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2018-03-06

EMW shielding considerations in building design

Hakgudener, Serhan

Hakgudener, S. (2018). EMW Shielding Considerations in Building Design (Unpublished doctoral

thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. doi:10.11575/PRISM/30879

http://hdl.handle.net/1880/106436

doctoral thesis

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UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY

EMW SHIELDING CONSIDERATIONS IN BUILDING DESIGN

by

Serhan Hakgudener

A THESIS

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN

PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN

CALGARY, ALBERTA

MARCH, 2018

© SERHAN HAKGUDENER 2018

ii

Abstract

Providing healthy and effective wireless communication in the building environment is a

challenge among architects and wireless network designers, due to physical indoor environmental

factors. Wireless communication systems emit high-frequency waves both inside buildings and in

the free space around us. There are a variety of EMW sources covering a wide range of the

electromagnetic spectrum, spanning the frequency range from Hz to several hundred GHz. In

building design, there are diverse approaches to provisions of wireless communication and

constant innovation; however, the construction materials and EMW propagation relationship

remain a secondary consideration. This research evaluates current power intensity levels range

from 5 Hz to 10 GHz in building environments and develops guidelines for design professionals

based upon an understanding of conventional building material properties.

The research site survey that I conducted in the Calgary area, suggested in some cases, power

spectral densities in building environments rose to levels that could possibly a problem.

Incorporation of newly developed guidelines and security controls such as shielding, provided

in this study, may prevent data confidentiality compromise in transit (e.g. eavesdropping) and

prevent data integrity compromise in transit (e.g. hacking) for wireless communication systems in

building environments.

In this research, I develop the concept that effective EMW shielding can be achieved using

conventional construction materials.

The results of this study have significant implications for architectural design. The design

method would reduce high power spectral densities by improving EMW shielding. Ultimately, I

would like to see the developed shielding method in building codes and used in building projects

all over the world.

iii

Preface

This dissertation includes previously published materials such as figures, texts, and tables.

These contents appear in one peer-reviewed journal paper and a master’s thesis as follows:

1. Hakgudener, Serhan. 2015. “Spatial Design for Healthy and Effective Electromagnetic

Wave Propagation.” Procedia Engineering 118: 109–119.

doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2015.08.409.

http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1877705815020640.

2. Hakgudener, Serhan. 2007. “FUTURE OF WLAN AND THE INFLUENCES TO THE

ARCHITECTURAL FORMS AND DESIGN.” Yeditepe University.

https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/TezGoster?key=7d53ed97e31a8bd3aa6864b0e7

704416eae44e48141d7a55b82c08696ffae08b44f75cea77711c76

The above publishing was produced by the author and use of these materials allowed by

journal/proceedings publishers and the Council of Higher Education of Turkey.

The research investigates the gap between architecture and engineering regarding wireless

communication issues in building environments. Researching Electromagnetic Wave propagation

provides an understanding of the relationship between the use of building materials and wireless

communication performance. For instance, the problem can be solved through the use of a different

building or furniture materials. Even different space-planning options and the use of innovative

materials can improve wireless performance, as shown in the scenarios in Chapter Four. In terms

of electromagnetic power intensity levels in living environments, each country adopts different RF

exposure limits for its wireless communication. Therefore, this research provides a case study to

show the current electromagnetic power density levels within our living environments. Moreover,

this research proposes basic building design solutions for effective EMW shielding methods.

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Overall, the ultimate goal of the research is to determine how architecture can leverage engineering

knowledge to improve human well-being in building environments.

Serhan Hakgudener March 2018

v

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude to all those people who have supported me and contributed

to making this study possible.

I have the pleasure of thanking Dr. Thomas Patrick Keenan, my supervisor, for his constant

guidance, support and motivation and belief in my research potential. His constructive suggestions

allowed me to achieve a high quality of research.

I would like to thank AITF (Alberta Innovates- Technology Futures) Grant Management team

for their efforts. AITF’S grant allowed me access to sophisticated frequency analyzers. This

research would have been difficult to accomplish without their support.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the contractors, whom I worked with. They

showed me the practical ways of construction execution. The methods they practiced over years

inspired me to develop architectural details for healthy and effective EMW propagation in building

environments.

I would also like to thank my supervisory committee members, Dr. Branko Kolarevic, Prof.

Tang Lee and Dr. Leonid Belostotski for their careful reading and suggestions to improve the

manuscript. This thesis would not be possible without their remarkable patience and prompt

guidance. Moreover, I am honored to see that EMW propagation in buildings topic has been added

to Health in the Built Environment curriculum by Prof. Tang Lee. Thank you again, Prof. Lee.

You answered my calls.

I would like to thank Dr. Vincent Chiew for his invaluable comments that helped me to align

research with data confidentiality and data integrity.

I would like to thank Dr. Sean Victor Hum and Dr. Caroline Hachem-Vermette for their

suggestions. Their comments also helped me to develop finalized structure of this theses.

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Finally, I am grateful to my family, my wife, for bearing with me during this journey and my

son Kael, for the times I spent on my theses instead of playing with him. I owe him a lot. He is my

inspiration.

vii

Dedication

To my Parents

With all my Love

viii

Table of Contents

Abstract .......................................................................................................................... ii Preface ........................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... v Dedication ..................................................................................................................... vii Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... viii List of Tables ................................................................................................................. xi List of Figures and Illustrations ..................................................................................... xii List of Plates ................................................................................................................ xiv List of Symbols, Abbreviations, and Nomenclature ....................................................... xv Epigraph ..................................................................................................................... xvii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1 Context .................................................................................................................. 1 History .................................................................................................................. 2 Literature Review .................................................................................................. 3 1.3.1 EMW and Frequency ..................................................................................... 3 1.3.2 EMW Phenomena and Harmonious Environments for Electronic Devices ..... 4

1.3.2.1 The importance of Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) .................. 12 1.3.3 Wireless Communication Systems and Networking ..................................... 14 1.3.4 Data Security for Wireless Devices ............................................................. 19

1.3.4.1 Electromagnetic Warfare .................................................................... 24 1.3.5 The Power Density Levels and Potential Health Impact on Humans ............ 26 Discussion ........................................................................................................... 30 Research Overview.............................................................................................. 31 1.5.1 Research Problem ........................................................................................ 32 1.5.2 Hypothesis .................................................................................................. 33 1.5.3 Objectives, Purpose and Contributions ........................................................ 34 1.5.4 Thesis Outline ............................................................................................. 35 1.5.5 Methods ...................................................................................................... 36 1.5.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 36

CHAPTER TWO: BUILDING MATERIALS AND WIRELESS COMMUNICATION PERFORMANCE ................................................................................................ 37 Brick ................................................................................................................... 40 Brick faced concrete wall .................................................................................... 43 Brick faced masonry block .................................................................................. 44 Plain concrete ...................................................................................................... 44 Drywall ............................................................................................................... 45 Glass ................................................................................................................... 45 Lumber (Dry/Wet) ............................................................................................... 46 Plywood (Dry/Wet) ............................................................................................. 46 Reinforced Concrete ............................................................................................ 47 Rebar Grid ......................................................................................................... 47 The need for new building materials .................................................................. 50 EMW Shielding Alternatives and Effects in Building Environments .................. 51

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Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 54

CHAPTER THREE: POWER DENSITY LEVELS IN DIFFERENT BUILDING ENVIRONMENTS: CASE STUDY ..................................................................... 55 Method ................................................................................................................ 56 Residential Indoor Environment .......................................................................... 56 3.2.1 Study Description ........................................................................................ 56 3.2.2 Data Analyses ............................................................................................. 58 Typical Office Environment ................................................................................ 61 3.3.1 Study Description ........................................................................................ 61 3.3.2 Data Analyses ............................................................................................. 62 Typical Class Environment .................................................................................. 66 3.4.1 Study Description ........................................................................................ 66 3.4.2 Data Analyses ............................................................................................. 67

3.5 Results ................................................................................................................ 71 Limitations .......................................................................................................... 74

CHAPTER FOUR: BASIC SHIELDING GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN PROFESSIONALS ............................................................................................................................. 75

4.1 The design guideline............................................................................................ 75 4.1.1 EMW Shielding Principles in building environments ................................... 75

4.1.1.1 RF Absorbers ..................................................................................... 79 4.1.1.2 RF Shielding Foil ............................................................................... 80 4.1.1.3 RF Shielding Film .............................................................................. 81 4.1.1.4 RF Shielding Mesh............................................................................. 81 4.1.1.5 RF Shielding Fabric ........................................................................... 81

4.2 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 89

CHAPTER FIVE: ARCHITECTURAL SPATIAL DESIGN EFFECT ON EMW PROPAGATION IN BUILDING ENVIRONMENTS .......................................... 92 EMW Propagation in Residential Spaces ............................................................. 92 5.1.1 Spatial Design for Residential Spaces .......................................................... 99 EMW Propagation in Commercial Spaces ........................................................... 99 5.2.1 Spatial Design for Commercial Spaces ...................................................... 100 EMW Propagation in Educational Spaces .......................................................... 103 5.3.1 Spatial Design for Educational Spaces ....................................................... 104 EMW Propagation in Military and Government Spaces ..................................... 105 5.4.1 Spatial Design for Military and Government Spaces .................................. 106

CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSION .................................................................................. 107 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 112 Future Research ................................................................................................. 117

APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................. 121

APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................. 126

x

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 130

xi

List of Tables

Table 1. EMI study results in an intensive care unit (Adapted from (Luca and Salceanu 2012)) ..................................................................................................................................6

Table 2. Maximum RF exposure limits for uncontrolled environments (far-field zone) in Canada, adopted from Safety Code 6. Frequency, f, is in MHz, (Health Canada 2015). ..... 10

Table 3: Unlicensed spectrum allocations in the US (Goldsmith 2004). ..................................... 15

Table 4: Five different exposure limits for RF energy at 2.0 GHz (Limits for long-term and far-field exposure to the general public) (Foster 2001). ..................................................... 27

Table 5: RF source, frequency, power, and power density (Kosatsky et al. 2013). ..................... 28

Table 6. Transmission and reflection coefficient values of conventional construction materials at 2.4 GHz ( Adapted from (Koppel et al. 2017)) ................................................ 49

Table 7. Master bedroom average for all measure values ........................................................... 60

Table 8. Typical office average for all measure values .............................................................. 65

Table 9. Typical class average for all measure levels ................................................................. 70

Table 10. RF Shielding materials performance data adopted from manufacturer’s technical specifications ..................................................................................................................... 83

xii

List of Figures and Illustrations

Figure 1. Sample Office Room Experiment (Hakgudener 2007) ................................................ 38

Figure 2. EMW Propagation Contour Graphs for an empty and an occupied room at the 2.4 GHz frequency (Hakgudener 2007) ................................................................................... 39

Figure 3. Transmission coefficients for brick wall specimens (0.5-2.0 GHz) (Stone 1997). ........ 41

Figure 4. Transmission coefficients for brick specimens (3.0-8 GHz) (Stone 1997). .................. 42

Figure 5. Residential indoor environment, master bedroom, measurement location shop drawing. Drawn by author. (Not in scale, units are cm.) ..................................................... 57

Figure 6. Residential indoor environment 3D (x, y, z) AC magnetic flux density data (units are time/ hour for X, and nT for Y axis) ............................................................................. 58

Figure 7. Residential Indoor Environment High-Frequency range data (units are time/ hour, for X, and μW/m² for Y axis) ............................................................................................. 59

Figure 8. Residential Indoor Environment High-Frequency range data (units are, time/ hour, for X, and μW/m² Y axis) .................................................................................................. 60

Figure 9. Typical office measurement location (Not in scale) (University of Calgary 2016)....... 62

Figure 10. AC 3D Magnetic flux densities (5 Hz- 1000 KHz), X axis unit is time/hour and nT is for Y axis. ...................................................................................................................... 63

Figure 11. HF range (27 MHz- 3300 MHz), the measurement was taken at the same period (1 p.m-3:30 p.m.) ................................................................................................................... 64

Figure 12. HF range (2.4 GHz- 10 GHz), X axis unit is time/hour and μW/m² is for Y axis. ...... 65

Figure 13. Typical classroom measurement location (Not in scale) (University of Calgary 2016). ................................................................................................................................ 67

Figure 14. Typical Class environment 3D (x, y, z) AC magnetic flux density data (units are time/ hour for X axis, and nT for Y) .................................................................................. 68

Figure 15. HF range (27 MHz- 3300 MHz), X axis unit is time/hour and μW/m² is for Y axis. .. 69

Figure 16. Typical Class Environment High-Frequency range data (units are time/ hour for X, and μW/m² for Y) ......................................................................................................... 70

Figure 17. Average for all measured values 3D (x, y, z) AC magnetic flux density data (frequency rage, 5 Hz-1 MHz for X axis, and nT for Y) ..................................................... 71

Figure 18. Average for all measured values High-Frequency range (27 MHz- 3300 MHz) data (units MHz for X, and μW/cm² for Y) ........................................................................ 72

xiii

Figure 19. Average for all measured values High-Frequency range data (units MHz for X, and μW/cm² for Y) ............................................................................................................ 73

Figure 20. General EMW Shielding Design Flow ...................................................................... 76

Figure 21.Typical shielding configurations and shield effectiveness versus frequency, adapted from (“Understanding Shielded Cable” 2009) ....................................................... 78

Figure 22. The design workflow chart by author........................................................................ 84

Figure 23. Architectural EMW shielding detail guideline flow chart by author .......................... 85

Figure 24. EMW Shielding for Conventional Ceilings- Schematic 1 by author .......................... 86

Figure 25. EMW Shielding for Suspended (Dropped) Ceilings- Schematic 2 by author ............. 86

Figure 26. EMW Shielding for mixed wall types (load bearing and non-load bearing) Schematic 3 by author ....................................................................................................... 87

Figure 27. EMW Shielding for wood or metal framing walls- Schematic 4 by author ................ 88

Figure 28. EMW Shielding for Conventional Flooring- Schematic 5 by author.......................... 88

Figure 29. EMW Shielding for Raised Flooring- Schematic 6 by author .................................... 89

Figure 30. EMW Shielding for Openings- Schematic 7 by author .............................................. 89

Figure 31. Common type of wood joints (“Woodworking Joints Plans | Good Woodworking Projects” 2016) .................................................................................................................. 95

Figure 32. EMW shielding solution for Residential buildings designed by author ...................... 98

Figure 33. Typical commercial building floor plan (Holladay Properties 2012). ...................... 100

Figure 34. Propagation ray paths for typical office (Remcom 2014). ....................................... 101

Figure 35. Typical Wireless Networking on campus environment (Coffman 2011) ................. 104

Figure 36. Suggested architectural shielding on exterior walls by Hemming (Hemming 1992a). ............................................................................................................................ 110

xiv

List of Plates

xv

List of Symbols, Abbreviations, and Nomenclature

Symbol Definition µT Microtesla nT Nanotesla µW Microwatt ANSI American National Standards Institute AP Access Point ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode AWS Advanced Wireless Services BAS Building Automation System BRS Broadband Radio Services BSI British Standards Institute CEN European Committee for Standardization CENELEC European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization cm Centimeter cm² Square centimeter CRT Cathode Ray Tube DECT Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications DSSS Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum E Electric field EESS Earth Exploration Satellite Service ELF Extreme Low Frequency EMC Electromagnetic Compability EMI Electromagnetic Interference EMW Electromagnetic Wave ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute EU European Union f Frequency (Hertz) FCC Federal Communications Commission FHSS Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum G Gauss GHz Giga Hertz (a billion of Hertz) H Magnetic field HiperLAN High performance radio Local Area Networking HSP Henoch-Schonlein Purpura HVAC Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning ICNIRP International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection IEC International Electrotechnical Commission IEE 802.11 xx US-based WLAN standard IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers IPF Induction Power Feeder ISB Inter-state Bus ISO International Organization for Standardization kA Kiloampere (a thousand Amperes)

xvi

kHz Kilohertz LAN Local Area Networking m Meter (SI unit of length) M Mass (kg) SI units MAN Metropolitan Area Network MBS Mobile Broadband Services MetAids Meteorological Aids Service MetSat Meteorological Satellite Service MHz Mega Hertz (million Hertz) MMAC Multimedia Mobile Access Communication System NCRP National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements Ni Nickel PCS Personal Communications Services RAS Radio Astronomy Service RF Radio Frequency RFI Radio Frequency Interference RFID Radio Frequency Identification RFR Radio Frequency Radiation SCC Standards Council of Canada SOS Space Operation Service SRS Space Research Service t Time (second) SI units USB Universal Serial Bus UWB Ultra-Wideband V Volt Wi-Fi Local Area Wireless technology WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access WLAN Wireless Local Area Networking ZigBee IEEE 802.15.4-based specification for a suite of high-level communication

protocols used to create small personal area networks

xvii

Epigraph

Experimental science is continually revealing to our new features of natural processes and we are thus compelled to search for new forms of thought appropriate to these features.

J.C. Maxwell (1831-1879)

1

Chapter One: Introduction

Context

WLAN (Wireless Local Area Networking) has become a significant technology that delivers

Internet service to both residential and commercial buildings. The Internet fosters low-cost

wireless technologies that provide global access anytime (Kwok, Y.; Lau 2007). The widespread

accessibility of Internet has led to the need to address issues of functionality, sustainability, and

usability in the building environment. While many researchers are focusing on surveying the

energy efficiency of buildings, little attention has been paid to EMW (Electromagnetic Wave)

propagation, its relationship to building design before construction, and in particular the

exploration of EMW propagation issues during design phases (Hens 2008).

Conventional WLAN allows for accessibility according to technical specifications and

interface design; however, it remains to be seen how far building materials are integrated into

conventional WLAN design, and where the conflicts might arise between electromagnetic power

spectral densities and the functionality of WLAN in a specific space.

EMW propagation (radiation) needs to be included in the definition of “green building”

because this invisible effect causes an impact on the quality of the indoor environment. To define

the meaning of green buildings; Cynamon argues, "They are created to provide healthy and

productive indoor environments for their occupants," as well as be energy efficient and have good

indoor air quality (Cynamon 1996). Moreover, he suggests that the goals should be defined in the

design phase before executing the construction. Bioelectromagnetics is a field of study that

considers the health impacts of electromagnetic radiation on humans (Kato 2006). Environmental

sensitivities such as fatigue, pain, and headaches are a concern in the building environment and

need to be accounted for in EMW propagation (Margaret 2007).

2

History

EMW spectrum conceptualizes the link between light, electricity, and magnetism. Infrared

light, the first "invisible" form of electromagnetic radiation, was discovered by British scientist

and astronomer Sir William Herschel (Barr 1961), and ultraviolet radiation, the end of the visible

light spectrum, was discovered by Wilhelm Ritter. Ritter was investigating the energy relation of

visible light that has various colors when he discovered another invisible form of light that is

beyond the blue end of the spectrum (Frercks, Weber, and Wiesenfeldt 2009). Moreover, in 1820,

Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted linked electricity and magnetism. Ørsted discovered that

electrical current flowing through a wire could deflect a compass needle (Wilson 2008). In

addition, French scientist André-Marie Ampère’s demonstration that electrical currents passing

through two wires could attract or repel each other showed strong evidence that electricity and

magnetism are closely related (Dibner 1984). Consequently, in 1865, Scottish scientist James

Clerk Maxwell managed to explain, mathematically, his unification of a single theory that clarifies

the relationship between electricity and magnetism. They act together as electromagnetism that

demonstrates their bond. Maxwell discovered that alternating current produces waves and radiates

out into space at the speed of light. These observations concluded that visible light is a form of

electromagnetic radiation (Reid, Wang, and Thompson 2008). The basic definition of the EMW

can be explained as oscillating field vectors, both electric (E) and magnetic (H), that are oriented

at right angles to each other; a wave propagates or, in other words, continues its journey in the

same way. It also transports energy from the radiation source to an unspecified final destination

(Hakgudener 2007).

3

Literature Review

This general literature review provides some key concepts (EMW and frequency relation,

Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC), Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)) for the study and

detailed information about conventional building materials and the wireless communication

performance correlation by previously executed lab experiments. Portions of Chapter one has been

published in:

1. Procedia Engineering 118: 109–119 “Spatial Design for Healthy and Effective

Electromagnetic Wave Propagation.”1

2. Council of Higher Education Theses Center of Turkey “Future of WLAN and the

Influences to the Architectural Forms and Design.”2

1.3.1 EMW and Frequency

EMWs pass through buildings, depending on the frequency. The intended function of a

building, such as hospitals, apartments, schools, and military facilities, become significant in terms

of their requirements for propagation. Each building has different propagation demands. For

instance, high secure military buildings require total security, which entails a full exterior sealing.

Thus, hospitals, residential buildings, and schools need a variety of different design solutions to

have efficient EMW shielding and healthy indoor environments. In architecture, healthy indoor

environments can be created by reducing energy consumption, minimizing environmental impact

1 (Hakgudener 2015), http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1877705815020640. 2 (Hakgudener 2007), https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/TezGoster?key=7d53ed97e31a8bd3aa6864b0e7704416eae44e48141d7a55b82c08696ffae08b44f75cea77711c76

4

by promoting the use of recyclable building materials (Fairs 2009). In addition, a healthy EMW

propagation concept should be considered in architecture because of public health concerns and

security.

1.3.2 EMW Phenomena and Harmonious Environments for Electronic Devices

All electric devices can emit electromagnetic wave radiation and many environments have high

levels of electromagnetic radiation due to a concentration of transmitting devices. During their

operation, even if their function is not to radiate, these devices generate leakage of electromagnetic

radiation. Unwanted radiation from sources such as these can interfere with the operation of many

electrical equipment. Source, transmission path, and receiver are the combination factors of an

EMI problem. Hussein (1996) classifies EMI into two classes; an intrasystem problem, for which

the EMI may come from within the system. The second class of EMI is the intersystem problem,

which may come from outside causes and applications such as radio transmitters, microwave relay,

air craft, radar transmitters, power lines and generators, and lightning strokes. (Hussein and Sebak

1996).

