Research no. 2

Social andPsychologic

alConsiderati

onsMargallo, Abigael L.

201111712TTH/ 2:00 pm to 3:30 pm

Archt. Romeo Camacho

Social and Psychological ConsiderationsGood planning and design will be the product of a process

which respects both nature of man and the nature of nature --Elizabeth Kassler. Thus far we have emphasized the naturalconstraints in regional landscape planning and site planning. Thecriteria for housing, recreation facilities, and use areas haveassumed a great deal about the nature of man. In this research weconsider how social and psychological theory may presentconstraints or positive direction in decision making and thedevelopment of form at all scales of landscape architecture.

Only recently has there been a concerted effort to relate anunderstanding of human needs, environmental perception andattitudes to design and planning in the hope of providing moresatisfactory, conflict-free, and socially appropriateenvironments. Environmental psychology has become almost aspopular a subject as ecology.

1. Site Values/ Social Impact

It seems likely that an understanding of behavior and perception will be helpful in the development of answers to the following similar questions. What kind of setting is considered suitable for various forms of recreation and leisure time behavior? Which aspects of recreation are derived from a desire to get away from pressure of the city and which are derived from a need for physical exercise? How can playgrounds be made responsive to the needs, urges and feelings of young children when they are designed by adults? The answers to such questions and others are obviously important if design and planning are to be responsive to the social context within which the design must operate and which it serves.

Generally there are two basic ways to become more sensitive to the answers to these and a host of similar questions on every

aspect of behavior and environment. One is to learn from observation and direct consultation with members of community or a specific group on society defined by factors such as age and socioeconomic status. Another way is to become familiar with the general principles or “universals” of behavior and perception.

SOCIAL ANALYSIS

Various methods have been developed to help designers know more about the needs and attitudes of the public client. One method of gathering attitudinal information is the questionnaire or attitude survey. The success of these forms depends on the selection and wording of questions. Questions such as “what do you think of so and so?” or “what kind of environment would you like?” are inhibiting. Since most members of the public do not know what all the possibilities are, their answers are limited bytheir past experiences and imaginations, or loaded by the choicesthey are given in the questions. Although attitude surveys are becoming increasingly sophisticated, there are so many variables and difficulties that they may only be useful as a ways to substantiate the hypothesis or intuitive guess of an intelligent designer or planner who is familiar with the situation.

Factual questionnaire surveys which provide an indication ofthe actual use of facilities, parks, and playgrounds are probablymore valuable. Studies of this nature at least tell us how the existing facilities are used and the distance people of various ages are prepared, if not content, to travel for various recreation activities and experiences. The extent to which particular features or landscape or city have significance or what Lynch calls “image ability” to the majority of the people can also be measured through interview techniques.

Questionnaires may also be employed in the so called feedback or user study. This analysis provides useful informationand opinion about a specific environment in which the respondentslive and about which they are more interested and able and qualified to answer. Several studies have been made of reactions and patterns of tenants in housing developments in which the findings are contrasted with the original expectations of the architect, which are sometimes at odds with the actual use. It not possible to make generalizations from these specific studies,but a series of user feedback studies may reveal patterns and recurring problems. One of Alexander’s techniques of generating form is based on the same concept, that of improving the design by critical analysis of previous solutions to the same problem.

Direct observation of behavior in particular use or activityareas reveals another level of information. For example, Vere Hole’s of children’s playgrounds in London, measuring the child’sattention time and the variety of environment needed by children,those occupations and features receiving most attention, and so forth, provides valuable general information for future design work. It’s use is limited to some extent, however, by the specifics of particular case study, since findings related to children’s play in London would not necessarily apply in Los Angeles except in the very basic physical needs inherent in maturation in body building. By observing people in parks and public open spaces in a systematic way, it is possible to get an impression of the way in which the environment is used or misused and the way in which the design and arrangement of elements such a fountains, benches result in different behavioralpatterns. Even without the presence of the people to observe, tell tales such as litter and worn path, graffiti, and other marks can be an indication of use patterns or dissatisfaction with the environment.

