRITYAYAN

The story of the Ramayana has played agreat part in bringing about culturalunification. Among the Ramayanas indifferent Indian languages, we have inNepali the Mero Rama (20th century) andNepali Adarsa Raghava Mahakavya (20th

century). There are also many other worksbased on the story of Ramayana,. Thus,we can understand how this sacred epicand the story of Ramachandra has affectedthe way of our thinking and life. We canalso understand why our neighbouringHindu Country, Nepal, has a greataffection for the Ramayana-tradition. Wecan understand and observe thedevelopment of Ramayana-tradition inNepali literature from the ancient periodto the modern age.

(Extracted from “The RamayanaTradition in Asia:” Sahitya Acadami

Ed.V.Raghavan, New Delhi 1989.)


3

RAMAYANA IN MANIPURI LITERATUREAND FOLKLORE

E.NILAKANTA SINGH

Shri Aurobindo wrote about the Ramayanathus:

“The Ramayana embodied for the Indianimagination its highest and tenderesthuman ideals of character, made strengthand courage and gentleness and purityand fidelity and self-sacrifice familiar to itin the suavest and most harmonious formscolour so as to attract the emotion andthe aesthetic sense, stripped morals of allrepellent austerity on the one side or onthe other of mere commonness and lent acertain high divineness to the ordinarythings of life, conjugal and filial andmaternal and fraternal feeling, the duty ofthe prince and leader and the loyalty offollower and subject, the greatness of thegreat and the truth and worth of thesimple, toning things ethical to the beautyof a more psychical meaning, by the glowof its ideal hues”. (The Foundation ofIndian Culture, Centenary Edition (Page290).

This sums up the attitude of the ManipuriHindus of Manipur and outside also to theRamayana tradition since the 18th centuryA.D., when Ramanandi cult of North Indiabecame a State religion during the reignof the great Manipuri King, Garib Niwas(1709-1748). Bengal Vaishnavism whichfound supreme expression in the latterpart of 18th century A.D. somehowintegrated the Rama-worship into theliberal outlook of a Hindu mind and eventhough the cult has been assimilated intothe Vaishnavic way of life, the Ramayanastill retains its power and glory for theliterate masses, the chief vehicles of

communication are: Kathaks whom theManipuris call Wari leebas (storry-tellers),the ministrels on the Pena (StringedManipuri musical instrument), the singerson the Dholok (called Khongjaom Parbasakpas), the Kirtana musicians of the oldPala (Bangdesh Pala as they call it) andthe Jatras based on the Ramayana. Thecharacters of the Ramayana becomeintensely real, human and alive to theManipuri mind. In a sense, an old illiterateManipuri lady in the village knows muchmore about the Ramayana than the degreeholders of the Universities and should Isay, more cultured than most of the elitesof Manipur. The old Manipuri scholarspresented the Ramayana in all its sevenbooks under the inspiration of KrttivasiRamayana (of Bengal) as early as 10th

century A.D. The entire ValmikiRamayana has been translated recentlyand the tradition of presenting Ramayana-stories on the modern stage and also inthe Jatra style still continues in full vigour.

It is evident that the Ramayana has reallycreated an impact on the Manipuri mindsthrough the ages. It is possible that theManipuri Ramayana might have beenpopular in the 18th century A.D. during thereign of King Garib Niwas. But itsimportance has been eclipsed by theBhagavata tradition of Bengal school ofVaishnavism. The considerable neglect ofthe Manipuri works written in Manipuriscript during the later part of 18th centuryand 19th century is responsible to a degreefor the comparative isolation of ManipuriRamayana from the mass mind. Moreover,the work remained in manuscript and hasbeen printed and published only recently.But the comparative neglect of theManipuri Ramayana has been more thancompensated by the various mass media


4

through which Ramyana has been broughtnearer to the hearts of the people throughthe ages. The liberal outlook of Hindu mindwhich can integrate Rama-workship withthe Radha-krsna cult with the expressionof Hare Krishna, Hare Rama is alsoresponsible for the great sensitivity on thepart of the Manipuri Vaishnavas to theideals and message of the Ramayana.

It is, of course, true that the KrittivasiRamayana, the basic text of these artisticexpressions and even of the ManipuriRamayana, was nearer to the vigour of thesoil and failed to attain the epic manner ofValmiki. It was the narrative poetry of theage in the Puranic tradition. Unlike

Kamban, the Tamil poet (9th century A.D)who made a great original epic ofRamayana and also unlike Tulsidas (16th

century A.D.) whose famed Ramayanacombines with a singular masterly lyricintensity, romantic richness and thesublimity of the epic imagination, KrttivasiRamayana and its Manipuri version onlyserved to respond to the cultural necessityof transferring into popular speech thewhole central story of Ramayana.

(Extracted from “The RamayanaTradition in Asia:” Sahitya Akadami

Ed.V.Raghavan New Delhi 1989)


5

RAMAYANA IN ORIYA LITERATURE ORALTRADITION

NILAMANI MISHRA

Rama in tradition

There is no place left in Orissa which hasnot received the magic touch of Rama. Ithas become a habit to associate places,forests, hills and rivers with the incidentsof Ramayana. In the district of Phulbaniin Orissa there is a hill named Ramagiriabout which there are many legendsprevalent among the local people. It isidentified as the same place which hasfound mention in Meghaduta of Kalidasa.Koraput District abounds in such placeswhich have some connection with thedescriptions in the Ramayana. Peopledraw similarity between the existingChitrakunda Hill with Chitrakuta ofRamayana and Malkangiri withMalyavanta. People believe thatRamachandra had offered puja toGuptesvar during his forest-life; this isnear Jeypore, in Koraput district. Therivers Taperu and Arkeil in Koraput districtstill bear many memorable episodes ofSita.

In Keonjhar district there is a place calledSitabinji famous for Ajanta style muralpaintings. There, a small streamlet flowsby, which is called Sitapari and there isalso a hillock which is said to be the store-house of Sita.

At the foot of Ushakothi hills in the districtof Sundargarh there is a small village calledLakshmanapa where Laksmana used tolive when Rama and Sita spent some dayson the hill-top. There are oven-shapedmarks and white lines on the hills whichare believed to have been used by Sita askitchen. In Southern Orissa there are two

fruits which are called Rama-phala, Rama-fruit and Sita-phala, Sita-fruit. Peoplebelieve that these two were used mostlyby Rama and Sita during their forest-exile.In the rural life, people draw a similaritybetween a house-wife neglected by herhusband and Sita who had practicallysuffered in her separation. People alsocalled a chaste woman Sita.

The sincerity and faithfulness ofLakshmana towards his elder brotherRamachandra is also reflected in the sociallife of Orissa. Brothers in a joint familyliving happily are termed as Rama andLakshmana. A step-mother or a womanwith quarrelsome bent of mind is namedas Kaikeyi who created havoc in the life ofRamachandra. Twin brothers are namedLavakusa after the twin sons of Sita. Afaithful follower is very often termedBharata or Hanuman. A lady who getsmarried to her brother-in-law (the youngerbrother of her husband) is nicknamedMandodari. The treacherous role ofVibhisana is also not left out. He who playsa dubious role in the family is namedVibhisana.

Ramayana in Art

Khandagiri and Udayagiri in the outskirtsof the new capital have the earliestrepresentation of Ramayana-episode inrelief panels. Though no mention of Ramahas been made by the historians who havedealt with it so far, we can safely attributethe panel depicting a man with bow inhand chashing a fleeing antelope to theRamayana-episode of Rama pursuingMaricha.

(Extracted from The Ramayana Traditionin Asia: Sahitya Akadami Ed.V.Raghavan,New Delhi 1989.)


6

RAMAYANA IN SINHALA LITERATUREand ITS FOLK VERSION

J.TILAKASIRI

It is indeed remarkable that ever since theRama saga migrated to the countries ofSouth and South-East Asia it has notmerely enriched the cultural and literaryheritage of every country which cameunder its spell but inculcated lastingethical and religious values among thepeople. When the epic swept through thecultures of Asian countries its episodes,characters and even descriptive motifs hada varied influence on the differentcountries, each of which interpreted oradapted the story to suit its social milieu.

In many Asian countries the Ramayanatheme has had a special appealparticularly because the characterizationof the principal hero, Rama, his wife, Sita,and their companions and even theirretinue, bears a humane and refinedoutlook on life. The principal events of theepic are located in Ayodhya, the capital ofthe Kosala Kingdom, in the North of India.

In Sri Lanka, the story of Rama and Sitahas continued to be popular among theliterati and the people in general from thetime it became known. But it must beemphasized, however, that ambivalentattitudes towards the theme and thecharacterization of the heroes haveprevailed and these are reflected in theliterature of the Sinhalese and in thereligious cults, legends and folk-lore of theisland.

(Extracted from the “RamayanaTradition in Asia:” Sahitya Akadami

Ed.V.Raghavan, New Dlhi 1989.)

RAMAYANA IN THE FOLK LITERATUREOF BENGAL

BHABATOSH DUTTA

In Bengal, there are a number of versionsof the Ramayana mainly with regard toits theme; some of these cannot be tracedto the Sanskrit epic. These have beenincorporated from the folk life. Quite aconsiderable portion of our folk literatureis based on the Rama-Sita legend.Undoubtedly this deserves intensiveanalysis, which I am afraid has not beendone adequately in spite of the good dealof work done on the folk literature ofBengal.

Rabindra Nath Tagore, about seventyyears back, engaged, himself in collectingspecimens of folk literature of Prabna-Rajashahi region of Bengal. In a paperpublished in the Bharat (1898) he observedthat our folk literature was rich in thesongs on Radhakrishna and Hara-Gauribut compared with them songs of RamaSita were scanty. ‘It must be admitted’ hesaid: “In the west where Rama-legend iswidely prevalent, ideal of manliness is morepowerful than in Bengal. In our Hara-Gauriand Radhakrishna legends, the mutualrelationship between man and wife andlover and the beloved has been emphasizedbut no attempt has been made to makethem morally wholesome. The ideal ofconjugal life of Rama-Sita is much higherthan that of Hara-Gauri. It is unfortunatethat Rama-Sita legend has never got thebetter of either Hara-Gauri orRadhakrishna legends”. It is true, we donot possess on Rama and Sita anythinglike Krishna Padavali or the SaktaPadavali. The ‘Rama Padavali’ is quiteunknown to us. Later researches, however,have shown that our folk art has beendeeply influenced by the Rama-Sita


7

legend”. Tagore was, however, right inmaintaining that the ideal of manliness isgenerally missed in our folk poetry. We aremoved more with the emotional appeal ofthe Rama-legend than the moral side ofit.

(Extracted form the “RamayanaTradition in Asia:” Sahitya Akadami

Ed.V.Raghawan, New Delhi 1989)


8

RAMAYANA, THE EPIC OF ASIALOKESH CHANDRA

Born as a primeval poem, the adikavya inValmiki’s metrical measure welling forthin all spontaneity at the grievous sight ofthe death of a love-lorn avian couple shotby a hunter, the Ramayana, has becomethe lyric of the men of Asia from Siberia toIndonesia, filling their unbounded Self withecstasy, with an ocean of bliss.

The Department of Culture of the Ministryof Education of the Government ofIndonesia convened the first InternationalRamayana Festival and Seminar in 1971.they deserve praise the gratitude of menof culture for providing a forum where themodern man of Asia can evaluate thecreative role of Ramayana through theages, and its living unity of values in Asiansocieties. A literary oeuvre of sweepingmajesty, it has gathered a momentum ofits own, manifesting itself in the narrativearts of recitation by story-tellers, indeclamations (like the babahasaan inIndonesia), the performing arts of classicalballet, theatre and shadow-play, orfeatured in plastic arts of stone-sculptures,wood-carvings and paintings; and lastlyflourishing in creative writing in prose andpoetry. It has been a force, a movement totranslate social patterns and eternity ofideals and to explore realities of humanexistence, and to bring about better meansof integrating Homo ludens and Homosapiens, transcending all barriers toenlarge and intensify culturalunderstanding in our part of the world.

As early as A.D. 251 we find K’ang-seng-hui rendering the Jataka form of theRamayana into Chinese, and in A.D. 472appeared another Chinese translation ofthe Nidana of Dasaratha from a lostSanskrit text, by Kekaya. A long traditionin narrative and dramatic form created the

great episodic cycle of the 16th centuryclassic Chinese novel known as “Monkey”or the His-yu-chi which amalgamatedamong other elements the travels ofHanuman in quest of Sita. This motifenriched popular culture and folklore andalso contributed to the development ofChinese secular literature.

In the sixth century the Sinhalese Poet-king Kumaradasa, identified withKumaradhatusena (who reigned duringA.D.517-526) composed theJanakiharana, the earliest Sanskrit workof Ceylon. Its verbatim Sinhaleseparaphrase was done in the 12th centuryby an anonymous writer. It has beeneulogized in several Sinhalese works. Inour times, the Sinhalese translation of theRamayana, by C.Don Bastean has been adecisive influence on the Sinhalese novel.Modern dramatists like John de Silva, anoutstanding playwright, have adapted theRamayana. The popular appeal in Ceylonhas been the ideal of the Ramayana ingeneral, the particular the virtues of Sitahave been extolled, as in Indonesia.

In seventh century Cambodia, Khmercitations attest that the Ramayana hadbecome a major and favourite Epic. Itsepisodes symbolized great historic eventsin sculptured monuments. That theKhmers had been impregnated with theRamayana is evident from the fact that aname or a scene was sufficient tocharacterize a historic episode or to endowa socio-ethical problem with moralauthority and special emotion. Thedepiction of the victorious exploits ofJayavarman VII against the Chams, on theexterior gallery of the Bayon, often followthe plot of the Ramayana, and Khmer kingwas a new Rama to crush the king ofChams. Since Jayavarman VII theRamayana became an integral part of


9

Khmer life, played at feasts, figured onfrescos, and told by story-tellers. It is infact the loveliest poetic expression of thesoul of the Khmer people. A fact that meritsparticular attention is that the text followedat Angkor is closer to that of Java than toValmiki. It is a historic destiny thatIndonesia should again come forth toorganize the first International RamayanaFestival, “to promote closer cooperation,harmony and peace…, to create afavourable atmosphere for mutualunderstanding and friendship” asexpressed by His ExcellencyMr.Mohammad Noer, the then Governorof East Java.

In the ninth century (according to theinscriptional evidence as interpreted by DeCasparis), the Ramayana was sculpted onPrambanan’s Chandi, Loro Jongrang, theTemple of the Slender Maiden. These differfrom the Classical Indonesian epicRamayana Kakawin, which means that theRamayana was prevalent in Indonesia inseveral versions. The Ramayana reliefs atPanataran display the predominance oflocal style. The entire story is not shownbut only those scenes in which Hanumanand his simian army play a role. It pointsto the crystallization of particularRamayana-scenes as prominent amongthe repertoire of the performing arts.

In about the end of the ninth century weeven find an East Iranian version of theRamayana in Khotanese, an Iraniandialect prevalent in Khotan in Central Asia.

Since the 18th century, the Ramayanabecame a dominant element in theperforming arts of countries of South-EastAsia. In Laos, Phra Chao Anurut (KingAniruddha) constructed the Vat Mai ‘NewPagoda’ over the Vat Si Phum. On its pylonare carved episodes from the epic. Of aboutthe same period is the Vat Pe Ke with the

most complete paintings of the Ramayanain Laos. Needles to mention, that theRamayana plays a premier role in the Laosballet. The Natya Sala or ballet School atVientianne teaches it regularly with itsappropriate music and dance. Whenprincess Dala (Tara), daughter of KingSavang Vatthana was married, theRamayana was danced in full regalia andsplendour at Luang Prabang. The King ofLaos is composing a new Ramayana in theLaotion language with an elaboratechoreography. A complete manuscript ofthe Laotion Ramayana is known in 40bundles, of 20 leaves each at Vat Pra Keo,and another manuscript at Vat Sisaket.Mr.P.B.Lafont has published summariesof the P’a Lak P’a Lam (Dear Lakshmanaand Dear Rama) and the other versionentitled P’ommachak (SanskritBrahmacakra).

The Ramakten or Ramakirti is known toThai choreography as masked play orKhon, as the Nang of shadow-play and asliterary composition emanating from theThai monarchs themselves. The onlycomplete version is of King Rama I, andthe most representable on the stage is thatof Rama II. The Silpakon or Royal Fine ArtsDepartment, Bangkok, adapts theseversions to suit the occasion or theperformers, but the sung portions followthe aforesaid two versions. The version ofKing Rama VI is the best known, and for itthe King used the classical Ramayana ofValmiki as authority. Thai scholars, likePrince Dhaninivat, derive their Ramakien“from the Indonesian version no doubtprevailing in the epoch of the SrivijayaEmpire”. The Nang or shadow play with‘hide-figures’ is mentioned in the PalatineLaw of King Boromatrailokanath enactedin 1458. The Nang reached the valley ofMenam Chaophya via the Malay Peninsulafrom Indonesia.


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The Malaysian Hikayat Seri Rama (A.D.1400-1500) has been a basis for therepertoire of Malay shadow plays, theWayang Siam and Wayang Java. Inspiteof the marked toponymic nomenclatureboth, have assumed distinct Malay forms.The similarity of technique indicates itsIndonesian origin, which is conclusivelyproved by the use of Indonesian technicalterms like kelir, pang-gung, wayang anddalang. The popularity of the Rama sagain Malaysia is attested by a variety of localliterary versions. The Malaysian dalangmay perform two to three hundred showsa year, but they are not mereentertainment. The performances arepreceded by a ritual, offerings are madeand invocations directed to ensureharmony. It is an urge, an angin (Prana)to perform, a “susceptibility to be movedgreatly by the rhythm of the orchestra anda capability of identifying oneselfcompletely with the characters of thedrama, causing one experience intenseemotions. If an individual does notcontinue his angin he may lapse into atrance, a state of autohypnosis” (Prof.AminSweeney, London).

Burma too has known the Ramayana sinceearly centuries of the modern era. KingKyanzittha (A.D. 1084-1112) styled himselfa descendant of Rama. But, theperformance of the Yama-pwe (Yama-Rama) was introduced into Burma in 1767from Thailand after the Burmese conquestof Thailand. The performance of the Yama-pwe used to continue upto twenty-onenights, but these days it is a series ofperformances extending upto twelvenights.

The story of Rama spread into thenorthern-most lands of Asia, via Tibetwhere it is found in two versions inmanuscripts of the 7-9th centuries from thegrottoes of Tun-huang, in an early 15th

century poetical version of Zhang-zhung-pa Chowang-drak-paipal, in the now-losttranslation of Taranatha, and in severalversions scattered in commentaries onworks on poetic and didactics, like theKavyadarsa and Subhasitaratna-nidhi.From Tibet, the Ramayana reachedMongolia and thence spread far to theWest, to the banks of the Volga. A folkversion in Kalmuk language from thebanks of the Volga, is known from themanuscript of prof.C.F. Golstunsky, nowpreserved at the Siberian Branch of theAcademy of Sciences of the USSR.Prof.Damdin-Suren of Ulanbator(Mongolia) is working on the MongolianRamayana in its literary and folk forms, inmanuscripts preserved at Leningrad(USSR).

Nepal has the glory of preserving the oldestmanuscript of the Ramayana of Valmikidating to A.D. 1075. the legend of Ramahas ever found echoes at all levels ofexistence and consciousness, and it is butnatural that the highest expression ofmodern Nepalese poetry should beBhanubhakta Acarya’s Ramayana inNepalese verse, written around A.D. 1840.

In the backyard of the collectiveunconscious of the Philippines arerepeated resonances of the epic of Rama.In 1968 Prof.Junan R.Francisco discoveredamong the Muslim Maranaw a miniatureversion of the Ramayana as an avatara ofthe remote literature of pre-IslamicPhilippines. Among other Muslim tribes ofthe Philippines like the Magindanao andthe Sulu too, folk recitations of this greatepic survive in diluted versions.

(Extracted from The Ramayana Traditionin Asia Sahitya Akadami

Ed.V.Raghawan, New Delhi 1989.)


11

THE RAMAYANA: ITS CHARACTER,GENESIS, HISTORY, EXPANSION

AND EXODUS

SUNITI KUMAR CHATTERJI

After 660 B.C. Satapatha Brahmana takesits present form. Mention of Cyavana inSatapatha Brahmana, already a legendarysage, whose ascetic power enabled him totake up the form of a decrepit andshriveled man (later on in theMahabharata, the story became that hewas covered up by an ant-hill-Valmika).Saryata, a descendant of Manu and hisgrama or clan. His young men anddaughter Sukanya pelted with clods theshriveled up Cyavana. Cyavana’s wrath.Saryata comes and bestows Sukanya toCyavana as an appeasement. Sukanyalooks after Cyavana. The Asvins Sukanya.Obtains boon of healing and youth forCyavana from the Asvins. Cyavana tellsthe Asvins how they were missing certaindivine rights in a sacrifice and told themthe remedy. Cyavana a descendant ofBhrgu.

Valmiki—a descendant of Cyavana.(Krittivasa, 1400 A.D., Valmiki son ofCyavana). Cyavana 500 B.C. Valmiki.Valmiki=? Formica: has the Cyavana inant-hill legend’ became transferred toValmiki because of his name? Asvaghosha,1st century, A.D., mentions Cyavana as apredecessor of poet Valmiki. Valmiki,called a Grammarian (TaittirriyaAranyaka—200 B.C), because he was aninnovator in language-sloka, Sru anEastern Sanskrit form. The popularisingof Sloka verse. Valmiki-first conscious andsophisticated Poet-Adi-Kavi-deliberatecreator of a series of ideal Characters-Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Dasaratha andthe rest. The style and story of theRamayana versus. that of theMahabharata.

The Ramayana: Its Character and Exodus

Valmiki created the full story-3 maincomponent parts:

1) Rama, Sita, Lakshmana,Dasaratha, Kaikeyi, Bharata-Ramamarrying Sita-Coronation-Firstnucleus. The Himalayas.(Character of Sita modeled on thatof Savitri and Damayanti? Of Ramaas a hero on that of Arjuna?)

2) Sojourn in Dandakaranya—Viradha-Surpanakha-Ravana-Marica-the Abduction of Sita-(Jatayus)-Sita in Lanka. Influenceof Greek Legend (Helen,Paris,Menelaw on the Ram. AbductionStory? (of Homer and India—DionChrysostom).

a) The Raksasas-Asuras/Dramidas-civilised people,anti-Aryan.

b) The Vanaras-Negroid/Primitive Austric peoples ofSouth India-Lithic stoneimplements, branches oftrees. The Raksasas-Polycheirous andPolycaphalous Braiareosand other Giants fromGreece. 10-headed, 20-handed Ravana and theMagic working andabnormal bodies ofRaksasas of India?

(3) The Vanaras-Hanuman,Sugriva-Valin-Pact with Sugriva-Hanuman in Lanka-Building of theBridge. The Lanka War—(Indrajit,Kumbhakarna, Lakshmana. Hiswounding by Ravana, Hanuman


12

and Gandhamadana—slaying ofRavana-Sita’s ordeal-Return ofRama, Sita Lakshmana and theirfriends by the Puspaka-coronoationin Ayodhya.

The composite Rama story created byValmiki completed in its essentials by 2nd

century A.D.—Jain Pauma-cariu-Buddhistwork by Kumaralata mentions Ramayana.

Story began to expand, addition of newepisodes, new versions etc. from after itsstart as a Rama saga as composed byValmiki.

Uttara-Kanda: Valmiki himself made oneof the characters. More and more episodes.

**Rama became linked up with Visnu andSita with Sri as their avataras—after 2nd

century A.D.? Greater and greaterpopularity of the Rama Avatara Concept.

The social Ideals—Family Relationship—as introduced by Valmiki made for itspopularity over other great stories—like (1)Pururavas-Urvasi, (2) Savitri-Satyavan, (3)Nala-Damayanti, (4) Tapati-Samvarana,and (5) Vasavadatta-Udayana.

Various new episodes and stories-newerand newer treatments of the Rama-Sitastory.

Exodus of the Rama Saga (as Valmiki’spoem also outside India, from after 2nd/3rd century A.D. with Brahmans andBuddhists, Sailors and Seamen,businessmen, settlers etc. Newer andnewer versions and matters added—

(i) in Indo-China-among the Monsand the Khmers and theChams-among the Thais-Siamese and Laos-the Rama-

Kir (-Kien)—the Burmese—thenthe Viet-namese.

(ii) In Malaya (Hikayat Rama) andI n d o n e s i a — S u m a t r a n s ,Sundas, Javanese, Madurese,Balinese—Lombokians—theRamayana-the Wayangs—theSemar etc. The Philipinos.

(iii) in Sri Lanka.(iv) In Central Asia-among the

Khotanese, the Sogdians etc.(v) In Tibet, in Mongolia.(vi) In China, in Korea, in Japan.(vii) In Modern times—these

Western Skt. Studies-Russia,countries of Western Europe.

(Reproduced from “The RamayanaTradition in Asia”

Sahitya Akadami Ed.V.Raghavan, NewDelhi 1989.)


14

THE RAMAYANA TRADITION IN ASIA THEOLD JAVANESE RAMAYANA

SOEWITO SANTOSA

In the Javanese badads (chronicles) wehave legends of nine walis, saints, whospread the Islam in Indonesia. One of thebest known was called Sunan Kalijaga. Hewas a son of the regent of Tuban, becamea gambler at an early stage of his life andcasually robbed people to get some cashfor gambling. One day he wanted to rob aMoslem saint called Suman Boang, butSunam Bonnang who saw in him a futuresaint, converted him to Islam. It is indeedvery remarkable that there are similaritiesin the legend of the Adikavi in Sanskritliterature and that of the ‘adiwali’ of Java.If we can believe that there is nocoincidence in the similarities of bothlegends, than we can only think that thistradition might have existed in Java in thepast, and that the Moslems have used itvery cleverly. Surely we must see this inthe light of the islamization of Hindu-Javanese literary products, because thatvery saint, called Sunan Kalijaga,according to Moslem tradition, was theinventor of the Javanese gamelan and theauthor of the stories of the shadow-play(Mahabharata, Ramayana a.e.) and thefirst puppeteer.

I had witnessed in the past, the reading ofthe Ramayana forms an important part ina series of sacral rites and ceremonies.Robson himself refers to several of them,e.g., tooth-filing ceremony and weddingceremony. In a cremation ceremony theRamayana dance-drama is alwaysperformed. What is the significance of allthis?

At the end of stories, such as theJaratkaru, Garudeya etc. we usually finda statement of benefits accruing by reading

them, e.g. longevity and wealth. At the endof the Ramayana, as understood so far,only the Yogiswaras and sujanas are saidto benefit from it. The Sanskrit Ramayanaof Walmiki however mentions many more.I quote:

“He who reads the story of Rama, whichimports merit and purity, is freed from allsin. He who reads it with faith and devotionis ultimately worshipped together with hissons, grandsons and servants at his death.A Brahmin reading this becomes proficientin language, a ksatriya becomes a king, avaisya grows prosperous in trade, a sudra,on reading this, will become great in hiscaste”.

Thus it is indeed appropriate if therecitation of the Ramayana at any stageof a ceremony will bring the kind of successdesired.

One who recites the Ramayana will getguidance in his life, clearly he will gethappiness in heaven, together with hischildren and grandchildren, living alwaysin harmony with the gods. Furthermore,one of bad conduct, who will certainly bedoomed, by reciting the Ramayana eventhough just a stanza of it, will surely befreed from sin.

The translation of the corresponding partin the Sanskrit version reads as follows:

“On hearing it (Ramayana), he who hasno son will obtain a son, he who has nofortune will become wealthy; to read but afoot of this poem will absolve him from allsin. He who commits sins daily will bewholly purified by reciting a single sloka”

(Extracted from The Ramayana Traditionin Asia Sahitya Akademi Ed.V.Raghavan,New Delhi 1989.)


15

THE RELEVANCE OF TULASIDASA’SMESSAGE TO MODERN AGE

REV.C.BULCKE

(a) Modern critics not infrequentlyaccuse Tulasidasa of medievalideas, especially his defence ofmonarchy and the caste-system,his glorification of the Brahmins,his low esteem of women. Theanswer to these criticisms is thatTulasidasa was not a social orpolitical reformer and neverintended to advocate changes in thepolitical or social structure of histime. His one aim is to teach theroyal (The Rajamarga) of bhakti. Hisderogatory remarks about womenare all of them translations ofSanskrit Nitivakya’s, and reflecttherefore tradition opinions.

As a matter of fact Tulasidasa seems tohave foreseen these criticisms. In hisintroduction he compares his poem to astream, filled with the water of Rama’sstainless glory:

Rama bimala jasa jala bharita soAnd adds that “Social and scripturaldoctrine are its four banks”.

It seems that he wanted to stress the factthat he exposes his vision of Rama-bhakti,according to the prevalent social opinions(Lokamata) and the teachings of scripture(Vedanta), The same may be said of thephilosophical ideas that find expression inhis Ramachanrit Manas. At times theyreflect the monism of Sankara and at othertimes the Visista Advaita (qualifiedmonism) of Ramanuja. They found a placein his poem, because both were commonly

held in his time. Tulasidasa remainsindependent. In his Vinayapatrika we read:

“Some say it (creation) is true, some say itis false, and some hold that both areequally true; Tulasidasa says, who everabandons these three misconceptions, healone knows himself”.

Tulasidas pariharai tini Bhrama, So apanapahichani (No.111)

As regards his personal opinion about thecaste-system, he has given a glimpse ofthem in the description of Ramarajya,where he says that “every man loved hisneighbours”.

Saba nara karahi paraspara priti

“Each husband was true to one wife, andeach wife was loyal to her husband inthought and word and deed”.

Ekanari braja rata saha jhariTo man abaca karma pati hitakari

And finally.

“Most beautiful of all was the royal ghat,where men of all castes could bathe”.

Rajaghata saba bidhi sundarabaraMajjahi taha barna chariu nara

It is relatively easy to answer the abovementioned criticisms. But the problem ofthe relevance of the Rama-story to modernage goes much deeper. A new generationis growing up, which does not believe inany incarnation or even in the existenceof a Supreme Being.

(b) The chief aim of Tulasidasa is togive a message about Bhagavad-bhakti, but those who do not believein the existence of a Supreme Being

Loka veda mata manjula Kula


16

can still admire the undoubtedgenuine poetic art of Tulasidasa,just as, without believing in thetheology of Dante, one can admirehis Divina Commedia. Even for themthe Ramacharit Manas remains agreat cultural document containingthe traditional beliefs of centuries,innumerable mythological storiesand poetic conventions andconceits that have charmedmillions of his countrymen.

(c) However, the number of suchpeople is relatively small. The greatmajority of the modern generationbelieves in the existence of aSupreme Being and in the spiritualnature of man. For all theseRamachanrit Manas has amessage, whether they believe inany particular incarnation or not.This message contains theessential elements of genuinedevotion to God, as expounded bythe mystical writers of all religions;namely, importance of moralconduct, a great awareness of God’smajesty and man’s sinfulness, therelative unimportance of ritual andfinally a genuine desire to promotethe welfare of others.

The popularity of the Valmiki Ramayanaand the voluminous Rama-literature ofmany centuries, is a monument to theidealism of India, its high esteem of moralvalues and its belief in the ultimatetriumph of good over evil. In the same way,the enthusiastic response of the millionsof northern India to the message ofRamachanrit Manas testifies to the deep-seated religious belief and spontaneouspity of the soul of India.

Note : Tulasidasa was well aware of thefact that he made his own choice amongthe many incidents, of the Rama-story, as

narrated by innumerable authors beforehim. His Ramacarita is not to be taken ashistory, but as an illustration of the infinitemercy of the Supreme Being, who becamemanifest for the sake of his devotees.

He even admits the possibility of the Rama-story to be taken as an allegory. Hedescribes the evil condition of the worldjust before Rama’s incarnation in thefollowing words: “No words can describethe dreadful iniquity the demons wrought;their great ambition was to hurt; what limitcould there be to their ill-doing? Evil doersflourished; thieves and gamblers andlechers who coveted their neighbour’sgoods and wives; those too, who honourednot mother or father or gods, andcompelled the good to serve them. Peoplewho act thus, Bhavani, hold thou to beNisicara (i.e., demons, followers of Ravana).

Another passage of the Yuddhakandapoints to the allegorical nature of Rama’sstruggle against Ravana—

“Seeing that Ravana was mounted ona chariot and Raghuvira on foot,Vibhisana was apprehensive”. Ramagave him this answer, “The victorneeds another kind of chariot.Heroism and courage are the wheelsof that chariot; truth and virtuousconduct its firm-set flags andpennants; strength, discretion, self-control, and unselfish action are itshorses, harnessed with compassion,kindness and impartial judgment.The worship of God is its skillfulcharioteer… There is no foe, myfriend, who can conquer him whorides upon this chariot ofrighteousness”.

(Extracted from The Ramayana Traditionin Asia: Sahitya Akademi,

Ed.V.Raghavan, New Delhi 1989)


17

THE RAMAYANA TRADITION INKANNADA

V.SITARAMIAH

The coronation of Sri Rama and its publiccelebration and expression of the joy arebrought off with an exposition ofRajadharma by Vasistha like the one givento Dasaratha when he ascended the throneand as the tradition came down from Manuand Iksvaku onwards. It speaks of kinglyduty and utter devotion to the welfare ofthe people. The king is the Agent and therepresentative of that supreme powerwhich presides over the fortunes of theUniverse which can work out its purposesonly through the king. It can make a littlehandbook of political ethics sanctified bycustom and the rule of Dharma. Rama’srealization that it is the duty of a king toprotect the good and Sita’s declaration thatthe privilege of the Arya is to be kind toall;—for, who is without defect or failurein conduct? “Na kascinnaparadhyati?”.The essential truths of the Ramayana areconveyed simply in language which all canunderstand and which if one does not hearor read attentively, may easily miss.

The modern period has thus a distinctcontribution to make in understanding thesignificance of the Ramayana, inherited asit has the wealth of past and present andof all climes and tongues and persuasions.It has had its triumphs and distortions butthe experience is one of deep appreciation.Only we do not have aberrations likeMenon’s or Dutt’s Meghanada Vadha.

Our Ramayana tradition in the country isone of reverence and written about orspoken or sung; such as will establish theenduring worth of Rama, Sita, Laksmana,Bharata and Hanuman. The Ramayanastory has deeply influenced the life of thepeople. Men and women are named after

many of them and from times past menand women gather together to celebratethe birth-day of Rama and his marriagewith Sita and their coronation as well asthe great episodes in Valmiki’s work.Whether scholarship accepts theauthenticity of Sita’s exile or not, it touchesa tender chord and has earned for itcherishment. Almost all parts of thecountry claim place and name and eventhe lives and memories of these worthies.To one section of the Hindu population,the Kainkarya of Laksmana is the greater;to the other Bharata and his Paduka-Pattabhiseka are a consummation and inboth the disinterested regard and self-denial are adored. Both are Ramanujas,each in his great way. Surrender(Saranagati) of Vibhishana is anothermemorable event. And the Brothers andSita and Hanuman are parts of what theyhave liked to cherish and worship asexpression of the Divine.

(Extracted from ‘The RamayanaTradition in Asia’ Sahitya Akadami



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THE RAMAYANA IN LAOS (VientianeVersion)

KAMALA RATNAM

The culture of Laos, Thailand andCambodia is made up of the earliest formsof Hinduism or Vedic Brahmanism andHinayana (Theravada) Buddhism.Consequently it shows the deep meditativeand philosophic aspect of the teachings ofthe Buddha coupled with the aestheticimagination and literary aspects of Hindumind. This entire region is dotted withtemples dedicated to Buddha, decoratedwith figures of Hindu gods and goddesses,united and protected as if within themother-like embrace of long rows of guidedpaintings on the walls depicting the storyof the Ramayana. Apart from their artisticmerits as mural paintings and the sanctityand reverence attached to them as objectsof temple worship, the frescoes play animportant part in the reconstruction of theRamayana story as known in this area.

In Laos the Ramayana is present in fiveforms—(1) Dance (2) Song (3) Painting andsculpture (4) Sacred texts to be recited onfestive occasions and (5) Manuscripts, andenjoys popularity in that order. TheRamayana as dance-drama enjoys thepride of place, in the Royal Palace at LuangPrabang and the ‘Natyasala’ dance schoolat Vientiane. With the dance-drama goesits appropriate music and song. TheRamayana in painting and sculpture isseen within the temples. In its richestforms it is found in the court-temples ofLuang Prabang, a detailed account ofwhich has been published as an illustratedarticle by me. Following the Indian wayof life and the teachings of the Buddha,which found expression in their art andpoetry, the Lao have remained a people ofsimple customs and habits, deeply marked

by a religious awareness synthesized by afeeling of peace and brotherhood with allliving beings.

The Indo-Chinese Peninsula was therecipient of ancient Indian civilization andculture epitomized by the Ramayana andthe Mahabharata and later it received theBuddhist Theravada philosophy whichcame to it via Burma and Ceylon. WhileBuddhism provided the moral basis and apractical code for daily life, the Ramayanaand the Mahabharata became entrenchedin the emotional and artistic life of thepeople. In time the art of temple-building,sculpture, carving on wood and stone,drama, theatre and ballet drew theirinspiration from the episodes of theRamayana and the Mahabharata. Sinceartistic expression requires ample materialresources and comparative freedom fromthe cares of daily life, the Royal Courtsbecame the repositories of the Ramayanaculture. The Buddhistic temples with thehumanistic approach were catering to thesocial needs of the community. Theyprovided seminaries, scholars, hospitalsand homes for the aged and disabled, theylooked after the poor. The corridors of thesetemples resounded with the reading of theRamayana text, while their walls wereornamented with murals describing scenesfrom the sacred Indian texts. In manytemples figures of pre-Buddhistic Hindugods and goddesses were boldly chiseledor carved on wood or stone. They were richspiritual fare for the kindly and simplepeople of greater India. And in all thesecountries the fabric of beauty inspired bythe Ramayana provided a splendid canopyfor preservation and protection of the puremoral teachings of the Buddha.

(Extract from : The Ramayana Traditionin Asia: Sahitya Akadami;



19

A nation survives which has thestrength of character, which hassense of high-souled duty, which

has power of self and collective discipline,which has high mental and moral conductand above all which has resources ofinspiring literature.

India is fortunate to have Ramayanaas its spring of inspirational literature.Literature is the main and mostfundamental medium which has the forceto bring about change in the pattern ofthinking, which has the strength tobrighten up the heights of the high ideals,which has the power to move the highlyhard and ever unmoved individuals, whichhas the capacity of performing miracles oftransforming human, mental and moralself.

Three hundred years ago, a greatheroic drama was enacted on the soil ofthe five rivers against communal tyranny,narrow-mindedness, treachery and perfidyof the fanatical rulers of those times andtheir myopic policies. It was a crusade fortruth, justice, human freedom andequality. Guru Gobind Singh, the tenthmaster of the Sikhs, was the hero of the

play. Communal tyranny had rendered thenation weak, timid and insecure. GuruGobind Singh revived the oriental spirit ofthe Indian, infused in them the spirit ofnationalism, filled in them the spirit ofcourage and heroism, made them fearlessand dauntless, stirred in them the spiritof truth and self-respect. He changed theoutlook of the common man. Hetransformed them into heroes of the greatepic, Ramayana, made them realize theirown intrinsic and essential worth. He wasa great litterateur. He was an eminentscholar. He wrote the great epic in thelanguage of the common man and effecteda thorough change in the mental, moraland spiritual life of the people.

Aim of writing:

In the most explicit words he made adeclaration “call me Gobind Singh only if Iam able to produce great warriors,distinguished soldiers and brave heroes”.He applied all his force, all his strength,all his knowledge, all his ability, all hiscompetence and all his talents of writingto make it a living reality.

(Extracted from ‘The RamayanaTradition in Asia:’ Sahitya Akadami

Ed.V.Raghawan, New Delhi 1989)

RAMAVATAR (RAMAYANA) BY GURU GOBIND SINGHBALJIT TULSI


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Oral tradition of literature in a socialgroup develops in two ways—firstlyit is derived from literary source,

secondly it originates in an unletteredsocial group of ultimately becomes thesource of its art literature. The oraltradition of the Ramayana in the variousStates of Indian Union has been based onthe great Indian epic, the Ramayana bythe great poet Valmiki. Though composedin classical Sanskrit not intelligible to theunlettered, yet due to the efforts of a classof oral expounders it was made understoodto the unlettered mass irrespective of casteand creed. It is apparent in the Ramayanaitself that Lava and Kusa, the two sons ofRamachandra, the hero of the Ramayanawere the first two expounders of theRamayana and the great poet Valmikihimself gave special training to them in thismethod. Therefore, it seems that since thevery completion of the great epic by Valmikiit is being expounded before the mass in amethod intelligible to the unlettered. Thusilliteracy has never been a bar in India forlearning in literature, philosophy and evenhigher scriptures. This practice of popularexposition of the Ramayana continuedthroughout the centuries and throughoutthe whole of India and has been handeddown to the present day in an absolutelyunbroken tradition.

Kathakata :

By Kathakata is meant discourse of thePuranas and the epics specially theRamayana, the Mahabharata and theBhagavata by a literate person making thetheme more attractive thanunderstandable to the unlettered and half-literate by means of music, dramaticmonologue and prose narrations. It is onlyone man’s performance. The Kathak, thereciter or the expounder first of all recitesa couplet from the texts either in Sanskritor in archaic Bengali and then goes on toelucidate it by quoting parallel coupletsfrom the recognized authorities making hiselucidation popular by appropriate popularsimiles and metaphors and music sung byhimself and reciting some monologues. Asfar as the Ramayana is concerned this maycontinue for a week, twelve days or evenupto a full month, according to the demandof the situation. In the Bengali translationof the Ramayana by Krittivasa, some of thetraditions which developed orally due toKattakata have also been incorporated.

(Extracted from “the RamayanaTradition in Asia”. Sahitya Akadami

Ed.V.Raghavan: New Delhi 1989)

Introduction

ORAL TRADITION OF THE RAMAYANA IN BENGAL

ASUTOSH BHATTACHARYA


21

Rama has taught me that each of usmust work authentically accordingto our own best light.

Ramayana to me is human experience.

Religious traditions are like waves, andas waves pass through their variousmediums, individual particles remain inthe same area with relation to each other,moving in circular or elliptical paths. Thewave itself moves lineally, but when itencounters an obstacle or change in theocean floor, it responds in new andcomplex patterns. The particles may becompared to individual phenomena,remarkably similar throughout humansociety. The wave can suggest a religioustradition passing across generations andcultures, radically changing itscharacteristics when it encounters newcontexts. The figure of Rama is such awave. It rolled across south and southeastAsia changing with each new medium butmaintaining its own vital power.

Rama, like religious matters generally,must be viewed as part of humanexperience, not separable from the othermodules of experience. In its fullest sense,the experience of religious livingencompasses a total commitment tosomething seen as ultimate concern, livedout with such intensity that it transformsthe life of the devotee and conditions hisrelationship with those about him. Thus,religion can be used to discover meaningin existence and to organize life intosignificant patterns, even if the averageworshipper at shrine, mosque, church, ortemple is no more aware of the nuancesof what its syntax or grammar. “The

externalia of religion—symbols,institutions, doctrines, practices—can beexamined separately. But things are notthemselves religion, which lies rather inthe area of what these mean to those whoare involved”. Thus, recalling the incidentwhere Hanuman’s chest was ripped opento display Rama and Sita seated on athrone in his heart, we can adapt thewords of an old Christian song. “He lives.He lives… you ask me how I know he lives,he lives within my heart”. From this pointof view, the Ramayana is not a sixthcentury or third century book. It is acontemporary book, changing its meaningwith each succeeding age.

The Story and Book

Fundamental human needs lie behindall great masterpieces of religiousliterature. The great scriptures neverappear in a vacuum, but they rathercombine various approaches with differingdegrees of subtilty in order to investtemporal existence with an aspect ofeternity. No book can become an object ofveneration unless it both speaks to thespirit of a people and reflects that people’svalues. Although such a book can beappreciated throughout the world—theRamayana is often studied as greatliterature apart from any devotionalcommitment-sacred books as such remainthe peculiar property of faithfulcommunities where they can be nurturedby their accredited teachers. Typically,events believed to bear redemptivesignificance are transmitted through anarrative, and just as typically, thenarrative itself becomes more importantthan the events it narrates, as the events

THE ROLE OF THE SACRED BOOK IN RELIGION-THE RAMAYANA

HARRY S.BUCK


22

described are endowed with cosmicsignificance.

The Story

Few of us approach the world simplyas object; we encounter it within whateverframe of reference we live. Whatever wedescribe reveals as much about our ownpresumptions as it does about the objectbeing described. Gods, then—whether inIndia, Greece, or Canaan—are neitherseparate entities nor concepts so much asthey are projections of human searches ofsignificance and meaning and thepreservation of order. Theoreticalexplanations, which can satisfy the mindsof a spiritual or intellectual elite,disappoint most persons who turn morereadily to a narrative.

The story inevitably takes on certainarchetypal aspects as it is told and retoldbecause it becomes community property.The repetition of the story brings salvationby recalling an archetypal event in whichGod acted—in which he is still acting—forhuman benefit. In saving stories, personssee themselves and the world not just asthey are but as they believe they ought tobe.

In many cases there may be somefactual basis for the narrative, but themature form of the story will almostinvariably be told in an archetypal mythicpattern. Hence, the episodes recounted arenot merely historisch (“something thathappened”), they constitute a Geschichte(“an event of enduring significance”), or torebaptize a world that has often aparticularistic connotation, aHeilsgeschichte (“the story of an archetypalevent that brings salvation”). The narrativerecalls God’s redemptive acts, but it alsorecreates them. Such a story is more thanstory. It is a reality lived, a sanction for a

way of life, and a pattern for conduct andfor worship. In it, the power of the Worditself releases grace by its repetition.

(Extracted from “The RamayanaTradition in Asia” Sahitya AcademiEd.V.Raghavan, New Delhi 1989.)

FEBRUARY-AUGUST 2003

1

1. Introduction:

A study of the Itihasas and thePuranas is of particularsignificance to modern India. One

of the major problems facing the countrytoday is the need to resuscitate andreinterpret those material ideals, which forthe most part lying dormant, may still beclearly discerned as the life-force which,through countless centuries, hasmaintained the continuity in India’sculture. Those ideals are treasured in ourItihasas and Puranas, in simple languagewoven into narrative and dramatic episodeand exemplified in characters portrayed.Perusal of our scriptures especially a studyof our Ithasas and the Puranas will play apart in the realization of the present dayneed to grasp afresh those ancientnational ideals, so that they may oncemore become the basis of national life anda bond of national unity. May they becomea guiding light not only to India, but tothe whole world in its complex journeythrough the maze of modern civilization.

The Epic Age during which the Ramayanaand the Mahabharata received their finalshape was a period of racial and ideologicalconflict and historically speaking, thisperiod produced the two great Epics as wellas the Manu Dharma-sastra, the Codes ofYajnavalkya, Narada, and Parasara andthe earlier Puranas. Great mentalexpansions and new political outlookswere the characteristics of this age.Gradually, the idea was evolved that India,in spite of its various kingdoms, races, and

creeds, was essentially one. Thisfundamental unity is enforced in severalpassages of the Mahabharata. The KurmaPurana, in describing Bharatavarsa,emphasizes its unity notwithstanding thediversities of race and culture; and theearlier Vayu Purana strikes the same note.The Hindu scheme of life expressed in theformula, dharma-artha-kama-moksa whichhad originated earlier was, during thisperiod, perfected and codified. Ideal typesof character representing all stages ofhuman life became epic heroes. Not onlythe ideal sannyasin or the rsi but the idealking, the loyal wife and the brother, thedisciplined and diligent student, the citizenactive in his vocation and the peasant asthe guardian of fundamental virtues andloyalties were presented in the Itihasas andPuranas as examples and symbols of thevariegated Indian life. The influencecannot be exaggerated of such examplesof human potentiality and achievement asRama, Lakshmana, Kausalya, Sita,Hanuman, Bharata, Yudhishthira andBhisma. The formula afore-mentioned ofdharma-artha-kama-moksa, became morethan formal when it was illustrated by thelives of the countless characters describedin the Puranas and the Itihasas. Thestories, epilogues, and parables containedin them were not put together for thepurpose of furnishing a chronologicallyaccurate history. Recent researches havedemonstrated that the Itihasas and thePuranas are more accurate historically,geographically, and chronologically thanwas at one time supposed; but it can neverbe forgotten that they were composedrather to furnish examples and models

THE EPICS AND THE PURANAS (1/11)

C.P.RAMASWAMY AIYAR


2

than to record specific historical incidentsin dry detail. Moreover, while each Puranaexalts a particular deity, it must be notedthat the catholicity and the uniformity ofthe Hindu approach to the Supreme areaffirmed at every turn. For instance, Ramais described as a devotee of Siva andAditya; and so was Arjuna. The VayuPurana, in fact, asserts that he who affirmssuperiority or inferiority among the divinemanifestations is a sinner.

From the time of Macaulay, it has been afavourite pursuit of some critics to deridethe geography and description of thePuranas and to accuse them ofexaggeration or distortion. Some specialvirtues are, in their opinion, grossly over-accentuated as in the cases ofSivicakravartin, Hariscandra and Karna.In many ancient scriptures, including theEgyptian Book of the Dead and the Oldand the New Testaments, there are to befound similar inherent improbabilities andhistorical contradictions. But it must notbe overlooked that these great productsof the human mind were not intended tobe substitutes for historical handbooks orfor Directories like those of Baedeker orMurray.

It can well be asserted that the Ramayanaand the Mahabharata have throughoutbeen the foundations of Hindu ethics andbeliefs.

Whereas the Epics deal with the actionsof heroes as mortal men and embody andillustrate both human virtues and frailties,the Puranas mainly celebrate the powerand the work of various super-humanpersonages and deities.

The contents of many Puranas are very oldbut many of the later ones have a definitesectarian bias. They are nevertheless avaluable record of the various Hindubeliefs which originated next in order tothe Vedas and incorporated hero-worshipas well as divine worship, and they maybe rightly described as essentiallypantheistic in character. Although aparticular divinity may be glorified,nevertheless, there is an underlying questfor unity of life and of Godhead.

Regarded as a whole, the Puranas and theUpapuranas are neither mutuallycontradictory nor even purely sectarian.They furnish a compendious portrayal ofhuman rights and obligations and anexpressive description of Hindu life as ithas been and ought to be lived.

The Ramayana furnishes impressiveillustrations of cause being followedinevitably by effect-karma, rebirth anddestiny; it embodies generalizations ofexperience in private and public affairsenshrined in proverbs, maxims, and rulesof chivalry and statecraft.

The Mahabharata on the other handcontains an illuminating account of theIndian genius, both in its nobility andgreatness, and its tragic weakness andinsufficiency. It stresses that anunderlying purpose and a guiding destinyare inseparable from human history.

Devotion and detachment in several formsare embodied in attractive stories in theMahabharata and the Bhagavata andother Puranas.


3

The Itihasas and the Puranas contain inthem a number of remarkable episodes:The Bhagavat Gita, Astavakra Samhita,Avadhuta Gita, Anu Gita, Uddhava Gita etc.

The basic message of all the Gitas is thusenunciated in the Astavakra Samhita: You(the immanent self) do not belong to theBrahmana or any other caste, nor to anyasrama. You are beyond visual perceptionand detached (i.e. beyond attachment) andbeyond forms, witnessing all phenomena,you are happy(i.e. you preserve yourequilibrium)

(Extracted from the Cultural Heritage ofIndia Vol.II. The RKM Institute of

Culture, Calcutta 1993.)

We see that in every religion there are three parts—I mean in every great and recognizedreligion. First, there is the philosophy which presents the whole scope of that religion,setting forth its basic principles, the goal and the means of reaching it. The second partis mythology, which is philosophy made concrete. It consists of legends relating to thelives of men, or of supernatural beings, and so forth. It is the abstractions of philosophyconcretized in the more or less imaginary lives of men and supernatural beings. Thethird part is the ritual. This is still more concrete and is made up of forms and ceremonies,various physical attitudes, flowers and incense, and many other things, that appeal tothe senses. In these consists the ritual. You will find that all recognized religions havethese three elements. Some lay more stress on one, some on another.

THE PURANAS-PHILOSOPHY MADE CONCRETE


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INFLUENCE OF THE EPICS ON INDIAN LIFE AND LITERATURE ( 4/11)NILMADHAV SEN

The Vedas, the Upanisads, the Ramayana and the Mahabharta, and the eighteenPuranas, form the massive basement on which stands the magnificent edifice of Indianreligion and thought, culture and literature. Of these, the two great epics form thestrongest single factor that has sustained and held together Indian Life, in all itsgrowth and ramifications, through the vicissitudes of centuries. The Vedas were confinedchiefly to the priestly and aristocratic classes, and the Upanisads, to the intellectualsand philosophers; it was the epics and the Puranas that became the real Vedas for themasses and moulded their life and character for the last two thousand years. There ishardly any other work whose influence on all aspects of life in India has been soprofound, lasting, and continuous as that of the epics and the Puranas. Languagebeing the first and foremost means of expressing feelings and communicating thoughts,an account of the influence which epic poetry has exercised over Indian literatureembodied in the different languages and in their various stages is given at some length,in every survey of Indian literature.

1. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad refers to Itihasas and Puranas:2. The Chandogya Upanishad talks of Itihasas and Puranas3. Gautama recommends a study of Itihasas and Puranas in his Dharma Sutras.4. Panini refers to Puranas as ancient.5. Late Vedic and early classical period knew Puranas and Itihasas.6. Asvalayana Grihya Sutra, Apastamba Dharma Sutra, Gohila Grihya sutras, Vedic

hymns, talk about Itihasas and Puranas, the Sastras quote from then extantPuranas.

7. Yaska and Brihaddevata (pre 5th century BC) refer to the Itihasas.8. The Artha shastra equates the Itihasas with the Veda.9. A Bharata epic existed prior to Sustra Literature and Panini.10. Apart from Itihasas and Puranas, two other forms of narrative composition

akhyayika and akhyana were in vogue in early classical Sanskrit. (They arementioned in Panini and the Mahabhashya of Patanjali.

(Extracted from the Cultural Heritage of India Vol.II, The RKM Institute of CultureCalcutta 1993)

ANCIENT VEDIC LITERATURES REFER TO ITIHASAS AND PURANAS

K.K.HANDIQUE – (2/11)

(Extrated.....................)


