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School Safety: National School Safety CenterNewsjournal, 1991-92.National School Safety Center, Malibu, CA.Department of Justice, Washington, D.C. Office ofJuvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.92

85-MU-CX-0003146p.

National School Safety Center, Pepperdine University,Malibu, CA 90263.Collected Works Serials (022)School Safety; Fall 1991-Fall 1992

MF01/PC06 Plus Postage.Agency Cooperation; Coordination; Crack; CulturalDifferences; *Delinquency Prevention; Discipline;Drug Abuse; Early Intervention; Elementary SecondaryEducation; *High Risk Students; Juvenile Courts;Leadership Responsibility; Legal Responsibility;Prenatal Influences; Principals; Racial Bias; RacialDiscrimination; School Business Relationship; SchoolResponsibility; *School Safety; School Security;Special Needs Students; *Substance Abuse; TeacherEffectiveness; *Victims of Crime; *Violence*Crack Babies; *Fetal Drug Exposure; Partnerships inEducation

ABSTRACTThis document consists of a year's worth (four

issues) of the Journal "School Safety." Each issue is devoted to aspecific theme. The fall 1991 issue concerns "overcoming prejudiceand hate." The unifying thread woven throughout this issue is theneed to provide opportunities for children of diverse backgrounds tobe exposed to valid information about one another. The winter 1992issue responds to the crisis of "drug-exposed babies." With specialattention including medical care, creative education, and stable homeenvironments, these children may have a chance. Reports in this issuedescribe a pilot program that addresses the special needs of childrenprenatally exposed to drugs, a program for training teachers, andresearch currently being conducted. The spring 1992 issue isconcerned with "reducing drugs, delinquency, and disorder." In 1986,the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention initiated amassive longitudinal study on the causes and correlates ofdelinquency. Principal researchers from the three projects thatcontributed to the longitudinal study discuss various elements oftheir research. The fall 1992 issue focuses on the current trends andissues of teacher and staff victimization. Each issue contains 7 to10 articles, news updates on the theme issue, and the names andaddresses of relevant resources. (MLF)

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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

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NATIONAL SCHOOL SAFETY CENTER NEWSJOURNAL

Fall 1991 - Fall 1992

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School Safety

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"Bigotry has no head and cannot think: no heart and

cannot feel. Her god is a demon. her deco gue is

written in the blood of her victims.'

Darnel 0 Connell 19th ienlurn Irish statesman

NATIONAL SCHOOL SAFETY CENTER NEWSJOURNAL FALL 1991

NSSC UPDATE

Overcomingprejudice and hate

By Ronald D. StephensNSSC Executive Director

"It is never too late to give up your prej-udices.- So said noted American authorHenry David Thoreau more than acentury ago. Today, national attentionhas been drawn to such incidents as thealleged racially motivated beating ofRodney King by several Los Angelespolice officers or the Bensonhurst, NewYork, incident where Yusef Hawkins. ablack youth, was beaten to death bywhite youths.

Incidents such as these are not new,but they do have a new name. The term"ethnoviolence" refers to acts of vio-lence or intimidation motivated by prej-udice and hate. More than one hundredyears ago, Irish statesman DanielO'Connell aptly described this inve-terate problem. saying. "Bigotry has nohead and cannot think; no heart andcannot feel. Her god is a demon, herdecalogue is written in the blood of hervictims." This issue of School Safetyaddresses the problems of ethno-violence and bigotry, focusing on waysour children can learn to overcome thebiases and intolerance passed on fromprevious generations.

Today's children are living in an in-creasingly multicultural and multiracialsociety. More than one million immi-grants enter the United States annually.By the year 2000. one out of threechildren entering the public schools willbe from a minority group.

As our nation focuses on the educa-tional strategies that will bring successto the schoolchildren of the next decade.

perhaps no greater challenge is presentedthan to create a learning climate and ed-ucational setting where cultural diversityis embraced with appreciation, accept-ance and understanding.

Most people are not consciously racist.Much of the racism in schools exists insubtle forms of prejudices and stereo-types. This subtle bias may be exhibitedthrough the selection of curriculum ma-terials; inappropriate student tracking;unequal opportunities to teach or to com-pete: denial; or simply an unconsciousawareness of one's own actions andassumptions. It also may be exhibitedthrough teachers who expect less fromnon-white students or from youngsterswho do not speak fluent English. New-comers, even of the same race, may be

considered "outsiders."But sometimes racism is not so subtle.

The formation of gangs and gang vio-lence along racial fines, the use of racialslurs and epithets, and vandalism andinterpersonal violence based on hateand prejudice are mu:h more obviousexamples.

Racism and ethnoviolence must beovercome. Schools perhaps are bestpositioned to address this problem and.in doing so, problems of school crimeand violence, as well as intimidation andfear, will receive mutual benefits.

The unifying thread woven W. Jughoutthe articles in this issue of School Safety

is the need to provide opportunities forchildren of diverse backgrounds to be ex-posed to valid information about one an-other. These opportunities can take theform of a well-planned multicultural cur-riculum, the use of cooperative learning

School Safety 2 Fall 1991

methods, the development of studentmediators and conflict resolution teams,or classroom activities that help studentsto examine their own beliefs andprejudices.

Also in this issue, Kenneth Holt re-ports on a controversial program devel-oping in the Milwaukee public schools.As a component of a larger strategy forimproving the academic and behavioralperformance of African-American stu-dents, this experimental program targetsAfrican-American male youths for acurriculum that is designed to affirmtheir self-worth as well as their heritageand culture.

Effective school strategies counteringprejudice and hate-motivated crime andviolence should include the followingactions:

Establish districtwide policies that re-flect a zero tolerance for racism.Remove or paint over offensivegraffiti immediately.Develop a school-community trainingprogram that is designed to heightenunderstanding among ethnic groups.Provide counseling for newcomers.Establish an attitude of acceptanceand respect for ethnic and culturaldifferences.Create an attitude of appreciation andcare. Every child should feel impor-tant and appreciated for the unique-ness he or she brings to the educa-tional setting.Begin by making a difference withyourself, now, in terms of attitudeacceptance and appreciation forothers.

Our goals as parents, educators andyouth-serving professionals should inelude preparing children how to live to-gether in harmony. School crime andviolence are merely the tangible ex-pressions and products of conflict. If wecan successfully remove another elementof that conflict specifically ethno-violence from the educational setting,we will be just that much closer to saferand more effective schools for all ofAmerica's children.

NATIONALSCHOOLSAFETYCENTER

Pepperdine University's National School Safely Center is apartnership of the U.S. Department of Justice and U.S.Department of Education. NSSC's goal is to promote safeschools free of drug traffic and abuse, gangs, weapons,vandalism and bullying: to encourage good discipline.attendance and community support: and to help enure a

quality education for all children.

Ronald D. Stephens, Executive Director

0. Ellis Butterfield, Deputy Director

James E. Campbell, Business Manager

Bernard James, Special Counsel

Pepperdine University NSSC Steering Council:David Davenport, PreSIdCM.Chair. Wlliam B Adrian.Provost, Vice Chair, Andrew K. Benton, Vice President,University Affairs: Nancy Magnusson- Fagan. Nan,Graduate School of Education mei Psychology; Ronald I.Phillips, Dean. School of Law: Charles B. Runnels,Chancellor. Ronald D. Stephens, Executive Diretor. NSSC,John G. Watson. Vice President. Student Affairs: James R.Wilburn. Vice President and Dean. School of Business andManagement: and John F. Wilson. Dean. Sesser College.

School SafetyAs part of the School Safety News Service, School Safetyis published by the National School Safety Center to

communicate current trends and effective programs inschool safety to educators, law enforcers, lawyers, judges.government officials. business leaders, joumatists and thepublic. Annual subscription: S119.00. The School SafetyNews Service is published monthly September to May.

Ronald D. Stephens, Executise Editor

Brenda Turner, Editor

June R. Lane and G. Ellis Butterfield, Associate Editors

Kimberly Billingsley, Typographer

Arm: les in this publication may be reprinted - excludinghulls idually copyrighted material --- with credit to SchoolSafety, NSSC and a copy of reprints to NSSC .Sc hoofSafety encourages the submission of onginal articles.artwork, book reviews and letters to the editor and willreview and consider each tent for publication.

Correspondence for School Safer% and the Nattonal SchoolSafety Center should be addressed to: National SchoolSafety Center, 4105 Thousand Oaks Blvd.. Suite 290.Westlake Village. CA 91302. telephone (805 )373.9477,FAX (805i 373-9277

Prepared under Grant No. 85-MU.CX4XX/3 and fullyfunded by the Office of Jos enile Justice and DelinquencyPrevention. Office of Justice Programs. U.S. Department ofJustise. Points of view or opinions in this document arethose of the author and do not necessarily represent theofficial position or policies of the U S. Department ofJustice. U.S Department of Education or PepperdineUniversity. Neither NSSC nor any of its employees makesany warranty. expressed or implied, nor assumes any legal

liability or responsibility for the accuracy. completeness orusefulness of any information, apparatus. product orprocess described herein.

Copyright CD 1991 National School Safety Center.

About the cover:Ellmoviolence is a new word for an old problem DanielO'Connell. 19th Century Irish statesman, described bigotryas having no head and no heap Anssork M Robert Pns it

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

CONTENTS

5 Raising a lessviolent generationby Ira Reiner

8 United we standby Robert J. DeSena

10 Making a worldof differenceby Marjorie B. Green

12 Awareness and actionlead to resolutionby Grace Flores Hughes

15 Living with diversityby Adele Dutton Terrell

20 Milwaukee's radicalanswer to educationby Kenneth C. Holt

24 Violent hate counteredby education and lawby Betsy Rosenthal

26 Antidote for prejudiceby Debbie C. Walsh

Updates 2 NSSC Update

31 National Update

,?2 Legislative Update

33 Legal Update

34 Resource Update

Resources

(.1


4 School Safety News Service

18 NSSC Publications

19 NSSC Resources

22 NSSC Documentaries

30 School Crisis Video

35 "Principals of Leadership"

There's Safety inour numbers.School Safety, the nations's premier school

crime prevention newsjoumal, is increasing

its numbers from three times annually

to nine editions published monthly

from September through May.

The National School Safety Center, a partner-

ship of the U.S. Departments of Justice and Education and

Pepperdine University, announces the School Safety News

Service, the definitive and most comprehensive source for school

crime prevention planning available.

Subscribers will receive monthly updates on the most critical issues

facing our schools. News updates from around the country will

provide background, model programs and prevention strategies

related to drugs, gangs, cults, discipline, schoolyard bullying, high-

risk youth and other concerns vital to the safety of all schoolchil-

dren. Included will be three special symposium editions that will

provide in-depth coverage on topical issues such as ethnic violence,

"crack babies" and neighborhood crime "hot spots."

Thought-provoking commentary from prominent educators, law

enforcers, business leaders, top government officials and other

youth-serving professionals will complement the comprehensive

hard-news reports.

NSSC's expanded School Safety News Service begins with the

1991-92 school year in September. Subscribe now at the

introductory annual rate of $1 19.

SCHOOL SAFETY NEWS SERVICE SUBSCRIPTION FORM

Please enter my name for subscription(s) to the NSSC School Safety News Service.Enclosed is a check $ ($119 per subscription).

Name'Title

OrganizationAddressCity/State/ZipTelephoneReturn check, payable to the National School Safety Center to:

NSSC, Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA 90263


BY IRA REINER

An upsurge in the incidence of hatecrimes nationwide has policy-shapers and

educators alike concerned.

Raising a lessviolent generation

Diplomats at the United Nations com-municate in five languages. So do stu-dents at Central Elementary School inBaldwin Park, California. I visited Cen-tral not long ago to talk with childrenabout the need for respect and under-standing between ethnic groups.

The remarkable diversity on thatthriving campus is striking. Yet for acountry whose students speak 86 dif-ferent languages, such diversity isn'tremarkable at all. Central is a prettytypical school for Southern California.Indeed, it is less cacophonous thanmany.

A varicolored metropolisHow could it be any different in LosAngeles in 19919 The rainbow in ourclassrooms is only the reflection of anequally varicolored metropolis. Fewcities in world history have pulledtogether so many different races andcultures so quickly. For the most part. thispatchwork community works amazinglywell. People five and work in relativeharmony, building a dynamic andproductive society.

But diversity also has a dark side. Peo-ple predisposed to hate those who arc"different" always have found plenty oftargets in Los Angeles.

Racial and ethnic violence has been an

Ira Reiner is the Los Angeles CountyDistrict Attorney.

ugly, recurring theme throughout thecity's history lynchings of blacks,marauding attacks on "Chinatown,"looting and internment of JapaneseAmericans, and loot Suit Riots. Whilelarge-scale violence has declined as thecity has matured, a recent explosion ofhate crimes indicates that the submergedimpulse to attack minorities may be asstrong as ever.

Some 550 incidents of hate-inspiredviolence against minorities were report-ed to the Los Angeles County HumanRelations Commission in 1990, an all-time record. Breaking that ugly recordhas become an annual event. Yet, mostexperts believe that reported incidentsrepresent only a small fraction of thetotal. Hate violence is one of the fewtrends that keeps pace with L.A.'s bur-geoning population.

Law enforcement has respondedstrongly. Despite the need for police andprosecutors to focus on crimes such ashomicide, rape, narcotics and gang vio-lence. serious hate crimes are pursuedaggressively if they're reported.

The reality, though. is that the legalsystem should he our 1:-t line of defensefor hate crimes. Judges help by drop-ping a well-publicized hammer in keycases. But courts are not well-suited todealing. with complex, pervasive prob-lems like ethnic hatred.

As a practical matter, vandals orassailants in these cases often are difficult

School Safety 5 fall 1991

or impossible to identify. Even when aperpetrator is suspected, the cost ofpursuing civil remedies for misdemeanor-level crimes can be prohibitive comparedto possible penalties.

In addition, with local courts cloggedwith serious felonies, even major hatecrimes cases can be delayed for yearsthrough legal wrangling. One of themost frustrating examples occurred inDecember of 1983. Members of fourhate groups the KKK, the AmericanNazi Party, Aryan Nations and a new,extremely violent bunch called "TheOrder" came together to burn a crossin a peaceful, largely black middle-classneighborhood. The cross-burners hadweapons, and they had been responsiblefor similar displays in seven differentCalifornia counties.

Although the District Attorney's Officemoved immediately to prosecute theringleaders, that case is only now comingto trial. The power of deterrence is badlydebased when justice is so painfullydelayed.

Not every case is so frustrating, butthe lesson for society is clear -- noteven the toughest enforcement policycan succeed without two supportingelements:

a long-term, highly visible program ofpublic education and deterrence: anda strong prevention effort throughhuman-relations curricula in theschools.

REIN'ER

Community outreachThe public affairs division of the LosAngeles County District Attorney's Of-fice conducts an extensive program ofcommunity outreach on this issue. Some-times the goal is to address a problem ofspecial urgency like the surge ofattacks on Arabic speaking personsduring the Persian Gulf Crisis.

An effective television public serviceannouncement (PSA) was produced usingactor Edward James Olmos to deliver amessage of tolerance and a reminder thatthose who commit hate violence face stiffpunishment under California law. Re-sponse from the media and the public wastremendous. The PSA is still playingmany months later, and the rash of anti-

Arab incidents has subsided.The District Attorney's Office re-

cently began the process of buildinglong-term public awareness byproducing a 16-minute video on hateviolence in Los Angeles and howcitizens can help prevent it. One of theprimary purposes of the program andthe video is to encourage victims of hateviolence to report these crimes.

Hate crimes have historically beenunderreported. Victims should im-mediately report these incidents to theirlocal law enforcement agency. Thearrest and prosecution of persons com-mitting these crimes is important both topunish the guilty and to deter othersfrom engaging in this ugly behavior.


The brochure that accompanies thevideo presentation lists the kinds ofoffenses punishable as hate crimes underCalifornia law; outlines the types ofrelief available (including substantialcivil penalties payable directly tovictims); and provides phone numbersand other information for reporting hatecrimes to the authorities.

To guarantee the broadest possiblereadership, this pamphlet currently isavailable in English, Spanish, Arabicand Cambodian. In the near future, itwill be issued in Korean, Chinese,Vietnamese and Armenian languageeditions.

With the assistance of many schooldistricts as well as service groups,

community organizations, cable net-works and other governmental agen-cies this information is distributedthroughout the county in both print andvideo formats.

Educating our youthWhile schools can play a key role in theefforts to build public awareness, theyhave an even greater responsibility forhelping to prevent hate crimes by edu-cating students. Anyone who doubts theneed should take a close look at the agedistribution of hate-crime perpetrators.A disturbingiy large percentage arcyoung people of school age, especiallyyoung men.

Youthful hate violence takes manyforms. Sometimes a single, disturbedteenager will launch his own mini -campaign of harassment, Sometimesgroups of bored and alienated high-school-aged youngsters egg each otheron to perform acts of vandalism like

spray painting swastikas on Jewishtemples. Similar acts of defacement arecommon against schools and otherpublic buildings, The psychologicalimpact on victims is far greater when thecrime is clearly aimed at vulnerableminorities.

Groups of young men out for troubledon't always stop at petty vandalism.All too often they move on to physicalassault. No group is immune from suchattacks, but gays seem to be a specialtarget. In fact, the Human RelationsCommission reports that victims in morethan half of all gay-bashing incidentsidentify their assailants as juveniles.

Fortunately, most adolescents whocommit such crimes are not highlyorganized or intellectually systematicabout their hatred. The emergence ofmore structured, ideological hategroups violent groups along the linesof the KKK, the Nazi Party, and theOrder would be a real nightmare forour society. This is why those in lawenforcement are especially concernedabout the rising phenomenon of"Skinheads."

Skinheads essentially are white racist

street gangs. They combine the violent,nihilistic style of the "punk" movementwith a dangerous dollop of Nazi para-phernalia and propaganda. BecauseSkinheads make compelling copy for thenews media, and because they conjureup profoundly troubling images from ourpast, both their numbers and their impor-tance often arc overstated.

Compared to the many tens of thou-sands of conventional gang members inthe Los Angeles area, there are very is.:wSkinheads roaming our streets per-haps a few hundred. Even that estimateis probably high because many of theseyoung people aren't real Skinheads.They simply don the.garb and talk thetrash in their own twisted version ofteenage rebellion.

Raising a less violent generationAll these young people the solitaryharasser in Westchester, night-ridingvandals in the Valley, gay-basherscruising West Hollywood and Skinheadsgetting high on hate have one thing incommon: They are acting out, con-sciously or unconsciously, messagesthey learn from adults.

Our schools cannot be held account-able for the anti-social behavior of theseyoung people. Nor can civilizing mes-sages in the classroom ever completelycounter lessons of hate learned fromfamily and peers. But, imperfect as theyare for the task, the schools can helpraise a more tolerant, less violentgeneration.

As a general rule, educators take thisresponsibility very seriously. Many doan outstanding job. However, too often,schools practice a subtle form of denial.Because their intentions are good, andbecause they work hard at dealing withovert displays of racism on campus, theythink nothing more is necessary. As aresult, too few have moved to build astrong, effective human-relations com-ponent into their curricula.

Many resources exist for building suchcurricula human relations commis-sions, groups such as the National Con-ference of Christians and Jews, the Anti-


Defamation League of B'nai B'rith, notto mention the National School SafetyCenter itself. But schools are too limitedin the use they make of this outside ex-pertise. Most principals and teachers arereceptive to one-time programs, oftenusing an assembly format. But gettinginto the classroom for long-term work ismuch harder.

Hopefully that will change. Until itdoes, we will continue to see youngfaces troop through the doors of ourcounty jails their minds affected, theirown lives scarred and, through thecorrosive power of their hatred, render-ing countless other lives ugly andfearful.

While at Central School, a solemnyoung sixth-grader looked me in the eyeand asked, "Why do some people hateother people just because of their color?"This is how I responded:

Ifwe ever learn the answer to that, wewill know so much more than we knownow. I can't tell you why there isprejudice and bigotry in the world norwhy there are people like that. But weknow that it's catching, just like theflu.

Young kids do not hate other peoplebecause they're different. But somekids, as they grow up, begin to do thatbecause they're learning bad lessonsfrom some very had adults. It shouldhe the other way around. Adultsshould be learning from kids aboutthis. Because kids don't hate otherpeople for what they are.

Breaking the barriers of prejudiceWe can't preserve the innocence ofchildhood forever. But we can do a bet-ter job of building on the natural toler-ance of the very young. In our multi-cultural society, children need inocula-tion against hatred just as surely as theyneed inoculation against the flu andmeasles and other infectious diseases.We also all share the responsibility forfighting this contagion. We all share inthe benefits. Breaking the barriers ofprejudice can he enormously rewardingwork.

BY ROBERT J. DESENA 11111111=11111111111011111.1.11

The Council for Unity has served as a model throughoutthe state of New York in promoting multicultural

education and conflict mediation among students.

United we stand

The Council for Unity, which began tocombat racial violence, has become an in-strument for enhanced security in theschools. Perhaps the linchpin of this suc-cess is the program's ability to bring divergent ethnic and racial groups into on-going relationships where values arctaught and a family atmosphere is pro-vided. In this environment, students cre-ate their own agendas to reduce the ten-sions that threaten their well-being atschool and in the streets.

A history of violenceFounded in 1975 at John Dewey HighSchool in Bensonhurst. Brooklyn, NewYork. the Council for Unity began as anattempt to create an interracial group ofstudent mediators to help end the cycle ofbias-related violence that threatened theschool and its adjacent communities. Sixstudent leaders representing Hispanic,Asian, Jewish, Italian and African-Ameri-can constituencies were trained as stu-dent mediators. They participated reluc-tantly at first. but through frequent con-tact with each other and the sense ofempowerment gained from their new-found status, the Council became a partof the school establishment.

A weakness in the initial Council pro-

Robert DeSena is Executive Directorof the Council for Unity, Inc., at JohnDewey High School in Brooklyn, Nen'York.

gram immediately became apparent.Mediation alone was not getting the jobdone. Council members exercised only alimited influence over the populationprone to violent activity. The reason wassimple. Mediation was a reaction to vio-ler..e; it was not able to prevent it. Com-batants returned to the same environmentand the same relationships that gal-vanized their hostility in the first place.

Council members realized that theirown experiences of success were basedon the mutual friendships they formedbetween themselves friendships bornout of frequent contact and mutual cornmitment to a common cause. Somethinghad to be done to bring individuals andgroups together in meaningful, ongoingrelationships so that the ethos of bias-re-lated violence could be countered.

A "lifting of hands"A racial incident occurred in 1979 thatthreatened to convulse the school and thecommunity. It also forged a new direc-tion for the Council for Unity.

The owners of the school luncheonettesold out their interest over the summerbreak. The new owners allowed neigh-borhood toughs to use the establishmentas a hangout. An "out of order" sign wasplaced over the jukebox and the plug waspulled out of the socket. The no musicpolicy was perceived by minority stu-dents as a cheap device to keep them out.They also were harassed and, finally,


displaced.Shortly thereafter, a group of African-

American youngsters entered the lunch-eonette to challenge this policy. The plugwas inserted into the socket, the no musicsign torn down, and the music playedonce again. Before the first few strainswere heard, white youths. mostly in their20s, exploded out of their booths and at-tacked the minority students. In the ensu-ing melee, which spilled over into thestreet, many were injured,

Revenge was planned for when schoolwas over that day. Hispanic, Asian andItalian-American groups from the schoolwere drawn into the conflict since theywould have to pass through the battlezone to get home. Fortunately, the Coun-cil had contacts in each of these groups,and a solution was mediated. The com-batants were given the option of joiningthe Council or facing the consequencesfrom school authorities and the police.They joined the Council.

This encounter, referred to as the "Lift-ing of Hands" incident, had a profoundeffect on the combatants. The leader ofthe blacks, Nelson "Chill" Ennis, is nowon the board of directors of the Council.Nicholas Chiappetta, the leader of theItalian-Americans, is now the director ofthe program.

Emphasizing multicultural educationThe infusion of this new membershipbrought about a compelling desire to de-

sign an enduring model for the program.The emphasis shifted to multicultural ed-ucation, not just mediation. The follow-ing four points became the foundation ofthe Council for Unity.

Student empowerment. Student mem-bers run the program and create anagenda to combat the problems of vio-lence and racism.A family atmosphere, Through fre-quent sensitivity and group dynamicstraining, members learn how to supportone another.Character education. A value systemguides members to discover principlesthat foster common cause and construc-tive change.Self-enhancement. Opportunities to de-velop skills, talents and abilities are in-corporated into the program. Unlike therigid conformity of gangs and posses,members are free to be themselves anddiscover their potential.

With these tenets in place and a com-mitment to promote racial harmony andservice to the community, the Counciltook on its final form.

Original dramas focusing on multicul-tural themes have bee- written, directed,produced and performed by Council mem-bers. More than 26 plays have been pre-sented at assembly programs.

The reputation of the program grew.Membership increased as teachers, secu-rity guards, parents and custodial staffjoined the Council. A volunteer programwas established. Council members set upa senior citizen escort service, performedat hospitals and senior citizen centers,sponsored park clean-ups, visited orphan-ages, and conducted food drives for thehomeless and toy drives for needy chil-dren at Christmas.

Organization was needed to monitorthese initiatives. An executive board wascreated and committees were formed.Leadership training was implemented andmanuals were designed to facilitate prob-lem-solving and decision-making skills.An induction process was developed forcandidates entering the program. A hand-book was written that explained the his-

tory of the Council, the value systemthat governed it, and how candidates'work would be evaluated.

These procedures began to transformthe students in the program. Theywanted to he involved in as personal away as possible. A social programwhere members could get together afterschool, on weekends and over the sum-mer was created.

Alumni, wishing to maintain their in-volvement, decided to incorporate in1983 as the Council for Unity, Inc., anon-profit organization operating in thestate of New York. They have raisedmoney for scholarships, conducted jobfairs, networked with community-basedorganizations, and developed an agendato bring the program to other schoolsand communities. Most importantly,they gave the program continuity. Stu-dents could maintain their commitmentfor life if they wished.

A catalyst for changeIn the aftermath of the Howard Beachracial incident in 1986, other schoolsbegan to request the program. By thetime of the death of Yusef Hawkins inBensonhurst in 1989, the Council hadexpanded to 15 schools with JohnDewey High School as its base. Theprogram has been successfully repli-cated in elementary, junior and seniorhigh schools, as well as at the collegelevel. Requests for additional chaptershave required the hiring of more staffand seeking new sources of funding.

The impact on students, schools andcommunities has been far-reaching.Michael Mui, a Chinese-American stu-dent from the John Dewey High Schoolchapter, was an isolated, uninvolvedyoung man when he first joined. Afterthree years, he has spoken to large audi-ences, acted in plays and become aleader. In responding to why he wasable to change, Michael stated, "It feelslike a family here. I love this place."

Steven Ganzell, principal of DavidA. Boody Junior High School, said aftera serious crisis, "We were able to usethe eighth- and ninth-grade members of


our Council for Unity to mediate a racialdispute that developed among severalseventh-grade children. Their effortswere successful and truly rewarding towitness. As a result, seventh-graderswere invited to participate in our Coun-cil organization."

By linking elementary, junior and se-nior high schools together in a com-munity:vide network, the potential forviolence diminishes, and communicationreplaces conflict. In Brooklyn, Commu-nity Superintendent of District 21Donald Weber sees the Council "as aproactive program which instills in stu-dents positive solutions for conflict reso-lution. The success that District 21 hasexperienced with the Council for Unityshould be considered for a nationwideprogram involving America's youth."

Safer schools and neighborhoodsWhile reducing racial tension and pro-moting harmony are the goals of thisprogram, a resulting by-product is saferschools and neighborhoods. By bringingstudents ,f diverse backgrounds out oftheir isoh ;on, the cause of conflict is di-minished. If the Council experience hasdemonstrated anything during its I6-yearhistory, it is that the more young peoplefeel powerless to effect the forces whichminimize them, the more violent theybecome. By giving them power, the needfor violence is abrogated.

Finally, by personalizing their environ-ment through a program that promotespeer support and self-worth, the under-lying humanity of all participants is ex-perienced. As Bobby Marchese, one-time combatant the "Lifting ofHands" incident and now lawyer to theCouncil for Unity, Inc., has frequentlystated when speaking of his experienceswith the program, "Our differences bindus, not blind us."

For further information on how to imple-ment a Council for Unity program atyour school, write to: Robert J. DeSena,Executive Director, Council for Unity,Inc., John Dewey High School, 50Avenue X, Brooklyn, New York 11223.

BY MARJORIE B, GREEN EIMIIIIMINIMINIMMI

Workshops sponsored by the Anti-DefamationLeague of B'nai Erith train teachers and

students to examine their cultural beliefs,

Making a world of difference

I'm prejudiced. its not something I'mproud of. It's not even something Iusually think about. But I do knowthat it is something I want to change.

These are the words of a Los Angeleshigh school senior, moved by the day-long A WORLD OF DIFFERENCEworkshop he had attended. The mes-sage, delivered with obvious sincerity,shows the potential of such educationalprograms to reach students and to makethem think and want to grow.

Eliminating prejudice and biasA WORLD OF DIFFERENCE is aschool-, community- and media-basedprogram initiated by the Anti-Defama-tion League of B'nai B'rith (ADL) in1985 to address not only overt prejudicesbut also the much more illusive biasesthat sustain discrimination in our societyas well.

The ADL's many years of research intohow prejudice is acquired and how it canbe eliminated provide the foundationfor A WORLD OF DIFFERENCE. Theproject encourages teachers to create aschool climate where all children feelsecure, accepted, independent andresponsible. Teachers are explicitlyencouraged to enhance student self-

Marjorie B. Green is Western StatesEducation Director for the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith.

esteem because the evidence is over-whelming that acts of bias and violenceare perpetrated by individuals with lowself-esteem,

Because information alone is not suf-ficient to change people's attitudes, theprogram uses audio-visual materials,simulations, role plays and other creativetechniques to teach its lessons. Addi-tionally, the program also offers specificstrategies for confronting children'sprejudicial attitudes -- a necessary firststep since inaction can he interpreted bystudents as a signal of acceptance andcomplicity.

A WORLD OF DIFFERENCE comesat a time when dedicated educators areseeking new techniques for ensuring thesuccess of all students especially low-income, ethnic and/or language-minoritystudents and for reducing intergroupconflicts, which have been escalating onschool campuses nationwide.

Analysts attribute the dramatic rise inacts of bias and bigotry perpetrated byyoung adults to the following factors:

racially related economic competitionfor both job opportunities and collegeaid;a decline in parental responsibility forchildren's actions;social policies described by the mediato be insensitive to minorities; andlack of personal knowledge andawareness of past struggles of othersfor justice and equality.


The role of educationEducation can play a significant role incountering racial prejudice, according toa major survey of racial attitudes re-leased by the National Opinion ResearchCenter (NORC) in early 1991. Whilesupport for racial equality has grown,"most groups have at least some preju-dice against all the other groups," saidTorn W. Smith, NORC survey director.