The other way to match the needs and desires of the people who will use it is for them to build it themselves. The ideal conceptis being limited by the imagination of the people and their awareness of options and alternatives. The experience of working with the potential users is in itself educational for the designer as well as the participants. In addition, the project ismore likely to reflect the expressed need and interest of the users as they then are defined. Flexibility in the solution will presumably take care of future users whose needs and preferences may be different.

We must be cautious of the tremendous adaptability of the people to the given environmental situations, which can, in fact,lead us to find satisfactory-and even favor-environments that previously or objectively would have been considered unsatisfactory or hostile. Attitudes change, people move, life isongoing, and there is always the dilemma that what the people seem to want or need at one moment may be in conflict with long term goals or the needs of others.

2. Behavior Settings

The interaction between human behavior and the nonhumanenvironment is a two-way process. On the one hand, theenvironment has a definite impact on the individual, and ourresponse may be adapt to the imposed conditions. On the otherhand, we are continually manipulating or choosing our physicalsurroundings in any attempt to make a life physically andpsychologically more comfortable.

Behavior is the result of a complex interaction between two mainsets of variables. The first is the environment that surroundsand affects the individual. The second is the inner condition ofthe individual, which has two parts: psychological, related tothe body’s biological mechanisms, and psychological, related tothe cultural background, motives, and experiences of theindividual and his basic needs. Thus in design we are concernedwith three categories of human factors: physical, physiological,and psychological.

PHYSICAL FACTORS

Analysis of average measurements and postures , movement ,and growth results in a set of dimensions for parts of buildingand detailed landscape design. A door must be high enough toallow people to pass through without stooping, seats must be atthe right level and inclination to be comfortable etc. Designdetails derived from purely visual considerations may or may notfulfill the condition fit for user. Le Corbusier’s modular systemderived a set of visually pleasing proportions and dimensions

from the human body, thereby theoretically relating beauty andfunctional satisfaction in his design. Special situations maylogically result in deviation from usual dimensions and standard.Example, when young children are involved, the environment mustfacilitate growth and development.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS

Human physiological needs are also relatively easy tospecify. They result from interaction of the inner biologicalcondition of an individual with the surrounding environment.People need food, water, air, exercise and protection. A state ofheath or disease may be regarded as an expression of the successor failure of an organism to respond adaptively to theenvironment changes. The process by which the individual maintainits internal environment in an approximately permanent state ishomeostasis. This process is innate and automatic, resulting inthe operation of body mechanism and glands. Perspiring, shiveringand sleeping are examples of the body’s response to theenvironmental conditions.

Need can be fulfilled through the provision of nutritiousfood, clean air, adequate and pure water, in addition to theelimination of disease with the effective physical environmentwhich allow for control of cold and heat. A human comfort zone inwhich maximum and minimum temperatures and humidity are specifiedhas been developed by Olgay, suggesting an optimum environment interms of the homeostatic process, human comfort, and ease ofliving. A semi-physiological need is the need for self-preservation and avoidance of pain. It is a self-protectingdevice against physical injury and death. The responsibility ofcity agencies to provide conditions of safety for citizens hasresulted in a series of regulations related and designspecifications to our need for security and fear of injurythrough falling.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS

Health is not merely the absence of disease orinfirmity .The definition adopted by the World HealthOrganization describes heath as a state of physical, mental, andsocial well being. Thus we come to the third human componentcomponent in the environmental design:human psychological andsocial needs, behavioral patterns and tendencies. It is the mostdifficult of the three sets of human factors to define and relateto the form of the environment.

Human psychological needs and perception of the environmentdiffer according to a multitude of variables including age,social class, cultural background, past experience and motives,and daily routine of the individual. These factors influence anddifferentiate the need structures of individuals and groups. Evenif the same need is identified, the overt behavior is likely tobe different. Despite the complexity of the variables anddifficulties in the definition of many needs, it is possible tosuggest certain broad categories of inner needs defined on thebasis of observed behavior and empirical evidence and socialanalysis. Some psychological are stronger than the others, andour need structure changes according to the particular situation.

The basic human inner condition may be classified into fivegeneralized groupings of motivational forces and psychologicalneeds: (1) social, (2) stabilizing, (3) individual, (4) self-expression, and (5) enrichment. There is inevitably overlap andpotential conflicts among categories.