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BOX ITEMTHE CULTURE OF RAMAYANA

SWAMI NIHSREYASANANDA 3/11

There is no doubt that Rama’s characteras a hero and as a man of virtuous actionand that of Sita as a model heroine havebeen instrumental in shaping the lives ofmany who genuinely aspire after dharma.Valmiki has wisely upheld the ideal ofdharma which has a comprehensive sweepand which enables its votaries, irrespectiveof their vocation or status in society, toenjoy inner perfection and freedom whilededicating their virtues to the welfare ofothers. If this ideal, exemplified by the sagein the motives and activities of hisnumerous characters, is grasped and putinto practice, all the creeds may survivethe present crisis, work side by sidewithout the feeling of hostility, and makepeople intelligent, efficient, and self-sacrificing enough to solve the problemsof the family, country, or even of the worldas a whole.

(From the Cultural Heritage of IndiaVol.II The RKM Institute of Culture,

Calcutta 1993)


6

The Ramayana and the Mahabharataportray pictures of ideal men and women,and preach through a popular medium thegospel of Bharata-Dharma. The Ramayanadoes this by glorifying domestic relationsand family life ‘sustaining the entire socialstructure’, and the Mahabharata, by itslesson ‘that hatred breeds hatred, thatcovetousness and violence lead inevitablyto ruin, that the only real conquest is thebattle against one’s lower nature’. Ramarepresents an ideal son and king, a perfectMan, Laksmana and Bharata idealbrothers, Sita an ideal wife, a perfectWoman, Hanuman an ideal devotee,Yudhisthira an ideal upholder of moralvirtues, and Bhisma and Arjuna idealheroes. Parents and elders have forgenerations used the themes and storiesof the epics for imparting wisdom andinstruction to the younger generation. Thethemes are at once appealing andentertaining, and they create an indelibleimpression on the young minds; everyincident and story (and the moral goingwith it) become deeply engraved thereon.The educative influence of the epics on anIndian further is sustained through all thestages of life by such means as massrecitations of the epics in the temple, orin public on festive and other occasions(the earliest reference to which is found inKumaralata’s Kalpana-manditika, a workof second century A.D.) and by such open-air popular performances as the Rama-lilaand Bharata-lila, Yatras and Palaganas,Yaksaganas and Dasavataras, dances likethe Kathakali and Pandavanrtya, and

regular dramatic performances—these areentertainments which always attract vastand varied crowds, irrespective of creed orfaith, and they are an evidence of theperennial and dynamic appeal of the epicsto all. To millions of Hindus it has been areligious duty to recite at least a few versesfrom the epics before taking their meals.

Works which have affected so large apopulation over so long a period of timeand moulded the character and thecivilization of so vast a region, oftentranscending geographical limits, can illafford to be termed mere ‘epics’. Indeed,the Ramayana and the Mahabharatashould better be regarded as the truehistory of India, history not of events, butof the urges and aspirations, strivings andpurposes of the nation. Encyclopaedic innature, together they form ‘the content ofour collective unconscious’ whereinbreathe ‘the united soul of India and theindividual souls of her people’. The twoepics represent the two ‘moods of ourAryan civilization’, viz. moral andintellectual, and it is, indeed, impossibleto grasp the true spirit and meaningbehind ‘the moving drama of Indian life’without a thorough and intelligentunderstanding of the epics. ‘And to tracethe influence of the Indian epics on thelife and civilization of the nation, and onthe development of the modern languages,literatures, and religious, reforms’, in thewords of R.C.Dutt, ‘is to comprehend thereal history of the people during the threethousand years’. The epics have thus been

(6/11)

The influence of the Ramayana and the Mahabharataon the Life of Indians

NILMADHAV SEN


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the ‘deep well of strength’ to ourforefathers, from which they derived—andwhich inspires us to derive—the ‘enduringvitality’ of our cultural and spiritual basisas well as of our social and political life.

Glory to the twin poets whose names arelost in the morass of time, but whosemessage brings strength and peace in athousand streams to the door of millionsof men and women even to this day, andincessantly carries silt from long-pastcenturies and keeps fresh and fertile thesoul of India” – Rabindranath Tagore.

(Extracted from the Cultural Heritage ofIndia, Vol.II The RKM Institute of

Culture, Calcutta 1993)

BOX ITEM

INFLUENCE OF THE EPICS ON INDIAN LIFE AND CULTURE (5/11)

NILMADHAV SEN

From a study of epic derivatives in classical and regional literature, it isvery easy to imagine how profound the epic influence must have been onart and culture, and on the general texture of social life. The Ramayanaand the Mahabharata are, in the words of Havell, ‘as much the commonproperty of all Hinduism as the English Bible and Shakespeare belong toall English-speaking people. The Indian epics contain a portrait-gallery ofideal types of men and women which afford to every good Hindu the highestexemplars of moral conduct, and every Hindu artist an inexhaustible mineof subject matter’.

(Extracted from Cultural Heritage of India Vol.II The RKM Institute ofCulture Calcutta 1993.)


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The Vedic religion expounds the goal andthe means; the goal is tattva-jnana,knowledge of the Reality, which isexpounded in the jnana-kanda, while themeans to it is expounded in the upasana-kanda and the karma-kanda. Inexpounding the dharma taught by theVedas, the preceptors sought to co-ordinate and harmonize all the texts andto resolve the apparent contradictions inthem. This is known as the syntheticmethod (ekavakyata or samanvaya). Inthe Karma-Mimamsa the texts of thekarma-kanda are sought to be co-ordinated and harmonized and explained.The theory about the goal and the practicelaid down for its attainment must also beharmonized with each other. TheUpanisads and the Sariraka-Sutras laygreater emphasis on tattvajnana. TheBhagavad-Gita further emphasizes thepractice of the means of attainment.Freedom from bondage comes only to himwho in his daily life sincerely practisesniskama-karma enunciated by Sri Krsna,which demands unbounded prema-bhakti(loving devotion) to Paramesvara.Tattvajnana and Paramesvara-bhakti musttherefore exist together and work togetherfor their mutual development and finalconsummation. Any system of religiousphilosophy which does not bestow equalimportance on both these branches willbe defective. The Bhagavata purana bringsout this point prominently by saying: Thepractice of dharma generates bhakti, bhaktigenerates vairagya (dispassion), these twotogether generate jnana, and all the threemust function jointly to enable the

sadhaka to realize, integrally anddifferentially, the Reality called Brahman,Paramatman, and Bhagavat. SriSankaracarya propounded the Advaitasystem establishing the synthetic unity ofthe Prasthana-traya (the triple foundationof Vedanta) by applying the syntheticmethod to it and harmonizing theteachings contained therein. To bring outthis harmony prominently, he had to bringthe Bhagavad-Gita to the forefront andglorify it as a work of great authority, asweighty as the Upanisads and theSariraka-Sutras. All the great spiritualpreceptors who appeared after himfollowed his example and adopted thesame method. Visistadvaita, Dvaita,Suddhadvaita, Bhedabhedadvaita—allsought the sanction of the Bhagavad-Gita.All of them sought to establish that theBhagavad-Gita supported their particulardoctrine. When they could not directly getthe sanction of the Bhagavad-Gita, theycomposed Gitas to fit their cults byimitating the Bhagavad-Gita, or copyingfrom it without acknowledgement. Suchare Rama-Gita, Surya-Gita, Ganesa-Gita,Devi-Gita, Siva-Gita and the like. Just asthe Bhagavad-Gita speaks of Vasudeva asParamesvara, the other Gitas speak ofRama, Surya, Ganapati, the Goddess, Sivaand the like, as the highest Deity accordingto their predilections.

(Extracted from “The Cultural Heritageof India Vol.II” The RKM Institute of

Culture, Calcutta 1993.)

GITAS IN THE PURANAS (7/11)

PARAMESWARA AIYAR


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THE MYTHOLOGY OF POPULARHINDUISM

R.N.DANDEKAR

The mythology of popular Hinduism hasalways tended to become richer and richer,as time passed, on account of the additionof legends pertaining, on the one hand, tothe victories of the numerous gods,goddesses, and godlings over the variousraksasas or Titans of Hindu mythology,and, on the other, to their acts of grace inrespect of their devotees and worshippers.There was further added to Hinduism anever increasing mass of mythologicaldetails, whose origin can be traced tovarious minor cults, such as the serpent-worship and the worship of grahadevatas(planetary deities) and grama-devatas(village deities). Again, we must not forgetthe large number of legends occasionedby the remarkably ingenious manner inwhich the characters of certain ancientsages, like Narada, have been developedby the fertile mythological imagination ofHindu poets, bards, and minstrels.Philosophy is often described as thefoundation of religion, ritual as itssuperstructure, and mythology as itsdetailed decoration. In the case ofHinduism, however, mythology is notmerely its decoration; it is its essentialconstituent factor. Mythology is at oncethe strength and weakness of Hinduism—strength, because mythology representssome of the distinctive features ofHinduism, such as toleration, broadsympathy, liberal outlook, andassimilative dynamism and, at the sametime, elevating power; and weakness,because there is the danger of the truespirit of Hinduism being undermined bythe weight of its mythological richness.

(Extracted from The cultural Heritage of India Vol.IIThe RKM institute of Culture, Calcutta 1993.)

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THEPURANAS

RAJENDRA CHANDRA HAZRA

After the present sectarian Puranas hadcome into existence, Hindu society did notbecome stagnant and immune fromfurther disturbances, but had to fight hardagainst the influence of the Tantric religionand the foreign invaders such as theAbhiras, Gardabhilas, Sakas, Yavanas,Bahlikas, and outlandish dynasties, thesuccessors of the Andhras. In order to facesuccessfully these fresh troubles, theHindu rites and customs had again to bemodified and adapted to the needs andcircumstances of the people. Hence, withthe changes in Hindu society during thefour centuries from the third to the sixth,the Puranas also had to be recast with theaddition of many new chapters on worship,vows, initiation, consecration etc., whichwere rendered free from Tantric elementsand infused with Vedic rituals, in orderthat their importance as works of authorityon religious and social matters might notdecrease. With the great spread andpopularity of Tantric religion from theseventh or eighth century onward, thePuranas had to be re-edited once more byintroducing more and more Tantricelements into the Puranic rituals. Now, thework of re-editing could be done in threedifferent ways: (i) by adding fresh chaptersto the already existing ones, (ii) byreplacing the latter by the former, and (iii)by writing new works bearing old titles. Allthese processes having been practisedfreely with respect to almost all thePuranas, not rarely by people of differentsects, a few retained much of their earliermaterials, some lost many of the earlierchapters, which were replaced by othersof later dates, and some became totallynew works. But they had all come topossess a common feature, namely, that


10

all comprised units belonging to differentages. It should be mentioned here thatadditions to the Puranas were not alwaysfresh compositions, but chapters andverses were often transferred from onePurana to another, or from the Smrti andother Sanskrit works to the Puranas. Thatthis practice of transference began muchearlier than A.D. 1100, is evidenced byKing Ballalasena, who says in his Dana-sagara that the Linga Purana took itschapters on ‘big donations’ from theMatsya, and that the Visnu-rahasya andSiva-rahasya were mere compilations.

The great importance given to the Puranasas authoritative works on Hindu rites andcustoms roughly from the second centuryA.D. perverted the idea of the people oflater ages as to the real contents of theseworks. It was thought that the fivetraditional characteristics—sarga,pratisarga, etc.—were meant for theUpapuranas, whereas the Mahapuranaswere to deal with ten topics relating tocosmogony, religion, and society. Thus theBhagavata Purana names these ten topicsas follows: Sarga (primary creation),Visarga (Secondary creation), Vrtti (meansof subsistance), raksa (protection), antara(cosmic cycle ruled over by a Manu), Vamsa(genealogy of kings), Vamsanucarita(dynastic accounts), Samstha (dissolutionof the world) hetu (cause of creation etc.)and apasraya (final stay of all). Accordingto the Brahma-vaivarta Purana they are:srsti (primary creation), Visrsti (secondarycreation), Sthiti (stability of creation)Palana (protection), karma-vasana (desirefor work) Manu-varta (information aboutthe different Manus), Pralaya-varnana(description of the final destruction of theworld) moksa-nirupana (showing the wayto release from rebirths) Hari-kirtana(discourses on Hari), and deva-kirtana(discourses on other gods).

How could the eighteen Puranas, whichwere the mouthpieces of sectariesfollowing different faiths, be groupedtogether and regarded as equallyimportant and authoritative by all of them,and how could they have believed deeplyin this group, even at the sacrifice of theirrespective sectarian interests? In reply tothese questions we may refer to the spiritof religious syncretism and sectarianrivalry, that went hand in hand in ancientIndia, and is found in Hindu society evenat the present day. These tendencies musthave supplied incentives to the recastingor rewriting of the same Purana sometimesby different deities in a particular Puranamust have also resulted in this manner.Thus all the Puranas attained equal, oralmost equal, importance in the eyes ofthe worshippers of Brahma, Vishnu, andSiva before the grouping was made.

(Extacted from the Cultural Heritage ofIndia Vol.II The RKM Institute of Culture

Calcutta 1993.)


11

INDIAN MYTHOLOGY 8/11R.N.DANDEKAR

Mythology is very aptly described as thelanguage of the primitive. If philosophyattempts to discover the ultimate truth,mythology must be said to represent thehuman effort to attain at least to thepenultimate truth, of which all experienceis the temporal reflection. It is possible topsycho-analyze a people by means of acritical study of its Mythology. Throughtheir numerous legends of Cosmogony, ofgods, and of heroes, the Indians have givenexpression fuller and finer than any otherpeople in the world—to their beliefs, idealsand traditions.

a) Early Vedic Mythology has religion,mythology and magic inextricablyinterlaced. Asura-Varuna, Indra,Soma, Maruts, Asvins, Agni, SolarDivinities, Vishnu, Mitra Savitru,Yama, Rudra, Gandharvas andApsaras, and Mythical sages suchas Manu, Angiras and Bhrgu belongto this period.

b) Vedic religion, Brahmanas andUpanishad have their ownmythologies, some of them at leastare historical and biographical e.g.Harischandra and Sunahsepa,Indra, Virocana, King Janaka,Maitreyi, Katyayani, andYagnavalkya, figure in theupanishadic Mythology. Takingadvantage of the favourableconditions already created by theUpanishads, through their non-acceptance of the absolute validityof the Vedas, non-Vedic religioussystems, such as Buddhism andJaninism quickly spread. Theyadopted from Vedic Mythology,Brahmanic ritualism and

(Extracted from the Culture Heritage ofIndia Vol.II The RKM Institute of Culture,Calcutta 1893)

Upanishadic spiritualism, whateverwas beneficial to them.

c) In the post-Upanishadic period,popular Hindu Mythology, theKrishna Religion of Western andCentral India is very important.Emergence of Vishnu, Shiva, andDevi as principal deitiesworshipped, Bhakti as the meansof attaining God, a greateremphasis on ethical teachings thanon metaphysical speculations,mark this period. A life of activismwas specifically recommended asagainst renunciation LokaSangraha, or social solidarity ratherthan individual emancipation wasrecognized as the goal of life andsynthesis rather than scholasticdogmatism was made the watchword of progress is the field ofknowledge.

d) In the later period, theMahabharata attained its presentform, with Krishna being identifiedwith Vishnu as an avatara; Vishnu,Siva and Brahma, the trimurtiscame to be recognized as the mostimportant deities. The concept ofavatara, manvantara, yuga, and therise of female divinities marked thisperiod


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THE PURANAS (11/11)RAJENDRA CHANDRA HAZRA

It is as religious works that the Puranashave been respectfully studied forcenturies, and are still read, by the peopleof this country, because these works haveshown them the easiest way of attainingpeace and perfection in life and have putforth, often in the forms of myths andstories, easy solutions of those difficultproblems with which one is sure to beconfronted in one’s religious and social life.As a matter of fact, the Puranas haverendered the greatest service in effectingthe racial and religious unification of thediverse people of India. They have treatedevery religious faith of the soil, unless itwas dogmatically atheistic, with respectand with a synthetic attitude, andaccorded to it a position in the Puranicpantheism by explaining its deity and itsprinciples through a reconciliation of theteachings of Samkhya and Vedanta. It isthe Puranas which have brought aboutunity in diversity, and taught religioustoleration to the followers of different faithsby making them realize that God is one,though called by different names. It ismainly through these works that the Vedicideas and ideals of religion and societyhave survived up to the present day andgot wide circulation among the people ofIndia, and outside. The Puranas are,therefore, perfectly justified when they say:

‘Yo vidyaccaturo vedansangopanisado dvijah

Na cet puranam samvidyan naiva sasyad vicaksanah

Itihasa-puranabh hyam vedamsamupabrmhayet

Bibhety alpa-srutad vedo mamayam praharisyati’.

That twice-born (Brahmana), who knowsthe four Vedas with the Angas(supplementary sciences) and theUpanisads, should not be (regarded as)proficient unless he thoroughly knows, thePurana. He should reinforce the Vedaswith the Itihasa and the Purana. The Vedasare afraid of him who is deficient intraditional knowledge (thinking) ‘He willhurt me’.

The harmony which the Puranas broughtabout in the doctrines of ‘knowledge’,‘action’, and ‘devotion’, and in the Vedicand non-Vedic view of life and conduct,exerted its influence in all strata of Hindusociety, with the result that the life of theaverage Hindu of the present day presentsa texture into which various ideas andpractices of different times and regionshave been interwoven with an unparalleledsymmetry. In the eyes of a non-Hindu, thePuranic culture and religion appear as abundle of contradictions. Yet a Hindu findsnothing difficult or inconsistent in hisideas and practices, and leads his life withperfect ease and harmony. He is rarelyfound to be absolutely foreign to the truthsof life and conduct his ancestorsdiscovered for him. Even an illiterateHindu, living far away from the seats oflearning, is not totally ignorant of theprinciples and philosophical truths taughtin the Puranas; and as a result he has avery broad view of life and a deep sense oftolerance and accommodation, which canrarely be expected elsewhere of a personlike him. This is so only because of thefact that the epics and the Puranas, haveplayed a very important part in the life ofthe Hindus for more than two thousandyears. They have brought home to the


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common man the wisdom of the saints ofthe highest order without creating anydiscord. The authors of these works tookevery individual into consideration andmade such prescriptions as would benefithim in his social and religious life. In givingrecognition to a man’s personal worth, theyslackened the rigours of the caste systemand declared, ‘Being remembered, ortalked of, or seen, or touched, a devoteeof the Lord, even if he be a Candala,purifies (the people) easily. They allowedgreater freedom to women and Sudras insocial and religious matters, with theresult that these neglected members ofHindu society could have their ownreligious life and worship their deitiesthemselves. The religion and philosophyprofessed by the Puranas had such a greatappeal that even scholars, philosophers,or religious reformers, like VijnanaBhiksu, Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha,and Jiva Gosvamin, to mention only a few,very frequently drew upon the Puranas intheir own works in support of theirphilosophical views; and this utilization ledto the greater popularity of these workswith all grades of Hindu population.

Sectarian excesses are sometimes foundin the extant Puranas, but these are dueto the want of proper understanding of theidea of absolute or unswerving devotion(aikantiki bhakti), on which the Puranicreligion is principally based; and it is owingto this basic idea that Brahma, Vishnu,Siva, and other deities, have been praisedindividually as the highest one in somePurana or other.

From the survey of the eighteen principalPuranas it is evident that these works havebeen utilized through centuries not onlyfor educating the mass mind and infusingit with the nobler ideas of life but also fortactfully solving the religious, social andeconomic problems which were created in

ancient India by the rise of variousreligious movements and the repeatedinvasions made by foreign races. A carefulanalysis of the devotional vratas, forinstance, will amply testify to the PuranicBrahmana’s deep insight into humannature as well as to their intelligence incleverly tackling the various problems,especially those relating to women, fromwhom the life and spirit of a race proceed.It is undeniable that the extant Puranascan only on rare occasions, claim forthemselves any real merit as literaryproductions, but it must be admitted thatin addition to their character as recordsof ancient geography and political history,they are of inestimable value from thepoint of view of the history of religion andculture of the ancient Hindus. As a matterof fact, these works afford us, more thanother works of the time, a great insightinto all phases and aspects of Hinduismas well as into the inner spirit of the Hindusocial system with its adaptability in allages and under all circumstances, howeverunfavourable. They therefore deserve farmore careful study than has hitherto beendevoted to them.

(Extract from “The cultural Heritage ofIndia” II, The RKM Institute of Culture,

Calcutta 1993.)


1

PERENNIAL MESSAGE OF THE PURANAS

DR.D.SRI RAMA RAO

Introduction :

The Puranas are stories which carrya perennial message of greatimportance in spiritual life. And the

impact of the Puranic literature particularlyon the Hindu Society, life and values isimmense. Further it provides guidelinesand instructions to man with regard tospecific code of behaviour (Swadharma)and also supplies a general code ofconduct. In other words, the Puranicliterature provides a strong and broadbasis for human development, inculcatingsuch Universal values containing virtueslike non-violence (Ahimsa), truthfulness(Satyam), control of body (Dama), andcontrol of mind (Shama), compassion(Daya), charity (Danam) and cleanliness(Shoucham), austerity (Tapa) and wisdom(Jnanam), they also give instructions onspecific behaviour pattern of eachindividual depending upon his life style,vocation and inclination. (Varna, Ashramaand Dharma). Thus Puranas serve a verypractical purpose in bringing order andmeaning into the individual and social lifein the Hindu Society.

Vedic Symbolism :

All the Puranas are an attempt to conveya mystical message in a symboliclanguage. As a matter of fact, the sourceof inspiration for such an approach is thevery Vedas. Vedas which are themselvesmystical and symbolic.

The Ten incarnations (‘Dashavatar’) is aPuranic way of symbolizing the eternaldrama that is going on within every humanmind, that the Almighty always comes tothe aid of the pious against the wicked.

Concept of avatar

The Lord Himself expounds the secret ofHis incarnation to his close devotee andfriend Arjuna: ‘Whenever there is a decayof righteousness and rise ofunrighteousness, then I manifest myself’.

‘For the protection of the virtuous and forthe destruction of the wicked and for theestablishment of Dharma, I am born inevery age’ (The Gita Ch IV 7-8).

When there is a moral or ethical crisis onearth and when the existing noble valuesare disregarded the Lord comes (takes an,Avatara) upon this earth to set the mattersright. He sets before Himself the task ofuprooting ‘adharma’ and establishing‘dharma’ on firm foundations and achievesit as He wills. The message of each Avatarais for the evolution of mankind.

What is dharma?

Dharma connotes duty, virtue,righteousness, religion, charity all at once;in other words, that which helps us tomorally sustain ourselves in this world isDharma.

An interesting anecdote is narrated in oneof the Epics pointing out the importance


2

and efficiency of Dharma. TheMahabharatha contains a story about abutcher, Dharmavyadha who carried onhis duties without any attachment andwho dutifully served this parents. As aresult of this, he was recognized as a greatfollower of Dharma.

A certain celibate (Brahmachari) by virtueof his penance, acquired somesupernatural powers. A bird innocentlyput its droppings on his head. The celibatelooked up enraged and the bird wasreduced to ashes. Later he went to a housebegging for food. The lady of the houseasked him to wait as she was serving herhusband. The infuriated celibate startedshouting at the lady. But the lady calmlyreplied, “I am no bird to be burnt up byyou”. The Brahmachari was very muchsurprised that the lady knew about theincident. Humbled, he sought herguidance. The lady directed him to thebutcher. The latter gave detailedinstructions about service to parents,which was particularly pertinent to thecelibate, who had completely ignored hisobligations to his parents. The butcherwas blessed by the Lord. It thereforefollows that a strict and meticulousobserver of Dharma (his duty) need not beafraid of anybody (or even death). Fortreading the path of devotion and Dharmano specific qualifications are neededexcept faith in the word of the scriptures.

The Puranas are very ancient, yet verymuch modern. In this sense, they are saidto have a perennial significance. As SriAurobindo shows, ‘You meet yourself andyour own personality factors over and overagain in the Puranas as it happened in theVedas. It is this personal encounter withoneself that makes the Puranas eternallynew’. When we understand the deepermeaning of the Puranas, we find that it ispure Vedanta.

The Philosophical Interpretation

In Kenopanishad, the third chaptercontains a story which is a symbolicrepresentation of the Upanishadic Truth.It attempts to objectify the philosophicaland subjective narrations.

The gods (Devas) once won a victory overthe demons (Asuras), but blinded by theirsuccess they started gloating over theirachievements. In order to teach them alesson, the Absolute Truth, gave a visionto the Gods in the form of an enchantingYaksha. The gods requested Lord Agniand asked him to ascertain the identity ofthe spirit. Lord Agni hastened towards thespirit boastfully declaring that he is theLord of Fire. The spirit placed a piece ofgrass in front of Agni and asked him toreduce it to ashes if he could. Lord Agnicould not even warm the blade of grassand thus complete accepted his completefailure. Then for the second time, LordVayu was chosen to enquire and ascertainthe identity of the strange vision. As before,the Yaksha ascertained the identity ofVayu and placed the same grass in frontof Vayu and said, ‘Please move this a bit ifyou can’, and Vayu returned defeated anddisappointed. Then Indra, was deputed toinvestigate the grand vision. But thetantalizing vision disappeared and Indranever turned back from his quest. At thevery from where the Supreme haddisappeared, Goddess Uma, appeared tobless the honest seeker. From her, onenquiry, Indra learnt that the Yaksha wasnone other than the Eternal Truth whoassumed this vision and came to warn thegods against their stupidity in believingthat they had won a victory over thedemons on their own. For the victory and


3

glory of gods is due to that Eternal Truth(Brahman).

In order to understand the full depth ofthe story, a certain preliminary knowledgeof the scriptural (Shastric) tradition andbelief is necessary. The five phenomenalElements viz. Ether, Air, Fire, Water andEarth Akasa, Vayu, Agni, Jala and Prthvirepresent among themselves the sense-organs and the scriptural injunctionsdeclare each one of them as a presidingdeity of each of the organs.

In short, the failure of the two mighty godsAgni and Vayu to investigate, understandand know the exact identity of the Yaksha,is a statement of the Upanishadic Truth—“That it is different from what is knownand It is beyond what is unknown—Itbeing none other than the knower Himself’.

In the Yaksha story, Indra represents astudent who is initiated into the Truth byUmadevi Herself—Science of EternalTruth, (Brahma Vidya) which is thesupreme Goal of peace within oneself.Examples, illustrations, comparisons andstories are often used in the Upanishadsto explain to us the Inexplicable. So everystory or illustration employed by the Seersof Upanishads needs a deep enquiry. But,the Puranas kept them alive (in Vediclanguage) in their structure andsymbolism. Herein lies their great value.

Shrimad Bhagavatham continues to be aperennial source of inspiration, awakeningthe intellect of the humanity in general andparticulary of this ancient land. Parables,stories, illustrations are used by the seersof the Upanishads to show us that spiritualrealisation is very simple. In one lineBrihadaranyakopanishad indicates whata seeker must do in order to make himself

fit for the final spiritual experience. Thesepersonal disciplines are (1) Calmness(sama) (2) Self-control (dama), (3) Mindwithdrawn from all object-emoting-thoughts (uparati), (4) Capacity to suffersilently and nobly the little pin-pricks oflife (titiksha), (5) Faith in yourself, in thescriptures and in Reality (shraddha) and(6) contentment with what you have beenblessed with (samadhana). Equipped withthese disciplines, when an individual‘Wakes up’ to the ‘Higher’ plane ofconsciousness, he will have no moreoscillations of the mind. These points canbe gleaned from the life of Suka, who wasthe son of Veda Vyasa. To Suka isattributed the narration of Bhagavatamto Parikshit. Because Shuka knew theVedas without being taught it is said thathe was born with the knowledge of theTruth.

By the grace of Lord Shiva, right from hisbirth, Suka was endowed with wisdom andwas conversant with the Vedas. Howeverhe approached Brihaspati as a student,and learnt quickly the Vedas and thescriptures at the feet of the teacher of theDevas, Brihaspati. Thus the necessity andimportance of a pereceptor is establishedhere.

Vyasa, later instructed his son Suka to goto King Janaka to learn more about‘Moksha’ and told him not to show his yogicpowers but approach Janaka withhumility. For all the questions posed bySuka, Janaka’s sagacious reply was, ‘It isonly by means of knowledge and directrealization of the Truth that one becomesliberated. Such an understanding andrealization cannot be acquired without theguidance of a Guru’.


4

‘Beholding ones Atman in all beings andall beings in one’s Atman, one should livewithout being attached to anything. Hewho views all beings as the same, praiseand censure, pleasure and pain, gold andiron and the life and death with equanimityreaches the Supreme’. Janaka added, ‘Youhave already apprehended the Truth.Your mind is steady and tranquil. You arefree from desires and are truly even-minded”. On hearing King Janaka’s words,Suka’s doubts and vacillations ceased.

Once it so happened, that Vyasa sat nearthe Ganga. When the naked apsarassporting in the Ganga saw him theybecame agitated. Filled with a sense ofshame, some plunged deep into thewaters; some ran into the groves whilesome quickly covered themselves withtheir clothes. Recalling that the apsarashad not minded remaining undressed inSuka’s presence, Vyasa felt proud of hisson but he was ashamed of himself.

One day, the celestial sage Narada metSuka when the later was alone and spoketo him at length about Moksha. However,Suka decided to disply his yogic powers tothe world and then cast off his bodythrough yoga and attain the state ofdisembodied liberation. Though Vyasa feltproud of his son Suka, he was plungedinto grief when Suka left him finally.

Dispassion, equanimity and mind controlare vital for a spiritual aspirant—these aresome of the lessons from Suka’s life.

The Vedas determine what is Dharma.Dharma is the main source of peace andhappiness in this world. Even theacquisition of wealth and satisfaction ofdesires should be based on Dharma.

So Veda Vyasa proclaims in Mahabharata:‘Why should not Dharma be observed if ityields wealth and desire’.

Hence the Lord incarnates to protect thegood and destroy evil and for establishingrighteousness (Dharma).


1

THE TRIBAL VIEW OF THE RAMAYANA: AN EXERCISE IN THEANTHROPOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE

N.N.VYAS

The Ramayana constitutes a structuralpart of the Indian ‘great’ tradition, theother parts being the Mahabharata,

Puranas, smritis and brahmanas. RobertRedfield has used the concepts of ‘little’ and‘great’ traditions in his studies of Mexicancommunities. Influenced by this model,Milton Singer and McKim Marriott haveconducted some studies on social changesin India utilizing this conceptual framework.The basic ideas in this approach arecivilization and the social organization oftradition. The social organization of thesecivilizations operate on two levels, first thatof the folk or unlettered peasants includingthe tribals, and second, that of the elite, orthe ‘reflective few’. The cultural processesin the former comprise the ‘little’ traditionand those in the latter constitute the ‘great’tradition. There is, however, a constantinteraction between these two levels oftradition.

It would be erroneous to believe thatIndian civilization consists only of the Hindu-view of life. It also includes folk traditionsand folk ways of the people who do not havea written history. The unity of Indiancivilization is maintained by its culturalstructure which perpetuates a unity of worldview through cultural performances andtheir products. These cultural performancesare institutionalized in festivals, fairs andrituals. In fact, Indian civilization can hardlybe described either through the dichotomyof the Sanskritic and western traditions orthat of the ‘little’ and ‘great’ traditions.S.C.Bube, among other social scientists, hadexpounded in his piece, ‘The Study ofComplex Cultures, in the book Towards aSociology of Culture in India, edited byT.K.N.Unnithan, Indra Deva and YogendraSingh (1965) that Indian tradition is far too

complex, besides consisting of a hierarchyof traditions, each of which needs to beanalysed in order to unravel all theramifications of change.

The tribals who have been living withcaste Hindus have also acquired many of thetraits of Hindu religious and folk tradition.There has been a constant interactionbetween the ‘little’ tradition of the tribalsociety and the ‘great’ tradition of casteHindu society. The tribal society is a wholesociety and each social structure in it issegmentary. Each tribal ethnic group has aseparate identity. We can argue that themultiple ethnic tribal groups residing indifferent cultural and ecological contextshave interacted similarly with the ‘great’tradition of caste Hindus. This explanationis based on the premise of the anthropologyof knowledge. Though a large number oftribal groups are found at different levels ofdevelopment, they have a commonexistential basis, that is, they are found inhills and forests. Their illiteracy, generalbackwardness and above all their existencein the midst of nature—forest, hill andgame—have provided them an ethno-methodology which interacts with the Hindu‘great’ traditions in similar ways. It is thistribal existential basis which interprets theHindu traditions in a specific way. And thisis what is called the anthropology ofknowledge. In other words, the knowledgeof the tribals about the Hindi ‘great’ tradition,namely, in the present context, theRamayana, is derived from the existentialbasis of the elements of tribal socialstructure. The classical story of theRamayana as told by the Sanskrit poet,Valmiki, or the Hindi poet, Tulsidas is given


2

a different and an altogether distinctiveinterpretation of by the tribals of the country.If we investigate the story of the Ramayanaprevalent at the folk level among the diversetribal groups of the country (whether theBhils of Rajasthan, Santhals ofChhotanagpur of Korkus of MadhyaPradesh), we find that they have a similarcomprehension of the story of the Ramayana.This can be explained by the fact that thoughthe tribal social structures have a socialdifferentiation, they spring from commonexistential situations. The tribal reality of lifeeverywhere in the country is the same. Andthis anthropological knowledge is the causea similar interpretation and understandingof the Ramayana.

(From Ramakatha in T/F tradition of IndiaASI/Seagull broks, Calcutta 1993)

Man is like an infinite spring, coiled up in a small box, and that spring is trying to unfold itself;and all the social phenomena that we see the result of this trying to unfold. All the competitionsand struggles and evils that we see around us are neither the causes of these unfoldments,nor the effects. As one of our great philosophers says—in the case of the irrigation of a field,the tank is somewhere upon a higher level, and the water is trying to rush into the field, and isbarred by a gate. But as soon as the gate is opened, the water rushes in by its own nature;and if there is dust and dirt in the way, the water rolls over them. But dust and dirt are neitherthe result nor the cause of this unfolding of the divine nature of man. They are co-existentcircumstances, and, therefore, can be remedied.

Now, this idea, claims the Vedanta, is to be found in all religions, whether in India or outside ofit; only, in some of them, the idea is expressed through mythology, and in others, throughsymbology.

THE PURANAS ON EVOLUTION


3

The epics, aptly described by JawaharlalNehru as the story of India, were notonly religious texts but also historical

documents, anthropological treatise.Chakravarty Rajagopalachari, who may bedescribed as a modern Valmiki because ofhis rendition of the Ramayana into Englishand because he did more than anyone elseto popularize the work among the Indianelite, mentions an incident. Once, whilediscussing with Gandhi how love coulddevelop between their daughter and son,sheltered and separated by distance, theMahatma asked, ‘Has she not read theRamayana?’

As one interested in the secular aspectsof the diffusion of epic traditions I could notbut be impressed by the manner in which Isaw them at work. When I started my careeras a researcher about thirty years ago I sawthe process of diffusion as a two-fold one inwhat we call a culture contact situation. Onthe one hand I collected a number of songson Rama-katha composed by tribal and non-tribal poets which seemed like verbatimtranslations of the story, rendered withpassion and conviction. This also reflectedthe influence of the Oriya and Bengaliversions of Rama-katha prevalent in theHindi belt. On the other hand—and this isimportant—there were also songs whichappeared older, more closely releated to thetribal world view and their mores, whichsuggested that some aspects of Rama-kathahad almost been internalized. In the course

‘FROM GANDHIJI TO GONDSEVERYONE HAS USE FOR RAMAKATHA’

BY K.S.SINGH

of researches subsequently conducted Icame across various versions of Rama-kathaamong the Mundas, Gonds, Korkus, Kols,Savaras, Bondo and so on, which did notsuggest the existence of any mini-Ramayanaor mini-Rama-katha as such butrepresented an echo from the past, a stirringof tribal memorial, of what they might haveimbibed through the teachings of themendicants called Gossains who traveledthrough their land. They also reflected asense of awe and admiration for the heroes;and, sometimes, delight and fun at theirpresence in their homeland. There is even astreak of irreverence in the Rama-kathaversions of some of the tribes who alsoidentify themselves, without any inhibitionand in a forthright manner, with what wemight call the anti-heroes, such asMeghanada or Ravana.

We might recall at this stage the twomajor works which have influencedscholarship in the area. The first consists ofthe writings of Verrier Elwin in the area ofwhat he always loved to describe as theaboriginal Purana. He collected and wrotedown the folklore, including the epic andpuranic lore, in the tribal areas of middleIndia and the north-east. The other wasmasterly survey of Rama-katha done by thedistinguished Jesuit scholar Fr Gamil Bulcke.Originally published as a Ph.D. dissertation,Rama-katha in Hindi went into two editionsby 1972. It deals with the origin, evolutionand spread of Rama-katha.

Ramakatha in T/F Traditions of IndiaASI-Seagull Books Calcutta 1993.


4

The present study is based mainly onthe available folklore material ofcentral India. While studying it, the

influence of the Ramayanic tradition uponthe indigenous tradition has been noted; andthe parochialization of the universalcharacters of the great epic tradition and itsinfluence on many ethnic groups have alsoformed part of this micro-study.

The authors of the epics have given due;importance to each and every part of Indiaencompassing lands, rivers, mountains,forests, different ethnic cultures andcustoms. Again, the assimilation of theRamayana tradition into regional culturesand subcultures has envolved from aspiritual phenonmenon identifying theincarnations of God (avatara) with folkheroes. They are associated with variousregional traditions of India. By identifyingthe respective regions and places with theavataras and their mythical and miraculousevents, the local folk groups identifythemselves as part of the larger IndianCulture, thus contributing to national andcultural unity. Many little communities withtheir regional traditions have been deeplyattracted towards the mainstream of theIndian ‘great’ tradition through these epics.Thus the Ramayana forms the ‘centre of theintegration’ of Indian civilization and has agreat influence on the ‘network of regionalcultures’.

Much of the story of the Ramayanaremains the same with the tribals. If weanalyse the tribal Ramayana from the

perspective of the anthropology of knowledgein terms of the interactions of the Hindu‘great’ tradition and the tribal localtraditions, the following interpretations canbe made :

1. Rulers are seen as always cruel,deceitful and exploitative.

2. Tribal life is sustained through theobservance of magic and rituals.

3. Human subsistence lies in killinganimals and eating their meat.

4. Procreation provides continuity tosociety.

In conclusion it may be observed thattribal knowledge about the world, includingthe Hindu ‘great’ tradition, depends muchon this existential social situation. the tribalethno-methodology plays a vital role inborrowing culture traits from other cultures.Knowledge is not created in a vacuum: itemerges out of the wider social contexts.

(Ramakatha in T/F traditions of IndiaASI-Seagull books Calcutta 1993.)

INFLUENCE OF THE RAMAYANA TRADITIONON FOLKLORE OF CENTRAL INDIA

MAHENDRA KUMAR MISHRA


5

In Chhatisgarh also the popularity ofbansgeet is predominant, with similarforms and matter, though the language

is different from that of western Orissa. TheGaur bard Bhajan. Nial of Kapsi village inKalahandi district is the informant. Thename of the epic is Kotrabaina-Ramela, thenames of the hero and heroine.

The story form of the folk epic is asfollows:

Kotrabaina was village farmer. His jobwas to tend sheep and cows and to sell milkand curd. His wife Ramela was extremelybeautiful. She had a six-month-old child.The king of the land had an eye for beautifulwomen. Kotrabaina prevented his wife fromgoing to Bendul city to sell milk or curds ashe was constantly afraid that if the king cameto know of beautiful Ramela he might abducther. One day, when Kotrabaina was awayvisiting his sister, Ramels could not resisther desire to visit Bendul city. She wentthere with her milk and curd, leaving herchild with her nanad (husband’s sister). The

SOME INSPIRING RAMA-KATHAFOLK VERSIONS

king’s soldiers saw her and subsequently theking forcibly took her to his palace.

While Kotrabaina was asleep in hissister’s house, his clan deity showed him theabduction of Ramela in a dream. Hurriedlyhe returned home to find that the dream wastrue. He gathered his twelve lakh bulls andtwelve lakh sheep, along with a magical bullnamed Kurmel Sandh and sheep namedUltia Gadra, and attacked the city in orderto free Ramela from the clutches of the king.The cattle and sheep destroyed the wholecity. Kotrabaina killed the king and freedRamela. But Gaur society was not ready toaccept Ramela without testing her chastity,as she had been abducted by the evil king.To prove her chastity, she arranged an ordealby fire and passed it. But the society wantedto test her again, and put forward thecondition that if her six-month-old childcrawled from his bed to his mother’s breastto suck milk, she would be treated as chasteand accepted by them without hesitation.Ramela was successful in this test as welland she was accepted by Gaur society.

Ramakatha in T/F Traditions of IndiaASI-Seagull Books, Calcutta 1993.

Claus says: ‘The Mahabharata and Ramayana are continually localized in a welter offolk performance forms all over India’ . It is true that by reading or listening to thePuranas, the people quench their religious thirst, but it does not satisfy the masses,as only a particular section of the society hears it. But on the folk stage, the wholesociety, irrespective of age and sex, gets the opportunity to witness the Ramalila,which not only fulfils their religious feeling but also gives them immense pleasure.Their moral values are heightened by its various ideal characters and events.

(Ramakatha in T/F Tradition of India ASI-Seagull Books, Calcutta 1993)

FOLK TALES OF EPICSM.K.MISHRA


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Orissa state tells an interesting story to account for the origin of diseases. Raja Dasharatharuled in Jaita Nagar. Whenever he talked to his subjects, he used to wag his finger atthem. This angered them, and one day they assembled and cursed him: ‘He wags hisfinger at us. Let his finger rot’. Two to four months later the Raja’s finger began to hurt;soon it swelled and sores broke out and pus oozed from it. The Raja took medicine andconsulted the best doctors and magicians but to no avail. Then his pandits referred tobooks and said, ‘O Raja, send your sons Rama and Lakshmana into exile if you want thesores on your finger to heal’. The Raja thought his advice absurd and for a long timerefused to follow it. But when the pain in his finger grew unbearable, he called his twoboys and said: ‘Go to the forest and search for medicine for twelve years’. They went to theforest and after twelve years brought medicine which their father put on his finger. Thesores healed. But after that, anyone who wagged his finger at another while he talkedbecame a leper.

(Ramakatha in T/F Tradition of India ASI/Seagull Books Calcutta 1993)

AN ORISSA FOLK TALE

T.B.NAIK

FOLK VERSIONS OF RAMA-KATHA IN EARLY ASSAMESE

SATYENDRA NATH SARMA

Kings used to maintain bards or minstrels to sing the glorious exploits of their own ancestorsas well as of heroes of bygone ages. These bards were called suta, magadha and bandi inancient India. Their functions were not exactly identical. The sutas usually recited theancient lore of the royal families. The magadhas and bandis recited panegyrics. Therewere also reving sutas or bhatas who used to entertain people with their heroic and pathos-laden tales of ancient times. According to most of the Ramayana scholars, it was originallya bardic poem with different versions prevalent in different parts of the country. It wascompiled, systematized and given a unified character by Valmiki, designated as the adi-kavi by later rhetoricians because of his sophisticated use of poetic imagery. The laterSanskrit Ramayanas like Adhyatma, Adbhuta, Ananda, Bhusundi etc., though composedwith sectarian intentions, are replete with folk elements. The only exception is theYogavasistha where philosophical and ethical elements predominate.

As regards the regional Ramayanas composed in local languages, the intrusion of folkelements, regional beliefs, ceremonies and practices can be noticed in almost all of them.

From Ramakatha in the T/F traitions of India” ASI/Seagull books, Calcutta 1993


7

TAGORE ON THE RAMAYANA

We have the sociological interpretation as given by Tagore and latter day scholars likeDr.Suniti Kumar Chatterjee. The main contention of Tagore’s argument is that with theexpansion of money power, the importance of agriculture was receding. Sita as daughterof Mother Earth represents the best of agriculture, while the golden deer of Ravanarepresents the avarice of man for gold. The importance of agriculture, its production andthe peaceful way of rural life cannot satisfy the man who is hungry for money. Ravana wasthe symbol of money power, and he was always afraid of losing that power and wealth.

THE RAMAYANA CONQUERS SOUTH East Asia

BY SWAMI BANGOVINDA PARAMPANTHI

The Ramayana travelled to South East Asia and other remote areas through a band ofintrepid missionaries like Matanga Kashyapa Kaundinya as also through sailors, tradersand settlers who travelled overland through Assam to South East Asia. The local versionsthat have developed in Sri Lanka, Siam, Laos, Burma, Tibet, even though they maintainthe basic structure of the story, introduce slight variations by adapting and mixing strainsfrom their local cultural milieu. The Rama story was carried outside India by the 2nd and3rd century and was readily accepted by Mons, Khmers, Khotanese, Mongolians etc., givingrise to newer versions of the epic incorporating local traditions.

From Ramakatha in T/F tradition of India ASI/Seagull Books, Calcutta 1993

BOX ITEM

ELWIN ON TRIBAL RAMAYANA

Referring to the Ramayana, Verrier (the tribals) Elwin observed: ‘It is most significant tofind, even so long ago, an attitude towards them which anticipates the friendliness andrespect which has come to fruition in modern times. And in the figure of Sabari there is asymbol of the contribution that the tribes can and will make to the life of India.

BOX ITEM


8

The tribes of the plains such as theplains Mikirs, the Miris (Misings), theLalungs, the Rabhas, the Hajongs and

the Bodos are greatly influenced by theHindu way of life, maintaing at the same timetheir own traditions and customs. They haveeasily adopted the Hindu culture,assimilating some Hindu gods andgoddesses into their daily life.

Several versions of the Rama story existin the tribal traditions and mention may bemade of the few extant ones. First, there isthe Karbi Ramayana (Sabin Alun) of theMikirs (Karbis). It has two versions withslight variations. One has been traced andcomplied through the efforts of Prem KantaMohonta and published by Diphu SahityaSabha and the other was found in theHamreu subdivision of Karbi Anglong. TheMizo (Lushai) Ramayana story which wascollected by some scholars shows the extentof the influence of Rama-katha in their life.Old Mizos still sing it. The KhamtiRamayana, which is a Tai version, has beenrendered into Assamese by Phani Bora, ateacher of Hindi at Jorhat. This has notappeared in printed form so far. It is alsoknown as Lik-Rameng which means theBook of Rama. It is preserved in the Buddhisttemple in Narayanpur (Lakhimpur Districtof Assam) where there is a conglomeration

of Tai-Khamti people. Another version of theTai Ramayana is at the house of JadavGohain of Silapathar, a Buddhist village inthe district of Sibasagar. The manuscript isin Tai script and is known as Choi Rameng(the story of Rama). Both the Tai versions ofthe Ramayana glorify Buddhism. Theyconvey that after seeing the sorrow andmisery of the world Rama took the form of aBodhisattva. The Lalungs (Tiwas) have theirown Ramakatha. The majority of the tribeshave adopted the Rama tradition into theirown culture is still debatable. Perhaps it isbecause these tribes, who live off the land,have been naturally drawn to its simplevalues.

Thus the whole of the north-east isvibrant with the story of Rama. Many puraniclegens are also associated with this regionwhich was never out of touch with themainstream of Indian culture. The greatAssamese poet Madhava Kandali had notonly rendered the Ramayana into Assamesebut had also helped to spread its messagethroughout the north-east as is evident fromthe folksongs in the form of nichukani-git,husarinam, nao-khelar git and so on.

Ramakatha is T/F tradition of India,ASI, Seagull Books, Calcutta 1993

ASSAM WELCOMES RAMA

SWAMI BANGOVINDA PARAMPANTHI

RAMA-KATHA IN TRIBAL AND FOLK TRADITIONS OF INDIABefore breaking the bow Rama warned all the people present that the breaking of the bowwould cause a very big bang with sparks and that there would be an earthquake whichmay damage peoples hearing and eyesight. People sitting in high places and on branchesof trees would fall down and break their limbs. Rama advised them to keep their eyes andears shut and to hold down to the ground. But some people took Rama’s warning toolightly and suffered the consequences. Rama relented, saying that those who have willfullyignored his warning would remain handicapped all their lives, but the others would becured. This is the reason why there are lame, blind and deaf people on earth.

“Ramakatha in T/F tradition of Asia’: ASI/Seagul Books Calcutta 1993


9

RAMA-KATHA AMONG THE TRIBALCOMMUNITIES OF THE NORTH-EAST

BIRENDRANATH DATTA

Rama-katha has penetrated the varioustribal societies in the plains and the hills ofAssam and its ad-joining areas in varyingdegrees. The Bodo Kacharis, the Rabhas, theMisings, the Tiwas and other tribalcommunities living in the plains who haveclose contact with their non-tribalneighbours have not only accepted the epicsinto their tradition, but some have gone tothe extent of creating legends linking theirorigins with characters and / or episodesfrom the epics. Stories from the Ramayanaare almost as familiar to these groups as tothe non-tribal Hindus. While in some casessuch stories have been given characteristicethnic twists, basically remaining Hindu-oriented, in certain other cases the entry ofRama-katha has been through Buddhisticconnections or contracts. Of the tribal peopleliving in the hills, the Karbis, the Dimasasand the Jaintias are more or less well-acquainted with the Ramayana lore. Of theothers the Khasis’ the Taraon Mishmis, theGaros and the Mizos have tales obviouslyinfluence by the Rama legend. It isinteresting to note that although the Mizosare said to be late arrivals in the north-eastern region and are comparatively freefrom Hindu influence, the Ramayana storyhas entered their folklore and made a placefor itself as an ‘indigenous tale’. Not onlythat, Rama and Lakshmana (Khena in Mizo)are invoked as deities in some Mizodivination charms.

(From Ramakatha in the T/F Traditions ofIndia, ASI/Seagull Books, Calcutta 1993.)

A TELUGU FOLK TALED.RAMARAJU

Rama narrates an incident which occurredduring their exile. One day when they werewandering at Chitrakut, Sita prepared for herbath. She smeared her body with rawturmeric and went to the pond to take a dip.But she returned almost immediately,complaining to Rama her Lord and thedescendant of the Solar race that there wassomething strange near the bathing pond,with innumerable bees flying over it, makingit impossible for her to bathe. She askedhim to accompany her so that he could seefor himself. Rama was perturbed andfollowed her to the pond. When they reached,Sita pointed to the ‘moon and bees’. Ramawas amused and told her that the ‘moon’ washer own face and the ‘bees’ were locks ofher hair. When she realized her mistake, shebashfully bowed her head. ‘Therefore,Hanumana, you must narrate this incidentto Sita so that she may know you to be myconfidante’, Rama told him.

(From Ramakatha in the T/F traditions ofIndia ASI/Seagull Books, Calcutta 1993)


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EPIC LITERATURE PRODUCES AN EPIC LIFE

Loka Manya Tilak’s greatest work was the Gita-Rahasya, a philosophic inquiry into thesecret of the teaching of the Gita, the holiest book of the Aryadharma. In this volume hereinterpreted the Gita in its classical sense, restoring the proper emphasis to the philosophyof action, the Karma yoga; and his is considered one of the outstanding studeis of theGita in modern Indian literature. The Gita-Rahasya assured Tilak’s place among the greatestof India’s scholars and philosophers. His classical studies enabled him to recapture thespirit of India’s classical philosophy of life. In his heart of hearts, he always remained ahumble student of India’s greatness. Even after he had become the foremost politicalleader of India, he often said that he wished he could devote his life to teaching mathematicsand pursuing his scholarly research into the wisdom of India’s ancient civilization.

From The Legacy of ‘the Lokamanya’ by Theodore L.Shay OUP Bombay 1956

A KARBI (ASSAMESE DIALECT) FOLKSONG

Sugriva looked belowAnd saw two youths,One dark and one fair,The dark one lying asleepOn the lap of the fair one.For twelve days and nightsWas the dark one sleepingOn the lap of the fair oneSugriva mused thus –From their looks they must be brothersHow one brother is sharingThe other brother’s burdenAnd here I am,Fighting my own brotherFor a throne—he mused.Tears rolled down from his eyes.So runs the song.

Quoted in “Ramakatha in T/F tradition of India” ASI/Seagull books, Calcutta 1993.


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We live in an objective world ofplurality, diversity, and complexity.However, the convincing truth

behind the experiencing of this objectivereality is that it is the perennial sense of ‘I-ness’ or subjectivity which really matters tous. This ‘I-ness’ is a greater and more directfact of existence to us than the galaxy ofobjects presented to it. What is imminent,intrinsic, and immediate in our experienceis our CONSCIOUSNESS of self-existence.

Are there two realities? The subjectiveand the objective? Are consciousness andmatter mutually opposing polarities? Whatis the real nature of this apparentdichotomy? Is there a background SELFwhich is at once the subject and the object?Is this background SELF a state ofsuperconscious existence to which order,symmetry and auto regulation are intrinsic?Is our existence and awareness continuousand eternal subjectively at the realm ofexperience, but intermittent and spasmodicat the realm of form and appearance? Doesour existence begin with the appearance ofour bodies and end with theirdisappearance? Is there anything permanent

in us? In there an eternal core of self-existence around which we have projectedour outer garments: physical, social andpsychological? Is self-existence an eternalsaga of self-experience? To thepsychologist, these questions seemirrelevant and unrelated to the domain ofhis reasoning. Our modern Westernpsychology has not been able to reveal thereal nature of man. Western psychologistshave offered us a model of man: dualistic,deterministic and a mechanistic robot.

In a book Vedic thought and Westernphilosophy Dr.Shivaram Karikal, the authorhas attempted to show the epistemologicaland social limitations of Western Psychologyin answering these questions. He then drawsthe reader’s attention to the inherent wisdomof vedas, which throw a ray of hope to man,enabling him to answer these riddles andrealize his own real nature. The philosophyof Yoga presented here stands in strikingcontrast to Western Psychology in itscomprehensive approach to theunderstanding of the human personalityin its wholeness.