With an increasingly diverse studentbody, teachers need confidence to com-bat prejudice and to discuss issues ofrace, religion and ethnicity in class.They do not need a set of "correct" an-swers, but rather they need techniquesfor handling controversial and emotion-ally laden issues. Researchers havenoted that to be successful, teachers needto examine their own cultural assump-tions; to deepen their understanding ofand respect for ideas, practices, and per-spectives different from their own; andto gain experience interacting and work-ing with people from a variety of cul-tural backgrounds and in a variety ofcross-cultural settings.

The process of examining each per-son's cultural assumptions is the startingpoint for the staff training and develop-ment provided by A WORLD OF DIF-FERENCE. Through a series of ex-periential activities, participants confronttheir own biases and develop effectivetechniques for reducing intergroup ten-sions. The workshops are designed to:

encourage participants to examine theirown and others' attitudes toward differ-

ences;teach effective techniques for promot-ing attitudinal change;foster appreciation of the importance ofconfronting issues of prejudice or big-otry and discrimination;develop methods for incorporating so-cially significant issues into the cur-riculum; andincrease participants' knowledge ofmulticultural education.

Teachers who have beenstruggling with a dramaticallychanging student body withoutthe resources or even the vo-cabulary to address racial andreligious differences have re-sponded positively to AWORLD OF DIFFERENCEworkshops. "People have toget in touch with their ownfeelings before they can helpchildren deal with theirs" and"this mind-opening workshophelped me feel empowered toknow I can facilitate change"are examples of commentsmade by such teachers.

Reaching studentsA WORLD OF DIFFERENCEhas its roots in Boston, where

WCBV-TV, Shawniut Banks and theWishnow Group, Inc., a media/publicaffairs consulting firm, joined ADL increating a campaign that would confrontBoston's seething ethnic, racial and reli-gious tensions. More than 40 hours oforiginal programs on prejudice and dis-crimination were developed and aired.A massive Teacher/Student ResourceGuide was developed. The guide con-tains classroom-ready lesson plans deal-ing with American beliefs and values,prejudice and discrimination, andscapegoating and racism.

Changing campuses and workplacesCorporations, small businesses, univer-sities and government agenc:^s acrossthe country today are facing many of theissues educators have been coping within schools. They are asking such ques-tions as: How can we attract and retainqualified and diverse personnel? Howcan we create a bias-free work environ-ment in which all employees can becomfortable and productively worktogether?

In response to these concerns, ADLhas developed two new programs A

WORKPLACE OF DIFFER-ENCE and A CAMPUS OF

0 A N44-1/r,

AWORLD OF

DIFFERENCE

racial turmoil erupted aroundthe issue of school desegrega-tion. The Anti-Defamation Leaguelooked for ways to reach students the

main victims and, often, perpetrators ofBoston's racial tensions to inspire inthem a genuine desire to combat preju-dice.

ADL believed that the power of televi-sion, in tandem with specially designededucational curricula and teacher-trainingprograms, could be used to change atti-

tudes and behavior. The League broughttogether leaders from the media, educa-tion, business and civic organizations,and with the generous support of the cor-porate community, A WORLD OF DIF-

FERENCE was initiated.

A WORLD OF DIFFERENCE was sowell-received by civic leaders and localeducators that Massachusetts has usedthe program for six years. Throughcontributions from corporations, foun-dations and individuals, the programhas been successfully implemented innearly 30 cities, including St. Louis,Miami, Detroit, Albany, Baltimore,Houston, Kansas City, San Francisco,Seattle, Los Angeles, Philadelphia,the New York tri-state area and thenation's capital. Its powerful mediamessage has been seen by more than

half of the country's television-viewinghouseholds.


DIFFERENCE to providesome of the knowledge andskills necessary to success-fully respond to rapidlychanging and diverse work-places and college campuses.

Institutions will change toaccommodate diversity orthey will fail. But much ofthe most meaningful changewill occur at the individuallevel. A high school seniorstruggling with the growth heexperienced at the A WORLDOF DIFFERENCE workshopstated:

Yes, I'm prejudiced. I haveopinions I can't justify. Butnow I can admit this, andknow that it doesn't have tohe like that. I walked into

that workshop prejudiced, and Iwalked out prejudiced, but knowing alittle more about myself and myfriends. It would he impossible to saythat a one-day workshop reallychanged me that much but it's a

start.

To obtain more information on acquiringthe strategies and materials availablethrough ADL's A WORLD OF DIFFER-ENCE programs contact: ANTI-DEFA-MATION LEAGUE A WORLD OFDIFFERENCE, 823 United NationsPlaza, New York, NY 10017,(212) 490-2525.

BY GRACE FLORES HUGHES

The Community Relations Service assists schools andcommunities in resolving friction arising out of

desegregation and multicultural education issues.

Awareness and actionlead to resolution

A multicultural environment has becomethe norm in many schools and communi-ties throughout the United States. Thediversity found in these settings offersopportunities for people to learn moreabout one another, enhancing theirglobal awareness and education. But atthe same time, not all members of theschool community adjust to this diver-sity. Many are not sensitive to otherracial or cultural groups, creating thepossibility for racial and ethnic fric-tion and possibly racial or ethnic("sruptions between groups at school.

Resolving multicultural conflictsDuring the past three years, the Commu-nity Relations Service (CRS) has assist-ed more than 600 schools and school dis-tricts in resolving conflicts arising out ofproblems associated with desegregationand with multicultural education issues.CRS is an agency of the U.S. Depart-ment of Justice, and was established bythe Civil Rights Act of 1964 "to provideassistance to communities and persons inresolving disputes, disagreements or dif-ficulties resulting from discriminatorypractices based on race, color or nationalorigin." It also assists in the resettlementof Cuban and Haitian entrants to theUnited States under the Refugee Edu-cation Assistance Act and Executive

Grace Flores Hughes is Director of theCommunity Relations Service.

Order 12341.Schools bring together racially diverse

neighborhoods and ethnically unac-quainted cultures at one location, where,perhaps for the first time, children in-teract with others from different back-grounds. Parents also may be broughttogether for the first time through theschools, including immigrant parents whomay be struggling to understand eachother, their neighbors, and business andsocial acquaintances.

Some accomodation to culturaldistinctions must be made to ensure thesmooth operation of schools with diversestudent populations. Integrating raciallyand ethnically diverse immigrant groupspresents great challenges for schooladministrators, school security personneland law enforcement.

Several school districts in theWashington, D.C., area serve studentsfrom more ..ran 200 distinct languagegroups. The Southwest region of theUnited States is also currently experienc-ing these rapid changes. The faster thedemographic changes, the greater thechallenges schools face.

Schools public and private, secularand religious are highly visible insti-tutions in our communities. Parents andcommunity leaders often attribute thesuccess or failure of their children andthe community to schools. Disruptionsand violence at school send tremorsthroughout the community. When the


disruptions and violence are racially mo-tivated, the shockwaves threaten thewhole fabric of the community.

The highest attention must be given toavoiding racial conflict or to quicklydiminish the effects if it already hasoccurred. All of those responsible forschool safety and security must keepabreast of demographic changes in thecommunity that will alter the pattern ofstudent interaction in a school. Theconflict taking place outside of school inthe community and in the students'neighborhood may affect the relation-ships between students at school.

The Community Relations Service hasfound that those communities which areaware of current demographic transitionsare better able to avoid or minimize racialand ethnic problems when they occur.Additionally, schools that have success-fully minimized such conflict understandand demonstrate sensitivity to theracial and ethnic cultures which arerepresented.

Early warning signsIn nearly every CRS case involving ma-jor racial disruptions in elementary andsecondary schools, warning signs werepresent well in advance of the incident.The conflict and/or violence could havebeen avoided had someone observed andtaken positive steps to address them.

Early warning signs can be detected byobserving and analyzing certain charac-

teristics and behaviors of the school'spopulation. What racial and ethnic groupsattend the school? Where do they live inrelationship to one another? How do theyget to and from school? Are individualsconfronted by members of other groupson the way to or from school? Do schoolactivities, such as sporting events, bringtogether diverse groups that do notordinarily meet, creating an environmentof racial competition or tension? Whathas been the h;,,tory of interaction amongthese distinctive groups?

Police reports of disturbances betweenstudents offer another source of informa-tion about volatile racial and ethnic inter-action. They can provide informationabout gang activity, drug and alcohol use,and "hot spots" that need to be watched toprevent racial conflict.

A positive classroom climateThe environment created in the classroomcan lead to racial and ethnic tension.Educators and school administratorsshould be sensitive to curricula and class-room media options. CRS' experience inracial disputes shows that a racial inci-dent may be spurred by no more than aclassroom discussion about the causes ofthe Civil War. Stereotypical commentsmade by one group about another maylead to physical conflict or harassmentnot only in class but also later betweenclasses, at lunch or after school.

Similar situations could :-esult withdiscussions of Native American, Hispan-ic, black, or Asian immigration and set-tlement in America, or discussions oftheir culture in world civilizations class.As a result of the recent trend towardsearching out ancestral roots, many mi-norities are more vocal and aggressive indefending their heritage against per-ceived slights than they were a few yearsago. What may be viewed as a discussionby one racial or ethnic group may beviewed by another as an attack, plantingthe seeds of racial tension and, if leftundetected and unresolved, potentialschool disruption.

We live in an increasingly global-oriented society and need information

about foreign countries and cultures.Now, more frequently than ever before,someone from the country that is beingstudied is likely to be in the classroomor school. Accurate and factual presen-tations about other nations and theircultures translate into better studentrelations and, ultimately, better schoolsecurity. If false or stereotypicalmaterial is presented in class, it is onlya matter of time before student rela-tionships deteriorate, school security isaffected, and the welfare of students putinto jeopardy.

1-800-347-HATEDon't let racial tensionand violence gounchecked in your schooland community. Call theCommunity RelationsService of the U.S.Department of Justice forassistance if you needhelp or advice.

1-800-347-HATE

Some schools walk on a tightropeeach day in which the successful man-agement of racial tension is the onlything that makes education possible.Only an accurate and ongoing appraisalof racial tension will ensure that theproper approach is being taken.

Treating everyone fairlyPerceptions by one group that someeducational or extracurricular opportuni-ties are more available to another groupquickly can change the level of racialtension on campus. Any group memberswho feel offended are not likely tosuffer perceived inequities for longbefore seeking remedies.

School discipline needs to be metedout fairly to all students regardless ofrace, color or national origin. All


students should be made aware of theschool standards and regulations that willbe followed, and then these rules shouldbe applied fairly to all. Similar standardsfor faculty, school administration andoperations staff members also should bepublished and applied fairly.

Community Relations Service case-work shows that in nearly every schooldisruption based on race, color or na-tional origin, at least one group per-ceives that the school's standards arebeing unfairly applied to them. II schooladministrators and law enforcementmeet regularly with local communityand civil rights groups to discuss com-munity problems, appropriate responsesby schools and law enforcement will beensured.

Understanding also promotes supportfor the enforcement of school regulationsand laws. Many recent immigrants havevery little knowledge of the Americanjudicial and legal system and need tohave it explained to them. Local lawenforcement officers can play a key rolein providing community education in thisarea.

The role of law enforcementCommunities served by law enforcementshould have the opportunity to interactwith officers through effective commu-nity relations and community serviceprograms. At local schools, officers canparticipate in drivers' safety courses orserve as guest lecturers in governmentcourses to explain the American judicialand legal system. These contacts canhelp to build strong bridges that can berelied upon in times of crisis.

Other efforts could include volunteerprograms in which officers assist stu-dents with their studies. Such interactionpermits the officers to serve as rolemodels to students and show personalconcern for the well-being of students.These kinds of programs help to bringschools and law enforcement closertogether, increasing school security andbuilding a bond that will be very impor-tant should officers have to respond to aracial incident on campus.

HUGHES

Even at the federal level. the U.S. De-partment of Justice em:ourages the in-volvement of employees in localschools. The Community Relations Ser-vice's headquarters staff has adopted OrrElementary School in Washington. D.C..and provides employees to assistteachers with tutoring every Friday dur-ing the school year as part of the Presi-dent's Points of Light program. Some ofthe CRS regional offices also arcinvolved in similar programs in theirareas.

Responding to racial incidentsWhen a racial incident occurs, anauthorized individual at the schoolshould call the official police contact toreport the disruption. School officialsand the police must then work closelytogether to ensure that their response isappropriate for the particular incident.An over-response can lead to moreserious consequences and may evenrequire the school to close temporarily.Community organizations and leaders,with whom the school should haveregular contact, can assist in ending thedisruption and in securing a long-termresolution.

CRS has developed a model for cre-ating student response teams that workwith the faculty and administration, toassist id handling racially and ethnicallyrelated tension and incidents. The stu-dent teams can help identify the causes ofproblems as well as assist in developingsolutions and disseminating informationabout the resolutions directly to thestudent body.

The challenge for educators and thoseresponsible for school safety is to maxi-mize the benefits of a multicultural edu-cation environment, while at the sametime minimizing the potential for disrup-tion. Sometimes it's hard to find thisbalance.

The Community Relations Service canassist schools without cost to them inconducting a racial tension assessment orin conciliating a racial or ethnic conflict.To request assistance. call the CRSHotline at 1-800-347-HATE. II

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Tips for preventing cmd dealingwith ethnoviolence in schools

Conduct a racial tension assessmentCollect data through special surveys and school security incident reports.evaluate curriculum and social issues affecting the student body, and sharesecurity information with police on race-related issues.Identify problems that demand immediate attention.Determine whether problems are school-related, community-related or acombination of both.

Develop joint preventive measuresUse conflict prevention measures that have proven to be effective.Develop and publish a fair code of discipline and a student bill of rights.Communicate regularly with the police and community, parent, and studentgroups.Review curriculum not only for educational standards, but also community,racial, ethnic and student sensitivity.Develop a contingency plan in cooperation with the police for preventing racialconflict. Evaluate the plan on a regular basis and update as necessary.The Community Relations Service of the U.S. Department of Justice can helpschools and the police develop and agree on a contingency plan. Assistancemay be requested by calling the CRS Hotline: 1-800-347-HATE.

Plan for potential disruptionIdentify potential problem sites or activities.Identify available resource people who could quickly respond to school sites.Specify tasks for each resource person.Develop a communication network linked to a central command post.Develop a contingency plan with police that clearly sets specific responsibilitiesfor individuals in case of a violent conflict.

Respond to a disruptionAuthorize only c,e or two individuals in the school to call the police if adisruption occurs.Establish one leader, most likely the principal, to be in charge of the schoolpremises and personnel.Respond to disruption on the basis of its intensity level:

Level 1 Disruption confined to one area, but no threat to students or staff.Level 2 Disruptive forces are mobile or pose a direct threat to members

of the school community.Level 3 Disruption is general, classes have ended for most students, and

serious threats to students and staff.Work closely with police throughout the disruption to ensure an appropriate anduniform response.Respond in a controlled and predefined manner and assure that levels of policeresponse are dictated by the level of school disruption.Use community organizations and leaders to assist in ending the disruption andachieve long-term resolution of the dispute.

School Safety 14 Fall 19912_ 0

BY ADELE DUTTON TERRELL

The National Institute Against Prejudice and Violenceworks with various groups to diffuse racial tension and

open lines of communication,

Living with diversity

The children who will come of age in the1990s and enter the work force after theturn of the century will be facing anincreasingly complex world. Much is be-ing done to prepare these youngsters for ahigh-technology environment. But howmuch attention is being paid to the hu-man side of the equation? Children alsomust be prepared for the changing eco-nomic conditions they will face and thepeople with whom they will need to liveand work.

The demographics of America and itswork force are changing rapidly. Of the25 million people expected to join thelabor force in the next dozen years, 85percent will be minorities, immigrantsand women. Will today's youngsters beable to function effectively in a richmixture of races, religions, languages,ethnicities and lifestyles? Sadly, the an-swer all too often is a resounding "No!"

Developing prejudiced attitudesMost children in America still grow upin communities that are segregated byrace and socioeconomic status and stillattend segregated schools, places of wor-ship and youth programs. The averageAmerican child has very little direct con-

Adele Dutton Terrell is Program Directorfor the National Institute AgainstPrejudice and Violence, which is locatedat and associated with the University ofMaryland at Baltimore.

tact with people who arc different. In theabsence of real experience, children areleft to learn about other groups frommyths, stereotypes, jokes and the media.

Adults often forget how impressionablea young mind can be and how childrenlearn "real" lessons. A dinner-tableremark about "those people" or an ethnicjoke overheard outside the teachers'lounge means far more to most childrenthan a lecture about "loving your fellowman." In the absence of direct contact,constant lead stories on the evening newsabout Hispanic and African-Americandrug dealers are easily projected todefine an entire group.

Demographic changes are not the onlysource of tension young people will befacing. Traditionally, minorities and im-migrants become scapegoats during dif-ficult economic times. Many blue-collarworkers who have lost their jobs blameimmigration, affirmative action and so-called reverse discrimination. In manyAfrican-American communities, econo-mic difficulties are assumed to be causedby unfair competition from Hispanics and

Asians.When government officials blame

Japan and Asian imports for our econo-mic difficulties, some individuals quick-ly make the leap from Japan-bashing tofaulting Japanese. Since most Americansmake no distinction between variousAsian nationalities or between immi-grants and Asian-Americans, everyone


who appears Asian or has an Asian-sounding name can be faulted for oureconomic woes. Meanwhile, in manyfarm communities various nco -Nazi andChristian Identity groups encouragefarmers to blame an international Jewishconspiracy for the loss of farmlands andgeneral economic difficulties currentlyencountered by farm families.

Children also are being told that gaysand lesbians are out to destroy the Amer-ican family and should be perceived asenemies. In the face of so much confu-sion and so many mixed messages, it iseasy to see why our youngsters are so

confused. Conflict and misunderstandingbetween groups are bound to flourish inthese circumstances.

Acts of etlinoviolenceFor many of today's children, the civilrights movement is ancient history thathas little impact on people alive atpresent. White children who come of age

in an era when they are told that we livein a "color-blind society" do not see aneed for special efforts or programs for

any group. These youngsters areconfused by the demands of activists.They see members of various minoritygroups as whiners and complainers.

In this void of valid information, mostschools, churches and youth groups re-main silent. Children are left to their owndevices) learning how to get along withpeople who are different. Meaningful

TERRELL

efforts at multicultural education are anexception in most school districts. Evenwhen multicultural curriculum materialsarc available, often they are given lowpriority or presented by untrained, some-times resentful teachers.

The results of this neglect are all tooobvious Skinheads and neo-Nazis re-cruiting and making trouble in highschools; conflict, violence and resent-ment on college campuses, where surveysshow a 20 percent victimization rate forminority students; and employers whoneed to institute programs to teachworkers how to get along with each otheron the job.

Evidence abounds that our children arenot being effectively prepared to acceptand live with diversity. Ethnoviolenceviolence and intimidation motivated byprejudice is only the tip of the iceberg.Ethnoviolence involves a range of actsfrom name-calling and harassment up to,and including, murder. Such incidentsmany involving adolescents and youngadults occur daily in many communi-ties. Most acts of ethnoviolence do notreceive the kind of sensational publicitygenerated by the murder of YusefHawkins in the Bensonhurst section ofNew York City on August 23, 1989.However, similar confrontations occurfrequently. Fortunately, most of these in-cidents do not result in the death of thevictim and, therefore, do not generate thesame kind of public attention.

How many incidents of ethnoviolenceoccur nationally is not known. However.the impact is so serious that legislation hasbeen enacted requiring the FBI to begin tocollect data on crimes that appear to bemotivated by prejudice.

In addition to young people acting outtheir feelings in a violent manner, othersare confused and frustrated. Tensions ex-ist between various groups as each strug-gles to identify its rightful position andshare of limited resources. Most majorcities have neighborhoods that are off-limits to people whose ethnicity is differ-ent than the current residents. Such re-strictions are reinforced by custom andviolence. Often, even the police do not

sympathize with those who "shouldhave known better" than to move intosuch neighborhoods. These acts of vio-lence and harassment, used to reinforcesegregation, often are carried out byteens and young adults who see them-selves as protecting their community.Frequently, the adults in the area do notcondone violent tactics but arc afraid orunwilling to speak out against it.

The Skinhead movementPerhaps one of the most frightening as-pects of intergroup conflict is a resur-gence of hate groups, particularlyamong young people. While the tradi-tional Ku Klux Klan organizations holdlittle attraction for today's youngsters,some arc drawn into the Skinheadmovement. These groups exist in sev-eral major metropolitan areas and manyopenly avow hatred of blacks, Jews and


other "non-Aryans." Members often sportshaved heads and swastika tattoosand recruit in high schools. Some activeSkinheads are as young as age 13.

The young people involved in thesegroups find expression in a form of hardrock music that features a thudding,hypnotizing beat. Frequently, the lyricsare devoted to nationalism, racism andviolence. Many of the young people at-tracted to these groups begin as punkrock cultists seeking an identity and asense of belonging that they do not findat home. Once involved, however, theyoften arc seduced by the ever presentneo-Nazi rhetoric. Others fear reprisals ifthey leave the group or speak out againstits acts or beliefs.

Frequently, Skinheads appear atschools and in communities that haveexperienced incidents of ethnoviolence inorder to exacerbate and prolong the

1 6

conflict. Skinheads are known by vari-ous names, for example, Romantic Vio-lence or Reich Skins, and are closelyallied with such groups as the White-Aryan Resistance (WAR). Sometimesthey alter their appearance by lettingtheir hair grow and not wearing typicalSkinhead garb in order to be able tomove about undetected.

Although their membership is small,these groups pose a serious threat be-cause of their glorification of violence.Even groups claiming to be non-racistoften are involved in violent clasheswith each other, and some indulge ingay-bashing. Skinheads have been in-volved in murders, assaults and propertycrimes. They frequently are arrested fordisrupting rock concerts, starting fights,and harassing children and adults. Someyouth-oriented hate groups use recruit-ment tactics such as computer bulletinboards, which appeal to youngsters.

These problems are all exacerbated bythe fact that we live in a violence-pronesociety. Violence as a response tostress, fear, insult or even for recrea-tion seems to become more accept-able with each generation. Manychildren's playtime activitiestelevision, movies, video games, toyweapons and music stress themes ofviolence and physical dominance.

According to leading educator VictorHerbert, our society reflects a "recklessabandon" and a "carelessness" that per-mits many youngsters to throw off in-hibitions that have traditionally con-strained adolescent behavior. Today'steens, he reports, take the attitude of"why not do almost anything; why notknock someone over if he or she gets inthe way."

Possible solutionsThe National Institute Against Prejudiceand Violence frequently is asked to con-sult with college administrators, commu-nity leaders and business people who arestruggling with various forms of inter-group conflict. The Institute offers anumber of responses to these situations,including prejudice-reduction work-

shops, internal surveys, policy changesand victim assistance programs. Theseefforts help to diffuse tension and openlines of communication. However, manypeople are unable or unwilling to changetheir basic attitudes toward others ortheir habitual means of responding tostress. Experience indicates that suchprograms could be far more effective ifthey began with young children.

Projects that attempt to teach childrennon-violent ways of dealing with stressand frustration are showing success.Children can simultaneously learn to betolerant of differences and to handleconflict in innovative ways. Conflictmediation programs work well at theelementary school level when effectivelytaught and monitored.

Teacher training programsIn a more naive era, many believed thatmerely allowing children to learn andplay together would insure tolerance.We now know that just sitting next toeach other in a classroom is not enough.However, studies have shown that somechanges in attitudes toward others can bebrought about in school by trained edu-cators. For example, experiments con-ducted by Johns Hopkins Universityhave demonstrated that students who arerequired to complete specific tasks ininterracial learning teams frequently de-velop positive attitudes and long-terminter-ethnic friendships. Teachers can betaught to construct and encourage suchteams while completing routine curric-ulum requirements.

Teachers also can be taught the rela-tionship between the cognitive, affectiveand behavioral components of prejudice.Teachers can learn how their ownattitudes might affect the behavior oftheir students and the interaction thatoccurs within the classroom.

Administrators and teachers also canlearn to recognize ethnoviolence and itseffect on the school and the community.With proper information, schools candevelop ethnoviolence prevention andresponse programs. Teachers can learnto help children cope with conflict


15

through non-violent means.An ideal training program for teachers

and administrators can be designedaround four basic assumptions:

Children who are exposed to validinformation about other people andcultures are less likely to accept stere-otypes and generalizations about thosegroups;Children who are exposed to alter-native methods of conflict resolutionare slower to resort to violence in

response to stressful situations;The combination of conflict-resolutionskills and a willingness to evaluateothers as individuals will reduce thelikelihood that children will indulge inindividual or group behaviors that in-clude harassment and violence basedon prejudice.Many of these skills and attitudeslearned in childhood or early adoles-cence will be carried over into adult

life.

Some model programs and curriculummaterials exist even though they are notwidely used. The Institute's bibliogra-phy, Prejudice and Violence: AnAnnotated Bibliography of SelectedMaterials on Ethnoviolence, contains apartial list of such materials. No matterhow good the curriculum materials, theymust be presented by teachers who aretrained, who understand the importanceof their work, and who have been givenan opportunity to express and examinetheir own biases and personal conflicts.Obviously, teachers are only the begin-ning. Parents, clergy and youth counsel-ors must begin to both discuss and modelappropriate coping behaviors for youngpeople.

Clearly, we must start to educate thevery young to get along in our changingenvironment. We must start to deal withthe problems of prejudice and violencelong before the messages of hating andfighting become part of a youngster'spsyche. Children are born without prej-udice. It is our job as parents, educatorsand community leaders to keep themthat way. V

VSSC PublicationsThe National School Safety Center (NSSC) serves as a national clearing-

house for school safety programs and activities related to campus security,

school law, community relations, student discipline and attendance, and theprevention of drug abuse, gangs. weapons and bugy!ng in schools. NSSC's

primary objective is to focus national attention on the importance of providing

safe and effective schools. The following publications have been produced topromote this effort.

School Safety News Service includes three symposium editions of SchoolSafety, Newsjournal of the National School Safety Center, and six issues of

NSSC's new newsletter to be published beginning tall 1991. These publica-tions feature the insight of prominent professional on issues related to school

safety, including student discipline, security, attendance, dropouts, youth

suicide, character education and substance abuse. NSSC's News Service

reports on effective school safety programs, updates legal and legislative

issues, and reviews new literature on school safety issues. Contributors include

accomplished local practitioners and nationally recognized experts and offi-cials. ($119.00 annual subscription)

School Sifety Check Book (1990) isNSSC's most comprehensive text on crime

and violence prevention in schools. The

volume is divided into sections on school

climate and discipline, school attendance,

personal safety and school security.

Geared for the hands-on practitioner, eachsection includes a review of the problems

and prevention strategies. Useful charts,

surveys and tables, as well as write-ups on

a wide variety of model programs, are

included. Each chapter also has a compre-

hensive bibliography of additional

resources. 219 pages. ($15.00)

Set Straight on Bullies (1989) examines the myths and realities about

schoolyard bullying. Changing attitudes about the seriousness of the problemare stressed. It studies the characteristics of bullies and bullying victims. And,

most importantly, it provides strategies for educators, parents and students to

better prevent and respond to schoolyard bullying. Sample student and adultsurveys are included. 89 pages. ($10.00)

Child Safety Curriculum Standards (1991) helps prevent child victimization

by assisting youth-serving professionals in teaching children how to protectthemselves. Sample strategies that can be integrated into existing curricula orused as a starting point for developing a more extensive curriculum are given

for both elementary and secondary schools. The age-appropriate standards

deal with the topics of substance abuse, teen parenting, suicide, gangs,

weapons, bullying, runaways, rape, sexually transmitted diseases, child abuse,

parental abductions, stranger abductions and latchkey children. Each of the 13

chapters includes summaries, standards, strategies and additional resourcesfor each grade level. 353 pages. ($75.00)

Right to Sale Schools: A Newly Recognized Inalienable Right (1983) is adetailed, fully annotated explanation of the safe schools provisions of theCalifornia state constitution and its many implications. 20 pages. ($3.00)

Gangs in SchoolsBreaking Lip Han! 10 nf,

41.1.0,11 41.11 ..411,11 tl.%111

Gangs in Schools: Breaking Up is Hard t i Do(1988) offers an introduction to youth gangs,

providing the latest information on the various

types of gangs including ethnic gang, stonergroups and satanic cults as well as giving

practical advice on preventing or reducing gangs

encroachment in schools. Already in its seventh

printing, the book contains valuable suggestions

from law enforcers, school principals, prosecutors

and other experts on gangs. The concluding

chapter describes more than 20 school- and com-

munity-based programs throughout the country

that have been successful in combating gangs. A

resource list also is included. 48 pages. ($5.00)

School Crime and Violence: Victims' Rights (1986) is a current and com-prehensive text on school safety law. The book offers a historical overview of

victims' rights, describes how it has been dealt with in our laws at.. courts, andexplains its effect on America's schools. The authors cite legal case histories

and cover current school liability laws. The book expiains tort liability, sover-

eign immunity, duty-at-large rule, intervening cause doctrine and foreseeable

criminal activity, as well as addressing their significance to schools. The

concluding chapter includes a "Checklist for Providing Safe Schools." 106pages. ($15.00)

Educated Public Relations: SchoolSafety 101 (1986) offers a quick course in publicrelations for school district public relations

directors, administrators and others working to

achieve safe, effective schools. The bookexplains the theory of public relations and

successful methods for integrating people and

ideas. It discusses how public relations pro-

grams can promote safe schools and quality

education and gives 101 specific ideas and

strategies to achieve this goal. The text includes

a special chapter by Edward L. Bernays, consid-

ered by many as the father of contemporary

public relations. 72 pages. ($8.00)

EDUCATEDPUBLIC RELATIONS

scilocA. ^Arn-Y

The Need to Know: Juvenile Record Sharing (1989) deals with the confi-dentiality of student records and why teachers, counselors, school administra-

tors, police, probation officers, prosecutors, the courts and other professionals

who work with juvenile offenders need to know and be able to share informa-

tion contained in juvenile records. When information is shared appropriately.

improved strategies for responding to serious juvenile offenders, and for

improving public safety, can be developed. The second part of the book re-views the legal statutes of each state, outlining which agencies and individuals

are permitted access to various juvenile records and how access may be ob-

tained. A model juvenile records code and sample forms to be used by agen-

cies in facilitating juvenile record sharing also are included. 88 pages. ($12.00)

Points of view or opinion are those of the authors and do not necessanly represent theofficial position or policies of the U.S Department of Justice. U.S. Department of Educationor Pepperdine University. Prices subject to change without prior notification.

School Safety 18 Fall 1991 ti qJ

Resource Papers

The National School Safety Center (NSSC) has produced a series of specialreports on a variety of topics related to school safety. E. NSSC ResourcePaper provides a concise but comprehensive overview o. ,ne problem, covers anumber of prevention and intervention strategies, and includes a list of organiza-tions, related publications, and article reprints on the topic.