An example of EMI affecting certain equipment occurs in hospitals. In a hospital environment,

potential EMI emitting sources might be walkie-talkies, cellular phones, Bluetooth devices,

wireless local area networking, medical telemetry, radiology equipment, electrocautery

equipment, fluorescent lights, fire alarms, computers, printers and radio frequency identification

devices. The earliest EMI problems in hospitals reported in the 90s, caused by cell phones, which

were the main concern because of the high output levels in early models. Close range interactions,

less than two meters, interfered with infusion pumps, infant incubator heaters, electric wheelchairs,

and ventilators (Lapinsky and Easty 2006). According to an extensive study carried out in 2004,

5

at Massachusetts General Hospital, cellular phones caused malfunctioning in operational

mechanical ventilators (C. I. Shaw et al. 2004). Another example from the Healthcare Industry is

RFID (Radio Frequency Identification), which caused potentially hazardous incidents in critical

care medical equipment tubes (Togt and Lieshout 2008). Even if we do not pay attention to RFID

technology, it is all around us, such as security access cards, electronic toll collection, and antitheft

clips in retail clothing. RFID technology has also become an important element in healthcare, used

to ensure patient safety, and to track medical equipment and devices. The potential of RFID

applications in the Healthcare Industry is undeniable. For instance, intelligently designed drug

packs could prevent drug counterfeiting or RFID could help monitor the quality of blood products.

Moreover, specially designed RFID microchips could be incorporated into surgical sponges,

endoscopic capsules, and endotracheal. Visualizing this variety of RFID and other electronic

equipment in a hospital space suggests potential unintended EMW disturbances. Heavily equipped

healthcare environments could create potential EMI in the hospital but also create high power

intensity levels. According to Togt and Lieshout’s study, RFID caused 34 EMI incidents; 22 were

classified as hazardous, two as significant, and 10 as light. To prevent EMI in RFID applications,

EMI filters can be used in problematic environments (“Electromagnetic Interference (Emi) Filter

and Process for Providing Electromagnetic Compatibility of an Electronic Device While in the

Presence of an Electromagnetic Emitter Operating at the Same Frequency” 2002).

Recent studies also address that EMI is still a potential problem in hospital environments.

Luca and Salceanu (2012) conduct a study in an intensive care unit. Their first phase of study was

to map power intensity levels in the room. Their measurements were subject to Infusion Pump B/

Braun, Acutronic Fabian conventional ventilation type, Dash 2500 Vital Care Monitor, Neonatal

Isolette Incubator Type C-2000 and EEG brain monitor type BRAINTZ 3. There was also

6

additional equipment such as; a ventilation system, a video camera, electric photocell of the sink,

a console with electrical outlets and sources of oxygen, medical air and vacuum. Their

measurements showed the flux density reached up 100 V/m, which is higher than Canadas`

threshold (Table 2.), when the medical devices were turned on. They also assessed the overall flux

density in the patients` head location. Thus, the flowing Table shows the test results.

Type of Medical Device Results The infusion pumps type B/Braun Series: 83033, 83040, 83018, 83044

There were changes in the rate of infusion, three of four devices at a maximum volume administrated, variations ranging from 0.41 ml and 1.2 ml.

Ventilator- Fabian Plus Serial Number: 02-0404

There were changes in Tidal Air Volume with a variation between 35 ml and 54 ml per distance from the source.

Cardio monitor (Vital Functions Parameters Monitor) Dash 2500, which was attached an oxygen saturation sensor SpO2 and ECG electrodes

No major changes were observed in ECG signal.

Neonatal Isolette Incubator C-2000 Serial Number: TW12218 and QT17756

Small deviations (2% - 5%) were observed in humidity and air temperature inside the incubator. However, for a newborn, 0.5-degree variation of humidity and temperature might be significant.

EEG brain monitor BRAINTZ type 3 Significant changes in EEG in both hemispheres of the brain, at a short distance from the source.

Table 1. EMI study results in an intensive care unit (Adapted from (Luca and Salceanu 2012))

Therefore, intensive care unit environment shows a potential EMI and health impact. To

minimize the risk, keeping a safe distance from the EMF sources is suggested. However, the

patients are located close by to the equipment. The initial suggestion would be regular monitoring

of flux densities in these spaces, developing local policies per medical devices in use and careful

interior design planning.

In some cases, wireless local area network causes EMI problems in hospital environment. For

instance, a patient, who had experienced a prior myocardial infarction, participated in the cardiac

rehabilitation program in the sports medicine center at Sungkyunkwan University (Chung, Yi, and

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Park 2013). After the installation of wireless networking, ECG monitoring system failed to show

a proper ECG signal. Therefore, ECG signal was distorted when WLAN was turned on, but it was

normalized after turning off the WLAN. Therefore, the initial suggestion may be the adjustment

of wireless frequency bands and medical apparatus should be carefully monitored.

Most new commercial buildings have a building automation system (BAS). The purposes of

BAS are to control mechanical and lighting systems in a building. This control provides energy

efficiency, low maintenance costs, and a healthier environment for its occupants. To create

wireless communication inside the building, IEEE 802.15.4 and ZigBee 3 standards have been

implemented. IEEE 802.15.4 standard uses both the 900 MHz ISM band and the 2.4 GHz ISM

band. Considering many other devices, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, and wireless USB, use

this frequency range, the building environment has a potential EMI issue. Moreover, a microwave

oven also operates in the 2.4 GHz frequency range. To determine the results of BAS and the

interactions of other electronic components in a building environment, Guo et al. (2010) developed

a set of measurements to understand the EMI effect of Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and microwave ovens.

These researchers deployed interference sources in the same office environment and observed the

negligible effect of Bluetooth. However, Wi-Fi and ZigBee channels overlapped. Therefore, they

recommend a non-overlapping channel and four-meter distance between Wi-Fi and ZigBee

receivers and a two-metre distance from a microwave oven, which had the most significant impact

on the system (Guo, Healy, and Zhou 2012). There is rigorous study to reduce EMI in BAS

systems. For instance, in their study, Kumar and Hancke (2014) designed an energy-efficient smart

comfort sensing system based on the IEEE 1451 standard for Green Buildings. The system has

been designed to monitor and control the thermal comfort and indoor air comfort parameters such

as humidity, temperature, CO and CO₂ in real time. Their electrochemical sensor provides better

8

performance in compared to semiconductor sensor and EMI and RFI noises in electrochemical

sensor were improved (Kumar and Hancke 2014).

Natural EMI sources such as lightning also have a big impact on electronic devices in building

environments. Lightning can strike the structure’s protection system and produce radiated

electromagnetic disturbances. The influence of the electromagnetic field might be direct or

indirect. Indirect fields affect power supply lines and signal lines, which are directly connected to

the devices. During a natural strike, the lightning current can reach several hundred kA. The current

may flow in different directions through conducting elements in the building, such as rebar grids

and aluminum window frames (Sowa 1991).

So, the question is “How can we decrease EMI?” There are two methods that can be applied

in such cases: shielding of a space and grounding the shield material. The shielding technique uses

a conductor to surround sensitive portions of equipment or system. If there is any gap between

shielding materials, it might cause leakage and a low shielding performance in the space. This

method is a good alternative solution especially in building environments. Furthermore, an

effective building envelope can be developed and applied to prevent external disturbances in

indoor spaces.

Therefore, building codes can be developed and executed either during the construction or

during the renovation process to minimize EMI problems.

In addition to these suggestions, Hanada’s investigation of EMI in hospital environments made

several recommendations that can be implemented in the other types of buildings. Hanada and his

colleagues summarize the causes of EMI. The first point is the high radiation exposure from

external sources, such as microwave relay telephone systems, radio/TV broadcasting, and a radar

that was assumed to be at far-field zone to the hospital. However, the study does not provide any

9

specific data regarding the distance of radiation sources. The maximum electric field strength level

was 200 V/m. According to Safety Code 6 (Canada), far-field zone is defined as “The space beyond

an imaginary boundary around an antenna, where the angular field distribution begins to be

essentially independent of the distance from the antenna. In the far-field zone of an electromagnetic

source, electric field strength, magnetic field strength and power density are interrelated by simple

mathematical expressions, where any one of these parameters defines the remaining two. In the

near-field zone, both the unperturbed electric- and magnetic-field strengths shall be measured.”

The following table shows reference levels for electric field strength (V/m), reference period

(minutes) for uncontrolled environments (far-field zone) in Canada. In Safety Code 6, controlled

environment is defined as “An area where the RF field intensities have been adequately

characterized by means of measurement or calculation and exposure is incurred by persons who

are: aware of the potential for RF field exposure, cognizant of the intensity of the RF fields in their

environment, aware of the potential health risks associated with RF field exposure and able to

control their risk using mitigation strategies.” And uncontrolled environment defined as “An area

where any of the criteria defining the controlled environment are not met.” To assess Hanada’s

investigation, 200 V/m electric field strength can be compared with uncontrolled environment RF

exposure limits. The following table illustrates uncontrolled RF exposure limits (far-field zone) in

Canada.

10

Frequency (MHz) Uncontrolled Environment Electric Field Strength (E),

(V/m, RMS (root mean square))

Reference Period (minutes)

10-20 27.46 6

20-48 58.07 / 𝑓𝑓0.25 6

48-300 22.06 6

300-6000 3.142 x 𝑓𝑓0.3417 6

6000-15000 61.4 6

15000-150000 61.4 616000 / 𝑓𝑓1.2

150000-300000 0.158 x 𝑓𝑓0.5 616000 / 𝑓𝑓1.2

Table 2. Maximum RF exposure limits for uncontrolled environments (far-field zone) in Canada, adopted from Safety Code 6. Frequency, f, is in MHz, (Health Canada 2015).

Regarding Hanada’s investigation, the measured value is not just a concern for EMI but is

also a significant risk to human health (Kosatsky et al. 2013). Their second point is the building’s

structure analysis. The researchers conceptualize the potential magnetic flux density at welding

points in the hospital and speculated about the effect of magnetization on these points. According

to their measurements, the maximum density was 200 μT (2 G). The result was caused by the

electromagnetic interference with the CRT of electronic medical equipment. The third point is the

investigation of the induction power feeder (IPF). The measured intensity within one meter was

high enough to interfere with medical equipment. The fourth point is the electromagnetic shielding

capacity of the hospital walls. They emphasized that reinforced concrete walls have a higher

shielding capacity than hollow brick partition walls. Their fifth point is related to commercial

electromagnetic shielding materials. They implemented shielding fabrics, mesh, and metal spray

on plywood boards. Above 1 GHz frequency, the mesh failed to perform as a shield. It needs to be

11

noted that there are different types and sizes of shielding meshes, which are covered in Chapter 4.

Moreover, Hanada does not specify the mesh size in his study, which makes it hard to assess the

performance of the mesh against the EMW propagation. On the other hand, the shielding cloth and

metal sprayed plywood performed well, preventing EMI. Their sixth point is anechoic chamber

observations and they found that the medical equipment with metal casing showed higher

performance if the power cord is not connected to the device. As it is expected, medical devices

with plastic casing showed low immunity to EMI; syringe pumps and infusion pumps were also

vulnerable to EMI. The seventh point in the Hanada`s study was to evaluate Bluetooth cellular

phone headsets in surgical operation rooms, which was shown to have no significant effect. The

last investigation studied a cordless phone system. There was also no impact in the surgical room

when the personal phone system was in the space.

Consequently, the researchers made the following suggestions to prevent EMI in hospital

environments:

• If the site survey in a building shows high power intensity levels, shielding materials need

to be applied to the walls.

• To reduce magnetic flux in the building, welding points need to be shielded.

• If a higher electric field is observed around electric motor systems, medical equipment

needs to be placed in a different location where levels are lower.

• To provide immunity to EMI, some medical equipment needs to be covered by a protective

wire mesh.

• Screening devices can be located at entrance gates to prevent cellular phone access to

hospital buildings (Hanada, Takano, and Antoku 2002).

12

Hanada’s research stresses that the EMI problem is not just restricted to hospital buildings but

also the other structures, such as residential and commercial buildings. Regarding architectural

practice, it is suggested that covering welding points in a structure is impractical for constructed

building environments. For instance, rebar grids act like a skeleton in concrete buildings with the

main purpose of providing structural integrity. When a floor or a column is constructed on site, the

first step is to build rebar grids and then concrete is poured into this frame. To maintain structural

integrity, these rebar grid intersections are welded or are stabilized by wires. In a building, the

amount of these rebar intersections can reach hundreds of thousands (ARC National Office 2008).

The surface area of reinforced concrete slabs, floors, columns, and beams can reach thousands of

square meters. Assuming all grid intersections are welded, the solution to prevent high power

spectral densities might be to access the most available points and create a ground connection.

However, it does not shield a variety of EM waves because EM waves have different frequencies

and different wavelengths. The other suggestions from Hanada’s study is to use shielding

materials, control the cell phone access, and apply protective nets to medical equipment in hospital

environments.

1.3.2.1 The importance of Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

Kodali defines Electromagnetic Compatibility as “The ability of a receptor (a device, or an

equipment, or a system) to function satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment without at

the same time introducing intolerable electromagnetic disturbances to any other device/

equipment/system in that environment is called electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)” (Kodali

2001). Thus, the diversity of electronic circuits to use for communication, automation,

computation, and other purposes creates complex EMW propagation environments. Moreover, the

13

developments of the circuit technology and the size of the electronic equipment would allow a

several gadgets to fit in a small space, which also creates a challenge to maintain EMC. It seems

like the development of our technology would make this challenge even more complicated in the

near future. Moreover, the demand for faster and smaller personal computers over 1 GHz clock

speeds could also foster EMI issues.

Taking a circuit out from the lab to a real-time environment creates a challenge for the

engineers. In other words, engineers need to design their equipment to be compatible with other

circuits because, in the real world, they operate close to each other. Therefore, the equipment

should not be a source of electromagnetic noise and, at the same time, it should not be affected by

other equipment nearby. So, EMC is a major design objective for engineers (Ott 2009). According

to Ott, good EMC design requires collaboration and communication between the systems engineer,

the electrical engineer, the mechanical engineer, the EMC engineer, the software/ firmware

designer, and the printed circuit board designer. In our case, to provide healthy and effective

electromagnetic wave propagation in building environments, this collaboration also needs to be

fostered between engineers and building design professionals.

The importance of EMC has been taken into account in many countries, and standardization

has been made by the SCC (Standards Council of Canada) (“Standards Council of Canada -

Conseil Canadien Des Normes” 2014); the FCC (Federal Communications Commission) for the

United States (“Home | FCC.gov” 2014); the CEN (European Committee for Standardization)

(“European Committee for Standardization” 2014); the CENELEC (European Committee for

Electrotechnical Standardization) (“European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization”

2014) and ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) (“ETSI - European

Telecommunications Standards Institute” 2014); and, for Britain, the BSI (“British Standards

14

Institution - BSI | IHS” 2014). Moreover, the most important international organization for EMC

regulation, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), has several committees working

full-time on EMC issues (“IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission” 2014).

1.3.3 Wireless Communication Systems and Networking

Current wireless communication systems include cellular telephone systems, cordless phones,

wireless LANs, wide-area wireless data services, fixed wireless access, paging systems, satellite

networks, Bluetooth, HomeRF and remote sensor networks. These many systems require well-

designed spectrum allocation. In most countries, governments allocate and control the use of the

radio spectrum. For instance, in the US, the Federal Communications Commission decides the

spectrum allocation between civil and military use. In Canada, Innovation, Science and Economic

Development Canada carries out that function (Government of Canada 2017b).

Most wireless applications operate in frequency ranges of 30 MHz to 30 GHz. This frequency

range brings performance advantages to wireless systems. For instance, signals are not affected by

the earth’s curvature and they can penetrate the ionosphere (Vagner 2004). The distributions of the

frequency band spectrum are divided into two parts, such as licensed and unlicensed bands.

For instance, in Canada, AM radio broadcasting uses the band from 525 to 1705 kHz and FM

radio services use those from 88 to 108 MHz. Moreover, television bands reside in the 54 to 72

MHz, 76 to 88 MHz, 174 to 216 MHz, and 470 to 806 MHz ranges and amateur operators use 52

MHz to 38 GHz for land mobile systems. Fixed systems (backhaul and fixed wireless access) in

Canada use some frequency bands such as 1800-1830 MHz, 3475-3650 MHz, 3650-3700 MHz

and 2305-2320 MHz. Finally, cellular services reside in the following band ranges:

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• cellular: 824-849 MHz/869-894 MHz

• personal communications services (PCS): 1850-1915 MHz/1930-1995 MHz

• advanced wireless services (AWS): 1710-1755 MHz/2110-2155 MHz, broadband radio

services (BRS): 2500-2690 MHz

• mobile broadband service (MBS): 698-764 MHz/776-794 MHz

• 1670-1675 MHz

Moreover, satellite systems use licensed frequencies in the Ku-Band (11-15 GHz), C-Band (3-

7 GHz) and Ka-Band (18-31 GHz). The other applications such as Space Sciences Services (EESS,

SRS, MetSat, SOS, MetAids, RAS), Aeronautical Services and Applications, Maritime Mobile

ServiceMaritime, and Radiodetermination reside between 52 MHz to 38 GHz (Canada 2010). The

remaining free space in the spectrum is dedicated to unlicensed spectrum users. For instance, the

following table shows unlicensed spectrum allocations in the US.

ISM Band I (Cordless phones, 1G WLANs) 902-928 MHz

ISM Band II (Bluetooth, 802.11b WLANs) 2.4-2.4835 GHz

ISM Band III (Wireless PBX) 5.725-5.85 GHz

NII Band I (Indoor systems, 802.11a WLANs) 5.15-5.25 GHz

NII Band II (short outdoor and campus applications) 5.25-5.35 GHz

NII Band III (long outdoor and point-to-point links) 5.725-5.825 GHz

Table 3: Unlicensed spectrum allocations in the US (Goldsmith 2004).

Canada also uses same unlicensed spectrum allocations for cordless phones, Bluetooth,

wireless PBX, Indoor systems, 802.11a WLANs, short outdoor and campus applications, long

outdoor and point-to-point links (Government of Canada 2018a).

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Wireless networking developments started in the early 1990s. The use of wireless systems and

the integration of the Internet have fostered market growth for WLAN during the last decade

(Cooklev 2004), (LaMaire et al. 1996), resulting in low-cost 802.11b and 802.11g standards

stability, and 2.4 GHz frequency for higher data transfer rates. The data transfer between two or

more digital devices, such as computers, set up the structure of WLAN. This type of networking

system has been employed for the purposes of education, private use, national use, or public use.

In addition, WLAN has all the features of LAN (Local Area Networking) that uses a cable to

connect between devices. WLAN also provides broadband Internet access, which means users

have a gateway for e-mails or shared folders options (Rodriguez and Campolargo 2011). The other

benefit of WLAN is its efficiency in open spaces such as parks and streets. There are two standard

WLAN technologies: US-based IEE 802.11 xx and European based HiperLAN (Doufexi et al.,

2002). The Japanese-based MMAC (Multimedia Mobile Access Communication System) is

another alternative to WLAN. Unfortunately, MMAC systems use between 3-60 GHz frequency

band and are not compatible with European standards (Ohmori, Yamao, and Nakajima 2000).

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) defines the most common standards

worldwide. IEEE 802.11 works with a 2.4 GHz frequency. Its max capable data-transfer limit is 2

Mbps by using FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) and DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread

Spectrum). The purpose of this protocol is to keep the current LAN systems well organized and

make adaptations to WLAN. After the successful achievements of these studies, IEEE published

new WLAN protocols, such as 802.11 xs. These protocol developments still continue to provide

better service. IEEE 802.11b works with 2.4 GHz frequency and is commonly used worldwide and

is capable of transferring data up to 11 Mbps. Currently, the 802.11g protocol works with the same

frequency mentioned above. Its limitation is up to 54 Mbps data rate but it is still very popular in

17

the market (Carcelle, Dang, and Devic 2006). Another protocol is HiperLAN (High-Performance

Radio LAN), which was developed in Europe and is a different standard of WLAN. There are two

types of HiperLAN that work with a 5 GHz frequency: HiperLAN1 and HiperLAN2. They have

some similarities with 802.11 in terms of speed and capacity. Moreover, HiperLAN uses ATM

technology, which provides better service quality (Pahlavad, Zahedi, and Krishnamurthy 1997).

Thus, HiperLAN might be considered a better alternative to WLAN. Unfortunately, it is not as

common as WLAN. To be able to transfer data, WLAN provides users some options, such as RF

(Radio Frequency) and infrared. They both have advantages and disadvantages; making the right

choice affects the efficiency of the system. Coverage and speed are two main factors for a network.

In application, RF is more common because of high-speed data transfer and passes through

physical barriers. Another new approach is WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave

Access). It has been approved as IEEE 802.16 wireless metropolitan area network (MAN) standard

for broadband wireless access. WiMAX has a real wireless fidelity with connectivity up to several

kilometers as opposed to a couple hundred meters for 802.11a/b/g. IEEE 802.11g looks at even

faster standards, such as 802.11n (Ghosh and Wolter 2005). As mentioned above, 802.11g runs at

rates up to 54Mbps, which is more than adequate for most Wi-Fi users. Even if these users do not

notice the difference between 50Mbps and 320Mbps, many applications run better at higher

speeds. Ultra-wideband (UWB) is another alternative to Bluetooth technology, but it is 100 times

faster than Bluetooth. UWB transmits data at high speeds over short distances. Thus, UWB is an

appropriate choice for the home market. The UWB standard works across a wide range of

frequencies as opposed to most others. However, the main concern with UWB is interference

problems with other networking and consumer electronic technologies, which are assigned a

narrow band of spectrum. Despite these concerns, UWB product development is moving forward

18

in the home networking market due to its fast transmission rates (Chong, Watanabe, and Inamura

2006).

Another alternative for Wi-Fi networks is power line communications, which carry data using

a conductor used for electric power transmission. Consumers can create their own networking

using two sets of adapters. These adaptors plug into wall outlets and they are connected to a router

by cabling. Additional adapters could be plugged and connected to different equipment such as

Blue-ray player, game console, laptop and so on (“What Is Powerline – Simple to Set Up, Faster-

than-Wi-Fi Home Network - Feature - PC Advisor” 2016). Powerline adapters seem like a good

solution to overcome wireless performance issues in building environments; however, there are

some disadvantages. For instance, adaptors need to be connected to the same circuit. In this case,

powerline technology would not work through the whole house. European wiring design requires

a junction box for each room. The box provides the power through the outlets in the same room.

This wiring strategy is critical for addressing malfunction in both outlets and switches. In North

America, instead of using junction boxes for each space, a wire is connected directly to a breaker.