WESTERN INTERPRETATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PHENOMENA

NAGAS DOWN THE HISTROY

It should not, be construed that the Nagas were unknown to the kings ruling in the GangeticValley. The references to the Kiratas, of whom the Nagas were a subtribe, in the Vedas andthe epics have already been mentioned. According the legend, Ulupi, the Naga princess,fell in love with Arjuna, the great hero of the Mahabharata, when she saw the handsomePandava prince in the course of the latter’s sojourn in Eastern India. Ulupi took Arjuna toNagalok (the land of the Nagas) and they lived happily for some time until Arjuna movedon to Manipur. In the great war of the Mahabharata fought at Kurukshetra, in whichcontingents of almost every Indian potentate participated, the Nagas rallied their might onthe side of the Kauravas.

(Nagaland, Prakash Singh, National Book Trust, India, New Delhi—1981)

Dr.SHIVARAM KARIKAL


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The most important legendary accountconnected with the Arunachal tribe ofMishmis is that of the Brahmakunda. It isalso popularly known as Parasuram Kundra;for, Parasuram, according to the KalikaPurana came to the Kunda to cleanse himselfof the sin he had incurred by slaying his ownmother Renuka on his father’s orders. ThisKunda is in the heart of the Mishmi area. Itis traditionally believed that the parasuramKunda as a holy place was originally aMishmi institution and the Mishmis usedto collect toll from the visiting pilgrims. TheMishmis claim to have originated fromRukma, eldest son of King Bhismaka ofKundila. Also they believe that the King’sonly daughter, Rukmini, whom Krishnamarried, was a Mishmi girl. Her marriage wasat first arranged with Sisupala, a local prince.At her own request, Krishna came and tookher away, defeating Sisupala in a fierce fight.The city of Kundila or Kundin was situatedsome fifty miles from modern Sadiya andSisupala’s fort lay a few miles farther, bothbeing situated in the heart of the Mishmihills. Hem Baru writes: “As a mark of theirdefeat in war with Sri Krishna, they still wearround their foreheads silver badges,otherwise known as Kopalis”.

(Folklore of Assam Jogesh Das, NationalBook Trust, India, New Delhi 1980)

SHRAVAN-PITRUBHAKTHI:

One day young Mohandas KaramchandGandhi eyes fell on Sharavana Pitribhaktinataka. (a play about Shravana’s devotionto his parents) Mohandas read it with greatabsorbing interest. He had also seen picturesshown by itinerant showmen. One of thepictures was Sharavana carrying, by meansof selengs fitted for his shoulder, on his blindparents on pilgrimage’. “Here is an examplefor you to copy” I said to myself. The agonizedlament of the parents over Shravana’s deathis still fresh in my memory.

It is quite understandable as Mohandas wasvery much attached to his parents and theywere almost his idols of worship. Anotherreason is, his mind which had grown in adevotional atmosphere of religion and Jaina-impact on it was naturally very much. I thinkit is to this influence, on his mind that allrespect he had for tradition, elders andsacred scriptures could be traced, althoughthere were eventual deviation now and thenon minor details.

Harish Chandra:

Another drama which had made equallydeep impression on his mind if not greater,is Harischandra. It had become part andparcelof Mahatma Gandhi’s idea of truth inlater days in its manifold aspects. All hispronouncements could be traced to this. Hisidea there should not be any gulf betweenthought, word and deed had its source inthis. Gandhiji writes “why should not, all betruthful like Harishchandra? Was thequestion is asked myself day and night. Tofollow truth and to go through all the ordial’sHarishchandra went through was the oneideal it inspired in me. I literally believed inthe story of Harishchandra. The thought ofit all often made me weep. My commonsensetells me to-day that Harishchandra could nothave been a historical character. Still bothHarishchandra and Shravana are livingrealisties for me and I am sure I should bemoved as before if I were to read those playsagain to-day. Here it is clear that wheneverthe historicity is doubted either in case ofRama or others, Gandhiji gives an allegoricalinterpretation of tradition as Sri Aurobindodid. The influence of this drama and theimpression of adherence to truth was suchthat Mohandas would not copy from hisneighbour even when prompted by theteacher when inspector visited his school.(The Growth of the personality of Mahatma

Ghandhi, N.Satyanarayana, Sarvodayapress, Patamata, Vijayawada-6, 1988)


13

A piece from Cherusseri’s Krishnagatha which depicts the life of Krishna noted for sweetnessof spoken Malayalam and the flow of the folk metre:

As she saw the place from a distanceShe went close and shyly sneaked inEven as the python stealthily goesClose to the perch of the king of birds.She stood there for a whileWatching the darling’s charming face,As though she waited in impatienceWhy the lord of death had not come.She went forward and stood touchingThat flower-soft body, softer than tender leaves.As if to touch real fire.Taking it for a jewel.Then she picked up the darling childLike taking a serpent for a rope.

(Folklore of Kerala, Kavalam Narayana Panikkar, National Book Trust, India, New Delhi1991).

SILENT ELOQUENCE

Lakshman Brahmachari from Sri Ramakrishna Mission asked: Enquiry of ‘Who am I?’ or ofthe ‘I-thought being itself a thought, how can it be destroyed in the process?

Sri Bhagavan replied with a story.

When Sita was asked who was her husband among the rishis (Rama himself being presentthere as a rishi) in the forest, by the wives of the rishis, she denied each one as he waspointed out to her, but simply hung down her head when Rama was pointed out. Hersilence was eloquent.

Similarly, the Vedas also are eloquent in ‘neti’ – ‘neti’ (not this – not this) and then remainsilent. Their silence is the Real State. This is the meaning of exposition by silence. Whenthe source of the ‘I’ thought is reached it vanishes and what remains is the Self.

Spiritual stories as told by Ravana Mahrishi Ramanashram Tiruvannamalai 1986.


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RAMANA MAHARSHI REFERS TO PURANASTwenty-four Gurus

A king was passing through a forest in all pomp and pageantry, with his army and retinuebehind him. He came across a man with not even a cod-piece on, lying on the ground, withone leg coked over the other. He was laughing away, apparently supremely happy, contentedwith himself and all the world. The king was struck with the man’s happy state and sentfor him. But when the king’s men approached the rude ascetic and delivered the king’smessage, he took absolutely no notice and continued in his ascetic bliss. On being told ofthis, the king himself went to the man and eventhen the man took no notice. Thereupon itstruck the king that this must be no common man, and said: ‘Swami, you are evidentlysupremely happy. May we know what is the secret of such happiness and from whichGuru you learnt it?’ thereupon the ascetic told the king: ‘I have had twenty-four Gurus.Everything, this body, the earth, the birds, some instruments, some persons, all havetaught me’. All the things in the world may be classed as either good or bad. The goodtaught him what he must seek. Similarly, the bad taught him what he must avoid. Theascetic was Dattatreya, the avadhuta.

Spiritual stories as told by Ramana Maharishi Ramanashram, Tiruvannnamalai 1986

RAMANA HAS USE FOR PURANASBhakta Ekanath

A discussion in the hall centered on the story of Kulasekhara Alwar, which had appearedin the Vision magazine. During a Hari Katha, Kulasekhara identifying himself so completelywith the situation of the story felt it his duty as a worshipper of Rama to at once hasten toLanka and release Sita. He ran to the sea and entered it to cross over to Lanka when Ramaappeared with Sita and Lakshmana and showered His grace on him. This led others in thehall to remark, “Some Maratha Saint also did a similar thing. He leaped up to the roof, Ithink”. Thereupon Sri Bhagavan was asked to relate the story.

Eknath was writing the Ramayana, and when he came to the portion in which he wasgraphically describing that hanuman jumped across the ocean to Lanka, he so identifiedhimself with his hero Hanuman that unconsciously he leaped into the air and landed onthe roof of his neighbour’s house. This neighbhour had always had a poor opinion ofEknath, taking him for a humbug and religious hypocrite. He heard a thud on his roofand, coming out to see what it was, discovered Ekanath lying down on the roof with acadjan leaf in one hand and his iron stile in the other. The cadjan leaf had verses describinghow Hanuman leapt across the sea. This incident proved to the neighbour what a genuinebhakta Ekanath was and he became his disciple.

Spiritual stories as told by Ramana Mahrshi – Ramanashram Tiruvannamalai-1986


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THE TRIBAL VIEW OF THE RAMAYANA: AN EXERCISE IN THEANTHROPOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE

B.N.VYAS

The Ramayana constitutes a structuralpart of the Indian ‘great’ tradition, theother parts being the Mahabharata,

Puranas, smritis and brahmanas. RobertRedfield has used the concepts of ‘little’ and‘great’ traditions in his studies of Mexicancommunities. Influenced by this model,Milton Singer and McKim Marriott haveconducted some studies on social changesin India utilizing this conceptual framework.The basic ideas in this approach arecivilization and the social organization oftradition. The social organization of thesecivilizations operate on two levels, first thatof the folk or unlettered peasants includingthe tribals, and second, that of the elite, orthe ‘reflective few’. The cultural processesin the former comprise the ‘little’ traditionand those in the latter constitute the ‘great’tradition. There is, however, a constantinteraction between these two levels oftradition.

It would be erroneous to believe thatIndian civilization consists only of the Hinduview of life. It also includes folk traditionsand folk ways of the people who do not havea written history. The unity of Indiancivilization is maintained by its culturalstructure which perpetuates a unity of worldview through cultural performances andtheir products. These cultural performancesare institutionalized in festivals, fairs andrituals. In fact, Indian civilization can hardlybe described either through the dichotomyof the Sanskritic and western traditions orthat of the ‘little’ and ‘great’ traditions.S.C.Bube, among other social scientists, hadexpounded in his piece, ‘The Study ofComplex Cultures, in the book Towards aSociology of Culture in India, edited byT.K.N.Unnithan, Indra Deva and Yogendra

Singh (1965) that Indian tradition is far toocomplex, besides consisting of a hierarchyof traditions, each of which needs to beanalysed in order to unravel all theramifications of change.

The tribals who have been living withcaste Hindus have also acquired many of thetraits of Hindu religious and folk tradition.There has been a constant interactionbetween the ‘little’ tradition of the tribalsociety and the ‘great’ tradition of casteHindu society. The tribal society is a wholesociety and each social structure in it issegmentary. Each tribal ethnic group has aseparate identity. We can argue that themultiple ethnic tribal groups residing indifferent cultural and ecological contextshave interacted similarly with the ‘great’tradition of caste Hindus. This explanationis based on the premise of the anthropologyof knowledge. Though a large number oftribal groups are found at different levels ofdevelopment, that have a commonexistential basis, that is, they are found inhills and forests. Their illiteracy, generalbackwardness and above all their existencein the midst of nature—forest, hill andgame—have provided them an ethno-methodology which interacts with the Hindu‘great’ traditions in similar ways. It is thistribal existential basis which interprets theHindu traditions in a specific way. And thisis what is called the anthropology ofknowledge. In other words, the knowledgeof the tribals about the Hindi ‘great’ tradition,namely, in the present context, theRamayana, is derived from the existentialbasis of the elements of tribal socialstructure. The classical story of theRamayana as told by the Sanskrit poet,Valmiki, or the Hindu poet, Tulsidas is given


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a different and an altogether distinctiveinterpretation of by the tribals of the country.If we investigate the story of the Ramayanaprevalent at the folk level among the diversetribal groups of the country (whether theBhils of Rajasthan, Santhals ofChhotanagpur of Korkus of MadhyaPradesh), we find that they have a similar

comprehension of the story of the Ramayana.This can be explained by the fact that thoughthe tribal social structures have a socialdifferentiation, they spring from commonexistential situations. The tribal reality of lifeeverywhere in the country is the same. Andthis anthropological knowledge is the causea similar interpretation and understandingof the Ramayana.

The present study is based mainly onthe available folklore material ofcentral India. While studying it, the

influence of the Ramayanic tradition uponthe indigenous tradition has been noted; andthe parochialization of the universalcharacters of the great epic tradition and itsinfluence on many ethnic groups have alsoformed part of this micro-study.

The authors of the epics have given due;importance to each and every part of Indiaencompassing lands, rivers, mountains,forests, different ethnic cultures andcustoms. Again, the assimilation of theRamayana tradition into regional culturesand subcultures has envolved from aspiritual phenonmenon identifying theincarnations of God (avatara) with folkheroes. They are associated with variousregional traditions of India. By identifyingthe respective regions and places with theavataras and their mythical and miraculousevents, the local folk groups identifythemselves as part of the larger IndianCulture, thus contributing to national andcultural unity. Many little communities withtheir regional traditions have been deeplyattracted towards the mainstream of theIndian ‘great’ tradition through these epics.Thus the Ramayana forms the ‘centre of theintegration’ of Indian civilization and has agreat influence on the ‘network of regionalcultures’.

(From Ramakatha in T/F tradition of IndiaASI/Seagull broks, Calcutta 1993)

Much of the story of the Ramayanaremains the same with the tribals. If weanalyse the tribal Ramayana from theperspective of the anthropology of knowledgein terms of the interactions of the Hindu‘great’ tradition and the tribal localtraditions, the following interpretations canbe made :

1. Rulers are seen as always cruel,deceitful and exploitative.

2. Tribal life is sustained through theobservance of magic and rituals.

3. Human subsistence lies in killinganimals and eating their meat.

4. Procreation provides continuity tosociety.

In conclusion it may be observed thattribal knowledge about the world, includingthe Hindu ‘great’ tradition, depends muchon this existential social situation. the tribalethno-methodology plays a vital role inborrowing culture traits from other cultures.Knowledge is not created in a vacuum: itemerges out of the wider social contexts.

(Ramakatha in T/F traditions of IndiaASI-Seagull books Calcutta 1993.)

INFLUENCE OF THE RAMAYANA TRADITION ON FOLKLORE OF CENTRAL INDIA

MAHENDRA KUMAR MISHRA


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The epics, aptly described by JawaharlalNehru as the story of India, were notonly religious texts but also historical

documents, anthropological treatise.Chakravarty Rajagopalachari, who may bedescribed as a modern Valmiki because ofhis rendition of the Ramayana into Englishand because he did more than anyone elseto popularize the work among the Indianelite, mentions an incident. Once, whilediscussing with Gandhi how love coulddevelop between their daughter and son,sheltered and separated by distance, theMahatma asked, ‘Has she not read theRamayana?’

As one interested in the secular aspectsof the diffusion of epic traditions I could notbut be impressed by the manner in which Isaw them at work. When I started my careeras a researcher about thirty years ago I sawthe process of diffusion as a two-fold one inwhat we call a culture contact situation. Onthe one hand I collected a number of songson Rama-katha composed by tribal and non-tribal poets which seemed like verbatimtranslations of the story, rendered withpassion and conviction. This also reflectedthe influence of the Oriya and Bengaliversions of Rama-katha prevalent in theHindi belt. On the other hand—and this isimportant—there were also songs whichappeared older, more closely releated to thetribal world view and their mores, whichsuggested that some aspects of Rama-kathahad almost been internalized. In the courseof researches subsequently conducted Icame across various versions of Rama-kathaamong the Mundas, Gonds, Korkus, Kols,Savaras, Bondo and so on, which did notsuggest the existence of any mini-Ramayanaor mini-Rama-katha as such but representedan echo from the past, a stirring of tribal

‘FROM GANDHIJI TO GONDS EVERYONE HAS USE FORRAMAKATHA’BY K.S.SINGH

memorial, of what they might have imbibedthrough the teachings of the mendicantscalled Gossains who traveled through theirland. They also reflected a sense of awe andadmiration for the heroes; and, sometimes,delight and fun at their presence in theirhomeland. There is even a streak ofirreverence in the Rama-katha versions ofsome of the tribes who also identifythemselves, without any inhibition and in aforthright manner, with what we might callthe anti-heroes, such as Meghanada orRavana.

We might recall at this stage the twomajor works which have influencedscholarship in the area. The first consists ofthe writings of Verrier Elwin in the area ofwhat he always loved to describe as theaboriginal Purana. He collected and wrotedown the folklore, including the epic andpuranic lore, in the tribal areas of middleIndia and the north-east. The other wasmasterly survey of Rama-katha in Hindi doneby the distinguished Jesuit ScholarFr.Council Bulcke went into two editions by1972. It deals with the origin, evolution andspread of Rama-katha.

Ramakatha in T/F Traditions of IndiaASI-Seagull Books Calcutta 1993.


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In Chhatisgarh also the popularity ofbansgeet is predominant, with similarforms and matter, though the language

is different from that of western Orissa. TheGaur bard Bhajan. Nial of Kapsi village inKalahandi district is the informant. Thename of the epic is Kotrabaina-Ramela, thenames of the hero and heroine.

The story form of the folk epic is asfollows:

Kotrabaina was village farmer. His jobwas to tend sheep and cows and to sell milkand curd. His wife Ramela was extremelybeautiful. She had a six-month-old child.The king of the land had an eye for beautifulwomen. Kotrabaina prevented his wife fromgoing to Bendul city to sell milk or curds ashe was constantly afraid that if the king cameto know of beautiful Ramela he might abducther. One day, when Kotrabaina was awayvisiting his sister, Ramels could not resisther desire to visit Bendul city. She wentthere with her milk and curd, leaving herchild with her nanad (husband’s sister). Theking’s soldiers saw her and subsequently theking forcibly took her to his palace.

SOME INSPIRING RAMA-KATHA FOLK VERSIONS

While Kotrabaina was asleep in hissister’s house, his clan deity showed him theabduction of Ramela in a dream. Hurriedlyhe returned home to find that the dream wastrue. He gathered his twelve lakh bulls andtwelve lakh sheep, along with a magical bullnamed Kurmel Sandh and sheep namedUltia Gadra, and attacked the city in orderto free Ramela from the clutches of the king.The cattle and sheep destroyed the wholecity. Kotrabaina killed the king and freedRamela. But Gaur society was not ready toaccept Ramela without testing her chastity,as she had been abducted by the evil king.To prove her chastity, she arranged an ordealby fire and passed it. But the society wantedto test her again, and put forward thecondition that if her six-month-old childcrawled from his bed to his mother’s breastto suck milk, she would be treated as chasteand accepted by them without hesitation.Ramela was successful in this test as welland she was accepted by Gaur society.

Ramakatha in T/F Traditions of IndiaASI-Seagull Books, Calcutta 1993.

FOLK TALES OF EPICSM.K.MISHRA

Claus says: ‘The Mahabharata and Ramayana are continually localized in a welter of folkperformance forms all over India’ . It is true that by reading or listening to the Puranas, thepeople quench their religious thirst, but it does not satisfy the masses, as only a particularsection of the society hears it. But on the folk stage, the whole society, irrespective of ageand sex, gets the opportunity to witness the Ramalila, which not only fulfils their religiousfeeling but also gives them immense pleasure. Their moral values are heightened by itsvarious ideal characters and events.

(Ramakatha in T/F Tradition of India ASI-Seagull Books, Calcutta 1993)


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Orissa state tells an interesting storyto account for the origin of diseases.Raja Dasharatha ruled in Jaita

Nagar. Whenever he talked to his subjects,he used to wag his finger at them. Thisangered them, and one day they assembledand cursed him: ‘He wags his finger at us.Let his finger rot’. Two to four months laterthe Raja’s finger began to hurt; soon itswelled and sores broke out and pus oozedfrom it. The Raja took medicine andconsulted the best doctors and magiciansbut to no avail. Then his pandits referred tobooks and said, ‘O Raja, send your sonsRama and Lakshmana into exile if you wantthe sores on your finger to heal’. The Rajathought his advice absurd and for a longtime refused to follow it. But when the painin his finger grew unbearable, he called histwo boys and said: ‘Go to the forest andsearch for medicine for twelve years’. Theywent to the forest and after twelve yearsbrought medicine which their father put onhis finger. The sores healed. But after that,anyone who wagged his finger at anotherwhile he talked became a leper.

(Ramakatha in T/F Tradition of IndiaASI/Seagull Books Calcutta 1993)

FOLK VERSIONS OF RAMA-KATHA INEARLY ASSAMESE

SATYENDRA NATH SARMA

Kings used to maintain bards orminstrels to sing the glorious exploitsof their own ancestors as well as of

heroes of bygone ages. These bards werecalled suta, magadha and bandi in ancientIndia. Their functions were not exactlyidentical. The sutas usually recited theancient lore of the royal families. Themagadhas and bandis recited panegyrics.There were also roving sutas or bhatas whoused to entertain people with their heroicand pathos-laden tales of ancient times.According to most of the Ramayana scholars,it was originally a bardic poem with differentversions prevalent in different parts of thecountry. It was compiled, systematized andgiven a unified character by Valmiki,designated as the adi-kavi by laterrhetoricians because of his sophisticated useof poetic imagery. The later SanskritRamayanas like Adhyatma, Adbhuta,Ananda, Bhusundi etc., though composedwith sectarian intentions, are replete withfolk elements. The only exception is theYogavasistha where philosophical andethical elements predominate.

As regards the regional Ramayanascomposed in local languages, the intrusionof folk elements, regional beliefs, ceremoniesand practices can be noticed in almost all ofthem.

(From Ramakatha in the T/F traitionsof India” ASI/Seagull books, Calcutta

1993)

AN ORISSA FOLK TALE

T.B.NAIK


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TAGORE ON THE RAMAYANA

We have the sociological interpretation as given by Tagore and latter day scholars likeDr.Suniti Kumar Chatterjee. The main contention of Tagore’s argument is that with theexpansion of money power, the importance of agriculture was receding. Sita as daughterof Mother Earth represents the best of agriculture, while the golden deer of Ravanarepresents the avarice of man for gold. The importance of agriculture, its production andthe peaceful way of rural life cannot satisfy the man who is hungry for money. Ravana wasthe symbol of money power, and he was always afraid of losing that power and wealth.

THE RAMAYANA CONQUERS SOUTH East Asia

BY SWAMI BANGOVINDA PARAMPANTHI

The Ramayana travelled to South East Asia and other remote areas through a band ofintrepid missionaries like Matanga Kashyapa Kaundinya as also through sailors, tradersand settlers who travelled overland through Assam to South East Asia. The local versionsthat have developed in Sri Lanka, Siam, Laos, Burma, Tibet, even though they maintainthe basic structure of the story, introduce slight variations by adapting and mixing strainsfrom their local cultural milieu. The Rama story was carried outside India by the 2nd and3rd century and was readily accepted by Mons, Khmers, Khotanese, Mongolians etc., givingrise to newer versions of the epic incorporating local traditions.

From Ramakatha in T/F tradition of India ASI/Seagull Books, Calcutta 1993

BOX ITEMELWIN ON TRIBAL RAMAYANA

Referring to the Ramayana, Verrier Elwin (the tribals) observed: ‘It is most significant tofind, even so long ago, an attitude towards them which anticipates the friendliness andrespect which has come to fruition in modern times. And in the figure of Sabari there is asymbol of the contribution that the tribes can and will make to the life of India.


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The tribes of the plains such as theplains Mikirs, the Miris (Misings), theLalungs, the Rabhas, the Hajongs and

the Bodos are greatly influenced by theHindu way of life, maintaining at the sametime their own traditions and customs. Theyhave easily adopted the Hindu culture,assimilating some Hindu gods andgoddesses into their daily life.

Several versions of the Rama story existin the tribal traditions and mention may bemade of the few extant ones. First, there isthe Karbi Ramayana (Sabin Alun) of theMikirs (Karbis). It has two versions withslight variations. One has been traced andcomplied through the efforts of Prem KantaMohonta and published by Diphu SahityaSabha and the other was found in theHamreu subdivision of Karbi Anglong. TheMizo (Lushai) Ramayana story which wascollected by some scholars shows the extentof the influence of Rama-katha in their life.Old Mizos still sing it. The KhamtiRamayana, which is a Tai version, has beenrendered into Assamese by Phani Bora, ateacher of Hindi at Jorhat. This has notappeared in printed form so far. It is alsoknown as Lik-Rameng which means theBook of Rama. It is preserved in the Buddhisttemple in Narayanpur (Lakhimpur Districtof Assam) where there is a conglomeration

of Tai-Khamti people. Another version of theTai Ramayana is at the house of JadavGohain of Silapathar, a Buddhist village inthe district of Sibasagar. The manuscript isin Tai script and is known as Choi Rameng(the story of Rama). Both the Tai versions ofthe Ramayana glorify Buddhism. Theyconvey that after seeing the sorrow andmisery of the world Rama took the form of aBodhisattva. The Lalungs (Tiwas) have theirown Ramakatha. The majority of the tribeshave adopted the Rama tradition into theirown culture is still debatable. Perhaps it isbecause these tribes, who live off the land,have been naturally drawn to its simplevalues.

Thus the whole of the north-east isvibrant with the story of Rama. Many puraniclegens are also associated with this regionwhich was never out of touch with themainstream of Indian culture. The greatAssamese poet Madhava Kandali had notonly rendered the Ramayana into Assamesebut had also helped to spread its messagethroughout the north-east as is evident fromthe folksongs in the form of nichukani-git,husarinam, nao-khelar git and so on.

Ramakatha is T/F tradition of India,ASI, Seagull Books, Calcutta 1993

ASSAM WELCOMES RAMA

SWAMI BANGOVINDA PARAMPANTHI

RAMA-KATHA IN TRIBAL AND FOLK TRADITIONS OF INDIABefore breaking the bow Rama warned all the people present that the breaking of the bowwould cause a very big bang with sparks and that there would be an earthquake whichmay damage peoples hearing and eyesight. People sitting in high places and on branchesof trees would fall down and break their limbs. Rama advised them to keep their eyes andears shut and to hold down to the ground. But some people took Rama’s warning toolightly and suffered the consequences. Rama relented, saying that those who have willfullyignored his warning would remain handicapped all their lives, but the others would becured. This is the reason why there are lame, blind and deaf people on earth.

Ramakatha in T/F Tradition of Asia ASI/Seagul Books Calcutta 1993


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RAMA-KATHA AMONG THE TRIBALCOMMUNITIES OF THE NORTH-EAST

BIRENDRANATH DATTA

Rama-katha has penetrated the varioustribal societies in the plains and the hills ofAssam and its adjoining areas in varyingdegrees. The Bodo-Kacharis, the Rabhas, theMisings, the Tiwas and other tribalcommunities living in the plains who haveclose contact with their non-tribalneighbours have not only accepted the epicsinto their tradition, but some have gone tothe extent of creating legends linking theirorigins with characters and / or episodesfrom the epics. Stories from the Ramayanaare almost as familiar to these groups as tothe non-tribal Hindus. While in some casessuch stories have been given characteristicethnic twists, basically remaining Hindu-oriented, in certain other cases the entry ofRama-katha has been through Buddhisticconnections or contracts. Of the tribal peopleliving in the hills, the Karbis, the Dimasasand the Jaintias are more or less well-acquainted with the Ramayana lore. Of theothers the Khasis’ the Taraon Mishmis, theGaros and the Mizos have tales obviouslyinfluence by the Rama legend. It isinteresting to note that although the Mizosare said to be late arrivals in the north-eastern region and are comparatively freefrom Hindu influence, the Ramayana storyhas entered their folklore and made a placefor itself as an ‘indigenous tale’. Not onlythat, Rama and Lakshmana (Khena in Mizo)are invoked as deities in some Mizodivination charms.

(From Ramakatha in the T/F Traditions ofIndia, ASI/Seagull Books, Calcutta 1993.)

A TELUGU FOLK TALED.RAMARAJU

Rama narrates an incident which occurredduring their exile. One day when they werewandering at Chitrakut, Sita prepared for herbath. She smeared her body with rawturmeric and went to the pond to take a dip.But she returned almost immediately,complaining to Rama her Lord and thedescendant of the Solar race that there wassomething strange near the bathing pond.The mischievous moon was playing in thepond, with innumerable bees flying over it,making it impossible for her to bathe Sheasked him to accompany her so that he couldsee for himself. Rama was perturbed andfollowed her to the pond. When they reached,Sita pointed to the ‘moon and bees’. Ramawas amused and told her that the ‘moon’ washer own face and the ‘bees’ were locks ofher hair. When she realized her mistake, shebashfully bowed her head. ‘Therefore,Hanumana, you must narrate this incidentto Sita so that she may know you to be myconfidante’, Rama told him.

(From Ramakatha in the T/F traditions ofIndia ASI/Seagull Books, Calcutta 1993)


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EPIC LITERATURE PRODUCES AN EPIC LIFE

Lokmanya Tilak’s greatest work was the Gita-Rahasya, a philosophic inquiry into thesecret of the teaching of the Gita, the holiest book of the Aryadharma. In this volume hereinterpreted the Gita in its classical sense, restoring the proper emphasis to the philosophyof action, the Karma yoga; and his is considered one of the outstanding studeis of theGita in modern Indian literature. The Gita-Rahasya assured Tilak’s place among the greatestof India’s scholars and philosophers. His classical studies enabled him to recapture thespirit of India’s classical philosophy of life. In his heart of hearts, he always remained ahumble student of India’s greatness. Even after he had become the foremost politicalleader of India, he often said that he wished he could devote his life to teaching mathematicsand pursuing his scholarly research into the wisdom of India’s ancient civilization.

From The Legacy of the Lokamanya by Theodore L.Shay OUP Bombay 1956

A KARBI (ASSAMESE DIALECT) FOLKSONG

Sugriva looked belowAnd saw two youths,One dark and one fair,The dark one lying asleepOn the lap of the fair one.For twelve days and nightsWas the dark one sleepingOn the lap of the fair oneSugriva mused thus –From their looks they must be brothersHow one brother is sharingThe other brother’s burdenAnd here I am,Fighting my own brotherFor a throne—he mused.Tears rolled down from his eyes.So runs the song.

Quoted in “Ramakatha in T/F tradition of India” ASI/Seagull books, Calcutta 1993.


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We live in an objective world ofplurality, diversity, and complexity.However, the convincing truth

behind the experiencing of this objectivereality is that it is the perennial sense of ‘I-ness’ or subjectivity which really matters tous. This ‘I-ness’ is a greater and more directfact of existence to us than the galaxy ofobjects presented to it. What is imminent,intrinsic, and immediate in our experienceis our CONSCIOUSNESS of self-existence.

Are there two realities? The subjectiveand the objective? Are consciousness andmatter mutually opposing polarities? Whatis the real nature of this apparentdichotomy? Is there a background SELFwhich is at once the subject and the object?Is this background SELF a state ofsuperconscious existence to which order,symmetry and auto regulation are intrinsic?Is our existence and awareness continuousand eternal subjectively at the realm ofexperience, but intermittent and spasmodicat the realm of form and appearance? Doesour existence begin with the appearance ofour bodies and end with theirdisappearance? Is there anything permanent

in us? In there an eternal core of self-existence around which we have projectedour outer garments: physical, social andpsychological? Is self-existence an eternalsaga of self-experience? To thepsychologist, these questions seemirrelevant and unrelated to the domain ofhis reasoning. Our modern Westernpsychology has not been able to reveal thereal nature of man. Western psychologistshave offered us a model of man: dualistic,deterministic and a mechanistic robot.

In a book Vedic thought and Westernphilosophy Dr.Shivaram Karikal, the authorhas attempted to show the epistemologicaland social limitations of Western Psychologyin answering these questions. He then drawsthe reader’s attention to the inherent wisdomof vedas, which throw a ray of hope to man,enabling him to answer these riddles andrealize his own real nature. The philosophyof Yoga presented here stands in strikingcontrast to Western Psychology in itscomprehensive approach to theunderstanding of the human personalityin its wholeness.

WESTERN INTERPRETACTIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PHENOMENA

NAGAS DOWN THE HISTROY

It should not, be construed that the Nagas were unknown to the kings ruling in the GangeticValley. The references to the Kiratas, of whom the Nagas were a subtribe, in the Vedas andthe epics have already been mentioned. According the legend, Ulupi, the Naga princess,fell in love with Arjuna, the great hero of the Mahabharata, when she saw the handsomePandava prince in the course of the latter’s sojourn in Eastern India. Ulupi took Arjuna toNagalok (the land of the Nagas) and they lived happily for some time until Arjuna movedon to Manipur. In the great war of the Mahabharata fought at Kurukshetra, in whichcontingents of almost every Indian potentate participated, the Nagas rallied their might onthe side of the Kauravas.

(Nagaland, Prakash Singh, National Book Trust, India, New Delhi—1981)

Dr.Shivaram Karikal


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AN ASSAMESE FOLKSTORY

The most important legendary accountconnected with the Arunachal tribe ofMishmis is that of the Brahmakunda. It isalso popularly known as Parasuram Kunda;for, Parasuram, according to the KalikaPurana came to the Kunda to cleanse himselfof the sin he had incurred by slaying his ownmother Renuka on his father’s orders. ThisKunda is in the heart of the Mishmi area. Itis traditionally believed that the parasuramKunda as a holy place was originally aMishmi institution and the Mishmis usedto collect toll from the visiting pilgrims. TheMishmis claim to have originated fromRukma, eldest son of King Bhismaka ofKundila. Also they believe that the King’sonly daughter, Rukmini, whom Krishnamarried, was a Mishmi girl. Her marriage wasat first arranged with Sisupala, a local prince.At her own request, Krishna came and tookher away, defeating Sisupala in a fierce fight.The city of Kundila or Kundin was situatedsome fifty miles from modern Sadiya andSisupala’s fort lay a few miles farther, bothbeing situated in the heart of the Mishmihills. Hem Barua writes: “As a mark of theirdefeat in war with Sri Krishna, they still wearround their foreheads silver badges,otherwise known as Kopalis”.

(“Folklore of Assam” Jogesh Das, National BookTrust, India, New Delhi 1980)

SHRAVAN-PITURBHAKTHI

One day young Mohandas KaramchandGandhi’s eyes fell on Sharavana Pitribhaktinataka. (a play about Shravana’s devotionto his parents) Mohandas read it with greatabsorbing interest. He had also seen picturesshown by itinerant showmen. One of thepictures was Sharavana carrying, by meansof slings fitted his shoulder, for his blindparents on pilgrimage’. “Here is an examplefor you to copy” said to himself. The agonizedlament of the parents over Shravana’s deathwas still fresh in his memory.

It is quite understandable as Mohandas wasvery much attached to his parents and theywere almost his idols of worship. Anotherreason is, his mind which had grown in adevotional atmosphere of religion and Jaina-impact on it was naturally very much. It isto this influence, on his mind that all respecthe had for tradition, elders and sacredscriptures could be traced, although therewere eventual deviation now and then onminor details.

Harishchandra:

Another drama which had made equallydeep impression on his mind if not greater,is Harischandra. It had become part andparcelof Mahatma Gandhi’s idea of truth inlater days in its manifold aspects. All hispronouncements could be traced to this. Hisidea there should not be any gulf betweenthought, word and deed had its source inthis. Gandhiji writes “Why should not, allbe truthful like Harishchandra? Was thequestion is asked myself day and night. Tofollow truth and to go through all the ordeal’sHarishchandra went through was the oneideal it inspired in me. I literally believed inthe story of Harishchandra. The thought ofit all often made me weep. My commonsensetells me to-day that Harishchandra could nothave been a historical character. Still bothHarishchandra and Shravana are livingrealities for me and I am sure I should bemoved as before if I were to read those playsagain to-day. “Here it is clear that wheneverthe historicity is doubted either in case ofRama or others, Gandhiji gives an allegoricalinterpretation of tradition as Sri Aurobindodid. The influence of this drama and theimpression of adherence to truth was suchthat Mohandas would not copy from hisneighbour even when a prompted by theteacher when inspector visited his school.(The Growth of the personality of Mahatma

Gandhi, N.Satyanarayana, Sarvodayapress, Patamata, Vijayawada-6, 1988)


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A MALAYALAM FOLK SONG

A piece from Cherusseri’s Krishnagatha which depicts the life of Krishna noted for sweetnessof spoken Malayalam and the flow of the folk metre:

As she saw the place from a distanceShe went close and shyly sneaked inEven as the python stealthily goesClose to the perch of the king of birds.She stood there for a whileWatching the darling’s charming face,As though she waited in impatienceWhy the lord of death had not come.She went forward and stood touchingThat flower-soft body, softer than tender leaves.As if to touch real fire.Taking it for a jewel.Then she picked up the darling childLike taking a serpent for a rope.

(Folklore of Kerala, Kavalam Narayana Panikkar, National Book Trust, India, New Delhi1991).

SILENT ELOQUENCE

Lakshman Brahmachari from Sri Ramakrishna Mission asked Ramana Maharshi: Enquiryof ‘Who am I?’ or of the ‘I-thought being itself a thought, how can it be destroyed in theprocess?

Sri Bhagavan replied with a story.

When Sita was asked who was her husband among the rishis (Rama himself being presentthere as a rishi) in the forest, by the wives of the rishis, she denied each one as he waspointed out to her, but simply hung down her head when Rama was pointed out. Hersilence was eloquent.

Similarly, the Vedas also are eloquent in ‘neti’ – ‘neti’ (not this – not this) and then remainsilent. Their silence is the Real State. This is the meaning of exposition by silence. Whenthe source of the ‘I’ thought is reached it vanishes and what remains is the Self.

(Spiritual stories as told by Ramana Mahrshi Ramanashram Tiruvannamalai 1986.)


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RAMANA MAHARSHI REFERS TO PURANASTwenty-four Gurus

A king was passing through a forest in all pomp and pageantry, with his army and retinuebehind him. He came across a man with not even a cod-piece on, lying on the ground, withone leg cocked over the other. He was laughing away, apparently supremely happy,contented with himself and all the world. The king was struck with the man’s happy stateand sent for him. But when the king’s men approached the nude ascetic and delivered theking’s message, he took absolutely no notice and continued in his ascetic bliss. On beingtold of this, the king himself went to the man and eventhen the man took no notice.Thereupon it struck the king that this must be no common man, and said: ‘Swami, you areevidently supremely happy. May we know what is the secret of such happiness and fromwhich Guru you learnt it?’ thereupon the ascetic told the king: ‘I have had twenty-fourGurus. Everything, this body, the earth, the birds, some instruments, some persons, allhave taught me’. All the things in the world may be classed as either good or bad. The goodtaught him what he must seek. Similarly, the bad taught him what he must avoid. Theascetic was Dattatreya, the avadhuta.

Spiritual stories as told by Ramana Maharishi Ramanashram, Tiruvannnamalai 1986

RAMANA HAS USE FOR PURANASBhakta Ekanath

A discussion in the hall centered on the story of Kulasekhara Alwar, which had appearedin the Vision magazine. During a Hari Katha, Kulasekhara identifying himself so completelywith the situation of the story felt it his duty as a worshipper of Rama to at once hasten toLanka and release Sita. He ran to the sea and entered it to cross over to Lanka when Ramaappeared with Sita and Lakshmana and showered His grace on him. This led others in thehall to remark, “Some Maratha Saint also did a similar thing. He leaped up to the roof, Ithink”. Thereupon Sri Bhagavan was asked to relate the story.

Ekanath was writing the Ramayana, and when he came to the portion in which he wasgraphically describing that Hanuman jumped across the ocean to Lanka, he so identifiedhimself with his hero Hanuman that unconsciously he leaped into the air and landed onthe roof of his neighbour’s house. This neighbhour had always had a poor opinion ofEkanath, taking him for a humbug and religious hypocrite. He heard a thud on his roofand, coming out to see what it was, discovered Ekanath lying down on the roof with acadjan leaf in one hand and his iron stile in the other. The cadjan leaf had verses describinghow Hanuman leapt across the sea. This incident proved to the neighbour what a genuinebhakta Ekanath was and he became his disciple.

Spiritual stories as told by Ramana Maharshi – Ramanashram Tiruvannamalai-1986


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What they teach

It is said in the Ramayana that at thedeath of his beloved son Indrajeet,Ravana, overpowered with grief that he

was, came to the battlefield to settle thefinal issue with Rama. But Rama,observing that his sworn enemy was tiredand lacked vigour to fight, said to him, ‘Goback, Ravana, and get refreshed before youcome to fight me.’ In other words, Rama,with all his might and chance to defeatRavana who abducted his most belovedwife Sita, forgave his enemy and gave himanother lease of life.

What can be a more impressivescene than this? Rama, a kshatriya king,with all the grief of separation from Sita,pardons the villain who is at his mercy!This great act speaks only of strength andliberality that find expression inforgiveness. A really strong man canforgive even when grief-stricken. SwamiVivekananda once said, ‘Only one who isstrong enough to give back a blow for ablow, to overthrow his enemy at will, hasthe power to forgive––not a weakling.’ Thisidea reigns supreme in both the great epicsof our land––the Ramayana and theMahabharata. The great values of humanlife, the inherent culture of our land, andmany other qualities of the head and theheart are reflected through the variouscharacters depicted therein. The absoluteVedantic principles become meaningfulonly when they are reflecting through apersonality. It is with this purpose thatthese epics have been created by theenlightened sages. If there is a truth in life,it must find expression in all walks of life,even in the busiest field of life like abattlefield.

Both the Ramayana and theMahabharata emphasize and corroboratethe Upanishadic truth––satyamevajayate, nanrutam––truth alonetriumphs, not falsehood. One thing,however, should not be lost sight of. It istrue that truth alone triumphs, but that isin the last analysis. Till the end truth hasto pass through fiery ordeals to shed thedross of untruth that attaches itself fastto truth. And this truth can best be testedin human life only, in man’s weal and woe.There is no other go.

The other point these epics hint atis that this world is not at all a mirth ofjoy. We are born here with our inherenttendencies and cartloads of past actions,and we have to work them out in order togo beyond this cycle of birth, death, andmisery. There is no way out of this maze.Swami Vivekananda has succinctlypointed out this fact by comparing thisworld to a gymnasium where we come toexercise our muscles and sinews. Contraryto the common belief, this world is not aplace of enjoyment. Every bit of enjoymentcarries with it the message of death––weapproach nearer to death by revelling inthe senses.

This truth holds good even in thecase of great souls or incarnations of God.Even a Rama or a Krishna are not sparedthe pains of life. The Law of Nature is thereto squeeze life out of them too. And this isbut natural. What is extraordinary is thatthese great souls are brave enough to holdfast to the higher moral and ethical valuesof human life at all costs. For example,Rama vanquished Ravana and established

RELEVANCE OF OUR TWIN EPICSSWAMI KRITARTHANANDA


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the triumph of goodness over evil onceagain. But the question arises: Could helead a happy life thereafter? Just an off-hand adverse comment from awasherwoman led to his separation fromSita and Rama had to bear the agony ofthat. Even Krishna had to die by acceptingthe curse of the sages from a poisonousarrow from a hunter. And that very Krishnaproclaimed on the battlefield, ‘I take birthin every age to establish virtue over vice.’

The truth is that it matters verylittle what you are getting from the world,how the world impinges upon you. But itdoes matter what you are giving the worldin return to that. One who is really brave,will not budge an inch from his virtue,come what may. Bhartruhari, in hisNitisatakam, has beautifully depicted this.There he says that a truly bold personnever deviates from the righteous patheven when criticized in either way by theupholders of law, whether the goddess offortune showers all wealth upon him ordenies him any wealth, whether he meetswith death today or hundred years hence.And what a unique expression that cameout of the pen of Swami Vivekananda! In asmall poem entitled “To An Early Violet”he gave expression to his deep feeling thatcan move even a stony heart:

What though if love itself doth failThy fragrance strewed in vainWhat though if bad o’er good prevailAnd vice o’er virtue reign?

Change not thy nature, gentle bloom,Thou violet, sweet and pure;But ever pour thy sweet perfumeUnasked, unstinted, sure.

This, then, is the Indian way of life thatfinds expression through all our epics. Theworld continues to be the same for the highand the low. No one will be spared the

pains of life. But how you react to asituation is the real test for you.

Relevance to the Present Age

Let us now cast a glance at ourpresent age. With the advancement oftechnological facilities our physicaldistance has been removed almostcompletely. We have become much morecomfortable than our forefathers. But thefact remains that we are lonelier than ourancestors; we feel something is lacking onour way to happiness. We feel that we havebecome more and more selfish, eccentric,and pleasure seeking, and hence noquestion arises as to our taking lessonsfrom the epics. This is a totally misguidedconception. Our epics are immortal anduniversal. Universality is ascribed to anepic only when it is equally applicable inall ages irrespective of corruption or lowstandard of morality. What makes an epicimmortal is the deep impression itscharacters produce in the mind of thecommon man who is subject to stressunder all circumstances. Every tryingsituation lures him to go down to a lowlevel of brutality, and yet his soul, sittingin the cavern of his heart, cries out touphold its high level of humanity. This isa perpetual struggle in human life. We liketo remain merged in the pleasures of life,and something from within does not let usdo that. That ‘something’ protests silently,yet we cannot but listen to its admonitions.Because our true nature is divine.

It is said in the Mahabharata thatwhatever is there in the world has beenexhaustively dealt with in that epic. In allages there can be no character in the worldthat does not find expression in the book.In fact even the most cruel characters inboth the epics speak volumes to us. Theregoes a satirical comment in the presentage that the lives of both Hitler and Gandhi


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teach us the same thing. From the life ofHitler we learn ‘do not do violence’, andfrom that of Gandhi we learn ‘do non-violence’. However humorous it may be,this comment applies equally in the caseof the bad characters depicted in theseepics. Ravana knew it very well that theconsequences of provoking Rama would beserious, but he could not desist from hismean act. Similarly, Duryodhana in theMahabharata once expressed to Krishnathat he knew what is virtue but was unableto hold fast to it; and he also knew what isvice but could not desist from the evilpractices. This is the wailing of a weak-minded, namby-pamby pessimist ofmodern times. Such people like to dive intoany number of fanciful undertakings butare not ready to take up the responsibilityon their own shoulder. They just pass onthe buck to others the moment theirauthority is questioned. These people endup in blaming the whole world for all theirfailures. With all their good intents andpurposes they get converted into hardcorecynics in the long run. This is why SwamiVivekananda exhorted, ‘Do evil, if youmust, with manliness.’ It is this greatlesson of taking up responsibility of one’saction that turned the gangster Ratnakarainto the immortal poet Valmiki.

One must have deep conviction in thetriumph of good over evil, come what may.But at the same time this also should belearnt that both good and evil are but theobverse and reverse of the same coin andthat man has to go beyond them both.When Socrates was given life sentence forhis deep conviction for certain truth he,standing on the death podium, declaredboldly, ‘Gentlemen of the jury, please holdfast to the fact that to a good person noevil can happen in this world or hereafter.Even gods cater to his well being.’ This iscalled manliness.

Meaning in Suffering

When we read the Ramayana wefeel like crying at the agonies of Sita orRama. The modern youth may not like thissort of weeping story because he is anoptimist. Whatever he likes to have he canget just for the asking. So he finds nomeaning in such agonizing sufferings.‘Well’, he thinks, ‘Rama could very well getover such useless emotion by adopting afirm political measure in his kingdom; andSita could very well divorce Rama whoabandoned him.’ Here comes a great truthwhich the modern man has to learn fromour epics. If he does not want to learn fromthese epics, he will have to borrow it fromthe foreigners. Dr. Viktor E. Frankl, forone, in his famous book ‘Man’s Search forMeaning’ has pointed out this great factthat if there is a meaning in life thenthere must be a meaning in suffering,misery, and even death. Your sufferingmay be a source of inspiration and learningto many. And this Dr. Frankl was taken aprisoner of war in the Second World Warand sent to a Nazi camp where theyencountered death with every breath. Stillhe did not give up hope for life and wenton secretly recording all his experiencesthat in later years triggered to a moment-ous discovery named logotherapy by him.This is a special kind of psychologicaltreatment in which the patient is made torealize the nature of his problem and, whatis more, to face it himself instead ofhanding over the responsibility to thepsychiatrist. This type of treatment at oncereminds us of the Vedantic dictum of facingthe truth by oneself. If truth is immanentin the whole creation then there must berelevance in every experience––happinessand suffering as well.

Both the epics deal with the grimrealities of life. They are not justconcocted stories. We should not forget the


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background in which the story ofRamayana was mooted. It was the heart-breaking cry of one of a pair of birds whosepartner was shot dead by a cruel hunter.So the Ramayana cannot but be an eternaltragedy taken from real life. And it is thistragedy that makes the epic so living andacceptable to all. Generally speaking,people love to read stories which in theend put everything together. But thosestories fail to create a lasting impressionin the minds of people. It is such storieswith tragic ends that arouse us with a joltto the realities of life while warning usbeforehand of the vagaries of an easy-goinglife.

The Irony of Fate and Spiritual Solution

Once Vidura, one of the wisest menof his times, was badly insulted byDuryodhana and left the kingdom ofHastinapura on a pilgrimage tour. Longlater, he learnt of the ghastly battle ofKurukshetra and the murder of all themembers of the Kuru dynasty; he alsoheard of the demise of the Lord Krishnaalong with the whole Yadava clan. Thisheart-rending news made Vidura restless

and evoked certain critical questions in hismind about life. He opened his heart to awise sage who replied to him by saying thatthe threefold misery of life has, in fact, nolasting solution. What we take pride insolving the problems is only a temporarysolution that is like moving a heavy loadfrom the head to the shoulder. The onlysolution that is lasting is to go beyond thisvicious circle of the world. In other words,there is only a spiritual solution to all theproblems of life.

At the end of the whole story of theMahabharata, its author Vyasa wails: ‘I askpeople repeatedly and with upraised handsto follow the path of goodness which willbring them prosperity as well as liberationin the long run; but nobody pays any heedto me.’ This is the trouble with the commonman. He reads and knows a lot withoutassimilating them. His life is not tuned toa high culture that comes down from hisancestors. So he suffers. Man seeks thegood results from his actions but refusesto do good acts. On the other hand he doesnot like to suffer from the results of hisevil deeds but he commits evil actswillfully. And this is called Maya.


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T he Mahabharata is the greatest epicpoem in the world, being eight timesas long as the Iliad and the Odyssey

put together. It is longer than the unitedextent of all the poems in Europeanlanguages. The Indians hold this book ingreat reverence while people all over theworld regard it as the greatest classic ofworld literature. It is called the ‘fifth Veda’and is the treasure house of ancientwisdom and Hindu culture. It has mouldedthe heart and mind of an entire race in away no other epic in the world has done.Our magnificent epics Ramayana andMahabharata were crucial in the formationof national traditions and character andhave left a deep impression on the textureof Indian life. Mahabharata is a voluminousepic of more than one lakh verses, withmany stories and anecdotes touching onalmost every aspect of human welfare anddharma.

Veda Vyasa – the author

The authorship of this great workis attributed to Veda Vyasa who was alsoknown by other names such as Badara-yana, Krishnadvaipayana and Parasharya.This great poet philosopher has becomean institution representing the entireHindu heritage. No single individual in thepast or the present has contributed somuch to the preservation of Hindu dharmaas Sri Veda Vyasa has done. He excels allother writers in his extraordinary mentalinsights, social awareness and vision ofTruth. This mighty intellect evokes thegreatest admiration and wonder even inthe hearts of western critics.

It is believed that Vyasa was bornas the son of a Brahmin rishi and afisherwoman. He combined in his naturethe sattwa quality of his father and thedaring adventurousness of his mother. Hewas born at a time when the Hindus werein the process of forgetting their gloriousVedic heritage. Sensing the growingpreoccupation of his generation withmaterial prosperity and the fallingstandards of spiritual values, Vyasa set outto revive Hindu dharma. He was a revivalistwho contributed the maximum to Hindurenaissance of that critical era. He was adaring religious revolutionary who putHinduism back on its pedestal.

Compiling the Vedas

Veda Vyasa was the title given tothis great poet-seer because he compiledthe then existing Veda Mantras into fourwritten volumes in a daring attempt topreserve this priceless knowledge forfuture generations. Much of the Vedas wasalready forgotten and it is his vision whichled him to perpetuate the Vedas as weknow them today. In compiling the Vedas,he brought about a harmonious rhythmby dividing each book into four sections –Mantras (chants), Brahmanas (rituals andrules of conduct), Aranyakas (methods ofsubjective worship) and Upanishads(philosophic revelations).

The Brahma Sutra

After compiling the Vedas, he foundthat the majority of the people wereinterested in the Karma Kanda portion ofthe Vedas and the Upanishadic portion

VYASA AND VIDURASWAMINI NIRANJANANANDA


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which is the essence of the Vedas wasbeing totally neglected even by thescholars. Veda Vyasa therefore crystallisedthe Upanishadic thoughts enshrined in theUpanishads and wrote the famous textcalled the Brahma Sutra. The Brahma Sutrabecame the definitive text of AdvaitaVedanta.

The Puranas

Still dissatisfied, since his famousworks would not be able to reach thecommon man, he evolved a new kind ofliterature called the ‘Puranas’. Throughthem, he brought together the quint-essence of the Vedas and the Upanishadsby means of stories and anecdotes to theunderstanding of the uneducated and theunderprivileged. The eighteen Puranas andthe Bhagavata Mahapurana are the uniquecontribution of Maharshi Veda Vyasa toHindu spiritual literature.

Mahabharata

However, the greatest achievementof this genius was the itihasa called theMahabharata, which was instrumental inchanging the very fabric of thought ofgenerations of Hindus. It is called the fifthVeda and is basically a Dharma Sastra. Inthe middle of his masterpiece, Vyasaintroduced ‘The Song Celestial’, whichshines like a dazzling pendant in a garlandof enchanting lyrics. It is often said thatwhatever is not there in the Mahabharatais not there in the outer world –Vyasocchishtam jagat sarvam. Indeed theentire Mahabharata is the story of Vyasa’sown children and grandchildren. Thecharacters in it are so human that even aperfect man like Yudhishthira had his ownlittle weaknesses and an evil Duryodhanaalso had his own good points. Kunti,Gandhari, Draupadi, Karna and Sakuniare some of the unforgettable characters

in this great epic. Not only was Vyasa’sintellect mighty but he also held in hisembrace of love the entire universe of livingbeings. To bring to all creatures a sparklinglife of joy and exuberance was the anxietyin Vyasa’s heart, and the result is thisgreatest of all epics.

Writes Pujya Swami Chinmaya-nanda, “The versatile genius of Vyasa hasnever left anything that he has touchedwithout raising it to the sublimest heightsof sheer perfection. A brilliant philosopher,an incomparable poet, a consummate manof wisdom, a genius in worldly knowledge– now in the palace, now in the battlefield,now among the silent, snowy peaks strodethe colossus, Sri Vyasa as an embodimentof what is best in the Hindu tradition.”