Safe Schools Overview offers a review of the contemporary safety issuesfacing today's schools, such as crime and violence, discipline, bullying, drug ,'alcohol trafficking and abuse, gangs, high dropout rates, and school safetypartnerships.

Alternative Schools for Disruptive Youth thoroughly covers the historicalbackground of alternative schools and the academic research that has beendone on their effectiveness.

Corporal Punishment In Schools outlines the arguments for and againstcorporal punishment. It also discusses the alternatives to corporal punishmentthat have been developed by schools and psychologists.

Drug Traffic and Abuse in Schools, after summarizing students' attitudes andbeliefs about drugs, covers drug laws and school rules: the legal aspects ofstudent searches and drug testing: and the connection between drug use andtruancy, crime end violence.

Weapons In Schools outlines a number of ways to detect weapons on campus,including using searches and metal detectors, establishing a security force, andeliminating book bags or lockers where weapons can be hidden.

Role Models, Sports and Youth covers a number of programs that link youthand sports, including NSSC's urban school safety campaign that uses profes-sional athletes as spokesmen, several organizations founded by professionalathletes to help youth combat drugs, and a number of programs established toget young people irrfolved in school or neighborhood teams.

School Bullying and Victimization defines bullying, offers an overview ofpsychological theories about how bullies develop, and covers interventionprograms that have been successful.

School Crisis Prevention and Response identifies principles and practicesthat promote safer campuses. Reviews of serious school crises fatalshootings, a terrorist bombing, armed intruders and cluster suicide andinterviews with the principals in charge also are included.

Student and Staff Victimization, after outlining schools' responsibility toprovide a safe educational environment, covers strategies for dealing withvictimization.

Student Searches and the Law examines recent court cases concerningstudent searches, including locker searches, strip searches, searches by proba-tion officers, drug testing, and the use of metal detectors or drug-sniffing dogs.

Increasing Student Attendance, after outlining the problem and providingsupporting statistics, details strategies to increase attendance by preventing,intervening with and responding to students who become truants or dropouts.

Display Posters"Join a team, not a gang!"(1989) Kevin Mitchell, home run leader with the

San Francisco Giants.

"Make peer pressure a challenge, not an excusel"(1988) Washington

Bullets Manute Bol (7'-6") and Tyrone "Muggsy' Bogues (5-4"), the tallest ano

shortest players in NBA history.

"The Fridge says 'Bullying is uncool!' "(1988) William "The Fridge" Perry,

offensive lineman for the Chicago Bears.

"Facades..." (1987) A set of two, 22-by-17-inch full-color posters produced

and distributed to complement a series of drug-free schools TV public service

announcements sponsored by NSSC.

All resources are prepared under Grant No. 85iMU-CX-0003 from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, Office of Justice Programs. U.S. Department of Justice. Points of

view or opinions in these documents are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of theU.S. Department of Justice. U.S Department of Education or

Pepperdine University. Prices subject to change without prior notification. Charges cover postage and handling. Check must accompany order.

NSSC Order FormPublicationsSchools Safety News Service

($119 annually) subscnptions

Resource PapersSale Schools Overview ($4)Alternative Schools for Disruptive Youth ($4)

copiescopies

Display Posters"Join a team, not a gang!"

Kevin Mitchell ($3) copies

Child Safety Curriculum Standards ($75) copies Corporal Punishment in Schools ($4) copies "The Fridge says 'Bullying is uncool!' "

Educated Public Relations (58) copies Drug Traffic and Abuse In Schools ($4) copies William 'The Firdge" Perry ($3) copies

Gangs in Schools ($5) copies Increasing Student Attendance ($4) copies "Make peer pressure a challenge, not an excuse!"

Right to Safe Schools ($3) copies Role Models, Sports and Youth ($4) copies Manute Bof and Tyrone Bogues (531 copies

School Crime and Violence ($15) copies School Bullying and Victimization ($4) copies "Facades..." (Set of 2) ($3) _copiesSchool Safety Check Book ($15) copies School Crisis Prevention and Response (54) copies

Set Straight on Bullies ($10) copies Student and Staff Victimization ($4) copies

The Need to Know ($12) copies Student Searches and the Law ($4) copies

Weapons in Schools ($4) copies

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k.;

ilMmimmignaill BY KENNETH C. HOLT

An experimental and controversialprogram seeks to enhance the academicperformance of African-American males.

Milwaukee's radical answerto multicultural education

Of all the issues facing this nation and,more specifically, the City of Milwau-kee, none are more critical to our col-lective well-being than those related toeducation. In spite of the increased at-tention focused on urban areas, publicschools continue to fail to educate a sig-nificant segment of the population. Asthe enrollment in school systems nation-wide becomes increasingly more ethni-cally and linguistically diverse, the needto critical!), examine the crucial issuesrelated to educating African-Americanstudents cannot be overstated.

Quality education for allThis need takes on an additional ur-gency when one considers that eco-nomic and social progress, particularlyfor people of color, has historically beenrelated to one's access to a quality edu-cation. Some research indicates thateducational attainment could very wellbe the most pertinent factor contributingto intergenerational routes out of im-poverished conditions.

Since the Milwaukee Public Schoolscurrently is responsible for educatingmore than 80 percent of the African-American students in the state of Wis-consin, the economic and social well-

Kenneth C. Holt is co-chair of theAfrican-American Immersion SchoolsImplementation Committee for theMilwaukee Public Schools.

being of African-Americans in the entirestate is inextricably tied to the qualityand vigor of the Milwaukee elementaryand secondary schools.

For Wisconsin's people of color ingeneral, the educational system is at bestloosely knit; however, for African-Americans in the Milwaukee PublicSchools, the system has unraveled. Con-sider the following:

Milwaukee Public Schools are thirdamong cities in the nation in suspend-ing more black than white studentsfrom school.During the 1986-87 school year,Milwaukee's African-American highschool students had an average gradepoint standing of 1.46.

When these data are disaggregated bysex, the statistics for African-Americanmales are even more disturbing. For in-stance, of the approximately 5,716 Afri-can-American males enrolled in highschools, only 1,135 have a cumulativegrade point average of C and above.Also, during the 1989-90 school year, 50percent or 3,565 of the students sus-pended systemwide (7,113) were Afri-can-American males, although African-American males constituted only 27.6percent of students in the system.

These data do not address anotherproblem the staggeringly high drop-out and low high school graduation rate,which have some young African-Ameri-


can males leaving school as early as theelementary level.

Enhancing academic performanceAfter reviewing this information, theMilwaukee Public Schools determinedthat addressing the needs of these youthwould call for a variety of approachesand bold, innovative initiatives. Recom-mendations to enhance the academicperformance of African-American maleswould need to include changes in designand format as well as changes in howschools operate. Action would be neces-sary on a variety of fronts, including thestructure, function and composition ofschools and the relationships among theschools, families and the community.

Goals to enhance the academic andbehavioral performance of African-American males were developed andrecommendations for achieving thesegoals were proposed. The goals include:

raising the number of African-Ameri-can males who remain in the Mil-waukee Public School system throughhigh school graduation;insuring that the academic achieve-ment of African-American male youthis at a level that will enable them upongraduation from high school to enterthe work force or to attend collegefully prepared to be successful and notin need of remediation; andincreasing the number of African-American males who possess the req-

uisite skills to successfully earn a col-lege degree.

Recommendations for changes in dis-trict policy, staff development andstructural variations were proposed. Ad-ditional recommendations were suggestedfor long-range implementation and con-centrate on broad systemwide revisions.

The recommendations for districtpolicy were based on the notion that allstudents can learn at increasingly higherlevels. To facilitate this learning, curric-ular policy needs to be changed to in-clude more information recognizing andappreciating African-American culture aswell as the cultures of others. In addition.the structuring of time allotted to readingand other academic areas needs to bemore flexible. Students also must haveaccess to more quality after-school, sum-mer and Saturday programs. Homeworkpolicies need to enhance both student andparent accountability.

The staff development recommenda-tions were aimed at increasing the abilityof school staff to work with children ofdiverse backgrounds and include train-ing and assistance in several areas. Staffneed to understand that students learn dif-ferently and instructional modes mustvary to accommodate these differences.

Benjamin De Mott, in The ImperialMiddle: Why Americans Can't Think.Straight About Class, articulates the viewthat teachers and administrators whoserve at-risk youth and who are not yettrained to be culturally senstive can havea negative impact on those they intend tohelp. Public school teachers often thinkthat the "ideal" student and the intelligentstudent is one who personifies middle-and upper-class behavior, aspirations,manners, dress and speech. "Schoolseverywhere take middle- and upper-classunderstandings of experience as its stan-

dard," DeMott writes.To facilitate the implementation of

these activities, school staff should par-ticipate in in-service courses that focuson African-American history and cultureas well as racism in America an its

negative impact on all Americans.

Schools with African-American popula-tions of 90 percent or more should beidentified as centers for professional de-velopment for teachers.

Additonally, implementing strategiesto increase the number of African-American teachers. especially males, iscrucial. Active involvement and col-laboration between parents and schoolstaff also must be encouraged.

The recommendations for structuralvariations are designed to introduce newinitiatives to enhance the achievementof African-American males and, ulti-mately, all children in the system."Gender socialization" courses requiredof all students and designed to help stu-dents establish their gender identity in a"safe.' environment are recommended.Likewise, the establishment of two Af-rican-American Immersion Schools atthe elementary and middle-school levelswill emphasize educating African-American males with an Afro-centeredcurriculum program. These schools willadhere to the district's non-discrimina-tion policy on admission and will heopen to all students regardless of race,gender, national origin and grades.

Building a multicultural programBroad systemwide revisions also wererecommended but were designed to heimplemented over a longer period oftime. The traditional "factory" modelschool was found to be unresponsive tothe cultural language and learning needsof African-American students.

Those serious about restructuringeducation must build a high quality,multicultural educational program.With the development of a strong multi-ethnic curriculum, particular attentionmust be paid to African-American ele-ments that reinforce pride in African-American identity and enhance self-worth.

Certain curriculum revisions also arerecommended. Since the true story ofAfrican-Americans has been hidden.suppressed and distorted for mansyears, the correction of that story re-quires a major effort. The story of


6 j

Africa's people must be comprehensive,holistic, thematic and have continuity.

Other long-range proposals include theestablishment of alternative disciplineprograms, such as short-term crisis inter-vention programs or in-school suspensionmodels that have proven to he edu-cationally' and behaviorally successful inother school districts.

In addition, Milwaukee parents andcaregivers need to understand their rolein educating their children. Parents andcaregivers need assistance in learninghow to support schools. The district canaccommodate this by strengthening part-nerships between school and home, withfamilies agreeing to take specific stepsto encourage their children to study andsupporting community schools that areopen extended hours to enrich the educa-tion of children. Such schools also canoffer adult education, language develop-ment, parenting and other skill develop-ment training for parents.

The African-American community inMilwaukee also must take responsibilityfor leading the education affecting chil-dren of color. Community support forrestructuring should include efforts toprovide academic reinforcement and en-richment through after-school and Satur-day aetvities and the use of communitymentors and advocates. The communitytrust also support apprenticeship effortsby making jobs available to youths.

Courageous urban educationAfrican-American males must be edu-cated to meet both their own and thenation's needs in the 1990s and beyond.The African-American ImmersionSchools will be living laboratories ofcurriculum and instructional innovation,trying to provide equitable and excellenteducation for those who have been themost distanced from school success.What we learn in these schools willspread to other schools. But more thananything else, these two schools are anexample of courageous urban educa-tion education unafraid to try a radi-cal approach to solving old and debilitat-ing problems. IP

NSSC Documentaries

HighRisk YouthAt the Clossiva

"Feeling good about yourself can be bought on a street corner. It must be built fromwithin But there are dangers you should know about. Those pressures we call 'riskfactors ..:

This powerful message to America's troubled children is presented in "High-RiskYouth / At the Crossroads,' a 22 -minute, award-winning documentary on youthdrug abuse prevention hosted by actor LoVar Burton.

By combining real-life profiles and commentary from nationally renowned authori-ties. the documentary provides a compelling case to look beyond current drug abuse

intervention strategies exemplified by the"Just Say No campaign. Researchers haveidentified individual, family, peer, community

and school-related problems that make kidsmore prone to use illegal drugs. The focus onpositive responses improving family andpeer relations, encouraging and rewardingresponsible behavior, ensuring that schoolplays a positive role in children's lives, ex-panding public and social services, aswell as

recreational opportunities for youths sug-gests that the most promising approach to"high-nsk youth" and drug abuse is one ofprevention, not simply intervention. This important theme is reinforced throughout thefast-paced program.

SET STRAIGHT ON

Whoever thought bullies were all talk and no action needs to view the film "Set Straight

on Bullies." The National School Safety Center film was produced to help school

administrators educate faculty,

parents and students about the

severity of the schoolyard bullying

problem. The message is clear:bullying hurts everyone.

The 18-minute, Emmy-winning

educational film tells the story of a

bullying victim and how the problern adversely affects his fife as wellas the lives of the bully, other

students, parents and educators.I'm always scared. I'm scared to

come to school....) don't want to be afraid anymore; the bullying victim says. In fact,

NSSC based the film on research indicating one in seven students is either a bully or avictim of bullying.

Principals play pivotal roles inkeeping toeir schools safe andeffective places for learning. Butwithout the support of parents,teachers, law enforcers and otherlegal, govemment and communityresources, they can't fulfill theirresponsibility.

A recipient of eight national and

international awards of excellence,"What's Wrong With This Picture?"is designed to encourage dialogue

between school principals and theircommunity resources. It presentsthe critical issue of school safety ina frank and straightforward way,dramatizing real-fife incidents ofschool-related crime and violence.

drug abuse and suicide.

NSSC Documentaries Order Form

"High -Risk Youth / At the Crossroads"

($50 VHS)

"Set Straight On Bullies"

($50 VHS)

"What's Wrong With This Picture?"($40 VHS)

_copies

copies

Charges cover postage and handling, and are subject to change without prior

notification. Check must accompany order.

Name

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Back in the playground bluesDreamed I was in the school playground, I was about four feet highYes, dreamed I was back in the playground, and standing about four feet highThe playground was three miles long and the playground was five miles wide.

It was broken black tarmac with a high fence all aroundBroken black dusty tarmac with a high fence running all aroundAnd it had a special name to it, they called it the Killing Ground.

Got a mother and father, they're a thousand miles awayThe Rulers of the Killing Ground are coming out to playEveryone's thinking: who they going to play with today?

You get it for being JewishGet it for being blackGet it for being chickenGet it for fighting backYou get it for being big and fatGet it for being small0 those who get it, get it and get itFor any damn thing at all

Sometimes they take a beetle, tear off its legs one by oneBeetle on its black back rocking in the lunchtime sunBut a beetle can't beg for mercy, a beetle's not half the fun.

Heard a deep voice talking, it had that iceberg sound;"It prepares them for Life" but I have never foundAny place in my life that's worse than The Killing Ground.

Adrien Mitchell

Reprinted from Bullying: A Positive Response by Delwyn Taman and Graham Herbert ©1990 by SGIHELearning Resources Centre, Cardiff, England. The poem originally appeared in theKingfisher Book ofChildren's Poetry, ©1985 by Allison and Busby.

ft


MiallIMMEMEMEME BY BETSY ROSENTHAL 11111111M111111MMINMENN

Combcrtting bigotry and prejudice begihswith early education and is furthered byenacting legislation against hate crimes,

Violent hate counteredby education and law

Swastikas spray painted on synagoguesand racial epithets brazenly scrawledacross the walls of private homes are all-too-frequent signatures of young peoplewho are, at best, naively mischievousand, at worst, motivated by malevolence.

Even in the enlightened 1990s, crossesare set aflame to terrorize black familiesin white neighborhoods and people arebeaten to death with baseball bats.stomped on with steel-toed Doc Martenboots and blown away by shotguns all

because of some immutable characteris-tic like the color of their skin. Sadly, thevast majority of these crimes of hate areperpetrated by juveniles.

Such crimes have a very special im-pact on their victims. They put the entirecommunity in fear. A 1988 report by theU.S. Department of Justice noted thathate crimes "are far more serious thancomparable crimes that do not involveprejudice because they are intended tointimidate an entire group." The impactof hate crimes often is multiplied be-cause a single incident is capable ofaffecting many people.

Combatting bigotry and prejudiceThe Anti-Defamation League of B'naiB'rith (ADL) is a 78-year-old nationalhuman relations agency dedicated to

Betsy Rosenthal is Western StatesCounsel for the Anti-Defamation Leagueof B'nai B'rith.

combatting anti-Semitism and otherforms of bigotry and to ensuring justiceand fair treatment for all citizens alike.Over the last decade, the ADL has de-veloped and Supported a combination ofpreventive and counteractive measuresthat enable communities to protect them-selves against vandalism and other formsof bias crimes and to respond effectivelyshould they occur. This effort has in-cluded conducting conferences on secur-ity and bias crime for community-basedinstitutions, designing educational pro-gramming against prejudice for schoolsand the workplace, publishing the hand-book Security for Community Institu-tions, drafting a model hate crimes bill,and producing a law enforcement train-ing film on hate crimes.

ADL defines a bias-related incident asany act threatened, attempted and/orcarried out which in any way consti-tutes expression of hostility toward thevictim because of race, religion, sexualorientation, national origin or ethnicity.This incident can be perpetrated by aperson or group of persons and is com-mitted against the person or property ofanother individual or group.

The League has been tracking anti-Semitic hate crimes since 1960. A record1,685 Anti-Semitic episodes occurred inthe United States during 1990, represent-ing the fourth straight year the r. .nberof these incidents has increased, accord-ing to an annual nationwide audit con-


ducted by the League.The survey also revealed that the na-

tionwide figure for harassment was thehighest ever recorded in the 12-yearhistory of the audit. The rate of vandal-ism which includes arsons, bombings,cemetery desecrations and swastikadaubings was the second highest.

An increase in neo-Nazi SkinheadsMuch of the increase in anti-Semitic in-cidents occurring during the latter part ofthe last decade coincided with the in-creasing presence of neo-Nazi Skinheadsin this country. They typically sportshaved heads, storm-trooper boots andother Nazi paraphernalia. By ADL'sestimates, approximately 3,000 racistSkinheads are active in 34 citiesnationwide.

In the past, Skinhead gangs consistedmostly of teenagers and young adults.But recent reports indicate that they arerecruiting younger and younger persons.Recruitment activity increasingly occursin and around schools. Some parentshave told ADL that their youngsterswere drawn at a very young age to theSkinhead style of dress and music. Theseyouths then eventually began to spoutracist ideas that they picked up fromSkinhead music and graffiti and from thepropaganda materials distributed bysome of the old-line hate groups, whichtargeted them for recruitment.

An important part of the Skinhead per-

26

sona is their "white power" music, some-times referred to as "Oi," originatingfrom the cockney word for "Hey!" TheseSkinheads, who are the subject of a num-ber of ADL published reports, are charac-terized as neo-Nazi Skinheads because ofthe white supremacist philosophy theyespouse and their expression and demon-stration of a vicious anti-Jewish and anti-minority hatred.

It should be noted, however, that not allSkinheads are racist. In fact, those whoare not although they are indistin-guishable in appearance from theothers actually are more numerous. Itis important for the public not to assumethat every Skinhead is a neo-Nazi.

On a positive note, ADL's most recentnationwide surveys of the Skinheadmovement indicate that the numerousarrests and convictions of neo-NaziSkinheads as the 1980s came to a closehave acted as a deterrent on the groups'propensity for violence.

One cannot help but wonder what moti-vates youth to adopt such racist attitudesand to join these hate groups in the firstplace. Described as "throwaway kids,"most Skinheads have in common a dys-functional family background.

Skinhead groups, like street gangs andcults, provide their members with a sub-stitute family composed of their peers.That sense of kinship is strengthenedeven further if the gang members havebeen involved in violence together. Mili-tary sociologists have long known thatsoldiers who have fought together developa deeper sense of solidarity.

Of course, rr any other variables arepresent in the background and character ofindividual Skinheads and others thatcommit hate crimes. Broad societal prob-lems also contribute to the phenomenon.

Enacting hate crimes statutesSolving the crises afflicting many Ameri-can families is not possible through anyshort-term solutions. What is needed noware effective means of coping with thespecific dangers presented by those whoprey on others because they arc different.Tough law enforcement is essential.

Prosecution of the perpetrators underhate crime statutes that strengthen thepenalties for crimes motivated by biasor bigotry must be encouraged.

Forty-nine states and the District ofColumbia currently have specific lawsagainst ethnic intimidation, institutionalvandalism or both, many patterned afterADL model legislation. An encouragingtrend of late is that the statutes have be-come more inclusive, going beyond thetraditionally protected categories ofrace, religion, nationality and ethnicorigin, to recognize new classes of vic-tims those subjected to anti-gay andanti-lesbian violence.

A significant victory in the fightagainst hate crimes has been the recentpassage of the Federal Hate Crime Sta-tistics Act, which requires the U.S. De-partment of Justice to compile data onbias-motivated crimes wherever theyoccur. The enactment of this law sendsan unmistakable message to the com-munity that law enforcement officialshave a genuine interest in the problem

School Safety 25 Fall 1991)

of hate crimes and should encourage acommitment to the vigorous pursuit ofthe perpetrators. Also, greater publicawareness of the problem should ensuefrom the law's passage.

Education is criticalPerhaps the most important way to pre-vent hate crimes is to obliterate themotivation for them prejudice. Sinceprejudice is learned early, education iscritical. States that lead the nation inhate crimes are at the bottom in terms ofspending for education. Prejudice-reduction programs in the schools can

Ip to prevent hate crimes from oc-curring in the first place.

Many battle' !arts can be used in fight-ing this insidious type of crime. It startswith the home and education. One is re-minded of the lesson from the musical"Soutn Pacific": "You've got to be taughtto hate and fear. You've got to be taughtfrom year to year. It's got to be drummedin your dear little ear. You've got tobe carefully taught."

BY DEBBIE WALSH

Teaching children to think critically nr, onlybroadens their worldview

but also helps to reduce prejudice.

Antidote for prejudice

"Ask a child to question and he'll ques-tion for a day. Teach a child to questionand he'll question for a lifetime."

Dennis Palmer Wolf'

Much of our thinking is subconsciousand automatic based on habit andconditioning. We tend to see what wewant to see, hear what we want to hear.We tend to accept without question whatis compatible with our beliefs and to re-ject out of hand what conflicts withthem. This kind of thinking is dangerous.It makes us susceptible to emotional ap-peals rather than rational ones; it makesus susceptible to manipulation. It makesus suspicious, fearful, and even hostile toanyone u. anything different. It canmake us prejudiced.

What does it mean to be prejudiced?It means "to have prejudged," to haveformed a judgment or opinion withoutfull and sufficient examination, withoutjust grounds or sufficient knowledge.Webster defines prejudice as "an irra-tional attitude of hostility directed

Debbie Walsh is Associate Director,Educational Issues Department, Ameri-can Federation of Teachers, Washing-ton, D.C., and Director, AFT CriticalThinking Project. She is co-author withRichard Paul of The Goal of CriticalThinking: From Education Ideal to Edu-cational Reality, published in 1986 byAFT.

against an individual, a group, a race, ortheir supposed characteristics." The op-posite of prejudicial thinking is judgingwith full and sufficient examination andforming opinions with just grounds andsufficient knowledge. We can teach chil-dren how to look at their world this way.If we expect to survive as a rich, plural-istic nation, that is what we must do.

The role of the schoolHow do we teach students anti-prejudi-cial thinking? We infuse a child's schoolexperience with an emphasis on thinkingcritically about knowledge and life.Thinking critically is the antithesis ofprejudicial thinking. It is, as RobertEnnis defines it, "reasonably going aboutdeciding what to do or believe."' Thismeans that one's beliefs and conse-quently one's actions are grounded inreasoned judgment, in thorough exami-nation, in solid evidence.

Critical thinking is a way of looking atthe world, a filter which qualifies our ex-periences. If our worldview is inaccu-rate, it is because the beliefs that consti-tute it are inaccurate. Intelligent peoplemay arrive at vastly different conclu-sions from the same evidence. It is theiruse of the evidence to fit their worldviewthat makes the difference. A criticalthinker strives for as accurate a world-view as possible so as to make informedjudgments.

This view of teaching for thinking in-


volves more than simply teaching stu-dents discrete little subskills on some-one's list of critical thinking skills.Thinking critically begins with beingdisposed to question, to examine, to sus-pend judgment until the available evi-dence is weighed.

Young children come to us with an in-credible sense of wonder about theworld. Any primary teacher has noticedhow this natural wonder, this urgent de-sire to know why, diminishes as years goby in our "one-size-fits-all" factorymodel of schooling, in which what is thepriority. Only in classrooms where whyremains critically important whereasking the right question is as importantas giving the right answer can wenurture that natural wonder and fosterdispositions of the critical spirit.

Critical thinking dispositionsAn attitude is a mental posture, a dispo-sition, a natural tendency. D'Angelo hasdescribed the attitudes or dispositions es-sential to the development of criticalthinking:

Intellectual curiosity seeking an-swers to various kinds of questions andproblems; investigating the causes andexplanations of events; asking why, how,who, when, where.

Objectivity using objective factorsin the process of making decisions; rely-ing on evidence and valid arguments andnot being influenced by emotive and

subjective factors in reaching conclu-sions (in deciding what to do or believe).

Open-mindedness willingness toconsider a wide variety of beliefs as pos-sibly being true; making judgmentswithout bias or prejudice.

Fle.vibility willingness to changeone's beliefs or methods of inquiry;avoiding steadfastness of belief, dog-matic attitude, and rigidity; realizing thatwe do not know all the answers.

Intellectual skepticism postponingacceptance of a hypothesis as true untiladequate evidence is available.

Intellectual honesty accepting astatement as true when there is sufficientevidence, even though it conflicts withcherished beliefs; avoiding slanting factsto support a particular position.

Being systematic following a lineof reasoning consistently to a particularconclusion; avoiding irrelevancies thatstray from the issue being argued.

Persistence supporting points ofview without giving up the task of find-ing evidence and arguments.

Decisiveness reaching certain con-clusions when the evidence warrants.

Respect for other viewpoints listen-ing carefully to other points of view andresponding relevantly to what was said;willingness to admit that one may bewrong and that other ideas one does notaccept may be correct.'

Obstacles to teaching for thinkingAre schools, as they are presently struc-tured, designed to develop and nurturethese attitudes? We currently operate ona one-size-fits-all factory model ofschooling with many obstacles to teach-ing for thinking. Large classes, blandtextbook pabulum, pressure to cover un-realistic amounts of content, account-ability on standardized tests that do notmeasure critical thinking skills anddispositions, and a one-right-answermentality are just a few of the hin-drances that face teachers committed tohelping students learn how to think forthemselves.

This structure has been described asobedience training. In other words, stu-

dents rarely learn to trust their own think-ing, to view themselves as authorities,when in fact, teaching them to think forthemselves is the most valuable gift wecan give them. It is also the most valu-able antidote to prejudice.

In an ideal world, schools would be re-structured so that fitting the system tostudents would be the goal rather thanvice versa as we do today. This vision ofschools includes restructuring the gov-ernance of schools so that those closest tothe students will make the decisions oninstruction (textbooks, class size, studentgroupings), and it includes restructuringinstruction with an emphasis not on con-tent coverage and lower-level thinkingskills, but on content depth and higher-level thinking skills.

Research tells us that this emphasisequips students with the mental skills toavoid thinking in simplistic terms andovergeneralizing. Evidence suggests thatwe can reduce students' prejudice by giv-ing them a framework or different con-ceptual lens through which to view theworld.4 Establishir ; a worldview that isgrounded in reas, led judgment, whereone's beliefs and consequently one'sactions are based on thoughtful exami-nation of the evidence, is the rationale ofteaching for thinking.

In a less-than-ideal school system,there are still some things that can bedone to bring the dream of a prejudice-free society closer to reality. Schoolsshould play a vital role in helping stu-dents develop as fair-minded a world-view as possible so that they may assessinformation thoughtfully and fairly,whether it be a history lesson or an inci-dent in their daily lives, thereby becom-ing more aware of and reducing the ef-fects of bias, prejudice and self-decep-tion in their thinking.

Schools need to begin to explode themyth of the one-right-answer. This mythsimply misrepresents the real world inwhich many questions do not haveright or even good answers. Wemay also need to reexamine an environ-ment where mistakes are equated with"sins," the impact of this kind of envi-


ronment on risk taking with one'sthoughts and ideas, and the role that com-petition plays in fostering or inhibitingcritical thinking.

In some experimental studies designedto reduce competitiveness and increasecooperation in learning, cognitive out-comes included retention, applicationand transfer of information, concepts,and principles; problem-solving abilityand success; and divergent and risk-tak-ing thinking. Affective outcomes in-cluded acceptance and appreciation ofcultural, ethnic and individual differ-ences, reduction of bias and prejudice;pluralistic and democratic values; valu-ing education; and positive attitudes to-ward school and self.5

Classroom essentials and strategiesLet us return to the dispositions of acritical thinker and examine ways theycan be modeled, encouraged, fostered,"taught," reinforced and rewarded in theclassroom.

A climate of trust and respect Stu-dents will not take risks with theirthinking in an atmosphere of fear andridicule. Taking chances with one'sideas must be valued and safeguardedby classroom rules that demand re-spect for the ideas and opinions ofother students.A "community of inquiry" An envi-ronment where asking right questionsis as important as giving right answers.An environment where there is a bal-ance between questions that have rightanswers and those for which there maybe more than one .°A balance between teacher talk andstudent talk In classrooms whereteachers do most of the talking, stu-dents get the idea that what they haveto say is not important. Students needto discuss, entertain and grapple withideas, problems and concepts, and it isthrough discussion that we can deepenstudents' understanding and depth ofknowledge.Success and self esteem One of thebest-established correlations withprejudice reduction is self-esteem a

WALSH

correlation so close as almost to dem-onstrate a cause-and-effect relation-ship.' An encouraging and success-oriented environment is crucial to de-veloping confidence in one's reasoningand consequently to one's level ofprejudice.An emphasis on thinking about think-ing Getting students to think abouttheir thinking is extremely important;asking questions about logic in addi-tion to questions about content: "Howdid you arrive at that conclusion?""What evidence supports that?" "Canyou explain how you worked thatout?" The expectation should prevailin the classroom that students need tojustify what they say with reasons,evidence and support.

Research suggests that direct teachingof prejudice-reduction techniques maybe ineffective, whereas indirect teachingof the skills and dispositions needed tocombat prejudice is effective. In otherwords, merely telling students that theyshould not be prejudiced is ineffectual.

Fostering evaluative thinking skillsHistorical events and literature relevantto issues of prejudice (e.g., To Kill aMockingbird, The Anne Frank Story),used with sensitivity and care, are essen-tial. The teaching and valuing of thecontributions of the great writers, scien-tists and leaders of all races, creeds andethnic groups is imperative. In addition,an emphasis on the dispositions for criti-cal thinking can and should be incorpo-rated into every aspect of school life.Some examples of classroom lessons andactivities that emphasize both critical-thinking skills (for example, inferring,making assumptions, drawing conclu-sions, evaluating evidence, supportingpositions with evidence, etc.) and dispo-sitions are:

Intellectual curiosity and being sys-tematic. Frances Hunkins devised a strat-egy for helping students ask their ownquestions. After identifying an issue ortopic, have the students plan the investi-gation of the topic brainstorming pos-

sible guiding questions, identifying (to-gether or in small groups) the most im-portant questions, and assessing the rea-soning embedded in their sequence ofquestions.'