Current wiring design in residential houses do not allow power line adapters to be connected in

different floors. Thus, powerline adapters do not provide effective solution of existing dwellings.

Another problem is interference between household devices and the adapters. Other electrical

equipment creates noise into the wires resulting low performance for plug-in wireless adaptors

nearby. Therefore, power line plug in adaptors are not the ideal solution to create effective wireless

communications. Ethernet cabling and Wi-Fi repeaters for each space is the most consumer-

oriented solution so far to maintain effective wireless communication.

Li-Fi (Light Fidelity) is high speed bi-directional networked and mobile communication of

data using light. To create a wireless network, Li-Fi uses multiple light bulbs and provides better

19

performance than Wi-Fi using the light spectrum. It modulates the intensity of light. A photo

sensitive detector demodulates the light signal into electronic form and this modulation is not

perceptible to the human eye (“Home - pureLiFi” 2018).

It can be assumed that Li-Fi, WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)

and Ultra-wideband (UWB) will compete with each other in the near future over control of the

WLAN market.

1.3.4 Data Security for Wireless Devices

The integrated existence of wireless devices in our lives today, and global mobile devices and

connections in 2016 grew to 8.0 billion, up from 7.6 billion in 2015 (Cisco 2017) and raise

questions and concerns regarding security issues in wireless networks such as 802.11x, 802.16x,

and CDMA2000. Even though specially designed military and corporate structures exist that can

effectively shield against wireless network attacks, there is currently no motivation in the

construction industry to develop comparable EMW shielding strategies. This is surprising given

that almost all buildings are vulnerable to wireless networking attacks. Once the security network

is breached, the attacker can have access to the network of government, corporate, commercial and

residential wireless infrastructures. These types of attacks are generally associated with

BLACKHAT communities, otherwise known as hackers (“Black Hat: Top 20 Hack-Attack Tools

| Network World” 2015); these attacks create enormous recovery cost for asset owners. For

instance;

• The biggest loss of credit-card data in history was compromised by a Wireless local area

networking (LAN) attack. Hackers stole 45 million customer records from the parent

company of TJ Maxx in the second half of 2005 and through 2006. Hackers compromised

WEP encryption protocol used to transmit data between price checking devices, cash

20

registers, and computers at a store in Minnesota and analysts have estimated the breach

will cost the company approximately $1billion (Espiner 2007).

• Brian Salcedo, a young hacker, connected to Lowe’s Wi-Fi network from the parking lot

of the Southfield store. Brain Salcedo and his roommate Adam Botbyl used the wireless

network to route through the company's corporate data center in North Carolina and

connect to the local networks at stores in Kansas, North Carolina, Kentucky, South Dakota,

Florida, and two stores in California. Botbyl and Salcedo modified a proprietary piece of

software called "tcpcredit" that Lowe's uses to process credit card transactions, building in

a virtual wiretap that would store customer's credit card numbers where the hackers could

retrieve them later (Poulsen 2004).

These numbers above indicate the level of threat and loss. Adding a physical layer of security

in terms of EMW shielding would solve this type of attacks. According to International Standards

Organization (ISO), Open System Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking framework

to implement protocols in seven layers (ISO 1996). The physical layer, OSI layer one, is the first

line of defense against wireless attacks (Beal 2017). Regardless of the attackers’ sophisticated

software tools, a physical shielding barrier would not allow leakage and keep control of EMW

propagation within the structure.

According to a study conducted by the Wireless System Research Laboratory, 62% (1,426) of

2300 residential wireless networks in the state of Massachusetts had no security measures at all.

Similarly, 47% of business networks – including high-tech companies, financial institutions, and

banks – used no security whatsoever to protect their infrastructure. These numbers show the

21

potential for wireless networking attacks given how easily attackers can access these networks

(Osorio 2008).

To protect their internal resources, many organizations purchase and install a hardware

firewall, believing this method of security to be sufficient to prevent unauthorized access and use

of wireless infrastructure. According to Rbaugh, the 802.11 standard provides only limited support

for confidentially through the Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) protocol due to its significant

implementation design flaws. For instance, key management and authentication mechanisms

create poor encryption. Therefore, many organizations have tried to solve this issue by using fixed

cryptographic variables or keys, or by avoiding encryption altogether (Rbaugh et al. 2002). WEP

and RC4 have been tried to fortify the cryptography but they have weak encryption algorithms and

therefore make little difference to the overall security of these networks. Indeed, Fluhrer, Mantin

and Shamir (2001) validated that WEP and RC4 are completely insecure in a common mode of

operation (Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir 2001). It is likely that organizations choose RC4 (designed

by Ron Rivest in 1987) because it is the most widely used stream cipher in software applications.

Another network security weakness was proven by Bellardo and Savage (2003) when they

examined the 802.11 MAC layer and found a few vulnerabilities. They found that MAC layers do

not include any mechanism for verifying the correctness of the self-reported MAC address, which

leads to several distinct vulnerabilities (Bellardo and Savage 2003). Moreover, similar

vulnerabilities have been identified in newer protocols such as WPA, 802.16, and CDMA2000

(Borisov, Goldberg, and Wagner 2001).

WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) is the most basic form of encryption and is the easiest to

crack. Even if it has major vulnerability issues, people still widely use this encryption (Tews,

Weinmann, and Pyshkin 2007). Wigle.net is a website where individuals submit both the location

22

and properties of wireless networks from around the world (“WiGLE: Wireless Network

Mapping” 2015). According to WIGLE, at the end of October 2015, there are 214.5 million Wi-

Fi networks in the world. Regarding the number of people who use the encryption:

• 19,000,747 (8.76%) do not use any type of encryption

• 27,505,905 (12.68%) use WEP

• 20,449,385 (9.43%) use WPA

• 109,631,508 (50.54%) use WPA2

• 40,732,117 (18.78%) is unknown

It is clear that WEP encryption is still widely used in the world. In Canada, among 5,198,488

people:

• 617,695 do not use any type of encryption,

• 1,168,887 (22.5%) use WEP

• 2,721,611 use WPA and WPA2

• 690,295 is unknown

34% of total, WEP and no type of encryption rate, also assert the potential security vulnerability

of these networks.

Drones are a new approach to hacking wireless networks, and this innovative method of cyber

hacking could change the game between hackers and cyber security professionals. These drones

could easily hover over your roof any time and could easily collect sensitive data. To test this

method, a drone called "Snoopy” was used in the skies of London, and collected wireless

networking data (“SensePost | Snoopy: A Distributed Tracking and Profiling Framework” 2015).

The project was first introduced at 2012, 44Con IT security conference in London (“44CON”

23

2015) and findings were also shared at the Black Hat Asia cybersecurity conference in March 2014

(“Black Hat Asia 2014” 2015). During the conference, developer Glenn Wilkinson used Snoopy

and collected smartphone information from hundreds of Black Hat attendees (“Data-Stealing

Snoopy Drone Unveiled at Black Hat - BBC News” 2015). After collecting information, Glenn

Wilkinson presented his data, which includes all personal information of the attendees, and he

underlined that how effective the drone was. Snoopy works by gathering smartphone data using

unsecured Wi-Fi networks. Many of the smartphone users leave Wi-Fi on most of the time and the

phone send constant signals searching for the network. During this stage, Snoopy intercepts these

signals and uses as an entry point to gather valuable information from the user (“Snoopy Drone

Can Hack Your Smartphone When You’re on Street - Hacking News” 2015). During the

interception process, the user does not recognize anything. In just a couple of minutes, the drone

could collect all passwords, bank account information, and other personal details. This is a very

effective process for hackers to gather all the necessary information to steal the identity of the user.

When developers were testing the drone in London, in an hour the drone-collected data from 150

devices. They collected Amazon, PayPal and Yahoo user information (“Tech Times” 2015). The

threat could be on an even larger scale. Quite a large number of drones could be deployed at the

same time and could cover a large area. They could work simultaneously, and each drone could

upload its data to a central server. When the server obtains the data, the data might be used

anywhere and for any purpose. If the target is a specific individual, the drone can build a profile

of the user. With the support of geolocation services, the drone can also map the target’s Wi-Fi

networks. The potential of these type of attacks is limitless. So, security experts suggest turning

off the Wi-Fi connection when the user does not need it. It can temporarily prevent data leakage.

24

Van Eck, the first person, demonstrated electromagnetic eavesdropping of computer displays

in 1985. According to Kuhn (2004), modern flat-panel displays can be at least as vulnerable as

cathode-ray tubes. Nearby eavesdroppers can pick up such compromising emanations with

directional antennas and wideband receivers (Kuhn 2004).

We cannot totally avoid the technology we have developed so far. An effective solution can

be shielding spaces to prevent wireless attacks by maintaining data confidentiality (prevent

sensitive information from reaching the wrong people) and data integrity (maintaining the

consistency, accuracy, and trustworthiness of data) in our building environments (Rouse, Haughn,

and Gibilisco 2014).

1.3.4.1 Electromagnetic Warfare

The first recorded electromagnetic warfare actions date back to 1916. Sir Henry Jackson, the

admiral of the British fleet, used coastal radio direction finders to locate and observe the German

fleet. The use of such actions became widespread during World War II. Non-military applications

point to an even earlier decade. In 1901, Marconi and DeForest were contracted by the Associated

Press and the Publishers Press Association. They used wireless communication to report

international yacht races. Unfortunately, their race reports were intercepted and jammed by

Pickard of the American Wireless Telephone and Telegraph Company. This action was

accomplished by a simple continuous series of interfering dashes that also transmitted Pickard’s

coded reports (Golden, August 1987).

The basic principles of Electromagnetic Warfare could be divided into following sections as:

25

EM Compatibility (EMC); Emission Control (EMCON); spectrum management; EM deception,

hardening, pulse, interference, intrusion, and jamming; and electronic masking, probing,

reconnaissance, intelligence, security, and reprograming.

Some of these concepts, such as EM Compatibility, interference, and jamming, have been

covered in Section 1.3.2. EM deception involves radiation intended to provide misleading

information to the enemy or to electromagnetic dependent systems. EM hardening is the activities

to protect personnel, facilities, and systems by filtering, attenuating, and grounding against the

unintentional impact of EM radiation. EM intrusion is an intentional act to create confusion by

placing EM energy to transmission paths. The EM pulse is a strong EMW burst to disable electric

and electronic devices. Electronic masking is applied to protect the friendly radiation against

hostile actions. In other words, it is controlled radiation of EM energy with respect to the friendly

frequency ranges. Electronic probing is the deliberate radiation to gather information about hostile

devices and systems. Electronic reconnaissance is the act to detect, identified, locate, and evaluate

existing EM radiation. Electronic intelligence (ELINT) is the act to collect data from foreign

communication EM propagations. The intelligence act can gather information of a technical

nature, geolocation or both. Electronics security is intended to protect and deny unauthorized

access to sensitive data against interception or communications EM propagation. Electronic

reprogramming is an action intended to alter or modify target sensitive systems. These changes

could be done according to whether the activities are friendly or hostile. The goal of this action is

to sustain and promote the effectiveness of the devices, which includes defensive and offensive

weapons and intelligence data collection systems. Emission Control (EMCON) measures mutual

interference among friendly systems and intends to prohibit the detection of these systems by

enemy sensors. Spectrum Management is a planning, coordinating and managing act to create

26

harmonious EM environment among friendly systems (Kucukozyigit 2006). Creating safe and

healthy buildings in the urban environment could be implemented utilizing electromagnetic

warfare basic principles used to overcome challenges such as data security risks and adverse health

impacts related to high power spectral densities. For instance, Cuprotect Shielding systems are

used in a NATO military airbase in Italy and large scale industrial projects such as the nuclear

plant in Olkiluoto, Finland, Munich airport. The shielding system also surpasses the US

government military standard: MIL-STD 188-125 part 1 & 2 (Kessel 2013). These basic shielding

principles are implemented in many dwellings in Germany. Flux density (532.7 μW/cm²) from

Stuttgart airport radar has been reduced to 0.073 μW/cm² (-38.6 dB) in a residential house based

on a shielding concept with different shielding components such as copper wire mesh and

shielding film (Kessel 2017).

1.3.5 The Power Density Levels and Potential Health Impact on Humans

Achieving a healthy indoor environment for occupants has always been a challenge among

designers due to physical indoor environmental parameters. The public concern now is how radio

frequency and microwave radiation impact human health, given that the body is continually

exposed to radio and television transmitters, mobile base stations, wireless networks and so on.

Several investigations of non-ionizing radiation, such as RFR (Radio Frequency Radiation) levels,

are investigated all over the world to resolve the safe levels of exposure on humans. Specific

guidelines and standards have been issued by the ANSI (American National Standards Institute),

the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), the ICNIRP (International

Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection), the NCRP (National Council on Radiation

protection and Measurements) and other organizations. These standards are expressed in terms of

27

power flux density as mW/cm². For instance, the 1992 ANSI/IEEE exposure standard for the

general public was set at 1200 µW/cm² with the antennas operating in the 1800-2000 MHz range

(IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 28 1999).

There have been large discrepancies in EMF exposure standards that are in effect throughout

the world (Foster 2001). These differences are apparent between Russia, North America and West

Europe. Moreover, recent adoption of precautionary limits of Switzerland, Italy and other EU

countries creates a complicated issue regarding the evaluation of EMF measurements. According

to Foster, these differences are large differences in perception of science and health protection.

The following table compares five different power density exposure limits at 2.0 GHz (similar

frequency range used by many cellular phones through the world).

Standard

Limit for public exposure to RF fields (2.0 GHz) for extended periods of exposure, µW/cm2 (power density applies to far-field exposure, extended duration)

ICNIRP (adopted in numerous countries worldwide) 1,000 U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Bulletin 65, “Evaluating Compliance with FCC Guidelines for Human Exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields”, Washington DC 1997. Generally, follows IEEE C95.1- 1999 with some modifications.

1,000

China UDC 614.898.5 GB 9175 –88 10

Russia Sanitary Norms and Regulations 2.2.4/2.1.8.055-96

10

Switzerland Ordinance on Protection from Non-ionising Radiation (NISV) of 23 December 1999

10

Table 4: Five different exposure limits for RF energy at 2.0 GHz (Limits for long-term and far-field exposure to the general public) (Foster 2001).

28

To evaluate power density levels in building environments, defining global exposure limits will

be beneficial for both the standardization of exposure limits around the world as well as the

Wireless Communication Industry.

Nowadays, RF measurement devices, such as the Acoustimeter (“Acoustimeter - EMFields

Measuring Equipment” 2014) or digital high-frequency analyzer HF59B (Solutions 2006), have

the technical capacity to calculate and measure power densities in an environment. The typical

measured average power densities of RF radiation can be seen in the table below.

RF Sources Frequencies Power Typical Average Power

Density Exposure

Mobile Phone GMS 850, 1900 MHz 0.3–3 W 1000 to 5000 µW/cm2

(at ear)

Microwave Oven 2450 MHz 400–1200 W 5000 µW/cm2 (at 5 cm)

Wi-Fi 2.4 GHz and 5.0 GHz less than 1.0 W (FCC)

less than SC 6 (HC)

0.001–20 µW/cm2

Max average RF exposure

level 0.232% of SC 6

limits

TV Broadcast VHF 54–216 MHz 470–698 10–100 kW 0.005–1.0 µW/cm2

TV Broadcast UHF 470–698 MHz 500–5000 kW 0.005–1.0 µW/cm2

Smart Meter at 1 m 902–928 MHz 88–108 0.25 W 0.0001–0.002 µW/cm2

FM

AM

88–108 MHz

535 kHz–1.7 MHz 10–

100

FM 33 kW

AM 50 kW

0.005 to 1 µW/cm2

500 µW/cm2

Table 5: RF source, frequency, power, and power density (Kosatsky et al. 2013).

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1.3.5.1.1 WLAN vs Other EMW Exposure

The first step to investigate the significance and potential health impact of WLAN, as

compared to other signals, requires focusing on WLAN architecture. Traditional wireless local

area networking is an infrastructure of Access Points (APs) that provide networking capabilities

in a specific area. Each AP serves independently to provide association, authentication, IP address

acquisition, and data exchange operations with the user. Dealing with hundreds of APs in a

university or commercial building network brings new challenges, such as configuration and

management (Jardosh et al. 2008). For instance, regarding Wi-Fi transmissions exposure to RF

electromagnetic fields in UK schools, personal exposure in the classroom could reach 1.66

µW/cm², when compared to the ICNIRP international guideline reference level of 1000 µW/cm²

(Khalid et al. 2011).

Obviously, this is only a fragment of the whole picture of EMW exposure. EMW exposure

sources such as mobile base stations, and radio transmitters (for instance, spot measurements of

10 randomly selected base stations) illustrate 0.0045 µW/cm² (rural) and 0.0002 µW/cm² (urban)

mean total electric field strength in Austria (Hutter et al. 2006). By comparison, in Switzerland,

AM radio transmitter field strength is measured as 0.083 µW/cm² (Altpeter et al. 2006). These

values are below the maximum allowed field strength limits such as 1000 µW/cm² (61.4 V/m) in

North America and 10 µW/cm² (6.14 V/m) in most EU countries. Khalid et al. (2011) surveys

indicate that personal exposure of WLAN could reach 1.66 µW/cm² (2.5 V/m). So, potential health

impact of WLAN is higher when compared to other RF radiation sources, such as cell phone masts

or radio transmitters, in Europe. On the other hand, it can be assumed that outdoor field strengths

reach higher values in North America when compared to Europe. Wi-Fi typical average power

density range is lower than Microwave Ovens and mobile phone exposure (Table 4). However,

30

Wi-Fi has higher levels than TV and FM/AM broadcasting (Kosatsky et al. 2013). These values

represent a single source. My research assumes that varieties of these RF sources develop higher

power intensity levels in a building environment (IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 28

1999).

Total understanding of the potential and significant health impacts requires the consideration

of multiple EMW signals and frequencies because we are exposed to the variety of EMW radiation

sources. Therefore, when a human being is exposed to multiple EMW signals, the sum value of

these signals creates a potential health impact because the value may exceed recommended country

health standard (Peatross and Ware 2014).

Discussion

The future of electronic devices, such as a new generation of mobile systems, is expected to

provide a wide variety of services. High voice quality, high video definition, and superior data

transmission rates will be demanded by users worldwide. To have sufficient broadband, high-

frequency bands are expected to be used. These bands include microwave, Ka-band, and

millimeter wave bands. The new generation of devices is not only cellular phones but also include

many types of communication systems such as broadband wireless access systems, millimeter-

wave LANs, intelligent transport systems, and high-altitude stratospheric platform station systems.

The expected transmission rate will reach Terabits per second in the near future. Therefore, the

development of new technology and the interaction between the old and new generation of

electronic devices will only further expand the use of EMI and EMC in building environments

(Moldovan et al. 2017).

31

Most countries have legal codes to discourage EMI on electrical hardware and these countries

continue to fix this issue (Kaur, Kakar, and Mandal 2011). Thus, building codes can be developed

and executed during either the construction or renovation process of the buildings to minimize

EMI problems. Another challenge is data security for wireless networks. All encryption can be

breached. WEP is the easiest protocol to be hacked in any wireless networking and it is widely

used all around the world. So, how could we protect our data in wireless networks? To minimize

this problem, the balanced approach would work on encryption, physical layer security, wireline

technologies in building environments. These solutions can reduce the possibility of the data from

being captured. If hackers could not get the data, they would not have something to work on.

Today’s government and military buildings require cutting edge technology and radical

solutions against sophisticated attacks, which includes Electromagnetic Warfare. In this case, these

buildings need to be sealed against EM radiation. The outcome is not just to reduce EMI issues

inside the structure but also to provide a healthy environment for the personnel.

Research Overview

There are a variety of challenges of pursuing this interdisciplinary study. For example, they

span distinct disciplines such as electronics engineering and architecture can be problematic

because architectural studies or approaches considered interesting or worthwhile may be

considered quite differently in engineering. Furthermore, criteria for acceptance appear to vary

between different disciplinary cultures (Turner and Carpenter 1999). Split ways to solve EMW

propagation problem in buildings that appear strongly driven by cross-disciplinary difference.

Development of wireless communication technologies and the integration into buildings drive the

need for healthy and effective electromagnetic wave propagation in building environments. This

32

interdisciplinary research assumes a much more prominent role that would be recognized as key

to developing innovative questions and overcoming limitations to intellectual progress in

architectural science.

Additionally, a limited amount of research has sought to conceptualize architectural design

option of EMW propagation in buildings and the topic has not propagated well through the

architectural community. Providing design guidelines would foster further research in this

interdisciplinary design approach.

1.5.1 Research Problem

EMW propagation issues require a different approach to engineering in building

environments. For instance, instead of adding more Access Points (APs) to improve WLAN

coverage and better performance, the answer could be found in changing building materials or

design geometry of the space. In other words, using appropriate design knowledge, architects and

engineers could make EMW propagation more efficient in the building environment. Currently,

the architecture profession is not greatly concerned with this issue. In fact, Internet and building

design have evolved simultaneously in the last decade; the relationship between EMW propagation

and construction remains a question, and an opportunity, for the Architecture profession.

Furthermore, to improve the thermal performance, some metallic coated materials such as; foil-

backed plasterboard (Saint-Gobain 2017), Low emissivity (Low E) (Hartig, Larson, and Lingle

1996) glazing are widely used in construction. However, their use can also affect the transmission

of wireless signals into and within buildings. Despite an engineer’s rigorous effort on designing

EMW devices, the growing use of metallic coated building materials would undermine wireless

performance in buildings. The increasing expectation of consumers is seamless coverage, both

33

indoors and outdoors. To meet this expectation, higher powers, more dense networks or both would

be implied by wireless network providers. In all cases, interference within and between networks

tend to increase. Spectrum planners are interested not only in the degree of penetration of EMW

into the buildings, but also in understanding the leakage from indoor devices that may cause

interference to neighbouring systems (Chandra, Kumar, and Chandra 1999). For instance, Wi-Fi

systems operating at 2.4 GHz could cause congestion in ‘smart metering’ of domestic electricity

and gas supplies (Ayoub et al. 2016). These problems can be minimized by intelligent radio

systems such as multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) (Larsson et al. 2014), beam forming (Gan

Quan and Li 2016), or “data-offload” (Vasudevan et al. 2013) to other networks (e.g. from cellular

to Wi-Fi). However, the type of building materials used in construction have an impact on current

and future wireless communication system performance (Kurner et al. 2007).