Vidura

One of the outstanding charactersin the Mahabharata is Sri Vidura, who wasthe half-brother of Dhritarashtra andPandu. Born as the son of Sri Vyasa and amaid servant in the palace, Vidura is anembodiment of dharma. In theMahabharata there is an interesting storyabout the birth of Vidura. There was agreat tapasvi called Mandavya Rishi whowas once doing penance standing kneedeep in a river. Suddenly there was acommotion as the officers of the king whowere chasing some thieves caught themwith their booty which was thrown wherethe saint was doing penance. Taking thesaint to be an accomplice of the thieves,they took him into custody and laterimpaled him along with the commonthieves. While all the thieves died, the rishiwas alive which amazed and frightened theking. He rushed to him and ordered himto be released and apologized for histhoughtless action. When the time of deathfinally came, Mandavya Rishi questionedDharma Raja his undeserved suffering and


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was told it was because as a little child, hehad strung butterflies in a thin stick. Therishi became angry for having been cruellypunished for the ignorant act of a littlechild and cursed Dharma Raja to be bornas a human being. Dharma Raja was thusborn as Sri Vidura.

Vidura was indeed a superhumanbeing who was well versed in all theshastras and all branches of knowledgegiven to a royal prince. His intelligence wascolossal and because of his immenselearning and wisdom, he became theadvisor of his brother, King Dhritarashtra.If only the blind king had listened to thewise counsel of Vidura, the Mahabharatawar would not have taken place. To Vidura,righteousness was far better than fighting.Being a dharmic man his love was alwaysfor the Pandavas who revered him, andalways sought his wise counsel. During thewar, however, he remained withDhritarashtra, pulled as he was by a senseof duty and brotherly affection.

Due to his partiality towards hisown evil sons, Dhritarashtra refused thelegitimate share of the kingdom to thePandavas and Vidura was so hurt that heleft the palace and lived in a humbledwelling. Dhritarashtra’s conscience

pricked him and he sent for Vidura andsought his counsel. The advice of Vidurais known as Viduraniti which is acelebrated work and is valid even in ourdays. Vidura describes the duties of afather and a king. He spoke toDhritarashtra without fear or favour andViduraniti is an excellent guide to allpoliticians. But alas! The good counsel ofVidura fell on deaf ears as Dhritarashtrawas overcome with attachment towards hissons.

When the Pandavas were banishedand were living in the house made of lac,Vidura saved them from the tragedy ofbeing burnt by the wicked Duryodhana.

After the war, he accompanied hisbrother, Dhritarashtra, Gandhari andKunti to the forest and turned away fromall worldly preoccupations. Always a greatdevotee of the Lord, Vidura was blessed tohear the counsel given by the Lord toUddhava from the mouth of Maitreya.Finally, in deep contemplation, he left hisbody and merged in the Highest.

Vidura’s life exemplified the virtuesof duty, loyalty, simplicity, wisdom anddesirelessness. He was truly anincarnation of dharma.


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SATI AHALYA

PROF.SEEMA MANDAVIA

Out of two types of women, describedin Ramayana, Sati Ahalya belongsto the first type. The women of this

type were called ascetic, who retired to theforests to lead a contemplative life. Theyare found staying practically alone,spreading the fragrance of their innerperfection for the benefit of those who getinto their immediate neighbourhood. Thenames of Anasuya, Shabari,Swayamprabha, Ahalya etc., can bementioned in this category, where Ahalyais described in greater detail. Herstruggles, her fall and her furtherdisciplines teach us a number of lessons.

The story of Ahalya has to beapproached with respect and reverence byall who sincerely struggle to achieve self-mastery, because it shows that spiritualeminence is hardly achieved at one boundby anyone, but that it comes as theculmination of a series of victories over thelower impulses in oneself.

Hala means ugliness. As there wasnothing blamable in her, Brahma himselfgave her the name Ahalya. It is said, thedeity left her in the care of the sageGautama for a long time. The self-controlled Gautama looked after hercarefully and gave her back, pure andunsullied to Brahma. Highly pleased withthis virtuous conduct, Brahma gave herin marriage to Gautama himself. Marriagedid not make any change in their attitudetowards discipline, as they continued theirascetic practices with the same intensityand rigour as before.

But, this spiritual life or ascetic life isnot smooth. Many hurdles come in

between. Something untoward happens inthe life of Ahalya too. There was, howeverin Ahalya’s character a small trace of‘perverse understanding’ and curiositywhich combined with her ‘matchlessbeauty’ exposed her to temptation. Andthat temptation came through thetreachery of Indra. When she was marriedto Gautama, Indra got jealous, as heimagined himself to the proper husbandfor her. So once, in the absence of the sage,Indra assumed the form of the sageGautama and found no difficulty inseducing her, since, apparently, herausterity was not at that stage strongenough to triumph over the demands ofthe senses.

As one advances in austerity in thespiritual path, one gets some powers called‘siddhis’. This austerity makes speechcreative and what saint utters comes true.An angry speech then becomes a curse,while a speech with goodwill behind itbecomes a blessing. Gautama in righteousindignation cursed Indra as well as Ahalya.To Ahalya he said, “Though Indra is thesupreme God of all gods, but ultimatelyhe is ‘Rajoguna’ personified. Rajogunaleads to the path of temptation or any suchvices. But I am grieved that a sattavikperson like you have succumbed totemptation. You are gifted with beauty andyouth but your mind is fickle. You shallnot continue as the single, beautifulmaiden in the world. For thousands ofyears you shall live here unseen, feedingon air, without food and tormented byrepentance”. Ahalya felt very bad of hermistake and expected consolation fromher husband, but she got contraryresult!—the curse of her husband and


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listening to this she was really grief-stricken to such an extent as her heartgot the biggest blow and as if it were frozen.The sage had, however, then assured hrsaying, ‘When the irrepressible Rama willcome in this dense forest, you will becleansed of your sin by giving himhospitality”. Thus the time was passing indays, months and years…but she was noteating, drinking or doing anything, becamejust like a stone! For sometime the sagedidn’t look at her, but afterwards when hegot conscious of his anger, his heart gotsoftened and in repentance went toAhalya, gave her consolation, offered hisservices but of no avail!

Then after many years, when Ramaand Lakshman a were passing through theforest with Vishwamitra, they came to thisplace and at the sight of Rama her curseended. Both the princes took hold of herfeet, seeing the magnificent lady flamingin ascetic energy. And she, rememberingGautama’s words took hold of theirs. Thusby austerity, she was taken back by hersaintly husband. In this way her life is ascintillating example for the seekers oftruth, who are walking on the path ofspirituality.


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Afair glimpse of the beautifullysimple and austere life led by theideal couple, the great sage Atri

and his virtuous wife Anasuya, in theirripe old age in the forest of Chitrakuta isprovided to us by Valmiki in AyodyaKanda.

After Bharata returned to Ayodhyafrom Chitrakuta with his retinue, takingRama’s padukas with him, Rama foundthat the ecological balance of thepeaceful forest had been disturbed verymuch by the vast army. Therefore, hedecided to quit the place and move todeeper regions of the forest. Moreover,many sages who were doing thepenances in the ashramas in Chitrakuta,also started moving away from the placefor various reasons, one of them beingtheir fear that the serenity of the placewould be disturbed frequently in thefuture.

Rama, Sita and Lakshmanareverentially called on Sage Atri, to takehis blessings before leaving the place.The sage received Rama with muchaffection as if he was his own son andshowed him every courtesy as anhonourable guest.

Atri who knew what was right andwhat was good to all creatures called hisaged his highly blessed wife Anasuya byher name and introduced her to Rama.He chose such kind words of praise thatshowed what amount, of affection andesteem he had for his aged wife bentdown by years of austere life and practiceof virtues.

He said, “Rama, here is my wife thecelebrated Anasuya, who hasdistinguished herself with practice ofsevere asceticism and difficult sacredvows for many years. Once, when thewhole world had been dried up by acontinuous period of drought for ten longyears, she saved and nurtured the entireplant kingdom with the power gainedfrom her ascetic life. By virtue of thesame power she made the river Gangaflow close to my hermitage with the nameMandakini. She gave the benefit of herlong penances to gods and all livingbeings. Let Sita pay her respects to thiscelebrated tapaswini, who has neverknown anger, and take her blessings”.

Rama turned to Sita and said, “Nowthat you have listened to the words ofthis great sage, you may quicklyapproach, this hermitess reverentiallyand seek her blessings. She is showngreat reverence by the entire world forher virtuous life and good actions and iswell known as ‘Anasuya’, one who is freefrom jealousy and also at the same timeone to whom no one can have an attitudeof jealousy or ill will, because she is sogood.

Anasuya took Sita to the innerenclosure of the hut and made her feelquite at home. Thereafter she discoursedto Sita in very kind words about thegreatness of a life of virtues and chastityand how a married woman could rise togreat heights of glory by leading a life ofperfect understanding with her husbandand helping him with utmost faith,sincerity and ability in the pursuit ofreligious disciplines.

MAHARISHI ATRI AND SATI ANASUYA : THE IDEAL COUPLE

K.NARAYANASWAMI


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When Sita took her leave Anasuyablessed her and presented to hergarments, unguents and jewels.

The greatness of Sage Atri is referredto in several stories contained in Vedas,Mahabharata and other puranas. Hisname commonly finds a place in thedifferent lists of names of the seven greatsages (Saptarishis) appearing in variousPuranas. Many Rig Veda mantras areascribed to him (as Mantra Dhrashta).Every where he is spoken of withreverence, as one given to severeausterities and sacrifices and as oneready to help the gods and creatures withhis mantrabala and tapobala.

One such story describes how thewhole Universe was plunged in darknesswhen the demons led by Swarbhanuattacked the Sun God ;and the Moon Godand how Atri came to the rescue of thegods by lighting up the Universe withradiance, using his power of austerities.

The birth of Soma (the Moon God) ashis son is also symbolically described inone Purana. By virtue of his long asceticdiscipline his body had acquired such abrilliance that its luster spread over theentire sky and ultimately helped in theemergence of Soma.

It has also been said that he wasknown by the very name “Atri” (A-tri)because he proved himself to be beyondthe influence of the three gunas, Satwa,Rajas and Tamas.

The Puranas describe his devotedwife Anasuya as a model of virtues, pietyand chastity and as an ideal wife worthyof emulation by all women at all times.Her chaste l i fe of discipline andasceticism gave her a great store ofpower, which she used only in

exceptional circumstances, either toprotect her own chastity or to save theworld at times of great peril.

A few such instances are worthrecounting.

Once sage Narada wanted to show tothe entire world, the greatness ofAnasuya and the glory of chastity. Heheld a difficult contest for the threesupreme goddesses, Lakshmi, Parvatiand Saraswati, which was intended toprove who among them was the mostvirtous and powerful one. When theyfailed to win the challenged him to showto them any other woman who couldcome out successful in the same contest.He showed to them how Atri’s a faithfulwife Anasuya could easily prove herselfby winning the contest. Then the threegoddesses individually requested theirrespective spouses, Vishnu, Siva andBrahma to deprive Anasuya of the powerheld in store by her. They took the cuefrom Narada and played their part in thewhole “Leela”. They went to Anasuya inthe guise of pious mendicants and askedfor ‘Bhiksha’, with a precondition whichno virtuous woman would accept. Butthe great Anasuya understood who theywere and the purpose of their visit, withthe help of her power, and changed theminto cradle babies and fed them fulfillingtheir conditional wish.

When everything ended well theTrimurtis gave their darsan to Sage Atriand Sati Anasuya in their proper formsand granted their wish for progenies.With their blessings three sons were bornto the pious couple in due course, eachwith the amsa of each of the trimuritsand they were the great Dattatreya,Durvasa and Soma.


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In another popular story (which haspuranic support) it is described howAnasuya intervened at the behest of godswhen the entire creation was threatenedwith doom and the gods themselves werehelpless.

That is the story of Nalayini, anothervirtuous lady who wanted to save herhusband from instant death at daybreak,by the operation of a curse, unwittinglypronounced on him by a sage calledMandavya, Nalayini prayed to Sun Godand appealed to him not to rise at all, sothat there would not be a day break andher husband would not die. The Sun Godfeared her because she was so chasteand virtuous and therefore complied withher wish. The activities of the entireworld stopped abruptly. The Gods inheaven did not get their share ofoblations, as sacrif ices were notperformed by the people. The entire cycleof seasons, rains, sunshine and so forthcame to standstill and there were chaosin the whole Universe.

The gods approached Brahma foradvice and he directed them to propitiateAnasuya, the epitome of womanlyvirtues.

In Markandeya Purana Brahma’sadvice is given in beautiful words:-

“Majesty is subdued by majestyindeed, austerities also by austerities,Oh, you immortals! Hence, now that youdesire the Sun should rise you have topropitiate Atri’s faithful wife Anasuyawho is rich in austerities”.

The kind-hearted Anasuya wasmoved both by the plight of Nalayini onthe one hand and that of the Universeon the other hand she agreed tointervene. She came to Nalayini and gaveher the word that if she withdraw herappeal to the Sun God, her husbandwould be given a new lease of a healthyand virtuous life. Putting her faith inAnasuya, Nalayini gave her consent tothe Sun rising as usual and the activitiesof the Universe restarting. Anasuya, withher power preserved the life of the lady’sHusband, who not only got a fresh leaseof life but also turned to be a man ofvirtues and fine healthy, which he wasnot previously.

The Trimurtis who were present aswitnesses to the wonderful event werepleased with Anasuya. The blessed Atriand Anasuya with freedom samsara (thecycle of birth and death) and Moksha.

There are many such exhilaratingstories eulogizing the virtues of Sage Atriand Sati Anasuya. They have alwaysbeen a source of inspiration to all piousmen and women to lead a simple andnoble life of high thinking, idealism andcompassion to all living beings.


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Vyasa and ViduraBy Swamini Niranjanananda

The Mahabharata is the greatest epicpoem in the world, being eight timesas long as the Iliad and the Odyssey

put together. It is longer than the unitedextent of all the poems in Europeanlanguages. The Indians hold this book ingreat reverence while people all over theworld regard it as the greatest classic ofworld literature. It is called the ‘fifth Veda’and is the treasure house of ancientwisdom and Hindu culture. It has mouldedthe heart and mind of an entire race in away no other epic in the world has done.Our magnificent epics Ramayana andMahabharata were crucial in the formationof national traditions and character andhave left a deep impression on the textureof Indian life. Mahabharata is avoluminous epic of more than one lakhverses, with many stories and anecdotestouching on almost every aspect of humanwelfare and dharma.

Veda Vyasa – the author

The authorship of this great work isattributed to Veda Vyasa who was alsoknown by other names such asBadarayana, Krishnadvaipayana andParasharya. This great poet philosopherhas become an institution representing theentire Hindu heritage. No single individualin the past or the present has contributedso much to the preservation of Hindudharma as Sri Veda Vyasa has done. Heexcels all other writers in his extraordinarymental insights, social awareness andvision of Truth. This mighty intellectevokes the greatest admiration andwonder even in the hearts of westerncritics.

It is believed that Vyasa was born asthe son of a Brahmin rishi and afisherwoman. He combined in his naturethe sattwa quality of his father and thedaring adventurousness of his mother. Hewas born at a time when the Hindus werein the process of forgetting their gloriousVedic heritage. Sensing the growingpreoccupation of his generation withmaterial prosperity and the fallingstandards of spiritual values, Vyasa setout to revive Hindu dharma. He was arevivalist who contributed the maximumto Hindu renaissance of that critical era.He was a daring religious revolutionarywho put Hinduism back on its pedestal.

Compiling the Vedas

Veda Vyasa was the title given to thisgreat poet-seer because he compiled thethen existing Veda Mantras into fourwritten volumes in a daring attempt topreserve this priceless knowledge forfuture generations. Much of the Vedas wasalready forgotten and it is his vision whichled him to perpetuate the Vedas as weknow them today. In compiling the Vedas,he brought about a harmonious rhythmby dividing each book into four sections –Mantras (chants), Brahmanas (rituals andrules of conduct), Aranyakas (methods ofsubjective worship) and Upanishads(philosophic revelations).

The Brahma Sutra

After compiling the Vedas, he foundthat the majority of the people wereinterested in the Karma Kanda portion ofthe Vedas and the Upanishadic portionwhich is the essence of the Vedas was


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being totally neglected even by thescholars. Veda Vyasa therefore crystallisedthe Upanishadic thoughts enshrined in theUpanishads and wrote the famous textcalled the Brahma Sutra. The Brahma Sutrabecame the definitive text of AdvaitaVedanta.

The Puranas

Still dissatisfied, since his famousworks would not be able to reach thecommon man, he evolved a new kind ofliterature called the ‘Puranas’. Throughthem, he brought together thequintessence of the Vedas and theUpanishads by means of stories andanecdotes to the understanding of theuneducated and the underprivileged. Theeighteen Puranas and the BhagavataMahapurana are the unique contributionof Maharshi Veda Vyasa to Hindu spiritualliterature.

Mahabharata

However, the greatest achievement ofthis genius was the itihasa called theMahabharata, which was instrumental inchanging the very fabric of thought ofgenerations of Hindus. It is called the fifthVeda and is basically a Dharma Shastra.In the middle of his masterpiece, Vyasaintroduced ‘The Song Celestial’, whichshines like a dazzling pendant in a garlandof enchanting lyrics. It is often said thatwhatever is not there in the Mahabharatais not there in the outer world –Vyasocchishtam jagat sarvam. Indeed theentire Mahabharata is the story of Vyasa’sown children and grandchildren. Thecharacters in it are so human that even aperfect man like Yudhishthira had his ownlittle weaknesses and an evil Duryodhanaalso had his own good points. Kunti,Gandhari, Draupadi, Karna and Sakuniare some of the unforgettable characters

in this great epic. Not only was Vyasa’sintellect mighty but he also held in hisembrace of love the entire universe of livingbeings. To bring to all creatures a sparklinglife of joy and exuberance was the anxietyin Vyasa’s heart, and the result is thisgreatest of all epics.

Writes Pujya Swami Chinmayananda,“The versatile genius of Vyasa has neverleft anything that he has touched withoutraising it to the sublimest heights of sheerperfection. A brilliant philosopher, anincomparable poet, a consummate man ofwisdom, a genius in worldly knowledge –now in the palace, now in the battlefield,now among the silent, snowy peaks strodethe colossus, Sri Vyasa as an embodimentof what is best in the Hindu tradition.”

Vidura

One of the outstanding characters inthe Mahabharata is Sri Vidura, who wasthe half-brother of Dhritarashtra andPandu. Born as the son of Sri Vyasa and amaid servant in the palace, Vidura is anembodiment of dharma. In theMahabharata there is an interesting storyabout the birth of Vidura. There was agreat tapasvi called Mandavya Rishi whowas once doing penance standing kneedeep in a river. Suddenly there was acommotion as the officers of the king whowere chasing some thieves caught themwith their booty which was thrown wherethe saint was doing penance. Taking thesaint to be an accomplice of the thieves,they took him into custody and laterimpaled him along with the commonthieves. While all the thieves died, the rishiwas alive which amazed and frightened theking. He rushed to him and ordered himto be released and apologized for histhoughtless action. When the time of deathfinally came, Mandavya Rishi questionedDharma Raja his undeserved suffering and


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was told it was because as a little child,he had strung butterflies in a thin stick.The rishi became angry for having beencruelly punished for the ignorant act of alittle child and cursed Dharma Raja to beborn as a human being. Dharma Raja wasthus born as Sri Vidura.

Vidura was indeed a superhumanbeing who was well versed in all theshastras and all branches of knowledgegiven to a royal prince. His intelligence wascolossal and because of his immenselearning and wisdom, he became theadvisor of his brother, King Dhritarashtra.If only the blind king had listened to thewise counsel of Vidura, the Mahabharatawar would not have taken place. To Vidura,righteousness was far better than fighting.Being a dharmic man his love was alwaysfor the Pandavas who revered him, andalways sought his wise counsel. During thewar, however, he remained withDhritarashtra, pulled as he was by a senseof duty and brotherly affection.

Due to his partiality towards his ownevil sons, Dhritarashtra refused thelegitimate share of the kingdom to thePandavas and Vidura was so hurt that heleft the palace and lived in a humbledwelling. Dhritarashtra’s conscience

pricked him and he sent for Vidura andsought his counsel. The advice of Vidurais known as Viduraniti which is acelebrated work and is valid even in ourdays. Vidura describes the duties of afather and a king. He spoke toDhritarashtra without fear or favour andViduraniti is an excellent guide to allpoliticians. But alas! The good counsel ofVidura fell on deaf ears as Dhritarashtrawas overcome with attachment towards hissons.

When the Pandavas were living in thehouse made of lac-, Vidura saved themfrom the tragedy of being burnt by thewicked Duryodhana.

After the war, he accompanied hisbrother, Dhritarashtra, Gandhari andKunti to the forest and turned away fromall worldly preoccupations. Always a greatdevotee of the Lord, Vidura was blessedto hear the counsel given by the Lord toUddhava from the mouth of Maitreya.Finally, in deep contemplation, he left hisbody and merged in the Highest.

Vidura’s life exemplified the virtues ofduty, loyalty, simplicity, wisdom anddesirelessness. He was truly anincarnation of dharma.


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PURANAS: The Reading glasses forthe Vedas

Kanchi Paramacharya

1. As a reading glass shows small lettersas big ones, the Puranas enlarge the lawsof Dharma, enunciated succinctly in theVedas.

2. A short version may not touch the heart.The same, told in the form of a long storywill make a deep impression. The Vedasays just “Satyam vada”. The story ofHarischandra narrates in a number ofchapters, the glory of speaking the truth.What is mentioned in the Veda just in twowords ‘Dharmam chara’ ‘Practiserighteousness’, is reexpressed in a longstory in the Mahabharata as the life ofDharmaputra. The Vedic dictum – ‘Matrudevo bhava’, ‘Pitru devo bhava’; ‘(Let yourfather be your god; Let your mother beyour goddess)’ is enlarged by the lenses ofSri Rama’s story. The commands of theVedas in the form of humility, forbearance,compassion, chastity and other Dharmashave been taken up by the heroes andheroines of Puranas. Through their life-stories, the Vedic commands areilluminated. Listening to them and readingthem, we develop a keen interest in theseDharmas.

3. These noble characters have beensubjected to trials and difficulties, muchmore than us, the erring mortals. Theyhave undergone terrible tribulations. Yetwhen we read their stories we do not feel‘The practice of dharma would lead us onlyto misery. “Let us abandon Dharma!” Wenever feel so.

The mental clarity and peace thesecharacters achieved-that alone touchesour minds and hearts. They never budgedin the face of their trials and stood firmlike a rock. Our hearts melt when we hear

of their suffering and this cleanses ourhearts. The final victory and fame theyachieve make us hold on to Dharma firmly.

4. Some scholars do not consider thePuranas as history. They quote themwhenever it suits them-to ‘prove’ the Arya- Dravida divisive theories. And theydiscard the Puranic references to themiracles, supernatural events as fictionand myth. As they believe the super-sensorial events to be untrue, they rejectthe Puranas as historical evidence.

5. The Puranas also repeat themselves asHistory repeats itself. But Puranas leadthe readers on the moral path. Historydoes not have any such message.

6. Though Puranas are also histories, theyteach the basic lessons on merit and sinto the people and select only sucheducative stories for the readers. Theyteach us that people of righteousbehaviour win in this birth itself andadharmins lose here itself. There is noPuranic story that does not teach us theeffects of papa and punya.

7. Though the Puranas list the names ofkings of the Solar and Lunar dynasties,they dwell on the lives of meritoriouscharacters for long and dismiss others ina line or two. For example, the Bhagavatadescribes in extenso the story of Dhruva,a living example of Devotion, constancy ofeffort and firmness. Dhruva’s father,Uttanapada, Dhruva’s son etc are disposedoff in just two or three lines.

8. The Englishmen called our Puranas,Myths, untrue statements. But when theywrote our History, they incorporated in ittheir ‘Divide and Rule’ ideology in the formof the ‘Race theory’, pretending that theywere objective researchers. Now efforts areon, to reconstruct Indian history and free


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it from the British interpolations. Thesepeople may have their own prejudices.Truly objective history may not be writtenat all.

9. Vyasa who wrote the 18 Puranas, thenoble people who wrote the Sthala Puranasand Sekkizhar, the composer of the TamilPeriyapuranam were the truly objectivewriters.

10. The stories of kings alone need not bethe true history of a people. But ourPuranas keep Dharma at the centre andto illustrate it, use not the Royal people,but the righteous people, the seers andthe ordinary people. The Puranas give usinformation about all other aspects of life.The Puranas bring to us the messages onthe political and cultural life of the peopleas well as the arts and sciences of thosetimes. But the key points are Dharma andspiritual well-being of the people.

(Translated from Tamil ‘Deivathin Kural II’Vanati – Chennai 1978)

Are Puranas True?Kanchi Paramacharya

If everyone wants to excise from thePuranas, what he takes to be aninterpolation, there will be nothing left atthe end. Therefore even if we believe thatthere are some mistakes and confusion inthem, we have to conserve the Puranas inthe same form in which they have reachedour hands. If there is anything of fictionin it, let it be there. At least they serve thepurpose of leading us to God and therebyquieten our minds!

We go to a shop for purchasingsome grocery. We get good stuff and weare satisfied that our purpose in fulfilled.We should not complain that the shop has

such and such deficiency or that the shopkeeper has this fault or that.

If there are some errors ingeography, astronomy and of aeons (man-vantaras) let us ignore them. We have“Geographical” “Astronomical” “Historical”lessons (of modern studies). The principlesof the Supreme God, the principles ofDevotion, Dharma, which cannot beproffered by these (modern) books aregiven to us by the Puranas.

Some people argue that Ramacould not have lived in the Tretaye Yugaor so many lakhs of years back. The kindof civilization portrayed in the Ramayanacould not have existed then. I do not agreewith them. Still for the sake of argument,I say this. Let us say Treta yuga was notthe age of Rama. Let the stories of theearlier Krita yuga be not of that antiquity.Let us say all the events took place withinthe last seven to eight thousand years. Willthat all bring down the values of the storyof Rama? Or of the other tales? Will theirlessons be different or wrong?

The Shastras say that Vyasa gaveus the Puranas 5000 years ago in thebeginning of the Kaliyuga. There werePuranas in the earlier periods too. In theChhandogya Upanishad, Narada mentionsthe Puranas where he catalogues theVidyas (arts and sciences) he hasmastered. That gives us the indication thatpuranas were there in the Vedic andUpanishadic period also. To suit the lessenergetic people of the later times, Vyasadivided the Vedas into many branches(shakhas ). Similarly he might haveelaborated on the Puranas also.

But the English educated peoplesay that the Puranas are not very ancient.Let them be so. The researches about theage of the Puranas are meaningless. Thepurpose of the Puranas is to cleanse the


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mind, to remove the vrittis. With that kindof attitude and, respect, if we study thePuranas, with devotion and concern forrighteousness, many objections wouldvanish.

The biggest superstition is tobelieve implicitly if anything is called“Research”. The present day researcheshave many holes in them. Even if thisresearch is true and the Puranas fictitious,they imprint on our mind the great lesson“the righteous people lived; the errant menperished”. That is how the Puranas delivertheir goods.

Not only the modernists, even thelearned in the scriptures and the wisepeople give secondary importance to thePuranas. The exponents of Puranas areconsidered inferior to the lecturers of otherscriptures. But great scholarsMahamahopadhyaya Yagnaswamysastrigal, Mahamahopadhyaya KapeRamachandrachar and others lectured onthe Puranas frequently. Of late ShrivatsaSomadeva Sharma is trying to bring outsummaries of 18 Puranas.

(Translated from Tamil “Deivathin KuralII” Vanati – Chennai 1978)

Box Item Size of the Puranas

The 18 Puranas are made up of 400,000grantas. Each granta is made up of 32letters. Skandha purana is made of1,00,000 granthas the other 17 make3,00,000 granthas. Mahabharata is of1,00,000 granthas. Ten of the eighteenpuranas are on Shiva.

The authority of the PuranasKanchi Paramacharya

1.Many well known episodes of ourreligious life are from the Puranas.

2.The Puranas carry philosophy, story andhistory.

3.Parashara the father of Vyasa, wrote theVishnu Purana. It is quoted as an authorityby Shankara in his Vishnu-SahasranamaBhashya. In Ramanuja’s philosophy too,Vishnu purana is an important sourcebook.

4.Alavandar’s posthumous instruction toRamanuja was that the latter shouldglorify Parasara and Vyasa.

5.Vyasa rewrote the Puranas so that allpeople can receive the message of theVedas.

6. Bhagawata was recited by Suka son ofVyasa to Parikshit.

7. The term Bhagawata may signify VishnuBhagawata or Devi Bhagawata or both.

8.The Markandeya Purana has the mantra-Durga Saptashati - the 700 mantrasworshipping Durga through yagna.

9. Chaitanya, Nimbarka or Vallabha placein their philosophies the Vishnupurana onpar with the Vedas.

10. Garuda purana is studied on theoccasion of funerals and shraddha.

11. Lalita Sahasranama is a part ofBrahmandapurana.

12. The popular 108 names, 1008 names,Kavachas, Aditya Hridayam, Pradoshastotra are all parts of Puranas/epics.

13. There are Puranas glorifying variousmonths, tirthas and pilgrim centres.

14. There are Puranas about devotees ofgod. ‘Periya Puranam’ is in Tamil. It has


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been adapted in Samskrit as ‘UpamanyuBhakti vilasam ’ . Bhakta Vijayam/BhaktaMala talks of the lives of thedevotees of Pandurang Vitthala.(Source: “Deivathin Kural II” Vanati –Chennai 1978)

STHALA PURANASBy Kanchi Paramacharya

1. Learned believers say that Sthalapuranas, localized epics and puranas arerepetitions of the same events age afterage (Kalpa). An event associated with aparticular place in one Kalpa, may occurin a different place in the next Kalpa.

2. The Sthala puranas create faith, shapethe characters of the people, intensifydevotion in the minds of the local people,giving their village or region a place in thelarger stories.

3. Thevarams, the Shaiva scriptures, andDivya Prabandhams the Vaishnavaitescriptures are as sacred and authentic asthe Vedas. These scriptures do glorifySthala puranas and refer to events fromthem. For example The SriRanga Sthalapurana refers to Vibhishana receiving theidol of Ananta Shayana Vishnu from SriRama. But the idol took roots and gotinstalled at Shrirangam thwartingVibhishana’s efforts to carry the same toSri Lanka. Then the Lord Ananta ShayanaRanganatha condescended to lie facingsouth, in order to assuage the feelings ofVibhishana. This event has been referredto Tondaradipodi Azhwar (Vipra.Narayana) in an authoritative text.

4. The Sthalapurana of Kanchipurammentions that Devi Kamakshi embraceda Shivalinga to save it from a flood.Sundarar a great saint confirms this eventin his Thevaram.

5. These events show that Saints of greatinfluence too accepted and quoted fromthe Sthala puranas. Such references aremade not only about large, great andfamous temples, but too about smallplaces and temples. In a region, a numberof temples are linked by a common historyand one local purana. For example the taleof a pot full of Nectar which was shatteredand scattered by Shiva’s arrow has a multi-centred evidence in a dozen places aroundKumbakonam in TamilNadu.

6. Rameshwaram, Vedaranyam andPattishvaram are related by stories ofRama. Rama had visited these places andworshipped Shiva there as an act ofexpiation for killing Ravana, a brahmana,a valorous hero and a glorious person.Rama had to install three Shivalingas asa prayascitta for killing a brahmana, ahero, a glorious devotee. Incidentally thistale linking three places of wide interval,nails the bluff that the Ramayana is thestory of Rama (an Aryan) killing Ravana (a“non Vedic”) Dravidian!

7. Similarly a story of one pious Brahminof Mayuram (in Tamil Nadu) tallies event-for-event to a story of the same person inKashi. Two highly localized puranas thusrefer to a same person in two places 2000km from each other. Such highlyimprobable coincidences confer greatreliability and authenticity onSthalapuranas.

8. Sthala puranas supplement andcompliment one another and fill in thedetails missed in Mahapuranas and epics.They are great source books of informationabout local usages, customs and cultures.

9. Thousands of such Sthala puranas areextant and they enlighten us on thepractice of Dharma in minute details. Thegreat poets of Tamil Nadu, following the


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footsteps of great rishis and incorporatingoral, local traditions, have composed theseSthala puranas. Mahatmiyams,Kalambakams and Ulas rank with theSthala puranas.

10. The 16th century in Tamil Nadu ismarked by scholars as the century ofSthala puranas.

Gnanaprakasa, Shaiva Ellappa Navalar,Umapati Shivacharya, Shiva Prakashaswami, Veeraraghava, the Blind poet, Thelame-blind duo of poets, ShivakozhundhuDesikar, Trikoota Rajappa andMahavidwan Minakshi Sundaram Pillaiwere men of great eminence, scholarshipand wisdom and they have authored theseSthala puranas adding to their weightage.The rulers patroinsed these works withopen handed generosity.

(Translated from Tamil “Deivathin KuralII” Vanati – Chennai 1978)

Specific Folk forms Related to theMahabharata in TamilNadu

Saraswati Venugopal

Ramaraju remarks: The rural folks ofAndhra have culled out from the great epicMahabharata, some topics here and thereand composed their own lore of ballads.Just like the augmentation of Ramayanaepisode, the Bharata epic was alsoenlarged and strange-ballads and taleswoven into it” These remarks hold goodfor Tamils also.To create new stories and invent newepisodes is a common folk tendency. Thetraditional stories are altogether changed,altered, and recast in a unique manner.Their own innate creative genius isblended into the previously existing story-format. New creations were made andadded to the Ramayana epic and similarlywith the Mahabharata such deviations

from and extensions of the original storiesare made not only by the rural folk butalso by classical writers. This interpolatorytendency is mainly the outcome of themental attitude of the politically incensedpeople both sophisticated andunsophisticated” –Says Ramaraju.

This is equally true in the Tamil context.

(Extracts: The Mahabharata in the Tribaland Folk Traditions in India. I.I.A.S. Shimla– 1993)

Why did the Westerners carry Awayour Manuscripts if they are

worthless?Kanchi Paramacharya

Libraries are to the cultural wealth of aNation, what treasuries are to its materialwealth. At a time when printing presseswere not known in India, only one or twocopies of rare books were preserved in thepalm-leaf-manuscript libraries. To destroythe manuscript was to destroy the bookitself. The invaders would violate women,destroy temples and burn down thelibraries of the countries they attacked.I am proud to say that in our Rajanitishastras there is no permission for suchoffences. When a Jain Amarsinha wasdefeated in an argument with AdiShankara, he rushed to consign hiswritings to flames. Adi Shankara stoppedhim, defending the right of a philosophyto survive.

But the invaders into this country had nouse for such goodness. They were moreinterested in burning our libraries andhurting our sentiments.

When the Carnatic Nawabs and othersascended to power, the Muslim armyfanned out into Tamil Nadu. Theyconsidered the destruction of Saraswati


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Mahal Manuscript library of Tanjavur asan equivalent to razing down the BigTemple. They eagerly marched forward tofinish off the library. Dabir Pant was aMahrashtrian Brahmin who was theminister to the Tanjavur ruler, adescendent of Shivaji. He thought of a wayout of the crisis. He told the marauders“We have not only Hindu scriptures here,we have copies of Koran too in the library.”The muslims said “Oh! Are there Korancopies here. We won’t burn them!” Thusthe library was saved.

The Britishers, Frenchmen and Germanssaw whether they could benefit from ourscriptures. When Mc. Kenizie was theSurveyor General he went beyond the callof duty and he arranged to have the palmleaf records perused, preserved andcatalogued. Me Kenzie’s officers came tothe math at Kumbakonam too andcollected information.

A number of science books especially ofDhanur Veda were taken away from theSaraswati Mahal library. It is the popularperception that Hitler constructed bombsand aeroplanes with designs based onthese books.Bhoja’s Somarangana Sutra and otherbooks, reveal the fact that we possessed avariety of weapons. Brihad Samhita ofVaraha Mihira refers to a number ofsciences.

(Translated from Tamil ‘Deivathin Kural II”Vanati- Chennai 17-1978)

The Quantum of Loss of ManuscriptsMichael Hahn

Dr. Wolfgang Voigt, then director of theOriental Department of the Prussian StateLibrary, Berlin, once told me the storywhen and how a project was founded.During a meeting of the German OrientalSociety (Deutsche MorgenlandischeGesellschaft) which took place in thesecond half of the fifties, a group of theleading orientalists in Germany met andagreed upon the necessity to preparescientific catalogues of all the orientalmanuscripts kept in German libraries. Anestimate of the time and size of the projectwas made and all the experts wereconvinced that it would take about fouryears to compile the about 20 volumesthey believed to be sufficient to cover thematerial. Today the project runs for almost35 years, more than 80 volumes haveappeared and nobody dares to predictwhen and with how many volumes theproject will be concluded. Four years agoone of my former staff-members atMarburg was given a life-time position withthe sole task of cataloguing the Indiancollections in Germany which are not yetdealt with in the 17 volumes which haveso far appeared in the series “Descriptionof the Oriental Manuscripts in Germany”At the end of the sixties theaforementioned cataloguing project turnedinto something much bigger, transcendingthe original scope and geographicalconfinement by far. Since the middle ofthe 19th century it had been known thatin the small area of the Kathmandu valleyin Nepal a great quantity of manuscriptsare kept which distinguish themselves intwo respects from those kept in India; first,the older ones among them are much olderthan the Indian manuscripts and, second,among them there are quite a few whichare no longer extant in India. There is athird aspect also, a considerable portion


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of the Buddhist literature which is moreor less completely absent in India isavailable in Nepal in many copies. It is inearly collection of these Buddhistmanuscripts from Nepal on which the firstscientific description of Indian Buddhismis based, the Hodgson collection which wasdistributed among libraries in Calcutta,Cambridge and Paris. For about onecentury Nepal had remained almost asinaccessible to foreigners as Tibet. Only afew Westerners like S. Levi or G. Tucci hadbeen permitted to enter the country. After1950 the country opened itself again toforeigners and very soon it became evidentthat the cultural heritage of this small andpoor kingdom had little chance towithstand the aggressiveness of Westerntourists. Anticipating the sellout ofprecious and irreplaceable documents, theplan was conceived by German Indologiststo preserve the Nepalese manuscripts anddocuments by microfilming them.

In 1970 the Nepal-German ManuscriptPreservation Project was officiallylaunched as a joint venture of the GermanOriental Society and HMG Department ofArchaeology. Over a period of 24 yearsmore than 100,000 manuscripts with morethan 4 million pages were microfilmedunder this project, and many scholars allover the world have benefited from thepossibility of easily and inexpensivelyordering a microfilming text they areparticularly interested in. Since then theNepal-German Manuscript PreservationProject has served as model for severalminor and major projects and if I am notmistaken also the Indira Gandhi NationalCentre for the Arts has used Germanexperience to order microfilms of Indianmanuscripts now kept outside India.

(The Perennial tree – I.C.C.R – New Ageinternational (p) Ltd. New Delhi 1996)

Mahabharata in TamilBy Ranganayaki Mahapatra

Tamil Nadu, like other parts of India, takesgreat pride and pleasure in the legendaryconnections it has with Mahabharata. Thefamous Mahabalipuram has as its proudtourist attraction-the rock which isactually butter chewed by Bhima. Arjuna’spenance, which is a famous piece ofsculpture there, is another local pride.

Draupadi has been raised to the highestplace again by the Tamil national poetSubrahmanya Bharati. What BankimChandra dreamed for Bengali language-that is to make it a language full of lifeand vitality, Bharati wanted for TamilNadu. What is needed is that languagesshould be the languages of the commonman, original and creative work should beproduced in simple and easy languagewhich a common man would understandand appreciate-all these and many moreideas were translated into action bySubrahmanya Bharati, to rejuvenate hismother tongue, Tamil. He wrote the epicPancali Sapatam-the vow of Pancali-inTamil, in a beautiful, lucid style, full ofnative genius using folk metres andrhymes. Though as literature it did not getto the masses then, his message to theIndian people, calling them throughPancali, was appreciated rightly.

She symbolized the fettered Bharatmata,queen in chains, left unprotected by theweak impotent natives, in Pancali, callingfor help, for freedom.

She symbolized Indian woman, boundhand and foot by the ignorant, selfish,blind society, which does not realize that


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real freedom for the country lies first infreeing the woman from her shackles andtreating her as man’s equal.

He has again brought into focus theMahabharata which is an eternal dramathat is going on today, the strugglebetween good and bad. In his PanchaliSapatam, Subrahmanya Bharati hasmingled nationalism as well as his veryphilosophy of life too. So it has been againbrought back as the mirror in which themodern man can see himself andunderstand. The moral perhaps is that thenation cannot be pawned to satisfy thepersonal egos and fancies, however mightythe leaders are. That scriptures can beinterpreted by clever politicians, to suittheir ends, not necessarily always in theinterest of the vast multitude-the people.(From Mahabharata in the Tribal and Folktraditions of India. I.I.A.S. Shimla 1993)

Epics and Puranas influence Proverbs

The measure of an idea touchingthe heart of the common people, is howthey express that idea in their own words.Proverbs are the distilled essence ofcustom, usage and tradition. Rich inmeaning dressed in minimum of words,proverbs combine wisdom and wit. Theyare popular, wide-spread in appeal, andin India we find proverbs travelling acrosslanguage barriers. Their wisdom has beentested by the touch-stone of time. Epic andPuranic events, characters, and messages,similies abound in Indian proverbs. Sita’schastity, Hanuman’s monkey-like pranks,Sugriva’s inviolable orders (to monkeys todiscover Sita) Rama-Lakshmana’sbrotherly love, Rama’s obedience to hisfather, Bhima’s strength, Sakuni’scunning-ness, Kumbhakarna’s sleep, areall part of the vocabulary of Indianlanguages, each word conveying a hundred

words’ worth of meaning and significance.That is how in India, civilization hasbecome a part of religion and not vice-versa.

Mahalaxmi is the standard forbeauty and prosperity. A Telugu, proverbsays “In a village where there are no cows,the barren buffalo is Shri Mahalaxmi”. TheGanga is the example and standard formajestic flow but it does not make muchsound, and is humble. The proverb againin Telugu goes “The flow of Ganga is alwaysmajestic but the gutter water flows withgreat sound.”

The Bangla proverb ridicules apampered son “A single son of a mother isso much pampered that he moves aboutlike Yama’s emissary.”

A proverb is Kannada ridicules theefforts of mean persons who attempt whatis impossible even for the mighty. “Who isto care for Uttarkumar when there arerenowned and valiant warriors.?”Uttarkumar was the cowardly son of theking of Virata desha, where Arjuna andothers lived in disguise.

One’s own possessions are praisedby oneself as the best of the lot. An Oriyaproverb puts it thus “To each his home islike Mathura; to each her husband is likeKrishna”. Telugu has a slight variant. Thewoman whom one likes is Rambha; andthe water one prefers to bathe in is Ganga.”

The glory of self-help is brought outin the Hindi proverb. “One’s own hand isthe Jagannath”. An Oriya proverb putsthis idea slightly differently. “There is noseeing Yama without dying oneself.”

Proverbs warn man to act in time.It is useless to do something after itsproper time. A Punjabi proverb likens thisto “Lighting after Deepavali.” A Bangla


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proverb asks “Laxman lies dying, whenwould the medicine be coming?”

All Indian languages have proverbspoking fun at the name of a person, whosecharacteristies do not go with that name.A Telugu proverb is “His family name isKshirsagar (Ocean of milk) but everymorning he begs for buttermilk.” A Hindiproverb jokes “Ringworm all over the body,yet his name is Chandrachood.” A Marathiproverb repeats the idea. “Her name isAnnapurna (one Rich with Food) but thereis never any bread left in her basket.”Another Marathi proverb is of similar tone“His name is generous Karna, but he loseshis life while giving away a single cowrie(sea shell).”

When a certain item is in shortsupply and a large number of people wantit, a set of proverbs are used. In Hindi it is“A thousand milk maids aspiring for oneKrishna.”

When one has a particular fault orstrength, and then one is given aninstrument to increase it with, someproverbs come in handy to describe thesituation. A Bangla maxim says “Ramaalone was quite formidable, now Sugrivajoins him.”

When two things of vastly differingmerits are mentioned together, the gap isdescribed by proverbs. In Punjab they say“Where holy chanting of Rama Nama andwhere a meaningless noise!” The same ideaexpressed through a Marathi proverb is“Where the magnificent elephant of LordIndra, where the pony of a BrahminShyambhat”

People take for granted any personor object of their own village. Anything thatcomes from outside is respected most,confirms a Bangla proverb “Madho in his

own village, he is called Madhusudan (withrespect) in three other villages.”

If small objects can kill things ordo a job why waste a bigger object on it?This idea is conveyed through a Tamilproverb What! Discharge Rama’s arrow ona sparrow?” A Telugu proverb concurs“Why use Indra’s thunderbolt for asparrow?”

When those younger in experienceor unlearned give advice to their elders orbetter ones, proverbs take a jibe at themas in Hindi He recites the Vedas beforeBrahma (the creator of the Vedas and theUniverse).”

Innate qualities cannot be changed.A Tamil proverb asserts “A snail born inthe Ganga is not a Shaligram.”

When a person pretends to besomething and is actually something else,this archetypal man is ridiculed as in theTamil and Telugu proverbs.

“He reads the Ramayana but pullsdown temples.”

The epics and the puranas supplyrole models, titles, events and archetypaloccasions that describe the day-to-daypredicaments of the people mostappropriately. That is why common usageplumps in for these names to express all-time and standard wisdom through thisexamples.

(The English Translations ofproverbs are taken from “Proverbs ofIndia:” V.D. Naravane part I Trivenisangam – Language-Dept. Pune Jan. 1978)


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Tamil Proverbs show widespreadPuranic influenceK.V. Jagannathan

1) A crocodile fallen into the moat takes itto be the Vaikuntham (Heaven)2) Begin again at the beginning O! Bharatareciter!3) He has no wife to address yet. But hewishes to name his son Ramakrishna!4) One who is praised by the king isRambha.5) Sita’s beauty and Draupadi’s tonguebrought them their misfortune.6) Even if one has Kubera’s wealth, heshould count his pennies.7) Hanumar can cross the ocean to reachLanka. What would an elephant do?8) As long as Hanuman’s tail.9) To come out as a Shivalinga, a stonehad to take a thousand hits by the-chisel.10) Even Adisesha the thousand tonguedcannot describe it.11) The mangal-sutra knotted byHarischandra cannot be seen by anyoneelse.12) Hidimban sets his foot on all the headsthat come his way!13) When the King is like Rama, theservant would then be like a Hanuman.14) He heard the Ramayana recitedthrough the night, and then asked ‘Howis Rama releted to Sita?”15) All those born in Lanka are notRavanas.16) Like a Lanka burnt down by a monkey!17) When a man sits down (is lazy)Moodevi, – Alaxmi catches him. When aman is up and about Shridevi bestows hergraces upon him.18) As if he was rescued from Yama’smouth.

Puzzles full of Puranic imageries

1) Harichandra gets into a well which noone else can fathom (a ladle with a longhandle)2) It has a long body – it is not Siva’s snake.It plays with fire; it is not Shiva Himself. Ithas a spring –like bow, it is nor Arjuna, Itthreatens the people; it is no thief!Its round faces emits smoke; it is no cloud!It eats through its mouth, spits throughits mouth; its not a bat.It has no equals in the world, what is it (Arifle)3) It dances and grows - it is not a publicwoman,It is beaten all over, no thief it isIt has undergone a fiery ordeal, it is notSita noIt takes a dip in water and drinks; it is nota bull.It is carried on the hips of women it not agarmentIt carries the Ganga, it not Lord Shiva,Tell me what it is! (A mud pot)4) There is an owl sitting under the Banyantree It has a thousand eyes like Indra.If you discover it, there will be a womanwith it. (A sieve)5) He has a thousand eyes; He is not theDevendra,He has many a crown He is not Ravana,He kills living beings, He is not Yama,He climbs on to the shoulders of men. Heis not a child.Who is he? (A fish net)

6) When the shortee enters the fattee,the Doors of Kubera’s riches open; whatis it? (A lock and a key)7) The Banyan tree sleeps,the whole earthly world sleepsSri Ranga sleeps.


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So does the ocean of milk.But one person never sleeps; who is he?(Breath)Ramakatha in the Tribal and FolkTraditions of India

K.S. Singh

1) Ramakatha is prevalent among thetribes of Rajasthan and of the Nimadregion of Madhyapradesh. In this traditionSita was born in a year of drought, a victimof drought like any other tribal child. Thegolden deer was to be killed for its flesh, atypical tribal need at the behest of Sita.2) Chattisgarh, Western Orissa (SouthKosala) areas boast of Bondo, Baiga, Gaurversions of Ramakatha. The traditionshave been localized here. To invoke rainsin a dry year Rishyashringa yagna isperformed here.3) Bihar’s Bhils in their Bhilodi Ramayana,believe that Rama during his 14 year exile,conferred upon them their occupation oftrapping and approved their food habits.4) The Mundas diffused, readapted andrecreated the Ramayana in their ownfashion. They spread the story among theAustro-Asiatic language speakingcommunities. They believe Sita was foundunder the plough, she was a tribal girl,grazing goat and was whisked away byRavana.5) The Avadhi and Bhojpuri folk songsfeature Rama Katha with a woman’ssympathy for Sita in her hour of grief andmisfortune.6) The episode of the squirrel forms thebridge between Northern and Southernfolk regions. In south, Sita is a devi whohas not even been touched by Ravana.Rama is god incarnate who can do nowrong. Southern versions have the uniqueMahiravana story. Similar to Mizo versions,Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannadafolk versions have a lot of common featuresand episodes.

(From Ramakatha in Tribal and Folktraditions of India Anthropological surveyof India; Seagull books, Calcutta 1993)

VALIDITY OF THE RAMAYANA VALUESSukumari Bhattacharji

1) Popular religions teach ethical valuesto the masses through stories – epics. Oneshould behave as Rama did and not asRavana.2) National epics present eternalhumanistic values through aestheticallyconvincing characters; people see thesevalues, are impressed with their truth andsubconsciously emulate them. Valmikiafter bursting forth into an inspired stanzaasks Narada “Who answers to thiscatalogue of high moral values?” Naradasays “Not even among gods do I find oneendowed with all these virtues. Hear of thegreat man who has all these virtues!” Sothe hero is not a god, but a man, for onlya man could become a convincing ethicalmodel. The Ramayana performs this taskby creating a set of convincing characters,placing them in complex, criticalsituations, and by presenting moral actstogether with their causes and effects.What enhances the value of the epic isthat, in it there is no character totally goodor totally evil. Even the best threecharacters, Rama, Sita and Lakshmana,behave questionably at times. Also thecharacters look true to life, because thereis no major or sudden change of heart,although in many instances they dochange. The adult attitude of accepting thefact that people seldom, if ever, undergoradical moral change renders the epicaesthetically acceptable and prevents itfrom being merely romantic or juvenile.3) Temptation is a crisis situation, and allmajor characters face real temptations; itis through their response to them that theybecome or remain good or bad.Transgression from the accepted code of


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ethics is portrayed as sinful. In theRamayana too, what constitutes itsessence is its attempt at reevaluation ofthe accepted values. This is achieved byplacing the characters in critical situationsand letting them act, deliberate, act andsuffer the consequences.4) These crises come in two forms 1)Obvious temptations that deflect themfrom the path of virtue, from the broadhuman values for the sake of selfish,personal gains. 2) The characters are tornbetween two sets of equally valid butmutually contradictory situations. Suchsituations test the moral fibre of the peopleand only the great or good pass the test.5) Today the Ramayana ethics is part ofthe Indian mental make up even thoughthe socio-economic and the politicalbackground is so utterly different. At thesubconscious level the Indian mind issteeped with the Ramayana lore, andcharged with its moral values; so on thislevel the validity still persists.6) The Dasaratha –Viswamitra encounteris a crisis situation; The interest of oneperson against that of the sacrificing sages;selfish love and joy against social welfare;This gives meaning to the act and makesit morally significant.7) Sagara too took a morally significantstep and banished Asamanja, his son. Hetook not a slothful step a drift andindecision, but an active step, for thegreater good of the people.8) Kaikeyi tempted by Manthara succumbsto her selfishness, and allows her innategoodness to give way. The epics are full ofimplied condemnation for moral weaklings.It is not enough to be passively goodbecause on the ethical level there is nosuch thing as passive goodness. One iscontinually pushed to take moral decisionsand one’s mettle is tested by thesedecisions. The Gods do not fight man’sbattles. They assist man to fight them,provided man’s initiative is in the right

decision. Such episodes underline theneed for discrimination, judgement andcourage to oppose the apparent reason ofself interest for the higher reason of truthand justice.9) Faced with the choice of walking awayto the forest at the behest of Dasaratha orof tarrying for the situation to turn in hisfavour, Rama acts decisively. Hisunhesitating assent to give the throne toBharata, to release his father from his vowand clear the doubts in Kaikeyi’s mind,shines all the more, because, only theprevious night he had purified himselfritually for assuming the kingship.10) There was a world of differencebetween Siddhartha and Mahavira on theone hand and Rama on the other; for, whilethe former two abdicated through aconviction of the futility of worldlyenjoyments, even regarding them as evil,in Rama’s case there was no such motive.Rama left the kingdom because he had to,and he did so without any self-pity. Whatwas later upheld as the true Karmayogin’sattitude in the Vedanta or in theBhagavadgita-the unperturbed mentalcalm in the face of tumultuous upheavalsof fortune-is here presented in the youngprince. Since such catastrophes are boundto appear in life in some form or other, thevalidity of Rama’s reaction remains.

Sita and Laksmana had noobligation to follow Rama; they offered todo so voluntarily.

11) Bharata’s decision to go to the forestto bring Rama back to Ayodhya, Rama’sdeep faith in his brother, Rama’s decisionto stay put in the forest inspite of thetempting arguments of Jabali, show thatmoral decisions are to be taken in the faceof great dilemmas. An untested, unprovedgoodness is no goodness at all!


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12) Maricha in conversation with Ravanais likened by modern critics to theunwilling American recruits to the VietnamWar. The penalty for conscious moralacquiescence is inescapable.

13) Jatayus knew that he had little chanceof winning the battle against Ravana,carrying away Sita. Yet his integritydemanded that gesture which eventuallycost him his life. The policy of non-interference sometimes leads to securitybut only at the cost of self-respect. Theepic morality is an active morality; for eachsignificant situation is open at twodirections; the good become good becausethey can sacrifice the petty self-interestand security in the bigger interest of thosein need. This sacrifice vindicates theirmanhood.

14) Rama’s casuistry to justify his act ofkilling Vali is a warning that the best ofmen may slip.

15) Ravana, who had everything life canoffer to a man was a person of giganticproportions. Yet his insatiable greed, lustand inordinate ambition, bring about hisdownfall.