Objectivity and respect for other view-points. One cooperative learning activityinvolves organizing students into groupsof four, with two students assigned thepro side of an issue and two the con.Each pair of pros and cons finds anotherpair of the same side and spends an al-lotted amount of time in this group iden-tifying arguments for their respectivesides.

The original groups then reconveneand debate the issue, with each person inthe group of four having three minutes tolay out the arguments or give their rebut-tal. After each person in the group hastaken a turn, the sides then change posi-tions, with the pros arguing the con sideand vice versa. After each person has ar-gued the opposite position, the groupthen drops its advocacy roles and comesto a group consensus on a position.identifying the best arguments for thatposition.'

Open-mindedness and flexibility. AtTeachers College, Columbia University,Hazel Hertzberg uses this activity in hersocial studies classes, but it has also beenused successfully with elementary andhigh school students. The "Penny Les-son" involves students in small groupswho are asked to look at pennies and,pretending they know nothing about theculture that made a given penny, identifyas many inferences as they can about theculture that made it (for example, theyhad an advanced technology, this was areligious society, this was a bilingualsociety).

Each group shares its inferences, sup-porting them with evidence provided bythe penny. The lesson can be extended byexamining the inferences which aretrue or false, what would have to be doneto test some of the inferences (e.g., a"male-dominated" society?), written as-signments (e.g., a day in the life of apenny). This exercise illustrates how dif-ficult it is to suspend one's bias in an en-


joyable, nonthreatening manner.Decisiveness. Edys Quellmaltz, for-

merly of Stanford University, workedwith classroom teachers in developinglessons for second- and third-grade stu-dents that required them to take a posi-tion on an issue and support it.

For example, before reading "Jack andthe Beanstalk," the students are asked toread and decide whether Jack is a greedyboy or a curious boy. The class discussessome of the characteristics of greedy andcurious people. After the students readthe story, the teacher elicits examplesfrom the students and places them underheadings "Jack was greedy" and "Jackwas curious" on the board.

Finally, after much groundwork, thestudents write a composition in whichthey take a position, supporting their po-sition with two good reasons from thestory. This is a powerful lesson for thirdgraders. They get the message that whatthey think is important, that they mustsupport their positions with good rea-sons, and that one's use of evidence af-fects the conclusions drawn.'°

Intellectual honesty. A hallmark of acritical thinker is the ability to distin-guish between appeals to reason and ap-peals to emotion, recognizing that a ten-dency exists to seek out only evidencethat supports one's viewpoints. We oftenaccept without question what agreeswith our views and automatically rejectwhat does not.

Kevin O'Reilly, of the Critical andCreative Thinking Program at the Univer-sity of Massachusetts-Boston, devel-oped a history lesson on the Battle ofLexington to give students an opportu-nity to evaluate critically conflictingsources of information on "who fired thefirst shot on Lexington Green." Studentsare given excerpts from an Americanhistory textbook, a book written by Win-ston Churchill, and two eyewitness ac-counts of the battle, Through discussionand examination, students are asked toanalyze each passage in terms of the useof language (emotionally loaded terms,such as 'patriot' and 'rebel'), the qualityof the reasoning, the use of rhetorical

devices to slant, and so on. The essenceof the lesson is the questions studentsask in assessing the credibility of thesources."

Toward a prejudice-free societyWe should teach our children to askquestions; go beyond the superficial tothe substance; take positions on issuesand explain and defend those positions;he aware of multiple perspectives on im-portant issues and the importance ofknowing all sides of an issue before tak-ing a position: and assess informationcarefully and fairly. Then they will in-crease their awareness of their ownbiases. heighten their openness to re-thinking their positions in the face ofconflicting evidence, and take time to re-flect rather than merely react.

EndnotesI. Dennis Palmer Wolf. "The Art of Questionine."

It adenur Comte( tion, W inter 1987.2 Robert H. Emits. "Goals for a Critical Thinking Cur-

ticulum. Illinois Thinking Project, Univers:is' 01 Illi-nois. Champaign-Urbana. 1983.Edward DAngelo. rile tea, inns of (-ritual rhinkine (Amsterdam. 'Ile Netherlands Li R. Gruner.1971).

4 Glenn S. Pate, "What Does Research Tell Us Aboutthe Reduction of Prejudice.'" Presentation at the Ilecetnber 1987 Anti-Defamation League IADLI Conter-ence in Chicago. Illinois. on "American Citirenshsp inthe fwent-Fitst Century- Education lor a Pluralistic.Democratic America.Des id Johnson and Roger Johnson, Leartunt: rn;ether low Atone tEnglessood (lilts. Nev. Jer%esPrentice Hall. 19751.

o Matthew Lipman. et al Philosophy in the ClassroomPhiladelphia. Pennsylsania- Temple University Press.19sinPate

Frances P. Hunkins. "Helping Students Ask TheirOwn Questions,- So, tul Edu«itton, April 1985Johnson and Johnson.Edis QuellmaltL, Higher Order Thinking tHQ.TProgram Stanford Unisersity. personal correspon-dence. 1984

1 1 Kevin O'Reilly. "Teaching Critical Thinking in HighSchool LI S. Ilistor,."Soclal Edueatton. April 1985.

10

Reprinted by permission from theNational Council lin. the Social StudiesINCSS). The oracle originally appearedin the ApribMay 1988 issue of SOCIALEDUCATION. the ofticial journal ofNCSS. This article also appeared in thepublication Reducing Prejudice pub-lished by the Anti-Defamation League ofB'nai B'rith. A review of ReducingPrejudice is on page 34.

What can parents do about prejudice?

Despite the best efforts of many par-ents and teachers, children still learnprejudice and practice discrimination.The following suggestions from theNational PTA and the Anti-Defama-tion League of B'nai B'rith may helpparents teach their children to over-come unfair attitudes and practices.

Accept each of your children asunique and special. Let your chil-dren know that you recognize andappreciate their unique qualities.Children who feel good aboutthemselves are less likely to beprejudiced.

Help your child become sensitiveto other people's feelings. Studiesindicate that caring, empatheticchildren are less likely to be preju-diced. Share stories and books withyour children that help them to un-derstand the points of view of othergroups. When personal conflictsoccur, encourage your children tothink about how the other personis feeling.

Make sure your children understandthat prejudice and discriminationare unfair. Make it a firm rule thatno person should he excluded orteased on the basis of race, ethni-city or religion.

Teach your children to respect andappreciate differences by providingopportunities for interaction withpeople of diverse racial, ethnic andreligious groups. Studies show thatchildren working or playing to-gether in a friendly environmentdevelop positive attitudes towardone another. Sports teams, bands.school clubs and community pro-grams are good examples of suchactivities. In addition to firsthand

experiences, provide opportunitiesfor children to team about variousgroups of people through books, TVprograms, concerts or other pro-grams that show positive insightsinto other cultures.

Help children recognize instances ofstereotyping, prejudice and dis-crimination. Make sure they recog-nize such attitudes and behavior ifthey see them in action. TV newsand programs. movies and newspa-pers often provide opportunities fordiscussion.

Encourage children to create posi-tive change. Talk to your childrenabout how they can respond toprejudiced thinking or acts of dis-crimination they observe. Paintingover racist graffiti, writing letters toa television producer who promotesstereotypes, or confronting a peer'sdiscriminatory behavior are all ap-propriate actions. Confronting class-mates 's particularly hard for chil-dren. so they need to have aready made response for such in-stancas. If another child is called bya ra.:ist name, an observer mightsimply say, "Don't call him that.Call him by his name." Or, if yourchild is the victim, "Don't call methat. That's not fair."

Take appropriate action againstprejudice and discrimination. Forexample, if other adults use bigotedlanguage around you or your chil-dren. you should not ignore it. Yourchildren need to know that such be-havior is unacceptable even if it isfrom a familiar adult. A simplephrase will do: "Please don't talkthat way around me or my chil-dren," or "I don't think that joke isfunny."


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Journalism. The school principals attending the practicum personally had dealt with bombings,

murder and terrorism on their campuses.Their comments and recommendations, learned by living through tragic events at their schools,

were filmed and have been incorporated into "School Crisis: Under Control" to assist others in

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School Safety 30 Fall 1991 ry

NATIONAL UPDATE

Forum examinesyouth violence

The omnipresent threat of violence in thelives of many thousands of America'sminority youth severely detracts from thequality of life in minority communities.Despite an urgent need, little guidancecurrently is available for communitiesthat wish to develop their own violence-prevention programs.

The absence of useful guidance isattributable to three factors. First, little isknown about how to effectively preventdeath and injuries resulting from youthviolence. Second, what is known aboutprevention based on innovative effortsby a variety of communities as well asscientific research to date has not beenassembled in a clear, concise way. Third,no accepted locus of responsibility existsfor helping communities to address theprimary prevention of violent death andinjuries.

To begin addressing these issues, theCenters for Disease Control of the PublicHealth Service and the Minority HealthProfessions Foundation (with the More-house School of Medicine serving as thecoordinating institution) sponsored "TheForum on Youth Violence in MinorityCommunities: Setting the Agenda forPrevention." The forum was comprisedof about 110 participants representingpublic health, criminal justice, socialservice, and academic and minoritycommunities.

Interpersonal violence is a problemthat impacts all segments of Americansociety. Each year, more than 20,000people die and more than 2.2 millionsuffer non-fatal injuries from interper-sonal violence. Young people from ra-cial and ethnic minorities in particular

have a high risk of death and injury frominterpersonal violence.

Homicide is the leading cause of deathamong African-Americans between theages of 15 and 34. During his lifetime, anAfrican-American male has a one-in-27chance of being murdered compared to aprobability of one in 205 for a whitemale, according to data from the FederalBureau of Investigation.

Hispanic males and Native Americansalso are at high risk of becoming homi-cide victims. In the Southwest, the homi-cide rate for Hispanic males has beenfound to be more than three times therate for non-Hispanic males in the re-gion. The risk of homicide for AmericanIndians and Alaska Natives is more thandouble that for all Americans.

Rates of fatal injury from interpersonalviolence, such as homicide, are dispro-portionately high for young people,males, African-Americans and Hispanics.Homicide, however, which represents thefatal level of interpersonal violence,is only the tip of the iceberg. Each year,more than 450,000 African-Americansand Hispanics suffer non-fatal injuriesfrom violent and abusive behavior.

One purpose of the forum was tosummarize what is known about vio-lence prevention so that this informationcan be immediately applied by minoritycommunities. Another purpose was todetermine prior;ties for the evaluation ofviolence-prevention programs so that fu-ture research can be appropriately tar-geted. Through this assessment, thesponsoring groups, state and local healthdepartments, and minority communitieswill be better able to implement effec-


tive violence-prevention programs andencourage research in the development ofpromising intervention strategies.

The forum focused on minority com-munities for several reasons. First, peo-ple living in many minority communitiesface an extraordinarily high risk of deathor injury from violent and abusive be-havior. In order to ensure that maximumbenefits are derived from finite re-sources, available resources for the pre-vention of youth violence should bedirected toward those in greatest need.

Second, the successful implementationof youth violence-prevention programswill depend heavily on the willingness ofminority communities to take ownershipof this problem and organize themselvesso that they can act to effectively preventyouth violence. The information thatemerges from this forum is intended toempower minority communities in a waythat enables them to achieve the goal ofprevention.

Finally, a focus on minority communi-ties is justified because of the need toground violence-prevention programs inthe cultural milieu of communities.African-American, Hispanic, NativeAmerican and Asian communities eachhave unique cultural traditions that playan important role in determining the suc-cess of community interventions. Vio-lence-prevention strategies must be cul-turally sensitive, competent and specificin order to achieve their maximum po-tential to prevent death and injury.

The Centers for Disease Control willuse the information revealed in the forumproceedings to develop guidelines forcommunity violence-prevention pro-grams and set priorities for evaluationresearch. The community guidelines andevaluation priorities will be based on in-formation acquired through the confer-ence deliberations, the background papersprepared for this conference and otherrelevant sources.

Excerpted from the Special Section of the

MaylJune /99/ issue of Public HealthReports, edited by James A. Mercy andMary Ann Felder.

LEGISLATIVE UPDATE

States adopthate crime laws

A decided trend has emerged for legisla-tion on the subject of hate crimes. Bigo-try of all kinds is increasing, and violentincidents motivated by such bigotry alsoare on the rise. This phenomenon has at-tracted sufficient attention that lawmak-ers at the state and federal level wish todiscourage such behavior through effec-tive legislation.

Getting from policy to law, however, isproving to be difficult, if not unconstitu-tional. Recent developments suggest thatsome of the approaches to solve thisproblem are practical, while others mustbe based on a well-thought-out policydesigned to respond to local conditionsrather than national headlines.

Defining a "hate crime" is not an easytask. The phrase has become somethingof a term of art covering everything fromcrimes against property to physical as-sault and battery to speech that violatesbehavioral norms in the setting where thespeech takes place. Every jurisdiction al-ready has laws on the hooks that addresscrimes against property or persons with-out regard for the perpetrator's motiva-tion concerning the race or nationality ofthe victim or the victim's property. Whatdoes specific hate crimes legislation addto these existing laws?

First. states may wish to adopt statutesthat address these subjects to provide anadditional tool for law enforcement simi-lar to those which exist in federal lawunder the civil rights statutes. Conspira-cies against the rights of citizens arecriminalized in 18 U.S.C. § 241. Similarprotection against officially encouragedor sanctioned deprivation of civil rightsis provided for in 42 U.S.C. § 242. Civil

action including money damagesagainst those who violate the law isprovided for in 42 U.S.C. § 1983.

Second, state hate crimes provisionsalso may provide stiffer penalties to re-spond to perceived needs in local juris-dictions. A look at various state provi-sions illustrates both the diversity ofapproaches and the type of legal chal-lenges that are likely to arise.

Every state has proposed some re-sponse to violent bigotry. To date, moststates have passed some legislation thatadds to the federal statutes in providingenforcement solutions to hate crimes.This legislation, much of which has beenmodeled after suggestions of the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith, high-lights such activities as institutional van-dalism and intimidation, focusing on bothconduct as well as speech. At a minimum.these laws mandate crime reporting forincidents that fit the legislative descrip-tion. Some of the legislation supportscivil actions against perpetrators, whileothers require that law enforcement agen-cies include extra training regarding hatecrimes to officers.

Some hate crimes laws may he uncon-stitutional. Earlier this year. a state courtjudge ruled that the provisions of the Vir-ginia hate crimes law abridged protectedexpression, and the court threw out aprosecution against a 16-year-old studentcharged with burning a cross at a highschool in Fairfax. Virginia.

The lawyer for the student successfullyargued that cross-burning was protectedas symbolic speech in much the same waythat flag-burning was upheld by the U.S.Supreme Court. While the Fairfax County


attorneys argued that the law was aimedonly at reaching acts that cause intimida-tion, it is easy to see how the FirstAmendment may pose serious problemsfor hate crimes laws aimed at specifictypes of intimidation. At least half of thestates with hate crime laws have provi-sions that prohibit the burning of crossesor other symbols.

States may get around this problem intwo ways. First, states may change thelaws to prohibit individuals from burninganything without a permit within a resi-dential district or an area where churchesare located. Laws of this type are easilyenforced without regard for the expres-sion of the person doing the burning.The First Amendment then does not be-come an issue. Second, states that do notdesire to change the focus of existinghate crime laws which address symbolicacts of intimidation simply may arguethat these laws further a compelling stateinterest in discouraging acts of violentbigotry.

The U.S. Supreme Court has decidedto take up the question of hate crimelaws during its 1991-92 term. A recentlyenacted Minnesota law is being re-viewed by the Court in the case ofR.A.1". v. City of St. Paul (90-7675).Thelaw provides that:

Whoever places on public or privateproperty a symbol, object, appellation,characterization, or graffiti, includingbut not limited to, a burning cross orNazi swastika, which one knows orhas reasonable grounds to knowarouses anger, alarm, or resentment inothers on the basis of race, color,creed, religion, or gender commits dis-orderly conduct and shall be guilty ofa misdemeanor I Leg. Code @ 292.02(1990)1.

Thus, in issuing its decision on R.A.V.r. City of St. Paul, the U.S. SupremeCourt soon will determine the constitu-tional parameters of hate crime laws andset guidelines for future legislation.

Prepared by Bernard James, specialcounsel for NSSC.

LEGAL UPDATE

Schools fight biasand intimidation

Schools will be a prime target for purvey-ors of hate crimes. Because modern cam-puses bring together such a diverse groupof students, they will attract perpetratorsof hate and intimidation.

The "Summary of School Hate CrimeReport" released in October 1989 by theLos Angeles County Commission on Hu-man Relations illustrates this diversity bylisting crimes against. Latinos, blacks,whites, Asians, Arabs, Jews, immigrants,homosexuals and "others," includingFilipinos and American Indians. Al-though blacks and Latinos were the big-gest targets, the study found no groupimmune. Hate-laden slurs, graffiti andother incidents of violence were reportedagainst individuals based on race, eth-nicity, immigrant status, religion andsexual preference.

A far greater amount of school crimeand violence is racially related than any-one wants to admit. Many educators failto report these crimes because they feelthat it makes them look bad if they admitthey have a problem. They sense that theywill be blamed or they wish to avoid badpublicity or litigation. Some administra-tors think that some offenses are too mi-nor to report or they prefer to rely on theirown security and discipline instead of re-porting the crime to law enforcement.They may suspect that the police or thecourts will not cooperate with them. Theymay fear retaliation from the offenders ormay not want to stigmatize them. Aboveall, many administrators fear that, if theyreport crime on campus, they will be re-garded as ineffective.

In some communities, educators haveovercome these concerns and taken the

lead in discussing the problem of and po-tential solution to hate crimes. In re-sponse to the Hate Crimes Report in LosAngeles County, 200 educators and othercommunity leaders attended a sympo-sium where they heard from colleagueswho have developed experimental pro-grams to address the problem.

In the face of the threat that hatecrimes bring to the learning environmentand safe campuses, recent reports suggestthat schools have adequate legal tools torespond to the challenge.

School codes of conduct are, in mostcases, already structured in such a man-ner that they can be used to cite and pun-ish students who commit hate crimes oncampus against persons or property. Forexample, students who commit assault orbattery can be disciplined based on thosesections of the code of conduct, regard-less of the motivation for these crimes.Vandalism or disruption motivated byhate can be considered by the sameschool rules that cover any incidents ofvandalism or disruption. Moreover, insome school districts, codes of conductapply to activities off campus. As a re-sult, school-based discipline may beall that is necessary to establish aneffective policy against hate crimes bystudents.

In addition to codes of conduct, thecommission of most hate crimes will vio-late local as well as federal criminallaws. School officials may not wish to re-port incidents in some cases, but theyshould be aware that hate crimes are suf-ficiently serious to gain the interest oflocal prosecutors. Some prosecutors,frustrated by lack of cooperation by

School Safety 33 Fall 1991- -

ss_l

school officials, may charge them withobstruction. When the hate crime iscommitted on campus by non-students,criminal law is often the only way to en-force safe campus policies.

In Los Angeles, a federal court sen-tenced a 19-year-old to a one-year prisonsentence for mailing hate letters toschool administrators at Grant HighSchool in Van Nuys, California. The stu-dent pled guilty after being caught mail-ing letters to a black member of the stu-dent body, the black assistant principaland the principal, who is married to ablack woman.

The youth's letters included such mes-sages as "Keep your hands off whitegirls," "I guess you are just anotherbrand of ignorance that me and myfriends are going to have to take careof," and "How would you like a 10-footcross burned on your front yard?" Yetanother letter threatened the principalthat a 10-foot cross would be burned onhis lawn and that his family would beharassed.

The letters were typewritten for themost part, but one letter had a line writ-ten in handwriting. The school adminis-trator linked the letters with files of stu-dent homework to catch the youth.When police searched the home of thestudent, they found school records listingthe name and address of the student whoreceived the letter, other unmailed lettersand the typewriter ribbon used to makethe letters.

The court rejected probation of the19-year-old, agreeing with the prosecu-tor that hate crimes committed on schoolcampuses should be treated as seriousthreats to society. The sentence also in-cluded a requirement that the youth writeletters of apology to the victims as wellas an open letter of apology to GrantHigh School.

This case school should give adminis-trators confidence that it is possible torespond effectively to hate crimes com-mitted by students on campus.

Prepared by Bernard James. specialcounsel for NSSC.

RESOURCE UPDATE

Effective teachingreduces prejudice

For more information or to obtain acopy of Reducing Prejudice, write: TheAnti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith,823 United Nations Plaza, New York,NY 10017, 212/490-2525.

lommomool Videos help locatemissing children

Reducing Prejudice: An Overview bySeven Prominent Educators, Anti-Defa-mation League of B'nai B'rith, 1988,28 pages.

Reducing Prejudice, reprinted from theApril/May 1988 issue of SOCIAL EDU-CATION, the official journal of The Na-tional Council for the Social Studies, ex-amines the role of education in counter-acting prejudiced attitudes, beliefs andbehaviors.

Schools cannot afford to neglect thehuman relations component of education.Effective citizenship does not depend onknowledge of rights and responsibilitiesunder the Constitution alone. Peoplealso must be able to interact easily andopenly with the different races, religionsand cultures that are part of our increas-ingly multicultural society.

Our children enter school with precon-ceptions acquired from parents, peers, themedia and other socializing agencies inthe community. By the age of 12, chil-dren have already developed a completeset of stereotypes about every ethnic, ra-cial and religious group in society, ac-cording to a landmark research studyconducted by the Anti-DefamationLeague (ADL) and the University ofCalifornia at Berkley.

However, the research also indicatesthat children at stages of early adoles-cence are still open and undergoing de-velopmentnot too old for significant at-titudinal change, but old enough to en-gage in the process of self-discovery.Counteraction is possible during the nextfew years of adolescence, the study indi-cates. If no counteraction occurs during

this time, however, the research suggeststhat these children will continue to buildon their stereotypes and become narrow,bigoted adults.

The ADL research identifies two pri-mary means of counteracting prejudicethrough education. First, students must heassisted in developing critical and an-alytical thinking skills. Children who arecognitively sophisticated arc far lesslikely to become prejudiced adults thanthose who continue to "think" simply andunquestioningly.

Second, the study found that. if youngpeople of different races or cultures canget to know one another well enough todiscover essential similarities where theypreviously assumed differences. preju-dices will crumble.

Reducing Prejudice contains informa-tive articles integrated with practical sug-gestions to help teachers develop an anti-prejudice curriculum for their classrooms.Subjects include:

cooperative learning methods to reduceprejudice and increase multiculturalappreciation;approaches for developing criticalthinking skills; andclassroom activities that provide op-portunities for students to identify andexamine their own beliefs and thoughtprocesses which underlie and perpetu-ate prejudice and discrimination.

Also included is an Anti-DefamationLeague report on Skinheads and a shortbibliography of print and audio-visualmaterials that can help integrate humanrelations concepts and lessons into thesocial studies curriculum.


KIDPRINT, a free service offered byBlockbuster Entertainment Corporationin conjunction with the National Centerfor Missing and Exploited Children.

From 1984 through 1990, more than24,000 childrenabout 13 children eachdaywere reported missing to the Na-tional Center for Missing and ExploitedChildren (NCMEC). According to theU.S. Department of Justice, in 1988alone, almost one million children wereabducted. ran away or were otherwisemissing.

Last August, Blockbuster Videolaunched KIDPRINT, a national childsafety program that provides parents theopportunity to have their children video-taped. This effort helps parents be moreprepared in the event that their childrenare ever abducted or missing. This Sep-tember. Blockbuster Video again will of-fer this free service to parents.

The objective of the KIDPRINT pro-gram is to capture a child's image, voiceand mannerisms on videotape. The tapescould be used by the police to be broad-cast on television, helping to locate andidentify lost or abducted children.

During the month of September, par-ents may have their children videotapedat any participating Blockbuster Video.Parents have the option of purchasing aspecial blank KIDPRINT tape fromBlockbuster or providing their own. Allproceeds from the purchased videotapesgo to NCMEC. Call your local Block-buster Video for more information.

Prepared by June R. Lane, associate edi-tor of School Safety.

36

PRINCIPALSoeLEADERSHIPIPA

Studies of effective schools have shown that strong leadershipis a key ingredient for success According to a U.S Departmentof Education publication, "Students respond best to a principalthey can respect. These men and women are firm, fair, consis-tent and highly visible.

"Principals of Leadership" recognizes outstanding men andwomen in our nation's schools who. through their effectiveleadership, promote safer, more productive and more positivelearning climates on the campuses they administer Althoughthe leadership styles of effective principals vary with thecircumstances and situations they face, vision, persuasivenessand commitment to excellence are common threads in theprofiles of the 10 principals honored this year Running a schoolis a complicated lob, especially in today's complex world inwhich the need for campus safety, for preparing students toenter a more technologically sophisticated work force, and fordealing with the psychological and emotional needs of studentsoften compete with schools' traditional academic goals. Since

safe, quality schooling requires student, staff and communityinvolvement, the special programs and talents these principalshave developed take on varied emphases.

For example, programs that integrate school activities withlocal businesses provide lob training and incentives for youngpeople to stay in school Staff and student recognition pro-grams boost morale and reduce discipline problems. Specialcampus cleanup projects instill a "pride of ownership" amongstudents for their campuses and reduce vandalism These10 education leaders and their achievements are positiveexamples for all leaders of children and adults alike.

The 1991 "Principals of Leadership" are (counterclockwisefrom top left)' Roger L Berkbuegler. Rolla High School, Rolla,Missouri, Anita S. Bieler, Hereford Elementary School. Hereford,Pennsylvania. Euaene T Domeno. Neil Armstrong ElementarySchool. Diamond Bar. California, Phillip L. Hobbs, EastmoorHigh School. Columbus. Ohio, Mary Ann Joyce, Horizons-on-the-Huth on Magnet School. Newburgh, New York. Janice PMatistic, Jefferson Elementary School, Summit. New Jersey.Frank N Mickens. Boys and Girls High School. Brooklyn, NewYork; Lee Switzer, Hayes Elementary School. Fridley. Minnesota.Wayne N. Tanaka. Robison Junior High School. Las Vegas,Nevada. and Kristine Wolzen, Raymond Central ElementarySchools, Valparaiso, Nebraska

For more insight from the "Principals of Leadership. writeNational School Safety Center. Pepperdine University, Malibu,California 90263.

Presented as a public service by the National Association ofElementary School Principals. the National Association ofSecondary School Principals and the NATIONAL

SCHOOLeSAFETYCENTIM

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SAFE SCHOOLS WEEKOCTOBER 13-19, 1991

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Please join the National School Safety Center and other local, state and federalofficials and organizati, ns in observing October 13-19, 1991, as America's SafeSchools Week.

Significant progress is being made to help make all of our nation's schools moresafe, secure and productive places in which to learn and work. At the forefront of

this movement are hundreds of exemplary programs and associations at the school,district, state and national levels that are effectively preventing campus crime andviolence, improving discipline, increasing attendance, and suppressing drug trafficand abuse. This observance of America's Safe Schools Week will recognize andhonor these programs as well as encourage others to replicate them.

Now is the time for people across our nation to join together in promoting the safety

and well-being of our schoolchildren and in providing quality education for thefuture leaders of our country. America's Safe Schools Week, now in its seventh

year, is sponsored annually by the National School Safety Center, a partnership ofthe U.S. Department of Justice, U.S. Department of Education and Pepperdine

University.

Drug-exposed babiesthe newest cry for help in the war on,drug.

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NSSC UPDATE

Drug-exposedbabies cry for help


Drug abuse and its effects on childrencut across all racial and economicgroups. It occurs in the suburbs, ruralcommunities and in urban America.Educators and law enforcers are facedwith a dual challenge: keeping kidsaway from drugs and keeping drugsaway from kids. The first strategy im-plies education to reduce the demand:the second implies enforcement to re-duce the supply. These companion strat-egies have an opportunity to work once ayoungster reaches the age of responsibil-ity and can make a choice.

But drug-exposed children do not havethe privilege of choosing their destiny.They inherit the lifestyle and legacy oftheir parents, placing them at incrediblerisk. Their home environments often eY.acerbate the damage that was done in thewomb.

By the year 2000, it is estimated thatthere may be four million cocaine-ex-posed children in the United States. NewYork City Public Schools ChancellorJoseph Fernandez reports that 26 drug-exposed children are born every day inNew York City alone that's enoughchildren to fill a kindergarten class!

Contrary to early reports, hope existsfor children born prenatally exposed todrugs. With special attention includingmedical care, creative education andstable home environments, they mayhave a chance. The sad part is that chil-dren and families affected the most bythe drug/crack cocaine epidemic are dis-proportionately found in impoverished,

minority communities where resourcesto provide needed attention are scarce.

Five years ago, these children werereferred to as "crack babies." Researchnow shows that their bodies also wereexposed to other drugs PCP, heroin,alcohol, tobacco and usually morethan one drug at a time. It also wasthought that drug-exposed childrenwould be horribly brain damaged andmentally retarded.

New research indicates that if thesechildren receive special support early inlife, they may be able to live relativelynormal lives. A longitudinal study beingconducted by the National Associationfor Perinatal Addiction Research andEducation (NAPARE) has shown thatnearly 100 percent of drug-exposed chil-dren rest within the normal range cog-nitively. The mothers of the children inthe study sought treatment while theywere pregnant and many continue to re-ceive support.

The same study also predicts that 30 -40 percent of drug-exposed children willexperience behavioral problems andlearning disorders as they become schoolage, including difficulties in languagedevelopment and/or attention.

Not all experts agree, however, nor isresearch conclusive. In fact, little re-search exists to describe developmentalpatterns in older children who were pre-natally exposed to crack cocaine. At thispoint, experts cannot predict what willhappen as the drug-exposed child ma-tures and grows into adulthi

What measures can be taken by educa-tors and other service providers to im-prove the chances these children have

School Safety 2 Winter 1992

for success? Most professionals agreethat energies must he focused on build-ing successful outcomes with at-riskchildren and their families.

Promising strategies include parentsand "significant others" who will investtime with these children. Highly struc-tured educational programs and shorterassignments appear to be most effective.A small class size with six to eight stu-dents and a 2-I student/teacher ratio pro-vides a critical level of personal atten-tion so needed by these children.

In this issue of School Safety, Dr. IraChasnoff, president and medical directorof NAPARE, writes about research cur-rently being conducted in Chicago. Fromthe Los Angeles Unified School District,psychiatric social worker DeborahJohnson and teacher Carol Cole collabo-rate on a report about their work in oneof the first pilot programs in the UnitedStates that addressed the special needs ofchildren prenatally exposed to drugs.