1.5.2 Hypothesis

Conventional construction methods neither improves wireless communication performance

nor prevent data confidentiality, and data integrity in building environments. The main hypotheses

of this research is that evaluating current power densities in building environments per legal limits

and analysis of transmission and reflection coefficients of building materials can provide

guidelines for design professionals. Furthermore, the design guidelines may better secure data

confidentiality from being compromised in transit (e.g. eavesdropping) and data integrity from

being compromised in transit (e.g. hacking) for wireless communication systems in building

environments. The design method also would prevent high power spectral densities that can harm

its occupant.

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1.5.3 Objectives, Purpose and Contributions

The study has been divided into six chapters to answer the following research questions:

1. Why do we need harmonious EMW environments for electronic devices?

2. How do building materials affect EMW propagation?

3. What does the impact of building materials have on health and EMW shielding?

4. How can building materials be used to control EMW to protect data confidentiality and

integrity in building environments?

5. What are the current power intensity levels in building environments and how do these

levels impact human health? (Case study in residential and the various locations in

Calgary.)

6. How does the EMW study of this theses can benefit architecture profession with regards

to better shielded, more secure and healthier buildings in the future?

The purpose of this study is to evaluate EMW propagation in the building environment, develop

basic guidelines for design professionals by understanding building material properties and

provide initial architectural design options to create healthy and effective electromagnetic power

spectral densities.

The major contributions of this dissertation can be summarized as follows:

1. Underlining the EMW shielding and conventional building materials relationship.

2. Characterizing the other options to improve data confidentiality and, data integrity for

wireless communication security.

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3. Exposing current electromagnetic power spectral densities in building environments and

addressing the potential adverse health impact for occupants.

4. Providing initial design guidelines to the architecture profession. These guidelines would

allow creating healthy, secure, and shielded effective electromagnetic wave in building

environments.

5. Assessing the role of emerging building materials and methods in addressed EMW

shielding.

1.5.4 Thesis Outline

This dissertation contains six chapters and the remaining chapters are as follows:

The second chapter provides information regarding building materials and wireless

communication performance.

The third chapter is a case study that investigates the power intensity levels and potential health

impact on humans in a building environment.

The fourth chapter provides basic guidelines for design professionals regarding how

construction materials can have an impact on wireless communication.

The fifth chapter analyzes how architectural spatial designs effect EMW propagation in

building environments.

The sixth chapter summarizes the presented work, answers the research questions posed above,

and describes the major contributions of this work. It summarizes conclusions based on the

empirical research and literature review. Moreover, the future goals and recommendations are

characterized.

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1.5.5 Methods

Two research methods were employed in this research, one in each study. The first study

explores current power density levels by conducting site surveys in building environments

(different locations in Calgary area). A data analyses approach has been taken to examine whether

power density levels are above or below the legal limits in Canada. The power density levels data

was also used for a comparison with the other countries thresholds. Furthermore, the data analyses

results were used to support a theoretical framework to study EMW shielding necessity of each

space in a building.

The second study examines the literature review data of building material responses against

EMW propagation. A condition-based analyses was employed to provide building design

guidelines for each specific building type. The results provide a new perspective for building

design from the point-of-view of EMW shielding in building environments.

1.5.6 Conclusion

This dissertation presents two distinct chapters address these gaps in the architecture literature,

and each includes a review of relevant literature as well as presentations of the study methods,

analyses, results, and potential directions for future study. Collectively, these two chapters

illustrate the overall power density levels in building environments and provide initial design

guidelines, supplement engineering solutions to create healthy and effective EMW propagation.

The current introductory chapter provides a literature review of the general concepts used in the

two studies. In addition, a research overview is presented of the chapter to outline the general

objective, purpose of pursuing this research, as well as highlighting the methods, and possible

outcomes.

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Chapter Two: Building Materials and Wireless Communication Performance

While propagating, EMW experience reflection, diffraction, scattering, and dispersion. Each

causes distortion in radio signals (Vagner 2004). For instance, reflection can be seen in metallic

surfaces such as aluminum facade, curtain walls, window frames, and furniture in building

environments. These surfaces act as an almost perfect reflector for electromagnetic waves.

However, signal strength can be reduced according to the thickness of the building material. For

instance, the signal from a cell phone mast often travels a variety of paths until it reaches its

destination. When these signals encounter an obstacle, scattering and diffraction occur; naturally,

the signal travels around the object. When a signal hits a surface, scattering occurs and remits in

different directions. All dielectric materials have some loss, which causes dispersion (Schmitt

2015). Lossy dielectric materials such as cement and pure water are good examples on which to

observe dispersion (Eccosorb, n.d.). So, in buildings, reflection, diffraction, scattering, and

dispersion are the common effects, which are not seen in free spaces where EM waves do not

interact with any material. On the other hand, propagation intensity decreases through walls, roofs,

and floors. In addition, corners foster multipath propagation and diffraction. These EM

propagation effects are almost unavoidable in today’s modern structures because of the use of

aluminum, steel columns, rebar grids, metal pipes, HVAC systems, and so on.

As an illustration, a room, PF 3165 in the Professional Faculties Building on the University

of Calgary campus, contains aluminum power/data line poles, metal bookshelves/lockers, and

aluminum window frames. Microwave antennas around the building, interior EMW sources, and

electronic devices create unintended high-power intensity levels. These unintended higher-power

intensity levels do not provide efficient wireless communication because these levels can cause

distortion. This type of distortion is caused by too much reflection, diffraction, scattering, and

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dispersion of the radiation. In our case, aluminum and steel, as building materials, have a diverse

performance effect on wireless communication because of their high reflective electromagnetic

properties (Li and Li 2012). The common satellite dish, which could be made of aluminum or light

steel, is a good example to show how electromagnetic waves reflect from metallic surfaces. The

curved shape of the dish reflects and focuses the electromagnetic waves towards the satellite’s

Low Noise Block (LNB) device to capture the reflected and concentrated signals.

Another example regarding the relation between EMW propagation and building material can

be demonstrated by a lab experiment. The sample office room modeling experiment indicates how

the building material and the room occupancy (furniture, living organisms, human, electronic

devices and so on.) interact with EMW propagation under controlled conditions. The experiment

occurred in the microwave and antennas laboratory at Yeditepe University Department of

Electrical & Electronics Engineering. To simulate a real-life environment, 1/5 scaled sample office

room (Fig.1) and furniture models were made. Using this scaled model required a 12 GHz (2.4x5)

frequency in the experiment to maintain the same wavelength of WLAN simulation.

Figure 1. Sample Office Room Experiment (Hakgudener 2007)

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Two different scenarios were applied: one involving a control (empty) room and one involving

an occupied room. EMW propagation behavior results for these scenarios can be seen in the

contour graphs below (Fig.2). In this experiment, the difference of potential is 6 V/m. The

following two graphs also indicate the hot spots (around 10 V/m) in the occupied room. When the

source (transmitter antenna) generates and transmits the radio wave to the object (furniture) via

transmission line (air), there are two possibilities of the object response. Firstly, the wave is

absorbed and or secondly, the wave is reflected (Aswoyo et al. 2003).

The higher values would be formed by two or more different reflected and scattered waves. In

physics, this phenomenon can be explained by the formation of standing waves (“Formation of

Standing Waves” 2014).

Figure 2. EMW Propagation Contour Graphs for an empty and an occupied room at the 2.4 GHz frequency (Hakgudener 2007)

The occupied room contains some metal furniture components, an aluminum-framed window,

and a coffee table. This accounts for the unexpected propagation (reflected and scattered waves)

in the EMW activity. Exterior/interior wireless communication sources, building envelope, wall

partitions, occupancy, and furniture all have an impact on EMW propagation behavior in the

building environment. In our case, these variables could cause distorted wireless signals and low

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WLAN performance. Therefore, design professionals (interior designers/ architects) can

manipulate EMW propagation behaviour just changing the layout of the space. In our case, the

ultimate goal would correlate architectural space design options and EMW behaviour.

To understand the other conventional building materials’ response to certain frequency ranges,

the following sections, discuss transmission coefficients of materials from 0.5 - 8.0 GHz (60 to 4

cm wavelength). These transmission values represent an impact on wireless communication

system performance by these materials. Regarding the reliability, quality, and usability in wireless

communication, each building type has a different performance requirement. For instance, in

residential spaces, power intensity levels for sleeping areas and a baby’s room need to be at lower

levels than the other part of the house. Brick, brick-faced concrete walls, and brick-faced masonry

blocks demonstrate good sealing performance to maintain safe levels in these spaces. Detailed

information regarding architectural spatial design effects on EMW propagation in building

environments can be found in Chapter 5.

The following sections focus on each of the conventional building materials and provide

detailed information regarding their material properties and effects on EMW propagation.

Brick

Brick is a commonly used building material in residential and commercial construction. It is

one of the oldest and traditional exterior cladding materials (“Technical Notes,” n.d.). Besides its

benefits of low maintenance, sound insulation, thermal mass, fire protection, and penetration, brick

has electromagnetic shielding properties. To determine the various construction material responses

41

to EMW propagation, the National Institute of Standards of Technology (NIST) conducted a series

of experiments. Two frequency bands from 0.5 to 2.0 GHz and from 3.0 to 8.0 GHz were chosen.

The first experiment covered three different nominal target thickness regarding B1L=89 mm,

B2L=178 mm, and B3L= 267 mm. The 1 m height of the wall was not considered as an impact

factor regarding EMW propagation because separate transmit and receive horn antennas were

spaced 2 meters apart with a metal RF isolation barrier located midway between the antennas to

eliminate multipath signals. This setup allowed the collection of one-way transmission data.

Therefore, accurate transmission coefficients were measured for each different layout; the

following figures show transmission coefficients for three different brick wall specimens.

Appendix A provides detailed information regarding the NIST experiment.

Figure 3. Transmission coefficients for brick wall specimens (0.5-2.0 GHz) (Stone 1997).

The frequency response determination from 0.5 GHz to 2.0 GHz underlines similar

characteristics for brick walls. The thickness of the wall and higher frequencies foster lower

42

transmission in this type of configuration. However, from 3.0 GHz to 8.0 GHz, brick performs

differently according to the thickness. For instance, in Fig 4., B1L, which is 89 mm, stays between

the 0.15 and 0.2 transmission efficiency level. The higher frequency input does not provide a

significant impact on EMW transmission. The second specimen, B2L, which is 178 mm, shows

less monotonic performance within the frequency range. From 3.0 GHz to 5 GHz, B2L reduces

the transmission coefficient from 0.15 to 0.04. This dramatic decrease stops at 5 GHz and the slow

increase continues between 5 GHz and 7 GHz. Above this frequency, the transmission coefficient

dramatically increases. Moreover, B3L, which has 267 mm thickness, shows a consistent reduction

in EMW propagation until 6.5 GHz. Above this frequency, the transmission slightly increases until

the 8 GHz frequency.

Figure 4. Transmission coefficients for brick specimens (3.0-8 GHz) (Stone 1997).

43

Therefore, it could be determined that B3L has the best shielding performance among three

specimens from 0.5 GHz to 8.0 GHz. If the design purpose is to shield the structure against high

power spectral densities, the ideal brick wall shielding thickness would be 267 mm if only the

options are available. As mentioned in Section 1.3.4, most wireless applications, such as cell phone

and Wi-Fi communication, stay in this frequency range. So, BL3 would be the first line of defense

against high power spectral densities.

Brick faced concrete wall

Brick faced concrete wall is another alternative for retaining walls, ramps, buildings, screens,

foundations, dumpster enclosures and truck dock walls. This type of solution is commonly used to

separate residential from commercial zones (“Brick Faced Concrete Walls, Inc. - Novi, Michigan”

2016). Methods for embedding thin brick into concrete walls provide the better appearance of laid-

up brick, timing, and costs inherent in brick and mortar construction. For architects, this way of

wall construction fosters greater design options such as integrated arches with a variety of field

patterns, attractive transitions to non-brick surfaces and other design elements (“Thin Brick

Construction | Tilt Up Concrete Walls | Embeded Brick Construction” 2016).

The transmission coefficients of the brick-faced concrete wall, 90 mm brick backed by 102 mm

of plain concrete, vary from 0.28 to 0.14 in low range frequencies (0.5 to 2.0 GHz). Another

specimen, which has 203 mm thickness of concrete, reduces the EMW transmission to 0.02.

Therefore, in low range frequencies, brick-faced concrete performs better than plain brick.

From 3.0 GHz to 8.0 GHz, two specimens show good shielding performance against higher

power spectral densities. For instance, 90 mm brick backed by 102 mm of concrete reduces the

44

EMW propagation down to transmission coefficient of 0.005, while 90 mm brick backed by 203

mm plain concrete transmission drops down to 0.001 (Stone 1997).

Overall, it can be assumed that brick-faced concrete specimens provide better shielding

performance compared to the other conventional building materials.

Brick faced masonry block

Masonry wall systems have been used in construction for thousands of years. The variations of

this wall system, such as brick veneer, provide cladding and structural backup and resist transfer

wind load. Brick is a good choice with respect to the cladding resistance (“Building Envelope

Design Guide - Masonry Wall Systems | Whole Building Design Guide” 2016). Regarding the

shielding performance of brick faced masonry wall, 90 mm brick by 194 mm block, the

transmission coefficient stays under 0.32 from 0.8 GHz to 8.0 GHz. This behavior promotes the

wall as an alternative shielding option against high power spectral densities. Transmission

coefficients of this specimen can be found in Appendix A/Fig. A.5.

Plain concrete

In both the low 0.5 GHz-2.0 GHz and the high 3.0 GHz-8.0 GHz frequency bandwidths, plain

concrete performs well against high spectral densities. For instance, 305 mm thick concrete

(approximate water cement ratio of 0.4, a slump of 57 mm (“low”), a nominal maximum crushed

aggregate size of 12.7 mm (“small”), a cement content by weight of 22% and an average density

of 2.31 g/cc) shows a value below a 0.03 transmission rate in these frequency bandwidths. In higher

frequencies, close to 8.0 GHz, this rate drops to 0. This behavior is especially advantageous for

45

the government, military buildings, and power plants when faced with electronic warfare.

Transmission coefficients of this specimen can be found in Appendix A/Fig. A.6.

Drywall

Drywall, which is also known as plasterboard, wallboard or gypsum board, is a panel made of

gypsum plaster sandwiched between two thick layers of paper. It is used for to build interior walls

and ceilings. This durable construction material is used for building many types of structures, such

as residential, commercial, hospitality, government and so on. It also has fire resistance and

soundproofing features (“How Did We End up with Drywall? : TreeHugger” 2016).

Regarding transmission coefficients in “low” (0.5 to 2.0 GHz) and “high” (3.0 to 8.0 GHz)

frequency band- widths, drywall stays between 0.9 and 1.0 (90% to 100% EMW transmission).

This response could be helpful for design professionals when the effective wireless transmission

is required in a structure.

Glass

Glass is one of the most versatile building materials available to designers (Hoar 1999). Glass

also has a good transmission coefficient. For instance, a 12.5 mm thickness glass pane transmits

between 86% and 87% in “low” (0.5 to 2.0 GHz) and “high” (3.0 to 8.0 GHz) frequency band-

widths. According to spectral power densities, this response is useful for interior and exterior

applications. In addition to that, reflective coatings and film applications add shielding properties

to glass (Hakgudener 2015). Therefore, whether the purpose is EMW shielding or transmission,

glass provides flexibility to designers to solve EMW propagation-related issues.

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Lumber (Dry/Wet)

Wood-based products have been used for building construction since the beginnings of the

urban revolution. Their proper applications would be framing, insulating and finishing

(“Material Choices for Wood Frame Construction | Green Home Guide | Ecohome” 2016).

According to the data, the dryness of the spruce specimen does not have a big impact on

transmission behavior. The 113-mm thickness lumber panel transmits between 32.5% and 76%

in “low” (0.5 to 2.0 GHz) and “high” (3.0 to 8.0 GHz) frequency bands. Higher frequency and

specimen thickness are the main factors affecting transmission coefficients for the spruce

specimen.

Plywood (Dry/Wet)

Plywood is an engineered wood made from sheets of thin hard and softwood specimens.

These sheets are glued together to create thick, ridged flat sheet. The end product, which is

called Plywood, has a wide range of use in the construction industry due to its high strength,

flexibility, and moisture, and its economic, insulation, chemical, impact, and fire-resistance

properties. Some of its uses in construction are making a partition or external walls, formwork,

furniture, flooring systems, packaging, cupboards, kitchen cabinets, office tables, light doors

and shutters (“Plywood as a Building Material - Understand Building Construction” 2016).

In high moisture areas, conventional plywood could change its response against EMW

propagation. Dry plywood of 11.8 mm thickness has a high EMW transmission rate of 97%-

98% in “low” (0.5 to 2.0 GHz) and “high” (3.0 to 8.0 GHz) frequency bandwidths. This feature

can be used when a high EMW transmission is required. For instance, to create healthy indoor

WLAN in office, corporate or government facilities, high transmission coefficient rates are

needed to prevent wireless networking performance issues.

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Wet plywood of 11.8 mm thickness has a relatively high EMW transmission rate of 86%-

76% in “low” (0.5 to 2.0 GHz) and “high” (3.0 to 8.0 GHz) frequency bandwidths. However,

in the high-frequency range, the specimen transmission rate declines to 76%. So, to solve wet

plywood problem, marine graded plywood can be a good choice to maintain transmission

stability of the material.

Reinforced Concrete

After its invention in the 19th century, reinforced concrete revolutionized the construction

industry. Reinforced concrete is made of embedded steel rebar meshes in concrete (“Reinforced

Concrete Introduction” 2016). For this reason, reinforced concrete can withstand the wind,

vibrations, and other forces in structures.

The transmission percentage for reinforced concrete begins with 52% in (0.5 to 2.0 GHz)

bandwidths and declines to 0.3% in (3.0 to 8.0 GHz) frequency bandwidths. This type of response

promotes reinforced concrete as a good insulator against high power spectral densities.

Rebar Grid

Rebar grid or reinforcing steel is a mesh of steel to support reinforced concrete and reinforced

masonry structures. 19 mm thickness (70mm x 70 mm) rebar grid transmits 64% in “low” (0.5 to

2.0 GHz) and 88% in “high” (3.0 to 8.0 GHz) frequency bands. So, the mesh grid of rebar grid can

be customized according to spectral densities of the environment.

In their experiment, Stone et al. (1997) do not provide information regarding reflection

coefficients of conventional construction materials (Section 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9,

2.10). Moreover, building materials also reflect EMW to varying degrees and this is related to

48

transmission coefficient. In building design process, transmission coefficients and reflection

coefficients of the building materials would need to be known and material selections could be

done accordingly.

The flowing table shows transmission and reflection coefficient values of conventional building

materials at 2.4 GHz. In the Table, Minus (-) reflection coefficient refers a resonant effect with a

destructive wave to incident wave. According to Koppel et al., the measured values represent a

resultant field from all possible (destructive and constructive) wave interactions. If the thickness

of the material would be increased, the resonant effect would no longer occur as the wavelength

ratio dependency is lost.

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Material Transmission coefficient

Reflection coefficient

Thickness (mm) Density (g/cm³)

EPS (Foamed polystyrene thermal insulation board)

0.87 0.02 50 0.013

Neo EPS (Graphitized foamed polystyrene thermal insulation board)

0.69 0.00 50 0.016

Steico Flex (Flexible insulation board made from natural wood fibres)

0.79 0.08 100 0.049

Marine graded Plywood

1.03 0.26 18 0.353

Composite peat-wood plate

1.1 0.1 35 0.603

Knauf Heraklith C50 (Natural fiber concrete pressed plate)

1.3 -0.03 50 0.353

Gypsum Panel (Custom made)

1.25 0.13 50 1.043

Aeroc (Aerated concrete)

0.92 -0.11 100 0.461

LECA (Lightweight expanded clay aggregate concrete block

1.06 -0.11 85 0.858

Gypsum Board (Knauf)

0.45 0.17 16 0.762

OSB (Oriented strand board)

0.48 0.17 14 0.580

Particleboard with veneer

0.69 0.25 14 0.672

High performance concrete plate (circular shape)

0.71 0.38 13 1.975

High performance concrete plate

0.34 0.35 13 2.093

MDF (Fibreboard) 0.87 0.12 4 0.808 Table 6. Transmission and reflection coefficient values of conventional construction materials at 2.4 GHz ( Adapted from (Koppel et al. 2017))

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The need for new building materials

Regarding wireless communication in building environments, each conventional construction

material has its transmission and reflection coefficients and the other elements such as furniture,

electrical, plumbing, HVAC, other electronic equipment, and occupants have an impact on EMW

propagation in the space. Creating effective and healthy EMW propagation in a built environment

is a challenge and requires rigorous EMW simulations. There has been a great effort by engineers

to develop next generation of advanced, low cost and intelligent antennas such as diversity/ MIMO

to create effective EMW propagation (Malik, Patnaik, and Kartikeyan 2013). It is expected that,

in a high flux density environment, to protect the occupants in a building, the construction material

needs to provide good absorption and when effective EMW propagation when required. The

previous sections show that there is no ideal conventional building material has been produced by

the construction industry to achieve reliable and usable wireless communication. This is because

conventional building materials are considered for structural integrity, building envelope,

aesthetic, and functionality. However, there has been a great deal of scientific development for

new generation RF radiation shielding and absorption materials. Examples include geopolymer

cement (Rangan 2008) and nano-Ni coated cenosphere composites to limit EMI. Nano-Ni coated

cenospheres are the processed products of fly ash cenospheres. Fly-ash is the by-product of power

generation plants and is an environmental concern regarding its disposal. However, cenospheres

are non-toxic, lightweight, and have good insulation properties. Coating metal film on their

surfaces makes this material ideal for the use of EMW absorption and shielding purposes (Meng

et al. 2010). According to European building regulations, to reduce EMI in work environments,

new materials are encouraged for use in building design (Migliaccio et al. 2013). Thus, creating a

new generation of building materials might supplement the engineering studies to achieve healthy,

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reliable, and usable wireless communication systems in the building environment. Advanced

materials such as conductive composites can provide efficient conductivity and shielding

performance, while preserving the basic weight, cost, structural, environmental, and

manufacturing performance advantages of composites and plastics such as, nickel coated carbon

fibers, nickel coated aramid fibers (Composites 2016). There are a variety of application potential

of advanced materials in architectural practice such as shielding paints, wall coverings, furniture,

office partition panels, wall dividers, flooring, ceiling, door and window material coatings and so

on. A Utah firm has revealed conductive composite wallpaper to block signals against

cybershopping and cyberwarfare. Using the wallpaper would also protect inhabitants against

higher power spectral densities in building environments (Prigg 2015).