16) Vibhishana is the character who facesthe worst ordeal in the epic. His advice toRavana was prompted by a desire toprevent a National calamity. Failing in hisbid, insulted, he sacrifices the security ofhis life at Lanka for a future that would betotally bleak. He burned his boats atLanka, where from now on he was lookedupon as a traitor and at Rama’s camp hecould not hope of being taken for anythingbut a spy. After initial hostile reaction atthat camp, the personal intervention ofRama saves the situation for Vibhishana.

How often in the present daysituations and political complexity, we are

faced with the moral choice similar toVibhisana’s when the option is betweentwo apparently ignominious anddangerous courses. The criterionVibhisana brought to bear upon hisdecision was that of the greatest good ofthe greatest number. By coming over tothe righteous side he was of immense helpto expedite the outcome of the battle.Besides, this way alone could he livepeacefully with his own conscience.

17) The fire ordeal of Sita is the worst anyhuman being can ever face in life.

One element which makes theRamayana a fully adult literature is itsequivocal situations. It is not the linearsort of medieval European heroic epic likethe Kalevala, Gid, the Sagas or the DigenesAkrites. Here the moral choice itself isequivocal. In the episode of Rama slayingValin, for example, the act is palpablyunheroic and unjust and Valin blamesRama squarely for it. Then Rama retortssaying that Valin has been living withRuma (Sugriva’s wife) which was wicked;he Rama, as the king, had to punish theevil-doer in his territory. Also, men huntanimals from an ambush and what wasValin but a monkey? Similarly, in Ahlaya’scase she had recognized Indra, but thenshe had only admitted her husband, sinceIndra had approached her in his shape.The slaughter of Sambuka is cruel, butaccording to the current ethical code ofthe time it was Rama’s way to preventuntimely deaths. Expediency is brought inas a factor. There are two sides to theseapparently condemnable acts. On a higherlevel of ethics they reveal the complexityof moral decisions in life without which theepic would have been puerile andartistically unsatisfactory. By presentingthe extenuating circumstances, byunfolding the inherent ambiguity ofcomplex moral situations the appeal of the


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epic remains contemporary and it ispossible to respond to it on a serious adultlevel.

In good and evil the epics set themodel of conduct in each country. Themoral values upheld in the Ramayana aremostly noble and worthy or it would notbe cherished by the millions through allthese ages. Even minor characters likeGuhaka offered unstinted help not only toRama, Laksmana and Sita but also toBharata; Visvamitra offered to sacrifice hisown sons for the sake of Sunahsepha whohad fled to him for refuge.

Ambition and violence are part ofthe heroic ideal and are not sinful inthemselves until they lead man to othersins. Man’s normal instincts demandlegitimate satisfaction and fulfillment andit is not sinful to satisfy them. Themetaphysics behind this epic ethic is thatsin is the violation of social harmony.Whatever threatens the inner cohesion ofthe accepted hierarchy, whateverjeopardizes the homogeneity of communitylife is sinful. Thus lust in man, unchastityin women, disrespect to elders and socialsuperiors are sinful because society restson the proper observance of theserelationships. Above all, man is bound tocosmic harmony by the code of truth,hence vows and promises assume cosmicproportions.

The epic has its peculiar limitationsand advantages. It has to be aestheticallyacceptable. It was no set of dry tenets, likethe scriptures, but tenets presentedthrough human beings. So the epiccharacter must look life-like.

Even on the human level the goodsuffer while sometimes the wicked prosper.The impact of this apparently anomalousand morally incongruous reality on the

sensitive mind is deep and abiding. We seethat the greatness or goodness of man isdetermined in proportion to his capacityto suffer, and his response to suffering.While the weak and inferior charactercollapses and is totally crushed under theweight of grief, the morally powerful manbears it manfully and walks on the crestof the waves of his grief. Happiness on themundane level is for the lesser figures inthe epic, in the truly great characters thereis that mysterious capacity to subordinatethe purely personal interest to an ideal, acreed or a cause. By making this clearthrough characters who live and shinethrough the choices they make at the timeof a moral crises, the Ramayana conveysthe highest moral value, viz., the properattitude to suffering in life. And thiseloquent message is ageless; it remainseven in our troubled times when sufferinghas assumed many different forms butremains unchanged in content.(From “The Ramayana Tradition in Asia:”Sahitya Akademi Ed.V. Raghavan NewDelhi 1989)

Ramakatha in Tai-Phake CulturalTradition

Aimya Khang Gosain

Rama-katha known as Lama-Mang isrepresented in the Tai-Phake culturaltradition of NE India, in folk here, dance-drama, and literature.

Rama is born as Gautama Buddha, Sitaas Yasodhara, Dasaratha as Suddhodanaand Bharata as Ananda.

The Lama Mang portrays the acceptedsocial values of Justice, gratitude, filialpiety, morality, law of Karma, thetransitory nature of all things and theultimate triumph of good over evil. Suchsocial values are ideals to be upheld and


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are important for the existence of a society.Even the minor incident of Kunti’s washingthe fallen mango fruit before offering it toGods has some social significance.(Ramakatha in T/F tradition of India ASI– Seagull books Calcutta 1993)

Rama katha in the Tribal and FolkTraditions of Tripura

Jagadis Ganchaudhrri

In the interior hills and deep forests ofTripura and Chittagong Hill Tract, the oldtribal people are often found, reading theepics. The same tradition is to be foundamong the plains people also. The twoepics have proved themselves to beperennial sources of inspiration and anocean of wisdom from which folktales,proverbs, riddles poems, songs, dramas,dances, dialogues, and visual art itemshave been derived. Place names, namesof children, rituals, individual plants andvegetables are associated with Ramayanaand remind one of its characters andplaces. Masks, drums, cymbals, flute andhorns are used. People dress themselvesas epic characters while dancing. Thecalendar of these people is full of epicfestivals and reminders.(Ramakatha in the T/F traditions)

The Pavados of Dublas of Surat - Gujarat

A tribal song Pavados of Dublas of Gujaratgoes thus. Lakshmana digs a well and Sitaplants a damro plant which she diligentlywaters everyday. But a deer eats it daily.Sita asks Rama to go after the culprit butwhen both the brothers return with theslain animal, she is not to be found in thecottage. This is depicted tragically.“Deserted is the cottage and deserted isthe garden and crows fly over the desertedcottage. Rama weeps sitting in his hut,looking at her foot prints.”(Ramakatha in T/F traditions)

The Folk and Tribal Versions of theRamakatha in the NE India

K.S. Singh

1) In NE India, the classical narrativeaccount of Valmiki is adopted by Assam’spoets. They also make use of localtraditions and regional beliefs inelaborating and developing the Ramayanathemes. Most of these accounts centrearound the Vaishnava tradition.2) The Ramakatha has been a powerfulelement in the Vaishnava tradition ofAssam. The poetic work composed byDurgavar called “the Durgavari GitiRamayana” popularised the episodes ofRama among the rural people. They alsoinspired “ojapali” which is one of theancient traditional art forms of Assam.3) The Ramakatha traditions among Bodo-kacharis, have left a striking impact ontheir myths, tales and beliefs.4) The Ramakatha traditions amongKarbis, Tiwas, Mizo, Mising, Khanti andManipur versions of Ramakatha providean oppportunity for variations within acontiguous area.5) The Karbis have a fairly elaborateversion of the Ramakatha, with strongethnic peculiarities.6) Among Tiwan and Lalungs, theRamakatha is seen only as stray storiesand tales not as a pervasive tradition.7) The Mizo version of the Ramayana hasevidently been influenced by the SouthAsian versions which again are influencedby the versions carried by the immigrantsfrom different parts of India. This wasevidently an eastern and Southern version.Ravana had seven or twelve heads.Lakshman is the hero in the version. TheMizo version give prominence toLakshmana and Hanumana.8) The Ramakatha is embedded in theTribal and folk traditions of Tripura.


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9) There is a Buddhist version of theRamakatha in the Tai-phat culturaltradition in which Rama is described as aBodhisatva. He seeks pardon from Sita,who returns to live happily with Rama andtheir children till the end of their life.

(Ramakatha in Tribal and Folk Traditionof India ASI - Seagull - Calcutta 1993)

Box ItemsRamayana - Art forms in Assam

1) Ankiya - Nata, 2) Bhaona- popularperformance Text by Sankaradeva andothers. 3) Natya and Nritya 4) Ojapali (withsinging, dancing and narration) 5)Kathakata 6) Biyahar ojapali 7)Ramayana-gowa-ojapali 8) Bhaira-ojapali9) Durgavari Ojapali 10) Sattriya ojapali11) Duladi ojapali.

Ramakatha among the Bodo-Kacharis of Assam

Basanta kumar Deva Goswami

The main Bodo-speaking tribalcommunities settled in Assam are theBodos, the Dimasas, the Rabhas, theLalungs (the Tiwas) and the Sonowal-Kacharis.

In order to suit their own cultural milieu,the Bodo Kachari may have rearranged,reconstituted, and reconstructed theRamayana, story. They added episodes,tales and songs basing them on thethematic arrangement of the written ororal tradition of the Ramakatha.

The places such as Madhya Baska (the cityof Bali) names of people, names of places,worship of Hanumana, martial arts, socialcustoms etc are influenced by Ramakatha.

The Bodo Kacharis believe in the efficacyof Ramayana-weapon like nidravan (arrow

causing deep sleep) arvan (Brahma’sarrow) etc.

Due to its dynamic character, theRamakatha has played a vital role in theNE India for a longtime. Besides reflectingthe beliefs, customs and lifestyles of thetribal Bodo-Kacharis, it has become anintegral part of the culture of this region.(Ramakatha in Tribal and Folk Traditionof India, ASI - Seagull - Calcutta 1993)

Karbis love Ramakatha

Karbis live in the Karbi Anglong District ofAssam.1) They claim that their lineages begin fromTreta yuga when Rama lived.2) Traditional singers and story tellers tellthem Rama stories. Prose, lyrics, songs arethe forms used.3) Stotras use Rama, Sita and similarnames in Mantras.4) Rituals propitiate Rama.5) A rainbow is called the bow of Ramaand Lakshmana.6) Venomous fish got their poison fromRavana they believe.7) Karshala snake is believed to be thearrow of Rama.8) Rama and Lakhman are popular asnames of Karbis.9) Karbi children love tales of Rama,Lakshmana and their encounters withdemons.10) Karbis locate Ayodhya, Janakpur,Kishkindha in their own villages.11) Shifting cultivation, funerals,hospitality, astrology all have Ramayanamemories.(Ramakatha in T/F traditions of India ASI– Seagull Calcutta 1993)

Role a of Mythologies in the life of aNationNinian Smart


17

1) Mythologies are the memory of thecollective past.2) They give identity to a group.3) They define groups, sacred entities andpersons.4) They affirm continuity which gives agroup greater importance since it is nolonger a random collection of persons.5) By implication, mythologies help aperson to connect to aspects of his/herpast which he/she values.6) Even disasters reinforce group memoryand tell people that they have overcomethem.7) They enhance the dignity of the group.8) They provide the script for the ritualaction.9) Mythologies explain origins of people,races, Nations, things.10) Mythic thinking depicts how things willend, they explain how things will be at theend of the world.11) They provide a framework, sequenceof events.12) They depict how god acts in order todeal with humanity, avatara, grace,heaven, hell, punishment, rebirth etc.13) Mythologies provide a sense of stabilityand order through stories.14) They predict a victory of good over eviland give man a positive view of life.15) Mythologies talk about stability,possibility of immorality, the ways ofovercoming evil, hierarchical cosmos (astold by the Varna system), the theme ofan ideal monarch (Rama) and the spiritedlover (Krishna)(From “Dimensions of the Sacred”. HarperCollins publishers. London 1996)

Festivals, fasts, vows andpilgrimages are inspired by the

Epics and the Puranas

1) They enthuse people, develop kinship,make us forget our petty animosities.

2) They strengthen our will, help us tointernalise values and turn our mindsinwards.3) Values such as National unity,Patriotism, are imprinted in the minds ofthe pilgrims through mythologies.4) We feel one with mountains, rivers,plants and places of India.5) We recall our relationship to the greatspiritual giants, the puranic and epiccharacters.6) Rites help us convert knowledge intoexperience.7) Social ceremonies, human values, bindthe society together.8) They bless, praise, consecrate and purifyus.9) They focus our energies into theobservance for a specific period.10) They harness, control and direct ourenergies, feelings, behaviour and intellect.11) Through superimposition andinternalization of values the human qualityis enhanced.12) They integrate action, thought, chantand mind with Atman and Paramatman.13) Rituals seek to abolish space and timethat separate man from God.14) Travelling in groups, visiting placesordained by the scriptures are useful invivifying faith and unifying people.15) Temporary separation from socialobligations in order to fulfill higherobligations to religion and god is importantin developing detachment.16) Pilgrimage is a symbol of the ultimatejourney.17) Ancestor worship is glorified inMythological literature reinforcingtraditions.


18

Puranas and observancesKanchi Paramacharya

The scriptures recommend and promoteself-restraint in food. Sattwic food, self-cooking, are recommended for monks andstudents respectively.

Food is that which goes into a personthrough the five senses and shape him.Most important is the food consumedthrough the mouth.

Fasting on days like Ekadasi isrecommended by the Puranas. Upavasameans to live with God and it relieves manfrom body-consciousness. Fasting andkeeping silent are highest vows. Fastingis recommended by Indian systems ofmedicine also.

Gandhiji has repeatedly said that fastingleads to - clarity in thinking.

There are specific purana stories to bestudied and heard on days of fasting.

Both Sri Krishna as well as Adi Shankaraexhort us to avoid extremities in feastingand fasting. Sri Krishna recommendsmoderation in food, movements, actions,deeds, sleeping and vigil.

The scriptures do not recommend fastingfor many days at a stretch. Occasionallyskipping meals and total fasting once in afortnight are recommended. Gradual andnot forced observance of vows is alwaysthe emphasis of the scriptures.

Such vows including fasting are to beobserved by all, including the kings forwhom the scriptures permit enjoyment offood etc. In fact Rukmangada andAmbarisha observed Ekadasi fasting andhelped their subjects observe the same. Itis thus that Puranas influence rituals.(From “Deivathin Kural III” Vanati,Chennai 1982)

Vows, Observances and Festivals

Some of the vows, observances andfestivals are based on the calendar.Birthdays of Sri Rama, Krishna,Narasinha, Hanuman, days sacred toShiva, Devi, Ganesha, Saraswati andKartikeya are days of sacred memories.Extra lunar month, New moon days, Fullmoon day, Eleventh day of the fortnight,sacred days of the week dedicated tovarious gods, Sunday for Sungod, Mondayfor Shiva, Friday for Devi, Thursday forGuru, are all designated on the basis ofthe calendar.

Vasant Panchami, is based on season.Ashad 18 (Adi -18) is related to irrigationand agriculture. Sankaranti (Pongal) isbased on the movement of the earthrelative to Sun. Eclipses as sacred daysare not fixed dates, but they shift. Theyare based on planetary movements.Festivals, vows and observances relatedto trees and plants such as Ashwattha,Vata, Tulsi extol nature worship. Similarlymountain and rivers are also worshipped.Chaturmas (Four rainy months) vow isobserved by Hindus, Buddhists and Jainsalike.

As a human being conceived in themother’s womb, is born and grows, thereare observances and rituals such asNativity, tonsure, beginning of education,etc. These rituals are authenticated by the


19

Epics and the Puranas by saying that theepic characters practised them.

Festivals such as Holi, Raksha Bandhan,Ganesh Chaturthi and Durga puja, havecome to assume great social andcommunity significance, bordering onpolitical importance.

By a judicious mixture of presenting manwith feasts and fasts, medications, use ofseasonally available herbs, leaves andvegetables, the Puranas and epics havetaught human beings to live in harmonywith nature, love nature conserve natureand not to destroy it. All pilgrim centresare authenticated by the Epics and the(compiled) Puranas.

Epics and the Puranas teach mankindthe ecological principles

All the epics and purana’s are Naturefriendly, forest friendly. Except inMahabharata, in which Khandavavana isburnt down to give place for constructinga city, the Epics and the Puranasinvariably depict forests and hills as man’snatural home.Dandaka in the Ramayana, the forest inthe Mahabharata and Naimisharanya inthe Puranas are as much the theatres forepic action, as Ayodhya or Kurukshetra.

Man’s love for the five elements of natureis emphasized in our Mythology. Hanumanis Vayu’s son. Heaven and hell are inspace. Draupadi is the daughter of Agni.Rivers are worshippable. Sita is thedaughter of Mother Earth. Naturalboundaries such as Seas, Rivers andMountains can be crossed only aftergetting due permission from the deitiespresiding over them. Habitats such asAyodhya and Lanka are worshipped intheir incarnate forms as deities. Sita offersritualistic worship to the Ganga while

crossing it. Agastya commands theVindhya hills not to grow too tall.

Throughout the epics and the Puranasthere is a living, reciprocal, and functionalrelationship between human beings andthe elements of Nature. Nature is godincarnate.

With plants and trees the relationship ismuch more hearty. There are entiremahatmiams (Eulogies) on Tulasi plant andthe Peepul and the Banyan trees.

Sthalapuranas glorify locally worshippedtrees under which temples have come up.Sacred groves have come around temples.Worshipping the tree, the local sacredpond, learning the local legends,worshipping the deity in the temple andremembering His/Her name is a fivefoldritual to be carried out for any SouthIndian pilgrim to a temple.Ofcourse the seven sacred rivers, Ganga,Yamuna, Godavari, Sarasvati, Narmada,Sindhu, and Kaveri are to be rememberedeveryday.

All living beings are sacred and practisingAhimsa (non-violence) towards them is asacred obligation for every human being.Hunting animals for food is to be on ‘needto be done’ basis. Various animals/birdsare associated with God; the Garuda withVishnu, the Bull with Shiva, the Hamsawith Brahma, the Tiger with Ayyappa etc,.

Sri Rama befriended Jatayus a vulture andSri Krishna is Gopala – a cow herd. Squirrels,monkeys, bears and vultures are helpful toRama in his mission.

The worth of a seer/sage was measured bythe love and freedom with which the birdsand animals would roam about in hisashram.

Describing nature, pointing out man’shappiness in his association with Nature,referring to women playing with animals andbirds, are parts of the poetic requirementsof an epic or a (compiled) purana.


1

THE TIRUKKURAL AND THE HINDU MYTHOLOGICAL LOREA KENDRA WORKER

Scholar C.Arunaivadivel Mudaliar haslisted a series of puranic instances,referred to by Tiruvalluvar. The sage-

poet has repeatedly stated in his work, thathe pays obeisance to tradition. Making useof traditionally known similies, episodes,allegories and parables is a well knowntechnique in literature. This helps ineconomy of expression without loss ofmeaning-a vital component in literature.By using fairly widely, the puranicepisodes, words, examples etc.,Tiruvalluvar indicates in unmistakableterms, where his cultural, spiritual andreligious loyalties lie. Combined withTiruvallurvar’s repeated assurances thathe follows the traditions, these expressionsthat touch both the content and form ofhis teachings show that the poet is aninnovator within the broad referentialterms of tradition.

Verse 610 refers to Vishnu asTrivikrama. Markandeya’s victory overYama, the God of Death, is indicated inverse 269. Shiva consuming poison is thetheme of verse 580. The Gautama-Indraepisode is recalled in the Kural 25. Agastyacursing Nagusha to become a python isindicated in the Kural verse 899, theepisode of pandava’s agnatavasa (life indisguise) can be guessed from verse 935.S.Dandapani Desikar, a respected scholar,feels that verse 72 is indicative of the storyof Dadhichi or Shibhi.

God as the creator of the world (1062)Vishnu as the lotus eyed (1103), Lakshmi,the Goddess of wealth (179), Her occupyinga seat of red lotus (84, 617) are some otherreferences confirming Valluvar’s verbalprovenance as pauranic. Prosperity’s eldersister is wretchedness. This pair is referred

to Shridevi and Moodevi in the Puranas.Valluvar chooses to go by that usage. Aworld higher, better, and happier than thisis a recurring theme in Valluvar’s galleryof portraits of moral and charitable life.Verses 58, 86,213,966, and 1323,invariably suggest, that the reward ofmoral life is the increased capacity to beaware, to be conscious, and to be blissful.

Men of righteous deeds go and dwellin heaven. Heaven is inhabited by devasof lustrous bodies. Indra is the chief ofdevas (25). Life on this earth eveninfluences the skies and rains (18). It isobvious that Valluvar does not considerthe body to be mere combination of atomsand molecules. The actions of thiscorporeal body controlled by a disciplinedmind have a far-reaching domain ofinfluence.

Yama is a great divider, severer. He iscalled Kutruvan because he cuts the bodyasunder from the spirit at the time ofdeath. Leading a life of penance is the wayof gaining victory over Yama. A life ofcompassion, non-killing (326) andausterities (269), will help the seeker toovercome death itself. As these victoriesover Yama, the God of Death, arementioned as possible for an ascetic (aseeker of spiritual freedom—moksha), it isclear that Valluvar was only referring tomoksha, a victory over death.

On the other hand, life in hell, naraka,is the threat that Tiruvalluvar holds outfor a life of ignorance, and evil actions. Theverses 121 (darkness as opposed to lifeamong devas) (168) fiery hell, (not eternalfiery hell as a translator would have it!)


2

243 (dark and bitter world) and 255 (thepit of hell) show that Valluvar believed inthe hell as a place of punishment for evildoers. Swami Vivekananda has observedthat the Vedas do not talk of hell and theidea is of Puranic origin.

Valluvar appears to recognise a fewintermediate phases or life between manand devas. Verse 1081 refers to an angel.Demon (565), evil spirit (850),Dharmadevata (77), the five elements(bhutas) (271), Kama as Manmatha (1197),and the snakes Rahu and Ketu seizing themoon (1146) are also mentioned. These are

also ideas from the Puranas. What isequally important is that Valluvar who isvery careful about the choice ofappropriate words as vehicles of his ideasallows the reader to feel that he is notagainst a particular diction and imagery.The amrita of heavens for example is afrequently occurring word (702, 1164,1106, 968, 82).

(Extracted from “Saint TiruvalluvarAnd His Message of Life as Dharma”Vivekananda Kendra Prakashan Trust,Chennai-5/2000

THE ULTIMATE SOURCE

SRI AUROBINDOThe Vedas and the Upanishads are notonly the sufficient fountain-head of Indianphilosophy and religion, but of all Indianart, poetry and literature. It was the soul,the temperament, the ideal mind formedand expressed in them which later carvedout the great philosophies, built thestructure of the Dharma, recorded itsheroic youth in the Mahabharata andRamayana, intellectualized indefatigablyin the classical times of the ripeness of itsmanhood, threw out so many originalintuitions in science, created so rich a glowof aesthetic and vital and sensuousexperience, renewed its spiritual andpsychic experience in Tantra and Purana,flung itself into grandeur and beauty ofline and colour hewed and cast its thoughtand vision in stone and bronze, poureditself into new channels of self-expressionin the later tongues and now after eclipsere-emerges always the same in differenceand ready for a new life and a new creation.

(Extracted from-The foundation of IndianCulture Sri Aurobindo Ashram,Pondicherry-1968}


3

SRI AUROBINDO ON RELIGION FORTHE COMMON MAN

The highest spirituality indeed moves in afree and wide air far above that lower stageof seeking which is governed by religiousform and dogma; it does not easily beartheir limitation and, even when it admits,it transcends them; it lives in anexperience which to the formal religiousmind is unintelligible. But man does notarrive immediately at that highest innerelevation and, if it were demanded fromhim at once, he would never arrive there.At first he needs lower supports and stagesof ascent; he asks for some scaffolding ofdogma, worship, image, sign, form, symbol,some indulgence and permission of mixedhalf-natural motive on which he can standwhile he builds up in him the temple ofthe spirit. Only when the temple iscompleted can the supports be removed,the scaffolding disappear. The religiousculture which now goes by the name ofHinduism not only fulfilled this purpose,but unlike certain other credal religions,it knew its purpose. It gave itself no name,because it set itself no sectarian limits; itclaimed no universal adhesion, assertedno sole infallible dogma, set up no singlenarrow path or gate of salvation; it wasless a creed or cult than a continuouslyenlarging tradition of the Godwardendeavour of the human spirit. It is only ifwe have a just and right appreciation ofthis sense and spirit of Indian religion thatwe can come to an understanding of thetrue sense and spirit of Indian culture.

(Extracted from “The Foundations ofIndian Culture” Sri Aurobindo Ashram,

Pondicherry 1968.

A DYNAMIC AND FLEXIBLE APPROACHTO TRUTH

THE PURANAS AND THE INDIAN MIND

SRI AUROBINDO

The many-sided plasticity of Indian cultand spiritual experience is the native signof its truth, its living reality, the unfetteredsincerity of its search and finding; but thisplasticity is a constant stumbling-block tothe European mind. The religious thinkingof Europe is accustomed to rigidimpoverishing definitions, to strictexclusions, to a constant preoccupationwith the outward idea, the organization,the form. A precise creed framed by thelogical or theological intellect, a strict anddefinite moral code to fix the conduct, abundle of observances and ceremonies, afirm ecclesiastical or congregationalorganization, that is western religion. Oncethe spirit is safely imprisoned and chainedup in these things, some emotionalfervours and even a certain amount ofmystic seeking can be tolerated—withinrational limits; but, after all, it is perhapssafest to do without these dangerousspices. Trained in these conceptions, theEuropean critic comes to India and isstruck by the immense mass and intricacyof a polytheistic cult crowned at its summitby a belief in the one infinite. This beliefhe erroneously supposes to be identicalwith the barren and abstract intellectualpantheism of the West. He applies with anobstinate prejudgment the ideas anddefinitions of his own thinking, and thisillegitimate importation has fixed manyfalse values on Indian spiritualconceptions, —unhappily, even in themind of “educated” India. But where ourreligion eludes his fixed standards,misunderstanding, denunciation andsupercilious condemnation come at onceto his rescue. The Indian mind, on thecontrary, is averse to intolerant mental


4

exclusions; for a great force of intuitionand inner experience had given it from thebeginning that towards which the mind ofthe West is only now reaching with muchfumbling and difficulty, —the cosmicconsciousness, the cosmic vision. Evenwhen it sees the One without a second, itstill admits his duality of Spirit and Nature;it leaves room for his many trinities andmillion aspects. Even when it concentrateson a single limiting aspect of the Divinityand seems to see nothing but that, it stillkeeps instinctively at the back of itsconsciousness and sense of the All andthe idea of the One. Even when itdistributes its worship among manyobjects, it looks at the same time throughthe objects of its worship and sees beyondthe multitude of godheads the unity of theSupreme. This synthetic turn is notpeculiar to the mystics or to a small literateclass or to philosophic thinkers nourishedon the high sublimities of the Veda andVedanta. It permeates the popular mindnourished on the thoughts, images,traditions, and cultural symbols of thePurana and Tantra; for these things areonly concrete representations or livingfigures of the synthetic monism, the many-sided Unitarianism, the large cosmicuniversalism of the Vedic scriptures.

Indian religion founded itself on theconception of a timeless, nameless andformless supreme, but it did not feel calledupon like the narrower and more ignorantmonotheisms of the younger races, to denyor abolish all intermediary forms andnames and powers and personalities of theEternal and Infinite. A colourless monismor a pale vague transcendental Theism wasnot its beginning, its middle and its end.The one Godhead is worshipped as the All,for all in the universe is he or made out ofhis being or his nature. But Indian religionis not therefore pantheism; for beyond thisuniversality it recognizes the supracosmic

Eternal. Indian polytheism is not thepopular polytheism of ancient Europe; forhere the worshipper of many gods stillknows that all his divinities are forms,names, personalities and powers of theOne; his gods proceed from the onePurusha, his goddesses are energies of theone divine Force. Those ways of Indian cultwhich most resemble a popular form ofTheism, are still something more; for theydo not exclude, but admit the manyaspects of God. Indian image-worship isnot the idolatry of a barbaric orundeveloped mind, for even the mostignorant know that the image is a symboland support and can throw it away whenits use is over. The later religious formswhich most felt the impress of the Islamicidea, like Nanak’s worship of the timelessOne, Akala, and the reforming creeds oftoday, born under the influence of theWest, yet draw away from the limitationsof western or Semitic monotheism.Irresistibly they turn from these infantileconceptions towards the fathomless truthof Vedanta. The divine Personality of Godand his human relations with men arestrongly stressed by Vaishnavism andShaivism as the most dynamic Truth; butthat is not the whole of these religions,and this divine Personality is not thelimited magnified-human personal God ofthe West. Indian religion cannot bedescribed by any of the definitions knownto the occidental intelligence. In its totalityit has been a free and tolerant synthesisof the spiritual worship and experience.Observing the one Truth from all its manysides, it shut out once. It gave itself nospecific name and bound itself by nolimiting distinction. Allowing separativedesignations for its constituting cults anddivisions, it remained itself nameless,formless, universal, infinite, like theBrahman of its agelong seeking. Althoughstrikingly distinguished from other creedsby its traditional scriptures, cults and


5

symbols, it is not in its essential charactera credal religion at all but a vast and many-sided, an always unifying and always

progressive and self-enlarging system ofspiritual culture.

(Extracted from “The Foundations ofIndian Culture” by Sri Aurobindo

Ashram, Pondichery 1968)

THE PURANAS AS AN EXTENSION AND ADVANCE OF THE VEDIC FORMSSRI AUROBINDO

The Vedic gods and goddesses concealfrom the profane by their physical aspecttheir psychic and spiritual significance.The Puranic trinity and the forms of itsfemale energies have on the contrary nomeaning to the physical mind orimagination, but are philosophic andpsychic conceptions and embodiments ofthe unity and multiplicity of the all-manifesting Godhead. The Puranic cultshave been charaterised as a degradationof the Vedic religion, but they mightconceivably be described, not in theessence, for that remains always the same,but in the outward movement, as anextension and advance. Image worship andtemple cult and profuse ceremony, towhatever superstition or externalism theirmisuse may lead, are not necessarilydegradation. The Vedic religion had noneed of images, for the physical signs ofits godheads were the forms of physicalNature and the outward universe was theirvisible house. The Puranic religionworshipped the psychical forms of theGodhead within us and had to express itoutwardly in symbolic figures and houseit in temples that were an architecturalsign of cosmic significances. And the veryinwardness it intended necessitated aprofusion of outward symbol to embodythe complexity of these inward things tothe psychical imagination and vision. Thereligious aesthesis has changed, but themeaning of the religion has been altered

only in temperament and fashion, not inessence. The real difference is this thatthe early religion was made by men of thehighest mystic and spiritual experienceliving among a mass still impressed mostlyby the life of the physical universe: theUpanishads casting off the physical veilcreated a free transcendent and cosmicvision and experience and this wasexpressed by a later age to the mass inimages containing a large philosophicaland intellectual meaning of which theTrinity and the Shaktis of Vishnu andShiva are the central figures; the Puranascarried forward this appeal to the intellectand imagination and made it living to thepsychic experience, the emotions, theaesthetic feeling and the senses. Aconstant attempt to make the spiritualtruths discovered by the Yogin and theRishi integrally expressive, appealing,effective to the whole nature of man andto provide outward means by which theordinary mind, the mind of a whole peoplemight be drawn to a first approach to themis the sense of the religio-philosophicevolution of Indian culture.

It is to be observed that the Puranas andTantras contain in themselves the highestspiritual and philosophical truths, notbroken up and expressed in opposition toeach other as in the debates of thethinkers, but synthetised by a fusion,relation or grouping in the way most


6

congenial to the catholicity of the Indianmind and spirit. This is done sometimesexpressly, but most often in a form whichmight carry something of it to the popularimagination and feeling by legend, tale,symbol, apologue, miracle and parable. Animmense and complex body of psycho-spiritual experience is embodied in theTantras, supported by visual images andsystematized in forms of Yogic practice.This element is also found in the Puranas,but more loosely and cast out in a lessstrenuous sequence. This method is afterall simply a prolongation, in another formand with a temperamental change, of themethod of the Vedas. The Puranasconstruct a system of physical images andobservances each with its psychicalsignificance. Thus the sacredness of theconfluence of the three rivers, Ganga,Yamuna and Saraswati, is a figure of aninner confluence and points to a crucialexperience in a psycho-physical processof Yoga and it has too other significances,as is common in the economy of this kindof symbolism. The so-called fantasticgeography of the Puranas, as we areexpressly told in the Puranas themselves,is a rich poetic figure, a symbolicgeography of the inner psychical universehas, as in the Veda, a spiritual andpsychological meaning and basis. It is easyto see how in the increasing ignorance of

later times the more technical parts of thePuranic symbology inevitably lentthemselves to much superstition and tocrude physical ideas about spiritual andpsychic things. But that danger attendsall attempts to bring them to thecomprehension of the mass of men andthis disadvantage should not blind us tothe enormous effect produced in trainingthe mass mind to respond to a psycho-religious and psycho-spiritual appeal thatprepares a capacity for higher things. Thateffect endures even though the Puranicsystem may have to be superseded by afiner appeal and the awakening to moredirectly subtle significances, and if such asupersession becomes possible, it will itselfbe due very largely to the work done bythe Puranas.

The Puranas are essentially a true religiouspoetry, an art of aesthetic presentation ofreligious truth. All the bulk of the eighteenPuranas does not indeed take a high rankin this kind: there is much wastesubstance and not a little of dull anddreary matter, but on the whole the poeticmethod employed is justified by therichenss and power of the creation.

(Extracts from “The Foundations ofIndian Culture” Sri Aurobindo Ashram,

Pondicherry 1968)


7

ETHICS OF PURANASC.S.VENKATESWARAN

1. Dharma or duty is the basis of

Puranic ethics. It embraces all those

factors which contribute to the

progress and well being of the

individual, society, and the world

at large. The factors are 1. Gunas-

possession of virtues and 2. Proper

discharge of one’s duty (karma). The

Puranas recognise two types of

dharma: Sadharana (generic) and

visesa (specific). The latter is also

known as Svadharma. The idea of

Purusharthas, pleasure, wealth,

Dharma and liberation find an

important place in the Puranas.

Puranas also successfully reconcile

Sadharama dharma with

Svadharma. Sadharana dharma

encourages of possession of certain

humanizing virtues, and actions

based there on, conducive to the

welfare of the entire creation.

Svadharma is a practical

application of the sadharana

dharma, within a particular sphere

by the individual belonging to a

class, characterized by certain

prominent quality. The scheme of

Varna and Ashrama is advocated by

Puranas. It is based upon duties of

individuals of a class and has as

its aim the efficiency, welfare,

smooth working, and material and

spiritual perfection of the society as

a whole.

2. The sadharana dharmas, universal

in scope and eternal in nature, are

1) forbearance 2) self-control 3)

compassion 4) charity 5) purity 6)

truth 7) penance and 8) wisdom.

They are advocated by most of the

Puranas. Other virtues 1) fortitude

and freedom from anger 2)

renunciation 3) non-stealing 4)

uprightness, 5) learning 6) celibacy

7) meditation 8) sacrifice 9) worship

of gods 10) sweet speech 11)

freedom from back-biting 12)

freedom from avarice and 13)

freedom from jealousy are


8

presented either as independent

values or as derivatives of the first

set of values mentioned above.

3. Ahimsa is declared as the dharma

par excellence. It comprehends all

other dharmas. Agni, Padma etc.

stress this.

4. Satya is the basis of purity of

speech, non-stealing all laws of

nature (rta) accuracy and

changelessness. Satya is

illustrated in the Puranas through

the stories of Harischandra and

Rukmangada. Satya promotes

unity, trust and welfare and is an

ethical and social virtue.

5. Sauca (Purity) extolled in the Agni

Purana. It is both external and

internal. Evil propensities such as

desire and anger are to be cleansed

and vairagya (spirit of renunciation)

and forbearance are to be

promoted. Bhakti is an effective

means of mental purification.

Vishnu and Bhagavata Puranas

stress on Bhakti.

6. Dana, charity, is a social duty

based on compassion-

renunciation, truth-fullness and

equanimity. The stories of Sibi,

Karna, and Dadhici illustrate this

virtue. Padma Purana and Brahma

Purana extol this virtue. Padma

Purana classifies Dana as i) nitya-

daily ii) Nai-mittika occasional iii)

Kamya desire-induced and iv)

Vimala given for God. Dana

includes such philanthropic acts

as digging wells, tanks and canals

constructing parks, hospitals and

temples, hospitality etc.

7. The Puranas recommend the five

types of sacrifices or Yagna (i) Rsi

Yagna-study and teaching of

scriptures (ii) Pitru Yagna,

remembering and worshipping

one’s ancestors (iii) Deva Yajna

worshiping Gods (iv) Manushya

yagna, hospitality to guests and (v)

Bhuta Yagna feeding the lives both

visible and invisible around us.

8. By the Varna and Ashrama systems

the Puranas place each person in a

well defined place in a social grid.

9. The theory of Karma and

transmigration plays a prominent


9

role in Puranic ethics. “As a man

sows so he reaps”. Any action, good

or bad or indifferent yields its

corresponding fruit. It is declared

that the karma of a previous birth

seeks out its doer in this birth to

yield corresponding fruits, just as

the calf finds out its mother from

among thousands of mother cows.

Good or bad actions give a person

nobler, godly or inferior birth.

Sinners go to hell. Noble action

takes one to heaven.

10.The doctrine of Karma and hell is a

moral law which controls existence

favouring morality and

discouraging immorality. Karma is

an ethical force which tends to

improve the world by bringing its

spiritual elements to perfection. In

penalizing wrong and rewarding

right, it treats virtue as coincident

with happiness.

11. Many Puranas deal with expiation

for the sins of omission and

commission. It includes repentance

and expiatory rites. A sin is

considered as such because it is

anti-social. It implies lack of self-

restraint, a tendency to trespass

into other’s rights. Hence theft,

murder, adultery, envy and avarice

are considered sins, transgressions

against the whole society. They are

to be eschewed.

12. Fasting and observing certain

vratas are stressed by Puranas.

Their spiritual and ethical values

lie in purifying, disciplining and

sublimating the mind of man.

13. Puranic ethics is intensely practical and

utilitarian. It takes into consideration the

welfare of society as a whole and prescribes

the caste and customary duties for the

individual. The scheme of varnasrama-

dharma has this end in view. While

prescribing the practice of great virtues

like self-discipline and renunciation as in

the absolutist systems, it advocates their

practice as far as they are practicable in

consonance with svadharma. It is a

synthesis of the ethical principlies

enunciated in the literature of the Vedas,

the Brahmanas and the Upanisads. The

Vedic emphasis on truth, duty and respect


10

for superiors receives greater emphasis in

the Puranas. The sacrificial cult of the

Brahmana literature is merged in the

scheme of varnasrama-dharma. The

Upanisadic conception of the immanent

Soul is utilized here for inculcating

equanimity, kindness, and love towards all

the grades of creation. Moreover the

Puranas attempt a rapprochement between

the ritualistic ethics of Brahmanism and

the moralistic ethics of Buddhism, and

Jainism. The sacrificial cult of the

Brahmana literature appears here in a

more popular and acceptable form in the

form of the panca-maha-yajnas, sraddhas,

and other rites which eschew injury to and

promote love for animal life. The scheme

of sadharana-dharma lays down general

ethical principles common to all ; and that

of svadharma prescribes specific duties for

the betterment and welfare of society. the

common good of all is the supreme

standard and law according to which

virtues are to be determined. Puranic

ethics shows how one should lead a

normal life of duties and responsibilities,

and yet be in peace and contentment, and

in a state of equanimity and communion

with God. The Bhakti cult is given a

supreme place in the scheme of self-

purification. The law of Karma and

transmigration serves as a deterrent to

evil, and promoter of good in society. The

scheme of fasting and other vratas helps

to discipline and purify the mind. The

system of religious ceremonies like

sraddhas enables the individuals to

discharge his obligations in a spirit of

detachment and to contribute to the

balance of social economy. The expiatory

rites for the sins of omission and

commission serve to rectify wrongs, to

purify the mind, and thus to point out the

right path of duty. Thus Puranic ethics,

besides synthesizing the earlier ethics of

the Vedas, the Brahmanas, and the

Upanisads has embraced the ethics of

Buddhism and Jainism also without

detriment to the ethics of the earlier

literature. It is highly practical and

utilitarian.

(Extracts from “the Cultural Heritage ofIndia Vol.II” The RKM institute of Culture

Calcutta 1993)


11

IMPACT OF VEDIC MYTHOLOGY, EPICS AND PURANAS ON THE LIFEAND LITERATURE OF SANGAM TAMILS

PROF.M.SHANMUKHAM PILLAI

Introduction: The Vedas were referred to

as Marai (hidden knowledge) and voimozhi

(oral tradition) in the life of the Tamils in

the Sangam age. Anthanar (Brahmins)

were referred to those who preserved the

four Vedas. The six vedangas and the

Brahmins performing Yagnas, were part of

the Tamil life. The Sangam poetry refers

to a number of sacrificial performances

carried out, with the support of the rulers

of the land. The common people also were

interested in Yagnas. There are elaborate

descriptions on the gains of Yagnas, the

life of Brahmins performing yagnas, their

virtues and life styles. Pure Brahmins,

those carrying their household fires,

Brahmins with three rods, the fallen few

and all are described in extenso in Sangam

poetry. Indra, Yama, the 33 Devas, 18

groups of devas, digpalas (protectors of the

eight cardinal directions) Sun and Moon

are described as worshippable gods

Mal (Vishnu) of dark hue was the god

of forests. Murugan (Kartikeya) the red

skinned was the God of the hills. There

are plenty of references to them. Vishnu

was referred simply as Mal and the now

popular Tamil Name Tirumal (Sri Vishnu)

is a later development. Vishnu’s mount

(Garuda), flag, His weapons, His

associates Shri (Lakshmi), Brahma,

Adisesha and Manmatha were well known

in Sangam times. His heroism in

destroying the evil and protecting the world

is described. Shrirangam, Thiumalirunjolai

and Tiruvanantapuram the famous

shrines are described. Vishnu is also

referred to as the supreme God, the

originator, the preserver and the destroyer

of all life. Methods of worshipping Him are

catalogued. His descents (avataras) were

well known. Murugan dwells in His six

cantonments. He is the Dweller of Hills.

He is worshipped by the hill tribes. His

advent gets elaborate treatment in

Sangam literature in a manner


12

proportionate to His popularity. His six

faces and twelve arms shower grace on the

devotees. His mount is the peacock. His

physical features, the episode of His

destroying the evil Shooran, His act of

throwing His divine spear to destroy the

Krauncha hill, etc. are described. He

released the Devas from the prisons of

Asuras and became the commander in

chief of the divine Army. He married the

daughter of Indra, He was also united with

Valli the tribal woman in a Gandharva

marriage. The ecstatic dance of the

devotees, the details of Muruga worship,

the elaborate rituals of Murugan worship

in Tirupparankundram (Madurai) all get a

fine treatment in the Sangam poetry.

The name Shiva does not find a place

in Sangam life. But He is referred to as

the father of Muruga. The three eyed, One

of Ardra star, the Blue throated, One who

is associated with Konrai (laburnum)

flower, and as One with a stream of water

on His head. His mount and weapon, are

listed. His divine power, compassion etc

are extolled. His consort Uma, Kotravai

(Durga) are also referred to. By Sangam

age, Vishnu and Shiva were accepted as

Supreme Gods.

In true regional tradition, from hills to

home, a variety of minor deities are

mentioned as adored. Even small villages

boasted of their own deities. The hill-

dwellers, forest-dwellers, dwellers of

gardens and trees, deities protecting

bathing ghats, deities which create trouble

(Anangu, Soor) goddess of the Lute (a

musical instrument Yazh), spirits

presiding over weapons, drums, and

demons, ghosts, spirits dwelling in a)

stones planted in honour of the virtuous

b) road crossings c) junctions, d) places

where the villagers meet, e) homes, f)

chests of women g) wall paintings h) altars

built of bricks and i) poles, are listed as

various objects of worship.

References are made to variety of

minor female deities (Paavai). The nine

planets, 27 stars, a circle of shining objects

painted on walls, Sun worship, moon-

worship and eclipses, selection of

auspicious days for marriages, stars

sacred to Vishnu or Shiva, Saptarshis,


13

Murugan, Arundhati were part of the daily

life of the Sangam Tamils. Birthday

celebrations, based on stars, the good and

evil effects of stars and planets, calculation

of time based on their movements find

treatment in Sangam poetry .

Methods of worship and festivals of

Sangam people deserve mention. Temples

were located centrally in villages. The

deities were of various shapes and forms,

depending upon the mental attitude of the

people who adored them. Various sweet-

smelling pastes, incenses, lamps, and

flowers, were carried for worship. Milk-

pudding, sacrificial offering of rice(havis)

were also taken to the temples. The open

air deities were also offered animals as

sacrifice. Havis, musical instruments,

going round the temples, offering various

articles to gods, promising offering to Gods

on successful realisation of the wishes of

devotees, combined to mark the religious

culture of the Sangam society.

Festivals attracted large crowds. They

were observed in the bright fortnight.

Taking the deity around the town was also

known. Tirupati, Uraiyoor (Trichy) and

Koodal (Madurai) come in for special

description as places of festive gatherings.

Praying for children, adorning the child

with ornaments, birthday celebrations,

initiation of the child into education, were

part of the religious usage of the Sangam

Tamils. Young girls took vows and

observed penances (Pavai Nonbu). They

danced in groups (Kuravai). They either

chose their husbands or married the boys

selected by their parents. There was an

elaborate marriage ceremony. House-hold

deities were placated prior to a marriage

ritual. The bride was adorned with a thali-

(Mangala Sutra). Women lighted a lamp of

worship at Sunset. They also worshipped

the crescent moon. Hospitality and

festivities were accompanied by ritual gifts.

Omens were believed. Those who

renounced the world practiced penance.

In extreme cases some sat facing north

and fasted unto death. Widows observed

many vows. The dead bodies were given

ritualistic burial or cremation, the sons

offering water to the departed. At least a


14

few persons renounced the ephemeral

world and sought spiritual liberation. Their

lives find description in poetic records.

Holy people guided the common

people, taught them the facts of life and

were the examples and models to the

masses.

Worship and rituals such as marriage

were conducted by these holy persons.

They steered the masses in peaceful ways

of life, dispensed justice from seats of the

court, pulled up the erring rulers. The

Brahmins occupied an exalted status in

Sangam life.

The life at large of the Sangam Tamil

people appreciated ethical values such as

gratitude, respect for the elders, giving up

intoxicants, foreswearing lust,

truthfulness and non-injury. The motto of

the society at large was “All places are

mine; All are my kinsmen:

(From the Tamil book

“Sangathamizarin Vazhipadum

Chadangukalum-ie. ‘Worship and rituals

of the Tamils of Sangam’ period” by

Professor M.Shanmukham Pillai,

International Institute of Tamil studies,

Madras 113, 1996)


15

RAMAYANA IN THE ARTS OF ASIAKAPILA VATSYAYAN

1. Introduction

A stage manifestation in the 20th centurymay represent a moment of time strictlycontemporary unconnected with the pastof a people or it may hold within itscontemporary, and often modern form acontent and a theme which continuouslyrecalls many moments of a historicalcultural past, which has meaning andvalidity on the stage and the power todetermine pattern of living, behaviour andthought.

The theatrical spectacle lasting two orthree hours or a series of nights thus bringsforth responses from audiences which liedeep in the psyche of a people. Asiandrama has many such theatricalmanifestations which cover a very vastgeographical region and these can betraced back to many centuries in time. Inspite of the complex and staggeringmultiplicity of forms, there have beencertain themes which have travelled fromone part of the Asian Continent to anotherwith amazing mobility and fidelity. Acultural history of Asia could bereconstructed through a systematic tracingof a particular theme in many countries.This could be done with the lives of Buddhaor the stories of the Jatakas and with othermyths, legends and fables which travelledthousands of miles without mechanicalvehicles of transmission and without theprinted word. The fascinating story of themovement of the Pancatantra and theHitopadesa to countries in West Asia,Europe etc. is too well known to berecounted. Equal only to the wide-spreadprevalence of the story of the Hitopadesaand the Pancatantra, is the story of Rama—a hero once, a god at other times, a mere

man yearning and conquering and a godin pain and anguish, a man destined tomake choices between his Love and hissense of Duty. The story of Rama seemsto have bewitched and hypnotizedgenerations of Asians belonging tocountries with different religious, literary,and cultural traditions. Although the storyof the Buddha, both as literature and as areligious and spiritual message, spread farand wide, and holds a unique place in thisCivilization and Culture, the story of Ramahas equally held the imagination of allclasses of people ranging from the mostsophisticated and affluent to the mosthumble and lowly. It has permeated allaspects-living, religious, canonical andartistic.

Unlike the story of the Buddha, in somecountries of the continent, it continues tobe a vibrant tradition on the stage in manydance and drama-styles, shadow andpuppet plays of all varieties; in operaticmanifestations ranging from ballad singingto stylized recitation, it lives in theframework of the dances of magic andexorcism, and still determines the natureof musical orchestration in somecountries. It also continues to be painted,whether in traditional forms, such asscrolls or mural paintings or through afresh treatment by modern artists. Itspopularity has not been confined to thetraditional framework, but hasimpregnated a variety of modern media,such as comics, film strips, feature films,documentaries and the rest. The countrieswhere the theme has survived in thetraditions of the plastic and the performingarts could easily be identified as all thecountries of the regions known as SouthAsia, South-East Asia and some countriesof Central Asia.


16

2. The literary theme is basic and

fundamental to both the plastic and

performing arts. All the stage

arrangements have rested heavily on the

literary works of the region or the period.

3. Ballads, plain narrative poem, epic

moving with architectonic grandeur, or

drama with acts and scenes present

Ramayana to the masses.

4. Sculptors, musicians, dancers, and

actors base their artistic interpretation on

the literary form.

5. Ramayana theme was popular in bas-

relief and bronze-sculpture and other

plastic arts.

6. Fresco, mural paintings, Indian

miniature paintings, stage forms, puppets,

stone reliefs and marionettes, are found

in India, Indonesia, East Java, Cambodia,

Thailand, Burma, Nepal and Sri Lanka.

7. The most effective and yet intangible

oral tradition facilitated mobility and

flexibility. This may be the one single

element which accounts for the amazing

continuity the freshness and endless

potential for adaptability of the theme.

8. The traditions of Ramayana in Asia are

literary, artistic and theatrical. There are

many points of similarity, and

destructiveness of the traditions in South

East Asia, i.e. India, Burma, Thailand,

Laos, Cambodia, Nepal and Sri Lanka. The

tradition of Ramayana in Indonesia and

Malaysia help us to understand the other

traditions.

9. The Ramayana literary tradition spans

a time frame from 3rd century BC to day.


17

10. Pre-Valmiki references are found in Rg

Veda, Taittiriya Brahmana, and Krishna

Yajurveda regarding Rama.

11. Valmiki (3rd Century BC) Regional

language versions in India (9th Century AD

afterwards, Chinese Dasaratha Jataka

(251 AD), Lankan Kumaradasa(7th Century

AD other, versions (7-9 century AD)

Kalmuk language and others Mangolia,

Indonesia (9th century), East Iran (9th

century), Khmer (7th century AD), Laos,

Malaysia (13th century) and Thailand (8-9

centuries AD), are the regional versions of

Ramayana.

12. To this list can be added many versions

of the languages and dialects of India. A

bibliography alone would make a volume.

13. It would be hard for an artist to copy

and imitate earlier models and challenging

to create new forms on an age-old theme

which had been treated by poets, painters,

musicians, and dancers for centuries

exploring every nuance and shade of

interpretation. And yet this very fact

paradoxically has caught the imagination

of the creators of today, namely to present

a theme, which would strike responsive

chords in every heart and yet to present it

in a manner which would be both new and

meaningful. In fact a careful analysis of

the literary versions of Ramayana, along

with versions in the performing arts reveals

the strength and buoyancy of tradition

which was continuously assimilating and

adapting itself to new conditions.


18

14. The sculptural and painting traditions

of South East Asia reinforce and

supplement the literary evidence. The

temple at Deogarh (Gupta period), the

Kailasa temple in Ellora, the magnificent

portraiture in Angkor Vat, Benteay Srei

etc. depict the Ramayana Story.

Nageswaraswami temple in Kumbakonam

(9th century) and Prambanan in Indonesia

(10th Century) are very old. From the 12th

century onwards, the Ramayana theme

appears in practically every temple of

Vishnu.

15. In Thailand, Ramayana mural

paintings, show the influence of

contemporary history, topology and the

rest.

16. Folk art, village paintings, scrolls,

terracotta figures, textile designs,

embroidered table-cloth, wall-paintings,

ivory handles and hanging, and paper-

machie effigies made for festive occasions,

show representations of Ramayana theme.

17. The traditions of plastic arts and

literary arts provide the material for full

and rounded flowering of the traditions of

the performing arts.

18. In the early part of 18th century there

was a spurt of Ramayana writing activity,

in different parts of India, Burma,

Thailand etc. The oral traditions kept alive

the Ramayana theme. Political and social

impetus and official sanction resulted in

literary creations which could be written

and disseminated.


19

19. The Ramayana theme is found in

contemporary Asia in different expressions

at several levels.

a) At the plane of ritual or institutionalised

religion Rama is worshipped as God.

b) It is found in the agricultural calendars

as the life cycle, Rama’s birthday as the

New Year, Navaratra as his day of victory

etc. It is found in tableau like narration in

the cart play tradition of Burma. Mobile

theatre is known in other countries too.

c) Plain ballad singing or recitation with

or without a book, with different levels of

sophistication is known all over South East

Asia. Charana,- a ballad singer, minstrel

narrator goes from village to village.

d) In Drama proper, folk and traditional

theatre, Jatra, Tamasha, Bhavai,

Yakshagana and Nautanki, the theatre

rests on the spoken word. In dance-drama,

the recitative word forms the basis of the

interpretations.

e) Full glory of survival and interpretation

of the tradition is achieved in dance-

drama. Khon play in Thailand, plays in

India—Kudiyattam, Bhagavata Mela,

Ankianat (Assam) Mayurbhanj chau,

Purulia, Ramayana and Kathakali show

Ramayana scenes.

f) Shadow and puppet theatre includes,

marionettes, Glove, Rod and Shadow plays

from different regions of India and the

entire South East Asian Countries.

g) Surivival and revival of traditions depend

upon new creations. Many choreographers

have volunteered for this theme without

state-patronage or social pressure.