Richard Jones, executive director ofBoston Children's Services Association,and Charlotte McCullough and MadelynDeWoody of the Child Welfare Leagueof America in Washington, D.C., writeabout the challenges to the social ser-vices system presented by the increasingnumbers of preschoolers affected by pre-natal exposure to alcohol and drugs andthe devastating postnatal factors relatedto parental chemical involvement.

Linda Delapenha of the Department ofStudent Services, Hillsborough County(Florida) Schools, reports on a programfor training teachers in the Tampa areato work with drug-exposL'd childrenwithin the regular classroom setting,rather than through special educationclasses. Soon this training will be avail-able to other districts.

4owhcrc is the fiber of a nation moreclearly reflected than in the way it caresfor its children. Ordinary people will berequired to provide extraordinary carefor drug -e' posed youngsters. The keywill be early intervention, comple-mented by systematic interagency coop-eration by an array of youth-serving rn.0-fessionals and parents who care.

NATIONALSCHOOL 0SAFETYCENTER

P :metal:tie Urns ersity's National School Safety Center isit partnership of the S Department of Justice and C SDepartment of Education. :NW'', goal is to promote sidescho.,s free of drug traffic and abuse. gangs. weapons.I andaltsin and bullying, to encourage good discipline.attendance and communny support. and to help ensure aquality education for all c hddren.

Ronald D. Stephens. Executts e Doector

G. Ellis Butterfield, Deputy Director

James E. Campbell. Business Manager

Bernard James, Special Counsel

Pepperdine University 'SSW Steering Council:Das ad Da, enport. Presidem.Chdir. 1,('tiltain 13 Adrian.Pros Oct. Ur, e Chair. Andrew K. Benton. Vice President.Urns ersits Attairs. Nancy Magnusson-Fagan. Dean.Graduate School of Educittout and Psychology. Ronald FPhillips. Dean. School of Lc4 . Charles B. Runnels.Chancellor. Ronald D Stephens. Execume Dtre(or.NSSC. John 0 Watson. Vice President. Student Affairs:James R. Wilburn, Vice President and Dean. School ofBustness and Management; and John F. Wilson. Dean.Sea. or College

aM1=11MMEI

School SafetyAs part of the School Safety News Service. Si hoof Su fenis published by the National School Salem) Center tocommunicate current trends and effectise programs inschool safety to educators. lass enforcers. law yetis. Judges.gosernmen' officials. business leaders. journalists and thepublic Annual subscription S 1141 00 Components of theSchool Safety News Service are published monthlySeptember to May .

Ronald D. Stephens, Ex.:wise EditorJune Lane Arnette, EditorG. Ellis Butterfield, Associate tailorSue Ann :Meador, Brenda Turner. Contributing EditorsKimberly Billingsley. Kristene Kenney. T)pographer.

Arttcics in this publication may he reprinted excludingInd], I dually copy 1101Ieli material .. -with credit to .5, ills,/

NSSC and it copy of reprints to NSSC. lion/Safer. encourages the submission of original artIcles.artwork. b,s4, res lens and letters to die editor and willresat, and consider each item for publication.

C,.rrespondence for S. hi...! .1afrts and the National SchoolSafety Center should he addressed to National SchoolSafety Center. a I rat Thousand Oaks lalsd. Suite 290.Westlake Village. CA 91 4.2. telephone SOS:273.9977.FAX 1015:r 1 4227

Prep red under Grant No 55 -0000 and funded inthe amount of S900.000 by the Office of Jus entle Justiceand Delinquency Pre, cotton. Office of Justice Programs.

S Ikpartment of Justice and the I.I.S Department ofEducation. Points of view or opinton, in this document are(hose of the author and do not necessarily represent theofficial position or policies of the S Department ofJustice. U.S. Department of Education or PepperdineLints eisity Neither NSSC nor any of its employees makesany v. arrant) , cam essed or implied. not assumes any legalliability or responsibtlay, for the accuracy. completeness orusefulness of any Information. apparatus, product orprocess described herein Copyright 1491 National

School Safety Center

About the eraser:Each year in the United States, an estimated 375,0110babies are NMI prenatally exposed to (hies. Through no'tilt of their own. they come into the world already victims

of the ravages of drug abuse Photo by Stuart Greenbaum

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

CONTENTS

TM NAPARE

4 Hope for a lostgenerationBy Ira J, Chasnoff

7 Extraordinary carefor special childrenBy Deborah J. Johnson and

Carol K. Cole

11 New challenges forchanging timesBy Linda Delapenha

14 Developing strategiesfor educational successBy Judy Howard

20 Respondingto obscure needsBy Richard Jones,Charlotte McCullough and

Madelyn DeWoodv

26 Pregnant drug abusers:Rights /responsibilitiesChild Welfare League of America

29 Preparing fordrug-exposed childrenAmerican School Board ,Journal


30 National Update

32 Legislative Update

33 Legal Update

34 Resource Update

Resources

Schc-,1 Safety 3 Winter 1992

10 School Crisis Video


19 NSSC Resources


35 Principals of Leadership

BY IRA J. CHASNOFF

Chicago study of the developmental progress of drug-exposedchildren reports that there is hope for babies bom to addicts,

if their mothers receive early treatment and counseling.

Hope for a 'lost generation'

Of the hundreds of requests for informa-tion about perinatal drug addiction thatcome through the NAPARE office inChicago, the question most frequentlyasked is, "What can you tell us aboutworking with drug-exposed children inour classrooms?"

Many administrators and teachers arefearful. They have read articles and seenTV programs about drug-exposed chil-dren that depicted them as uncontrol-lable and ineducable. These childrenhave been labeled "a lost generation."

Good NewsThe National Association for PerinatalAddiction Research and Education(NAPARE) currently is conducting theoldest longitudinal study of the develop-mental progress of children who wereprenatally exposed to illicit drugs. Be-tween 300 and 400 children are enrolledin the study. Most of them now are threeand four years old. The mothers were indrug treatment before these childrenwere born, so complete histories of thedrug exposure since birth, as well as in-formation about the children's familysituation and home environment, areavailable. Most of the families in thestudy are minorities receiving public aid.

Ira J. Chasnoff is president and medicaldirector of the National Association forPerinatal Addiction Research andEducation.

The major findings in NAPARE'sstudy include:

Almost 100 percent of these childrentest within normal range cognitively.They can be taught; they can learn.While all of these children have exhib-ited signs of neurobehavioral deficien-cies as infants, by the ages of threeand four, the majority of them haveachieved levels of social, emotionaland intellectual development thatplace them within the normal range.Thirty to 40 percent of the cocaine-exposed children continue to displayproblems, with varying degrees ofseverity, in language developmentand/or attention. Attention difficultiesrange from mild distractibility to at-tention deficit disorder with hyperac-tivity (ADDH). Less than 5 percentare true cases of ADDH.The attentional problems for thesechildren seem to be on a continuumsimilar to the types of self-regulatoryproblems seen in cocaine-exposednewborns and infants. The childrenhave low thresholds for overstimu-lation and frustration. They react bylosing impulse control or withdrawing.Obviously, either reaction would be aproblem when a child is in a class-room with 20 or more other children.

Overall, the findings in the NAPAREstudy are good news. But why is thenews of NAPARE good and the news of


other agencies so bad? A closer look re-veals some significant facts.

Early intervention and treatmentThe mothers of children in the NAPAREstudy received treatment for their addic-tion before their babies were born. Manycontinue to receive therapy, althoughthey are in recovery. Treatment duringpregnancy helped alleviate the classicrisks to a successful pregnancy thelack of prenatal care, poor nutrition andgenerally poor maternal health.

Another NAPARE study, published inthe Journal of the American Medical As-sociation, March 24, 1989, reported thatintervention or treatment begun early inthe pregnancy will improve the outcomeof the pregnancy. It will not eliminate allof the effects of prenatal drug exposureon the infant, but the associated prob-lems of prematurity and low birth weightmay be reduced.

In addition to early intervention ortreatment during the pregnancy, themothers are asked to bring their babiesto the child development clinic at spe-cific intervals for well-baby care and aseries of developmental evaluations.This program is entirely voluntary.

Each step of the way, parents andcaregivers are informed of the results ofthe developmental tests, and they aregiven advice and training on how tohandle and comfort a drug-exposed in-fant. As the children grow older, par-

4

ents are given techniques for providingthe consistent. structured and predictablecare that an easily overstimulated childrequires.

When it is appropriate, the childrenare referred to physical therapists.speech therapists and programs such asZero to Three and Headstart.

The parents also receive assistancewith basic needs such as transportationto and from the clinic, child care for :,ib-lings if needed, and the services of a so-cial worker. They feel connected to thisprogram because they and their childrenare treated like special people not likestatistics or "cases.-

Without treatmentContrast NAPARE's program with whatawaits most pregnant drug abusers andtheir infants. First. very few treatmentprograms will accept a pregnant drugabuser. When the NAPARE treatmentprogram for pregnant women began, itwas the only program in the Chicagometropolitan area that would treat apregnant drug abuser on Medicaid. Con-ditions are a little better now. but therestill are not enough treatment programsfor this population in Chicago or in thenation.

Typically, the fragile, drug-exposednewborn goes home to an environmentthat exacerbates rather than alleviates itsbehavioral problems. If its mother hasnot received drug treatment or counsel-ing. the infant may he exposed to therisks of poor nutrition, little medicalcare, a chaotic lifestyle, possible abuseand neglect, and passive exposure to il-licit drugs.

Babies born severely premature orsmall for gestational age arc placed inneonatal intensive care units that areextremely overstimulating. The ones thatare deserted by their mothers arc placedin "hoarder baby" nurseries, where doz-ens of babies overstimulate one anotherand too few caregivers provide thesoothing and nurturing that will help de-velop self-regulatory abilities.

Some drug-exposed infants are placedin foster homes where caretakers have

Substances commonlyabused during pregnancy

When a pregnant woman drinks orabuses any drug, the developing, fetusis also exposed to the harmfulsubstance(s). These substance flowdirectly from the mother's blood-stream through the placenta and crossover to the baby. Harmful chemicalstaken during the first three months ofpregnancy can affect organ develop-ment or cause spontaneous abortion.Continued abuse may affect thebaby's brain growth and weight gainor cause premature delivery. The fol-lowing are substances most com-monly abused during pregnancy withtheir associated risks to the motherand baby.

COCAINECocaine (or "crack") is among themost dangerous drugs to unborn ba-bies and can cause stroke and death tothe fetus. Recent studies indicate thatin large urban areas as many as one inten babies may have been exposed toprenatal cocaine use. During the firstthree months of pregnancy, cocaineincreases the risk of spontaneousabortion. During the last threemonths, increased fetal movements,abruptio placentae and increasedblood pressure and heart rate may oc-cur. Intravenous cocaine abuse in-creases the risk of exposure to theAIDS virus. The newborn experienceswithdrawal symptoms. and has an in-creased risk of Sudden Infant DeathSyndrome. otherwise known as cribdeath.

ALCOHOLNational surveys indicate that 34 mil-lion women of child-bearing age con-sume alcoholic beverages. The Sur-

geon General states that there is nosafe amount of liquor for a pregnantor nursing mother to consume. Effectsof alcohol on the pregnant woman in-clude malnutrition, increased risk ofspontaneous abortion and increasedrate of stillbirth. Effects on the babyinclude Fetal Alcohol Syndrome(FAS), low birth weight, small headsize, congenital malformations, with-drawal symptoms, and behavioralproblems, with possible mild to mod-erate mental retardation.

HEROIN & OTHER NARCOTICSProblems due to heroin and other nar-cotics for the pregnant woman in-clude hepatitis both acute andchronic, endocarditis, spontaneousabortion, stillbirth and increased riskof contact with the AIDS virus if thesubstance is used intravenously. Prob-lems for the infant include low birthweight and length, small head size,difficulty responding to the humanvoice and touch, withdrawal symp-toms, and increased risk of SIDS.

MARIJUANAProblems for the newborn associatedwith marijuana use include low birthweight, withdrawal symptoms and in-creased risk of SIDS.

TOBACCOAn estimated 18 million women ofchild-bearing age in the United Statesare smokers. Smoking by the motherand second-hand smoke from othersmokers can have detrimental healthimpacts for unborn babies, includingan increased risk of miscarriage, ba-bies with low birth weights and respi-ratory difficulties.


CHASNOFF

not been adequately trained to meet theirspecial needs. These babies may beshifted from home to home, preventingthe formation of necessary attachmentsand forcing adaptation to different care-giving patterns.

Harsh and unsettling experiences inearly childhood compounded by theneurological deficits caused by prenataldrug exposure can establish a patternof behavior that becomes a barrier tolearning.

Research at NAPARE cannot predictwhat drug-exposed children will he likewhen they are 10 or 15 or 20 years old.However, research does indicate thatearly intervention for mother, child andfamily seems to make a difference.These children are not part of a lost gen-eration. They are eager to join others oftheir age group in going to school, play-ing Little League, joining the Boy orGirl Scouts doing the things all chil-dren do.

Making a differenceThe NAPARE developmental study hasfound programs like WIC (Women, In-fants & Children, Nutrition EducationProgram), Headstart and Zero to Threecan he very important as preschool inter-vention tools for children and their par-ents or caregivers. Funding for these pro-grams is becoming scarce when it shouldbe growing. Evidence shows that pro-grams such as these can make a signifi-cant difference and are well-accepted inthe communities that need them most.

Since the use of any illicit drug or al-cohol puts the infant at risk. programsthat effectively speak to adolescents andwomen of child-bearing age about thedangers of drug and alcohol use duringpregnancy are very important.

On a management level, clinical andsocial service programs often duplicateefforts and lack coordination in provid-ing the basic requirements that maketreatment successful food, shelter,transportation, child care and therapy forfamily members.

S^lutions to the problems of drug-exposed children and their impact on

schools begin with prevention. More ef-fective programs based on a real under-standing of the nature of addiction andwhat leads women to abuse drugs and al-cohol should be offered through schools,WIC and other routes that reach youngwomen and preteens.

Education for professionals. includingdoctors and teachers, is needed to helpthem identify and refer or treat the childwho has been exposed to drugs. as wellas the woman who is a user. "Denial" isnot just used by addicts. Many physi-cians still believe that only low income,minority women are drug or alcoholabusers, but NAPARE's research showsthat addicts can be found at all levels ofsociety.

Using special education fundsSchool systems often deny the existenceof drug-exposed children in their district,while teachers beg for training to helpthe disadvantaged children in their class-rooms. NAPARE recently completed asurvey of all 50 states to determine ifdrug-exposed children were being in-cluded in the definitions of at-risk chil-dren that would make special educationfunds available under PL 99-457.

Of the 50 states, only five have ap-proved fourth-year funding definitionsthat include maternal substance abuse asa criterion for eligibility. Eight states re-port that they are planning to includechildren exposed to drugs in their defini-tions. Several states do include this cat-egory of children. but with qualifica-tions; four states do not include maternalsubstance abuse as a condition for fund-ing; and six more states do not addressthe needs of these children in their draftdefinitions.

Despite strong evidence that mostdrug-exposed children are as educable aschildren with other handicaps and maybe able to learn and progress further thanfirst thought, the availability of early in-tervention will bypass many of them be-cause states are reluctant to include thesechildren in funding programs.

Around the country, a few pilot pro-grams have been designed to develop


classroom strategies. Nearly every reportof the results indicates that educatorsstrongly caution against labeling drug-exposed children as such. Should a childwhose mother used cocaine be forced togo through life with a scarlet "C" on hisforehead? Every time a child acts outfrustration or has difficulty learningsomething new, should a teacher say,"Oh, that's a drug child," and not lookfor another cause? Absolutely not.

Drug-exposed children are more simi-lar to other children than they are dif-ferent. Educators who have worked withthese children anticipate mainstreamingmost of them, advocating strategies usedby special education teachers to dealwith behavioral deficits drug-exposedchildren may possess and display in theclassroom.

Seeking solutionsAddressing the problems of drug-exposed children is very complex. andseeking solutions is frustrating. One so-lution that NAPARE strongly opposes iscriminalization. Dragging a woman intocourt, throwing her into jail. and takingother such punitive measures will onlydrive women away from treatment andprenatal care. Fear won't cure addictionany more than it will cure poverty, lackof education or illness. It won't make adrug-exposed child better able to handlehis emotions or behavior.

An estimated 400,000 to 700,000children whose mothers used illicit drugsand/or alcohol during pregnancy are be-ing born each year. Intervention pro-grams should be developed that canreach women of childbearing age andyounger who arc at higher risk for drugand alcohol abuse. Educators can helpby joining with other disciplines so-cial service, medicine, psychotherapyto strongly support proposals for fundingprevention and intervention programs atthe local, state and federal levels. Withstrong support, legislators will feelobliged to allocate funds for childrenand families. What we spend now in pre-vention and intt,' ention, we will savelater in care and special services.

4

BY DEBORAH J. JOHNSON AND CAROL K. COLE

Children prenatally exposed to drugs may thrivein a program that addresses their educational

needs with special attention and care.

Extraordinary carefor extraordinary children

Substance abuse among pregnant andparenting women continues to reachstaggering proportions in the UnitedStates. As a result, the numbers of in-fants born prenatally exposed to drugsand alcohol are increasing. Unfortu-nately, prenatal substance exposure isjust one of the factors that may influencethe developmental outcome of such "at-riskchildren.

The nation as a whole has been bom-barded with media reports that call forall out war against "drug babies.- At-riskchildren are the least understood by asystem that historically categorizes andlabels difficult children children whomay not he able to conform to educa-tional expectations and norms with con-sistency. At this time of crisis, the edu-cational system continues to ponderthese questions:

What arc the educational needs of at-risk children?Are teachers adequately prepared todeal with these specialized needs?What specific behaviors will thesechildren manifest in the classroom?What educational strategies can be ef-fectively utilized in working with at-risk children and their families?

Deborah .1..lohnson is a psychiatric so-cial worker with the Los Angeles UnifiedSchool District.

Carol K. Cole is a teacher with theLos Angeles Unified School District.

The PED ProgramIn the fall of 1986, the Los Angeles Uni-fied SOlool District Board of Educationinitiated the development of a pilot pro-gram that would address the educationalneeds of children prenatally exposed tosubstances. Receiving district fundingfrom the Division of Special Education,the PED (Prenatally Exposed to Drugs)Program was designed to identify theneeds of at-risk children who did notqualify for intensive special educationservices. In observing and assessing theneeds of this growing population, teach-ing strategies for intervention were de-veloped and implemented by the PEDteam.

The children served in the PED Pro-gram are within the average range ofcognitive abilities, but demonstrate mildto moderate developmental delays inspeech and language, motor, or socio-emotional skills. Typically, these chil-dren do not qualify for intensive specialeducational services and arc at greaterrisk of "falling between the cracks" inregular school settings.

The PED Program utilizes an interdis-ciplinary team approach in working withat-risk children and their families. Theteam consists of special education teach-

ers and teaching assistants, a develop-mental pediatrician, a psychiatric socialworker and a school psychologist. Theprogram also receives support from nurs-ing, speech and language, and adaptive


physical education services. Addition-ally, the parent or caregiver is includedas a key figure in the PED Program.

No typical profileHow much, how often, when and in whatcombination drugs were used during thepregnancy all influence fetal outcome.Prenatal care and individual constitutionalso impact the outcome. While there isno typical profile of a child prenatallyexposed to drugs, there seems to be a de-velopmental continuum of vulnerabili-ties that persists into the preschool years.Some of these children will be born withclearly recognizable developmental de-lays; however, a majority of them willlook physically intact and appear normalin the acquisition of major developmen-tal milestones during the first three yearsof life. It is the children who exhibit un-predictable behavioral and learning re-sponses that are most at risk of failure in

the regular school setting.

Issues of attachmentOne of the fundamental building blocksof all learning cognitive, emotionaland behavioral is attachment. Weknow that the behavior of infants prena-tally exposed to substances often makesthis attachment very difficult for theircaregivers. Many are hard to feed, havepoor sleeping patterns and are hypersen-sitive to touch. sound and noise. Theinfant's ability to self-modulate and to

JOHNSON AND COLE ININE

integrate external stimuli may be irregu-lar and disorganized. Caregivers, par-ticularly if untrained, may unknowinglyoverstimulate the infant or misread de-pressed interactive abilities and ignorethe infant. As a result, the reciprocitynecessary for attachment may be se-verely compromised.

Issues of attachment continue to be ofprime importance during the preschoolyears. Many children of substance abus-ing parents have been removed to out-of-home placements. This knee jerk reac-tion to protect the most helpless victimsof the drug/alcohol epidemic has re-sulted in over 400.000 children living infoster care in the United States.

While it is necessary to protect a childfrom abuse and neglect, the seriousnessof being removed from one's family can-not be overestimated. The child's griefand reaction to separation and loss fromfamily are manifested in behavior. Dis-playing a full range of behavioral re-sponses, the substance-exposed childmay be engaged inappropriately .,,/ithstrangers. showing little discriminationor apprehension. These children mayalso exhibit an overwhelming sense ofpseudo-confidence with minimal regardfor adult intervention.

Children who have trusting relation-ships with primary caregivers are moreindependent, explore their environment,are socially more competent, and aremore willing to follow directions in aschool setting. Whether prenatally ex-posed to substances or not, children whohave experienced multiple caregiversand multiple placements have difficultytrusting and making sufficient attach-ments. An environment that is inconsis-tent, inadequate or rejecting will fostermistrust, fear, insecurity, apathy and an-ger in the child.

Disorganization and hypersensitivityWhether exposed in utero or born ad-dicted, the infant's ability to self-regu-late and integrate environmental stimulimay be sporadic and disorganized. Thisdisorganization and hypersensitivity ob-served in infants may continue to mani-

fest itself in preschool-aged children. Of-ten the ways in which a child may at-tempt to organize himself that is, getup and leave the activity, engage in ex-traneous movement or noise, suck histhumb, rock, etc. may not be consid-ered appropriate classroom behavior.Complicating the picture is the sporadicnature in which some of these childrenmaster skills. They seem to demonstratethe skill one day and not the next, evenwhen the context and cues are the same.

During the preschool years, some ofthe children may display fine motor dif-ficulties, such as completing puzzles,grasping small objects and wing cray-ons. Some children appear awkward anddisoriented when involved in gross mo-tor activities like jumping, running andclimbing. Delays in speech and languagearticulation and processing are apparentfor others. It is. however, the impulsivityand inability to focus on classroomtasks, as well as the emotional liabilityand exaggerated reactions to classroomexpectations, that educational staff find

most burdensome.

Program approachTo be effective, intervention strategiesmust attempt to counteract both the pre-natal exposure and the postnatal experi-ence of stressful life events. The behav-ior seen in these children is not just adirect result of the drugs.

Care is taken to view each individualchild in the context of his total environ-ment, which includes his school, homeand community, rather than in isolation.A primary goal of the program is to pro-mote the child's attachment to an adultin the classroom someone of thechild's own choosing. The child's needs,past experiences and feelings aboutthose experiences are explored. Cur-ricula for the at-risk child must be devel-opmentally appropriate and carefullydesigned to promote a positive self-con-cept. Hands-on activities, opportunitiesfor decision making and active problemsolving within a nurturing classroom en-vironment can create opportunities for


success and foster competence and moti-vation for new learning.

These children are more alike than dif-ferent from their typical peers. Further-more, they present problems that are notatypical or dissimilar from those seen inother vulnerable, hypersensitive chil-dren. They may display a range of devel-opmental deficits and an uneven patternof early learning, but in spite of an initialbiological insult, it is the caretaking en-vironment that will dete mine the ulti-mate outcome.

Educating children prenatally exposedto substances is not solely a problem tobe addressed by special education pro-grams. Because of both prenatal andpostnatal risk factors, this growing popu-lation of children has special needs thattraditionally have not been addressed inschools. The school, much like a child'shome, is a caregiving environment. Staffmust recognize the needs of individualchildren, build protective factors intoeach classroom and facilitate processesthat will foster the full developmentalpotential of each child.

Consideration should be given to thefollowing factors:

Respect: Adults must he respectful ofchildren's work and play space.Feelings: Feelings are real, importantand legitimate. Children behave andmisbehave for a reason, even if it can-not be explained.Mutual discussion: Talking about be-havior and feelings with empathyrather than judgement validates thechild's experiences and establishes anaccepting environment.Play: Adults must actively facilitatechildren's play activities by helpingthem extend the complexity and dura-tion of such activities.Routines and rituals: Children need ase:ling that is predictable. Continuityand reliability should be providedthrough routines and rituals.Transition time plans: Transitionshould be seen as an activity in and ofitself with a beginning, middle andend. Teachers should keep this inmind when structuring class time.

Home/school partnershipThe partnership between home andschool is a critical factor in determiningsuccessful outcomes with at-risk chil-dren and their families. The nurturing,acceptance, support and respect that thechild receives in the PED Program arenecessary components of relationshipbuilding. These also are necessary fac-tors in the development of trusting rela-tionships with parents/caregiver . Rela-tionship building is a process thatstrengthens over time as the individualsinvolved have greater opportunity to testthe sincerity and commitment of eachother.

Parents/caregivers of at-risk childrenoften feel isolated and frustrated in theirrole. Just as these children are at risk, soalso are their parents or caregivers. Theneeds of these parent/caregivers have notbeen universally addressed within theschool setting. Their concerns may in-clude developing a better understandingof the effects of prenatal substanceabuse, dealing with guilt and social iso-lation from others, and learning how toaccess services for their young childrenwithin the school and community atlarge.

Interagency coordination with com-munity resources is a crucial componentin working with these vulnerable chil-dren and their families. It is not unusualto find a family that is receiving servicesin a fragmented manner, which increasesthe chances of unnecessary duplicationof service and compromises continuityof care. The PED Program helps to inte-grate other services the families receive.While not taking on the role of casemanager, PED team members supportparents and caregivers by taking a pro-active role in the management of ser-vices provided.

The goals of the PED Program'sHome/School Partnership are:

Increase levels of awareness and un-derstanding about prenatal substanceexposure and its effects on the devel-oping child.Assist the caregiver in developing bet-ter communication skills with the


44(

child.Provide a vehicle whereby thecaregiver can support and interact withother parents of at-risk children.Enhance the parent/caregiver's abilityto be an effective advocate for thechild. Develop the tools that will em-power the caregiver.

The PED team makes home visitationson a regular basis. In addition, opencommunication between the home andschool is maintained through frequenttelephone contacts, a classroom newslet-ter and notes. Parents also are encour-aged to visit the classroom where themodeling of effective behavioral strate-gies can be reinforced. Additionally,meetings with parents are an importantsource of peer support and validation offeelings.

No simple answersThe prognosis of children born prena-

tally exposed to drugs/alcohol is depen-dent upon those directly involved withthe children and their families. The PEDteam has an opportunity to see firsthandthe strength and resiliency of these in-fants and children who are struggling tobeat the odds. Prenatal substance expo-sure is not a handicapping condition in

and of itself. The primary goal of PED isto discard the labels and focus energieson building successful outcomes with at-risk children and their families. Com-munity attitudes and expectations influ-ence a willingness to make drasticchanges in the educational systemchanges that will support the needs ofeducators and ultimately will benefit theeducational and emotional developmentof all children.

There are no simple answers. A needexists for all educators to increase theirknowledge and understanding andthereby decrease their fears about thesubstance-exposed child and his family.Anxieties and frustrations can further bereduced by taking a proactive approach,utilizing school-based supports andforming cooperative partnerships withcommunity resources.

School Crisis:

Edward James Ohnos

"Imagine a gunman invading your school. Or terroristsplanting a bomb. Or a classroom of students held hostage.These situations may seem unreal even impossible....Every school urban, rural or suburban is vulnerable.When will a crisis strike your school? And will you beready?"

These words, spoken by acclaimed actor Edward JamesOlmos, combine with news footage of actual school crisisevents to provide a compelling introduction to "SchoolCrisis: Under Control," a 25-minute, award-winningdocumentary on school crisis prevention. preparation.management and resolution sponsored by the National

School Safety Center (NSSC).Appealing not only to educators but also to parents,

law enforcers. school security personnel. civic leaders and concerned citizens as well, thisinformative videotape is designed to help schools and communities prepare for the unex-pected. Planning begins w ith an awareness that disaster can strike anywhere.

The National School Safety Center sponsored a "School Crisis Prevention Practicum,"which included educational professionals and representatives from the fields of law, psychol-ogy and journalism. The school principals attending the practicum personally had dealt withbombings, murder and terrorism on their campuses.

Their comments and recommendations, learned by living through tragic events at theirschools, were filmed and have been incorporated into "School Crisis: Under Control" toassist others in designing crisis prevention and response plans. These plans will improve thecommunity's ability to overcome such disasters and also will help schools avoid potentialliability.

"School Crisis: Under Control" offers direction on how to increase school security andprovides specifics on how to work through a crisis. Topics include outlining staff roles andresponsibilities. dealing with the media, providing adequate communication systems andsignals. arranging transponation, offering grief counseling and emphasizing a school's safetyafter the incident.

Bost Edward James Olmos is best known for his portrayal of teacher Jaime Escalante in themos is "Stand and Deliver" and his role as Lt. Castillo in the popular television series "MiamiVice."

Both NSSC and Greg Strom. producer and director of the videotape. have receivednumerous national zmards, including an Emmy, for previous documentaries.

"School Crisis: Under Control" is available from NSSC on VHS videotape for S65.

"School Crisis: Under Control" Order Form$65 covers postage and handling. Price is subject to change without prior notice. Check must accompany order.

Name Title

Address Affiliation

City State Zip

Mall to: National e ;Moo! Safety Center, 4165 Thousand Oaks 13;vd., Suite 290, Westlake, CA 91362


BY LINDA DELAPENHA

Teachers in Hillsborough County, Florida, receivevaluable in-service training to help drug-

exposed children succeed in regular classroom settings.

New challengesfor changing times

Educators face the very serious and im-mediate question of how to prepare foror actually provide services to childrenprenatally exposed to drugs. Very littleinformation is available upon which todraw.

Increasing media attention is beingpaid to the issue of educating childrenprenatally exposed to drugs, but reportsusually focus on children derogatorilylabeled as "crack or cocaine babies" andpresent the most extreme cases as beingthe norm for this population.

Teacher perceptionsA teacher's perception of the problem isoften skewed in one of two ways: eitherthe children are perceived as beingunteachable or a majority of the childrenin the class are perceived as being prena-tally exposed to drugs based on beha-vioral observation. The first statement isthe prevailing feeling of teachers whohave not received informational in-ser-vice presentations, but have relied on themedia for information. The latter state-ment is usually made by a teacher whohas either gathered some information onher own or has attended some in-serviceprogram.

Examples of characteristics displayed

Linda Delapenlia currently serves as su-pervisor of Prima .. Diagnostic Services.Department of Student Services,Hillsborough County Schools, Florida.

by children prenatally exposed to drugsinclude behavioral extremes, difficultyhandling routine or transition, languagedelays, difficulty focusing and maintain-ing attention, and decreased response toverbal directions. In the 4-, 5-, and 6-year -old child. these behaviors are notunique to prenatal drug use: they haveexisted within classrooms in the past.However, the teacher who begins tolearn about the characteristics of chil-dren prenatally exposed to drugs mayimmediately begin to attribute these be-haviors to drugs and label these childrenas "cocaine or crack babies." In order toexplore this perception, HillsboroughCounty conducted research in this area.