The new generation building envelopes can create RF radiation-controlled building

environments. The combination of an insulation material and RF shielding window film would

minimize the unintended RF radiation leakage into the building. The potential use of the new

insulation material might not just be for shielding, but also harvesting the energy from the space

around. In addition, this free source of electrical energy can be combined with solar panels to

maximize the energy efficiency in building environments.

EMW Shielding Alternatives and Effects in Building Environments

According to the amount of EMW sources in an environment, conventional building materials

could fail to provide safe power spectral densities. In this case, EMW shielding materials needs to

be applied to structures. For instance, shielding mesh provides basic interior and exterior frequency

shielding and keeps rooms at safe levels, thereby protecting its occupants; also, the mesh can be

applied directly to the facade or interior walls. However, the mesh needs to enclose the whole

52

volume (Pirkkalainen, Elovaara, and Korpinen 2016). This solution is only suggested when there

is no WLAN intended to be used in the space. In other case, RF shielding would increase reflection

and cause unintended EMW propagation.

RF shielding firms prefer to use both copper and aluminum mesh. The only concern with

using copper in RF radiation shielding applications might be the initial cost and oxidation of the

material (“Architecture Design Handbook: Fundamentals: Radio Frequency Shielding” 2014). On

the other hand, aluminum is a low-cost, effective EMW shielding option in comparison to copper.

For instance, the base wholesale price of copper foil is 10,000 US $ per metric ton (“Copper Foil-

Copper Foil Manufacturers, Suppliers, and Exporters on Alibaba.comCopper Strips” 2014),

whereas aluminum foil ranges between 2,000-2,900 US$ per ton (“Aluminium Foils-Aluminium

Foils Manufacturers, Suppliers, and Exporters on Alibaba.comAluminum Foil” 2014). In this

specific type of application, aluminum and copper have the advantage of being recyclable

materials. Therefore, because aluminum is five-times less costly, it is considered to be the right

choice for EMI shielding in most applications.

Another alternative is RF shielding paint that contains carbon-based and corrosion-resistant

materials. This paint can be applied to both exterior and interior surfaces. In North America,

residential buildings are constructed with wood-based materials such as plywood, lumber, and

drywall. This paint seals and reduces higher-power intensity levels. For the windows or curtain

walls in residential or commercial buildings, RF shielding window film can be applied to over-

exposure cases. RF shielding window film performs by reflecting the EMW. Instead of using wire

mesh in windows, RF shielding window film provides an alternative aesthetical solution for

buildings (“EMF Products + RF Products by Safe Living Technologies Inc.” 2014). Moreover, in

this type of application, wired networking is suggested in the required space.

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Residential buildings in North America seem structurally ideal for efficient wireless

communications because of the wide-range and use of wood-based materials, such as lumber and

composites. However, wood-framed construction is vulnerable to unintended exterior RF radiation

sources because wood does not have strong electromagnetic shielding properties (Section 2.7, 2.8).

On the other hand, commercial building construction relies on reinforced concrete, steel beams

and columns, aluminum curtain walls, and so on. However, as discussed above, commercial

building materials do not have the ideal properties for efficient wireless communication. Drywall,

glass, and plywood are some of the choices currently available in the construction industry. The

ultimate goal is to find the right materials to provide efficient and safe wireless communication in

the building environment.

Wireless communication coverage is affected by electromagnetic compatibility, interference,

and construction materials. Examples of an environment might be an office or a school laboratory,

with many electronic devices (such as computers, cell phones, TVs, lighting fixtures, and wireless

gadgets) that cause electromagnetic phenomena in their operation. The goal of EMC

(Electromagnetic Compatibility) is to reduce the conflicts between these devices. To fix this

problem, EMC deals with emission issues related to the reduction of the unintentional generation

of electromagnetic energy. Therefore, Electromagnetic Compatibility aims to sustain a harmonious

environment for electronic devices for optimal functionality and safety. To address the

electromagnetic interference issue, electrical circuits emit electromagnetic signals according to

their application, and these signals might come in the form of Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)

for the other systems. These devices produce rapidly changing signals. These unwanted signals are

called interference, or noise, in other circuits. EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) interrupts or

limits the effective performance of other circuits (Kaur, Kakar, and Mandal 2011). Sometimes,

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this action is intended as a form of electronic warfare, which is a concern for the spatial design of

military buildings. Brick, brick-faced concrete walls, brick-faced masonry blocks and reinforced

concrete reduce the unwanted external power intensities. Using the right conventional building

material is an initial step towards reducing electromagnetic disturbances that are due to the

incorrect operation of electrical equipment. Making the right choice of building materials

supplements the efficiency of the wireless communication system. In Europe, the buildings are

typically constructed of concrete, and historical buildings are structured with load-bearing stone

walls. Stone, as a construction material, creates attenuation loss like concrete against EMW

(EuropeanCommision 1999). In this case, the concrete and stone walls help to reduce unintended

EMW penetration into the building. However, interior concrete partition walls cause performance

issues in wireless communication (Shamir 2002). In this case, the solution is to provide plywood

and drywall interior partitions to support effective communication. If the building is designed for

an office environment, open workspaces and glass walls might be applied to prevent propagation

loss.

Conclusion

Achieving the optimum wireless communication performance output in a building is

complicated by building material, EMW device, and locational power density interrelated

variables. The holistic approach taken by most engineering solutions based on gadget design and

rigorous testing can coupled with best practice architecture design to achieve optimum solution.

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Chapter Three: Power Density Levels in Different Building Environments: Case Study

A case study was executed at a residential building and different locations in Calgary to

support the theoretical framework. Measuring power density levels between 5 Hz and 10 GHz RF

(Radio Frequency) helped to evaluate typical suburb residential community, typical office and

class environments exposure levels. The frequency range is suitable for detecting radiation from

the following sources: AC power lines, cell towers (masts), cordless DECT phones, smart meters,

Wi-Fi router/modems, WiMAX networks, cellular phones (mobiles), radar, Nintendo Wii, Sony

PlayStation and other video games, digital baby monitors, digital TV, audio/video sender

receivers, tetra emissions, and wireless burglar alarms. Gigahertz Solutions Radio Frequency (RF)

and ELF analyzers were used to measure power densities (Gigahertz Solutions 2017).

Measurement accuracy was related to device calibration per manufacturers’ certificate of

calibration. Measuring alternating fields are calibrated during the manufacturing process for the

instruments. The laboratory instrumentation is used to prove the instrument’s quality and

calibration, which is directly traceable to the German “Physikalish-Tecnische Bundesanstalt”, the

National Institute of Standards, or natural physical constants at planned intervals. Moreover, the

manufacturer’s “Total Quality” System is monitored by VDE, the German Association for

Electrical, Electronic & Information Technologies to assure the compliance of the manufactured

products to published specifications (“Benchmark Tests | Measurement | Gigahertz Solutions”

2015). Regarding RF-Analyzer HFW59D (2.4 – 10 GHz), basic accuracy (CW) including linearity

tolerance is +/- 4.5 dB zero offset and rollover +/- 5 digits. For the RF-Analyzer HF59B (27 MHz-

3.3 GHz), basic accuracy (CW) of linearity tolerance is +/- 3 dB zero offset and a rollover of +/- 5

digits. For the 3D-LF-Analyzer with data logger NFA1000 (5 Hz- 1000 KHz), basic accuracy for

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50-60 Hz is +/- 5, 16 Hz - 30 kHz is +/- 1 dB, 5 Hz - 1000 kHz is +/- 2 dB and the isotropic

deviation is +/- 1.5 dB with an offset +/- 5 digits.

Method

Quantitative research method was conducted to collect empirical data (site survey

measurements). The data allows to evaluate current power density levels in building environments.

Five different exposure limits for long-term exposure to the general public (Canada, ICNIRP,

China, Russia and Switzerland) were used to compare power density levels in residential, typical

office and typical class environments. Moreover, other measurement values around the world also

compared with the case study data.

Residential Indoor Environment

According to Leech et al. (2002) time activity patterns study, Canadians (67.21 %) and

Americans (67.19 %) spent most of their times indoor (Leech et al. 2002). Under these

circumstances, power densities need to be analyzed to determine if the measurement data above

or below legal Canada`s threshold. Moreover, initial EMW shielding properties of these of these

dwellings are addressed. The measurements were taken in day and night time periods.

3.2.1 Study Description

Isotropic (3D) AC magnetic low- and high-frequency range measurements are taken over 24

hours at a townhouse community (51.1623038 latitude, -114.0966560 longitude), 1131.84 m

(elevation)) (MyGeoPosition.com 2017). The townhouse community has a total of 213 units,

which are in several rows of houses connected by a drywall. The layout also provides a large

number AP’s in a close environment that allows to receive Wi-Fi signals from multiple modems

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in one location. Moreover, these houses do not have any shielding and conventional construction

materials such as plywood, glass, drywall and lumber favor to transmit stronger signal values in

and out.

Measurement have been taken at the second-floor master bedroom. Two measurement devices

have been used simultaneously to measure these densities and the devices are located on the bed,

which is 45 cm above the floor level. During this process, the data is recorded to an SD card,

transferred, and then analyzed by NFA software (“NFAsoft | NFA-Series | Low Frequency |

Measurement | Gigahertz Solutions” 2015). The following shop drawing shows the location of the

measurement setting.

Figure 5. Residential indoor environment, master bedroom, measurement location shop drawing. Drawn by author. (Not in scale, units are cm.)

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3.2.2 Data Analyses

Isotropic (3D) AC magnetic field measurement capability is an advanced measurement feature

to define different band segments such as 16.7 Hz, 50/60 Hz, 100/120 Hz, 150 /180 Hz, both below

and above 2 KHz.

The following plots (Fig. 6, Fig. 7 and Fig. 8) show the statistical data analyses of power density

levels in the master bedroom. From 5 Hz to 1000 KHz frequency range, 36.15 (nT) average AC

magnetic flux density is measured. In Figure 6, X axis unit is time/hour and nT (nano Tesla) is for

Y axis.

Figure 6. Residential indoor environment 3D (x, y, z) AC magnetic flux density data (units are time/ hour for X, and nT for Y axis)

For RF range, average 0.0055 (μW/cm²) power density is measured between 27 MHz- 3300

MHz (Fig.7). Units are time/hour, for X, and μW/m² power density for Y axis.

59

Figure 7. Residential Indoor Environment High-Frequency range data (units are time/ hour, for X, and μW/m² for Y axis)

In the 2400 MHz- 10000 MHz (Fig.8) high-frequency range, average 0.025 (μW/cm²) power

density is measured. In Figure 8, Units are time/hour, for X, and μW/m² power density for Y axis.

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Figure 8. Residential Indoor Environment High-Frequency range data (units are, time/ hour, for X, and μW/m² Y axis)

The following table shows measured values in the master bedroom per three different frequency

range.

Measurement Period Frequency Range Average for all measure values

9 p.m. – 9 p.m. (24 hr) 5 Hz-1 MHz 36.15 nT (magnetic flux density)

9 p.m. – 9 p.m. (24 hr) 27 MHz- 3300 MHz 0.0055 μW/cm² (power density)

9 p.m. – 9 a.m. (12 hr) 2400 MHz- 10000 MHz 0.025 μW/cm² (power density)

Table 7. Master bedroom average for all measure values

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Typical Office Environment

There are quite amount of EMW exposure in office environment such as such as power sources,

lighting fixtures, WLAN, BAS systems, computers, transmitters around the building and so on. In

this case, power density levels need to be analyzed in office environments to address if there are

high spectral densities in these environments. This second phase of the case study is aimed to

evaluate exposed power density levels in a typical office environment. In Chapter 2, Even if the

space is exposed to same EMW sources, the experiment regarding empty (a control) and occupied

office space shows different flux densities and EMW propagation. In our case, unexpected flux

densities are investigated in an office environment.

3.3.1 Study Description

University of Calgary Professional Faculty Building PF 3165 office space (51.077545 latitude,

-114.126934 longitude), which is located at 3rd floor corner of the building, was chosen to conduct

this site measurement. Two sides of the room have curtain walls and the openings have enclosed

by double glazed low-e glass. The layout of the room can be shown as a typical example of a

cubical office design. The measurement devices were located above desk level (h=70 cm).

Isotropic (3D) AC magnetic low- and high-frequency range measurements were taken over an

hour daytime. A random desk was picked to conduct the measurement and the following figure

shows the measurement location.

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Figure 9. Typical office measurement location (Not in scale) (University of Calgary 2016).

3.3.2 Data Analyses

From 5 Hz to 1000 KHz frequency range, average 11.07 (nT) (Fig. 10) AC magnetic flux density

is found in the office environment.

63

Figure 10. AC 3D Magnetic flux densities (5 Hz- 1000 KHz), X axis unit is time/hour and nT is for Y axis.

For RF range, average 0.03 (μW/cm²) power density is measured between 27 MHz- 3300

MHz (Fig.11). Units are time/hour, for X, and μW/m² power density for Y axis.

64

Figure 11. HF range (27 MHz- 3300 MHz), the measurement was taken at the same period (1 p.m-3:30 p.m.)

For the high-frequency range between 27MHz- 10GHz (Fig.12), average 0.1758 (μW/cm²)

power density level is found. In Figure 12, X axis unit is time/hour and μW/m² power density is

for Y axis.

65

Figure 12. HF range (2.4 GHz- 10 GHz), X axis unit is time/hour and μW/m² is for Y axis.

The following table shows measured values in the typical office per three different frequency

range.

Measurement Period Frequency Range Average for all measure values

1 p.m. – 3:30 p.m. (1.5 hr) 5 Hz-1 MHz 11.07 nT (magnetic flux density)

1 p.m. – 3:30 p.m. (1.5 hr) 27 MHz- 3300 MHz 0.03 μW/cm² (power density)

1 p.m. – 3:30 p.m. (1.5 hr) 2400 MHz- 10000 MHz 0.18 μW/cm² (power density)

Table 8. Typical office average for all measure values

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Typical Class Environment

Typical full time college student spends 15 (3 credit hours/one course) hours in class per week

(University of Michigan 2017). Class environments have different furniture layouts than office

spaces. However, Occupancy levels are higher in most cases. In this case, there is a possibility to

measure close spectral densities at WLAN frequency bands. This part of the study aimed to

investigate how occupancy might affect on power spectral densities in this specific space.

3.4.1 Study Description

To assess typical class power densities, the University of Calgary’s PF 2140 (51.077371

latitude, -114.126689 longitude) room was selected (University of Calgary 2016). The room has

no windows besides an interior glass panel and the door that provides visual display and physical

pass. The measurements were taken while 12 occupants were inside the room during class hours

to determine the real-life situation and the measurement height was 70 cm. Desks were oriented in

rectangular configuration. The room also had one projector and a podium, which had a built-in

computer and a monitor, and the following figure shows the measurement location.

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Figure 13. Typical classroom measurement location (Not in scale) (University of Calgary 2016).

3.4.2 Data Analyses

Fig. 14 shows the average AC 3D Magnetic flux density between 5 Hz and 1000 kHz as 22.96

(nT). Units are time/ hour for X axis, and nT for Y.

68

Figure 14. Typical Class environment 3D (x, y, z) AC magnetic flux density data (units are time/ hour for X axis, and nT for Y)

In Figure 15, between 27 MHz- 3300 MHz range HF average power density is 0.15 (μW/cm²).

69

Figure 15. HF range (27 MHz- 3300 MHz), X axis unit is time/hour and μW/m² is for Y axis.

In the 2400 MHz- 10000 MHz (Fig.16) high-frequency range, average 0.14 (μW/cm²) power

density is measured.

70

Figure 16. Typical Class Environment High-Frequency range data (units are time/ hour for X, and μW/m² for Y)

The following table shows measured values in the typical office per three different frequency

range.

Frequency Range Average for all measure values

5 Hz-1 MHz 22.96 nT (magnetic flux density)

27 MHz- 3300 MHz 0.015 μW/cm² (power density)

2400 MHz- 10000 MHz 0.14 μW/cm² (power density)

Table 9. Typical class average for all measure levels

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3.5 Results

The following histograms represent a graphical presentation of measured power density levels

in residential, office and class environments.

5 Hz-1 MHz

Figure 17. Average for all measured values 3D (x, y, z) AC magnetic flux density data (frequency rage, 5 Hz-1 MHz for X axis, and nT for Y)

For 0.003-10 MHz frequency range, instantaneous magnetic flux exposure threshold is 112,860

nT, root mean square (RMS), which is the square root of the average of the square of the data

values, in Canada (Health Canada 2015).

36.15

11.07

22.96

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Residentail Indoor Environment Office Environment Class Environment

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27 MHz- 3300 MHz

Figure 18. Average for all measured values High-Frequency range (27 MHz- 3300 MHz) data (units MHz for X, and μW/cm² for Y)

For 27-3300 MHz frequency range, 0.03 μW/cm² is the highest average measurement value

(Office) among the other environments (Residential and Class).

0.0055

0.03

0.015

0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.035

Residential Environment Office Environment Class Environment

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2400 MHz- 10000MHz

Figure 19. Average for all measured values High-Frequency range data (units MHz for X, and μW/cm² for Y)

For 2400 MHz, maximum exposure limit (6 minutes) is 535 μW/cm² in Canada. Office and class

environments have close measurement data. It can be assumed that higher occupancy of the class

environment (more cell phones and laptops) in a specific area have an impact on this result.

According to general public long term exposure limits in Canada (Health Canada 2015), The

United States, China, Russia and Switzerland (Table 3), measured average power density levels

for residential, office and class environments stay in the safe zone. However, there are some cases,

200 V/m (Hanada, Takano, and Antoku 2002) and 100 V/m (Luca and Salceanu 2012) in hospital

environments around the world. These values are above the exposure limits in Canada. Further

research needs to be conducted to identify these spaces.

0.25

0.18

0.14

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

Residential Environment Office Environment Class Environment

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Limitations

The results of this research are subject to several limitations. The general limitations on site

survey studies are related to the number of measurement locations. Although the commonality

uses of the holistic approach of evaluating power density levels in these environments, a

comparison approach has been taken in this research using different case study data around the

world to reduce the effect of possible biases that may come from other professionals. More time

and a larger budget would help to expand the site survey area such as measuring many dwellings

and whole campus buildings. A second limitation of this study is that only two building were

included in the study. Additional research involving other types of buildings such as commercial,

government, hospitality is required to extend the generalizability of the results.

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Chapter Four: Basic shielding guidelines for design professionals

Previous chapters provided literature review, experiment and results. Chapter 4 derive basic

guidelines based on information obtained from these chapters. Understanding building material

responses and EMW shielding behavior in building environments can help to build a design

strategy for specific spaces. According to the functionality of the space, these variables will

determine the proposed guidelines for design professionals.

4.1 The design guideline

The initial design guideline provides an overview for design professionals that outlines the

necessary steps to create safe wireless communication based on the results derived from this theses

experiment. This new result and derived guideline with wireless communication security

incorporation will also be explained.

4.1.1 EMW Shielding Principles in building environments

EMW propagation shielding in the building environment means to protect its occupants from

external radiation by partially or completely enclosing the space. There are a variety of materials

that need to be used to achieve the purpose, and each of these components has their own role to

promote the overall performance of the system. The process begins with the purpose to reduce

high power spectral densities. Moreover, the design guidelines need to be incorporated with

shielding principles to achieve the best performance.

The reducing would be a preferred choice to provide increased data security for military

applications, corporate boardrooms, VIP rooms, academic, research and other government

facilities. Moreover, this is also preferred when adverse health effects are concerned, and it would

be the choice of residential, commercial, hospitality, schools and any other spaces to reduce high

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power spectral densities. EMW shielding begins with creating a conductive barrier around the

space. Michael Faraday introduced this concept to the world in 1821 (Tong 2015b). He created a

conductive housing with zero electrical fields inside the housing. His principle known as Faraday

cage and it could be used effectively in building environments. This method also helps undesired

conducted or radiated electrical disturbances (EMI) from the surrounding of the structure. This

type of disturbances would occur at any frequency in the electromagnetic wave spectrum, and

conductive shield provides protection from radiating energy. Moreover, an EMW shielding design

needs to meet both emission and immunity requirements of the space. This would be achieved via

reducing the high power spectral densities and isolation. These procedures could be incorporated

into the entire electrical and construction system design.

The following proposed general EMW shielding design flow model (Figure 20.) illustrates

these procedures.

Figure 20. General EMW Shielding Design Flow

Electrical design stage covers electrical panel allocation/installation, cable shielding, and

filtering steps. Conventional electric power (50-60 Hz) network circuit breakers only work in the

Design Specification (The Purpose)

Site Survey (Measurements)

Electrical Design Architectural Design

• Electrical Panel Allocation/Installation • Filtering • Cable Shielding

• Material Selection • Shielding at all levels • Seaming

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on and off position (Shibata, Sakai, and Okabe 2011). When the breakers are on, the power travels

through cables and reaches to the spaces in a building. This is the current practical solution

regarding the power demand in building environments. In this case, even if the power is not used,

the power networking creates EMW propagation in the environment. Another power related issue

is dirty electricity, which could be produced by different sources such as; computers, variable

speed motors, television sets, entertainment units, dimmer switches, power tools, arching on hydro

wires, cell phone masts, broadcast antennas, energy efficient lighting, and appliances. Dirty

electricity propagation is at the low end of RF spectrum (kHz) and radiates from the wires and

creates a significant impact on the environment. Therefore, the result could be referred as low

power quality in the system (Havas 2006). Using demand switches incorporated with filtering and

cable shielding could be a good choice to prevent dirty electricity in buildings. More simply, when

there is no energy demand, demand switches automatically turn off the power supply (“Demand

Switches - Green Evolution USA” 2015). In this way, dirty electricity could not travel through

power network. To protect equipment from power surges, large capacitors are used by industry. In

this way, high-frequency voltage transients (HFVT) could be reduced or removed from the

network. Graham and Stetzer developed a filter for residential and commercial spaces to remove

HFVT. G/S filters reduce the amount of HFVT in 4 kHz and 100 kHz frequency range (de Vocht

2010).