20

20. In all art forms of Ramayana, there

was a close relationship, between the

declaimed verse, sung poetry, the music,

the plastic manifestation and the stage

presentation. Over the South-East Asia

region, artistic expressions are comparable

in some aspects and distinctly locale-

specific in others.

24. The principle of stylized pose of the

gesture is followed by all traditions. Facial

miming and gesticulation with words are

found in Kathakali and Bharatanatyam. A

basic colour symbolism is also common.

Green is always associated with Rama,

white with Hanuman and red and black

with Ravana.

And above all is the phenomenon of the

amazing tenacity of the oral traditions

which has facilitated the survival and

continuance of the traditions in

contemporary Asia. Even when the theme

seemed to run into a dry sand-bed, it never

died, for the oral tradition was sustaining

it. Also the oral traditions supported,

supplemented and complimented the

traditions of the written word and of brick,

mortar, clay, stone, colour and paint. It

was also responsible for facilitating process

of assimilation without ‘electric shock’

experiences and providing the basis of

integrated amalgamation. The world-view,

the affirmation of life-death continuum,

the adherence to a concept of cyclic time,

through a method of transmission which

was a total integrated approach, have led

to art creations on Ramayana in all

centuries, including the 20th, which have


21

many dimensions in time. A single

spectacle has elements in it which can be

traced back not to one moment of

historical time, but to several: it has other

elements which echo cultures of distant

lands: and yet the creation is new and

contemporary with a distinct identity and

personality. It is not an artificial

resurrection of a dead language, a piece

of antiquity but a living being of the

present.

And yet more vistas and avenues of

exploration await the interest of creative

minds and artists. Kamban, the Tamil

poet, begins his Ramayana with the words:

“As a cat standing on the shores of the

ocean of milk thinks it can lick up the

whole ocean, I hope to retell the Ramayana

story already told by Valmiki”. But from

Kamban to Gandhi in India and from the

Rulers of Champa to Maha Eisey in Khmer

and from the rulers of Srivijaya to Dhani

Nivat, creative minds in Asia have been

drawn to this epic of all epics.

(Extracted from “The Ramayana

Tradition in Asia”, Sahitya Akadami

Ed.V.Raghavan, New Delhi 1989).


22

BOX ITEMS

THE PURANAS

1. The Admitted achievements of

India, in the directions of assimilation,

adaptation and synthesis of diverse, and

even conflicting points of view should be

properly recorded. It will be great lesson

for the humanity. In the Puranas, we find

such reconciliation of various elements of

India.

(Cultural heritage of india VOL.II RKM

Institute of Culture, Calcutta).

BOX ITEM

2. The Gita literature as a part of Itihasas

and Puranas

1. Astavakra Samhita

2. Bhagavad Gita

3. Avadhuta Gita

4. Anu Gita

5. Uddhava Gita

6. Utathya Gita

7. Vamadeva Gita

8. Rsabha gita

9. Sadaja Gita

10. Sampaka Gita

11. Manki Gita

12. Bodhya Gita

13. Vicakhnu Gita

14. Harita Gita

15. Vrtra Gita

16. Parasara Gita

17. Hamsa Gita

18. Brahma Gita

19. Brahmana Gita

20. Kapila Gita

21. Bhikshu Gita

22. Devi Gita


23

23. Ganesa Gita

24. Suta Gita

25. Yama Gita

26. Siva Gita

27. Rama Gita

28. Surya Gita

29. Vasistha Gita

30. Uttara Gita

31. Pandava Gita

32. Isvara Gita

33. Hari Gita

34. VyasaGita

BOX ITEM

The Hindu View of Life

In the Hindu view of life, ideals and

activities were considered to be

interdependent. Society was viewed as

indivisible, and on the reconciliation and

equipoise of duties and obligations,

whether of individuals, classes or

functionaries, the harmony not only of a

particular State of community, but of the

whole creation was held to depend. Life

was a continuum not interrupted by death;

and so were deed and thought.

C.P.Ramaswamy Aiyar.

(From the Cultural Heritage of India II

RKM Institute of Culture, Calcutta).

BOX ITEM

The Mahabharata and Achieving

Purusharthas

The Mahabharata describes the four

Purusharthas or human ends. Dharma is

the code of life, the bond which keeps the

society together. Whatever is conducive to

social welfare is to be done. What one is

ashamed of doing is never to be done.


24

Dharma is the genus and applies to all.

The Ashramas and Varnas are the species.

In the course of Samskritization of the

Mahabharata, several myths, legends,

narratives, and discourses were added,

exalting the Brahmanas and placing them

on a level superior to gods themselves.

However the ascetic poetry found in

interspersed in the epic takes a broader

view and reveals a generous mind. It is

said “Truth, Self-control, asceticism,

generosity, non-violence and constancy in

virtue-these are the means of success, not

caste or family. One has to observe the

rules of the asrama also. One has to fulfill

his duties as a householder before

becoming an anchorite. The observation

of acara, following the footsteps of the

great are obligatory to all.

MARKANDEYA PURANA AND DEVI

MAHATMYA

Chapters 81-93 of the Markandeya

Purana, constitute an independent and

complete work called Devi Mahatmya, alias

Candi or Saptasati, which must have been

inserted into it at a comparatively later

date, but certainly not later than 600 AD.

The Devi Mahatmya glorifies the supreme

goddess Durga (Devi) in Her different forms

and is very favorite work of worshippers of

Shakti. Its wide popularity is shown by its

manuscripts still found in all parts of the

country and by a large number of its

commentaries.

(Cultural Heritage of India Vol.II)


25

MINOR SCIENCES, PRACTICES AND

TOPICS DEALT IN THE PURANAS

1.Duties of various castes, 2. various

magic acts including curing diseases and

defeating the enemy, 3. moksha dharma,

4. methods of worship, 5.geography, 6.

summaries of epics and other Puranas,

7.geneology, 8. lexicography, 9. the science

of testing gems, 10. praise of holy temples,

11.medical science,12. treatment of

children suffering under unfavourable

planetary conditions, 13. treatment of

cows, horses and elephants, 14.

knowledge of snakes, 15. treatment for

snake-bite, 16. knowledge of precious

stones, 17. coronation and duties of kings,

18. politics, 19. science of war, 20. archery,

21. use of other arms, 22. agriculture,

23.gardening, 24. metrics, 25. grammar,

26. dramaturgy, 27. poetics, 28. music,

29.dancing, 30.architecture, 31.

construction of images of deities, 32.

myths, 33. legends, 34. stories, 35. division

of time, 36. manners and customs, 37.

marriage, 38. proper conduct and duties

of women, 39. penances, 40. results of

actions, 41. rules about the devotional

vows, 42. funeral ceremonies, 43.

description and praise of various kinds of

donations, 44. praise of holy places, 45.

law, 46. pathology, 47.cookery,

48.manufacture of perfumes,

49.horticulture, 50.rhetoric, 51. dancing,

52. vocal and instrumental music, 53.

painting.


1

BRAHMARISHI VISWAMITRAK.R.KRISHNAMURTHI

The names of the Rishis of our Gotrasreflect our ancient lineage goingback to the times of our revered

Rishis, the originators of so many differentfamilies forming the great Hindu societyof India, today! By years of intensesadhana (tapas ) our ancient Rishisacquired amazing spiritual powers, as tobless or curse a person with instant effect!

All Rishis are not Brahmins! Some ofthem are known to belong to differentcastes, as the Nayanmars and Azhawars ofTamil Nadu and the Saints of Maharashtra.Wives of some Rishis, by their austerityskill and accomplishment, flourished asRishis in those days. Lopa Mudra,Anasuya, Ahalya, Devahuti, Aditi, Mytreyi,Gargi, Gosha etc. are some of them.

Rishis are generally known asMaharshis, Brahmarshis, Devarshis,Rajarshis, Paramarshis, Srowtarshis andKhandarshis.

Great reseach scholars, eminentscientists of celestial spheres, exponentsof sacred and highly efficacious mantrasetc. were referred to and classified asRishis.

Extraordinary achievements, expertand special knowledge over varioustechnical fields of human knowledge etc.were taken into account, while assessingthe capabilities of different categories ofRishis. Those whom we call scientists andresearch scholars in highly specialisedfields of today were called Rishis in thosedays!

Maharshi Viswamitra was the son of theKing Gadhi and grandson of Kuchika. A

friend of many is what is meant by thename Viswamitra. He was aware ofMaharshi Vasistha’s several gifts andextraordinary spiritual powers. Once hepaid a visit to Vasistha’s Ashrama, withoutprior intimation. However Vasisthaarranged for a feast to him and his retinue,by bidding his divine Cow Kamadenu.Viswamitra was very much surprised tofind the amazing powers of Kamadenu andwanted to have it for himself! But itstrongly resisted. Attempts to take it byforce resulted in failure, as the suddenappearance of a fleet destroyed the forcesof Viswamitra. The arrows of Viswamitraaimed at Vasistha fell at the feet of the Yogadanda of the sage!

Humiliated, enraged and sorrowful,Viswamitra left the Ashrama in shame,taking a vow that he would become aBrahmarshi like Vasistha, with all thespiritual powers he had!

Vasistha was not in agreement withViswamitra on many issues but wouldyield later, after much consideration. Thismay be due to the several conflicts thelatter had with the sage!

Vasistha is one among the SapthaRishis and he is honoured with a distinctplace with his wife Arundhati, among theseven stars that comprise the SaptarshiMandala, that goes round the pole starDhruva Nakshatra, in the North Pole!

Viswamitra started his intensesadhana (tapas) by going to the fourdirections for the purpose of qualifyinghimself to be recognized as a Brahmarshi!He went to the South first. As anastronomer, he discovered some important


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southern stars, not included among the27 stars till then, also not explored byanybody and went with a step forward andbrought to the notice of other Rishis, theexistence of a constellation that behavedstrangely called Trishanku. He revealedits movements to the world in the form ofa funny story! It is nearest to the earth andalso one nearest to the South Pole!

He then went Westward for tapas (i.e.exploration). There he saved the preciouslife of a young boy about to be offered assacrifice in the Aswamedha Yaga of KingAmbarisha. Viswamitra taught him twomantras, by which he praised Indra andVishnu, who came to his timely rescueand saved his life!

When he went Northward forpursuing his sadhana, he was disturbedby the charming damsel Rambha,instigated by Indra in a plot to divertViswamitra’s attention from his tapas.After living with her for sometime, he gottired of her and cursed her to become astone!

Lastly, he travelled Eastward tointensify his tapas, mobilizing all hisefforts to achieve his goal, the position ofBrahmarshi. At one stage some Rishisapproached him to persuade him stronglyto give up such a severe penance, to whichhis reply was that they should makeVasistha acknowledge and call him aBrahmarshi. After assessing the record ofViswamitra’s achievements, they left.

Vasistha finally relented and calledhim “Hey Viswamitra Brahmarshi,Swagatam”. Thus Viswamitra stoodglorified in the assembly of many Rishis!

Once Viswamitra’s intimacy withMenaka, a bewitching apsara girl, whomIndra had sent to spoil his tapas, gave birthto a baby girl, which she left near a bushand made her way unnoticed. Rishi Kanvawhen he saw a crying baby, took it to hisAshrama and brought it up as youngbeautiful Sakuntala, whom he married offto King Dushyanta. King Bharata wastheir illustrious son!

Though Viswamitra had conjugalrelations with Rambha and Menaka at anearly period, in life, he rose to the exaltedposition of Brahmarshi, by uniquedetermination and great discipline, inpursuit of his spiritual attainments.

As we all know, Viswamitra is adistinguished Rig Vedic Rishi along withVasistha. But it is Viswamitra who hasbequeathed to us the great, sacred andsupreme Gayatri Mantra, which has theunique distinction of being proclaimed,that no other mantra is greater than Gayatri!

The discovery of this sacred mantraalone is enough to proclaim Viswamitraas a Brahmarshi.

Just like Vasistha’s name isperpetuated in association with a star inthe Saptarshi Mandala at the north Pole,Viswamitra’s name is also assigned to astar likewise, called Crux (southern cross)that lies close to the constellationTrishanku, which was discovered by him.


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A white lotus blushes crimson, whilegreeting the dawn. As the sunhesitatingly lights up the east, it

blossoms, and the cool breeze carries itsethereal fragrance in all directions. Thebee gratefully accepts the invitation topartake of its ambrosia. For a nature loveror a poet the sight may trigger ecstasy. Butthose who are pre-occupied may not evennotice this wondrous sight. Andunfortunately for those, whose attentionis only on the stagnant muddy swamp,they will see the lotus as an extension ofthe mud! The muddy swamp is a haven formagnificent lotuses. A seed protects amighty banyan in its bosom. An egg is arefuge for a peacock with all its exoticfeathers. A formless foetus has in it athinking, conscious and sensitive humanbeing. But those, who cannot look beyondthe smallness of the seed egg or the mudin the swamp, are unable to behold thewonderful tree or the bird or the lotus. Andyet, the seed, egg and the foetus, have tonegotiate a long and arduous journey tofulfill their respective destinies.

The life of Viswamitra—one of theseven greatest Rsis, represents thepilgrimage of the soul from the lowerneeds like greed, anger, ambition andlust, to the higher ones like effort,sacrifice, compassion and love, on to thehighest fulfillment of enlightenment.Viswamitra for many of us representsanger and lust or ambition andvengeance. Unfortunately, we overlook hisindustry, perseverance and dedication forachieving his self-set goals. We ignore his

sacred Gayatri, the greatest contribution,which has the power not only to soothethe mind, but also to take us towardsenlightenment. His pilgrimage makes aninteresting story if not a study, that canbe an inspiration for transforming the so-called ordinary life into life divine.

King Kausika visits sage Vasistha, whoextends a very rich reception in hishonour. Surprised to find richness andtaste in the humble hermitage, Kausikadiscovers the source of the hospitality tobe Nandini—the divine cow, which iscapable of fulfilling all the requirementsof the sage. Provoked by greed, Kausikaasks Vasistha to give him the cow in lieuof thousand milch cows. Sage Vasisthaexplains that the cow is not his and cannotbelong to any one, as its presence in theashrama is for propitiating the Devas—divine beings. Proud of his royalprivileges, Kausika wants to own the cowby force. Nandini, who can protect herself,creates wild people to destroy the king’strained army! Managing to escape withlife, Kausika vows to return after acquiringpowers to match those of Vasistha andNandini. Enlightened Vasistha, who cansee the potential of Kausika, instructsVamadeva—one of his disciples to initiatehim into the Upasana of Rudra—the Godof arms and warfare, so that Kausika canfulfill his need to attack the ashrama!

Giving up his kingdom and family,goaded by revenge, Kausika retreats toHimalayan foothills and meets Vamadevawho helps him acquire the arms from

PILGRIMAGE OF VISWAMITRA FROMGREED TO ENLIGHTENMENT

T.RAGHUNANDAN


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Rudra after propitiation. He proceeds tothe ashrama of Vasistha, who is away.Nandini warns Arundhati—the chastewife of the venerable sage, who prays andgives the responsibility of protecting theashrama to the staff (brahmadanda) of thesage, with a request that if possible itshould help Kausika in eliminating hisanimosity! When Kausika attacks theashrama after giving sufficient time to theinmates for escaping, he finds his weaponsno match to the brahmadanda—the holystaff of Vasistha, which injures himmaking him unconscious! When it isabout to eliminate him, Vamadeva reachesthe spot in the nick of time and prays itnot to do so. However, when itcircumambulates him, a dark shadow likebeing leaves him. Vamadeva brings theunconscious Kausika back to health.Shaken, Kausika realises a change in him,when he discovers that instead ofanimosity, there is a strong wish toemulate and if possible, to become aVasistha. Vamadeva tells him that thechange is due to the effect ofbrahmadanda, which also protected theashrama, while Vasistha was away!

The turning point in the life of Kausikais his desire to possess the divine cow.Being a king and necessarily rajasic,Kausika is eager to fulfill the desire. Whenhe does not succeed in doing so, hisnatural reaction is anger and use of force.Failure to possess the cow, and thesubsequent defeat, make him takeVasistha as his adversary and an enemywho is standing between him and the cow.He is also aware that the prowess ofVasistha is neither physical nor martialbut spiritual.

And so begins Kausika’s journey intohimself through greed. At the same time,the behaviour of Vasistha and his disciplebrings home another very important point:

always be very careful in choosing theenemy. If the enemy is noble, lofty andspiritually more advanced than you, thenhe will always help you in your growth.Vasistha is a Self-realised person, and allhis actions are for the welfare of theexistence. Though Kausika considers himas his adversary, Vasistha does notrecognize any such emotion. Even whenKausika attacks the ashrama, his wifeArundhati prays for his welfare and wisheshim well, resulting in the transformationof his anger into deep respect and a quietdetermination to emulate Vasistha. Afterunderstanding the basics of tapas,Kausika takes leave of Vamadeva, andmoves south ward to build a small hut onthe banks of river Rewa. The guidancereceived from Vamadeva helps him in hisspiritual practice. Kausika’s warrior-likeattitude helps him to persevere andexperiment with the Vedic mantras,prana—the life force, and understand thesecrets of creation. With an aspiration toeliminate anger from his mind, Kausikastarts calling himself “Viswamitra—thefriend of the universe”.

Trisanku—the king of solar dynasty,who nurtures a desire to go to heaven inhis physical body, approaches Vasistha, hispreceptor. Vasistha discourages him as hewould be going to heaven after death, andalso because that has never been done.When the king insists and urges hispreceptor to create a new yajna for thepurpose, Vasistha refuses on the groundthat it will disturb the natural balance andthat with the help of such ritual even thenon-eligible persons will be able to gothere. Observing the obstinacy of Trisanku,Vasistha sends him to Rajarsi Viswamitra.When Trisanku approaches himinforming-him that the great sage himselfhas directed him to do so, Viswamitra isflattered and promises him to create a


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yajna with the help of Jamadagni—hismaternal cousin and a seeker like himself.

In their effort to fulfil the desire ofTrisanku, they learn many things. Theyinvoke sage Atharvana to help themconduct the yajna, who points out that theking’s body should first be transformedinto a divine one; that while Viswamitrais proficient in Rudravidya, Jamadagni isan expert in Varunavidya; and thattogether they can propitiate AswiniKumaras—the divine physicians andsurgeons who can help in changing thebody of Trisanku. The divine surgeonschange the body of Trisanku. The twosages also discover that the main deity ofthe yajna is Indra, who can be invoked onlyin the presence of Vasistha or at leastsomeone from his lineage. Knowing thatVasistha will not come for the yajna, theydecide to invoke the auras of the greatsage’s sons on to someone. With intenseenterprise, effort and grit they prepare forthe yajna.

The yajna proceeds without anyhindrance. However, for the purnahuti—the final offering, which is to be acceptedby Indra, the king of devas—Indra does notcome. Viswamitra tries to invoke one ofVasistha’s son’s aura into an officiatingpriest. In a struggle that follows, thecombined strength of Jamadagni andViswamitra kills Vasistha’s hundred sons.Undaunted, and carried away by rage, theoutcome of their failure, Viswamitra andJamadagni send Trisanku to heaventhrough their combined power of tapas.But he falls, as he is not allowed to enterthe heaven without the permission ofIndra. Viswamitra stops him in mid-spaceand creates a small heaven, which hascome to be called “Trisanku-swarga”.Though the yajna as such has failed, thefact that Viswamitra and Jamadagni havesucceeded in transforming the body ofTrisanku and have created an exclusive

heaven for him makes them both venerablein the eyes of other seekers and sages.Many people follow them to the ashramaof Jamadagni.

Jamadagni, worried about feeding somany with his limited means, propitiatesAgni, who offers him Sabala—anotherdivine cow like Nandini, on a conditionthat he seeks the permission from Indra—the king of heaven. When Jamadagniinvokes Indra, he willingly appears andpresents the cow. Indra then givesaudience to Viswamitra, and tells him thatat the end of the first phase of Kritayuga—the golden age, a great personage has totake the misery on himself, andprovidence has chosen sage Vasistha forthe purpose. All the events that led to thedeath of his sons was only for this end, andthat only a Vasistha can bear the intensityof the misery.

Vasistha has already borne half themisery. Moreover, Indra says that throughthe yajna conducted for Trisanku,providence has planned to takeViswamitra through progressive stages toaccomplish the ultimate goal ofenlightenment. Viswamitra however isnot listening and great is his repentance,as he realizes that he has directly causedthe death of Vasistha’s sons. He takes avow in front of Indra that he will sacrificehis fifty sons willingly to take misery ofVasistha, on himself. Indra is extremelypleased with Viswamitra and invites himto heaven, but latter refuses on the groundthat for a recluse the goal is somethingmore meaningful than the heavenlyindulgence. Indra smilingly observes thatif he refuses the invitation, then it is quitelikely that the heaven may come to him!

Once again, he seeks seclusion bywithdrawing to north and settling downon the bank of river Saraswati. He gathers


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enough power to understand that in spiteof the fact that he had given up theanimosity for Vasistha, the tapas he hadperformed, was goaded by ambition,ambition to outwit and overtake the greatsage. He realises that unless the tapas ismotivated by compassion and love, it isbound to breed pain and misery to oneselfand others. He delves deeply within, todiscover the secrets of cleansing of thebody and mind through prana. In theprocess however, Viswamitra realizes thata strange attraction towards beauty ofnature, a feeling of compassion towardsthe suffering and an indefinablefriendship and love towards all creaturesdevelop in him. He feels full and at thesame time incomplete without someone toshare that fullness.

Then happens perhaps the mostmisunderstood and infamous event of hislife; indulgence with Menaka—theheavenly nymph! Usually this episode isconsidered to be one of the most viciousfalls in his life—his defeat at the hands oflust, which happens to be one of thestrongest forces of existence. Before wepass a judgment on Viswamitra, we willdo well to remember that the stage he isin, is unimaginably lofty, as he is alreadya Maharsi who has not only control overhis sense but also has control over externalnature. Viswamitra’s eyes are set onbecoming a Brahmarsi like Vasistha. It isknown that Vasistha is born enlightenedand the only purpose of his life is for theguidance of mankind, whereas,Viswamitra has to acquire the sage-hoodthrough the dint of his effort. That means,a warrior with his natural ambition andlove for acquisition of power over othershas to transcend his basic nature tobecome ego-less. Paramahamsa SriRamakrishna used to say that the first aswell as the last step in spirituality isbecoming ego-less. He would give the

example of a fish caught in a net. It canbecome free in two ways. The first is byreducing itself to such an extent that it isable to come out of one of the openings inthe net. The other way is to become solarge that the net is unable to contain itand the fish breaks out of the net.

For Viswamitra the second path issuitable. Allowing the ahamkara to grow,ripen and fall on its own is more suitablefor him. Menaka spends some time withhim and her association helps Viswamitrato expand his learning. Taittiriyopanisad,in its quantification of ananda—blissmentions that the capacity for bliss ofdevas is 1010 times morethan that of humanbeings! So the capacity of Viswamitraincreases through sense experiences withMenaka. Moreover, he leans the mostimportant aspects of sharing and giving.Menaka repairs to her abode afterdelivering a girl child—Sakuntala.Finding a suitable haven for the child inRsi Kanva’s Asrama. Viswamitra againplunges into Tapas. In the followingperiod he meets many accomplished Rsiswho share their wisdom with him.Through the spiritual experiences, herealizes his inner nature to a very greatextent. At this time, he remembers hispromise given to Indra for alleviating themisery of Vasistha.

Ghritaci—another celestial nymphappears in front of Viswamitra andexpresses her wish to spend some timewith him. He accepts her with a conditionthat she will bear him fifty sons who areaspirant Rsis and fifty others who are goingto be the future Rsis, and that she shouldnot protest if the aspirant Rsis aresacrificed for a noble purpose. She alsoaccepts on a condition that the hundredoffsprings will be borne by her in a singleconception, as she wants to experience thedelivery pain only once. It suits him and


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they become man and wife to manage theAsrama that looks after the interest of somany seekers.

Out of the one hundred sons,peculiarly enough the first fifty form anextremely proud and angry team, whilethe second fifty are humble, receptive andeligible seekers. An occasion presentsitself when Hariscandra—the monarch ofthe solar dynasty approaches him to be oneof the officiating priests for a yajna, whichwill be presided over by Vasistha the great,himself! Viswamitra is overwhelmed andis convinced that the Providence haschosen to smile on him once again, andthat he will be able to clear the debt. It isa Naramedha—a sacrifice of a humanbeing. A boy belonging to the gotra ofAngiras and son of Ajigarta is to becomethe sacrificial animal. Viswamitra’sconcern is swept aside when Hariscandratells him that Vasistha has observed thatan able person can not only save the boy,but complete the yajna as well.

The officiating priests meet to discussthe proceedings. Vasistha says thatVaruna, the main deity of the yajna hasinstructed him in the whole procedure. Inthe discussion, Viswamitra, does not openhis mouth, but is extremely silent butobservant. In the hut where he is housed,Viswamitra meets the father of the boy tobe sacrificed. He tells the Rsi, that he hadsold Sunassepha—the boy, to Hariscandrafor a hundred cows, due to poverty. Butpresently he has realized his gravemistake and want Viswamitra to save him.When Sunassepha is summoned, andViswamitra beholds him, strong feelingof love and compassion is stirred in him.In the yajna, everything goes on withoutany obstacle. When the boy is about to besacrificed, mantras in praise of deities likePrajapati, Varuna, Agni, Aswini-Kumarasand Usas, pour out of him. The deities setSunassepha free and offer him to

Viswamitra as his son. Thereafter, he iscalled as Devarata-one who has beenoffered by the Devas.

Looking into the eligibility of Devarata,Viswamitra offers him many secrets. Thefirst fifty sons of Viswamitra headed byAndhra protest this and want it to be solvedat Dharmasabha-the assembly of Dharma.The sons are burnt to death due to themisinterpretation of the law andarrogance. Viswamitra’s debt to Vasisthais absolved and Indra calls Ghritaci backto heaven. Visamitra becomes a Brahmarsiin his own right and effort and is acceptedas such by all, including Vasistha. Hebecomes the mantradrashta of Gayatri,which has the power to soothe andenlighten the person, who chants it. Inthese thousands of years, it has beenchanted by billions of people, who havebeen benefited by it. (Authorities are notagreed as to which Vishwamitra was theseer of the Gayatri Mantra - Editor)

Indian ethos has the distinction ofaccepting everything as a necessary steptowards growth. We have never divided theexistence into divine and demonic,positive and negative or spiritual andmundane. Life as such has been taken asan organic whole-advaita. Upanishadsoffer us not only the philosophicalfoundations of our culture, but means andmethods to attain the state of advaita. OurRisis realized that not all people in thesociety are capable of understanding, andso offered us mythology, which brings outthe lofty truths in simple symbolic stories.These seeped into our day-to-day life tokeep the culture alive through all thevicissitudes of foreign invasion andoppression. Life of Viswamitra-who hasbeen one of the Seven Risis of this age,happens to be a source of inspiration forall of us. It fills us with a new hope, that inspite of all the limitations, one can riseabove to make the life more meaningfuland purposeful. Rather, the limitations arethe steps, to be climbed up by them, whowant to serve and save humanity throughlove and sacrifice.

This article is based on the Kannada classic “Mahabrahmana” by Devudu,Published by DVK Murty, Mysore-4, V edition, 1976


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Bharata in the Ramayana andBhishma in the Mahabharata aretwo characters though apparently

different having many common traits.Both were entitled to the kingdom, one byhis father’s promise and the other by hisrightful title. Both relinquished their rightson their own in favour of others; this is thequality of sacrifice which one has to learnfrom both. Their impact on Indian citi-zens in general has been great, but alas,those who rule the country have not learnttheir lessons from these personalities.

It is in Valmiki Ramayana, Balakanda,that Bharata first makes his appearance.‘Bharato nama Kaikekiya jagnesathyaparakrama’ put in Sanskrit (18th

Sarga 13th Stanza). (Meaning Bharata thetruthful was born to Kaikeyi). Comparethis to Sri Ramavatara in stanza 11 :‘Kausalya janayadrama’ Kausalyadelivered Rama. In the matter of the birthof Sri Rama there are not many adjectivesused. “tatascha dwadase mase chaitrenavamike tithou nakshatre aditi daivatysocha samshteshu panchasu” put inSanskrit. Even though it was Sri Rama whovanquished the evil forces of Ravana, heis referred to as Kausalya supraja Rama.Only Bharata is mentioned asSatyaparakrama. By this one adjectiveSage Valmiki puts Bharata on a highpedestal.

One should get back to 16th canto 29stanza. Kaikeyayai chavasistharthamdadhow putrarthakaranat. (KingDasaratha gave to Kaikeyi half of what wasleft intending to get a son by her). Whatdoes this signify? The sage Valmiki

predicts that the King knew that it is onlyBharata who is going to do the finalobsequies to him as the real PUTRA.

Apart from these, there is littlereference or glorification to Bharata inValmiki’s or other Ramayanas. Is he suchan insignificant character to be leftunspoken? No, indeed, the differentauthors of this epic knew that he wouldshine as a symbol of devotion to Sri Ramaand a person who sacrifices all the wealthof his father’s empire to uphold Dharma.While Sri Rama went to forest for fourteenyears to uphold the unspoken (to him)promise of his father, Bharata remainedin Nandigram as a representative of hiselder brother and administered thekingdom in his elder brother’s name touphold the spoken intention of hisbeloved father that Sri Rama is to inheritthe kingdom. It was Bharata who laid thefoundations for a welfare state wherepeople enjoyed freedom and justice. Hadthis not been so, there would never havebeen a washerman who spoke aloudquestioning the purity of Sita. It is onlyon such an edifice could Sriramaestablish Ramarajya.

One of the little known chapters in theRamayana is the discussion between SriRama and Bharata before he agrees to getback to administer the state. Sri Ramaadvises him on administrative mattersand on the right behaviour of a ruler inall times. This chapter is as important asthe one in the Mahabharata whereBhishma enunciates rules ofadministration to Yudhisthira.

BHARATA, THE IKSHWAKU PRINCEV. RAMANATHAN


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It is true that a son who does what heis told by his father is great; but one likeBharata who understands the trueinclination of his father is indeed greater.It is to be remembered that as Sri Ramawas not present when the promise wasgiven to Kaikeyi, Bharata too was awaywhen these incidents took place inAyodhya. In spite of arriving at Ayodhyaafter his father’s sad demise, he knew thereal facts from his preceptor Vasistha andabided by his instructions.

Unlike Lakshmana, Bharata did nothave to follow Sri Rama to prove his fidelityand integrity. The world understood andstill understands his steadfastness to truthand claim to glory from his silence andremaining back to administer the stateand its peoples. He is the real embodimentof kshatriya dharma. The king is dutybound to administer the state as per thedharma sastras and to look after thewelfare of the state’s subjects. This he didin earnest for fourteen continuous yearsand maintained law and order in hisbrother’s absence. He achieved this inspite of the known feelings of love andaffection of his subjects for Sri Rama. Inthe adverse circumstances where someamong the citizens considered him as anusurper and were hostile to him, hemaintained his calm and equanimity anddid his job efficiently!

Having enjoyed the powers and honorof a ruler for fourteen uninterrupted years,he surrendered this right to the rightfulheir without any regrets or compunctionsat the appropriate time. In Kaliyuga it israre that we find such persons; onerefuses to vacate the ministerial chair orbungalow even if one is thrown out by theelectorate! Bharata stands as a beaconlight showing us how a ruler whetherholding on a hereditary title or electedshould behave in this world.

The word BHARATA is a synonym forFIRE too. He was as powerful as fire: hedestroys evil which comes into touch withhim, purifies the good ones. This isBharata’s characteristic. Fire is the firstamong five elements to have a body; henceit is linked to sight. Sky for conveyingsound (ear). Air for touch (skin), Fire forsight (eyes). It is because of our respect tohim that this land is called Bharatam too.[Conventional knowledge would have itthat this land is named after Bharata theson of the Shakuntala - Editor]. No wonderin this India that is Bharat no function iscomplete without sacred fire whether it bein the form of a lighted lamp or Havan.

While one praises Lakshmana as theideal younger brother, one should notforget Bharata, the silent one. (They alsoserve who stand and wait). Unlike today’ssilent majority, he remained back firm tocleanse the polity of all ills. Had he notruled the state justly and laid thefoundations on truth, honesty, andintegrity, Sri Rama would never have beenable to establish the Ramarajya in theblessed land of the Ganga, Yamuna,Godavari, Narmada, Sindhu, Kaveri,Sarayu and Krishna.

He had no opportunity to show hisfighting prowess; still the world remembershim for his silent devotion to duty,adherence to the spirit of dharma andtruth.

The authors like Valmiki and Kambanbelieved that Bharata’s actions speak upfor themselves; there was no need to glorifyhim in words. His stature alone will showhis true worth, without anyone projectinghim as a hero. We should realize his worthand follow in his footsteps in upholdingSanatana Dharma.


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Bhishma is indeed a Pithamaha. Hewas born to sacred Ganga whichflows in the three worlds. The

waters of Ganga are considered sacred byone and all; it is everyone’s wish to havehis ashes immersed in the sacred Ganga.No wonder her son is hailed as Pitamahaby one and all who have even a scantknowledge of Mahabharata. He is the sonof Shantanu. His father enamoured of thebeauty of Ganga lived with her for yearsand produced many children, but threwthem all out into the Ganga the momentthey were born. The last one was Devavrataand the king believing that this son of hiswas to achieve greatness in life and wasto play an important and significant rolein the events in Kurukshetra, begged ofGanga to spare him. Ganga Mata, asordained by the gods trained him in allshastras and then left him to the care ofhis father.

When his father fell in love with a fisherwoman Satyawati and wanted to marryher, he agreed to all the conditions put upby the bride’s father and relinquished hisright to the kingdom. Further he promisedto remain a bachelor and celebate all hislife. He kept this promise, in spite of themany allurements before him, unlike SageViswamitra who fell to the charms of apsaraMenaka. As a result of his refusing thefavours of Amba he had to suffer her curseand lay down arms when confronted byher in war in the form of a eunuch. Heupheld his vow that he would never fighta eunuch. Perhaps had he not laid downarms, the future of the Pandava dynastywould have been different.

Apart from his steadfastness andadherence to truth, he had acquired vastknowledge of administration and politicalacumen. He had promised his father inhis deathbed, that he will look after theprogeny in times of good and bad andadvise them in all matters personal orpolitical. With this he remained as thePitamaha and loyal to the blind KingDhritharastra. (whom he ordained as theruler when Pandu passed away).

The one character in this epicstanding tall, witnessing from beginningto end all the intrigues, travails and thefinal disintegration of both Pandavas andKauravas, is Bhishma. Sometimes hekeeps silent, at others he advises both thewarring cousins. But what he does notloose sight of, is the ultimate good of thecountry he is born in.

Moving away from established norms,he brought in the sage Vedavyasa to bringprogeny to the ruling family.

It is in recognition of his knowledgeand his high standard of morality inpersonal and public life, that Lord Krishnarequests him (lying on a bed of arrows) toteach the laws of dharmic administrationto Yudhishtira. Bhishma, in all humility,suggests that such advice should comefrom Sri Krishna himself. But the Lord saysthat he is cow a shepherd and Bhishma isa royal to the manor born and words fromhis lips would have authority and wouldbe accepted by one and all. How onewishes that rulers of today read andunderstand the gems of administrativenorms stated by this puranic characterand follow them: if they do that India

BHISHMAV.RAMANATHAN


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would indeed be a Ramarajya;Dharmakshetra!

However at the end of the discourseon dharma, Sahadeva the younger of thePandavas questioned him thus; ‘Pitamaha,knowing that one should stand by dharmaalone, you still stood with the Kauravaswho were embodiment of adharma, why?

The Pitamaha in his death bedanswered Sahadeva: ‘The blood in myveins is the result of eating the food of theKauravas, it is the obligation to that bloodwhich made me stand by them’.

It is a lesson for all of us particularlythe ruling class: never associate even fora moment with evil forces to achieve life’saims. It will lead not only the person butthe society too to disaster.

To conclude the ideals from Bharataand Bhishma which we have to follow are:

1. Strict adherence to truth2. Never to break promises made3. Living to dharmic standards.


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MANDODARIPROF.SEEMA MANDAVIA

A woman has her own unique placein Indian society from timeimmemorial. In present day, there

are certain movements in western society,regarding women’s liberation. But inIndia, the picture is completely different.In vedic period as well as in our Epics andmythology we can have the proof of this,the women were far ahead in each field,had equal rights and were at par with theirmale counterparts. They were excellent intheir own respective fields, inspiring useven today.

In ‘Ramayana’ great women describedby Valmiki are of two main types. One isrepresented by such saintly ladies asAnasuya, Shabri etc., who cast off allwordly ambitions and led a life of ‘tapas’or mental discipline. The second type isrepresented by women, who remained insociety, led a family life and rose toeminence by faithfully discharging theirrespective duties. Mandodari belongs tothis type. Let us take her sketch in threeroles of hers as – a wife, a mother and as aMaharani or Rajmata.

As a Wife :-

She was the daughter of a nymphHema and Mayadanav. She was from hervery childhood a beautiful and intelligentlady. She was married by her father toRakshas Ravana, a powerful king of Lanka.We can stress her first appearance as awise wife to Ravana in the scene whenRavana’s sister Shurpanakha comes toRavana after her nose and ears were cutby Lakshmana. She entered cursing twobrothers Rama and Lakshmana. Ravanagot angry at the sight of his sister andspoke ill of Rama and Lakshmana and

asked what was the wish of his sister. Sheasked. Ravana to drag Sita – spouse of SriRama to Lanka. During this conversationbetween the brother and the sister,Mandodari at first listened quietly, butcouldn’t keep mum when she listened tothe wish of Shurpanakha she said “Whena woman irritates a man against a womanand advises him to seduce a woman it isreally an act of betrayal to the wholewoman’s race. Think farsightedly andsuggest something else as your revenge,but not this”. But Shurpanakha was notready to listen to her noble words.Mandodari also advised as a noble wife toRavana “If male power doesn’t protectwoman then the power of those menreceived nothing but hatred from theworld”. And with absolute modesty shesaid further, “Forgive me if I am arrogantin performing my hard duty as your spouseto make conscious of your duty. Thoughyou are the descendant of Pulstya Muni. Imust also remind you that you are thesupreme devotee of Shiva, who hassmeared the ashes of burnt lust all overhis body; you have the right of using yourearned riches in welfare only”.

Her greatness was recognized even bySita . When Ravana went to Sita to harassher by getting her frightened of hisappearance, Sita got angry at this conductand said, “I really get surprised how thenoble woman like Mandodari has beenmarried to you, who doesn’t deserve anequal status with her, you are really a slaveof lust, temptation and all other vices. Youjudge women only through their body-flesh, blood etc. Aren’t you ashamed ofthis?”.


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Sita had love and respect forMandodari. Mandodari had also a softcorner and high respect for Sita. She didnot at all agree with her husband in suchan evil design and act. So invariably shetried to persuade him to refrain him fromthe path he had taken. But Ravana turneda deaf ear to her advice everytime. Shekept on asking Trijata to take care of Sitaand her well being and all the time gotworried about her life. She wanted to gopersonally to Sita but did not have thecourage to violate her husband’s order notto go to her. That also shows her bhaktitowards her husband. Yet at the same timeshe also remained successful in convincingRavana to protect Sita’s chastity and alsotold Ravana that if anything untowardhappened, she would give up her body.

As a Mother :-

As a dignified woman, she alsoperformed her duty excellently as an idealmother in persuading Meghnad againstwar. She also shared her grief with herdaughter-in-law Sulochana,sympathetically. Both of them put theirbest efforts in persuading their husbands,but of no avail. When war had alreadystarted and Ravana and Meghnada wereto go on field, all the people of Lanka wereenjoying in feasting and dancing anddrinking, except these two ladies. Both ofthem observed fast and prayed God fordirecting the minds of their husbands onright path.

Ultimately when Meghnada was killed,Sulochana rushed to Mandodari, seekingguidance whether she would go to SriRama for taking possession of his deadbody. Here we witness her mother’s heartand sharpness of intellect, she told, “Mychild, you may definitely go to Sri Rama,my blessings are with you. In the tents ofRama, there is no fear for a woman to go

alone. Sri Rama is not only a pure personbut I have also heard that after enteringthe forests in the garbs of Sanyasin, hedidn’t even look at Sita with sensuality.So you may certainly go and on my behalfalso please have his darshan more andmore which may increase your purity evermore, my child!” Such lovable andcompassionate words full of respecttowards Sri Rama pacified Sulochana andshe went to Sri Rama.

Even to Ravana, she was playing therole of a mother, as every womanpossesses, the heart of mother first. Afterdeath of all kiths and kin, Ravana in thelast was to go to the field of war. So, beforegoing, he went to Mandodari and askedfor her forgiveness, praising many of hervirtues. He also took her promise that shemight also help him in having forgivenessof Sri Rama and Sita. And Mandodarigenerously promised it. Ravana alsoconfessed that he was really a supremesinner in the world and for condolence,came to his wife who was nobilitypersonified. He also told her “The love youhave given to me has convinced me thatwoman is not simply a ‘woman’ but a‘mother’ too. O Sati! Women only possessthese virtues of forgiveness andgenerosity”.

As Rajamata:-

In ‘Ramayana ’ at many a placeMandodari expressed her thoughts as aresponsible caretaker of the subject(people) of Lanka. She also instilled thespirit of patriotism among women and alsomade them conscious of their voice beingexpressed in the smooth running of thekingdom. When Ravana decided to declarewar against Rama and Lakshmana, hecalled his officials. As womenrepresentatives Queen Mandodari,Sulochana, Trijata etc. remained present.


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After listening to the decision of Ravana,Mandodari got angry, but couldn’t expressher hatred at that time, but agreed withVibhishana, who told the truth to hisbrother with utmost courage. Later, withall her courage, she gave expressions toher thoughts thus, “In politics of Lanka ifmen and women are equally treated as itssubjects the voice of women is clear thatas women we cannot tolerate and witnessthe insult and trouble given to an idealwoman-the wife of Sri Rama, whom youhave brought here by kidnapping. Ofcourse, our voice is suppressed and suchmental slavery is a shameful status ofwomen’s race. If you believe in theconstitution of your state, you must listento my claim. Though I may not understandyour dirty politics, I feel ashamed of beingthe queen of a king of Lanka. Forgive me,Maharaj, but I can clearly see that yourpolitics is neither subject oriented nortruth oriented but it is only lust oriented.But remember! Yama didn’t hit anyonewith a stick. A person who gives up his/her life for the sake of a principle is reallyfortunate. Today you have got ready toenter in to the jaws of Yama because ofyour lust and ego. As your spouse, I feelgreat pain and as a civilian of Lanka, I feelgreat anger but as a chief queen of a king,I feel a profound shock. Before witnessingsuch a war, it is better, if God took awaymy Prana”. But unfortunately Ravana’sheart had no effect for such words! Shealso reminded, Ravana of the death of her

uncle Maricha, Khara, Dushana andJayanta and also reminded him of the realnature of Rama, who was the supremeauthority of the whole of the universe, notan ordinary human being doing austerity.At last, in her utter helplessness, sheprayed to God that let her husband, at theend of his life take the name of God! Suchwas her contribution as Rajamata. In otherscene also we witness her role being playedas Rajamata. After the death of Ravana,she along with Rajaguru (the priest of thekingdom) went to have darshan of SriRama and pleaded with him, “Prabho!Please bestow your blessing on myVibhishana so that the kingdom of Lankamay run on the principles of truth andwelfare of its people”. How noble is herthinking of hers, expressed in such words!As a Rajmata she saw where lied the wellbeing of the subjects (people). And SriRama accepted proposal of theVibhishana coronation of and explainedto him how to reign over the kingdom oflanka.

Thus, the character of Mandodari isan intelligent, compassionate,sympathetic, woman who had the moralcourage to express her views clearly. Andnot only in the past but in the presentalso her character inspires thousands ofwomen . The qualities she possessed areabsolute values and in our Indian society,we always follow absolute values.

INFLUENCE OF THE EPICS ON INDIAN LIFE AND CULTURE (5/11)

NILMADHAV SENFrom A study of epic derivatives in classical and regional literature, it is very easy to imaginehow profound the epic influence must have been on art and culture, and on the generaltexture of social life. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata are, in the words of Havell, ‘asmuch the common property of all Hinduism as the English Bible and Shakespeare belong toall English-speaking people. The Indian epics contain a portrait-gallery of ideal types of menand women which afford to every good Hindu the highest exemplars of moral conduct, andevery Hindu artist as inexhaustible mine of subject matter’.

Extracted from “Cultural Heritage of India Vol.II--”

The RKM Institute of Culture Calcutta 1993.


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VIDURA AND SANJAYAKANUBHAI MANDAVIA

It is said by Mahatma Gandhi that“Mahabharata is a mine of jewels”,Dasgupta and Dey in their ‘History ofSanskrit Literature’ say that‘Mahabharata” is a commentary of life,traditions, habits and changing ideals ofBharata”. Lokmanya Tilak said that it is agreat epic discussing Dharma(righteousness) and Adharma(unrighteousness) “. Yogi Krishnapremsaid, “it is the strongest possible evidenceof the greatness and fineness of thisancient Indian Culture”. Here, we are toportray only two characters of‘Mahabharata who are quite detached ofthe Mahabharata war and still influencethe life of this nation as said above. Theyare VIDURA and SANJAYA.

Vidura was one of the three brothersof Pandu and Dhrutarashtra. Pandu, whoruled Hastinapur met with prematuredeath and Dhritarashtra ruled but wasblind and hence the administration wasrun by Vidura. In the present language,he can be said to be a “Prime Minister”.He tried to rule according to Dharma. ButDhritarashtra, ‘infatuated’ by love of hisson Duryodhana, did number of injusticesto Pandavas. Vidura every time tried torefrain but of no avail! At last the greatwar of Mahabharata was looming large!

Vidura was Dharma personified asYudhishthira is said to be! His life was fullof austerity, he did not even enjoy theluxuries of Prime Minister, even thoughhe was entitled to them. He was a realdevotee of the Lord, when Sri Krishnacame to Hastinapur for truce, he wasstate-guest. But he preferred to go toVidura’s place as a common man, where

he most willingly relished “Bhaji” ofVidura.

When the war of Mahabharata wasalmost certain and talks of peace were inprogress, Dhritarashtra sent his envoy—Sanjaya to Pandavas to make themunderstand the evils of war. But he wasnot prepared to part with a meager portionof the empire! The result was certain.Dhritarashtra became uneasy and he didnot find peace to sleep. He called Viduraand wanted to hear some righteoussermons! Then Vidura spontaneouslyreplie, “I know, Brother, these are thepeople who can not sleep peacefully – (1)Surrounded by mighty persons (2)Infatuated (3) Thief. So, where is yourposition?” Then he narrates the code ofrighteousness which now forms eightchapters of the Mahabharata. They arecalled “Prajagara Parva” or “Vidura Niti”,(means to arouse-awake the soul of man).In these eight chapters, it is describedwhat “Dharma” is and Dhritrashtra couldvery well see and understand what hisduty was. But alas! He did not want tounderstand. Really he was such a selfishman that he wanted his son to be on thethrone of Hastinapur.

Then we see, Vidura leaving the posthe had and also the city, as the war ofMahabharata was going to start. He leftquite unattached to everything. After along time, when the war was over,Yudhisthira remembered him and went tosearch him out. He found him in a forestwandering alone and quite immersed inthe self like Avadhoot. When Yudhishtirasaw him Vidura, stopped but did notspeak to Yudhisthira’s invitation to return


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was not complied with. But standing by atree he penetrated in to the eyes ofYudhisthira and he left his body. Soulpassed away! Thus a Dharmatma left thebody entering another Dharmatma. Afterlakhs of years of this event, we still havethe inheritance of Dharma, ‘Viduraniti”Prajagatra parva. They still apply to thelife of men today.If one is sincere, one’ssoul can be roused.

SANJAYA

Sanjaya is another person who did nottake part in the war. But by the grace ofVyasa, he acquired the powers to seethings happening hundreds of miles away.Dhritarashtra wanted to see but was blind.But he wanted to be told about the day today events of the war. How can that bepossible when Kurukshetra-war-field-wasmore than hundred miles away? So, Vyasagave him the power to see the far off warfield.

Before the war sanjaya also acted asan emissary of Dhritarashtra toYudhisthira. So, Sanjaya saw sittingbeside Dhritarashtra and narrate from thebeginning ‘Dharmakshetre, Kurukshetra’.That is how Gita begins and also the war.Sanjaya saw all the 18 days of war andnarrated everything to Dhritarashtra.Sanjaya is considered fortunate for this.But no! he was fortunate-privileged, that

he could hear and see events of the “Gita”.There are only two actors in “Gita – drama”.But Sanjaya is there as one to see andhear as a witness! So, unattached with thewar and also an onlooker of the Gita –episode. In fact, it can be said that Sanjayaconveyed the message of “Gita” to theposterity also. He was also blessed to see“Vishwarupa” of the Lord. After the song– celestial the “Gita” – comes to an end,he expressed his feelings toDhritarashtra…

He heard this supreme and mostprofound yoga, directly from YogeshwarKrishna. The whole message of theeighteen chapters of the Gita is conveyedin one super word – “Yogam”. He furthersays, “I rejoice again and again”. WhatSanjaya experienced of hearing ‘Gita’ canbe experienced by all if that attitude isthere. From times immemorial the ‘Gita’has been the subject of meditation andmany fortunate people have experiencedthat ‘Amrita’, When one sincerely studies“Gita” one is wonderstruck. I have seenpersons completely changed after readingand meditating over the ‘Gita’. It is scienceof ‘yoga’ and Sanjaya has verified. Thus,this chapter of Mahabharata hascontributed immensely for therejuvenation and elevation of mankind.Hence, we see both these less knowncharacters of Mahabharata havecontributed for the essential culture ofIndia which still inspires people fororientation to higher life.


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IS KARNA A HERO?

Heroism it is when egoism issubmitted to the cosmic will, whenit is annihilated in the fire of

righteous service, eradicated in theennobling abundance of universal love, orsublimated in the adoration of the allpervading divinity. Moral uprightness andethical excellence are the basic marks ofa hero. Indomitable will and invinciblecourage are mere appendages of a hero,not noble traits. They are seen even invillains of insufficient moral uprightness.Satan in Paradise Lost and Ravana in theRamayana are known for their strong willand skill but are contaminated with ill willand egoism, deceit and treachery. Thewill of a hero is ever in tune with the cosmicwill which is always established in Truthand righteousness, Satya and Dharma.

Karna in the Mahabharatha is“Dambodbhava”, the person ofboastfulness; that is what the wordimplies. He is the embodiment of egoismand boastfulness, self love and self-assertion, craving always for recognitionto his small self of worldly achievements.

Born of blue blood, Karna the son ofthe Sun is not only royal but also ofsparkling splendour. Despite his regalveins and divine origin, he is known to allonly as an orphan. He does not know hisparents – his royal mother or divine father,Mother Nature and Father God. Butignorance is no license to tell lies. Moreso, in the case of a hero. Karna does nothesitate to produce a false birth certificateto seek admission into Parasurama’sGurukula University. It is quiteunbecoming of a hero to play foul in thegame of life to win a few earthly laurels.Means are as important as the end. Moraluprighteness is the very life spirit of a hero.

Ekalavya did not resort to improper meansto get admitted into Drona’s institute ofarchery! Sathyakama Jabala was ignorantof his parentage. When the Kulapathiinsisted upon knowing his parentage asa precondition for admission into hisGurukula, the young boy boldly declaredthe damaging truth about his parent astold by his mother. The magnanimousmaster appreciated the lad’s faith in truthand moral uprightness. So should Karnahave stuck to truth without resorting totelling lies. Master Parasurama cursedKarna because the latter was a liar. Allthe achievements of Karna in archery weretherefore of no avail when he needed themmost.

It is unbecoming of anybody to tell lies.More so, when it is Karna the man of royallineage and divine brightness. The imagewas tarnished, the moment he took to anunrighteous path for his self-glorification.

Professional rivalry and jealousy arenever a mark of nobility. Karna was neveran admirer of Arjuna’s dexterity. Even afterknowing him to be his brother, he wasunable to overcome his hatred for Arjuna.On the other hand, if Arjuna were to knowthat Karna was his elder brother, he wouldhave surrendered his all at his feet. In spiteof Sri Krishna’s assurance that Pandavaswould be at his command, Karna refusedto leave Kauravas and join his ownbrothers. Is it his friendship withDuryodhana that prompted him to brushaside Sri Krishna’s advice and MotherKunti’s request No. His friendship is morefor the glorification of his self than for selfdedication in the service of his friendDuryodhana.

Friendship with Duryodhana sprangup from the genial but political gesture of

DR.K.SUBRAHMANYAM


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the Kuru prince when Karna was crownedas the Lord of Anga Kingdom. Suddenlythe orphan youth of accomplishments waselevated to a position of social status. Andthe gratefulness to the benefactor is at thebottom of friendly bond. Unfortunately,even that bond is not strong enough tomake Karna overcome his selfish interests.On two occasions he left his belovedDuryodhana in the lurch. AtUttaragograhana, while Arjuna singlehanded was fighting the Kuru army, whenDuryodhana at one stage was in a tightcorner, Karna took to heels leaving hisdear benefactor in danger. Again whenChitraradha the Gandharva king tookaway Duryodhana as a captive, Karnafailed to save his beloved friend. Above allKarna on account of his desire for selfglorification did not hesitate to withdrawfrom the Mahabharata war weakening hisfriend Duryodhana. Self love and selfglorification, ego and egotism, braggingand boastfulness alone seem to be the topmost traits of Karna. Bheeshma is wiseand realistic. His assessment of men andmatters is just and accurate. He is correctwhen he allotted the position of anArtharatha to Karna in the Kuru army.Nobly Karna would have accepted theallotment for three reasons: 1. Armydiscipline according to which everybodyshould be obedient to the Chief of the ArmyStaff. 2. If Karna was of correct selfevaluation 3. If Karna is a true friend ofDuryodhana. By resorting to strike, helaid foundation stone to indiscipline, blewthe balloon of self-esteem and weakenedthe bond of friendship. If Karna did nottake part in the war, was it not weakeningthe support to his dear friendDuryodhana?