A false premiseIn the spring of 1990. HillsboroughCounty's Drug Exposed Children'sCommittee attempted to identify 4 to 6-yeat-olds for a longitudinal study using ateacher-developed checklist of behaviorsattributed to prenatal drug use. Fundingfor the study was obtained from the Uni-versity of South Florida's Institute forInfants. Children and Families At Risk.

Retired social workers and a nursewere contracted to conduct interviewswith the caregivers of an entire class-room of children. In order to avoid bias,whole classrooms were designated forcaregiver interviews. In reality, it wasnot possible to accomplish this at a levelof 100 percent, but sincere efforts were


4

made to contact all of the caregivers.During the carefully designed inter-

view, caregivers were asked about druguse during pregnancy. With the inclusionof alcohol, about 10 percent of care-givers validated the use of drugs duringpregnancy. However, there was no corre-lation between "at risk" behaviors on thechecklist and prenatal exposure to ille-gal drugs or alcohol.

The hope that teachers would be ableto identify by observation the drug-ex-posed children in their class was foundto be invalid. The children with develop-mental or behavioral problems had histo-ries ranging from child abuse, parentaldeath, prescription drug use during preg-nancy, seizure disorders, and other envi-ronmental or health problems thatseemed sufficient to cause them to be atrisk for school failure. The behavioraland learning characte-istics for this 4 to6-year-old population were not unique toprenatal drug exposure: they had beendemonstrated in some degree by a fewchildren in regular and special class-rooms for years.

What educators now are seeing intheir regular and special education class-rooms perhaps is a larger constellation ofbehaviors in a single child, and morechildren in general that are at risk ofschool failure. As the number of at-riskchildren increases within a classroomand as class sizes escalate, the teacher isless able to cope with individual dif-

DELAPENHA

ferences and special needs.Appropriate teacher training programs

can assist educators in focusing their ef-forts on intervention strategies for at-riskchildren, rather than dwelling on theneed to identify and label prenatal drugexposure in school-age children. Identi-fication is not useful because a sounddata base does not exist for making edu-cational plans and predicting outcomesof drug-exposed children.

Concurrent research and programsLongitudinal research is being carried onat the National Association for PerinatalResearch and Education (NAPARE) inChicago. The children in this study havebeen followed since the mothers werepregnant, and an experimental group anda control group were identified. Theseidentified children are now turning agesfour and five and have been the recipi-ents of intervention services whenneeded. Significant differences in overallcognitive functioning between the chil-dren in the drug-using and controlgroups have not been found. The chil-dren who were prenatally exposed todrugs are scoring within normal limitson standardized tests. Careful evalua-tion of test results can lend support forfurther research needs in specific areas.such as language development or finemotor skills, that may be problem areasfor some of these children.

At UCLA, Judy Howard's researchsuggests that such children do poorly inunstructured classroom exploratory situ-ations compared to higher performanceon an individual psychological test in avery structured setting. This hypothesishas strong implications for the kind ofstructure and environment teachers needto provide for drug-exposed children.

The Los Angeles Unified School Dis-trict has shared observational data ob-tained from the Prenatally Exposed toDrugs (PED) project for a small numberof identified children. One of the mostsignificant findings of the PED programis that the vast majority of the childrenprenatally exposed to drugs will remainin the regular education program and

will not qualify for special educationservices as young children. The fate ofthe children who reach middle and uppergrades is not yet known. However, if thespecial learning needs of all young chil-dren are not met in developmentally ap-propriate ways, these children, by de-fault, may qualify for special educationservices later on and thereby be placedat much greater risk of not completeinghigh school.

The data presented by the PED projectin Los Angeles is corroborated by the"Developing Appropriate InterventionStrategies for Young Children" (DAISY)program in Washington, D.C. After thefirst year of operation, only one child outof 10 identified was placed in specialeducation. This child has been main-streamed back into the regular educationprogram for part of the day. In each classof fifteen children, only five have beenidentified as being prenatally exposed todrugs or other health risks, includinglead paint exposure.

Grant provides training nationwideAs a result of research and preparation indeveloping the in-service education pro-gram in Hillsborough County, the DrugExposed Children's Committee con-cluded that teachers must assume that at-risk children already are in their class-rooms. Teachers must begin to makenecessary adjustments in classroomstructure and strategies.

Individual identification of these stu-dents is not necessary because theknowledge base for intervention nas notbeen developed. Children prenatally ex-posed to drugs do not qualify for specialeducation services, except for possibly15 percent who will be identified earlybecause of physical. cognitive and be-havioral deficits. Retrospective inter-views regarding drug use during preg-nancy are not always accurate. Ifresearch is being conducted or if servicesare being offered to the family, then ac-tivities to document positive identifica-tion or prenatal drug exposure may bewarranted if the information is kept con-fidential. Labeling is not in the best in-


terest of the child because it evokes ste-reotypical thinking and reduced perfor-mance expectations.

Hillsborough County School District isactively training classroom teachers tobe more effective with young childrenprenatally exposed to drugs. Because oftheir leadership, the HillsboroughCounty Schools' Drug ExposedChildren's Committee, in conjunctionwith the Hillsborough Education Part-nership Foundation, received a two-yeargrant for over $300,000 from the RobertWood Johnson Foundation .

This grant will enable the committeeto develop the materials necessary forthe in-service course and training to beprovided on a national scale. School dis-tricts will select individuals who arewilling to attend a two-day course wherethey will be trained as facilitators forteachers in their own districts. For re-gions that identify 25 to 30 facilitators,the grant will provide training in theirarea and cover facilitator's travel ex-pense to the training site. Training alsowill be available in Tampa for schooldistricts that have a small number ofpeople identified as facilitators andchoose to send them to Florida.

Classroom strategies"Strategies for Teaching Young ChildrenAt Risk and/or Prenatally Exposed toDrugs," the in-service course for teach-ers, is designed to cover 18 hours of in-struction over a six-week period. Home-work is assigned at each session, includ-ing preparation of materials for the nextmake-and take segment, reading of jour-nal articles, and checklists to be com-pleted by the participant. The first ses-sion is devoted to an overview ofprenatal drug exposure.

Certain underlying principles governthe concepts taught in the course, as wellas the activities selected end the materi-als constructed for use in the classroom.The first of these principles involves theclassroom environmew. The at-risk childrequires more structure and clarificationwithin the environment than do otherchildren. All children, however, are

more successful, particularly at the be-ginning of the year, if their environmentis constant and clear. Teachers are en-couraged to analyze their room arrange-ments and to label specific items in theMOM.

Next, children at risk need a classroomsetting that is predictable. A child's abil-ity to predict and anticipate the order ofdaily activities reduces anxiety. Throughscheduling and routines. a child can de-velop self-control and organizationalpatterns and experience success in theclassroom. During the actual in-service,participants construct schedules to heused in their own classrooms.

In the fourth class session, the teacherlearns to assist the children in using theclassroom environment properly and inlearning how to establish positive rela-tionships with parents and caregivers.The session stresses using visual cues,teaching organizational strategies andstructuring transition times carefully.

The fifth session focuses on the social-emotional development of the youngchild using the principle that childrenneed to be taught appropriate socialskills through play and planned activitiesto encourage the development of a posi-tive self-image. Personalizing the class-room creates a sense of belonging andpaves the way for sharing. Providing op-portunities to verbally express feelingshelps the behavior and language devel-opment of a child.

The final class session addresses twoareas of particular difficulty for somechildren prenatally exposed to drugs:motor and language skill development.At-risk children benefit from learninglanguage through motor skills. All youngchildren learn through activity and playexperiences and benefit from this teach-ing approach, but for certain at-risk chil-dren, it is a necessity. Teachers must re-view normal developmental patterns forfine motor, gross motor. speech articula-tion and language development to assessa child's curriculum needs and adapt aprogram accordingly. Success experi-ences are essential for at-risk children.

The "Strategies" in-service course

does not address specific curricula be-cause many excellent, appropriate, earlychildhood programs are available. Aslong as a curriculum meets the NationalAssociation for Education of YoungChildren guidelines for developmentallyappropriate pi actice, the strategies pre-sented in the course will assist theteacher in being more successful in theclassroom.

Although some primary teachers takethe course, the in-service training is notdesigned for these grades. Curriculumexpectations. particularly for first grade,can be developmentally inappropriate.Six-year-olds still need opportunities tomove about the classroom and use ma-nipulative materials, especially in math-ematics. They also need to have allow-ances made for immature fine motordevelopment, such as handwriting skills.Typically, first-grade classes do not offerthese opportunities. DECC plans to ei-ther add adaptations to the original classfor primary teachers or develop a paral-lel in-service course.

At the end of each "Strategies" course,the instructor asks for an evaluation de-signed to improve the scope of thecourse and to elicit constructive com-ments. Overwhelmingly, the participantshave indicated that they feel more pre-pared to work with at-risk children andwould recommend the course to a col-league. Participants that are not class-room-based teachers are given an oppor-tunity to indicate how they will use theknowledge and materials. From theircomments, it appears that these partici-pants also find the course to he of valueand will share the information and mate-rials with other teachers.

Informal discussion with school ad-ministrators and other class participantsindicates that they have provided in-ser-vice for faculty at their schools, circu-lated written information to others or es-tablished a resource file for school use.Classroom observations of teachers whohave taken the class show that a varietyof strategies are successfully being used.Creative adaptations of ideas from theclass are often photographed for inclu-


Resource Information

Intervention Program forHandicapped ChildrenDivision of Child DevelopmentDepartment of PediatricsUniversity of California,

Los Angeles23-10 Rehabilitation Center1000 Veteran AvenueLos Angeles, CA 90024213/825-4821

Sophia T. Salvin SchoolDivision of Special EducationPrenatally Exposed to Drugs(PED) ProgramLos Angeles Unified

School District1925 Bud long AvenueLos Angeles, CA 90007213/731-0703

National Association forPerinatal Addiction Researchand Education (NAPARE)11 E. Hubbard Street, Suite 200Chicago, IL 60611.312/329-2512

Project DAISYRudolph Elementary Annex2nd and Hamilton Street, N.W..Washington, D.C. 20011.202/576-6937

sion in subsequent sessions.

Training scheduleNational dissemination of the "Strate-gies" course will begin in Bridgeport,Connecticut, at the end of February,1992. Training in Tampa is beingplanned for the month of March or Aprilin 1992. Teachers or school district per-sonnel who are interested in receivingtraining through this grant programshould send their request for informationto Linda Delapenha, M.A., NCSP, Su-pervisor. Primary Diagnostic Services.411 E. Henderson Avenue, Tampa, FL33602. 813/272-4562.

BY JUDY HOWARD

Educators need to be aware of the environmental andbiological factors that affect both the behavior of

drug-exposed children and their chances for success.

Developing strategiesfor educational success

Prenatal substance exposure is receivingincreased attention now that large num-bers of children who were exposed todrugs and/or alcohol in utero are enter-ing our educational systems. However,prenatal substance abuse is not a newconcern. As early as 1976, the NationalInstitute on Drug Abuse published theresults of a symposium on comprehen-sive health care for addicted families andtheir children.'

Some of the leading researchers work-ing with chemically dependent womenand their children presented at that sym-posium, and their closing remarks re-flected the following considerations: in-fant mortality and parental problems arehigh in this population; incidence of ob-stetrical and medical complications inwomen who abuse substances duringpregnancy is increasing; and the rate oflow-birth-weight infants among prena-tally substance-exposed neonates is high.

During the 1970s, when professionalsworking with chemically dependentfamilies were beginning to clinicallydocument the behavioral characteristicsof children who had been exposed prena-tally to drugs, heroin was the primarysubstance of abuse. In the 1980s , co-

Dr. Judy Howard is professor of clinicalpediatrics at the University ofCalifiorniu, Los Angeles, where she alsoruns the Intervention Program forHandicapped Children.

caine became the predominant drug ofchoice, usually used in combination withother substances, including marijuana,alcohol, methamphetamine, phency-clidine (PCP) and sedatives. In the cur-rent decade, heroin once again is regain-ing popularity, while cocaine use may beon the wane. Despite the vicissitudes ofdrug abuse patterns, the observations ofresearchers working twenty years ago re-main relevant today.

Developmental patternsNot all children who have been prena-tally exposed to drugs and/or alcohol ex-perience abnormal perinatal events orproblems with long-term development,but there is strong evidence for the exist-ence of a continuum of reproductive ca-sualty ranging from spontaneous abor-tion and fetal death to prematurity,intrauterine growth retardation, mentalretardation, learning problems and nor-malcy. In 1985, one researcher notedthat some children of mothers on metha-done demonstrated no long-term effects.Due to abnormal developmental scoresevident in children to 84 months of ageand a higher incidence of referrals forbehavioral and academic problems, theprognosis for other methadone-exposedchildren was guarded.' Resiliency doesoccur. However, researchers today donot yet have the expertise to determinewhy some children are spared and whyothers are not.


When addressing the issue of long-term development in children whose par-ents use drugs, it is essential to considerthe interplay between biological and en-vironmental factors that influence ob-served behaviors. It is clear that long-term developmental patterns of behaviorare influenced by household activities.The instability, disorganization and emo-tional upheaval associated with thechemically dependent life-style aloneplace a child at risk for developmentaldifficulties. Thus, within the averageschool or pediatric clinic population, it isdifficult to differentiate conclusively be-tween those specific behaviors in drug-affected children that may be attributedto environmental influences and thosethat stem from biological causes.

Within a research environment, theuse of control groups makes biologicaland environmental influences more eas-ily disentangled than in a clinical envi-ronment. In one study, for instance, tod-dlers who were exposed prenatally toheroin and methadone had overall scoreswithin the normal range, although interms of behavior they were found to behighly energetic, active, talkative andquite reactive to sensory stimulation.Additionally, although they appeared tobe very interested in toys and objects aswell as in people, their overall persis-tence, goal-directedness and attentionspans seemed rather brief. During play,these children appeared immature and

often mouthed and hanged toys ratherthan demonstrating more complex ma-nipulation and constructive play.' In1985, in a further study examining thelong-term effects of prenatal methadoneand polysubstance exposure, 24-month-old children seemed to have particulardifficulty with tasks that were highlystructured or involved verbal instruc-tions.'In both of these cases, the drug-exposed children's behavior differedfrom that of children who had not beenprenatally substance-exposed.

Observing children at playAt the University of California, Los An-geles (UCLA), a team of researchers hashad findings similar to those describedabove. In order to describe children'splay behaviors in situations where there

those youngsters who were living in or-ganized, supportive and nurturing envi-ronments scored better on the play mea-sure than those living in chaotichouseholds, although they still scoredlower than children in the non-drug-ex-posed control group.'

Little research exists to describe de-velopmental patterns in older prenatallysubstance-exposed children. Those stud-ies that have been published tend to heclinical reports, from which we cannotinfer biologic versus environmentalcauses. For instance, a 1979 report con-cerning the activities of a group ofpreschoolers who had been prenatallyexposed to heroin showed that thesechildren demonstrated uncontrollabletempers, impulsiveness, poor self-confi-dence, aggressiveness, and difficulty in

When addressing the issue of long-term development inchildren whose parents use drugs, it is essential to con-sider the interplay between biological and environmentalfactors that influence observed behaviors.

is no adult supervision, researchers vid-eotaped a group of toddlers who had ex-perienced uncomplicated births and whohad been exposed prenatally to heroin,methadone, cocaine, amphetamine and/or PCP. The activities of these childrenwere compared to those of a group ofpreterm toddlers who had not been ex-posed to drugs, who had weighed lessthan 1500 grams at birth, and who hadbeen respirator-dependent.

The preterm toddlers were observed toplay purposefully with dolls, babybottles, beds, trucks, pots and pans. etc..organizing their play into meaningfulpatterns of interaction (e.g., they pre-tended to cook with the pots and pansand "fed" themselves and the babydolls). In contrast, the toddlers who hadbeen prenatally exposed to drugs showedpractically no organized play behaviorand frequently mouthed or threw thetoys in a purposeless fashion. Among theprenatally substance-exposed children,

making and keeping friends, Still, thechildren's overall performance waswithin the normal range according tostandardized assessment measures.'Al-though this report does not discern spe-cific etiologies for these developmentalfeatures, the descriptions alone can heuseful in that they enable the reader todraw inferences about educational strate-gies that have proven useful to fosterlearning in other children with similarbehavioral patterns.

The late childhood and adolescent be-haviors of children exposed prenatally todrugs have not yet been documented.However, one major ongoing longitudi-nal study examining the behaviors ofadolescents exposed prenatally to alco-hol and living in middle class homesmay provide a possible scenario. The re-search team reports that many of thesechildren display learning problems inschool, short attention spans, impulsive-ness and poor socialization.'


Assessment and interventionThe presence of substance abuse withina family setting triggers a complex inter-play among biologn.1 and environmen-tal factors that presents professionalswith a multitude of difficult issues re-quiring assessment and interiention.Health and mental health care providers,social workers, educators, drug treatmentcounselors, and in some cases, child pro-tective services workers and the familycourt system need to collaborate in orderto promote a healthy, nurturing familyunit.

The assessment process for childrenwho reside in chemically dependenthouseholds is similar to that for all at-risk children, with the added factor ofknowledge about addiction. Four areasneed to he addressed: the parent, the en-vironment, involved agencies and thechild himself.

The parentIt is reasonable to assume that a parentwho abuses substances during the preg-nancy period is chemically dependent. Itis also reasonable to consider addictionto be a chronic, relapsing health disor-der. In order to assess chemically depen-dent parents' abilities to participate inongoing educational planning for theirchildren, educators should work in con-junction with health care providers, so-cial workers, drug treatment counselors,and other involved professionals. To-gether they must gain familiarity withthe parents' current drug treatment andgeneral health status, acceptance of pa-rental responsibility, expectations fortheir children and the family's currentliving situation.

With such knowledge, educators willbe able to be appropriately supportive ofparents, adjust their expectations ofthese parents' role in the educationalprocess, identify other family memberswho may be able to function as ongoingadvocates for the children, and moveforward to implement educational pro-grams that take into account the limitat-ions as well as the strengths of the indi-vidual family environment.

HOWARD

The environmentIf a child lives in a household where theresponsible caregiver is chemically de-pendent, professionals need informationabout any conditions within the homethat can interfere with the child's safety,health and development. These are criti-cal arc.:' of assessment; a lack of infor-mation can greatly impede any efforts onthe part of educators to provide a moti-vating school environment. Once it hasbeen determined that a child is livingwithin a safe home environment and isreceiving appropriate health care, assess-ment efforts can begin to focus on thechild's developmental strengths andproblem areas.

A home visit by professionals provid-ing services to the family is essential toprovide information about the living en-vironment. In the absence of a school-based team that visits families withintheir homes, an interagency agreementamong the educational system, publichealth, child protective services, drugtreatment programs and health care pro-viders can ensure that educators receivethis critical information. Confidentialityissues among agencies can be addressedby means of informed consents, althoughinteragency coordination of efforts is es-sential if this transfer of information is tobe effective.

As the school system readies itself toeducate a particular child, educationalprofessionals need to have informationabout family supports, community rela-tionships, and the health status andschool attendance of other children inthe home. This information will famil-iarize the educators with family func-tioning and other sources of support thatmay be called upon to promote educa-tional activities within the home.

For children who are placed in kinshipcare or in foster homes, additional spe-cial issues must be taken into account.Once again, professionals working witha family need to explore informationabout the caregiver's expectations of thechild and cultivate his interest in work-ing with the various agencies involved.Furthermore, prospective changes in the

child's placement status also can affectthe learning process. For instance, if theeducator is familiar with the relationshipbetween the relative caregiver or fosterfamily and the biological parent, then hecan inform and collaborate with bothsets of caregivers in following throughwith the child's educational plan.

Involved agenciesFrequently, children who are identifiedas having been exposed prenatally todrugs may be involved with a range ofcommunity systems, including develop-mental disabilities programs, Head Start,child protective services, public health,the courts and other agencies. If schoolpersonnel are aware of a child's variousexperiences in connection with suchprograms, they (an bring this relevantinformation into sensitive day-to-dayconversations with the youngster. Byconversi sq about what is happening inthe child's own life, a teacher can offer achild opportunities to talk about thingsthat may he bothering him, as well as re-assure the child that the teachers are in-terosted in what is happening to him.

The childWhile professionals need to be wary oflabeling in order to avoid stigmatizingchildren and families, it is critical thateducators and other service providershave background information about chil-dren residing in chemically dependentfamilies. This information should beused constructively to develop interven-tion plans that address family needs. Forinstance, if a chemically dependent par-ent is on a binge of drug use, and leaveshis children unattended for an extendedperiod of time, the children arc placedoutside of the parental home.

An awareness of the serious and all-consuming nature of addiction can helpthe professional to respond in an under-standing and compassionate way, ratherthan with anger or criticism. This, inturn, can help the professional begin tohe appropriately supportive to the child,the parent substitute and the birth parentwho needs treatment for chemical de-


pendency. Further, in cases of prenatalsubstance exposure, by ignoring the factthat drug exposure in utero has occurredand may have influenced the biologicaldevelopment of organ systems, profes-sionals may overlook necessary in-terventions that would foster optimaldevelopment.

In assessing the prenatally substance-exposed child, educators need to securethe same background information abouta child's health and health care needsthat they would obtain for any student.Evaluating children's developmentalstrengths and problem areas is somethingthat professionals have been doing formany years.

Standardized measures that evaluate achild's cognitive development are use-ful. This type of evaluation provides in-formation about how a child responds totime limitations and structured situa-tions. In addition, it has become clearthat evaluation must capture each child'sabilities and problems in time-limitedbut unstructured activities. Whether achild has been exposed prenatally to al-cohol and/or drugs is not the issue thatdetermines his educational plan. What isimportant is a child's ability to organizehis thoughts, communicate and interactin a meaningful fashion with learningmaterials and other persons.

Educational strategiesIn order to develop effective educationalstrategies for children who were prena-tally exposed to drugs and/or who havechemically dependent parents, pilot pro-grams have been useful in identifyingthe children's evolving developmentalpatterns, ways in which the educationalsystem can work effectively with chemi-cally dependent families, and staffingpatterns that address the child's needswithin the school setting, as well as athome.

Chemically dependent families presentunique challenges to the educational,health care, mental health and social ser-vices systems. Since 1985, when the co-caine epidemic became apparent, in-creased numbers of addicted parents

have entered these various systems. Inorder to institute effective programs toserve the educational needs of childrenresiding in these families. it seems advis-able for communities first to develop pi-lot programs that serve small numbers offamilies. As successful strategiesemerge, the educational system will beable to implement these interventions ona larger scale.

Depending upon the circumstanceswithin an individual community, theseprograms will vary. Sonic may provideservices that address the common educa-tional needs of children residing inchemically dependent and non-drug-us-ing families. w hile others may collabo-rate with drug treatment agencies in pro-viding concurrent services to childrenand parents.

Whatever the intervention approach.the goal is to promote self-esteem. learn-ing and educational achievement for thechildren. as well as to help encouragethese parents to seek treatment for theirchemical dependent:..

EndnotesG. Besanei and R Brotman I Editors!. -NationalInstitute on Drug Abuse Srnpositim on Compre-hemIN e I lealth Care for Addicted 1-amille, and

Their ('hildren.- iii, Re\e,//, Rept,1 i ill

'12-1-005981 Washington. 1) C.. U.S. Go% ern-

mem Printing Unice, 1,416)2 T S Rosen and H L. iohnson. "Long- term El-

IL.cts 01 Prenatal Methadone .Maintenance.- A a-

,, ehl 0,111: 'those ReCeill c h V0110-

..:1,111h 59 iRoek ille. Maryland: N IDA. 19551.\ Lodge. "I)eNelopmenial 1 mdings utth humus

Born to \ lothers on Methadone Maintenance: A

Prelintinar Report.' Si' vh CA heCe(//( h Repo, t

Wasnmeton. D.C.: U.S. Gov-

;rnment Printing Office. 10761.

4 Rosen.C Rodning. I.. Becks ith. and 1. Hoc; aril. "Char-acteristics of Attachment Org.:int/anon and Play

01-gam/anon in Prenatalk Drug-Exposed Tod-dlers."' lh,elf,iimem ps,,,,,,path,,,,,v% 1.

\V ti.on. SI;tniq:ement of Pediatric \lediealP-ohlems in the \ ddicted Household.- Sir; ri eHt war, 1?epol i ()I" -112.4-(10598-3 (NN ;1,11111,2ton.

D.C.. Cioernment Printing (Alice. 19761S.P. Streissguth. J Aase. S.R. Clarren.

Randels, R LaDue. and DJ' Smith. "Fetal Al-

ohol in Adolescents and Adults.-

au nnl ,rf flIc 'AMOR cut Medical Avcor union.

\pill I ".

Crack cocaine's effecton fetal development

When a pregnant woman usescrack cocaine, the drug willeffect the fetus for hours, evendays, after the mother's highhas ended because the fetal livercannot metabolize the drugquickly. The following are waysthe drug can harm a fetus.

Circulatory systemBoth the mother and baby'sblood vessels constrict almostimmediately after crack entersthe body. As a result, themother cannot deliver therequisite amount of blood to thefetus. retarding its growthbecause it does not get enoughoxyten and nutrients. Thatshortage also can cause birthdefects such as perforations inthe lungs, irregular heart rateand a truncated intestinal tract.

The placentaThe sudden and intense bloodvessel constriction can cause theplacenta. which is primarilycomposed of veins, to tear awayprematurely from the wall ofthe uterus. This explains why somany crack-affected babies areborn prematurely.

The brainBrain cells can atrophy andeventually die when deniedoxygen for more than a briefperiod.

And because delicate braintissue is not regenerative, a lossin brain cells can result inemotional. behavioral or learn-ing disabilities. As cells die.they leave behind tiny cavities

that in X-rays look like holes inthe brain. These porencephaliccysts can cause problems thatmight remain hidden formonths, possibly years. Thelocation of these cysts deter-mines which of the functions ismost affected.

Cocaine use can also bring ona stroke in the unborn child.

Central nervous systemCocaine stimulates nervesthroughout the body, promptingthe release of a chemical calleddopamine, which carries mes-sages about pleasure, alertnessand motor functions.

However, cocaine inhibitsdopamine's ability to act as aneurotransmitter. Normally,dopamine absorbs electricalimpulses from one nerve cell,and then ferries them across thetiny gaps in the series of neuralpathways to the next nerveending. The dopamine thenmakes a return trip carryingmessages about pleasure andmotor functions. But cocaineinhibits the dopamine's abilityto reach back to previousnerves. This blockage causesdopamine to accumulate in thegap between nerve cells andoverstimulate the nerves.Because the fetal liver cannotquickly neutralize the drug, thebaby's nerves are over-stimu-lated for such a long period thatnerve endings can becomedamaged.

Source: "Crack's Children,- TheWasington Post. June 30. 1991.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE School Safety 17 Winter 1992

NSSC Publications

The National School Safety Center (NSSC) serves as a national clearing-house for school safety programs and activities related to campus security,school law, community relations, student discipline and attendance, and theprevention of drug abuse, gangs, weapons and bullying in schools.

NSSC's primary objective is to foals national attention on the importanceof providing safe and effective schools. The following publications have beenproduced to promote this effort.

School Safety News Service includes three symposium editions of SchoolSafety, newsiournal of the National School Safety Center, and six issues ofSchool Safety Update. These publications feature the insight of prominantprofessionals on issues related to school safety, including student discipline,security, attendance, dropouts, youth suicide, character education and sub-stance abuse. NSSC's News Service reports on effective school safety pro-grams, updates on legal and legislative issues, and reviews new literature onschool safety issues. Contributors include accomplished local practitionersand nationally recognized experts and officials. ($119.00 annualsubscription.)

School Safety Check Book (1990)is NSSC's most comprehensive texton crime and violence prevention inschools. The volume is divided intosections on school climate anddiscipline, school attendance, personalsafety and school security. Gearedfor the hands-on practitioner, eachsection includes a review of the problemsand prevention strategies. Usefulcharts, surveys and tables, as well aswrite-ups on a wide variety of modelprograms, are included. Each chapteralso has a comprehensive bibliographyof additional resources. 219 pages.($12.00)

Set Straight on Bullies (1989) examines the myths and realities aboutschoolyard bullying. Changing attitudes about the senousness of the problem

are stressed. It studies the characteristics of bullies and bullying victims. And.most importantly, it provides strategies for educators. parents and students tobetter prevent and respond to schoolyard bullying. Sample student and adult

surveys are included. 89 pages. ($10.00)

Child Safety Curriculum Standards (1991) helps prevent child victimizationby assisting youth-serving professionals in teaching children how to protectthemselves. Sample strategies that can be integrated into existing curricula orused as a starting point for developing a more extensive curriculum are givenfor both elementary and secondary schools. The age-appropriate standardsdeal with the topics of substance abuse, teen parenting, suicide, gangs,weapons, bullying, runaways, rape, sexually transmitted diseases, childabuse, parental abductions, stranger abductions and latchkey children. Each

of the 13 chapters include summaries, standards, strategies and additionalresources for each grade level. 353 pages. ($75.00)

Right to Safe Schools: A Newly Recognized Inalienable Right (1983) is adetailed. fully annotated explanation of the safe schools provision of the Cali-fornia state constitution and its many implications. 20 pages. ($3.00)

Gangs In Schools: Breaking Up is Hard to Do(1988) offers an introduction to youth gangs,providing the latest information on the varioustypes of gangs including ethnic gangs, stonergroups and satanic cults as well as givingpractical advice on preventing or reducing gangencroachment on schools. Already in its seventhprinting, the book contains valuable suggestionsfrom law enforcers. school principals, prosecu-tors and other experts on gangs. The concludingchapter describes more than 20 school- andcommunity-based programs throughout thecountry that have been successful in combatinggangs. 48 pages. ($4.00)

School Crime and Violence: Victims' Rights (1986) is a current and compre-hensive text on school safety law. The book offers a historical overview of vic-tims' rights. describes how it has been dealt with in our laws and courts. andexplains its effect on America's schools. The authors cite legal case historiesand cover current school liability laws. The book explains tort liability, sovereignimmunity, duty-at-large rule, intervening cause doctrine and foreseeable crimi-nal activity, as well as addressing their significance to schools. The concludingchapter includes a "Checklist for Providing Safe Schools.' 106 pages. ($16.00)

Educated Public Relations: School Safety 101(1986) otters a quick course in public relations forschool district public relations directors, adminis-trators and others working to achieve safe. effec-tive schools. The book explains the theory of publicrelations and successful methods for integratingpeople and ideas. It discusses how public relationsprograms can promote safe schools and qualityeducation and gives 101 specific ideas and strat-egies to achieve this goal. Thn text includes aspecial chapter by Edward L. Bernays, consideredby many as the father of contemporary publicrelations, which updates his classic work TheEngineering of Consent. 72 pages. ($7.00)

EDUCATEDPUBLIC RELATIONS

SAFTTY ;01

The Need To Know: Juvenile Record Sharing (1989) deals with the confiden-tiality of student records and why teachers, counselors, school administrators,police, probation officers, prosecutors, the courts and other professionals whowork with juvenile offenders need to know and be able to share information con-

tained in juvenile records. When information is shared appropriately, improved

strategies for responding to serious juvenile offenders, and for improving publicsafety, can be developed. The second part of the book reviews the legal stat-

utes of each state, outlining which agencies and individuals are permitted ac-cess to various juvenile records and how access may be obtained. A modeljuvenile records code and sample forms to be used by agencies in facilitating

juvenile record sharing also are included. 88 pages. ($12.00)

Points of view or opinions are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent rho

official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice, U.S. Department of Education

or Pepperdine University. Prices subject of change without prior notification.