The first group of social needs, includes the need of theindividual for social interaction, for group affiliation, forcompanionship, and for love. Together with these go the moresubtle need to be needed and to be sustained by others and by

implication the need for the protection of other people. Thefamily group and the peer group are obvious manifestations ofthese needs. The whole society is organized to a large extentaround these basic social needs. It is clear then that whereverthe environment is meant for people or where the purpose of thedesign is not contrary to the fulfillment of these social needs,it should characteristically have a sociopetal form designed todraw people together, to engender social relationships or atleast to make this possible.

The second set of needs have been called stabilizing needs.We have a need to be free from fear, anxiety and danger. And wehave a need for clear orientation, a need to develop and to holda clear philosophy in life., a need to order and organize theenvironment a hope to have a say in its form and content throughdemocratic process. We have the inherent need to manipulate theenvironment, not only from a point of view of developing physicalconditions responsive to our physiological needs, but also tosatisfy some more deeply rooted need to make a mark, to form andshape the environment according to a symbolic metaphysical urge.The concept of advocacy planning (self-help and self-determination) is to an extent related to this desire forstability through participation in decisions concerning one’s ownlocal environment. The concept of self-help projects wherederelict, unused land is transformed through the energies,initiative, and artistic expression of local people, who will bethe users of the land, gives rise to a form of design activitythat not only satisfies the need of human sense for stability andinvolvement basic to securitybut also leads to a completely newtype of design process. Other implication are imageability, theordering of space so that it is free from ambiguity, and theselection of paving surfaces to provide information about aplace and its use.

The third group is described as individual needs. Some ofthese overlap or are similar to needs of self-expression. Here werecognize the need of people at certain moments in theirexperience and development of self-awareness to be utterly alonein a period of time, the need of privacy. There is a strong needfor acertain amount self-determination, for an identity ans senseof personal uniqueness in the environment, and related to this aneed to be able to choose or make individual decisions aboutone’s life.

The possibility of privacy today in urban environmentbecomes more remote The design environment should make privacy apossibility. This is most likely achieved by the dwelling itself.Privacy also may be attainable by designing the outdoorenvironment to create areas less accessible to direct use byurban population yet within minutes from it. Circulation shouldoffer choices. Within reason we should be able to do what wewant. But we must be careful that personal expression will notadversely affect the lives and privacy and equal needs foruniqueness an identity of others in the society. There is apotential conflict between self-expression and social needs.

There is variety of component needs making up the self-expression group. They include the need for self-assertion andexhibition, for dominance and power. There is also a need foraccomplishment and achievement, for prestige, and to be held inesteem by others. Ardrey calls this, the need for status which isrelated to the need of territory.

Territory has been identifeied as oen of the threefundamental human drives, the other two being status and sex.Laying claim to territory and maintaining a certain distance fromone’s fellow may be considered a real human biological nee.

There is a clear relationship between space and territoryand animal survival. We must be interested in the relationship

between space and behavior. Observations indicate that spacelimitations or crowding can force people into stressfulsituations but if there are too much distance between people,inhibiting conversation and use. A second aspect of importance Asecond aspect of importance is the evidence of pronouncedvariations in spacing mechanisms and personal space exhibited bypeople of different cultural background and nationality.

A too little personal space may result to psychologicalbreakdown or antisocial behavior. There are strong arguments thatovercrowding in urban slum conditions is equally detrimental tothe mental and physical health of the inhabitants, the humanpopulation is so profoundly conditioned by social and culturalfactors that the question of human overcrowding in cities is morecomplicated than in the case of animal population. Thus, it isstill not conclusive that high densities in cities areundesirable and that we cannot design urban forms that wouldemphasize the benefits of a large city life at the same timereducing the ill effects.

We must ensure that the environment will providepossibilities for play as a general concept more than simplythrough provision of “play grounds”. For organized game andsports. A city should have built-in variety and possibilities forimaginative response.