Karna is considered to be a hero, atragic hero. If a hero, in spite of his nobletraits, meets with failures and tragic end,

then he becomes a tragic hero. Karna nodoubt is a giver of gifts. But lacks in thenoble traits of a hero. Nor is he a tragichero since he has never been a hero.

An ideal hero is one who respectswomanhood. When Draupadi’s honourwas at stake in the court hall of theKaurava kingdom it was Karna who addedinsult to the injury by speaking ill of thenoble lady. What harm did Draupadi do toKarna or anybody else to be so abjectlysubjected to humiliation in the publicgaze? Should not Karna “the hero ofcompassion” come to her rescue? He wasnot even a passive spectator. He was anactive and aggressive tormentor of aninnocent lady. Does heroism anywhere inthe world admit such behaviour as a nobletrait?

Was Karna angry with Draupadibecause he was unable to win her in theSwayamvara? It was after all his owninsufficient skill, if he had failed to shootthe target. He should have accepted hisdefeat with the spirit of a true sportsman,if he is a hero. He should be noble enoughto acknowledge Arjuna’s accomplishmentsas an able archer. Instead, he developedhatred for Arjuna and Draupadi for no faultof theirs.

Heroes are ever righteous. Never dothey resort to any conspiracy or treachery.Not only is Karna a conspirator along withSakuni, Duryodhana and Dussaasana,but a party to the treachery while killingthe unarmed Abhimanyu.

Neither royalty nor divinity is absentin Karna. Nor is he devoid of a kind heart.Had he fostered them with a will to outgrowego, he would have become an ideal hero.Unfortunately he yielded to pressures ofegoism and resorted to boastfulnessunbecoming of a man of merit.


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THE SQUIRREL

In any appeal to charity often goes theexpression ‘please contribute your mite’.The construction of a floating bridge on

the foaming sea to reach lanka is astupendous task undertaken by theVanara Army. Mighty monkeys likeHuman are able to hurl mountains intothe sea. They vie with one another in theirenthusiastic contribution to the hugeconstruction. Then a squirrel enchantedby Rama’s radiance, goodness andgodliness wishes to contribute its mite tothe mighty task. Its method is simple andamusing. It immerses its body in thewater. It then rolls on sand with its bodywet. Sand sticks to her wet body. Then itsprings on to the bridge and shakes itsbody so that sand may fall on the bridgeand make it smooth. It repeats thisprocess endlessly and catches the mercifuleye of Rama. Rama gathers the squirrelwith his loving hands into this lap andpasses his magnetic fingers on its body.The took of divine touch is seen on all

squirrels, a golden impress of Rama’sgratitude even to the humblest. This is ina nut-shell the story of the celebratedsquirrel becoming proverbial for its humbledevotion “Udatha Bhakthi”.

What does this story teach us? It showshow a great man despite his heights ofglory deigns to acknowledge even thehumblest service. Disposition to showgratitude irrespective of its being politic,is a sign of true greatness. In this contextthe famous words of Samuel Johnson arequotable “Gratitude is a fruit of cultivation;you do not find it among gross people”.

Benevolence is the distinguishingCharacteristic of Rama. His benevolenceflows not only to fellow human beings butalso to bird and beast. In short he extendsit to every creature that exists however lowit may be. Never is he weary to dry uptears and soothe the sad.


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JATAYU

JATAYU is a bird. It belongs to thecategory of birds which are ugly,carnivorous and avaricious. One

hardly expects wisdom or devotion fromsuch a bird. But by a stroke of luck, thebird, Jataayu conceives love and reverencefor Rama. Rama recognizes devotion in aperson ignoring in him other drawbacks ifany.

Jataayu is full of joy when he is blessedwith a sight of Rama. The beauty andgoodness of Rama captivate the bird. Heis full of admiration for Rama and he loseshimself in adoration and service of Rama.Jatayu’s devotion is two-fold. Like anyother celebrated devotee, he chants thename of Rama and cherishes Rama’s figurein his heart. Besides that he wants to doservice to Rama. It is a rare privilege forhim to serve Rama. His devotion finds itsoutlet in selfless service.

When he meets Rama, he says humblyto him thus, “My Lord, I am here at yourbeck and cail. I am your servant. Id deemit an honour to die in your service. I shallsafe-guard Sita, whenever you and yourbrother happen to be away from theAshram”.

These words are prophetic. Somethingin him prompts him to utter the words ‘Ideem it an honour to die in your service’.

It really happens so, jataayu seesRaavana flying in the air with Sita in hisChariot. He stops Raavana. Raavana isyoung, energetic and he is equipped withweapons. But Jatayu is old and he has noweapons. His wings and claws are the onlyweapons. Yet Jataayu fights breavelywounding Raavana. Raavana wonders atthe power of Jatayu. He little knows that

it is the spirit of devotion and faith in thesuccess of righteous cause that give powerto his strokes of wings and piercings ofclaws. When he is almost defeated,Raavana in a desperate bid takes up hissharp-edged magic sword and cuts off thewings of jatayu.

Jatayu lies helpless bleeding andgasping. Raavana resumes his flight andCarries Sita with him.

Rama and Lakshmana while searchingfor Sita, happen to see Jataayu in his lastmoments chanting the holy name of Rama.He with his dying breath, informs Rama ofall he has done to save sita from theculutches of Raavana. Rama in hismagnanimity offers to restore Jataayu tolife. But Jataayu says “My Lord, I am veryfortunate in that you are before me while Iam breathing my last. If I have fresh leaseof life now, can I get such a golden chanceagain. He who has your name on his lipswhile dying will never be born again. Hewill attain liberation (Mukti) Now youyourself are before my eyes. Looking onyou, I wish to die and attain ‘Mukti’. Canthere be more glorious death than minenow? With tears of joy, he is freed frommortal coil and reaches the brighterworlds. It goes without saying that heexperiences no death pangs, thanks to theholy presence of Rama.

What does the story of Jataayu teachus? Jataayu represents good men whofight for a good cause. A man may die inthe fight for the cause. But the cause neverdies. Subsequent strivers may continuethe fight and ultimately the cause wins. Amartyr is one who dies in the fight for agood cause. He dies only to live. Hebecomes immortal after his death.


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Rama showers his affection on Jataayuand blesses him with liberation. Ithappens that when a man who espousesa noble cause dies during its pursuit, allthose who hold the cause dear praise himand build memorials for him. They thusmake his fame immortal. That is blessedstate of immortality. His example inspiresseveral others to fight evil “The only thingnecessary for the triumph of Evil is for thegood men to do nothing” If good mencombine and put up a united fight evil canbe rooted out. Raavana is dreadful. Hestrikes terror into triumph by a brave fight.His example teaches the good men to

change their dear into fight through faithin the cause they take-up.

Rama is noble generous and merciful.His example inspires one and all and putsthe erring humanity on the path ofrighteousness. His nectarean smile,benign look, healing touch and kind wordlift even the lowest and the humblest tothe heights of glory and divinity.

It is quite fitting to conclude this lessonwith the words of Cicero.

“In nothing do men more nearlyapproach the Gods than in doing good totheir fellow men”.


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Ilavala and Vatapi were brothers. Theyrelished human flesh. They used to killinnocent saints methodically. Theassumed the guise of Brahmins who wereto perform religious ceremonies. Theywould invite a saint to preside over theceremony. Vatapi would assume the shopeof a goat. Ilvala would cut him into piecesand cook his flesh and dress it up into adelicacy. The ignorant saint would eat thatas it was served to him in mock humilityand reverence. After the meal, Ilvala wouldcall ‘Vatapi” and ask him to come out.Vatapi would tear the stomach of theinnocent saint and come out. Then thetwo brothers ate the flesh of that man. Inthis deceitful manner, they werevictimizing the human beings and eatingthem.

One day great sage Agastya purposelyappeared in their way. They took him foran easy victim. Ilvala in the disquise of aBrahmin said to Agastya. “Holy Sir, today

I have to perform my father’s ceremony. Iwish to entertain you as a guest on theoccasion. My ancestors will be blessed ifyou accept our hospitality”. Agastya witha smile agreed to go to his house. As wasusual with them goat meat was served tothe meal. After eating, he said touchinghis stomach with his palm “Vatapi bedigested’. At once Vatapi lost power tocome back to life. He was digested. WhenIlvala called Vatapi, there was no response.Ilvala tried to kill Agastya. But Agastyadid this non-violent murder. The sagescan burn with a look or subdue with asound any cruel evil-doer. They do so onlyin case of extreme need to save theinnocent fellow beings. Normally theyencourage the Kshatriya princes to kill theevil doers that molest them. The Kshatriyaprinces pay due honour to these saints andprotect them from the onslaught of theRakshasas. Rama’s purpose in his sojournin the forest is to protect the sages bykilling the Rakshasas.

Page No133-134


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MATANGA RISHI

Matanga is a great Rishi. In hisasrama, perfect peace prevails.Man bird and beast live in all

amity there in the Asram which isbeautified by trees, plants and floweringcreepers. The Rishi Matanga is veryparticular of the purity, piety and peacein the surroundings as he does hispenance and meditation.

Vali happens to fight with a demonDundhubi by name. he kills Dundhubi.In his anger he lifts the body of the demonand hurls it to a long distance. It is to hima child’s play to hurl such a huge andheavy body.

Then drops of blood fall in the Ashramof Matanga, as the body of Dundhubi filesin the air, hurled by Vali.

The sage Matanga wakes up from hismeditation into disquietude as the dropsof blood wet the Sanctum. He divines thecause for the fall of drops of blood. He

understands Vali to be the miscreant.Anger swells up in him and it forms it selfinto an utterance of anticipatory curse. “IfVali happens to set foot within a radius ofeight miles from his Asram, his head willbe broken into pieces”. His curse is not apunishment for Vali’s present rash action.It is only a precautionary measure to keepoff the villain and rule out furtherpossibilities of pollution.

Just as Raavana is not able to crossthe line guarded by the curse oflakshmana, Vali is not able to enter thearea of Ashram guarded by Matangi’scurse. The curse proves to be god-send toSugriva who takes shelter in the areaforbidden to Vali and thus escapes historture.

Vali in spite of his physical strengthbreavery, skill and power has to bow beforethe curse of sage. So potent is the Saatvicpower-non-violent power arising out ofpractice of piety and penance.


1

MATRICIDE AND MIND-KILLINGDR.K.SUBRAHMANYAM

Man is a bundle of activities. Mindis a cell of thoughts. Man and hismind are full of experiences—

physical, emotional, intellectual andspiritual. Experiences are incessant andinevitable. They are to be disciplined forthe unfoldment of the blissful Soul whichis the core Truth of existence, its originand the ultimate goal of evolution. Man,the master of self-discipline, with his mindof total self-control discovers a few path-ways to attain perfection – self-realisation:Karma Yoga, Bhaktiyoga, Rajayoga, JnanaYoga and Prapatti yoga. While the first fourare disciplines taking the aspirant to thethreshold of the Supreme, the last andfinal yoga is total surrender at the altar ofGrace for the Atma Sakshatkara or Self-realisation, merging with Truth or God-realisation. Paths take us only to the peakof Prapatti. All paths or Yogas terminateat and merge with Prapatti as the riversenter the Sea, the source of all rivers.

Jamadagni is one of the Saptarshis. Heis the embodiment of discipline. Jama orYama is the fundamental discipline for allspiritual aspirants. Agni is fire.Jamadagni is the fire of discipline. Hiswife is Renuka, the mind. Renu is but aparticle. Renuka is a small particle. Dropsmake an ocean. Small particles makematter. Thoughts make the mind. Natureabhors vacuum. Mind has no existencewithout thoughts, small and big (particles).This mind is the companion of man. Aseeker of spirituality is a disciplined manof concentrated mind with thoughts keptat bay. Body is matter and mind is notmatter. Matter never can be mind. Theyare made of particles gross and subtle.Together they strive with discipline and

concentrated meditation to transcendthemselves. To be absorbed in spiritualityis to go beyond body and mind throughthe paths they have paved. The story ofJamadagni and Renuka is significant toaspirants seeking self-realisation.

Rishi Jamadagni with his consortRenuka is engaged in his spiritualSadhana at his ashram. They have fivesons: Ramanvaka, Suhrota, Vasu,Viswavasu and Rama. Jamadagni is ofrigorous austerities; so is his wife Renuka.Every day she is in the habit of going tothe nearby lake or tank to take bath andto bring water for use in the ashram. Shenever carries a pot to collect water. Afterher ablutions, she makes a new pot everyday out of the wet sand available at thetank bund. It is in that new pot of wetsand she collects water and takes it to theashram. One day she findsKartaviryarjuna, a king, with his wivessporting in the lake. She has to wait tillthey leave the lake. As soon as they haveleft, Chitraratha, a gandharva also referredto as a king of Salva enters the pond withhis women for a sport in the same lake.They are highly indulgent verging onvulgarity. Manmatha has kindled theirpassions and they are lost in the pleasuresof the body provoking the sensual urgeeven in the minds of the onlookers.Renuka, a rishipatni, for a fraction ofsecond is disturbed by the sight of sensualindulgence. She has lost, for a while, thecomposure and concentration. As a result,she could not make a pot out of sand tocollect water. A disturbed mind cannotconcentrate, nor can it meditate.Distracted, Renuka could not make acontainer to hold water. Worldly mind


2

cannot contain God in it. Nor can itmeditate on anything sublime.

Thoughts, when under control, can beused for any useful purpose. Theconcentrated mind of purity can be turnedtowards God in meditation for holding Himin the mind. Poor Renuka is drawn to theworld for a while and so the pot could notbe made. She has returned empty-handedand stood before Jamadagni, the fire ofdiscipline. The rishi is able to know whathas happened. He is furious at the loss ofpsychic purity. He has felt the need forkilling the mind which is susceptible todistractions. Renuka should be killed.Mind of thoughts should be annihilated.So he commanded his sons or the pathshe had paved to slay the mother-mind, theoriginator of all ways. But alas, the pathsare incapacitated to fulfil the purpose. Oneafter the other, the children representingRaja Yoga, Karmayoga, Bhaktiyoga andJnana Yoga have expressed their inabilityto carry out the commands of discipline.Annihilation of the mind is not possibleby them. Therefore, Sri Krishna in the Gitaasks every aspirant to surrender his all atthe feet of the Lord. Jamadagni finally hasturned to Rama, his dear God-like son tokill the mind, the mother, Renuka.

Each yoga is only of a limited ability.Total annihilation of mind is not possibleby any of the Yogas. It is only when wesurrender our all in the Prapatti Yoga, thatthe Lord, by his Grace will remove the lasttrace of mind. Rama, the divine

incarnation has been (kind and) boldenough to do away with the mind, thecreator of all. Even the most disciplinedmind is likely to be diverted now and then,at least, for a short while. It slips from theclutches of discipline for a while.Therefore, the mind is to be annihilated.It is the self-surrender, (and divine grace)then, that fulfils the task of slaying theslipping mind. Rama does away with themind (Renuka). Unless the Atman choosesto grant realization, no effort can eversucceed to attain Atma Sakshatkar.Unless God is willing to reveal Himself, nodevotee can ever be successful in seeingGod. The last trace of worldliness in themind can be removed and mind itself canbe killed and purified only by God or theSelf when the sadhaka makes a completeself-surrender. And that is what is donein the story of Jamadagni and Renuka.

Sri Ramakrishna says God first,service next. It is only after self-realisationthat the pure mind can work better foreverybody’s welfare. Rama after fulfillingthe command wants the mother to berestored, or the mind to be revived. AndRenuka has got her life back. The pathspaved by her also have been revitalized.

All sadhana ends with self-surrenderand it is only through self-surrender thatdivine grace can be invoked. And it is onlyby divine Grace that mind and itsworldness can be done away with. Whenthe worldly mind is shed, self-realisationshines resplendent.


1

MYTHS AND LEGENDS OF THE HINDUS AND THE BUDDHISTSSISTER NIVEDITA

Philosophy, ritual and mythology are the

three pillars of all ancient religions. But

in India in particular, mythology has been

an extremely important medium for

teaching abstract spiritual truths, and it

has had a profound influence not only on

the religious tradition of the country but

also on Indian Society. To Western

educated readers, the numerous concepts,

characters, and ideals presented in Indian

mythology often seem bewildering at first

glance. Yet once readers start peering into

these myths through an introductory

volume, they soon discover that they

cannot help but be immersed in them.

Moreover they find that a study of these

stories can be one of the most rewarding

experiences of their life.

The stories of India, the Ramayana,

the Mahabharata the legends of Krishna,

Buddha and Shiva and others from

Puranas and Vedas are among the most

beautiful in the world, while the characters

and ideals they represent are some of the

loftiest, most noble and the most

enchanting the world has ever seen.

Rarely does one find in the mythology of

the world, such a wonderful combination

of these qualities. To Indians however, the

characters in these myths are not just

superhuman beings of some hoary past

rather, they are paradigms. They are

exemplars of eternal ideals. The lives of

these characters are meant to be reflected

on and emulated for the development of

one’s personality. This is why these

religions and myths are still living today.

Even now Rama, Krishna, Arjuna,

Yudhishthira, Vasishtha, Vidura, Sita

Savitri, Nala, Lakshmana, Bharata,

Hanuman and Buddha serve as paradigms

for their ideal ruler, hero, householder,

hermit, devotee, wife, husband, brother,

servant, monk and so on.

The tales of gods, goddesses and

Avataras are delightful and charming.

Though the stories of India are diverse, one

common message runs through them all.

No matter how hopeless things may seem,

eventually righteousness prevails over

unrighteousness, virtue defeats vice.(Extracted from the Myths and

Legends of the Hindus and Buddhists.Sr.Nivedita and Ananda

K.Coomaraswamy, Advaita Ashrama,Kolkata 14 – Nov.2001)


2

MYTHOLOGY OF INDIA AS A SOURCE FOR STUDY OFMYTHOLOGY EVERY WHERE

SISTER NIVEDITAAsia formed a vast breeding ground of

civilization of which countries like Egypt,

Arabia, Greece, India and China were the

extremities. While other countries were

run-over and their cultures destroyed,

Greece and preeminently India formed

what may be called Culss-de-sac. In India

we may hope to discover means of studying

as nowhere else in the world, the

succession of epochs in culture.

It is not impossible to recover the story

of the ideas which the Nile people have

contributed to the world as we know it.

But those people themselves have

irretrievably relaxed their hold upon their

own past. Between them and it there is

only broken continuity, a lapse of time that

represents no process of cause and effect,

but rather a perpetual interruption of such

a series, for a single generation enamoured

of foreign ways is almost enough in history

to risk the whole continuity of civilization

and learnings. Ages of accumulation are

entrusted to the frail bark of each passing

epoch by the hand of the past, desiring to

make over its treasures to the use of the

future. It takes a certain stubbornness, a

doggedness of loyalty, even a medium of

unreasonable conservatism may be, to lose

nothing in the long march of the ages;

and even when confronted with great

empires, with a sudden extension of the

idea of culture, or with the supreme

temptation of a new religion, to hold fast

what we have, adding to it only as much

as we can healthfully and manfully carry.

Yet this attitude is the criterion of a

strong national genius, and in India, since

the beginning of her history, it has been

steadily maintained. Never averse to a new

idea, no matter what its origin, India has

never failed to put each on its trial. Avid

of new thought, but jealously reluctant to

accept new custom to essay new

expression, she has been slowly

constructive, unfalteringly synthetic from

the earliest days to the present time.

The fault of Indian conservatism

indeed, has been its tendency to

perpetuate differences without

assimilation. There has always been room

for a stronger race, with its own equipment


3

of custom and ideals, to settle down in the

interstices of Brahminical civilization,

uninfluenced and uninfluencing.

THE MOTIVES OF RELIGION AND THEIR RECORDS IN EPICSAND PURANAS

SISTER NIVEDITA

Hinduism is an immense synthesis

deriving its elements from a hundred

different directions, and incorporating

every conceivable motive of religion. The

motives of religion are many fold. Earth-

worship, sun-worship, nature worship, sky

worship, honour paid to heroes and

ancestors, mother worship, father worship,

prayers for the dead, the mystic

association of certain plants and animals,

all these and more are included within

Hinduism. And each marks some single

age of the past, with its characteristic

conjunction or invasion of races formerly

alien to one another. They are all welded

together now to form a great whole. But

still by visits to outlying shrines, by the

study of the literature of certain definite

periods and by careful following up the

special threads, it is possible to determine

what were some of the influences that have

entered into its making.

Now and again in history a great

systematising impulse has striven to cast

all or part of recognized belief into the form

of an organic whole. Such attempts have

been made with more or less success, in

the compilation of books knows as the

Puranas, in the epic poem called the

Ramayana, and most perfectly of all in the

Mahabharata. Each of these, takes some

ancient norm, which has been perhaps for

centuries transmitted by memory, and sets

it down in writing, modifying it and adding

to it in such ways as bring it in the authors

eyes, up to date.

(Extracts from “The Myths and

Legends of Hindus and Buddhists”)

(Extract from The Myths and Legends ofthe Hindus and Buddhists)


4

SISTER NIVEDITA ON THE MAHABHARATA

The Mahabharata is the result of the

greatest of the efforts made to conserve in

a collected form, all the ancient beliefs and

traditions of the Race. The name

Mahabharata itself shows that the

movement which culminated in the

compilation of this great work had behind

it, a vivid consciousness of the unity of

the Bharata or Indian people. For this

reason one finds in this work a great effort

made to present a complete embodiment

of the ideals to be found in the social

organism, religion, ancient history,

mythology and ethics of the Indian people.

Hence, if we want to follow Indian

Mythology from its dim beginnings to its

perfect maturity through all its multiform

intermediate phases, we cannot have a

better guide than the Mahabharata. For in

India, mythology is not mere subject of

antiquarian research and disquisition;

here it still permeates the whole life of the

people as a controlling influence. And it

is the living mythology which, passing

through the stages of representation of

successive cosmic processes and

assuming definite shapes thereafter, has

become a powerful factor in the everyday

life of the people. It is this living mythology

that has found place in the Mahabharata.

In the infancy of the human mind, men

used to mix up their own fancies and

feelings with the ways of bird and beast,

the various phenomenon of land and water

and the movements of Sun and Moon and

Stars and Planets and viewed the whole

universe in this humanified form. In later

times, when man had attained the greatest

importance in the eyes of man, the glory

of stellar worlds paled before human

greatness.

We have to deal with both these stages

of mythology the initial as well as the final.

We have to study and get some glimpses

of the primal forms which mythology

assumed after passing through the hazy

indefinitiveness of primitive age. On the

other, we have to study in greater detail,

the stories of the age when mythology had

reached its maturity.

(Extracts from “The Myths and

Legends of the Hindus and Buddhists,”

Advaita Ashrama, Kolkatta Nov.2001)


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ETHIC OF THE RAMAYANAANANDA K.COOMARASWAMY

Not the least significant feature of

Valmiki’s epic lies in its remarkable

presentation of two ideal societies: an ideal

good and an ideal evil. He abstracts, as it

were, from human life an almost pure

morality and an almost pure immorality.

Tempered by only so much of the opposite

virtue as the plot necessitates. He thus

throws into the strongest relief the

contrast of good and evil, as these values

presented themselves to the shapers of

Hindu society. For, it should be

understood that not merely the law givers,

like Manu, but also the poets of ancient

India, conceived of their own literary art,

not as an end in itself, but entirely as a

means to an end, and that end, the nearest

possible realization of an ideal society. The

poets were practical sociologists, using the

great power of their art deliberately to

mould the development of human

institutions and to lay down in the

Nietzhean sense of one who stands behind

and directs the evolution of a desired type.

(“The Myths and Legends of the Hindusand Buddhists”-Advaita Ashrama, Kokatta14-Nov.2001)

MAHABHARATA AND THECIVILIZATIONAL PROCESS IN THE

COUNTRYThe Mahabharata is truly the story of India,of its communities which have linkedthemselves to the epic traditions in theirown way. The diffusion of Mahabharatatraditions, and their adaptation andrecreation in various situation is acontinuing process, a matter of absorbinginterest. It demonstrates, the inherentresilience and dynamism of thecivilizational process in the country.(From a Seminar report of AnthropologicalSurvey of India)

THE MAHABHARATA A LIVING TRADITION

The objective of our organizing a seminaron Mahabharata was noted in ourexperience as anthropologists and fieldworkers in tribal and folk areas. We havebeen witness to the epic traditions beingcontinually adapted and recreated toreflect tribals perception and folkcommunities, aspiration as part of ongoing and developing process in performingarts and popular literature. Many of ourfolk artistry in recent years have wonuniversal acclaim for their dramaticpresentation of Panduvani which we in ourearly years interested as a simple folkform”(K.S.Singh-The Mahabharata TFTI IndianInstitute of Advanced study Shimla-5-1993)

BOX ITEM

BOX ITEM


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KRISHNAANANDA K.COOMARASWAMY

The story of Krishna has sunk deep into

the heart and imagination of India. For

this, there are many reasons. It is the chief

scripture of the doctrine of Bhakti

(devotion) as a way a salvation. This is a

way that all may tread, of what ever rank

or humble state. The gopis (herd girls) are

the great type and symbol of those who

find God by devotion (bhakti) without

learning (jnanam). It is for Krishna that

they forsake the illusion of family and all

that their world accounts as duty. They

leave all and follow him. The call of his

flute is the irresistible call of the infinite.

Krishna is God, and Radha the human

soul. It matters not that the Jamuna and

Brindaban are to be found on the map; to

the Vaishnava lover Brindaban is the heart

of man, where the eternal play of the love

of God continues.

(From “TheMyths and Legends of the

Hindus and Buddhist. Advaita Ashrama

Kolkatta 14, Nov.2001)


7

THE MAHABHARATA IN THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLE OF INDIASISTER NIVEDITA

The Indian National Saga, beyond all

disputes is the Mahabharata: This is to the

Indian village and the Indian home, what

the Iliad was to the Greek and to a certain

extent also what the Scriptures and

Gospels are to ourselves (The people of the

United Kingdom). It is the most popular

of all the sacred books. It contains as an

interlude, The Bhagawad Gita, the

National Gospel. But with this it is also an

epic. The story of a divine incarnation

Krishna as he is called, has been wrought

into and upon an immense ballad and

military epic of unknown antiquity. Of this

epic the main theme is a great battle waged

between two families of cousins the sons

of Pandu and the sons of Dhritarashtra.

Perhaps most of us remembering the

work as ancient, will be still more

impressed by the subtlety and modernness

of the social intercourse which it portrays.

Its delicacy of character painting, in the

play of personality, and in reflection of all

the light and shade of life in society we

find ourselves, in the Mahabharata, fully

on a level with the novels and dramas of

modern Europe. The fortitude of Karna

when his mother embraces him; the low

voice in which Yudhirishthira says

‘elephant’ as a concession to his

conscience; the laugh of Bhishma in battle,

contending himself, with the slightly

emphasized “Shikhandini?”. These among

others will occur to the others as typical

instances.

The outstanding fact to be realized

about the epic, however, is from end to

end its main interest is held and centered

on character. We are witnessing the law

that as the oyster makes its own shell, so

the mind of man creates and necessitates

his own life and fate. The whole philosophy

of India is implicit in this romance, just as

it is in common household life. The

Mahabharata constitues, and is intended

to constitute, a supreme appeal to the

heart and conscience of every generation.

For more than the National tradition, it

embodies the National morality. In this fact

lies the great difference between it and the

Greek epics, in which the dominant

passion is the conscious quest of ideal

beauty.

(Extract from “The Myths andLegends of the Hindus and Buddhists”

Advaita Ashrama, Kolkatta in Nov.2001)


8

THE MAHABHARATA IN THE FOLK AND TRIBALTRADITIONS OF INDIA

K.S.SINGH1. Folk and Tribal versions of the

Mahabharata are prevalent indifferent parts of the country.

2. In Chotanagpur the Mundassing a number of songs on theMahabharata and Lord Krishna.

3. The Mahabharata presents aclear picture of Indianavunculate society. It hasinherent contradictions. Thereare conflicts betweenavunculate and nonavunculatesocieties. The Mahabharata isthe epitome of sibling rivalrywhile the Ramayana orders thesibling relations into positivechannels. There is a continuityof many of the traits of theMahabharata society into thepresent day Indian Society.There are a number of symbolsand metaphors which havebeen common to Indian societyover ages.

4. The relation between Kashmirand the rest of India in theMahabharata pointed waspretty close. Krishna emergedas an All India personality witha remote role in Kashmir affairs.He helped Kashmir’s widowqueen Yasovati to ascend thethrone after her husband waskilled in a war. He thusreinforced his popular image asthe defender of the honour ofwomen.

5. The Himalayas have placesvisited by Mahabharatacharacters. They are identifiedwith the places they visited.They are worshipped as folk

deities. The Himalayancommunities also worship theKauravas, Duryodhana isidolised as Samsuri. AHimalaya deity Hidimba isincorporated into theMahabharata through theprocess of spoucification. Herson Ghatotkach through Bhimais a powerful character.

6. The Dugganadesh area ofJammu has a distinct bias infavour of the Pandavas as godsand heroes.

7. Himachal Pradesh has tribaland folk traditions ofMahabharata in various parts ofthe state. The heroes ofMahabharata are associatedwith the temples and villagegods in Himachal Pradesh. TheKhosha people of HimachalPradesh perform a martial gamecalled Thoda.

8. In Garhwal region of the presentUttaranchal, the Mahabharatacharacters are metamorphosedinto the living tradition, asevidenced by a number of folksongs.

9. The Brahmaputra valley of theNorth East region is vibrant withMahabharata usages. Ojapalithe art form is Mahabharatabased.

10. In Bhojpuri, the casteprejudices have coloured theperceptions of the Mahabharatacharacters. Bhishma is a demi-god here. Draupadi is highlyspoken as the symbol of a piouswife.


9

11. In Rajasthan manycommunities recite folk songson Mahabharata. They includethe Muslim Jogis of Mirasicommunity.

12. The tribals of Maharashtra andmiddle India considerMahabharata characters astheir gods and ancestors. Theirfolk songs and dances areconnected with that theme.

13. The Korku tribe of this areaconsiders itself to havedescended from Kauravas. TheKorkus of Nimar trace theirorigin to Karkotaka Nagaassociated with theMahabharata and Puranas.Here Draupati is the sister ofKrishna. The Pandavas andKrishna are the presidingdeities at dance festivals. Thepeople wear masks duringdance programmes. The maskstake after Mahabharata heroes.

14. Bhima the most popular heroin tribal India of the S. Kosalais credited to have introducedthe brew, agriculture, crops likepaddy, a wind machine, ironimplements etc. He tamed wildbuffaloes and other wildanimals and made agriculturesafe. He is also the rain God whois propiated in times of draught.Above all he is the cultural hero.

15. The Oriya Mahabharata ofSaraladasa (15thcentury)presents the most interestingexample of the adaptation of theMahabharata story to thehistorical situation and culturalspecificities of medieval Orissa.This work appears to be themost complete work of its kindcompared to other regionaladaptations composed till then.

A number of folk tales fromOrissa have been taken intoSarala’s work. One way oflinking the Mahabharata withlocal people was to marry theMahabharata heroes locally.The Oriya got even themonogamous Yudhishthiramarried to Suhani an Oriya girl.

16. The Mahabharata istremendously popular in theSouthern Region of India. Thereis a spontaneous, almosteffortless merging of classicaland folk traditions, inferiorvariations exist in the storiesand art forms between the fourregions.

17. In Andhra, the women havethere own folk lore about theMahabharata. The story ofSubhadra and Draupadiexpress the universal feelings ofoppressed women against maledomination. The Pandavalu area community who trace theirorigin to Mahabharata andrecite the Mahabharata storiesfor their patrons. The twostories of Jayanti and Pandavashave a lot of local materialthrown into it in Andhra.

18. In Kerala the Mahabharata is aliving tradition in performingarts, and the communitieswhich perform them, recall theMahabharata story.

19. In Tamil Nadu, theMahabharata themes have awidespread impact. BothArjuna and Karna were locallymarried. There are temples ofPandavas, particularlyDraupadi, in Tamil Nadu, andAndhra. The Aravan festivalcelebrates Aravan aMahabharata character.


10

Mahabharata influences thecompositions in Tamil. Thevillage temples and deitiesadore Mahabharata characters.Draupadi is the caste deity ofthe Vanniars. There are manyDravidian elements inMahabharata themes.Subramanya Bharati putDraupadi on a pedastal in hiswork ‘Panchali Sapatam’ as asymbol of revolt.

20. No account of Mahabharata willbe complete without taking intoaccount, the evergrowing corpsof oral tradition.

(Extracts from “the Mahabharata in theTribal and Folk Traditions in India.

Hereafter referred to as M.T.F.I)


11


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Vivekananda Kendra Patrika would like to thank the following publishers fromwhose publications, extracts have been included in this issue.

1. Advaita Ashrama – Dehi Entally – Kolkata 1. The complete works ofSwami Vivekananda

2. Myths and Legends of the Hindusand Buddhists Nov.2001

2. Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, Shimla The Mahabharata in the Tribal andand Seagull Books-Kolkata Folk traditions of India—1993.

3. The Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi 1. A History of Indian Literature-19942. The Ramayana Tradition in Asia –

1989

4. The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of The Cultural Heritage of India-1993Culture, Kolkata

5. Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry The Foundations of India Culture-1968

6. The International Institute of Tamil Sangathamizharin Vazhipadum Studies, Madras 113. Chadangukalum 1996.

7. The Anthropological Society of India and Ramakatha in Tribal and Folk TraditionsSeagull books, Kolkata. in India 1993

8. The National Book Trust of India, New Delhi 1. Nagaland – 19812. Folklore in India 19803. Folklore of Kerala 1991

9. Sarvodaya Press Patamata, Vijayawada The growth of the personality of MahatmaGandhi 1988

10. Ramanashram, Tiruvannamalai Spiritual stories as told by Ramana Maharshi 1986

11. Vanati Publishers, Madras 17. Deivathin Kural II 1978

12. Triveni Sangham, Language Dept., Pune Proverbs of India 1978.

The Cover page

Pictures showing Sri Rama embracing Guha the hunter, and Sri Krishna huggingKuchela the poor Brahmin, reveal the fact that our epic heroes transcended differencesof caste and status.


SYNOPSISVIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA August 2003 – January 2004 Vol.32 No.2Next issue 64th Issue

BALA BHARATAMChild in India; its Past, Present and Prospects

A perfect Jnani is compared to a child in the Upanishads, because of its purity andinnocence. Worshipping Sri Krishna, Ganesha, Kartikeya and Devi as a child is aPuranic tradition. Prahlada, Dhruva, Jnanasambandha, Adi Shankara, Lava and Kushaand a number of child prodigies find place in our history and mythology. India has aspecial way of looking at the factors that go to make a healthy child. Pre-Natal andPost-Natal samskaras (rituals) help children grow healthily in the physical, emotional,social and spiritual spheres.

In free India, education, nutrition and health programmes for children, specialopportunities for their growth and for nurturing their talents have grown. Childprodigies, special children, girl children etc. receive focussed attention. Child labourproblems, partly true, partly exaggerated, have caught the attention of the media.

What prospects does the future India told for its children, interms of environmentalcleanliness, job, educational and employment opportunities and health facilities?

All these topics are sought to be dealt with, in the forthcoming issue of the VivekanandaKendra Patrika


ALL INDIA CHARACTER OF MYTHS

SISIRKUMAR DAS

The All India character of the mythsis the first and foremost feature tobe indicated. I f there is any

common core of Indian Literature ifthere are materials that are shared byIndians all over the country, it is themythology of India. That the maincomponents of this body of mythology isderived from the Sanskrit epics orPuranas or the Buddhist lore do not makeit sectarian or even communal in thepejorative sense. They have created adeep structure of perceptions on whichare constructed new usages andallegories, fables and parables, types andarchetypes. These deep structures havebecome a part of the psyche of the wholeliterary community, irrespective of thelevels of education, among them and theideology and religious faith that dividethem in varying degrees. Their presencein the subconscious and theunconscious of the community is partlymanifested in the proverbs and idioms,and certain lexical items within whichthe myths lie dormant and sometimesalmost in unrecognizable forms, only tocome to life at the magic touch of theproper person. They are the part of thesemantic structure of the language andthey are materials which penetrate intolanguages quite often creatingambiguity and misunderstanding.

Myths then are even more a strongbinding force than the materials ofhistory. The history used by the Indianauthors was more often than notconformed to a particular region towhich the authors were emotionally

attached. The STOFF of historical playsand narratives was derived mainly fromregional histories. The stoff provided bymythology, was more universal,relatively more widely known. Further,myths by their very nature are secular;they are stories about gods and heroes,stories coming down from the antiquityand therefore parts of the culturalheritage of a given society.

Firdausi the great Persian poetcelebrated the exploits of the kings ofPersia long before its Islamisation; hisown faith in Islam did not stand againsthis love for the Pre-Islamic past of hiscountry. The European Christian poetscould respond fondly to their paganheritage without any qualms as theyaccepted their Greco-Roman heritage,not only as legitimate but also as natural.In India too despite the narrowness ofcertain scholars or fanatical iconoclasts,myths irrespective of their Hindu or non-Hindu sources Indian or non Indianprovenance have been always admiredby writers and by the readers cuttingacross religious differences.

The other point is that mythologicalthemes are recurrent in Indian dramaand poetry but are rarely used in prosenarrative. The history themes arefrequent in prose narrative as in thedrama and in poetry. The novels forexample refuse to accommodate as itwere mythological themes unlessworked out allegorically. Myths containin them an association of ancientness,if not an element of transcendental


quality, which appear to be incompatiblewith contemporaneity. It is false tosuggest that genres are neutralcontainers of ideas and plots. The themesdetermine the choice, howeverindirectly, of the genre, as the genresalso exercise certain influence on thethematic configuration.

The literary community in variousparts of the country is in strong favourof the continuation of the ancientliterary tradition and that is often carriedout by the poets by working out theSTOFF which is considered as thecommon property of the l iterarycommunity. It is not a blind imitationof another work, but new work emergingout of the old, like new leaves and flowerscoming out of old trees. There are certainthemes that are recurrent in almost alllanguages at different stages of literarymovements. It is not only that aparticular group of writers, identifiableas traditional or conservative, areassociated with them, but it is a feature,shared by the sophisticated or theiconoclastic. In this respect, thesewritings are comparable with the Greekplays where the themes are limited to a

fixed number of legends related to a fewfamilies, and the great and the mediocrepoets displayed their power and skillwithout any feeling of being restrictedin their choice of themes.

Looking at the recurrence of thesame theme at different areas, one istempted to construct a map ofmythological STOFF as the scholars ofdialectology identify the isoglosses.While certain myths are exploited bywriters of different languages at differenttimes, some are used by writers almostat the same time and some enjoy un-interrupted favour.

The epic heroines receiving suchtreatments are Sita, Savitri, Chitrangadaand other Romantic heroines, Draupadi,Akalya, Rama, Ravana, young heroeslike Abhimanyu, Karna, Krishna,Duryodhana, Bhishma, Ashwattama,Yayati, Manu, Parvati, Rukmini,Subhadra, Usha, etc.

(From ‘A History of Indian Literature IIISisirkumar Das-Sahitya Akademi, New

Delhi-1 (1991).


EPIC HEROINES SITA AND SAVITRI

Sisir Kumar Das

Sita:

Among the themes that have inspiredand attracted the poets, the mostoutstanding and recurrent is the

story of Sita, the heroine of the Ramayana.Sita who has been dominating the Indianpsyche for several centuries, wasapotheosized by the tenth or eleventhcentury along with her husband, Rama,the most venerable and the most lovedpoetic creation. So deep and pervasive isthe influence of both these characters andso powerful is the impact of the Ramayanaon the millions of Hindus that these twohave been recognized as historicalcharacters. In the mythological writings,however, the emphasis is not on theirhistoricity but on their divinity and theirrole in history. Sita has been endowed withcertain qualities, sacrifice and forbearance,devotion and faith, fidelity and nobility allcontributing to the making of the mostvenerable character in poetry that hasacted as the ideal of womanhood in Hindusociety for the last several centuries.

Sita has been celebrated byinnumerable poets since she was createdwith full glory by the Sanskrit poet Valmikiand yet never was there a time when shefailed to inspire the Indian poet. Even inthe twentieth cnetury the number of workson Sita in different languages ran intohundreds and some of them were receivedby the contemporary readers with greatdelight. Among them are the Kannada playSita-Suvarnamrga natak (1913) byDugdhanath Khaund, the Oriya playJanaki Parinaya (1915) by Gopinath Nanda

and the Marathi play Dhanurbhanga Natak(1917) by Narayana RamalingaBamanagaonkar (1888-1961). One of themost memorable poem on the sufferingheroine was written by the greatMalayalam poet Kumaran Asan,Cintavistayaya Sita. The Oriya poetGangadhar Meher, a member of theunderprivileged class, wrote Tapasvini(1912), an epic in modern Oriya, on thelife of Sita. Several prose works also havebeen written on the theme, most noted ofthem are the Telugu work JanakiKalyanam (1919) by M. Ramakrishnyyaand the Marathi prose narrative SitaVanavas (1936) by Visram Dedekar. TheMalayam play Janki parinayam (1951) byRambhadra Diksita, the Manipuri play SitaBanabas (1936) by Ashangbam MinaketanSharma and the Hindi poem VaidehiVanavas (1939) by Ayodhya SinhaUpadhyay are other important workswritten in this century. All these works arebased on one of the four importantepisodes from the Ramayana: themarriage of Sita, the incident of the goldendeer, the abduction of Sita by Ravana andthe banishment of Sita by Rama. A few, ofcourse, deal with the whole life of Sita suchas the Bengali play Sita (1924) by YogeshChandra Chaudhuri, the play in which thelegendary actor Sisir Kumar Bhaduri actedas the hero; the Maithili play Janaki Natak(1931) by Suryanarayan Jha, or theGujarati play Sita (1943) by ChandravadanV. Maheto.

The number of works mentioned hereare too few to indicate the widedistribution of this theme in different


language area and its tremendous powerto sustain the interest of the readers. Sodeeply imprinted is the character of Sitaon the psyche of the reader that even acasual reference to it evokes the memoryof the community and a series of incidentsand episodes flashes back into the mindestablishing a relationship with theancient story. Similarly a slightest change,minute irreverence, minimal criticism toany aspect of Sita can register a veryserious protest, as they violate thecomposed figure of Sita stabilized throughcenturies. According to Indian poetics,perceptions about certain themes andcharacters have been ‘fixed’ for everthrough association with the values of aparticular community. This is a form ofstandardization of aesthetic values, anyradical change in which violates aestheticas well as social proprieties. This isnormally known as Siddha rasa. While allother characters, even Rama, believed tobe the incarnation of God by a section ofHindus, have been subjected to severalchanges, often criticized and condemned,defying the anger of the devout. ThereforeSita, is the only heroine generally sparedby even the most radical. To keep therecord straight, however, it must bementioned that certain remarks of authorswith regard to Sita have beenmisconstrued as the vilification of the idealof the Indian womanhood and authorshave been reprimanded. A comment on theRavan-Sita relationship by a character inRabindranath’s novel Ghare-Baire (1916)raised a storm of protest. Despite theincompatibility of the apotheosization ofSita and the uninhibited freedom ofexpression demanded by the artists ofIndian literature has been spared, tilltoday, any serious confrontation betweenthe guardians of religion and the avante-garde writers so far as Sita is concerned.

Savitri

In terms of popularity, if notimportance, the story of Savitri andSatyavan comes next to the theme of Sita.Savitri was a princess married to Satyavanwho was the son of an exiled king and wasdestined to die at a young age. The king ofdeath, Yama, however, was finallypersuaded by Savitri to give back the lifeof the young prince. Savitri has beencanonized by the Hindus as one of theSatis’ (noble women famed for their fidelityand devotion to husband) and has beencelebrated by writers in every age. Intwentieth century, too, her popularityremained undiminished. The Assamesewriters Atul Chandra Hazarika and PampuSinha (both in 1937), the Bengali authorManmatha Ray (in 1931), the Marathiplaywrights Khadilkar (1933), MadhavraoJoshi (1936) and Mama Warekar (1914),Ashvini Kumar Ghosh, the Oriya-dramatist (1918), the Punjabi authorBrijlal Sastri (1925), the Nepali writersRamprasad Satyal (1928) and LaksmiPrasad Devkota Jagadish Sharma wroteplays on Savitri theme. This theme wasalso attracted the Indian-English writers.Venkatesha Ayyenger (1891-1985) wrotea play on Savitri in 1923 and SriAurobindo’s magnum opus Savitri (1950-51) is the landmark in the history of theSavitri theme.

Savitri is arguably one of the profoundworks of the twentieth century Indianliterature. It is a blank verse epic whichhas assumed its present form aftercontinuous revision by the seer-poet fornearly half-a-century. Its sub-title ‘ALegend and Symbol’ indicates itsphilosophical nature: it is an inner epic ofmystical, spiritual and psychic dimension,its theme being man, death and


immortality cast within the epic traditionof the Western World as well as theSanskrit. One hears the echoes of Miltonand notices the structural elements ofHomer, Valmiki, Virgil and Dante—as onedoes in the nineteenth-century Bengaliepic Meghanadbadh Kabya, butthematically it is essentially an Indian epic.The very opening indicate its majesticmovement and the high serious note :

It was the hour before the Godsawake.

Across the path of the divine EventThe huge foreboding mind of Night,

aloneIn her unlit temple of eternityLay stretched immobile upon

Silence’ merge.

Its actions are largely internal and itis an unique epic poem as it has neitherbattles nor multitude of characters.Divided into eleven books—longer than thetwo Milton epics combined—the poemexpands the simple and short legend of the

Mahabharata. Sri Aurobindo has not madeany substantial alternation of the originalstory but invests complex and powerfulsymbolism on the characters. It is a storyof man’s success in transcending thephysical and natural limitations includingmortality, and the descend of the Divinepower on the earth to redeem the humansoul from Death.

The work has been criticized for itsabstraction, heavy Latinized diction, longand slow movement and weak-kneedspiritual poetry. But its power lies in whathas been called by K.D.Sethna andSrinivasa Iyenger, its ‘mantric’ quality. Itis indeed an epic conspicuous by itsstructural simplicity and internalization ofaction. The poem contains some of theloveliest lines in English poetry written byan Indian poet. Savitri is a landmark inthe history of Indian poetry.

(A History of Indian LiteratureSahitya Akademi, New Delhi 1995


EPIC METAPHOR IN THE MODERN CONTEXTOF INDIAN SOCIETY

JAWAHARLAL HANDOO

Colonial Paradigm

Anthropological and ethnologicalsciences including folklore were, aswere other sciences, shaped by

Western scholars and their theoreticalconceptions upon which these scienceswere built. These conceptions subsumedthat technologically less developed (or pre-literate) societies of the ancient world—Asia and Africa for instance—were lesscivilized and hence “primitive”. Therefore,according to this notion, based on widelypracticed Evolutionary Theory of Tylorwhich in turn was raised on thephilosophies of Mill and Descartes, allhuman societies have finally to become“civilized” and look and behave like thetechnologically advanced so-called civilizedsocieties of Europe. Furthermore, these so-called primitive societies, before they lostmuch of their “Primitiveness”, were,therefore, to be studied from thestandpoint of these and other conceptionswhich originated in the technologicallyadvanced West. The manner in which thistask was carried out did not differ fromthe one in which a superior person studiedhis inferior subjects—a practice notunknown in many social sciences.Moreover, it was also felt that by doing so,it would be useful for understanding thepast, present and, perhaps, the future ofmankind and will thus accelerate theprocess of transformation of theseprimitive societies and usher them into theworld of the civilized.

It is needless to emphasize that theEuropean thinkers, who professed suchknowledge, theorized on the basis ofDescartes’ cosmological view and the “newvision” it thus created. This new vision,bizarre as it might seem to a natïveobserver, was, as we know from the recordof history, hugely successful in formingmen’s view of the universe and the worldthey lived in, and “in enabling Westerncivilization to achieve an unparalleleddomination of the Earth and nature.Consider, in this regard, the followingremarks of Thomas.

Descartes’s explicit aim hadbeen to make men ‘lords andpossessors of nature’….he(Descartes) portrayed otherspecies as an inert and lackingany spiritual dimension. In sodoing he created an absolutebreak between man and therest of nature, thus clearingthe way very satisfactorily forthe uninhibited exercise ofhuman rule”.

The Cartesian vision was subsequentlydeveloped through analogical reasoningand applied by Newton to physicaluniverse and by others to social andcultural spheres of human activity.Naturally this kind of reasoning, it seems,placed the non-European, pre-industrial,tribal societies in the realm of “otherspecies” which lacked “spiritualdimension” and inspired the developmentof what is known as “the first scientific


colonialism”, in which non-Europeanpeoples and their cultures wereassimilated to the world of objects to becontrolled and manipulated at will.

The Cartesian cosmology, it seems,legitimized the British IndustrialRevolution in the later eighteenth andnineteenth centuries. It also made possiblethe development of modern science andtechnology, modern medicine and finallysocial science and anthropology. In return,these various social achievements servedto reinforce the Cartesian world-view, andto make it seem increasingly self-evident,an unquestioned assumption. It is in thebackground of such philosophy that thecolonial paradigm was born, and thefoundations of a new discipline—a newscience—namely Orientalism, were laid, inwhich the Orient was deliberately seen asa fixed text, and the Orientals as “otherspecies”. This stereotyped text was,unfortunately for us, destined to remain“frozen” and unchanged. This fixed text,however, has now gained a complexphilosophical dimension whichencompasses questions of ideology,politics and global military and economicdomination. Consider, for example, thefollowing remarks of Edward Said:

During the nineteenth andtwentieth centuries theOrientalists became a moreserious quantity, because by thenthe reaches of imaginative andactual geography had shrunk,because the Oriental-Europeanrelationship was determined byan unstoppable Europeanexpansion in search of markets,resources, and colonies, andfinally, because Orientalism hadaccomplished its self-

metamorphosis from a scholarlydiscourse to an imperialinstitution.

Besides many shifts in the basicparadigm, speaking historically,anthropological sciences including folklorestudies, by and large, continue dependingon the Cartesian metaphor—both in theoryand practice. In India the impact of thiscolonial paradigm can be felt both infolklore theory and its method includinganthropology; which have remained highlydiachronic, past-oriented and“devolutionary”. These weaknesses did notpermit folklore theory to take into itsgamut seriously the folklore of the modernworld, such as mass culture or popularculture. Nor could it explain the importantphenomenon of the continuity of the folkand mythic metaphor in modern Indiansociety. In other words, the past-orientedness of folklore theory did notpermit it to recognize the dynamics offolkloric phenomenon.

Religious Metaphor

For centuries the Western scholarshave marveled at the remarkable strengthof the Hindu tradition in its variousmanifestations. More often then not,scholars have traditionally been fascinatedby the “frozen” forms ofthe Hindu tradition.Many disciplines have thoroughly studiedthese “frozen” forms and the mass oftextual data which represented suchforms. However, very few scholars, if any,have studied the Hindu tradition as aforceful living phenomenon—thecontinuation of an ancient tradition—ofmodern Indian society, needless toemphasize the importance of capturing,describing vividly, and studying seriouslythese continuities in their various styles


so that the deep, diachronic structures ofthe Hindu religious as well as folktraditions could be realized and explainedsynchronically, i.e., in the context ofcontemporary Indian society.

If one looks into some of the majormodern styles of Hindu religious traditionssuch as Radha Soami, Brahma Kumaris,Satya Sai Baba and many more, one willnot fail to understand beyond doubt thefundamental unity in these styles ofmodern Hinduism and the single sourceall these derive from. In this respect then,these modern styles demonstrate thecontinuity of the basic core of Hindureligion, world-view, folk metaphor and thephilosophy of life. Although one cannot failto see that the belief system of thesemodern religious movements are different,yet they can only be understood properlyin the wider context of Hinduism. The basic“images” of ancient Hindu religiousculture, which are present in these modernstyles, re-emphasize the continuity toreligious metaphor and its importance inmodern Indian society. For example, theconcept of plurality, cyclical history or thetheory of yuga (world time), ingesting oridentification and union with the object ofworship, seeing or awakened vision inwhich one sees himself and others “assouls not as bodies,” and last but not theleast, self realization. These basicmetaphors of the Hindu traditions are thenthe elements which continue to shape andreshape these modern religiousmovements and link them veryappropriately to the wider context of theancient Hindu tradition. For example, isit not true that the pan-Indian culturaltraditions, which are partly strengthenedby the core of ancient Hindu religiousthought, consistently rank scholarlyritualistic values above political power. The

meditative life-style is deemed superior toan assertive, active pursuit of comfort andstatus. Non-violence is honoured abovewarriorhood as a technique of coping withlife’s problems. The civilization-wideorthodoxy of this value perspective is wellknown to Indian mind and continues toshape the political and social life-style ofmodern Indians.

Epic Metaphor

At this point one might ask, do Indianepic traditions, just like the religioustradition, support this theory of thecontinuity of folk or epic metaphor inmodern Indian society? The answer,though highly tentative, seems to be yes.It is believed that to become an epic, alegend or a narrative must becomeembroided with a wide array of cultural,mythological and religious motifs. In sucha process of transformation the originalheroic tale need not lose its links with keyhistorical events. It should, however, beremembered that the historical, political,religious and a variety of social factorsshape the growth, development andpopularity of an epic. Scholars haveobserved that ballads and epics grow andflourish during period of political upheaval.Moreover it has also been recognized thatboth ballads and epics as strong folkgenres have initially tended to developmainly among politically marginal people.It is difficult to know exactly what pressingpolitical, social or cultural needs of Indiaforced the simple narratives of Rama,Krishna and Arjuna to become the basicframe for a mass of mythological,historical, religious and social informationframe for a mass of mythological,historical, religious and social informationand blend these into the most importantnarrative epics of the sub-continent and


the greater parts of South Asia. However,one factor is very clear that both the storiesof Rama and Krishna must have becomeRamayana and Mahabharata respectivelywhen Indian might have struggled for aunified cultural identity; when this vastcountry might have suffered a politicalupheaval, when ethnic diversity, itsconflicts and the deteriorating valuesystem might have threatened the verystructure of this country as a nation; whenthe ideal of a great civilization, a unifiednation, a sound political and social system,particularly an ideal family broken; andfinally when India needed heroes—realcultural heroes—who could by virtue oftheir own ideal attributes establishequilibrium and give direction to thetraditionally conceived, like and acceptedideal social norm.