Cable shielding is accomplished by insulating the surrounding structure. The medium voltage

standard cable insulation has two components, which are a semiconducting or stress relief layer

and metallic layer of tapes. Both must function as a unit (Lawrence and Landinger 1999). Foil and

braid type of shielding are the choice of industry to shield the wires. Foil shielding uses a thin layer

of aluminum and it provides good performance. Braid is made of exposed or tinned copper wire

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mesh. It provides easy application procedures especially when attaching the connector, but it does

not have 100% shielding performance, which depends on the frequency of the wave. For very

noisy conditions, different shielding layers are used. This combination could be foil, braid or both.

According to Alfa Wires data, foil-braid shielding provides the best performance. There are

shielded cables available on the market to reduce EMI in building environments. The following

figure shows the typical shielding configurations and shield effectiveness vs. frequency of these

cables.

Figure 21.Typical shielding configurations and shield effectiveness versus frequency, adapted from (“Understanding Shielded Cable” 2009)

Therefore, it is important to choose the right type of shielding and the cable according to the

power demand. Note that all components have an impact on overall performance.

In summary, the architectural design stage begins with material selection. For instance, to

block any EMW propagation requires some basic materials such as RF Absorber, RF Shielding

Foil, RF Shielding Film, RF Shielding Fabric, RF Shielding Wallpaper and demand switches. Each

material above has a different function in building environments to reach the aimed power spectral

densities and the following paragraphs highlight the material properties of each segment.

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4.1.1.1 RF Absorbers

The increasing variety of electronic devices and high power spectral densities requires

absorbing materials to address EMI issues. Instead of harnessing and transferring the energy to

the ground as do conductive materials, absorber materials attenuate and absorb the energy, and

reradiates it as heat. As it is discussed in Chapter 1, this feature could be embraced with a smart

architectural detail. For instance, according to building location, this feature help to promote

efficient building design. Typical absorbers could be categorized as microwave absorber

materials, dielectric absorbing materials, and electromagnetic absorbers. The microwave

absorber materials promote reflectivity minimization through shape, structure, permittivity (Ɛ)

and permeability (µ) allowing for absorbtion of EMI and broadband frequencies. In dielectric

absorbers, molecular forces of the atoms are not free to dislocate because the dominant charges

of the atoms are positive and negative. This structural order causes the storage of electric

energy, which turns into heat by the Joule effect.

The main feature of dielectric absorbers is to change the dielectric characteristics of the

material from transmitter or reflector, to absorber. To do this, a combination of semiconductive

or conductive fillers is used in the polymeric matrix. Silicon, graphite, carbon black, aluminum,

copper, stainless steel, and various metal-coated powders are components of these fillers.

Moreover, different polymeric matrices are rigid or flexible such as epoxy, phenolic, bis-

maleimide, polyurethane, polyimide and silicone resins. When the absorber is close to the near

field, the magnetic field will be large, and this causes a large absorption value. This feature has

an impact on absorption material design. Magnetic absorbers are made of carbonyl iron and

hexaferrites. These materials have a wide frequency range from Megahertz to Gigahertz and

can be tuned according to particle size (Tong 2015a).

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4.1.1.2 RF Shielding Foil

A foil is a thin metal sheet made with malleable metals such as aluminum, copper, gold, and

silver. Aluminum foil contains 92 to 99 percent aluminum and produced in 0.043 to 1.5 mm

thickness. The foil has the variety of widths and strengths to promote different applications such

as: thermal insulation for the construction industry, fin stock for air conditioners, electrical coils

for transformers, capacitors for radios and televisions, insulation for storage tanks, decorative

products, and containers and packaging. The availability of the raw material fosters the popularity

of aluminum foil. Therefore, aluminum foil is inexpensive, durable, non-toxic, and greaseproof.

In addition, it resists chemical attack and provides excellent electrical and non-magnetic shielding

(“How Aluminum Foil Is Made - Material, Manufacture, Making, Used, Processing, Dimensions,

Aluminium, Procedure” 2015).

Copper sheets/foils alloy 99% Cu and sheet thickness vary 1 mil (0.25 mm) to 22 mils (5.5

mm). 1, 1.4, and 3 mil copper foils are very thin, and they are used for scrapbooking, paper crafts,

electrical and R&D applications. 5 mil copper foil is approximately 7-8 times thicker than typical

household aluminum foil. It is often used for various home improvement/interior design such as

tabletops, backsplashes, bar tops, countertops and crafts projects as well as electrical,

manufacturing and other applications. 8, 10, 16 and 22 mil copper sheets are more durable. For

instance, 10 mils are often used in outdoor projects to protect wood from the elements, such as for

flashing, or capping poles or exposed beams in a structure, 16 mils for backsplashes, bar tops,

countertops, and range hoods as well as roofing projects. 22 mil copper sheeting is a heavy weight

copper often used for roofing and flashing (“Copper Sheets and Rolls” 2015). Regarding RF

shielding purposes 8 mil copper shield could be used for flooring or if required space has very high

power spectral densities.

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4.1.1.3 RF Shielding Film

RF shielding film is a laminate, optically clear polyester and has metallized coatings bonded

by adhesives. The coating metals are applied onto a clear, polyester film as an even layer. To meet

the shielding performance, different metals are used. Typical window film structure has a release

liner with silicone coating, adhesive layer with UV inhibitor, clear or tinted polyester film, an

adhesive layer, metallized layer for heat and EMW rejection on clear polyester film, and scratch-

resistant coating. There are two basic types of window films, which are non-reflective or dyed,

and reflective or metalized. In our case, reflective or metalized type will promote radiation

rejection. Moreover, shielding film would also prevent infrared (IR) and UV rays in building

environments (“How Window Films Works” 2015).

4.1.1.4 RF Shielding Mesh

There are various types of mesh available on the market which include woven wire mesh,

welded wire mesh, and weave mesh. Wire diameter (noted in millimeters or inches) and mesh

count (the number of holes per linear inch or cm), are a performance factor regarding RF shielding.

For instance, higher frequencies require higher mesh counts. Both aluminum and copper wire mesh

could be used for shielding purposes (“Aluminum Mesh - Ferrier Wire Goods Company Limited”

2015).

4.1.1.5 RF Shielding Fabric

A variety of shielding fabrics provide a varying degree of shielding. The base materials for

fabrics are cotton, artificial fibers such as polyester, polyamide, and aramids. These materials are

processed with conductive elements, which are called monofilament. It could be made from

copper, bronze, silver, gold, aluminum, inox, and so on. The surface of the fabric could be either

conductive or insulated. The result is up to 99.98% effective shielding performance at 1 GHz

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(“NATURELL: Swiss Shield” 2015). In building environments, one vulnerable element against

high power spectral densities is openings, such as windows and doors. The first defense is window

film and the leakage of the frames could be prevented by shielding fabrics used for draperies.

These types of fabrics have potential use for clothing, which could include uniforms.

To verify the effectiveness of the model, different type of RF shielding material’s (such as

shielding fabrics, aluminum foil, absorber, shielding film, aluminum, copper wire mesh and

wallpaper) data were provided in 0.01 MHz to 10.0 GHz frequency range to fulfill the aimed RF

shielding performance in building environments. The table below provides the necessary material

properties and shielding effectiveness, which is calculated by taking the ratio of the RF energy on

one side of the shield to the RF energy on the other side of the shield, and expressed the results in

decibels (dB) as a function of the logarithm of the ratio of incident and exit power densities (Bursky

2013). In Table 10, negative values represent small but positive numbers, on a logarithmic scale.

Therefore, higher dB (shielding effectiveness) value of the material represent lower shielding

performance.

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RF Shielding Material Dimension/ Properties

Tested frequency band

Shielding Effectiveness

dB

Reference

Shielding Fabric Type I (Swiss Shield Natural)

Over 100 Nm yarn count

1.0 KHz to 2.0 GHz 62-31 (Frei 1999)

Shielding Fabric Type II (Swiss Shield Evolution)

Over 100 Nm yarn count

200 MHz to 2.5 GHz

30-33 (Klaus 2000)

Shielding Fabric Type III (Swiss Shield New Daylight)

Over 100 Nm yarn count

30 MHz to 10.0 GHz

17-42 (Pauli 2006)

Aluminum Shielding Foil (5 mil, 0.127 mm thickness)

Dimension 100X100 cm

1.0 KHz to 10.0 GHz

12-60 (Ramayes 2017)

Wire mesh (Aluminum) (wire diameter 0.28 mm)

Dimension 100X100 cm

100 MHz to 10.0 GHz

18-71 (Metzinger 2014b)

Wire mesh (Copper) Type I

16X16 mesh count per 25.4 mm, 2.8 mm

wire diameter

1.0 KHz to 10.0 GHz

20-108 (Reed 2003)

Wire mesh (Copper) Type II

22X22 mesh count per 25.4 mm, 3.8 mm

wire diameter

1.0 KHz to 10.0 GHz

28-108 (Reed 2003)

Wire mesh (Copper) Type III

100X100 mesh count per 25.4 mm, 1.1 mm

wire diameter

1.0 KHz to 10.0 GHz

30-108 (Reed 2003)

RF Shielding Film Dimension 100X100 cm

1.0 GHz to 10.0 GHz

(-36) to (-29) (Metzinger 2014a)

RF Absorber Dimension 61X61X (0.64-23) cm

400 MHz to 18.0 GHz

> -20 (“Absorbers | MVG”

2015)

Table 10. RF Shielding materials performance data adopted from manufacturer’s technical specifications

Based on conventional building and shielding material properties, the following design work

flow chart and Architectural EMW Shielding Design Guideline is developed. The first step of the

workflow is to evaluate power density levels in the building. If the measured level is above legal

limits, options such as further investigation to address the EMW sources in the area, and legal

proceedings need to be followed. The occupants of the high-power density areas advised to leave

these spaces until power spectral densities are lowered below the legal limits. If legal procedure

provides immediate results and power densities are lowered, the occupants would proceed EMW

shielding as an option to prevent further consideration regarding long term adverse health impact.

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Another potential issue would be the performance issues of devices in the space. If these problems

occur, EMW shielding is advised.

Figure 22. The design workflow chart by author

Motives for EMW shielding can be data confidentiality, data integrity (Section 1.3.4), EMI,

EMC (Section 1.3.2), and adverse health impact on humans. To execute EMW shielding projects,

architectural details needs to be developed by incorporating construction and shielding materials

(Table 10). Thus, the following architectural EMW shielding detail guideline flow chart provides

a method that design professionals can adapt this basic design detail method to apply any type of

required space. The guideline has been developed per conventional construction methods for each

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detail type and the purpose of the guideline is to direct design professionals to a specific schematic,

which provides initial detail layering and used shielding materials.

Figure 23. Architectural EMW shielding detail guideline flow chart by author

Ceilings and walls are one of the most important structural elements of a building and it also

requires creativity in architectural design process. Ceilings can be divided into two types according

to their construction methods such as conventional and suspended (dropped) ceilings. Flat ceilings

demonstrate basic structure of a ceilings which can be concrete or wood. Concrete ceilings can

take a variety of forms and they can be found in modern structures. Frame ceilings such as vaulted,

tray and cove ceilings are traditional but still widely used. Framework of these type of ceilings

provide support for the floor above, and the surface for the finished attachment below. A wide

range of materials can be used in finishing for ceilings. Drywall is the most common, which can

vary in thickness and density and can be chosen per safety regulations of the building. To achieve

higher thermal performance in buildings, insulation is incorporated in ceilings. Thus, EMW

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shielding can also be incorporated with insulation in building design. The following figure shows

this type of detail in schematic form.

TOP Ceiling Material (Concrete, wood or steel)

Wire mesh (Copper or aluminum)

EMW Absorber

Insulation (Batt, rigid, hemp, or other sustainable alternatives)

Framing (Wood or light steel)

Finish Layer (Drywall, wood plank or other available materials)

BOTTOM Figure 24. EMW Shielding for Conventional Ceilings- Schematic 1 by author

Schematic 1 can allow designers to develop conventional ceiling details for a EMW shielding

project.

Suspended or dropped ceilings are the secondary ceilings suspended from the structural floor

slab above. The purpose of the ceiling is to create a void between the underside of the floor slab

and the top of the suspended ceiling. This void can provide useful space for the distribution of

heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) services, plumbing and wiring, as well as

providing a platform to install speakers, light fittings, wireless antennas, CCTV, fire, smoke

detectors, motion detectors, sprinklers and EMW shielding materials.

TOP Ceiling Material (Concrete, wood or steel)

Insulation (Batt, rigid, or other sustainable alternatives) if it is required

Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC), plumbing and wiring service space

Wire mesh (Copper or aluminum) if required to elevate shielding (by reflecting the external sources)

EMW Absorber

Suspended (Dropped) Ceiling

BOTTOM Figure 25. EMW Shielding for Suspended (Dropped) Ceilings- Schematic 2 by author

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The suspended (dropped) ceiling option provides cost effective shielding alternative in

comparison to conventional ceiling. Because ceiling structure and void space is already provided

for EMW shielding purposes and no extra framing is required to support the shielding materials.

Wall systems can be divided into two main categories such as, load bearing and non-load

bearing. The purpose of load bearing wall is to support the weight and to rest upon it by conducting

its weight to a foundation structure. Load bearing walls can be sub divided into pre-cast concrete,

retaining, masonry, pre-panelized metal stud, engineering brick, wood, and stone. Non-bearing

walls can be sub divided into hollow concrete block, façade bricks, hollow bricks, brick, wood or

metal frame. Conventional load bearing walls require a sub framing to have better insulation

properties. This sub frame can be also used for EMW shielding. Thus, the following figure

(Schematic 3) shows the layers of a load bearing wall.

EXTERIOR (Left Side) Wall cladding and Insulation (Batt, rigid, or other sustainable alternatives), if it is an exterior wall.

Other cases drywall and finish (Paint or Wallpaper) applies

Wall system (pre-cast concrete, retaining, masonry, pre-panelized metal stud, engineering brick, wood,

stone, hollow concrete block, façade bricks, hollow bricks, brick)

Sub-framing incorporated with Wire Mesh (Copper or Aluminum) and EMW Absorber

Drywall

Finish (Paint or Wallpaper)

INTERIOR (Right Side) Figure 26. EMW Shielding for mixed wall types (load bearing and non-load bearing) Schematic 3 by author

Non-load bearing walls can support its own weight. If it is an exterior wall, it can resist other

forces such as wind, snow, rain and so on. However, it can not support an imposed load. Non-load

bearing walls can be divided into sub categories such as hollow concrete block, façade bricks,

hollow bricks, brick and wood or metal framing. For wood and metal framing, wire mesh and

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EMW Absorber can be incorporated with insulation material. This method does not require extra

framing and can reduce the cost. The following Figure (Schematic 4) shows EMW shielding for

wood or metal framing wall.

EXTERIOR (Left Side) Wall cladding and Insulation (Batt, rigid, or other sustainable alternatives) if it is an exterior wall.

Other cases Drywall and finish (Paint or Wallpaper) applies

Wall system (wood or metal framed)

Framing incorporated with Wire Mesh (Copper or Aluminum) and EMW Absorber

Drywall

Finish (Paint or Wallpaper)

INTERIOR (Right Side) Figure 27. EMW Shielding for wood or metal framing walls- Schematic 4 by author

The purpose of the flooring is to provide a walking surface for occupants of a structure. Flooring

can be divided into two main categories such as conventional and raised. The common construction

methods for conventional floors are platform framing (Steel, Wood) and solid (Concrete). These

two sub flooring types requires a sub framing for EMW Shielding. Thus, the following Figure

(Schematic 5) shows the shielding method.

ABOVE Flooring system (Hardwood, engineered flooring, laminate, ceramic tile, marble, granite and so on)

Plywood

Sub framing incorporated with wire mesh and EMW Absorber

Plywood for sub flooring (If the surface is concrete it is not required)

Platform framing (Steel, wood) or Concrete

BELOW Figure 28. EMW Shielding for Conventional Flooring- Schematic 5 by author

The purpose of a raised flooring (raised floor, access floor) is to create an elevated structural

floor above a solid substrate (often a concrete slab). This hidden void provides a passage of

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mechanical, electrical services and EMW shielding materials. Thus, the following Figure

(Schematic 6) provides the shielding method for raised flooring.

ABOVE Flooring system (Hardwood, engineered flooring, laminate, ceramic tile, marble, granite and so on)

Plywood

Raised flooring framing integrated with Wire mesh and EMW Absorber

BELOW Figure 29. EMW Shielding for Raised Flooring- Schematic 6 by author

Openings can be categorized into standard windows, interior/ exterior doors, curtain walls in a

building. EMW shielding for an opening can be hard to achieve. However, there are EMW

shielding materials such as EM shielding window film, window/door shielding gaskets are

available on the market. The following Figure (Schematic 6) show an initial shielding method for

the openings in a built environment.

EXTERIOR Shielding film (works by reflecting the EMW) for curtain walls, windows

Shielding gaskets to seal the doors and windows

EMW Absorber incorporated into the interior/exterior door frame and casing

INTERIOR Figure 30. EMW Shielding for Openings- Schematic 7 by author

Therefore, this initial Schematic guideline can provide conventional shielding components to

develop a specific detail in building environments. It is also suggested that the transition details

such as, floor to wall and wall to ceiling need to be develop by design professionals to improve

the shielding effectiveness.

4.2 Conclusion

Regarding the use of common building materials for EMW propagation, there is usually better

material selection in the design aspect. The question is how practical and cost effective these

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materials are. Each building material has its unique response to EMW propagation. According to

the power intensity requirements, these materials have their own places in buildings. Designing

healthy and propagation friendly buildings requires a conceptual planning. This planning needs to

be supported with right building materials and other components of a space such as the form of

furniture, lighting fixtures, interior partitions, and so on. Using this strategy, design professionals

will not just solve this design requirement addressed by their customers but also will achieve the

design principle of unity in architecture. Moreover, incorporation of the EMW shielding design

flow with the guidelines provide an initial RF shielding strategy to design professionals. This

incorporation creates an effective model that will foster a new way of thinking in the field of

architecture. Moreover, the method would reduce health impacts, and security threats in building

environments.

The success of a construction project relies on a good planning, execution, and control. To

become a master in construction trade requires years of practice in job sites and the broad

knowledge of the trade, passed from experienced journeyperson to apprentice. The theory could

be read; however, the practice could only be developed in a work setting. Workers trained in both

design and execution could see the elements of physics, chemistry, and mathematics. For instance,

mixing cement with water to create the right amount of consistency, estimating the square meter

of hardwood, how to build a header for a window, how to build and install a roof beam, and so on.

New technological developments push the envelope for the construction industry. Overcoming

these challenges can be done by the integration of the architectural practice and the theory.

Incorporation of wireless communication systems into the architectural design is one of the

aspects, which needs to be a standard practice in building design. Engineering shielding methods

needs to be incorporated into interior design practice, to achieve safe and healthy EMW

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Propagation in building environments. The suggestions may be simple in theoretical form;

however, in terms of practice there would be obstacles at job sites. Initial suggestions for effective

solutions for each type of building are provided in the following chapter.

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Chapter Five: Architectural Spatial Design Effect on EMW Propagation in Building Environments

Structural building types require different architectural layouts and construction materials to

create of a functional space. Chapter Five systematically investigates the architectural spatial

design effect on electromagnetic wave propagation for structures including: residential,

commercial, educational, government, industrial, military, religious, transport, power

station/plant. The initial suggestions can help a better understanding of how to shield

electromagnetic wave propagation in these spaces. In some cases, EMW manipulation is necessary

to prevent standing waves and high power spectral densities in such environments. Moreover, in

this Chapter, new shielding construction and interior design methods are provided by analyzing

different types of architectural space and material configurations for design professionals. These

initial suggestions would be beneficial to reduce potential problems such as EMI, EMC, electronic

warfare, data and security and long-term health concerns on building occupants.

EMW Propagation in Residential Spaces

EMW propagation in residential buildings relies on its construction method, building materials,

space planning, and exterior and interior EMW sources. In North America, the most popular

residential construction is wood-framed, and the typical construction process for a single-family

or small multi-family house begins with development of floor plans, which is also the first stage

of our EMW shielding planning strategy. Wood does not have good shielding properties (Section

2.7). However, wood provides sub-framing for EMW shielding materials. For instance, the

existing power spectral densities of the area would help to develop exterior wall details of the

house in the planning stage. If the project deals with an existing house, the survey needs to be done

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both outside and inside to determine to build envelope response against EMW propagation. In the

case of higher power spectral densities in the environment, renovation might be necessary for

walls, ceilings, roof, frost walls, new electrical wiring and installation of demand switches and so

on.

Most North America dwellings have basements and building one begins with pouring concrete

into a foundation, and footers that reinforce the concrete base. Above it, construction materials

such as wood or metal I-beams are needed to build a load bearing structure. In this stage, the

material choice would affect EMW propagation. For instance, metal I-beams promotes reflection

and standing waves. To create less reflective propagation, Plywood I-beams (APA 1992) would

be a better choice because of transmission properties against EMWs and the manufacturing process

of these beams, which are based on layered and glued plywood sheets. Hundreds of thousands of

installed nails, bolts, screws in wood framing, frost walls, roofing, interior partitions and dry walls,

would create significant interaction with the existing EM field in an environment. Minimizing the

usage of steel nails, bolts, and screws would promote less reflective propagation. Using engineered

I-beam would be the first suggestion to achieve it. Therefore, further research is needed to address

the impact of metal usage regarding EMW propagation in built environment. There are also other

benefits using less metal in building environments. For instance, this choice would also reduce the

labor and material cost. Other options to reduce the use of metal nails, bolts and screws can be

found in ancient Japanese construction techniques. These methods constructed wooden structures

without using a nail, bolt or screw for centuries. The ancient technique uses joinery, an interlocking

of the pieces that creates an extremely stable structure, that can withstand earthquakes and

typhoons (“Japanese Craftsman Builds Amazing Wooden Structures Without Nail, Bolt, or Screw

- The Vision TimesThe Vision Times” 2016). Horyu-ji Temple is the oldest wooden building in

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the world, which was built the year of 607 A.D. (“Japan National Tourism Organization | Japan

In-Depth | Scenic Beauty | World Heritage Sites in Japan” 2016). Therefore, no nails, screws or

bolts had been used to create the monument, and it has been standing for over a millennium.