The last group of human need is called enrichment needs.People (especially children) have a thirst for knowledge. Self-realization and personal creativity, and, it seems, a strong needfor beauty and aesthetic experience. Human enrichment needs,then, seem to require the provision of information about theenvironment so that our understanding of what we see may beincreased in detail. The environment should not only be beautifulitself but it also should provide the possibility for creativityin the form of environmental manipulation or simply in the

provision of opportunities within some kind of open space orrecreation program.

Having reviewed the generalities of human needs, we mustbeware of becoming oversensitive and self-conscious about theseneeds, which are part of our general awareness. There is a dangerin the development of specific design forms to satisfy or fulfillsome of these needs which would lead in all probability todisappointment and conflict. It is not the intention here tosuggest that design should be specifically oriented toward thefulfillment of any specific aspect of this spectrum of humanemotional needs. It is simply suggested that the design processshould identify some of the basic demands or needs which aparticular component of the environment may reasonably beexpected satisfy and should ensure the fulfillment of thosedesires. Remember, physical environment is only one part of alarger process. It is the setting in which we, the social animal,interact with other humans or the social environment.

Environment Perception and Behavior

Behavior, then results from the interaction of the individual(thesocial environment) and with the surrounding (the physicalenvironment). Consequently, the environmental designer must beinterested in the structure of the environment and its effect onthe individual. Second, and very much related to this, we mustrender to understand the way in which the environment isperceived by the individual; and third, we must be interested ingeneral behavioral reaction to situations, social and physical.

Our sensitivity to the environment and our adaptability orresponse to environmental conditions can result in specificbehavior, although we are actually unconscious of the effect ofthe environment on us. This possibility underscores the power

that is in the hands of the environmental designer. It has beendemonstrated that behavior and social interaction can beinfluenced by the arrangement of furniture in room. It has alsobeen suggested that architectural arrangements can result inconditions alien to man, for example, where there is noopportunity for privacy (the open plan house) or little physicalcontact to the ground( a high-rise apartment). The judgments inthis case are not made on the basis of human survival, which isnot in doubt, in terms of probable mental stress and discomfort.Environments can thus be specifically designed to bring peopletogether agreeably for some purpose.

Another way, in which the influence of environment on behaviorcan be seen is in the way places assume meaning. A church, acemetery, a library may also result in specific behavioralresponse.

The value of understanding the mechanics of visual sensation is,of course, obvious. Knowing how the eye works and transformsretinal images of constantly shifting light patterns into thevisual world makes it possible for the designers to eliminatedistracting situations which makes life difficult. For example,our 180 degree peripheral vision exaggerates the sense ofmovement and the closer the walls of a tunnel or passageway, thegreater our sense of movement.

Perception is a more complex process than just seeing. Throughit, people select, organize, and interpret sensory stimulationinto meaningful and coherent images of the world. Sensationshades into perception as experience goes from the isolated andsimple to the complex interactions characteristic of an ongoingawareness of the environment.

For landscape Architecture, another interesting theory about theinteraction of people with the physical surroundings concernsaesthetic satisfaction. It has been suggested that therequirements for aesthetic enjoyment are simply the requirementsfor visual perception itself, raised to a higher degree. Theessential thing in each case is to have a pattern which containsthe unexpected. This seems to be the heart of what we call“beauty”. This is explained as follows, Our grasp and enjoymentof the world rest on two complementary neurophysical principles:the principle of response to novelty, change and stimulation; and the principle ofresponse to repetition or pattern.

3. User Requirement

3.1 Anthropometrics The study of human body measurement for use inanthropological classification and comparison.

Ambulant disabled peopleThe figures of ambulant disabled people shown above are tall men.The spaces shown for them are for forward movement, although in practice ambulant people such as these are as a rule able with

their mobility aids to turn to the side to negotiate narrow openings. In the context of universal design they do nottherefore have the same significance as for example wheelchair users, pushchair users or electric scooter users, and they are comfortably accommodated by circulation spaces suitable for independent wheelchair users.

Self-propelled wheelchairsIn Britain it has since the early 1960s been the rule that a standard self-propelling wheelchair has main wheels at the rear and castor wheels at the front. Other standard features of the kind of wheelchair shown in 2.2 are pneumatic tyres,detachable armrests, swing-away detachablefootrests that are adjustable in height, tipping levers at the rear and a folding cross-brace. The height of the centre of the seat is typically atabout 470 mm above floor level.