For example, viewing structurally, itis the threatened kinship order and thedisequilibrium it can cause to the familyand the society at large, which seems tohave surfaced prominently in Ramayanaand Mahabharata. Of course attempts forreestablishing order in the system andmaintaining equilibrium becomes the maintask of these stories and their basicmetaphors. Rama, for example, is an idealof monogamous marriage system. Hedenounces and symbolically eliminates allsuch elements which try to support or stickto the polygamous system. Needless to saythat in this task of establishing the idealnorm, Rama, as a cultural hero, eliminatesthose who oppose this ideal. Indeed bothDasharatha, his father and Ravana, hismain antagonist (and also phallic rival) areeliminated or killed in this struggle ofideals. Undoubtedly, Rama as a strongcultural hero seems to achieve thisobjective by following his own example.Like all strong-willed cultural heroes hepreaches only what he practises and finally

succeeds in establishing the ideal norm.In this sense, the Ramayana (Rama’sstory) shares many characteristics withMahabharata (India’s story) and yet standsquite opposed to it in many respects.

The Mahabharata, for example,presents a clear picture of Indianavunculate society and its inherentconflicts. Such societies are, primarily dueto the matrilineal kinship order andsometimes without it, completelydominated by the maternal uncle or themother’s brother. In such societies,besides other things, such as inheritanceetc., sister’s children, particularly malechildren, obey the dictates of the maternaluncle (the Mama) rather than their ownfather. Avunculate societies, as we areaware, are not altogether lost to India. Asa matter of fact, besides Kerala (Nairs,Tiyyas and others), many ethnic groupsfollowing avunculate cultures exist inmany parts of India even today.

It is interesting to note that theMahabharata is the epitome of conflictsbetween the avunculate and non-avunculate societies.

Equally important is another problemof kinship which seems very peculiar bothto Ramayana and Mahabharata. Thisproblem is of the siblings. Mahabharata isthe epitome of sibling rivalry. Ramayanaon the other hand reorders siblingrelations into positive forces, as asupportive device for establishingequilibrium in the overall kinship normthreatened temporarily.

Students of folklore will recall that infairy tales, more often than not, theyoungest brother is always shownvictorious in performing tasks which hiselder brother or brothers fail to perform.Since fairy tale is a kind of fantasy in which


the normal roles are reversed, thevictorious younger brother, moreparticularly in the Indian context,represents his low status in the real siblinghierarchy and social context. His position,as we are aware, when compared to hiselder brother is very weak in all respectsin the real social context. So it is notsurprising to find that most of the Indianfolk epics are generally raised on thesibling metaphor. Even the national epicshave not escaped this folk theme.Mahabharata, for example, is the epitomeof sibling rivalry. Ramayana, on the otherhand, reorders sibling relations intopositive forces as a supportive device forestablishing equilibrium in the overallkinship norm threatened temporarily. Heresibling order of the hero and his brothersis purposefully used to express judgmentson other hierarchically ordered Indianvalues. In many cultures the ordinalposition of brothers is often used as avehicle for constructing cultural models.Siblingship usually conveys moralresponsibility and shared rights orunderstands. Hence, it is the type ofhuman bond that can import meaningswhen used as a rationale for some widerset of social relationship. As a metaphorfor encompassing hierarchies or forauthority and control within a local setting,a reference to brotherhood means morethan the recognition of kin bonds per se.In this respect, then, the sibling order ofthe Mahabharata and its conflicts withdevastating results are purposefully usedto express judgments about otherhierarchically ordered Indian values. IfRama represents the ideal “elder brother”Laxmana and Bharat and others areidealized within their own respectivepositions. In India, as is said above, theformal bond between the junior and seniorsiblings in real life is commonly the reverseof the patter found in stories. Usually theelder brother serves as the authority figure

in actual experience while younger onescontrol the outcome of events in popularlegends. “In the world of make-believe,common assumptions about dominanceorders are challenged through the use ofstereotypes. Such inversions provide acontext of catharsis and release of socialtension.” This might be more true inrespect of Mahabharata than Ramayana.

Both Ramayana and the Mahabharata,as is obvious, raise a variety of questionsabout the role, powers and personality ofa ruler or a king and the systems hecontrols. Needless to say that thedichotomy of the cultivated/non-cultivted(in Levi-Straussian terms nature/cultureor even city/village), which seems adominant cultural category of India’s folk-mind even today, has shaped the structureof kingship in both these epics. Rama,Krishna or Arjuna in their roles as culturalheroes seems to mediate the basicoppositions successfully in order toredefine the role and power of a just kingand the politics of idealism. One shouldalso remember that in Mahabharata,despite its dissimilarities with Ramayana,kingship—true kingship—was defined onlyin terms of overcoming the basicopposition. Pandavas had to roam inwilderness (just as Rama did) before theycould establish the real order of kingshipbased on shared values of economic andpolitical context. For example, didn’tMahatma Gandhi and Vinoba Ji (and manyothers now) follow the footsteps of theseepic or mythic heroes in mediating thisstill-present opposition in Indian politicaland social systems. The Padayatra, as afolk metaphor of real or symbolic socialand political change has its well definedroots in the ancient epics of India is anissue which needs a more serioustreatment than given so far by thescholars. Surprisingly enough, it wouldseem that the function of padayatra has


not changed much since the epic days.The opposition between the city and thenon-city in its all semantic dimensions inthe Indian context seems to exist even nowwhich very appropriately justifies not onlythe presence but also the continuation ofthese folk metaphors in the symboliccontext of modern Indian society.

Of equal importance is the concept ofRamarajya in post-independent India:which, needless to emphasize, is aconglomerate of well-knitted folkmetaphors into an ideal holloisticmetaphor of a dream-like social andpolitical order. The padayatra, and similarconcepts are in fact the basic structuresof such a multi-dimensional metaphor.

Similarly, the position of woman andher relationship with fire, which may notsuit the modern Indian mind particularlythe feminist mind, is nevertheless, in myopinion, an important aspect of themetaphor and has gained significance inthe present context of, by and large, male-dominant Indian society and its attitudestowards women’s participation in India’s

political and social management. Theselection of fire by Indian woman (who,more than man, works with it her wholelife as the house-keeper, food-creator andfood-giver) as the instrument of survival,power and purification and also of ultimateself- destruction (agni pariksha, Sati, anddowry death or bride burning), even in thepresent context in modern Indian society.

Cultural experts and folklorists needto discover these and similar ancient folkand epic metaphors and trace theirpatterns and continuities in modern Indiansociety. besides the ones we discussedabove, we need to discover various otherrelated metaphors such as of protest,violence, and change which, in my opinion,have deep roots in Indian oral and literaryparadigm and which are so relevant in thecontext of present Indian society.

(Adapted from “The Mahabharata inthe Tribal and Folk traditions of India,

I.I.A.S. Shimla 1993).


FOLK TRADITIONS RELATED TO MAHABHARATA IN SOUTH INDIA

T.S. Rukmani

India has a very rich and vast repertoireof folk traditions. As it is not possibleto deal with all of them in such a paper

an attempt has been made to brieflydescribe the folk traditions of South Indiamainly that of Tamilnadu and Kerala. Butbefore that it is necessary to understandwhat one means by the term ‘folktradition’.

A folk tradition by its very natureimplies the ‘other’ which is ‘not-folk’ andtherefore it is as against the ‘other’ that thisis defined as ‘folk’. The ‘other’ is the‘classical’ be it literature, music, dance,painting , and so on. The classical isdependent on certain rigid aesthetic rulesand regulations and is structured to a setpattern. Students of Sanskrit will knowwhat this means in the context of avoluminous literature which is available,dealing with the various aspects ofculture, including that of sculpture andtemple construction. A holistic approachto life which underscored the philosophyof ancient India and permeated its variousaspects encouraged this development, somuch so, that all the classical arts aimedat discovering the rhythm of the universe,of which the human being himself was anexpression. The classical arts were alsoconnected with the goals of humanexistence and became different means toachieve the ‘intangible experience of theunmanifested unity’. It was thus a part ofthe sacred lore and had a spiritual end inview.

At the same time it is interesting toobserve that there is a rich source ofevidence for both the classical and folkartistic traditions going back to vedictimes. There is also ample evidence for thecontinued existence of music and dance,both classical and folk, throughout theages. It is this rich tradition which findsexpression in one of the earliest works ofthis kind extant anywhere in the worldand called the Natyasastra whose authoris Bharata.

Natya literally means dance andtherefore one would expect the Natyasastrato deal with the theatre and staging ofplays. But ancient theatre was not just thespoken word as in Greek theatre but a totalexperience both visual and intellectualwhere music and dance played vital rolesin developing the theme. It was assumedthat every actor or actress would combinehimself/herself all the three functions ofactor, dancer and singer. It is perhaps thislegacy which finds place even in presentday cinema where no movie is completewithout the song and dance sequencesand every hero or heroine is supposed tobe an accomplished musician and dancer.

The Natyasastra talks about thenatyadharmi as opposed to the lokadharmistyles or the margi as against the desi style.Bharata also talks of the four divisions asAvanti, Daksinatya, Panchali and Odhra-Magadhi thus pointing to the prevalenceof the art in all parts of the country. Thusthe folk and the classical traditions have


existed side by side throughout for a verylong time and it is therefore difficult tofind something which is purely classicalor vice-versa.

Can the Bharatanatyam style becompletely separated from the Sadir, theBhagavatamelanataka, the Kuravanji andthe art of puppetry which are all folk formsof entertainment? Can the Kathakali stylebe separated from the influence ofMudiyettu, Taiyyam, Thirayattam,Chakiarkoothu, Yakshagana and manyother folk tradition in Kerala, Tamilnaduand Karnataka? In fact the tradition ofChakiarkoothu is considered to be handeddown from the time of the epics, thechakiars being considered as descendantsof the traditional epic story tellers calledthe sutas (bhatas).

It is important to bear in mind that thehistory of the region known as South Indiais still not well-known and the folktraditions and different classical formswhich are known as the South Indianforms do not have a strictly geographicaldelimitation as that of Tamilnadu, Andhra,Karnataka or Kerala. To some extent evenOrissa with its common border withAndhra displays some common featuresof the classical and folk tradition of thesouth.

It is also not easy to determinewhether the classical and the folk existedas separate forms at all times, each havingits own clientele or whether there was anevolvement of one from the other. Werethere two separate styles at all times –ifnot which came first and which camelater? Is it ever possible to clearlydelineate the boundaries between what isclassical and what is folk? This is a debatewhich can never be solved finally and isas difficult to decide as the origin of any

of the art forms which exist at two levels,be it sculpture, theatre, music, dance, etc.

While dealing with the South anequally difficult question to decide iswhether the dance form was a part of theDravidian scene or was a laterdevelopment under Aryan influence. Thatthere was a constant interchange at leastin the early days of contact between theAryans and Dravidians is amplyillustrated by the number of words, whichhave been borrowed from those languagesinto Sanskrit. Thus the Sanskrit wordsanala, alasa, ulukhala, katu, kathina, kaka,kancika, kanana, kuntala, and many morewords can be traced to Dravidian origins.In a similar way the present dance formsmust definitely be an amalgam a comingtogether of many styles. Such an amalgam,in recent centuries after the advent of theEuropeans is seen in Kerala in theChavittunatakam which is a fusion betweenthe dance drama traditions of Kerala andEuropean opera. While this paper is on thefolk forms and not on the tribal danceforms it is again not possible to strictlydemarcate the two styles. For instance, theChenchus are a semi-nomadic tribeconsidered to be proto-Australoid. Theirdance and music are based on their world-view which has quite a few resemblancesto the Hindu world view and the cult ofShiva. They believe that ‘long ago in thearchaic past Chencita, a forest girl,married Shiva as Kirat who, in this form, isknown as ‘Chenchu Malliah’. This forestsetting of the Kiratarjuniyam episode inthe Mahabharata probably made thistransference easy for the Chenchus. Oneconclusive evidence for the existence ofmany dance forms in the Dravida countryis the reference to the dancing girl whowas adept in many different dance forms,in the Silappadikaram, a Tamil work of thesecond century A.D. it is interesting to


note that the Natyasastra is also consideredto be a work belonging to the secondcentury A.D. While the Natyasastra refersto the Daksinataya there is no reference tothe Natyasastra in the Silappadikaram. Atthe same time, the Rasalila, which isdescribed in such great detail in theRasapancadhyayi of the Bhagavata Puranais considered to have its basis in theKuravai dance identified with theHallisaka dance mentioned inVatsyayana’s Kamasutra and in theHarivamsa Purana.

For purposes of cultural expressionsthe entire South can be viewed as one asalready pointed out at the beginning. InKarnataka there is what is known as theKargadha Kunitha akin to the Kargam andKavadi of Tamilnadu. The most famous ofthe folk dance drama (theatre) inKarnataka is the Yaksagana or Bayalata.As Kapila Vatsyayan remarks ‘Here is adance-drama form which contains a highliterary traditon, a body of stylisedtechnique of theatrical presentation andyet one which exhibits unmistakable linkswith the tribal and folk traditions of theregion. Its themes are classical epic, itslanguage is regional, its conventions ofthe stage are close to the Sanskrit theatrebut in movement of the body, themanipulation of the head and the torso, ithas many features of the folk dances ofKarnataka. On another level, it hasaffinities with the Bhagavatamela ofTamilnadu and Kathakali of Kerala andeven inone or two respects with theBhamakalapam of Andhra Pradesh.

The repertoire of the Yaksagana isagain the stories of the epics and thePuranas. Some well-known stories stagedfrom the Mahabharata are Bhismavijaya,Karna-Arjuna-Kalaga, Draupadipratapa,Krishn-Parijata and Abhimanyu Kalaga.

Yaksagana artists are mostly village folklike farmers and others who haveundergone some training in the art.

When we look at Kerala we find livingtraditions of Chakiarkoothu, Krishnanattam,Ottanthullal, Chavittunatakam, Mudiyettu,Taiyyam, Pathakam and other dance forms.The Bhagavati cult is very potent in Kerala.Bhagavati is the mother goddess alsocalled Kali, Bhairavi, Devi or Sakti. Thecolour symbolism cuts across all classesand groups, being as much part of the folktraditions as it is of the highly evolvedKathakali make up. In fact there arescholars who believe that Kathakali is ablending of the Aryan and Dravidiancultures, and that it is the culmination ofa ‘whole process of synthesis’.

This description of some of the folktraditions releated to the Mahabharata inSouth India reveals some interestingpoints. First there are closeinterconnections between the variousregions and the same dance form is foundin all the four regions with minorvariations. Secondly, it is not possible toclearly earmark the different levels aspurely classical or purely folk. Thirdly, theamalgam between what was indigenous tothe region and what came from outside asthe Mahabharata tradition has beensmoothly absorbed and conforms to thelocal customs and tradition. This waspossible because these folk forms werecentred round the temples and were partof the rituals connected with the deities.Fourthly, since this region was historicalyspared the kind of upheavals, which theNorth was subjected to, the various strandscoming from different sources aresomewhat discernible. Lastly, thetremendous popularity of the Mahabharatain this region, particularly Kerala, seemsto be due to the characters being very


human and easily identifiable witheveryday men and women. While thebeginnings of this absorption are difficultto pinpoint one can only agree withWendy O’ Flaherty who said: ‘TheMahabharata grows out of the oral traditionand then grows back into he oraltraditions; it flickers back and forthbetween Sankrit manuscripts and villagestory tellers, each adding new lists to theold story, constantly reinterpreting it.’ The

Mahabharata has the last laugh as itsautobiographical statement that ‘whateveris here is found elsewhere’ is fulfilled inthese folk traditions of the South.

(Extract form The Mahabharata in theT/F Traditions of India, I.I.A.S, Shimla,1993).


Proverbs of a society often reflect itssocial mores. In Tamil there areabout thirty proverbs based on

Mahabharata events and characters whichexpose the shades of popular psychology.The cause of Duryodhana’s ruin, strippingoff Draupadi’s cloths and the oath ofBhishma are some of the famous eventsused in the proverbs. Karna seems to bemore popular among the common folk andhis is referred in a larger number ofproverbs than the heroes of the epic. Hisbounty, duty-consciousness, friendship,integrity and sacrifice evoked bothadmiration and affection. People withsympathy for weaker sections of thesociety felt Karna as one among them andpreferred him to the other heroes. Hisgenerosity is compared with rain and rainyseason. His name became an idiom toindicate charitable persons. Next to Karna,Dharmaraja, Draupadi, Arjuna,Duryodhana and Sakuni are mentioned.Their names too are used as idioms forpersonalities. Dharmaraja is a synonymfor righteous men and Duryodhana forhaughty persons. Arjuna is cited forarchery and amorous activities and Sakuniis famous for his cunning and evil designs.

In Hindu scriptures, Draupadi isaccorded a higher place and she is one offive ideal women. People like poet Bharatihave a high esteem for her. But quitecontrary to this tradition some proverbs

THE MAHABHARATA INFLUENCES PROVERBS IN TAMILNADU

K. Lakshmi Narayanan

based on Draupadi are not so palatable.The ordinary common folk without theintention of slighting the divinity ofDraupadi whom they worship as theirguarding deity, often compare verysarcastically the women of haughty natureand loose character to Draupadi. Thesaying, Paanchali vesam podaathe (don’tplay the role of Panchali) is often usedtowards the women of overbearingbehaviour. Like that the proverbAivarkkum Devi Azhiyaatha pattini (wife offive and still she is quite chaste) is usedsarcastically to refer to women of loosecharacter. Perhaps these are the outcomeof acceptance by the common folk of awoman’s adamant nature to wreckvengeance at all cost and her unusualmarital relations.

(Extract from the The Mahabharata inthe T/F Traditions of India. I.I.A.S Shimla1993)


FOLK WISDOM IN SARALA DASA’SMAHABHARATA

Salute the brother-in-law in fear of the wife

This episode has evolved from theMahabharata of Sarala Das. It looksboth ironic and humoruous.

Yudhishthira saluted Dhrustadyumna, thebrother of Draupadi at the altar of yajna.Krishna smiled and requested Brahma toexplain as to how far it was justified onthe part of Yudhishthira to salute hisbrother-in-law. Brahma explained thataccording to the scripture, brother-in-lawis equal to a servant. Listening to this,Krishna was very angry. He scoldedDhrustadyuma as being a brother-in-lawand blessed Yudhishthira. Krishna wasconsoled by Yudhishthira and pleaded thatin fear of Draupadi, he had saluted herbrother.In recent time also, one can find thebrother-in-law being saluted.

Pravakar Swain

It is a popular saying that Lord Krishnahad to touch the feet of an ass. It meansthat to reach the goal in life, to complete

any work, one should not hesitate to takethe help and assistance of anyone,however insignificant. It is narrated in theMahabharata that the fort of Jarasandhahad four doors. He was the unconqueredhero. The first door was guarded by theprince, there was a clarion on the seconddoor, a simuli tree near the third door andan ass watched the fourth door. Anyoutsider, who got into the fort, had to facethe ass, who brayed loudly. Jarasandhatook it as a warning and destroyed hisenemies. Once Krishna, Bhima and Arjunastarted their campaign againstJarasandha. It was difficult for them tocontrol the ass. When the ass saw them,it started to bray loudly. Suddenly Krishnaput the conch into its mouth. As a resultof which the sound of the conch echoedall around. Krishna choked the throat ofthe ass with his left hand and ordered toremain silent. The ass could recogniseKrishna and requested the Lord to touchhis feet. Krishna agreed. Bhima reactedand prayed to Krishna not to do it. ButKrishna explained that to complete anywork, one has to follow any mean way. Hetouched the feet of the ass.

Today, when one takes the help of anyinsignificant being to complete any workor to reach the goal in his life, this episodeis generally referred to.

(The Mahabharata in the Folk andTribal Traditions of India)

LORD KRISHNA, TOUCHING THE FEETOF AN ASS


Rama and Ravana

The most popular and venerable herofrom the Hindu mythology is Rama,the protagonist of the Ramayana.

Despite the authors’ shift from a theo-centric world to a man centric universe andgrowing resistance to the divine halo of thecharacters of epic, Rama continued toshine with glory in twentieth century aswell. It is not only that new Ramayanaswere being written by poets –bothPuttappa and Vishvanatha Satyanarayanawrote Ramayanas, Ramayana Darsanamin Kannada and Srimad RamayanaKalpavrksam in Telugu respectively –butbecause the way the whole life of Ramahad penetrated into the poetic language.It has become a part of the Indian poeticstoff. Ravana, the villain of the Ramayana,too whom Michael Madhusudan Datavalorized as a protesting hero in thenineteenth century, continued to fascinatesome poets but none could surpass themodel created by Michael Madhusudan.P. Lakshmana Kavi wrote a poem in Teluguentitled Ravanadammiyamu (1915).Hardayal Sinha wrote Ravana Mahakavya(1952) in Hindi, A. K. Velan wrote a playRavanan (1948), with Ravana as the hero,in Tamil. It may be mentioned that withthe consolidation of the Justice Party andthe strengthening of Tamil Nationalsimseveral writers in Tamilnadu denouncedRama and glorified Ravana as a Dravidianhero.

(A History of Indian Literature, SahityaAkademi –New Delhi 1995)

HEROES IN EPICS

Sisirkumar Das

Caste Hindus do not take Draupadiand Pandava brothers as theirmajor deities. They regarded them

only as semi-divine beings. But whilecomposing Sthala Puranam of theirtemples, villages and cities, they broughtthe Pandavas as beneficiaries of the graceof major deities like Siva and Vishnu. Thisbrought them nearer to rural Tamils andtheir memory is perpetuated among them.We can cite an example. The people ofVedambur, a village in Valankaiman talukof Thanjavur district, have a Mahabharatastory for the name of their village. As pertheir belief, their village is the place wherethe event of Kiratarjuna fight took place.Since Siva came here in the guise of Vedar(hunter) to fight with Arjuna, the place iscalled Vedambur. The Sthala Purana ofThirumaraikkadu Siva Temple inVedaranyam tells us that the Pandavasduring the time of their Vanavasa visitedthat place and worshipped Siva byestablishing five Lingas. The same storyhas been told for the deities ofJayanthisvaram Shrine within theSuchindram temple complex. We may citeinnumerable examples for the village andtemple towns of Tamilnadu.

(From the Mahabharata in T/FTraditions of India I.I.A.S Shimla, 1993)

MAHABHARATA IN STHALA PURANAS

K. Lakshmi Narayanan


Duryodhana started losing whateverhe gained from Dharmaraja. ThenSakuni came to his rescue and

scolded him saying that it was a grossmistake to play with women. “Becausewomen always have the help of Fire god.They play with fire while cooking. They arethe incarnation of fire and they are oneamongst the burning firewood and are liketorches…”. Having heard these words ofSakuni, Duryodhana stopped playing withDraupadi. Meanwhile, Dhritarastra cameto the spot, asked Draupadi to take all thebooty she had won by playing dice withDuryodhana, but Dharmaraja refused totake the kingdom won by a woman andfinally decided to go to the forest withDraupadi.

(From the Mahabharata in T/FTraditions of India I.I.A.S Shimla, 1993)

DRAUPADI –A TREATMENT IN THEMAHABHARATA

N. Krishna Kumari Some of the basic components ofIndian cultural values are belief infate, accepting social hierarchy as

natural order, and hope only in God’sAvatar. These cultural values were createdin the background of a caste-orientedfeudal society in pre-British India. Religionand Bhakti also contributed to thesestrongly rooted values. Literatures,particularly written literatures with highlyintellectual meanings, exerted a greatinfluence on people’s thinking process. Asthis process is a socio-historical one, itaffects folk imagination also.

(Extracted from the Mahabharata in T/FTraditions of India I.I.A.S Shimla, 1993)

THE MAHABHARATA IMPRINTS BASICVALUES IN THE MINDS OF THE PEOPLE

D. Seeni Sami

The Mahabharata and the traditions ofMahabharata have been deeply influencingthe different spheres of the folklore ofAndhra Pradesh. There are temples ofDraupadi and Pandavas in AndhraPradesh. A yearly big ‘Jatara’ takes placein the temple of Draupadi in Nelloredistrict. Finding out Mahabharata traditionin the folklore of Andhra Pradesh is aninteresting subject. The study of variousversions of folk Mahabharata may bringout interesting facts of remote past, theinfluence of Mahabharata on caste mythsetc.

(Extracted from the Mahabharata in T/FTraditions of India I.I.A.S Shimla, 1993)

THE MAHABHARATA FOLK TRADITIONIN ANDHRA

P. Subha Chary


Ganesa and Krishna are two popularHindu deities. Some of theiriconographical features are formed

according to the episodes described in thelocal as well as the classical versions ofMahabharata. The Ganesa figure inTamilnadu –wherever it is –whether in theAgamic temple, on the roadside pedestalor in the pooja room of ordinary Hinduhouse, it is usually depicted with a brokentusk. For this iconographic featuredifferent puranic stories and philosophicinterpretation have been told. But atpresent in Tamilnadu, this iconographicfeature is largely connected to the story ofGanesa breaking his tusk to writeMahabharata on Mount Meru. This eventis told in 19th century minor Tamil literarywork Sarabendra Bhubala Kuravanchicomposed in praise of Thanjavur kingSarofoji III.

The role of Krishna as Geetacharya,the preacher of Geeta to the bewilderedArjuna in the battle field is so appealingto high caste Hindus that they adorn theirtemples and houses with this form. Thereis also a temple for this particular form,the form of Parthasarathi, the Charioteerof Arjuna. Thiruvallikkeni ParthasarathiTemple is one of the oldest and importanttemples of Vaishnavites. The utsava iconof this temple is in this particular form andthe antiquity of this form is well attestedby the song of Thirumangai Alvar in hisPeriya Thirumadal. He records hisexcitement by singing “Kol kai KonduParthan thermun ninranai… ThiruvallikkeniKan Kandene” ( I saw the one who stoodwith a stick in hand before Partha’s chariotin Thiruvallikkeni).

GANESA AND KRISHNA INTAMILNADU’S FOLK MAHABHARATA

Thiruppadagam in Kanchipuram isanother temple of classial order. There anevent connected whith Mahabharata isperpetuated. During Krishna’s diplomaticmission to Duryodhana’s court, the latteroffered a very fine chair placed in aconcealed deep pit in which strongwrestlers were kept to kill Krishna. As soonas Krishna sat on the chair, it began tofall in the pit. At that moment Krishnaassumed his universal gigantic form, killedthe wrestlers and spoiled Duryodhana’sintention. This Periya Maameni form (thegreat gigantic figure) is worshiped inThiurppadagam temple and the sanctumof the temple is called as Paandava TutarSanniti (the sanctum of PandavaAmbassador) Thirumangai Alvar sings thelord of this temple by citing this episode.

(The Mahabharata in T/F Traditionsof India I.I.A.S Shimla, 1993)


Yayati

Like Ashvatthama, the story of Yayati,also from the Mahabharata has astrong appeal to the modern mind.

Yayati is the king who in his unsatiatedlust for carnal pleasure shamelessly begshis son Puru to exchange his youth withhis infirmity. Puru obliges his father. Theearliest work on the subject in this centuryis Yayati (1908) by the prolific Tamilplaywright P. Sambandha Mudaliyar. Hewas followed by Srikantha Satpathi, theauthor of the Oriya narrative Yayati (1927)and Govinda Ballabh Pant (Hindi play,Yayati, 1951) and V.S. Khandekar whosenovel Yayati (1959) has been hailed as oneof the greatest works in Marathi literature.

Sudhindranath Datta’s ‘Yayati’included in Sambarta (1953) is one of thememorable poems in modern Bengaliliterature. Similarly, Umashankar Joshi’sPracina (1944), a collection of sevendialogues, created a new form of verse-plays on themes borrowed from mythology.

Manu: The creation of a New Myth

Mention must be made of the Hindiepic Kamayani (1935) by the versatile poet-dramatist Jayshankar Prasad. Kamayani,which tells the story of Manu in search ofa new human race, has been claimed bycritics as an epic without any pronouncedreligious ideas, not to speak of anytheology but a work ‘motivated by themetaphysics of psychology’. Like Savitri itis also constructed on a grand scale; some

of its episodes can be traced back to theVedic or Puranic literature, but thenarrative is more than work of imagination.Certain parts of it are allegorical incharacter. This epic narrative is certainlyrooted into a Hindu perception of thereality and it problematizes the eternaltension within man in search forperfections and ideals. Girija KumarMathur’s observations may be quotedhere:

Jaishankar Prasad was inspired by thefascinating legend of the great Deluge andthe regeneration of earth’s life by Manu,the first man who created humancivilization in the post-diluvian period…..Manu is the primordial human mindperpetually in quest of peace. The twowomen who come into his life are Sraddha,symbolizing emotion and dedication, andIda, symbolizing intellect. The conflictwhich develops due to Manu’s attractionfor both is finally resolved in a harmonioussynthesis between emotion and intellect,faith and reality.


YAYATI AND MANU

Sisir Kumar Das


It is not only the great heroes like Karnaor Bhishma or Arjuna who have beenchosen as the subject of the modern

poets but hundreds of episodes featuringthe major and minor characters of theepics have been reworked by them. OneTelugu scholar writes about DivakaralaTirupati (1871-1919) and ChellapillaVenkata Shastri (1870-1950) the dualpoets of Andhra Pradesh who wrote severalplays on the Mahabharata, most notablebeing Pandava Pravasamu (1907) andPandavodyogamu (1930), that they ‘havethrilled the entire length and breadth ofAndhra’ and ‘it is rare to come across anAndhra who cannot recite two or threepoems’ from these plays.

The reworking of myths and episodesof the epics has by the large emphasizedcertain religious and ethical value system.The central motif in most of these worksis the projection of an unshakable faith inthe divine power. The natural and thesupernatural penetrate into one anotherand cease to be a straightforward retellingof an old story. A large section of theseworks celebrate the divine glory andaffirms the Indian faith in the unalterablelaw, the supreme power controlling thecosmos. It is in this religio-philosophicalframework that the Indian author and thereader find their identity. It is, however,not simply a search for a religious meaningwhere dharma and moksa are the goals; itis also a reconstruction of the past. Whilecertain parts of this literature wereprimarily intended for an exclusive Hindu

EPIC CHARACTERS AND THE ETHICAL SYSTEM

Sisir Kumar Das

readership, the major part is by and largehumanistic and secular. The dramaticpoems of Rabindranath particularly‘Karna-Kunti Sambad’ and ‘GandharirAvedan’ made a great impact on poets inBengal and outside. Characters likeVishvamitra, Yayati, Ashvatthama becamesuddenly popular and were valorised bypoets and dramatists without anyparticular religious dogma.



As a lover and wife Draupadi remainsunfulfilled. Playing the role of wifeto five men, every year she has to

efface the memory of one before startingconjugal life with another. Her conjugallife, like her denied childhood, is adisjointed experience. Though fresh anddiverse it has no process of continuity. Shedesires and prefers Arjuna to others, butshe could never have him all to herself.Her birth and death are rootless. Thefullness of a life cycle naturally describedis not there in Draupadi. Even after theappeasement of burning revenge in her,she is left empty. A women of such fulnessis ironically empty; loses every one in thewar, her father, her brother, her children–both the links with the past and future.Going for her diced exile she leaves akingdom in full splendour but returns afterthe war, to envy her glory, to rejoice ather laurel victory and finally none to handover her queenly legacy. The unopposedburning anguish is finally quenched, oninhospitable snow midway through theirwalk to heaven. The divine born diesdestitute.

Sita has a more natural fullness of lifecycle. She is the child of earth and is takenin by the same earth. Draupadi describesonly arcs of agonizing experience, heroicthough. She dies on ice though firebornwhile her husbands walk on withoutbothering to look back or drop a tear offond farewell for a heroic life lived together.

THE TRAGEDY OF DRAUPADI

P. Usha Sundari

Draupadi has none to mourn her. She isshed like a flower as soon as her role isacted out, dropped down as a piece ofbaggage on unpropitious grounds.

It is now clear why Draupadi is not anideal of Indian womanhood. Herpsychosocial alienation, if not rejection isnot because of any vicious mole in hernature; she is distanced from Indianwomen by virtue of her heroic soul. She istoo large for the ordinary aspirations ofwomen. She is the instrument of revengeleading to destruction; she is also the leastrespected of women in the Mahabharatain spite of her vast soul. She has neverenjoyed life as daughter, wife, mother, orqueen. She is too large to be ordinary andtoo heroically empty to be an ideal. Sheshines as myth, her reality inspires fear:the fear of greatness. In the folkimagination she is otherworldly andliterary. The comman woman never wishesto be in her shoes.

(Extracted from The Mahabharata inT/F Traditions of India I.I.A.S Shimla,1993)


MYTHS AND MODERN INDIAN LITERATURETHE POPULARITY OF THE PAURANIKA

BY SISIR KUMAR DAS

The treatment of mythologicaltheme’s in modern Indianlanguages is both a continuation

of earlier traditions as well as a new andcapacious feature that emerged in the19th century. The critical vocabularydistinguishes a Pauranika from anaitihasika (historian). The ancient writersmake no such distinction.

Contrary to the popular perceptionthat there has been a steady decline inthe mythological literature with the riseof modernity and apotheosization ofhistory and science as the body of trueknowledge, mythological literature inIndia had never been wanting in votaries.Whether it is Sanskrit or Nepali, Oriya,or Tamil, Telugu or Assamse, Marathi orSindhi, mythological writings had alwaysenjoyed an important position in thegrowth of their literature. Mythologicalwritings undoubtedly form a part of theresidual traditions in certain languages,but they also emerged as dominantstreams in those which were under astrong Western influence and where thewriters were critical of the traditionalthemes and forms.

Sanskrit represents the residualtradition rather than bold innovations inliterary activities. Rukmini Haranam,Pandava Vijayam, Hariscandra Carit,Rati Vijayam, Samudra manthana, NalaDamayanti, Prahlad are the popularthemes on which Sanskrit works werewritten. Ekalavya Guru dakshina wasanother work.

A continuing scholarly tradition thatrefused to take cognizance of thechanging world and of new poeticsensibility, had its admirers, and theycontinued to thrive. Such works existedin several others languages irrespectiveof their relative richness, and claimedmodernity-Bengali, Tamil, Marathi,Nepali, Oriya etc. The mythologicalthemes used and value systems theypropagated make the literature fall insome sub- groups. Marathi, Nepali, andManipuri were exposed to westernliterary traditions little later than otherlanguages. These languages had a strongtraditional component in their letters,compositions and they passed througha stage dominated by strong motivationsto preserve the rich indigenous literaryheritage. One f inds a rich crop ofmythological works in these languages.The themes like Sita Swayamvara, SitaBanabas, (all in Manipuri). Abhimanyu,Lavakusa, Mahabharata themes etc.were glorified anew. Translations ofMahabharata were taken afresh byscholars. All India characters such asSakuntala, Savitri, Damayanti, andHarischandra were celebrated by Nepaliand Manipuri writers.

In certain languages it was the Sitatheme. In some it was Savitri. No Bengalwriter of merit showed interest in suchthemes. The all India character of themyths however is not questioned by theabsence of the response of writers of aparticular language. It is a question of


distribution of the themes in differentlanguages, which is variable with factors,such as religious characters of theaudience, the dominating literary idealsand the contemporary socio-politicalconditions. Konkani and Dogri were notvery productive because of adverse socialconditions. Sindhi created a space for

mythology within its Sufistic as well asVedantic ambience.

(From A History of Indian Literature IIISahitya Akadami New Delhi-1 --1991)

THE MOST POPULAR THEMES IN INDIANLITERATURE IN THE LAST 200 YEARS

1. Draupadis’ story, her swayamvara, the insult she faced.2. Harischandra in Hindi, Gujarati, Assamese, Malayalam, Tamil,

Telugu and Sindhi.3. Kichaka Vadha – Kannada, Mayalayam, Marathi, Oriya, Sanskrit

and Tamil4. Nala Damayanti Story5. Prahlada Story6. Sita Story

(From A History of Indian Literature Vol III Sisir Kumar Das – SahityaAkademi-New Dehi 1 – 1991)


THE IMPACT OF THE MAHABHARATA ON FOLK AND TRIBALCULTURE OF HIMACHAL PRADESH

B.R.SHARMA

It is a matter of interest and delightthat many of the Mahabharata heroesand sages are being worshipped as

village-gods in the region. In aboutsixteen thousand villages, some of thedeities associated with the Puranas andthe Epic can be enumerated as under.

Agastya muni in Kullu and Kathpaulmount in Solan district, Atri atDattanagar in Shimla, the Pandavas aspanjpeer in various households and atMasli (Matsyasthali) in Rohru, Nirmandand at several other places. Ashtakulnagin Kinnaur, Shimla and Chamba, Ishwarin Kinnaur, Kapil in Sirmour, Kuber inKullu, Karkotak at Chamba. Kashyap inSunni and Chamba, Kutti at Kuntabhyolake above Rewalsar in Mandi, Gautamin Ghoshal village of Kullu and Lahul andat some other places, Vashishtha atVashistha village near Manali, Vyasa atBilaspur, Rohtang and Kullu; Parasharin Mandi and Kullu; Jamdagni as Jamluin Kullu region, Takshak in Chamba,Narada in Kullu and outer Seraj areas,Narayan in various villages in Kinnaurand other areas. Parasurama in outerSeraj and Shimla region; Barbarik inJanchli (Mandi) and baridhar in Solan;Shukdev in Mandi area near Pandoh;Bhrigu in Karsog, Markandeya inBilaspur and Hamirpur, Karna atMahunag in Mandi district people relatea very interesting account of Mahu Nag,the village-god of Mahu that, he, beingthe incarnation of Karna, does notpunish the Kardars (attendants) who

cheat or deceive in any way as Karna wasliberal minded and took happiness ofofferings and giving ‘daan’ (offerings) tothe people. The famous idol of Shiva andParvati at Mumail village is said to havebeen installed by Pandavas in the temple.According to a popular belief Karsog areawas known as EK Chakra Nagri wherePandava brothers rescued the son of aBrahman from the clutches of a demon,as per a legend mentioned in ‘Adi parva’of Mahabharata. The Pandavas killedKirmir danva, who was later born as avillage-god in one of the villages inHimachal Pradesh.

The sages of the Mahabharta timehave had a great impact on the culturaltraditions of the region. As alreadymentioned, these ascetics includeAgastya (Van parva/90, 102-105) Angira(Van P.217), Ahalya, Arundhati, Asteek,Kashyap, Kapil, Kaushik, Garg, Gautam,Jamdagni, Dattatreya, Narada,parasurama, Parashar, Pulsatya, Vyas,Subha, Vaishampayan, Lomesh, Hari,Harit, Shandily, Shukdev, Shukracharya,Shrigvan-vridhkanya, Shrivig-Shaunik,Shonak, Shayukh, Satyakam, Jabal,Satyavan-Savitri, Sanak-Sanandan-Sanatan-Sanat Kumar, SootLomharshan, Aurav etc. These and someother characters of the Mahabharata arethe village gods in the Janapadas of thestate, Barbarik, who was made to see theMahabharata battle from a high pole, issaid to have come in the form of KamruNag in Mandi district, Karna is called


Mahu Nag and his temple is in Karsogtehsil of Mandi district. The jal devta ofSarpara in Shimla has nine sons who arethe village deities of various villages inShimla, Mandi and Kullu districts. Thisdeity is typically interested in traditionalmusical notes and his oracle asks forsuch tunes from his musicians onauspicious occasions. The sons of theDevta are Nagas and as, as such, hehimself is a water-god. In the Epic, thedetails of the Vanshavalis of variouskings and sages are given. Out of theprogeny of the Brahmrishis, Marichi, Atri,Angira, Pulastya, Kadmu, Indra Varun,Vivasvan, Vishnu, Bali, Banasur, Vritra,Vasuki, Takshak, Narad, Tumburu (sonof Pradha, the Apsara); Ekadash Rudraincluding Ishwar (son of Sthanu),Rakshasas, Vanar, Kinnar and Yakshas(sons of Maharishi Pulastya), Lakshmi(the daughter of Daksh Prajapati),Kartikeya (son of Anala), Vishwakarma(son of Prabhavasu), Ashwanikumar(experts of medicine who belong toGuhyaka community), Bhrigu,Shukracharya (grandson of Bhrigu),Chyavan (son of Bhrigu), Jamdagni (sonof Richik and grand son of Anurav),Parasurama (son of Jamdagni), variousNagas of Nagloka as mentioned in UdyogParva, Adhyay 103 are the deities in thearea.

The Pandavas are the most uprightand powerful characters in the folkmindof the tribal and non-tribal people. They,according to the legends, visited variousregions of this state twice. During thefirst visit, they came across Hidimb andhis sister Hidimba who later marriedBhimsen. It is believed that during theirfirst visit they traversed the Arki area ofSolan district and passed throughPanjgain vil lage or Danvin area ofBilaspur reaching Pandoh in Mandi while

going of Kullu-Manali. According to apopular belief, the Pandavas entered thearea ruled by demon Hidimb near Mandiand had an encounter with himsomewhere near Rohtang pass. TheHidimba temple at Dhungari near Manalimight have been constructed in thememory of the event. Tandi is anothername of Hidimb and his area extendedbeyond Rohtang pass. Tandi is theconjunction of Chandra and Bhaga riversand it is said that at the time ofSwargarohan (ascending to heaven)Draupadi was put to flames here afterher death. It is curious to note that afamous temple of Hidimba is alsosituated in Jahlma village of Lahul butwe do not have any folkloristic evidenceto show that she pushed the Pandavasback as is the case in Kinnaur regionwhere folk ballads are a testimony to thebelief that Hidimba tried to block theentry of the Pandavas into Kinnaur byputting iron rods on the top of mountainnear Sungra village and hurling bigboulders on them. Among the people ofSungra village, where the spirit ofBanasura, the father of the Maheshuragods of the area is believed to big boulderlying outside the village was thrown byBhim from the mountain top with anintention to kill Hidimba. According totheir belief, the grass grown on the upperportion of the boulder is found only onhigh mountain ranges and nowhere elsein the surrounding areas such type ofgrass is traceable.

There are numerous references to thePandvas in Kinnaur folklore. In afolksong relating to the creation of themankind, the Pandavas have beenmentioned to have appeared along withother gods and goddesses of the Hindupantheon.


According to another folksong in thedialect of Harijans, the Pandavas livedon the hilltops and the sixty Kauravashad their abode down below themountain. They nourished enmityamongst themselves. The Kauravasmade a house of cow-dung on the wayand when the Pandavas wanted to comedown, they had to enter it. There wereno windows in the house. The Pandavastactfully made a tunnel and escapedthrough it. The cat and the bitch of theKauravas started searching for the dead

bodies of the Pandavas after the cowdunghouse was put to fire but the Pandavashad already left the place through thetunnel. The episode is based on theMahabharata and has been localized bythe people who only know about thecowdung which is burnt for want of woodand other objects.

(From The Mahabharata in theTribal and Folk tradition of India,

I.I.A.S., Shimla-1993)


Bharat, the land of supreme culture,light and knowledge stands as theembodiment of eternal values since

unknown time. Vedas, Upanishads,Puranas, Kavyas etc., are the treasures ofthis land. They are the eternal scripturesspreading the message of ‘SanatanaDharma’ which is everything for India. Thisuniversal value is echoed and re-echoedin each and every Philosophical work,Shastra, literary work and art form. SriAurobindo, the great patriot, poet and yogiclearly declared “Sanatana Dharma has forus is Nationalism”. For Indians there is noReligion or Nationalism beyond ‘SanatanaDharma’. It is the core principle ruling theReligion and the Nationalism. It is also thebedrock of the Indian culture.

This great culture has gifted two Epicsto humanity. One is ‘The Ramayana’ andthe other is ‘The Mahabharata’. TheRamayana belongs to the period of ‘TretaYuga’ and the Mahabharata to the periodof ‘Dwapara Yuga’. But their relevanceand application are universal. As such,they belong to the entire human race andnot confined to any one race or nation orperiod. Both the stories are related touniversal man who is struggling to evolvefrom his limited consciousness. It revealsthe journey of man from limited individualconsciousness to UniversalConsciousness. Further, the cosmic danceis mythified in the epics as a war betweendivine and asuric forces. At the humanlevel, it is a war between dharmic andadharmic forces. The Epics expound the

TWO EPICS AND ONE PURANA

DR.K.V.N.RAGHAVANSMT.K.AMRUTHAVALLI

path of Dharma and its influence onhumanity. Hundreds of stories narrated inthe two Epics illuminate the eternal valuesfor the safe and secured journey of humanrace. Hence they are eternal.

The Indian tradition has prescribed afour fold path to experience life fully andfinally to reach the ultimate reality. Theyare called ‘Chaturvidha Purusharthas’.Here Purushartha means things to beattained. They are Dharma, Artha, Kama,and Moksha. Here the first Purushartha isDharma and the last is Moksha. But Dharmais not the things to be achieved. It is thebinding principle of Artha and Kamatowards Moksha. Artha and Kama are thePurusharthas to be achieved keeping inmind the ultimate Purushartha – Moksha.Both Artha and Kama belong to the visibleand mundane world. The ultimatePurushartha, Moksha is invisible. Theprinciple of Dharma bridges the visible andthe invisible.

Artha means money or power and kamameans sensual pleasures (procreativeinstinct) generally referred to-as desires.The Ramayana represents the KamaPurushartha and the Mahabharatarepresents the Artha Purushartha. Thehuman consciousness is engulfed inArtha and Kama only. That is why the Epicsthe Ramayana and the Mahabharata dealwith these two predominant aspects ofhuman consciousness. The psychologistscontend that the Ramayana is based on the


pleasure principle (Kama ) and theMahabharata on power principle (Artha).

The Indian tradition and culture havenot forbidden the individual fromexperiencing the mundane and sensualpleasures. But they insist that should bebound by the principle of Dharma with thesole aim of liberation – Moksha. In thisprocess man’s consciousness grows fromthe earthly’ plane to a universal plane. Ifone forgets and eliminates the solepurpose of life (Moksha ) leading a worldlylife, exclusively for the purpose of Arthaand Kama, one lands in competition,conflict, chaos and destruction. The sameget reflected in society. The modern manis experiencing, Artha and Kama ignoringMoksha and the path of Dharma. He isgetting caught in the web of sorrow andcatastrophe.

In the Ramayana, Rama is praised‘Ramo Vigrahavan Dharmah:’. Rama stoodas the embodiment of Dharma. Rama tookthe responsibility of establishing Dharmanot only in the domain of ‘Asuras’ (Lanka)but also in the domain of Vanaras. WhenRama and Lakshmana were in search ofSita, they met Sugriva the brother of Vali.Sugriva had lost his wife as well as hiskingdom and was even thrown out fromKishkindha. Rama and Sugriva were insimilar plight. Rama enraged by theadharmic act of Vali and killed him toestablish Dharma in the kingdom of‘Vanaras’.

Surpanakha the sister of Ravana wasattracted by the fascinating personality ofRama. She expressed her desire for him,but Rama refused to accept her. When shetried to cross the line of Dharma, she waspunished. Here Surpanaka is a symbol ofAdharmic Kama like Vali and Ravana. She

aspired for pleasure for the sake ofpleasure. Rama aspired for pleasurewithin the frame of Dharma and heelucidated the path of Dharma anddeclared “I will not tolerate even theshadow of adharma on this earth”.

Ravana a learned person, acquiredenormous powers by his tapas. Hedeveloped an animosity against greatrishis and Devas without reason. Heconquered the Devas, the Dikpalakas andimprisoned them. He did not allow thecosmic forces to perform their duties andcontrolled the heavenly world. Heexhibited his strength and wealth beforeSita in order to lure her. He soughtpleasure by adharmic means. Due to hisadharmic action he lost everything in hislife, finally his life too.

After the war, Rama asked Sita to proveher chastity not in suspicion of her but toprove the purity of Sita to the world. Beingthe king of ‘Ikshwakuvamsa’ he shoulderedthe responsibility of guard the Raja dharmaand be an ideal to the subjects. Even atthe time of sending Sita to the forest basinghis charge on the casual utterance of acommon man, he sacrificed his personalpleasures his principles to protect Dharma.Here the concept is, if a king compromisesin protecting Dharma for the sake ofpersonal pleasures, people will only followhim.

The Epic “The Mahabharata” deals withpower conflict. Pandavas and Kauravasfought for the throne of Hastinapura.Pandavas sought for their legitimate sharein the kingdom not for enjoing power butto establish and protect dharma. It is quitedifferent in the case of Kauravas. IfPandavas had aspired for power for thesake of power and pleasure, they would


have played all cheap tricks as Kauravasdid. They suffered a lot in the hands ofKauravas. Here the conflict is betweenDharmic and Adharmic forces . Pandavasrepresent the Dharmic forces and Kauravasrepresent the Adharmic forces. That is wayLord Krishna stood on the side ofPandavas. God reveals his presence in theplace where Dharma exists. Inspite offacing humiliation at the hands ofKauravas, Pandavas waited patiently andat least asked for only five villages.Duryodhana, the symbol of lust for powerrefused to accede to the request ofPandavas. At last a war becameunavoidable. In spite of knowing inadvance the possible results of the war,Krishna did not interrupt the flow ofevents. For Krishna, the purpose of war isto establish Dharma. “ Waging war is anArya Dharma”. Said Sadguru SriSivanandha Murthy. In the BhagavatagitaSri Krishna directed Arjuna to take astraand wage war to protect Dharma. He askedArjuna to shed all his ‘passiveness’ andachieve ‘the eternal oughtness’ Dharma.Here we should remind ourselves thatNon-violence is not the universal Mantra,while protecting Dharma and the Nation.This is one of the clear messages of LordKrishna in the Bhagavadgita. Apart fromGita innumerable Dharmic principles areglorified in the noble and sacred lives ofgreat Rishis in the Mahabharata. Varnaand asrama Dharmas have been elucidatedto remind man about his responsibilitiestowards the family, the society and inturnNation. That is why the Mahabharata isrevealed as the ‘Panchamaveda’ (FifthVeda). It guides the humanity to fulfill itsobligations in the mundane world andshows the way to the eternal truth. Afterthe great war of the Mahabharata, Pandavasoccupied the throne of Hastinapura andprotected Dharma. They did not stick on

to the throne. They voluntarily retired fromthe mundane life and walked in search ofTruth. Their journey is known as“Mahaprasthanam” an eternal journey. Atlast Dharma Raja alone could reach thegoal. It is the path defined in the Indianscriptures to be followed by each and everyhuman being on this earth. This is the pathof Dharma. “One should live for Dharma.Leading Dharmic life is a reward in itself.No Aryan would ever seek a reward forupholding Dharma. It is only throughDharma that one can workout one’s lifeand become eligible for spirituality. If youskip this vital step, you will trip. After allif there was no Dharma, what is there tolive for?” asked – Sadguru Sri SivanandaMurthy.

After classifying the Vedas and alsoafter completion of the MahabharataVedavyasa Maharshi felt some discontentand found that some vitality is missing inlife. He experienced unrest in. At that timeNarada Maharshi appeared beforeVedavyasa and explained the glory of‘Harinama’ and ‘Bhakti’ which was missingin his earlier works and advised him towrite ‘Mahabhagavatam’ to lead to mankindtowards peace and Moksha. Vedavyasawrote Bhagavatam and askedSukamaharshi to read it.

In the Bhagavatam the king Parikshitwas cursed by the sage ‘sringi’ the son ofSage Sameeka due to unmindful act ofParikshit. King Parikshit realized hismistake and agreed to undergo thepunishment of embracing death on theseventh day. By the grace of Divine,‘Sukamaharshi’ came to Parikshit. Theking pleaded with him to show the way to‘Mukthi’ within seven days. Sukamaharshielucidated ‘The Mahabhagavatam’ toParikshit to help him attain Moksha. HereParikshit is symbol for ‘Mumukshu’ who


sought Moksha alone. He heard‘Mahabhagavatam’ from ‘Sukamarshi’.Hence our tradition says that seekers ofMoksha should read Bhagavatam. Here theking Parikshit is compelled to face deathbut as he heard Bhagavatam and chantedHarinama, he conquered death.

Reading or listening to Bhagavatamleads man towards Moksha or liberationwhich is the ultimate Purushartha to besought uncompromisingly by theindividual. Hence the Mahabhagavatamrepresents the last Purushartha that isMoksha. The stories narrated in itinculcate and imbibe the path of Bhakti inthe minds of devotees . It is the collectionof lives of , Devotees, Maharshis, Sadhakas,Yogis, Avadhutas and is also related toincarnation of God and evolution ofcreation etc., In the Maha Bhagavatamdifferent paths to know the divine aresecretly hidden. It is a perennial flow ofBhakti, that is why the Bhagavatam is called‘Nigama Tharorgalitham’ (The fruit whichhas fallen from the tree of Vedas). In eachand every Skanda (Canto) and also in eachand every story the Supreme auspiciousqualities of (Kalyana Gunas )Srimannarayana are luminously glorified.Bhakti, Saranagati, Tapas, Dana, Yagna etc.,are revealed as the Supreme paths to reachGod. In Bhagavatam the story of ‘GajendraMoksham’ reveals the paths of Saranagati.The story of Dhruva is a typical one. Hewas insulted by his step-mother. Dhurvawas wounded and did intense tapas andhad the vision of Srimannarayana. Thelegends of Prahlada/Ambarisha representthe path of Bhakti. The story of Bali

represents the path of tyaga. Like that mostof the popular and important stories bringto light the different paths to reachliberation. Particularly in“Dasamaskanda”, the story of Srikrishnais depicted and is continued toEkadasaskanda. The Gopis are notordinary human beings. They are thesymbols of the evolved beings whoexperienced the passion for God andsought the divine presence and divinealone. Andal, Meera, Alwars Nayanmars,and other Bhaktas, poets, and artistssought God alone and expanded the pathof Bhakti.

“A profound stress of thought on life, alarge and vital view of religion and society,a certain strain of philosophic idea runsthrough these poems and the wholeancient culture of India is embedded inthem with a great force of intellectualconception and living presentation. Thusframed, the Mahabharata and theRamayana whether in the original Sanskritor rewritten in the regional tonguesbrought to the masses by kathakars,rhapsodists, reciters, and exegetes –became and remained one of the chiefinstruments of popular education andculture, moulded the thought, characteraesthetic and religious mind of the peopleand gave even to the illiterate, somesufficient tincture of Philosophy, ethics,Social and Political ideas, aestheticemotion, poetry, fiction and romance “Inthese words, Sri Aurobindo summarizedthe essence of the two epics and theirinfluence on humanity.


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