This construction technique is still being used and adapted to build such as exterior walls,

interior partitions, frost walls, rafters and so on. For instance, Catharhome has developed an

ecological and economical wooden brick. Wooden bricks can be built like a Lego, without glue

neither nails nor screws. The principle of these bricks is to produce timber frame walls for any

type of architecture. This type of structure can be built by anyone without any trade experience.

The required tools are a rubber mallet and a drill to build the structure. The mallet is used to mount

the bricks and the drill is used to secure the sill plate on the slab. The choice of insulation material

is woodchips (Brikawood 2017). In France, a square meter turnkey, which include foundation,

exterior roof membrane, flooring, kitchen, bathrooms, electrical, plumbing, flooring and finishes

cost between $1,375 to $1,500 (CAD) against $2,400 (CAD) conventional timber frame structure

(Mohabuth 2016). In Canada, a typical conventional timber frame home square meter turn key

cost starts at $2,500 (Hamill Creek Timber Homes 2017). Using this method would promote better

EMW propagation, structural stability, sustainability in residential buildings. This type of timber

frame housing cost is lower than conventional wooden house and the structure can also withstand

earthquakes of 8.5 on the Richter scale. Therefore overall structural quality is higher than the

conventional wooden house (“A House With No Nails: Building a Timber-Frame Home” 2016).

Moreover, analyzing furniture design principles would also promote to create structural details

(Smardzewski 2015). Common wood joints such as dado, rabbet, dowelled butt, mortise and

tendon could be used to create structural integrity. In this case, the type of joints needs to be

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selected according to structural load. For instance, rabbet for corners and dado joint for studs would

be a good choice to build frost walls. The following figure shows the common type of wood joints.

Figure 31. Common type of wood joints (“Woodworking Joints Plans | Good Woodworking Projects” 2016)

In conventional residential construction, outer walls, floors, roofs are covered with plywood.

OSB (Oriented strand board) is used for exterior walls in some cases, but plywood shows better

performance regarding resistance to moisture. Marine grade plywood would be the better choice

in high moist or nautical environments (“Marine Grade Fir Plywood | Windsor Plywood” 2016).

Plywood has also high transmission coefficient (Section 2.8) against EMW. This feature is useful

when EMW transmission is required. For other cases, plywood could be utilized to support

shielding outer walls by stone, stucco, copper and aluminum panels.

Old plumbing materials such as cast-iron piping have been used since 1623 and it is still

functional in the fountains of Versailles in France. Virtually, most of the residential homes have

some type of iron cast prior to 1960s. Currently, residential drainage uses ABS and PVC piping

instead of cast iron as a material. PVC pipes have no rusting problems and are lighter than cast

iron (“PVC Pipe vs. Cast Iron Pipe | Ask the Builder” 2016). Moreover, PVC pipes are friendlier

regarding to reduce EMW reflection. The other substitute pipe material is copper. Currently, the

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usage of copper tubing is limited in residential construction because of high material cost, and is

mostly used in bathrooms to connect hot and cold water supply (“The Basics of Working with

Copper Pipe” 2016). If a large amount of copper is used in a house, these lines might cause

unintended EMW reflection. Further research needs to be done to see the copper piping reflection

effect in built environments.

Regarding HVAC systems, sheet metal ducts promote unintended reflections, which may cause

EMI, EMC, shielding and standing wave issues in the building environment.

As mentioned in Section 2.9, concrete has good sealing properties against EMW. However, this

performance could not be reached in a standard wall thickness. In residential construction, stucco

is widely used to cover exterior walls (“Building a Stucco Wall | QUIKRETE®” 2016). Adding

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 (Magnesium Oxide)-doped 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹12𝑀𝑀19 (barium hexaferrites), low toxic antibacterial

(Stankic et al. 2016), to the stucco mortar would create a good absorber in a range of 0.5- 6 GHz

(Chang et al. 2016). This powder could also be used in any type of sub-flooring for shielding

purposes. This way of execution would also solve the leveling problems on floors. Unfortunately,

most of the builders ignore this stage and deliver the house without proper floor leveling, which

causes damage on finished materials such as hardwood, laminate flooring joints, ceramic tile. To

fix this structural and aesthetical problem, demolition of the whole floor and reinstallation costs

more than just applying self leveling underlayment, which creates levelled floor surfaces by

applying self levelling cement compound (“Self-Compacting Cement ‘Sikacrete’ - 25 Kg | RONA”

2016). To shield the floors, 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 (Magnesium Oxide)-doped 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹12𝑀𝑀19 (barium hexaferrites)

powder could be added to self levelling compound. Moreover, embedding copper or aluminum

wire mesh would also provide reinforcement and better EMW shielding.

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Openings such as windows and doors allow easy EMW access into dwellings. Regarding

windows, the first line of defense is to use shielding film or conductive shielding glass. The glass

needs to be electrically connected to conducting gasket and aluminum or metal window frame to

prevent further EMW leakage. These types of windows are commercially available and the

shielding method can be used for residential and commercial buildings (Pilkington 2017). For

instance, to protect computerized records from nearby radar system, architect Frankfurt Short

Bruza choose conductive shielding glass for the registry building at the FAA Mike Monroney

Aeronautical Centre, Oklahoma City, USA. To resolve EMW transmission for doors, copper or

aluminum plates could be incorporated into the door section with conductive gaskets (“Welcome

to Pentair | Hoffman” 2016). Therefore, the following graphical illustration shows suggested

shielding components against high power spectral densities in residential construction. The other

design options could be developed according to existed building conditions.

In the suggested shielding strategy, rigid foam (R-value 4-6.5) insulation would be a better material

choice in comparison to fiberglass, which has the lower R-value (2.2-2.7) per inch among the other

insulation materials such as Cellulose, Stone Wool, Cotton, Cementitious, Polyicynene, Phenolic,

Polyisocyanurate and Polyurethane foam (U.S Department of Energy 2016). Moreover,

polyurethane foam is also a suitable material to develop microwave absorbers (He and Gong 2009).

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Figure 32. EMW shielding solution for Residential buildings designed by author

Therefore, using suggested shielding strategy above would prevent the penetration of high

power spectral densities into residential structures. Moreover, shielding residential structures

would reduce the possibility of eavesdropping. The design would also allow Wi-Fi networking

Attic

Steel window well: Galvanized and grounded

Ground

Basement

Main Floor

Ridged foam insulation Gravel

Reinforced concrete slab

Drain

Exterior Cladding: 1. Tyvek (air and water

barrier) 2. Steel wire mesh 3. Stucco (mixed with

EM absorbent powder)

Or: Stone façade (mortar needs to be mixed by EM absorbent powder

Aluminum window: 1. Conductive gaskets 2. RF shielding film applied

Wood framed exterior wall: 1. 3/8” marine graded plywood outer shell 2. Ridged foam insulation 3. Poly film

Wood framed frost wall: 1. Ridged Foam Insulation 2. Aluminum Foil 3. Copper wire mesh (grounded) 4. Drywall

Basement Floor: 1. Moisture barrier (Poly Film) 2. Ridged foam insulation 3. Copper wire mesh and underfloor heating system are embedded in cement and self leveling is applied 5. Finish floor (ceramic tile, hardwood etc.)

Shielded exterior door (grounded)

Wood Framed Roof: 1. Spray foam insulation 2. Aluminum foil 3. Copper wire mesh 4. Absorber

Reinforced Concrete Wall

Void Wall: 1. Aluminum Foil 2. Copper wire mesh 3. Absorber

Basement Ceiling: 1. Drywall 2. Copper wire mesh 3. Aluminum foil

Wood framed floor: 1. Copper wire mesh and underfloor heating system are embedded in cement and self levelling is applied 2. Finish floor (ceramic tile, hardwood etc.)

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customization. For instance, users could allow Wi-Fi networking just for living rooms, bedrooms

and basements could be shielded.

5.1.1 Spatial Design for Residential Spaces

Creating healthy EMW propagation in residential spaces requires a minimum amount of

reflection. To do this, interior elements such as furniture, partition walls, stairs, flooring need to

build using low reflection, absorbent materials. According to the function of the space, flooring

could be constructed using hardwood, ceramic tile, and granite. For countertops, marble or granite

could be used to create serene and inviting interior environments. Moreover, to foster easy EMW

flow for wireless networking in residential spaces, wooden doors and furniture would be a good

choice.

EMW Propagation in Commercial Spaces

Commercial space, also called commercial facility, is designed for retail/ wholesale trade such

as hotel, restaurant, offices, shopping malls, warehouses, clinics, and so on. The function of these

spaces would require many EM sources to propagate such as Wi-Fi networking, Bluetooth,

wireless security cameras, printers, computers, complex lighting systems and electrical wiring,

sensor tags, magnetic removers, hard security tags, checkpoint post slave pillars (Sensor Tags Inc.

2016). In addition to that occupants and visitors would also bring their electronic gadgets to the

building environment and create complex and high power spectral densities. The current design

solution of commercial spaces challenges to solve data confidentiality and data integrity (Section

1.3.5), EMC, EMI (Section 1.3.2.1) and potential health issues. Moreover, reinforced concrete as

the main building material in commercial spaces creates problems for cell phone coverage because

of its EMW absorbent properties (Section 2.2). Low reflective building materials such as wood,

plywood, ceramic, granite and glass would allow harmonized EMW propagation inside the

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building. Therefore, the common use of these materials would foster healthy and effective EMW

propagation in commercial building environments.

5.2.1 Spatial Design for Commercial Spaces

According to client’s project priorities, in conventional space planning, circulation patterns are

defined, plans and layouts are developed for furniture and equipment placement, and numerous

design parameters are considered. The importance of space planning is to increase creativity and

productivity, and to integrate new technology into the workplace (Addi and Lytle 2000).

Conventional space planning principles can be integrated easily into healthy and effective EMW

propagation. Following figures show typical commercial floor plan for a healthcare facility and

typical propagation ray paths for this type of commercial design.

Figure 33. Typical commercial building floor plan (Holladay Properties 2012).

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Light steel, reinforced concrete and cinder block are design options for conventional interior

wall partitions. In North America, light steel framing is the number one choice for builders

regarding commercial applications. Residential practice is seen at multi-family housing. The

existing building design and material choices cause wireless communication design challenges.

For instance, in Fig 24., curtain walls promote vulnerability against outer high power spectral

densities. Glass panes allow penetration, and aluminum framing fosters high reflection and

standing waves, which causes EMI and inefficient propagation inside of the structure. Designing

WLAN in this floor would be challenging because multiple AP’s would create multipath on the

floor. Propagation ray paths for conventional office design is illustrated in Figure 25.

Figure 34. Propagation ray paths for typical office (Remcom 2014).

To solve the existing propagation issues, the first step is to shield curtain wall by applying EM

shielding film or conductive coating to the windows, and any extruded aluminum framing needs

to be grounded. It is recommended that shielding systems are connected to an electrical ground for

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personal safety and to prevent the generation of low frequency electromagnetic fields through field

coupling with the building’s electrical wiring system. According to Radiansa (2017), shielding

does not require an electrical ground to function as a shield against high-frequency electromagnetic

radiation. Ground connections are easily made using a ground connection kit, generally consisting

of a steel plate which screws into the shielding wall with a conductive fleece on the rear side to

ensure a good connection to the paint, or mesh surface (Radiansa 2017). Moreover, during curtain

wall insulation, absorbers needs to be placed behind insulation batts, foam or rigid foam. Façade

shielding allows controlling interior propagation; therefore, interior partition walls needs to be

built using wood, glass, and paper-based products that would minimize the reflection and

interference. If the steel framing is chosen, the frame needs to be grounded and absorbers need to

be applied to minimize the reflection. Conductive aluminum or copper foil shielding tapes can be

used to provide effective seaming (3M 2017). There is growing demand around the world to lower

power density levels in commercial buildings. For instance, elevated ELF magnetic fields were

presented in a sizeable portion of the ground level floor of a commercial building in mid-town

Manhattan. The project was executed by FMS (Field Management Services). Before the shielding,

the peak level was 21,500 nT and an average of 4,000 nT was present throughout the mail room.

FMS developed a plan to prevent extreme computer monitor interference in the space. Their goal

was to reach 1,000 nT magnetic power density in the room. After the shielding, the average value

was reduced from 4,000 nT to 500 nT. Therefore, EMI concern was eliminated by the shielding

approach (FMS 2017b). Another example can be Letterman Digital Arts Center, a division of

Lucas Films Limited, which is located at the Presidio of San Francisco. The 79,000 m² (square

meter) campus-like setting has several complex houses, which contain advanced computer, digital

motion picture, television, audio and wireless network facilities. The concern was EMI emissions

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from electrical and other sources internal and external to the site that might present serious

interference threats to sensitive equipment. An extensive broadband (DC through 8 GHZ) survey

was conducted by FMS at the site to identify potential EMI threat sources external to the site (FMS

2017b). After the survey, multiple areas in several of the buildings electrical substations and high

current distribution equipment were to be located beneath occupied areas containing sensitive

equipment, including an extensive Computer Center. Therefore, the shielding project was executed

to lower EMF levels to acceptable levels (average 500 nT).

Therefore, these shielding projects would lead to improve data security and health concerns.

Commercial spaces require effective wireless communication and it is a need for the occupants. If

there are high flux densities in the environment, in this case, EMW shielding is suggested. The

balance approach such as next generation of antennas, better encryption methods, and shielding

needs to be incorporated to solve these issues in commercial spaces.

EMW Propagation in Educational Spaces

Educational and commercial structures have high occupancy that creates complex EMW

propagation inside these buildings. Currently, each university student has a laptop and a

smartphone which have become an inseparable part of student life. Thousands of students in such

environments foster complex EMW propagation. Additionally, transformer vaults in buildings and

wireless networking systems in campus environments create complex and problematic power

spectral densities in some cases. In fact, typical campus wireless networking is much more than a

mesh. The infrastructure provides to support indoor and outdoor Wi-Fi, inter-building

connectivity, LAN extension, video surveillance, access control and so on. The following figure

illustrates the infrastructure, and the complexity of creating effective and safe propagation in a

campus environment.

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Figure 35. Typical Wireless Networking on campus environment (Coffman 2011)

The nature of this type of wireless network design creates potential security breaches. Outdoor

access points are integrated with Wi-Fi hotspots, surveillance cameras, and critical servers. The

sensitive data can be easily accessed by an attacker. Currently, universities all over the world lose

sensitive data and money because of campus hacking activities. As mentioned on Section 1.3.4,

wireless hacking is easier than many people think, and the attacker can easily reach a target using

this type of intrusion.

5.3.1 Spatial Design for Educational Spaces

Commercial and educational spaces have similar characteristics in terms of construction

methods and building material selection. Currently, wireless networking infrastructure of campus

environments fosters highly complex EMW propagation. External transmitters for Wi-Fi hotspots

and other sources would create high power spectral densities in campus buildings. Besides,

wireless communication systems, High ELF flux densities are also a concern in educational spaces.

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For instance, high magnetic field levels sufficient to cause excessive monitor distortion and

concern about potential health effect caused a high school in the Midwest of the USA to abandon

use of a large classroom and attached offices located above the school’s transformer vault and

switch panels. Exposed copper bus bars mounted to the ceiling of the transformer vault (beneath

the classroom) were identified as the main source of magnetic fields. According to site survey,

peak fields of 11,200 nT and an average of 2,600 nT were present throughout the classroom and

offices. After the project shielding installation, peak conditions were reduced to less than 1,000 nT

and the average throughout the classroom and offices was below 500 nT (FMS 2017a). These

issues are common on educational buildings. To resolve high power density problem, power

spectral densities of each classroom, laboratory, and office need to be analyzed, and EMW

mitigation methods (Section 4.1) need to be implemented. Regarding data security in these

buildings, shielding would reduce the possibility of hacking. These include building envelope

shielding, non-reflective interior partitions, furniture upholstery, shielded electrical wiring with

demand switches. The results can be significant for educational spaces, these solutions could be

expanded to educational buildings worldwide.

EMW Propagation in Military and Government Spaces

Military and government buildings require a high level of security in terms of wireless

communication. For instance, US government uses MIL-STD-285, NSA 65-6, and NSA 73-2A

building performance standards to test of shielding enclosures (Hemming 1992b). Any mistake in

building design and execution can lead to the potential loss of lives, such as one the battle field.

Reinforced concrete is the main choice in this type of building design because of its resistance

against attacks and eavesdropping. However, reinforced concrete as a material is not the only

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solution to create safe EMW propagation in such buildings. EMW shielding principles (Section

4.1.1) for residential buildings can also be used for military infrastructure.

5.4.1 Spatial Design for Military and Government Spaces

In addition to bunkers and fortified buildings, military and government buildings follow

commercial spatial design principles. The purpose of these standards is to stay current with trends

and best practices in space management, and provide functional work environments for

government employees (“Office Space Standards and Guidelines” 2003). Creating healthy and

effective EMW propagation can be associated with tenant improvements including partitions,

screens, finishes, signs and modifications to telephone, lighting, electrical, heating and ventilation

as necessary to service the office layout. Incorporation of commercial shielding techniques can be

used for military and government spaces per required security measures. Therefore, the shielding

level can be justified.

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Chapter Six: Discussion

Current wireless communication systems include cellular telephone systems, cordless phones,

wireless LANs, wide-area wireless data services, fixed wireless access, paging systems, satellite

networks, Bluetooth, HomeRF and remote sensor networks (Agarwal 2015). The performance of

these systems relies on EMW propagation, which underlines the relationship between

electromagnetic wave and frequency. Engineers are looking for other capabilities to improve

previous wireless generations, such as 3G and 4G. The demand for new capabilities include very

high data transfer rates, high reliability, energy efficiency, and the combination of new radio-

access technologies. This demand would require higher frequency bands, device-to-device

communication, flexible spectrum usage, multi-antenna transmission, and so on. Higher traffic

growth of electronic devices requires higher bandwidth connectivity. Thus, 5G could provide

solutions to accelerate the development of the Internet of Things. 5G networking will be able to

connect bands below 6 GHz and bands within the range of 6 GHz to 100 GHz (“5G Radio Access”

2016). However, effective EMW penetration throughout building materials is reduced. It is

anticipated that mobile phone companies need to push the power spectral density thresholds to

provide better coverage in existing buildings.

The diversity of electronic circuits, which can be used for communication, automation,

computation and other purposes, promotes complex EMW propagation environments. Moreover,

the developments of circuit technology and the size of the electronic equipment would allow for

increased device density and create a challenge to maintain EMC.

The effects of EMW propagation can be seen in metallic surfaces such as aluminum facade,

curtain walls, window frames, and furniture in building environments. Due to material properties,

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EMW behavior could be a reflection, diffraction, scattering, and dispersion, which cause distortion

in transferred data.

Regarding wireless communication in building environments, there is no ideal conventional

building material. Each construction material has different transmission and reflection coefficient.

Conventional building materials are considered for structural integrity, building envelope,

aesthetics, and functionality. Creating a new generation of building materials might supplement

engineering studies to achieve healthy, reliable and usable wireless communication systems in the

building environment. For instance, Aerogel products have different application fields such as:

electronics (insulator, sensor material, impedance adjustment, low Ɛ material, Çerenkov detectors,

pigment carrier), kinetic energy absorbers (tank buffers, star dust impact, shock absorption),

chemistry (absorbents, catalyst support, extracting agents, nano vessels), thermal insulation

(cryogenic, ambient conditions, high temperature, translucent), acoustic insulation

(building/construction, transportation, machinery), filler applications (paints, varnishes, films,

elastomers), pharmacy/agriculture-carrier material applications (active substances, fungicides,

herbicides, pesticides) (Schmidt and Schwertfeger 1998) and the different form of aerogels such

as: Graphene oxide/cellulose aerogel nanocomposite shows a good EMI shielding performance

(Wan and Li 2016). Thus, aerogel can be used as a hybrid thermal insulation and EM shielding

product.

To improve data confidentiality and data integrity for wireless devices, a physical layer of

security (OSI layer one), such as EMW shielding, needs to be applied. It would reduce the

possibility of wireless attacks. A physical shielding barrier would reduce the leakage and would

keep the propagation in control inside of the structure. Cyber attacks are very real, hence

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implementing shielding and design options in building environments would promote data

confidentiality and data integrity.

Information and communications technology (ICT) systems are the catalyst of today’s

innovative and knowledge-based society. The growth of these technologies demand high energy

consumption (Fettweis and Zimmermann 2008). According to Gartner’s research in 2007, ICT

technologies are responsible for the 2 percent of global CO₂ emissions (Stamford 2007). The

solution relies on advanced microelectronics circuits, which consume less energy.

A rapidly expanding source of EMW is mobile phone base stations. Developing and executing

new building codes that incorporate healthy building environments for occupants is a meaningful

goal. Alternatively, next generation antennas may be developed to improve directivity. Moreover,

specifying a minimum required distance between inhabited structures, antennas, and their

mountings is critical to protecting public health.

Designing healthy and propagation friendly buildings requires a conceptual form. This form

needs to be supported with right building materials and other components of a space, such as the

form of furniture, lighting fixtures, interior partitions, and so on. Using this strategy, design

professionals could decrease high power densities, in turn decreasing associated health risks, and

increasing effective EMW propagation. This will achieve the design principle of unity in

architecture.

EMW manipulation is necessary to prevent standing waves and high power spectral densities

in building environments. Provided new shielding construction and interior design methods, by

analyzing different types of architectural space and material configurations, would be beneficial

to solving problems such as EMI, EMC, electronic warfare, and long-term adverse health impact

on humans.

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Performative architecture uses building performance as a guiding design principle for the design

of cities, buildings, landscape and infrastructures (Kolarevic 2009). Currently, EMW propagation

in building environments are a new emerging priority. This study provides an EMW shielding

planning method to consider in building environments. The research implications of this current

study are significant and point to the need for new design strategies.

Although architects and engineers may overlap each other’s work, there are many differences

between the two disciplines. Architects and engineers often approach projects from very different

perspectives. Hemming (1992a) suggests various mounting architectural shielding methods on

existing exterior walls (Figure 36).

Figure 36. Suggested architectural shielding on exterior walls by Hemming (Hemming 1992a).