Wheelchairs of this kind may have domestic armrests, allowing theuser to approach closer to tables, wash basins etc. than where the armrests.

Attendant-pushed wheelchairsThe wheelchair shown in 2.4 has fixed armrests, fixed footrests, pneumatic rearwheels diameter 310 mm and solid front castor wheels diameter 205mm. A similar chair known as a car transit wheelchair has detachable armrests, swing-away detachable footrests that are adjustable in height and a fold-downback. In and around public buildings the wheelchairs that people use more often have large rather than small wheels; wheelchair users who are seen being pushed along streets in wheelchairs withlarge main wheels as in 2.2 may beable to move around independently insidebuildings.The reclining wheelchair shown in 2.5 haselevated legrests and a fully reclining back. Asdepicted its length is about 1300 mm, but thismay be around 1750 mm where the backresthas been lowered and the legrests raised to thehorizontal in order to accommodate a recumbentperson.Powered wheelchairsExamples of powered wheelchairs are shownin 2.6 and 2.7. In and around public buildings,small powered wheelchairs comparable to 2.7are more commonly seen than large poweredchairs. A small powered chair may have lengthand width dimensions of the order of 890 _630 mm, a large one 1170 _ 680 mm.The gradient of a ramp that a poweredwheelchair can be driven up is a function ofthe weight of the disabled person seated in it.As a general rule a typical powered chair canmanage a 1:5 gradient without difficulty. Thetypical powered chair currently manufacturedis designed to carry a weight of 115 kg (18

stone), with the heavy-duty chairs that areavailable being able to carry a weight of 165 kg

26 stone). There can be a danger of the chairtipping over backwards if it is driven up aramp steeper than about 1:5.Shower chairsThe mobile shower chair shown in 2.8 has aperforated seat for drainage and brakes on allfour castor wheels.Electric scootersIn Britain in recent years there has been asteady increase in the use by disabled peopleof electric scooters for mobility purposes.Many have found that with electric scootersthey are more easily able to travel out aroundlocal streets and shops and visit friends. Arelated important factor has been the growthof Shopmobility schemes, of which there arenow (September 2000) some 250 in towns andcities around the country, where pushedwheelchairs, powered wheelchairs and electricscooters are available on loan to visitors withdisabilities who come to do their shopping.The two scooters shown in 2.10 and 2.11 areexamples of the kind of scooters used byShopmobility schemes in the year 2000.A feature of them, as shown by the diagramson page 47 and noted on page 42, is that theturning space they require is considerably morethan that for self-propelled or pushed wheelchairsor child pushchairs. It ought not,however, to be assumed that the turning spacedimensions shown in 5.22 and 5.23 on page 47will remain reliable for the architect’s purposes;the design of features of electric scooters iscontinuingly being refined and improved, oneof the effects of which may that the turningspace needed by typical scooters in future years

is less than as shown in 5.22 and 5.23.Large electric scooters can have lengths ofthe order of 1650 mm.Child pushchairsBuggy-type child pushchairs are shown in 2.12and 2.13. These are small easily foldable lightweightchairs of a kind convenient for takingon buses, and are typical of the type ofpushchair commonly seen in shopping centres.The 2.12 single buggy has a width of 480 mm,enabling it to pass through narrow doors, asrelevant diagrams in this book show. Theimpression is, however, that consumer preferencesfor child pushchairs are changing, withmore comfortable, better upholstered and largerpushchairs now becoming more prevalent. Thewidth of such pushchairs is greater, of the orderof 550 or 650 mm, but for passing through dooropenings, etc. they need no more space thanstandard wheelchairs. The carrycot shown in2.14 has a width of 590 mm, with traditionalperambulators commonly being wider than this.Correspondingly, many double pushchairscommonly seen in shopping centres are widerthan the 815 mm of the buggy shown in 2.13,with widths ranging up to more than 1000 mm.Commentary on door openings with regard todouble pushchairs is on page 42, relevant plandiagrams being on pages 46 and 47.18 Building users: mobility equipmentClient’s Needs: The figure below shows Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchyof Needs. The theory of self-actualization. He stressed the importance of focusing on the positive qualities in people, as opposed to treating them as a "bag of symptoms”.