Resource Papers

The National School Safety Center (NSSC) has produced a series of specialreports on a variety of topics related to school safety. Each NSSC ResourcePaper provides a concise but comprehensive overview of the problem, covers anumber of prevention and intervention strategies, and includes a list oforganizations, related publications, and article reprints on the topic.

Safe Schools Overview otters a review of the contemporary safety issuesfacing today's schools, such as crime and violence, discipline, bullying, drug/alcohol trafficking and abuse, gangs, high dropout rates, and school safetypartnerships.


Corporal Punishment In Schools outlines the arguments for and againstcorporal punishment. It also discusses the alternatives to corporal punishmentthat have been developed'by schools and psychologists.

Drug Traffic and Abuse in Schools, after summarizing students' attitudes andbeliefs about drugs, covers drug laws and school rules; the legal aspects ofstudent searches and drug testing; and the connection between drug use andtruancy, crime and violence.

Weapons in Schools outlines a number of ways to detect weapons oncampus, including using searches and metal detectors, establishing a securityforce, and eliminating book bags or lockers where weapons can be hidden.

Role Models, Sports and Youth covers a number of programs that link youthand sports, including NSSC's urban school safety campaign that usesprofessional athletes as spokesmen; several organizations founded byprofessional athletes to help youth combat drugs; and a number of programsestablished to get young people involved in school or neighborhood teams.

School Bullying and Victimization defines bullying, offers an overvie', ofpsychological theories about how bullies develop, and covers interventionprograms that have been successful.

School Crisis Prevention and Response identifies principles and practicesthat promote safer campuses. Reviews of serious schools crises fatalshootings, a terrorist bombing, armed intruders and cluster suicide. Interviewswith the principals in charge also are included.

Student and Staff Victimization, after outlining schools' responsibility toprovide a sate educational environment, covers strategies for dealing withvictimization.

Student Searches and the Law examines recent court cases concerningstudent searches, including locker searches. strip searches, searches byprobation officers, drug testing. and searches using metal detectors ur drug-sniffing dogs.

Increasing Student Attendance, after outlining the problem and providingsupporting statistics, details strategies to increase attendance by preventing,intervening with and responding to students who become truants or dropouts.

Display Posters"Join a learn, not a gang!" (1989) Kevin Mitchell, home run leader with theSan Francisco Giants.

"Make peer pressure a challenge, not an excuse!" (1989) WashingtonBullets Manute Bol (7'6") and Tyrone "Muggsy" Bogues (5'4"). the tallest andshortest players in NBA history.

"The Fridge says 'bullying Is uncool!'"(1988) William 'The Fridge" Perry,defensive lineman for the Chicago Bears.

"Facades..."(1987) A set of two. 22-by-17inch full-color posters producedand distributed to complement a series of drug-free schools TV public serviceannouncements sponsored by NSSC.

All resources are prepared under Grant No 85-MU-CX-0003 from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Office of Justice Programs. U S. Department of Justice Points

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:.""" '' It..)

BY R. JONES, C. MCCULLOUGH AND M. DEWOODY

The child welfare system is being called uponto address the increasingly complex and multiple

needs of chemically dependent families.

Responding to obscure needs

While exact numbers are elusive, childwelfare providers have no doubt thatthey are now confronting increasingnumbers of children affected by bothprenatal alcohol and other drug exposureand/or by devastating postnatal environ-mental factors related to parental chemi-cal involvement. Many of these childrenhave lived in homes and communitiespermeated by drugs, been subjected tovarying degrees of parental abuse or ne-glect, and suffered unintentional traumaat the hands of the system designated toprot.ect them.

If the worst case scenario holds true,by the year 2000, there may be as manyas four million cocaine-exposed childrenin the United States. And, of course, co-caine is not the only drug to which chil-dren are exposed. Alcohol continues topose a substantial developmental threatto prenatally exposed children andbrings chaos and disruption into thefamilies of an alcohol-dependent adult.

Even though drug abuse cuts across all

Richard L. Jones is president and chiefexecutive officer for the Center for Hu-man Services in Cleveland, Ohio.

Charlotte McCullough is the directorof the Chemical Dependency Initiative ofthe Child Welfare League of America inWashington, D.C.

Madelyn DeWoody is general counseland .senior public policy analyst for theChild Welfare League of America.

socio-economic, racial and cultural lines,children and families hardest hit by thedrug epidemic are disproportionatelyfound in impoverished, minority com-munities. The child welfare system is in-creasingly called upon to address theircomplex, interwoven, multiple needs.

Problems for the child welfare systemWhile it is difficult to establish a causal:elationship, alcohol and other drug useI as become the dominant characteristicin child protective services (CPS) case-loads in 22 States and the District of Co-lumbia. Overall, it is estimated that be-tween 50 and 80 percent of all confirmedchild abuse cases and three-quarters ofthe child fatalities at the hands of parentsknown to the child welfare system in-volve some degree of alcohol and otherdrug use. The younger the child, thehigher the risk. A study examining caserecords in Boston found that 64 percentof substantiated child abuse and neglectinvolved parental alcohol and/or otherdrug abuse; but when the child was lessthan a year old, substance abuse was in-volved in 89 percent of the cases.

The increase in CPS referrals, thecomplexity of CPS cases, the lack offamily support services, as well as thelack of community alcohol and otherdrug treatment and aftercare resources,have resulted in more children needingout-of-home care. Most of the increasehas been experienced in communities


hardest hit by crack cocaine. Drug-ex-posed infants, toddlers and preschoolersendangered by chemically involved par-ents are the fastest growing foster carepopulation.

In 1980, for example, only 19 percentof all foster children were under the ageof 5 years. Today, approximately 50 per-cent of children in care arc under five. Itis not known how many of these childrenhave been prenatally exposed to alcoholand other drugs, but we do know that pa-rental drug involvement is a primary rea-son that these children are entering thechild welfare system. It has been esti-mated that as many as 80 percent of allidentified drug-exposed infants of un-treated chemically dependent motherswill be placed in foster care during theirfirst year of life.

In addition to the surge in the numbersof drug-exposed children entering fostercare, the children who enter care arestaying longer. Hard data are lacking todefinitively establish the reason for thistrend. In the 1970s, research studiesfound that children of alcohol- or otherdrug-involved parents were in foster carelonger than any population. They weremoved from one placement to anothermore frequently and were less likely toreturn home to parents. Planning forthem was more difficult, in large part be-cause of their parent's inability to be-come an active participant in the plan-ning process.

The multiple roles of child welfareThe child welfare system, of which childprotective services is one part. has broadresponsibilities. In addition to investigat-ing abuse and neglect reports and mak-ing initial custody recommendations,child welfare agencies and CPS workersare charged with providing support andcrisis services to families at risk of mal-treatment or disruption; providing arange of substitute care options for chil-dren who cannot be protected in theirown homes; finding or providing casemanagement services for children in fos-ter care; attempting to reunite childrenwith families; and establishing a perma-nent plan for a child when reunificationis not possible or advisable.

In many states, the multiple, non-investigative services have been jeopar-dized by the demands being placed onchild protective services. Child welfaremust attempt to address the needs ofchemically dependent parents, assess thethreat chemical dependency poses to thesafety and welfare of the young child,and intervene to protect the child whenchemical dependency or other dysfunc-tional parental behavior endangers thechild.

After intervening to ensure the safetyof the child, child welfare must attemptto "undo" the physical, mental and de-velopmental problems that affect youngchildren who have been prenatally or en-vironmentally exposed to alcohol andother drugs. Child welfare must also in-tervene on behalf of the family and at-tempt to repair the dysfunctional patternsthat contributed to child maltreatment,including chemical dependency. In theinitial stages of chemical dependency,children may be neglected in pursuit ofdrug-related activities, but not at immi-nent risk of harm. At this early stage,when an intervention has the greatest po-tential of success, the child welfare sys-tem has few resources available tostrengthen or support the family.

The child welfare system confrontschildren of all ages from a diversity ofracial, ethnic and cultural backgrounds.with multiple physical, emotional, so-

cial, medical and developmental diffi-culties. It includes parents who engagein different patterns of substance use, forvarying periods of time, with differentconsequences for their lives and the livesof their children. In the face of this in-credible diversity, child welfare mustdraw on the limited research available todevelop strategies that will effectivelyprotect and meet the needs of all chil-dren referred to the system. The deci-sions made must take place within theparameters of a .egal mandate.

Re-examining the legal mandateThe cut-rent child welfare law, P.L. 96-272, The Adoption Assistance Act of1980, governs child welfare practice andpresents particular challenges when adrug-involved child or family enters thesystem.

P.L. 96-272 dramatically altered thechild welfare system. For the first time,agencies were mandated to focus on thebroader needs of the child within thefamily rather than more narrowly on thesafety of the child. Underlying the lawwere assumptions that children growbest in their own families and that mostfamilies, given enough support, can bepreserved.

State child welfare agencies are man-dated to make "reasonable efforts" toprevent a child's placement in fostercare as well as "reasonable efforts" to re-unite the family during specified timeperiods if foster care is necessary. Thejuvenile courts are required to determinewhether the agency has made such ef-forts. In addition to this federal law,many states have passed their own legis-lation defining "reasonable efforts."

Agency policies and practices haveadvanced during the past decade to ben-efit many children and families. Familiespreviously thought to be hopeless re-sponded to a host of new family supportservices. Through intensive efforts, case-workers succeeded in keeping at-riskchildren in their homes. Fewer childrenwere referred unnecessarily to fostercare or allowed to drift aimlessly fromone placement to another. The numbers


of children in foster care were graduallybut steadily decreasing.

With crack, however, the situation hasradically changed. Critics now argue thatthe system no longer meets the needs ofchemically exposed infants or toddlersand young children at risk of abuse bychemically dependent parents. The childwelfare system and the courts continueto struggle to keep highly dysfunctionalfamilies intact while attempting to mini-mize the risk of harm to the child.

An assessment between the require-ments of P.L. 96-272 and the needs ofdrug-exposed children requires focus onthe child's physical, emotional, cogni-tive and social development. Inevitably.tensions rise between those who advo-cate family preservation and those whoadvocate reduced barriers to foster careand adoption in order to facilitate perma-nent homes and stable environments.The overriding determinant must be thechild's best interest, and the challengewith drug-exposed toddlers and pre-schoolers is to determine exactly whatthat means.

Additional questionsThe reality of unavailability or ineffec-tiveness of drug treatment, combinedwith the uneven path of recovery fromaddiction, raises additional questions forchild weltare. Parents are often man-dated to receive alcohol or other drugtreatment in order to retain or regaincustody of their children. This court-im-posed requirement is often made in theabsence of available, suitable treatmentservices. A 1989 study determined thatin 44 states and the District of Columbia.at least 66,766 persons were on waitinglists for drug treatment programs, andhalf of those persons had been waiting atleast 30 days.

Even if the parent is able to overcomethe access barriers, long-term residentialtreatment is often required, which maymean an extended stay for the child insubstitute care. During this time, inad-equate attention is given to maintainingor fostering the tenuous mother/childbond. For the toddler or preschooler.

JONES, MCCULLOUGH AND DEWOODY

these are developmentally sensitiveyears.

There is little information as to whatconstitutes an effective drug treatmentprogram. For the heavily addicted orchronic crack user, traditional treatmentmodels have met with limited success.Studies have shown that even after com-pleting treatment, only about 25 percentof crack addicts are able to remain drugfree six months after discharge.

What are the implications of these re-alities for a system charged with devel-oping a permanent plan for a childwithin specified timeframes? How longshould the toddler be required to wait forthe parent to become capable of parent-ing? Again, the child welfare systemasks, what are the developmental needsof the child, and how can they best bemet?

Realities of parental addictionA chemically dependent parent behavesin ways that are in contrast with what weknow is good for a child's healthy devel-opment. As one researcher has noted.drugs may essentially "destroy theparent's ability to be a parent."

Children entering the child welfaresystem come from "high need, low re-source" families. High need refers notonly to the family's need for services butalso to the impairments from which theparents often suffer: psychological diffi-culties, personality disorders, affectiveinstability, behavior dysfunction andlimited capacity to attach to otherpeople.

Chemically dependent families alsotend to be "low resource." They oftenlack interpersonal support systems thatcould help in their parenting roles. Theyare frequently overwhelmed by their re-sponsibilities to provide their child withsafe and appropriate physical care, aconsistent supportive affectionate rela-tionship, and opportunities for cognitive,social and emotional development.

Children in high need, low resourcefamilies may develop a range of copingmechanisms in order to survive in theirchaotic environments. While the coping

mechanisms are endless, behaviors fre-quently found in children of chemicallyinvolved parents include emotional de-pression, manifested by a noncaring, de-feated attitude; victim behavior, charac-terized by a desperate need for approval;or antisocial, aggressive behavior, mask-ing underlying depression.

Finding a balanceThe child welfare system is acutelyaware that the developmental problemsseen among toddlers and preschoolersmay be in part a result of the disruptiveand chaotic environments that character-ize the child's life with a chemically de-pendent parent. It is the responsibility ofthe child welfare professional to assessthe extent to which parental chemicaldependency poses an imminent dangerto the child. But, the body of evidencethat points to the consequences of dis-rupting an attachment, no matter howtenuous, is also a compelling reasons forattempting to maintain and strengthenthe parent/child bond.

The child welfare professional mustbalance these conflicting factors andchoose the least damaging alternative.At one end of the spectrum are familieswho are motivated to remain together,are willing and able to access the ser-vices needed to gain sobriety, and whohave other caretakers willing to assumeprimary parenting and protection respon-sibilities until the chemical dependencyis addressed. In these "ideal" cases, childwelfare must assure that the bond be-tween parent and child is fostered andthe family structure preserved.

At the other end of the spectrum arefamilies for whom the devastating ef-fects of chemical dependency haveeroded both the desire and the ability toparent. When a chaotic, chemically de-pendent family environment seriouslythreatens the child's health and well-be-ing, child welfare must act to protect thechild's safety even if this requires re-moval of the child from the home. Childwelfare's challenge is to minimize dis-ruptions while the child is in care so thatthe child's need for continuity in a nur-


turing environment can be met.In the majority of cases, however,

workers and the courts must make deci-sions about families whose functioningfalls between these two extremes. Theseare families who are seriously at risk interms cf both chemical dependency andchild maltreatment, but who also haveexisting and potential strengths. The sys-tem must take into account racial andcultural differences and use cultural non-deficit models in assessing familystrengths, including the extended kinenvironment.

Family foster careChild welfare has traditionally relied onfamily foster care as the out-of-homeplacement of choice, especially foryoung children. Foster families, how-ever, are in increasingly short supply.The shortage of foster parents is particu-larly acute for special needs childrensuch as drug-exposed toddlers andpreschoolers. Few foster families areable or willing to assume responsibilityfor several drug-exposed youngsters sothat siblings can be kept together.

Some communities have acknowl-edged the difficulties in caring for thesechildren in traditional foster homes andhave developed specialized homes withhighly trained parents who work in part-nership with multidisciplinary profes-sional staff. These specialized fosterfamilies receive higher reimbursementrates, respite care and extensive trainingin the special care of their children.

The San Francisco "Baby Moms" pro-gram has had success in achieving place-ment stability. The program has suc-ceeded in providing medical, emotionaland supportive care to infants and, whereappropriate, to birth parents. "BabyMoms" has worked to reunite familieswhere feasible and has provided stable,long-term care when reunification hasnot been possible. Programs like "BabyMoms" are not widespread, but thismodel provides an example of the typeof program that can be developed to ef-fectively meet the needs of drug-exposedchildren.

6u

Kinship careThe placement of chemically involvedinfants and other children with a relativeis an option that is receiving increasingattention. In some jurisdictions, it ismandated as the placement option ofchoice. Relative placement has a psy-chological advantage for the child interms of maintaining the connection tobiological roots.

In spite of the lack of objective re-search to support this practice, approxi-mately half of the cocaine-exposed new-borns, for example, are discharged fromhospitals directly into the care of rela-tives, usually the maternal grandmother.The financial toll combined with thespecial care needed by these infants of-ten puts an insurmountable burden onrelatives. The system has been slow torespond to the needs of these caregivers.

Kinship care is also not without con-troversy. Some critics assert that a pay-ment/monitoring system delays reuni-fication with the mother, causes familyconflict, unduly intrudes on a family'sprivacy and fails to assure the safety ofthe child. Alcohol and other drug spe-cialists point to the intergenerational na-ture of chemical dependency as a sourceof concern and as justification for inves-tigation prior to placement. Ongoingmonitoring assures that the child is notsubjected to the same environmentalfactors that contributed to the parent'schemical dependency.

Residential careTo relieve the a'arming overcrowding infamily foster care homes and overstaysin hospitals, temporary therapeutic infantand toddler shelter care programs havebeen developed as a part of a compre-hensive continuum of care. These pro-grams have demonstrated that a congre-gate care environment can be structuredto meet the unique and individual needsof the children it serves, while attempt-ing to strengthen and/or maintain thefamily bond. One advantage that qualitycongregate care facilities have is the ca-pacity to engage a chemically involvedparent in the planning for and care of the

child. For many families, the congregatecare center can offer support, often be-yond the time the child is in care.

Placement in congregate care is de-signed to enable the child to remain inone place with a consistent, limitednumber of caretakers until a permanentplan is made. In these programs, it is an-ticipated that the infant will be dis-charged to the parents, adoptive parents,relatives or permanent foster parentswithin six to 12 months. When this doesnot occur, alternative plans must bemade for the child. This may mean thatthe child must be moved to anotherplacement.

AdoptionAdoption has rarely been an option cho-sen for the drug-exposed children ofchemically dependent parents. Termina-tion of parental rights is frequently con-tested and usually takes at least threeyears. This legal limbo often exists evenin cases where parents are clearly inca-pable or unwilling to parent. Another ob-stacle is the fear of prospective parentsabout the long-term effects of drug expo-sure and the possible need for expensivemedical, educational and psychologicalcare. In addition, most child welfarepolicies support the placement of chil-dren with parents of the same race andsame culture.

C npounding the risksA . qn early intervention and preven-tica s...ategy that eliminates chemicaldependency and the host of problems itengenders for children, child welfaremust be prepared to address the long-term needs of drug-exposed childrenthrough its various interventions. In spiteof the best intentions, certain aspects ofthe system negatively affect a drug-ex-posed child's ability to form a signifi-cant attachment or attain developmentalpotential. Overwhelmed foster parents,overcrowded/understaffed congregatehomes, multiple placements and theseparation of siblings compound therisks to the child.

It is well recognized that once in fos-


ter care, drug-exposed children tend toremain there. One New York City studyfound that 60 percent of the babies dis-charged from a hospital to foster carewere still in care three years later. Infact, if drug-exposed children return totheir parents, the return home will usu-ally occur within six months to one yearof placement. After that, reunification isnot likely.

Many children in foster care will havemultiple placements, a factor that canhave a profound impact on drug-exposedtoddlers and preschoolers. In a NewYork City study, for example, 56 percentof the children in foster care had been inat least two placements, 20 percent hadbeen in at least three placements, andone child had been in eight foster homes.

Crack-exposed "boarder babies." al-most inevitably, will have at least twoplacements. Because of the limited num-ber of foster family homes available,particularly in large urban areas, manyof these infants are placed in temporarycongregate care homes where childrengenerally remain until a family fosterhome can be found. Given the lack ofhomes, many infants remain for months.often developing an attachment to theircaretakers only to be removed with littleor no transition.

Promising approachesChemical dependency is only one ofmany serious and longstanding problemsconfronting families who come to the at-tention of the child welfare system. Tobe effective, child welfare efforts to ad-dress family chemical dependency andits effects on children must include ac-cess to a wide range of preventive andsupportive services.

The challenge is to develop an eco-logical approach that addresses the un-derlying problems which give rise todysfunctional patterns. Such an approachwould entail a broad-scale re-examina-tion and restructuring of family servicedelivery systems as a whole. This effortwould require legislative and policycommitment, the development of com-prehensive and multidisciplinary ser-

JONES, MCCULLOUGH AND DEWOODY

\ ice delivery systems and interagencycoordination.

To meet the multiple challenges, theI ollow ing are needed:

increased know/edqe. The lack of in-formation about the extent of the ef-t eels of alcohol and other drugs ontoddlers and preschoolers hampers de-\ elopment and implementation of ef-fective programs. More information isneeded to make sound policy deci-sions for this developmentally vulner-able group./.'.acwi; the drietz epidemic in context.The problems caused by alcohol andother drugs are interrelated with othersocietal problems child maltreat-ment. poverty. family and communitydsfunction and homelessness. Thesefamilies and communities are the leastlikcls to he able to access the dagtreatment. mental health and family

support services they need.Shift/Fa; of priorities. The medical. le-gal, social, educational and economiccosts associated with chemical depen-dency suggest that increased alloca-tion of resources and services areneeded early in the lives of childrenand their families. Preventive servicesand early intervention provided on amultidisciplinary basis are essentialfor truly effective intervention into theproblems that chemical dependencycreates for children.Unified efforts. Policy-makers andproviders must avoid the temptation ofpitting one service area or populationagainst another. What is urgentlyneeded is adequate funding for thewhole array of services. objective out-come data to determine which inter-vention is most appropriate for whichpopulation. and continued discussion

among all disciplines to reach consen-sus on unresolved issues.

The dramatic increase in the number ofdrug-exposed or at risk infants, toddlersand oung children endangered by paren-tal chemical dependency has stressed analready overwhelmed child welfare sys-tem. Further complicating the situation isthe fact that within the community ofcaregivers. there are legitimate areas ofdisagreement. unresolved questions, ethi-cal and legal dilemmas, and a lack ofclear direction about effective preventionand intervention strategies and policies. r

This article is adapted from a paper pre,e nted at the irst Issues I- arum.- spon-

reel The Office of Subtance Abuse.November. 1990. l'sed with permissionnom the Chad It (Ware Lea cue of.1mena.

School law and leadership conference slatedStetson University College of Law will hold its eighth an-nual national conference titled "Law and Leadership in theSchools" on February 23 -21. 1992. at the St. PetersburgHilton & Towers in St. Petersburg, Florida. Nationallyprominent school attorneys and other experts, includingschool administrators, school board members and schoolemployee organizations, will discuss contemporaty legaland policy issues of; vital concern facing the nation'sschools today.

Violence. crime and racial tension on campus are amongthe topics to be covered at the Law and Leadership in theSchools Conference. Other topics include the fiscal crisis ineducation; issues concerning the restructuring of schools;"choice" plans: employment and personnel issues; theschool attorney-client relationship; health and safety issues:school desegregation: church-state issues; student freespeech and discipline; and the legal liability of school offic-er, and employees.

Chairman and moderator for the conference is Stetsonlaw processor W. Gary Vause who also serves as the direc-tor for the Center for Dispute Resolution. Distinguished na-tional speakers will address the assembly in morning ple-

nary sessions on major policy issues. Presenters includeMark G. Yudoff. Dean, School of Law, University ofTexas; Patrice McCarthy. Deputy Director and GeneralCounsel. Connecticut Association of Boards of Education,Inc.; Sidney McKenzie, General Counsel. Florida Depart-ment of Education; W. Frank Blount, President and CEO.New American School Development Corporation; AugustW. Steinhilber, General Counsel. National School BoardsAssociation; and Elliot Mincberg, Legal Director, Peoplefor the American Way.

The National School Safety Center is co-sponsoring theconference in conjunction with The NSBA Council of At-torneys; The National School Boards Association; TheAmerican Association of School Administrators; the Floridaaffiliates of the American Federation of Teachers. AFL-CIO.and The National Education Association: and The FloridaSchool Attorneys Association.

The registration fee for tuition, luncheons, and confer-ence materials is $175 for both days. Additional informa-tion and registration materials may be obtained by callingconference coordinator Alice Ruffner at 813/345-1121,ext. 312.

School Safety 24 Winter 1992-

NSSC Documentaries

Highaisk YcaosethAt the Ovssiio

"Feeling good about yourself can't be bought on a street corner. It must bebuilt from within. But there are dangers you should know about. Thosepressures we call 'risk

This powerful message to America's troubled children is presented in'High-Risk Youth/At The Crossroads," a 22-minute, award-winningdocumentary on youth drtg abuse prevention hosted by actor LeVar Burton.

By combining real-life profiles and commentary from nationally renowned

authorities, the documentary provides acompelling case to look beyond currentdrug abuse intervention strategies exem-plified by the 'Just Say No campaign.Researchers have identified individual,family, peer, community and school-re-lated problems that make kids more proneto use illegal drugs. The focus on positiveresponses improving family and peerrelations, encouraging and rewarding re-sponsible behavior, ensuring that schoolplays a positive role in children's lives,expanding public and social services, as I

well as recreational opportunities foryouths suggests that the most promising approach to 'high-risk youth" anddrug abuse is one of prevention, not simply intervention. This important themeis reinforced throughout the fast-paced program.

SET STRAIGHT OH

Wie/ASWhoever thought bullies were all talk and no action needs to view the film'Set Straight on Bullies." The National School Safety Center film was pro-duced to help school administrators educate faculty, parents and students

about the severity of theschoolyard bullying problemThe message is clear: bullyinghurts everyone.

The 18-minute, Emmy-win-ning educational film tells thestory of a bullying victim andhow the problem adversely af-fects his life as well as the livesof the bully, other students, par-ents and educators.

"I'm always scared. I'mscared to come to school. .1

don't want to be afraid anymore," the bullying victim says. In fact, NSSC basedthe film on research indicating one in seven students is either a bully or a vic-tim of bullying.

Principals play pivotal roles inkeeping their schools safe andeffective places of learning. But,without the support of parents,teachers, law enforcers and otherlegal, government and communityresources, they can't fulfill theirresponsibility.

A recipient of eight nationaland international awards of excel-lence, this film, 'What's WrongWith This Picture?," is designed toencourage dialogue betweenschool principals and their commu-nity resources. it presents thecritical issue of school safety in afrank and straightforward way,dramatizing real-life incidents ofschool-related crime and violence,drug abuse and suicide.


'High -Risk Youth/At the Crossroad"(550 VHS) copies

'Set Straight on Bullies"($60VHS) copies (9200 16mm) copies

-What's Wrong With ThisPicturer($40VHS) copies (5150 16mm) copies

Charges cover postage and handling. and are subject to change without pnornotification. Check must accompany order.

Name

Talc.

Affiliation

Address

City State Zip

Mall to: NSSC, 4165 Thousand Oaks Blvd., Ste. 290, Westlake Village, CA 91362


BEST COPY AVAILABLE

iliiimmigagi CHILD WELFARE LEAGUE OF AMERICA

Professionals are in a quandry about how to interveneeffectively to help pregnant drug abusers kick their

habits and improve their children's chances for success.

Pregnant drug abusers:Rights vs. responsibilities

Obtaining precise estimates of the num-ber of alcohol and drug-affected preg-nancies and births is difficult. Differentresearchers, each with their own method-ologies, have examined various drugs orcombinations of drugs and alcohol. A1988 National Association for PerinatalAddiction Research and Education(NAPARE) study still the mostwidely cited estimated that 375.000infants annually are born exposed to oneor more of the following drugs: heroin,methadone, amphetamines, PCP, mari-juana and cocaine. While some criticshave challenged these numbers on thebasis of methodology, most, believe thatthe number of newborns identified assubstance-exposed underestimates theactual number.

The House Select Committee on Chil-dren. Youth, and Families conducted astudy in 1989 that found that 15 of the18 hospitals surveyed reported a three tofour times increase in drug-exposedbirths since 1985. Many stated that thenumber may he significantly under-counted due to lack of clinician sensitiv-ity, inaccurate screening results and thelimited ability of toxicology screens todetect many drugs more than 24 hoursafter use.

Chemically involved pregnant womenNAPARE's 1989 demographic survey inPinellas County. Florida, found no sig-nificant difference in rates of maternal

exposure between private and publichospitals, and no significant differencein rates of exposure between black andwhite patients. This study runs counterto the stereotypes regarding users, andgives a clue as to how widespread theproblem is among all women of child-bearing years.

Socio-economic status was related todrug of choice, with lower income mi-nority clients preferring cocaine, andmiddle-class white women choosingmarijuana. While not all pregnant sub-stance abusers and their infants are poor,inner-city persons of color, this popula-tion is most often identified and treatedas the problem. due in part to institu-tional bias, screening procedures and in-terpretation of reporting requirements.Regardless of the drug used, blacks areten times more likely than whites to bereported to child welfare.

Despite the diversity in the back-grounds of "users." chemically involvedpregnant women who come to the atten-tion of child welfare do share some char-acteristics. They are frequently describedas having low self-esteem, a poor self-concept and limited family support.They are less educated, more frequentlyunemployed, and in less stable housingthan their non-drug using counterparts.They come from dysfunctional, oftenchemically dependent families and havea long history of violent or unhealthy re-lationships. They are more likely to have


been victims of early sexual or physicalabuse. They are less likely to receiveprenatal care and are more likely to havemultiple health problems. They usuallypossess poor parenting skills and requirea range of services from a variety of sys-tems in addition to drug treatment.

Obstacles to interventionIdentifying and intervening with preg-nant alcohol or other drug users is thenumber one challenge to the medical andsocial service fields. Early detection.proper prenatal care and medical man-agement can significantly reduce thedamaging effects of drugs. The key isearly recognition and the provision ofappropriate services, including drugtreatment, outreach, education, parentingclasses, day care and such "hard" ser-vices as housing assistance, job trainingand transportation.

Because pregnant drug users usuallydo not seek prenatal care, detection isthe first problem. Even if seen by a so-cial worker or a physician, pregnantwomen are not routinely questioned oradequately screened for chemical use. Inthe unlikely event that an alochol ordrug problem is recognized, the odds ateagainst her being able to find or access adrug or alcohol treatment program.

A 1989 New York study found that 54percent of the drug treatment programsrefused to treat chemically dependentpregnant women; 67 percent refused to

admit women who were pregnant and onMedicaid; and 87 percent refused to ad-mit women who were pregnant, on Med-icaid and using crack. The more criticalthe need, the less likely the services willbe available. Less than 1 percent of fed-eral anti-drug funds are targeted to drugtreatment for women, and the percentageis even smaller for pregnant andparenting women.