Figure 36A. clearly shows the conceptual and impractical solution by choosing wrong

construction materials and installation order behind a conventional masonry wall. Instead of using

a moisture barrier, the first component behind any exterior wall would be insulation, and any

interior insulation application requires framing to structurally support other components, such as

drywall, electrical, plumbing, and HVAC to complete a wall. Low insulation (0.45-0.56 R value)

A B

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(Randy L. Martin of R. L. Martin & Associates 2014) and moisture resistance properties of drywall

would not help to solve the issue. In this detail, another problem is how to secure drywall to the

masonry wall. To do this, pivot holes need to be drilled, and either mechanical bolts with washers

or wall plug-screw-washer combination need to be applied. Moreover, the suggestion would not

provide thermal and structural efficiency. The last problematic element is steel studding, which

creates unintended reflection and possible standing waves. The practical order behind the masonry

wall would begin with a one-inch air gap and then 2x4” wood framing would structurally support

the insulation, electrical and plumbing. Shielding foil (aluminum/copper) could be mounted to

wood framing. Therefore, the finishing element would be drywall cover on the framing.

In Figure 36B., there is no insulation. Plywood sheathing could not provide efficient insulation

and RC channeling is not necessary to use in this detail. Thus, the practical order would begin with

a one-inch air gap, 2x4” wood framing, insulation, sheet metal shielding, and drywall application.

Therefore, to avoid any impractical detail solutions in building design, EMW shielding

considerations concept needs to be utilized in architecture/interior design curriculum. This method

would also foster a better understanding of architectural practice and execution. When both

architect and engineer work together following this theses guidelines and workflow, future

structure built can be healthy and secure.

Technological innovation reshapes the future of construction industry. Emerging economies of

Asia, the Middle East, Latin America, Africa and India foster this growth. To take a full advantage

of this opportunity, construction companies have been looking for new methods to build cost-

effective and cheaper structures. One of the reasons of this motive is rapid urbanization. Thus,

traditional construction methods would be too slow to meet this demand. Moreover, governments

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and communities require better use of resources of energy, warmer, safer, affordable, and healthier

buildings. Therefore, Hempcrete construction method looks promising in terms of non-

combustibility, pest resistance, dimensional stability, sustainability, and energy efficiency that can

lower construction and home ownership costs (JustBioFiber 2014). The design guidelines of this

study can be implemented to Hempcrete structures to support this need.

Conclusions

The power spectral density values found in the case study for a typical office, residential

indoor environments are below legal limits in Canada, however, high power density levels cause

potential negative health impact on all living things. For instance, in Ontario farms, livestock

exposed to uncontrolled electricity exhibited odd behavior, had lower productivity, stopped eating

or drinking, and in other cases even died (Royce 2015). There are some high-power flux density

cases around the world and further research needs to be done to address these cases in Canada.

The following research questions has been answered in previous Chapters.

1. Why do we need harmonious environments for electronic devices?

All electric devices can emit electromagnetic wave radiation and many environments have

high levels of electromagnetic radiation due to a concentration of transmitting devices. During

their operation, even if their function is not to radiate, these devices generate leakage of

electromagnetic radiation. Unwanted radiation from sources such as these can interfere with

the operation of many electrical equipment. Source, transmission path, and receiver are the

combination factors of an EMI problem.

An example of EMI affecting certain equipment occurs in hospitals. In a hospital

environment, potential EMI emitting sources might be walkie-talkies, cellular phones,

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Bluetooth devices, wireless local area networking, medical telemetry, radiology equipment,

electrocautery equipment, fluorescent lights, fire alarms, computers, printers and radio

frequency identification devices.

The diversity of electronic circuits to use for communication, automation, computation, and

other purposes promotes complex EMW propagation environments. Therefore, these complex

environments may have an adverse impact on health and security.

2. How do building materials affect EMW propagation?

While propagating, EMW experience reflection, diffraction, scattering, and dispersion. Each

causes distortion in radio signals. For instance, reflection can be seen in metallic surfaces such

as aluminum facade, curtain walls, window frames, and furniture in building environments.

These surfaces act as an almost perfect reflector for electromagnetic waves. However, signal

strength can be reduced according to the thickness of the building material. For instance, the

signal from a cell phone mast often travels a variety of paths until it reaches its destination.

When these signals encounter an obstacle, scattering and diffraction occur; naturally, the signal

travels around the object. When a signal hits a surface, scattering occurs and remits in different

directions. All dielectric materials have some loss, which causes dispersion. Lossy dielectric

materials such as cement and pure water are good examples on which to observe dispersion

So, in buildings, reflection, diffraction, scattering, and dispersion are the common effects,

which are not seen in free spaces where EM waves do not interact with any material. On the

other hand, propagation intensity decreases through walls, roofs, and floors. In addition,

corners foster multipath propagation and diffraction. These EM propagation effects are almost

unavoidable in today’s modern structures because of the use of aluminum, steel columns, rebar

grids, metal pipes, HVAC systems, and so on.

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3. Do we need new building materials for healthy and effective EMW propagation?

Regarding wireless communication in building environments, each conventional

construction material has its transmission and reflection coefficients and the other elements

such as furniture, electrical, plumbing, HVAC, other electronic equipment, and occupants have

an impact on EMW propagation in the space. Creating effective and healthy EMW propagation

in a built environment is a challenge and requires rigorous EMW simulations. This is because

conventional building materials are also considered for structural integrity, building envelope,

aesthetic, and functionality. This requires development of new building materials, and research

into how they can be used effectively. There are a variety of application potential of advanced

materials in architectural practice such as shielding paints, wall coverings, furniture, office

partition panels, wall dividers, flooring, ceiling, door and window material coatings and so on.

In addition, the new generation building envelopes can create RF radiation-controlled building

environments. The combination of an insulation material and RF shielding window film would

minimize the unintended RF radiation leakage into the building. The potential use of the new

insulation material might not just be for shielding, but also harvesting the energy from the

space around. In addition, this free source of electrical energy can be combined with solar

panels to maximize the energy efficiency in building environments.

4. What are the other options to improve data confidentiality and data integrity for Wireless

Networking?

An effective solution can be shielding spaces to prevent wireless attacks by maintaining data

confidentiality (prevent sensitive information from reaching the wrong people) and data

integrity (maintaining the consistency, accuracy, and trustworthiness of data) in our building

environments.

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5. What are the current power intensity levels in building environments and how do these

levels impact human health? (Case study in residential and the different locations in

Calgary.)

According to general public long-term exposure limits in Canada (Health Canada 2015), The

United States, China, Russia and Switzerland (Table 3), measured average power density levels

for residential, office and class environments stay in the safe zone. However, there are some

cases, 200 V/m (Hanada, Takano, and Antoku 2002) and 100 V/m (Luca and Salceanu 2012)

in hospital environments around the world. These values are above the exposure limits in

Canada. Further research needs to be conducted to identify these spaces.

6. How can design options for buildings be developed considering the wireless

communication technologies currently available?

Designing healthy and propagation friendly buildings requires a conceptual form. This form

needs to be supported with right building materials and other components of a space, such as the

form of furniture, lighting fixtures, interior partitions, and so on.

7. How does spatial design (by architects) affect EMW propagation?

Creating healthy EMW propagation in residential spaces requires a minimum amount of

reflection. To do this, interior elements such as furniture, partition walls, stairs, flooring need to

build using low reflection, absorbent materials. According to the function of the space, flooring

could be constructed using hardwood, ceramic tile, and granite. For countertops, marble or granite

could be used to create serene and inviting interior environments. Moreover, to foster easy EMW

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flow for wireless networking in residential spaces, wooden doors and furniture would be a good

choice.

In conventional space planning, circulation patterns are defined, plans and layouts are

developed for furniture and equipment placement, and numerous design parameters are

considered. The importance of space planning is to increase creativity and productivity, and to

integrate new technology into the workplace (Addi and Lytle 2000). Conventional space planning

principles can be integrated easily into healthy and effective EMW propagation. For instance,

shielding projects would lead to improve data security and health concerns. Commercial spaces

require effective wireless communication and it is a need for the occupants. If there are high flux

densities in the environment, in this case, EMW shielding is suggested. The balance approach such

as next generation of antennas, better encryption methods, and shielding needs to be incorporated

to solve these issues in commercial spaces.

Commercial and educational spaces have similar characteristics in terms of construction

methods and building material selection. Currently, wireless networking infrastructure of campus

environments fosters highly complex EMW propagation. External transmitters for Wi-Fi hotspots

and other sources would create high power spectral densities in campus buildings. Besides,

wireless communication systems, High ELF flux densities are also a concern in educational spaces.

To resolve high power density problem, power spectral densities of each classroom, laboratory,

and office need to be analyzed, and EMW mitigation methods (Section 4.1) need to be

implemented. Regarding data security in these buildings, shielding would reduce the possibility of

hacking. These include building envelope shielding, non-reflective interior partitions, furniture

upholstery, shielded electrical wiring with demand switches. The results can be significant for

educational spaces, these solutions could be expanded to educational buildings worldwide.

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Moreover, incorporation of commercial shielding techniques can be used for military and

government spaces per required security measures. Therefore, the shielding level can be justified.

Future Research

Further research will ideally consider the development of new EMW propagation software

based on these design guidelines. Prior to executing construction, this software could provide an

easy design solution that incorporates healthy and effective wireless communication into the

building environment. There are a variety of EMW propagation software in the market. HFSS

(High-frequency structural simulator) is an example; however, this software does not provide built-

in options, such as built-in antennas and a real-life environment, which is critical for propagation

modeling. The user needs to create a full-model, which is time-consuming and complicated for

design professionals. HFSS’s focus is to the design antennas, complex RF electronic circuit

elements including filters, and transmission lines (“ANSYS HFSS” 2015). Another example is

Wireless InSite (“Wireless EM Propagation Software - Wireless InSite - Remcom” 2015), which

could solve urban scaled propagation problems. This feature provides an advantage to solve

propagation issues. However, the software has two drawbacks. The first, Wireless InSite has the

limited drawing capabilities. There is only a line drawing option on the interface, which creates a

hurdle to working with curvilinear geometry. It should be noted that only rectangular geometry

does not represent architectural forms as the software developer’s vision in architectural design.

The developer expects users to integrate import options from the other software such as AutoCAD

or Sketch up to solve this problem. Moreover, there is no limit in architecture regarding creativity

and problem solving. The second drawback is the cost of the software. The retail price is 25,000

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US$ for the commercial and 35,000 US$ for the advanced version. Academic licensing is available

for researchers but 1000 US$ annual licensing option creates another financial hurdle.

Technology has an impact on how the buildings and infrastructures are designed, constructed

and used. Building Information Modelling (BIM) is an efficient tool to implement different

technologies into architectural design, engineering (electrical and mechanical) and construction.

BIM is based on a 3D modelling tool that provides more informed design decisions, builds more

efficiently and cost-effectively, and manages and maintains buildings with greater ease (“What Is

BIM | Building Information Modeling | Autodesk” 2016). However, Autodesk BIM tools for

building design, construction and civil infrastructure do not provide EMW propagation simulation

software. The software can be integrated into Autodesk BIM tools such as AutoCAD and Revit.

Detailed 3D modelling production problems of HFSS and Wireless InSite can be solved by the

Autodesk platform, and EMW propagation simulation software can be developed utilizing the

design guidelines and EMW shielding methods that are provided in this study. Autodesk cloud

rendering A360, which provides infinite computer power, can be used to create EMW propagation

simulations in 3D. It allows design professionals to visualize, analyze and develop healthy and

effective propagation in building environments. Another solution is to adopt V-Ray, which is a

professional rendering plug-in for 3D Modelling tools such as: Studio Max/Design, Maya, Render

Node, MODO, NUKE, KATANA, SketchUp, Rhino, Revit and Blender (“V-Ray for 3ds Max –

Top Rendering Plugin for Autodesk 3ds Max | Chaos Group” 2016). V-Ray uses global

illumination algorithms to render a 3D model. EMW propagation models can be used in V-Ray to

create realistic 3D EMW propagation renderings. These two solutions provide realistic 3D EMW

simulations and lower the cost of EMW propagation software. This platform also fosters the

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exploration of new architectural forms, spatial design options, and building material choices for

different EMW propagation scenarios.

All building propagation simulations need to be verified by experimental data. To achieve this

goal, the first step would be to collect necessary data. The second step would be 1/1 scaled

experiments, which could allow developing details of different architectural forms. Working on

different building materials or building components, such as window frame, door, and insulation

materials, requires sophisticated equipment in a laboratory environment. Establishment of new

building science laboratories in higher education institutions will provide solutions but will also

lower associated health care costs and increased system security.

Electromagnetic propagation issues have been addressed by engineers in building environments

thus far. To improve wired and wireless local area networking (WLAN) efficiency, engineering

society uses troubleshooting tolls, such as OneTouch AT Network Assistant, which provides

copper, fiber and Wi-Fi troubleshooting, Wi-Fi and wired client devices connectivity testing,

network services testing, network application testing, local-intranet and internet performance,

cloud based results management, remote visibility, control and file access, wired network

discovery and analyses, Wi-Fi network discovery and analyses, end-to-end performance

measurement, VoIP analyses and package capture (Netscout 2016). The tool can address 2.4 GHz

and 5 GHz Wi-Fi electromagnetic interference (EMI) issues. These identified issues could be

solved by network engineers/technicians. Their solution is to try different channels to overcome

Wi-Fi performance problems or to increase power spectral densities. However, adding more

Access Points (APs) or trying different channels can not fundamentally solve higher power spectral

densities and data breach in building environments. Wireless efficiency and security can be

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improved by EMW shielding. This one-time investment can lower the high cost of wireless

troubleshooting for corporates, government facilities, commercial and residential buildings.

Once, Nikola Tesla said: “There is a difference between progress and technology, progress

benefits mankind. Technology does not necessarily do that” (ancient-code.com 2016). Tesla

referred to the Industrial Revolution as technology. In that period, environment and human well-

being were not considered. Tesla imagined the world with wireless energy transmission. He

thought, that using electricity provided better sustainability than coal-powered steam engines.

Time proved him right; however, he had not anticipated the adverse impact of high power spectral

densities on all living things. In some cases, technology does not benefit mankind, thus, research

provides solutions in different areas, such as engineering, architecture, and medicine. The ultimate

goal is to disseminate this knowledge and to employ it when designing building projects.

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Appendix A

NIST Experiment Description

Included in this Appendix are RF transmission system characteristics, antenna specifications,

test fixtures and transmission coefficients of tested materials.

A.1 RF transmission system characteristics

A modification of an ultra-wideband synthetic aperture radar was used to create the NSL

measurement system. Bistatic mode use of the radar allowed collecting one-way transmission data.

Separate transmit and receive antennas were used and directed each other at 2 m. In this research,

RF transmission system characteristics are based on frequencies (0.5-2.0 GHz and 2.0-8 GHz),

bandwidth (antenna limited), waveform (gated CW), pulse width (10 ns to 500 ns), PRF (50 kHz

to 5 MHz), polarization (fully polarimetric), output power (20 dBm), dynamic range (80 dBm),

noise floor (-100 dBm). Overall, the following figure shows the schematic of the spread spectrum

transmission system used for NIST research.

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Fig A1. Schematic of the spread spectrum transmission system (Stone 1997).

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A.2 Antenna Specifications

Product Specification AS-48450

Frequency 0.5 to 2.0 GHz

Polarization Simultaneous horizontal and vertical

Gain 6 to 12 dBi

Beam width, 3dB(BW) 70° to 25°, nominal

Beam squint (3 dB bisector) 5°, maximum

Cross Polarization -15 dB, maximum

Isolation between ports 20 dB, minimum

Maximum input power, each connector 70W CW, 3kW peak

RF connectors Type N female

Impedance 50W reference

VSWR 3:1, maximum

Size 444 mm square, 533 mm long (maximum)

Weight 15 kg

Table A.2.1. Specifications for 0.5 to 2.0 GHz antenna use for “Low” Bandwidth Tests.

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Model Specification FR-6415

Frequency (GHz) 3.0 to 8.0

Gain 1.7 dBi (nominal)

Beam width level 17 degrees’ nominal

Side lobe -30 dB nominal

VSWR 2:1 maximum

Isolation 60 dB minimum

Aperture width 261 mm

Overall length 627 mm

Weight 4.77 kg

Input SMA Female

Table A.2.2. Specifications for 3.0 to 8.0 GHz antenna use for “High” Bandwidth tests.

A.3 Test Fixtures

Fig A.3. Isometric view of a test stand used in NIST test.

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A.5 Transmission Coefficients

Fig A.5 Brick masonry composite wall transmission coefficients versus frequency (0.5 GHz- 8GHz) (Stone 1997).

Fig A.6 Plain concrete block transmission coefficients in different thickness (C14L = 102 mm, C18L = 203 mm, C112L = 305 mm, C14H = 102 mm, C18H = 203 mm, C112H = 305 mm) (Stone 1997)

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Appendix B

Included in this Appendix is wireless attack hacking tools list and sample methods of wireless

network cracking.

Wireless Attacks:

1. Aircrack-ng, (“Aircrack-Ng” 2015).

2. Asleap, (“Asleap | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

3. Bluelog, (“DigiFAIL.com - Bluelog” 2016).

4. BlueMaho, (“BlueMaho | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

5. Bluepot, (“Bluepot | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

6. BlueRanger, (“BlueRanger | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

7. Bluesnarfer, (“Bluesnarfer | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

8. Bully, (“Bully | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016)

9. coWPAtty, (“coWPAtty | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

10. Crackle, (“Crackle | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

11. eapmd5pass, (“eapmd5pass | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

12. Fern Wi-Fi Cracker, (“Fern Wifi Cracker | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

13. Ghost Phisher, (“Ghost Phisher | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

14. GISKismet, (“GISKismet | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

15. Gqrx, (“Gqrx SDR – A Software Defined Radio Powered by GNU-Radio and Qt” 2016).

16. gr-scan, (“GNU Radio Signal Scanner” 2016).

17. kalibrate-rtl, (“Kalibrate-Rtl | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

18. KillerBee, (“Google Code Archive - Long-Term Storage for Google Code Project

Hosting.” 2016a).

127

19. Kismet, (“Kismet Wireless” 2016).

20. mdk3, (“mdk3 | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

21. Mfoc, (“Mfoc | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

22. Mfterm, (“Mfterm | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

23. Multimon-NG, (“Multimon-NG | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

24. PixieWPS, (“PixieWPS | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

25. Reaver, (“Google Code Archive - Long-Term Storage for Google Code Project Hosting.”

2016b).

26. Refang, (“Redfang | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

27. RTLSDR Scanner, (“RTLSDR Scanner | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

28. Spooftooph, (“SpoofTooph Download | SourceForge.net” 2016).

29. Wi-Fi Honey, (“Wifi Honey | Penetration Testing Tools” 2016).

30. Wifitap, (“Wifitap EN - Page Personnelle de Cédric Blancher” 2016).

31. Wifite, (“Google Code Archive - Long-Term Storage for Google Code Project Hosting.”

2016c).

To crack WEP networks, there are simple steps to follow (“Crack WEP Using Intel 3945abg

in Windows with Commview” 2015):

• A compatible wireless adapter:

This is suggested as essential part of the process because wireless card needs to go into

monitor mode and capture the packets. To do this, CommView software would be used to

capture and analyze network packets on wireless 802.11a/b/g/n networks. The software

gathers information from the wireless adapter and decodes the data. The software also

128

provides the list of network connections. User-defined WEP or WPA keys would allow

decoding packets for a full analysis of the most widespread protocols. Captured packets can

be saved to log files for future analysis. This feature promotes the cracking of network

password. Overall, CommView is designed to picture WLAN traffic for administrators,

security professionals, and network programmers. However, anyone could use the software

for WLAN hijacking purposes (“CommView for WiFi Download” 2015). Another

alternative is Wireshark, which is a free open-source packet analyzer. It is compatible with

Linux, OS X, BSB, Solaris, other Unix-like operating systems and Windows (“Wireshark ·

Go Deep.” 2015). The software has the capability to capture wired or wireless networking

packets, which is needed to crack data for the next step.

• Aircrack-ng GUI:

Aircrack-ng GUI software cracks the network after capturing the packets by CommView

(“Aircrack-Ng” 2015) or Wireshark. Aircrack-ng GUI software has the capability to crack

both WEP and WPA encryptions. To start the process:

• Firstly, scan the wireless networks around and select the target network according to

encryption type.

• Secondly, capture the packets from desired channels; the minimum number is 100,000

for a strong signal.

The rest of the process is done by Aircrack-ng software, which provides the WLAN network

password (“Simple_wep_crack [Aircrack-Ng]” 2015). The solution to stop cracking of WEP

networks is the physical shielding of the required space because the signal quality is a significant

factor to be successful in Wi-Fi networking cracking process. In meantime, if the goal is to keep

129

Wi-Fi networking in the space, the type of shielding method would be provided by shielding

wallpaper and the other products, which is covered in Section 3.1.1.1

WPA Wi-Fi password cracking requires different tools such as Reaver or wpscrack software.

Depending on the program, the cracking process takes about 2 -10 hours. The defeating process of

WPS is done by intelligent brute force attack to the static WPS PIN. The requirement for the

process is to have Linux-OS, a router with WPS and the following programs such as aircrack-ng,

python-pycryptopp, python-scapy, and libpcap-dev (“Cracking_wpa [Aircrack-Ng]” 2015).

Therefore, it could be assumed that all wireless networking encryption protocols such as WEP,

WPA, and WPA 2 have security bridges and they could be breached. The security improvements

of these vulnerabilities would follow anti-action by the hacker community. Currently, the

immediate response to solve this problem is to create a physical barrier in building environments.

EMW shielding is currently considered the first layer of defense (OSI layer one).

Hacking android smartphones are even easier and are possible to do remotely. A Hacker can

get the complete access to text messages, videos, images, files. Moreover, victim’s cell phone

could be used for a variety of purposes such as a microphone, a camera, or to send SMS, and all

files could be downloaded by a hacker. To complete this process, all that is needed is an internet

connection and the victim’s phone number (“How to Hack an Android Smartphone Remotely! |

Hacks and Glitches Portal” 2015). Another general approach to hacking any cell phone is to send

a message that includes a picture of your choice. When the victim opens the picture, his or her

phone is infected. With this type of attack, hacker could see and send text messages, make calls,

see send calls, see received calls, listen to voicemails, record his own voice message, watch a live

feed through victim’s camera, take pictures, record video from the camera, view all files, and so

on (“Download” 2015).

130

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