4. Cultural/ Historical Significance

Existing Land Use. The pattern of existing land use must bedesignated in relation to the site. Community Facilities bothpublic and semipublic, residential, commercial, industrial, andrecreational are inventoried to denote overall trends indevelopment that may have bearing on uses of land adjacent to andincluding the site under study.

Along with the study of existing land use, the site plannershould meet with the adjacent property owners to find out, ifpossible, what future development of their sites may be underconsideration and whether this development will be in conflictwith uses planned on the new site.

Existing Buildings. If a project is to be expanded, buildings on thesite must be shown graphically and their uses and facilitiesstudied. Size, floor area, and existing conditions must beinventoried. Are historical buildings present? Existing buildings

will strongly influence the physical layout of the new site planand will help to establish the grading and drainage patterns onthe site. They also may determine the choice of futurearchitectural expression in building type, color, façade,texture, materials, window type, and roof style to ensurecoherence and unity in design.

History. A campus plan or other large project may have ameaningful background that influences future expansion. It isthen pertinent to ask “Will historic factors be of consequence tothe project?” The history of these projects should beinvestigated and shown graphically so that the relevantinfluences may be considered in the design phase. Theinvestigation may show, for example, that specific buildingsshould be preserved within the redevelopment of a campus, asshould also be reviewed to see if artifacts are present and needto be preserved.

SocioEconomic Factors. Social Factors have a broad range of effectson community facilities and services. Sometimes new facilitiesdisplace homes, businesses, or other community activities. Forexample, a new highway msy cut through an area severing itscohesion by creating visual or physical barriers and affectingbusiness and property values.

Demographic Factors. Population is the base of many land useplanning decisions. Population trends in a local market area canidentify potential user or consumer. These characteristicsinclude population change by births, deaths, age, sex, familysize, occupation, income levels, housing accommodations, taxrates, and assessments

5. Activity/ Communication Linkages

While studying the location of the site and its relation toadjacent properties and to the community, all existing ties orlinkages, if any, should be specified. Linkages may involve themovement of people, goods, communication, or amenities. Now askwhether, by the addition of parkways, parks, or pedestrianoverpasses or underpasses, these linkages need strengthening.Community facilities such as nearby shopping centers, employmenthubs, residential areas churches, school, parks, and playgroundsshould be inventoried in relation to the site. Determine whetheradequate linkages exist, and, if not, decide how they can beestablished or improved by future development.

In planning terms, the aim in creating any communicationssystem, whether for the movement of people and freight, the

transport of materials through pipelines, or the transmission ofpower by cable, is to obtain maximum coordination and maximumsocio-economic benefit with minimum disturbances to theenvironment.

Ideally, the various components of a nation’s communicationsnetwork must operate as a co-ordinated and integrated whole. Itis self-evident that the environmental impacts of the developmentof a communications system are very closely linked with land useand landscape considerations in more detail in relation todifferent systems, it is instructive to look at the broaderimplications.

Traffic and Transit. In inventorying existing vehicular networks,trips---including their origin and destination, purpose, time ofthe day, and volume—should be considered. Graphically plottransportation systems and their location or routes when they areavailable. Check the volume of traffic or frequency of flights todetermine whether additional routes are necessary. If sites arewithin 15 miles of airports, check noise zones and buildingheight restrictions for airport hazard.

Density. Density is an important sociological and legal elementin most types of development. In residential development, it isexpressed in numbers of families or dwelling units per acre.Density may also be used to express floor area ratio or grossfloor area covering the site.---if all floors were spread out andassumed to be one-story in height as compared with total siteacreage Density may also influence privacy, freedom of movement,or social contact among people.

Reference(s):

Land Use and Landscape Planning by Derek Lovejoy

A guide to Site planning and Landscape Construction by Harvey Rubenstein

Introduction to Landscape Architecture by Michael Louri