In addition to the unavailability oftreatment slots and discriminationagainst pregnant drug users and noorpersons, there is a general lack of under-standing of the unique needs of womenwith children. Most treatment programsare built on the male alcoholic model.Less than half of the programs willing toaccept a pregnant woman make any pro-visions for the care of other children shemay have or for prenatal/postnatal care.There is also a well-documented lack ofcoordination of the limited services thatare available. Navigating the multiplesystems to get complex medical and so-cial needs met is often imposssible forthe marginally functioning chemicallyinvolved client. Typically, the chemi-cally dependent pregnant woman gets notreatment for chemical dependency andno medical care at all.

Non-therapeutic interventionsAs the public has become aware of theplight of babies born to chemically in-volved women, medical and legal at-tempts to monitor or control behaviorduring pregnancy have increased, whilesympathy for the pregnant woman, aswell as the resources and services shedesperately needs, have lagged far be-hind. Non-therapeutic efforts to inter-vene fall broadly under three categories:criminalization; civil action under childabuse, neglect or commitment statutes;and legislative action to mandate drugtesting and/or reporting of suspecteddrug or alcohol use during pregnancy.

Criminal prosecution of pregnantwomen for a variety of acts or omissionsduring pregnancy is the most extremeexample of this trend. In May, 1989 aCalifornia woman pleaded guilty to in-

voluntary manslaughter after her prema-ture twins died. She had been smokingcrack for two days prior to their birth. InJuly, 1989. a Florida woman was con-victed of delivery of drugs to a minorwhen her baby was born exposed to co-caine. At least 18 cases of fetal endan-germent have been entered in eightstates.

Drug use has even been a factor in thecriminal sentencing of pregnant womenfor crimes unrelated to drug use or theeffect on the fetus. For example, inWashington. D.C., a woman pleadedguilty to a first-offense forgery charge, acrime that usually results in probation.The judge, however, sentenced her tojail until her baby was born because shetested positive for cocaine.

This trend toward criminal prosecutionor other punitive action toward chemi-


cally dependent pregnant women reflectsan ambivalence about whether addictionconstitutes willful criminal behavior or amental illness. Two U.S. Supreme Courtdecisions (in 1925 and 19621 held that itwas an illness. Society has to choosewill resources be allocated to therapy orto sanctions?

To trigger a child protective servicereferral in most states, a child's condi-tion must fit withi^ statutory definitionsof abuse and neglect. Many states nowincorporate "drug-affected" newborns inthose definitions, definine them as in-fants suffering from withdrawal or fetalalcohol syndrome. Still other states arerevising or reinterpreting reporting stat-utes to allow proceedings to terminateparental custody if a baby is born drug-exposed, regardless of whether or notsymptoms are present at birth. In a few

CHILD WELFARE LEAGUE OF AMERICA

.fates. a positive toxicology drug screenfalls under mandatory child abuse re-porting statutes. In other states "suspi-cion" of maternal drug or alcohol useduring pregnancy must be reported.

For example. Minnesota recentlypassed a law requiring the testing ofpregnant women based on "reasonablesuspicion" of the use of cocaine. If awoman tests positive, she can go volun-tarily for treatment or. if she refuses tocomply, she can be committed involun-tarily. Although Minnesota is assuringthe availability of treatment. criticsquestion the ethics of testing and man-dating treatment in locations where ap-propriate treatment resources are un-

ailable. In some states. womenmandated to treatment have been sent tojail to protect the fetus in the absence ofmailable publicly funded treatmentslots. The ACLU has filed a class actionsuit to force treatment programs to ac-cept pregnant women into treatment.

While existing civil statutes and inter-pretations of reporting requirements forabuse and neglect vary. the trend seemsto he toward increased testing and re-porting. In addition to Minnesota. anumber of states have passed laws incor-porating prenatal drug exposure or pa-rental drug use into their abuse and ne-elect reporting requirements. Amongihem are Florida. Hawaii. Illinois. Indi-,ma, Massachusetts. Oklahoma. NewYork, Nevada and Rhone Island.

No law currently requires the auto-matic removal of drug-exposed infantsrum their parents. but Arizona andhegon have considered such legislation.

Thirty-five courts so far have interpreted"aildren" to exclude fetuses, althoughthat interpretation has been left open forlegislative changes. and evidence ofdrug use obtained during pregnancy canalreaci he used in custody hearings afterbirth.

Reaction to Current EffortsWhere instituted, each of these non-therapeutic actions has had initial ap-peal. The public is reassured by effortsto reduce the numbers of chemically ex-

posed babies, or to at least minimize thedamage. However, not everyone ap-proves of these legislative or criminalapproaches.

Legal experts are voicing concern notonly about constitutional issues, but alsothe potential flooding of the court sys-tems. Medical experts point out that thethreat of loss of custody or jail will notreduce drug use during pregnancy butwill reduce the number of women whowill seek treatment or prenatal care.Feminists are outraged that substance-abusing women are being singled out forjail or loss of their children, while theirdrug-using husbands or boyfriends es-cape such public sanction. In addition.the population at which fetal abuse stat-utes and punitive action are targeted arethose already locked out of the currenthealth care or treatment systems.

Furthermore, many pregnant womenidentified today as chemically involvedare single parents with other children athome. Mandating residential drug treat-ment or placing a pregnant woman injail solely on the basis of a positive drugscreen in an attempt to protect the fetusmay necessitate placing her other chil-dren in an already overwhelmed fostercare system.

Finally, the drug problem in is exacer-bated by the systemic problems of ourhealth care system. When we handle ad-diction as a moral failing instead of amedical/psycho-social problem. it allowsus to propose solutions in the criminaljustice arena, while ignoring the real cri-sis the lack of accessible, affordablehealth care and drug treatment for preg-nant and parenting women. qr

Reprinted with permission from theChild Welfare League of America, Inc.CIA/LA j. The article originally appeared

in Crack and Other Addictions: Old Re-alities and New Challenges for Welfare.CopRght 1990 by the Child WelfareLeague of America, Inc.. Washington.DC. The book summarizes the proceed-ings and policy recommendations of thebiannual national symposium sponsoredby CR'LA on Mardi 12-13, 1990.


Policy Recommedcrtions

The following recommendationswere proposed by participants atCWLA's 1990 national conferenceon perinatal drug abuse and chemi-cally dependent families.

Make pregnant women and ado-lescents a priority for fundingfor alcohol and drug prevention,intervention, treatment andafter-care.Encourage communities to de-velop comprehensive, culturallyresponsive drug awarenessplans. The plans should includestrategies for multidisciplinarytraining initiatives, the develop-ment of public awareness andeducational materials, and out-reach strategies that target high-risk women.Mandate the coordination ofhealth, social services and treat-ment services, along with provi-sions for case managers whohave the ability to navigate thevarious systems.Include funding for research todetermine the incidences ofchemical use during pregnancyand the availability of serviceswhere the need is greatest: to re-view various programs for thepurpose of identifying "models";and to conduct long-term studiesto evaluate the impact of variousdrugs on infants born to chemi-cally dependent women.Modify Medicaid to provide fora range of alcohol and drug ser-vices not currently available.Expand the availability of pre-and postnatal care to improvefetal health.Oppose the imposition of crimi-nal or punitive actions for con-duct during pregnancy.Address the current inequitiesand biases in the provision ofservices to the disadvantagedand to minority women.

Preparing fo: the influxof drug-exposed children

Uncertain as one might be about thenumber of crack babies being born ina community, it is clear that localschools need to prepare for the arrivalof cocaine- and other substance-ex-posed children. These children, ac-cording to child-development special-ists, may find it difficult to functionin the traditional classroom environ-ment. The following suggestions canhelp schools get ready to provide thestructured, supportive learning envi-ronment these youngsters will need tosucceed.

Develop means of early identifica-tion. Contact state and local healthdepartments and local hospital admin-istrators. Form alliances with child-protective service agencies. These or-ganizations can function as early-warning systems and important allies.

If these agencies are keeping accu-rate records of the number of drug-ex-posed infants being born annually,they can provide an estimate of howmany will enroll in kindergarten in afew years. Unfortunately, the qualityof available data ranges from excel-lent to unreliable.

A hospital survey conducted by theNational Association for PerinatalAddiction Research and Education(NAPARE) found that some hospitalsconduct no substance-abuse assess-ment by history or by urine toxi-cology during or after pregnancy.Other hospitals have a policy that allpregnant women should be askedabout substance abuse. The most thor-ough data, the study found, are col-

lected by hospitals with established pro-cedures for assessing every pregnantwoman or every newborn for substanceabuse or exposure through medicalhistory and urine toxicology.

The child-protective service agencyalso might be able to help you identifychildren who are likely to need specialeducational service. Child welfare andfoster care systems are finding their re-sources irtually overwhelmed by thenumbers of drug-affected childrenwhether born prenatally exposed todrugs or later victimized by the neglectand abuse of drug-using parents. or both.In such instances, schools will be nextto have their resources stretched to thelimit in meeting the needs of drug-af-fected children.

Even if a community has escaped theworst of the crack scourge, local child-protective agency can be an importantally in identifying and developing waysof serving cocaine- and other substance-exposed youngsters.

Lobby for funds to serve the need.Providing the low teacher/child rationeeded by cocaine-exposed children inthe classroom will be expensive. Makestate and federal legislators aware of thepotential problem. Begin lobbying nowfor funds to serve the special needs ofthese children.

Get administrators and schools in-volved. Schools should put drug educa-tion and prevention programs in place. ifthey aren't already. To be most effec-tive, such programs should includeteaching kids the skills they need to re-sist drug use.

Because approximately one millionteenage girls become pregnant eachyear, and they often don't believecrack is bad for their babies, it's im-portant to get the message out thatdrugs and parenthood do not mix.

Begin thinking about appropriateclassroom environments for cocaine-exposed children. Youngsters whowere prenatally exposed to cocaineneed stability and security. Schoolsshould consider new ways of movingkids through the system. such as al-lowing them to remain with the sameteacher for longer than one year.

Consider rethinking, too, the wayschools use the day. A typical schoolday is fragmented: Teachers switchfrom one subject area to another andfrom one assignment to the next. In-terruptions and outside intrusions arestandard. Sudden changes in sched-ule, the appearance of unexpectedvisitors and disruptions in routine arcespecially difficult for drug-exposedchildren to cope with. It's importantto emphasize following routines, es-tablishing rituals and sticking withschedules.

Finally, give special considerationthe the psycho-social and emotionalneeds of children. For cocaine-ex-posed children, it's not appropriatesimply to refer a withdrawn or overlyaggressive child to a psychologist orassume the parents will deal withtheir child's classroom behavior. Thispopulation of kids will requiresschools to redefine the teacher'srole and might demand teachers tocross traditional role boundaries.

Look at the ways schools arc stress-ful, demanding and unpredictable.and find ways to make them lessstressful, less demanding and morepredictable.

Excerpted with permission from theAmerican School Board Journal.Copyright © 1990 by the NationalSchool Boards Association. All rightsreserved.


1,--

NATIONAL UPDATE

State-by-statelegislative review

The National Association for PerinatalAddiction Research and Education(NAPARE) has recently completed astate-by-state survey of both the legisla-tion introduced during the 1991 sessionsand the existing state laws pertaining toperinatal substance abuse. To the extentthat the information obtained in this sur-vey can be capsulized in chart form, it iscontained on the chart that follows.

The chart, labeled State Law and 1991Legislation, lists the legislation intro-duced during the 1991 term that fitswithin one of the headings provided. Theshaded boxes indicate that the state hasenacted a law mandating the action indi-cated either this year or in previousyears.

The chart has been prepared to pro-vide for easy reference as to the legisla-tive action on certain key issues of con-cern and to highlight certain trends.Obviously, not every bill which pertainsto the issue of perinatal substance abusecan be addressed in the chart. Indeed,several very important new laws do notfall easily into any one category and are,therefore, not reflected on the chart.

For instance, one very interesting de-velopment not reflected in the chart isthe legislation of a standard of care; thatis. the passage of laws imposing legalduties on healthcare professionals to pro-vide certain warnings to pregnant wo-men regarding the consequences of pre-natal substance use.

Thus. Missouri has passed, and thegovernor has signed, a law that requires,among other things, any physician whoprovides obstetrical and gynecologicalcare to pregnant women to counsel all

such patients as to the perinatal effectsof smoking cigarettes and using alcoholand/or any controlled substance.

The law also requires the state depart-ments of health and mental health to de-velop and administer an education pro-gram for all physicians providingobstetrical and gynecological care. Sucha program would teach professionalshow to obtain accurate and completedrug histories from their pregnant pa-tients; advise patients of the effects ofcigarettes. alcohol, and controlled sub-stances on pregnancy and fetal outcome;and use counseling techniques for drugabusing women.

Finally, toe law provides a mechanismby which physicians may report pregnantwomen who are identified as high-risk tothe state so that appropriate services canbe offered. The law specifically providesthat any referral and supporting docu-mentation shall be confidential and shallnot be used in any criminal prosecution.

Similarly, Delaware has enacted a lawthat requires all persons who fall underthe jurisdiction of the Board of MedicalPractice who treat, advise or counselpregnant women to post and give writtenand verbal warnings to their patients re-garding the possible problems, compli-cations and injuries that may result tothemselves or to the fetus from theirconsumption or use of alcohol, cocaine,marijuana, heroin or other narcotics dur-ing pregnancy.

A number of states, including Louisi-ana, New Hampshire. New York, Iowaand Alaska are considering or havepassed bills that would require any es-tablishment licensed to sell liquor to post


warning signs regarding the dangers as-sociated with drinking while pregnant.

No state has yet passed a law whichwould provide for criminal prosecutionon the basis of prenatal substance abuse.Although several states are consideringsuch measures, it appears that the trendis away from consideration of punitivemeasures and towards the enactment ofintervention, prevention and treatmentmeasures and/or, at least, the develop-ment of task forces to further study theissue of what measures the legislatureshould be pursuing.

A number of states are consideringmeasures which would require the impo-sition of increased criminal penalties onan individual convicted of selling or dis-tributing a controlled substance to awoman who is known to be pregnant.

In reviewing the chart, one additionalpoint should be kept in mind. The termsof the various legislatures vary greatly.For twenty-four of the legislatures, the1991 term has ended. Thus. any bills in-troduced in these states during 1991 thatdid not pass are now dead. Six state leg-islatures were in session through the fallof 1991, so that bills that were pendingmay have been voted upon late in theyear. Finally, for twenty legislatures,1991 is the first year of two-year termand any legislation introduced this yearmay be carried forward into the nextyear.

More detailed state-by-state summa-ries of the legislation introduced duringthe 1991 term have been prepared andare available from the National Associa-tion for Prenatal Addiction Research andEducation. 11 East Hubbard Street. Suite200, Chicago, IL 60611. 312/329-2512.

Reprinted by permission from thePerinatal Addiction Research and Educa-tion Update. Copyright ©1991 by theNational Association for Perinatal Ad-diction Research and Education. Wit-ten by Allison B. Marshall, NAPAREGeneral Counsel. the information origi-nally appeared in the September 1991 is-sue of Perinatal Addiction Research andEducation Update.

b 0

State Law and 1991 Legislation`

State

MandatesPrenatalTestingFor Drugs

MandatesPrenatalReportir

MandatesNeonatalTestingFor Drugs

MandatesReporting asChild Abuseor Neglect

MandatesPostnatalReporting forAssessmentor Services

MandatesPriorityAccess toTreatmentfor PregnantWomen

II-1B

Provides forTreatmentProgram orCoordinationof Services

2259 P

PerinatalSubstanceAbuse TaskForce Est.oy StateLegislature

HB 2424 P

CriminalProsecutions

Arizona2California

AB 1349 P AB 99 A

ColoradoHB 1229 - D SB 56 A

ConnecticutSB 956 A

FloridaHB 895 W HB 895 - W HB 895 W

GeorgiaHB 276 - A

HawaiiSB 332 P SB 232 P'

Idaho SB 1168-D SB 1168 - D

Illinois HB 1343 - P HB 1343 P HB 1343 P HB 1343 - P HB 1343 P HB 1647 - P

IndianaIowaKansas

HB 255 P'

KentuckyLouisana

SB 918 - A SB 918 - A HB 1107 - A

MarylandSB 657 D

MassachusettsMichiganMinnesota3

HB 1424 - P HB 5429 - P HB 5427 - P

MissouriNevada

AB 729 - D AB 729 - D AB 729 - D

New JerseyAB 3829 - P

New MexicoSB 817 P

New YorkSB 4635 A

North CarolinaSB 83 - A

OhioSB 82 P SB 82 P

OklahomaHJR 1032 -A

Oregon SB 347 D' SB 347 D SB 347 - D' SB 347 D

PennsylvaniaSB 1197 P 6

Rhode Island S 418 D S 432 D 5 132 DHB 6068 A

South Carolina SB 3858 P5 H 73;934 I, 8 18 aga. pP SB 79 P SB 79 P

South DakotaTexasUtahVirginia

HB 1602 A

WashingtonHB 1410 -P HB 1109 -P

Wisconsin

P Pending: W Withdrawn: D Died; A Approved'States not listed do not have existing or pending legislation.No state has a law that specifically makes it a crime to use a controlled substance during pregnancy Thus. the criminal prosecutions reflected

on this chart have been based on existing criminal laws that were never designed or intended to govern prenatal conduct.

Arizona s law providing for treatment program or coordination of services is designed to give priority allocation to new and existing undedicated

monies for alcohol and substance abuse treatment services for pregnant women.In each of the states. as in Minnesota's existing law. prenatal and neonatal testing for di ugs would be mandated only when the physician has

reason to believe that controlled substances were used during pregnancy.Would create presumption that any women who consumes a controlled substance while pregnant intends any adverse consequences to her

child. including death, for purposes of a crime of murder in the second degree.Would provide for implantation of Norplant in any woman who is able to become pregnant. who has been convicted of K.S A. 65-4127a

-SB 1197 - P- HB 298 - P: HB 299 P -SB 75 P': He 3858 - P. SB 986 P. 4SB 76 P1. HB 3858 - P: SB 986 P


REST OPY AVAILABLE

LEGISLATIVE UPDATE

Current laws applyto "crack children"

Lisa is a first-grader in a metropolitanpublic school. She has been experiencingdifficulty in school since starting kinder-garten. Her foster mother suspects that

part of her problem is attributable toLisa's past experiences with drug addic-tion. Lisa was not the addict: her motherwas. Soon after her birth, Lisa was takenfrom her mother by state agencies whodecided that Lisa's welfare requiredplacement in another family setting.Since that time, Lisa's foster motherthe third since her initial placementwonders whether anything can be doneto ascertain the extent of Lisa's needsand a course of correction so that Lisacan get on with her education.

What should schools do to respond towhat has been predicted to be an explo-sion in the number of school-aged chil-

dren born to drug-addicted mothers? It is

convenient to discuss this qustion withreference to the so-called "crack babies."but the issue is much broader. What arethe legal rights of such students in ourpublic schools? What are the responsi-bilities of schools who suspect such stu-dents are part of their student body?

A pre-existing legal framework isavailable to answer these questions. Fed-

eral and state disability laws provide the

basis for effective school planning to ad-

dress the issue of "crack babies." Theselaws have been written in general termsso as to reach recognized disabilites, aswell as those identified in the future.

Almost all state laws on the subject ofhandicapped students are patterned aftertwo federal laws and are designed to

meet their requirements. The Individualswith Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

establishes the right to a "free appropri-ate public education" for handicappedchildren., States cannot ignore the chal-lenge of responding to the needs of drug-exposed children without violating theobjectives of this law. Another federallaw. Section 504 of the RehabilitationAct of 1973, states that "[n]o otherwisequalified individual with handicaps inthe United States...shall, by reason of hisor her handicap, be excluded from theparticipation in, be denied the benefitsof, or be subjected to discrimination un-der any program or activity receivingFederal financial assistance."'

The Rehabilitation Act states that a"handicapped individual" includessomeone who "is regarded as having" animpairment that "substantially limits oneor more...major life activities." Thisbroad definition clearly takes in theschool-aged child who was born to adrug-addicted mother. States are re-quired to provide special education andrelated services needed to give such stu-dents a chance for equal educationalopportunity.,

Schools must also conduct an indi-vidualized inquiry to determine the spe-cial needs of each student suspected ofhaving some kind of disability. Accord-ingly, special needs due to drug expo-sure would be treated no differently thanlearning disabilities due to other causes.

The objective of laws like these is toprovide an environment that will protecthandicapped individuals from depriva-tion of government benefits and servicesbased on prejudice, stereotypes or un-founded fears. Thus, while the term"crack baby" may be helpful in describ-


ing a phenomenon, it is not a useful termwhen discussing a plan of action for stu-dents with learning disabilities.

Research suggests that some drug-ex-posed babies will not exhibit symptomsthat will alert school officials to the needto take special measures to educatethem. And the behavior of some may notbe sufficiently distinguishable from thatof other students who cause problems inthe classrooms. The Rehabilitation Actwould be of little use if every studentwho had a family history of drug or alco-hol addiction was classified as "handi-capped" in the absence of some indi-vidualized assessment.

Several categories now are in use byeducators to describe the needs of chil-dren with learning disabilities. Theserange from physical or other health im-pairments, specific learning disabilitiesand emotional impairments, to differinglevels of mental retardation. The effectsof drug exposure on a child are oftenmanifested in ways that readily fit intoone of these existing categories.

Schools must develop compensatorymechanisms to neutralize the impact ofstudents with disabilities that are attrib-utable to drug exposure. One suggestionis that each state create a permanent in-teragency task force that will provide acenter for discussion and response to theeducational challenges posed by thesespecial children.

None of the current data available onthe so-called "crack baby" concludesthat all crack-related disorders progressinto learning disabilities that signifi-cantly impact a child's ability to learn ofto mature into an adult who is able tocontribute in society. As with other dis-abilities, it is likely that students withcrack-related impairments will developnovel and creative ways to learn, despite

their disability, if given the opportunity.

Endnote

I. 20 USC I40I

2. 29 USC 794

3 14 CFR Pat 104


LEGAL UPDATE

Support for studentswith special needs

The requirements regarding the educa-tion of children with learning disabili-ties or "special needs" as the term isused in federal and state laws are notdiscretionary. Schools must dischargethese requirements or risk being found inviolation of the law. Recent case law, aswell as a pending decision by the U.S.Supreme Court, will soon clarify thescope of liability for schools that fail torespond to the needs of students withlearning disabilities.

The federal laws expressly provide aprivate right of action for parents andstudents who experie discriminationin public schools due to their handicap.Under the 1978 amendment to the Reha-bilitation Act of 1973 (Section 504), anystudent who is within the age rangeserved by state education law and whohas any mental or physical impairmentthat limits a "major life activity," suchas learning or working, is eligible. Thisright to sue is sufficiently broad to evenabrogate immunity from suit for the fed-eral government for its acts of discrimi-nation against the handicapped

This enforcement mechanism meansthat schools may face civil suits whenthey fail to respond to the special needsof their students. Section 504 makesavailable to students and parents the"remedies, procedures and rights" avail-able under Title VI of the 1964 Civil

Rights Act to persons "aggrieved by anyact or failure to act by any recipient offederal financial assistance or federalprovider of such assistance."

Under law, each eligible student mustbe provided a "free appropriate publiceducation" a set of services specifi-

cally tailored to meet the student'sunique needs and develop his maximumpotential. Present law requires thatschool districts make parents aware oftheir rights under the law as well as theiroptions for special education programsfor their children.

The learning-disabled student's rightto a "free appropriate public education"may be enforced in several ways. Thestudent may sue for an injunction, chal-lenging decisions made by the schooldistrict. The injunctive order may re-quire the school to more effectivelyidentify students with drug-related learn-ing disabilities; make available appropri-ate educational services; and providecomprehensive training for faculty andstaff. The order might even appoint amonitor to evaluate conditions, assureimplementation of the order and reportto the court on a regular basis.

But the student may also sue theschool district and officials for monetarycompensation. The student may sue forthe value of the education denied himbecause of the school district's discrimi-nation. The student may sue for mentalpain and suffering. The jury in such asuit may award punitive damages. Thelaw even encourages these suits by poorparents by awarding attorney fees to theprevailing student and his parents., Fi-nally, the student may sue the school of-ficials in their individual capacity for in-tentional acts of discrimination.

The federal courts have not been inagreement over the use of civil damagesuits as a means of enforcing the Reha-bilitation Act. The Fourth Circuit has re-fused to permit such suits.' The Eighth


Circuit has long encouraged them, rulingthat Section 504 permits recovery of abroad range of compensatory damages toensure the vidication of an injuredindividual's rights.' The U.S. SupremeCourt has agreed to clarify the issue andwill issue an opinion on the matter thisterm.'

Within this controversial discussion,there is surprising agreement over theneed to provide some effective mecha-nisms for encouraging schools to dis-charge their responsibilities toward stu-dents with special needs. Dr. FrederickT. Cioffi, Director of the Office for CivilRights of the U.S. Department of Educa-tion, recently noted that of all the com-plaints that come into the office, thoseconcerning discrimination against dis-abled students are the most disturbing."A handicapped child has the right to re-ceive a free and appropriate public edu-cation in the least restrictive setting pos-sible," Cioffi says. "School districtsmust search out handicapped studentsand let it be known they are there to edu-cate all children."

There also is widespread hope thatschool districts will provide a greaterrange of services for children with spe-cial needs. Some state public specialeducation programs are woefully inad-equate to respond to the needs of modernstudents. Services such as physicaltherapy, occupational therapy, speechtherapy, tutoring, instruction by spe-cially-trained teachers and provisionsthat enable the student to attend regulareducation classes are among the servicesthat should be available to a student witha handicap. The enforcement mecha-nisms of the federal and state law are be-ing restated to address this need.

EndnotesI See the Federal Contracts Report. August 26. 1991 56 FCR

d23. Bureau of National Affairs. Inc . 1991

2 20 CSC 1415.

3 Fatima, 1,»tinar and Starr (nn rr.u,CA 4. No 90.1453. 7/12/91

4 6I,ener v Islsoun. 673 F 24 969 111th 191121

5 Chi wine Franklin 1, Gunn:tit Connr, Pont. Stet al. 90.918


RESOURCE UPDATE

Resources address`epidemic of the '90s'

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"Drugs, Pregnancy and You" is thenewest component of the SubstanceAbase Narcotics Education (SANE) Pro-gram, a drug abuse prevention curicu-lum developed by the Los AngelesCounty Sheriff s Office.

Recognizing that traditional enforcementmethods involving investigation and ar-rest of drug abusers and drug dealersalone would not solve the nation's drugproblem. in 1985 the Los AngelesCounty Sheriff's Office developed theSubstance Abuse Narcotics Education(SANE) program.

The SANE approach is an investmentin the future of our children and youngadults through effective prevention pro-grams that impact our youth's demandfor drugs and alcohol. This programworks with fourth-, fifth- and sixth-gradestudents in 415 elementary schools inLos Angeles County.

Recently, it has become evident thatanother serious drug problem existsbabies exposed to drugs by their moth-ers' substance abuse. Research hasshown that any use of drugs. alcohol ortobacco during pregnancy can have dam-aging effects on babies.

To address this epidemic-reachingproblem. the Sheriff's Office launchedthe first law enforcement-initiated pro-gram of its kind in the country. "Drugs,Pregnancy and You- is designed to in-form high school students about the dan-gers of drug exposure during pregnancy.

Assemblies, usually one hour long, in-clude a compelling video that graphi-call demonstrates the dangers of prena-tal substance abuse, a panel of medical

experts, SANE deputies and a question-and-answer session. In addition to the as-sembly, follow-up training and resourcesare developed at each high school.

The program is specifically designedto attack the myths among young peoplethat the fetus is protected during themother's use of alcohol or drugs. that a"little bit is okay." or that "they knowsomeone who used drugs and the baby isjust fine.- The video presentation andthe medical professionals deliver astrong message of the dangers and con-sequences of exposing unborn infants toharmful substances.

The program was piloted in 1989 andhas been expanded throughout highschools in the Los Angeles CountySheriff's jurisdiction. The Sheriff's De-partment. in conjunction with the LosAngeles County Office of Education andmedical professionals, is developing anew video and a two-lesson curriculumto augment the program. Training forschool health staff and peer counselors isalso planned.

For futher information, contact MargoCarpini, Field Operations Region II.SANE Bureau. 11515 S. Colima Road,Building D-111. Whittier, CA 90604.213/946-7263.

Video presents story ofdrug-exposed children

"Drug Babies," produced by DolphinProductions, directed by Michael Cohen.Copyright © 1990.


"Drug Babies" is a documentary thatdeals with what has been called "the epi-demic of the '90s": Children who havebeen prenatally exposed to drugs. This30-minute videotape presentation dis-cusses the issues surrounding this perva-sive problem as seen by treatment pro-fessionals, doctors, lawyers, socialservice agencies, foster caregivers, edu-cators and mothers.

Designed to inform audiences that in-clude high school students, the generalpublic and health care professionals,"Drag Babies" begins by describing thescope of the problem and continues bytelling the story of the physical and men-tal consequences to the baby of exposureto harmful substances both before andafter birth.

This film also takes a comprehensivelook at the impact this epidemic is hav-ing on the mothers, social service, fostercare, education and treatment programs.The good news is that with preventionand early intervention these children canbe salvaged from a life that would other-wise be fixed in failure.

Studies show that as many as 11 per-cent of all babies currently born in theUnited States are exposed to alcoholand/or drugs while they are still develop-ing in their womb. These affected babiesrepresent, at their worst, a national timebomb. Perhaps the most important ele-ment presented in "Drug Babies" is thefocus on the mother, yesterday's baby.As one professional comments, "Fifteenyears from now, if something useful isn'tdone, the baby we are so concernedabout now will be that next mother."Treatment today for the addicted motherand her child will allow us to save thenext generation of our country's childrenfrom the savage scourge of abuse andaddiction.

"Drug Babies," is available fromParsons Runyon Arts and Entertainment,1216 State Street, Suite 712, Santa Bar-bara. CA 93101, 1-800/888-7817.

Prepared by June Lane Arnette, editor ofSchool Safety.

`4,

PRINCIPALS4LEADERSHIP1/1

Studies of effective schools have shown that strong leadership

is a key ingredient for success. According to a U.S. Departmentof Education publication. "Students respond best to a principalthey can respect. These men and women are firm, fair, consis-

tent and highly visible"Principals of Leadership" recognizes outstanding men and

women in our nation's schools who, through their effectiveleadership, promote safer, more productive and more positivelearning climates on the campuses they administer. Although

the leadership styles of effective principals vary with the

circumstances and situations they face, vision, persuasivenessand commitment to excellence are common threads in the

profiles of the 10 principals honored this year. Running a schoolis a complicated job, especially in today's complex world in

which the need for campus safety, for preparing students toenter a more technologically sophisticated work force, and for

dealing with the psychological and emotional needs of studentsoften compete with schools' traditional academic goals. Since

safe, quality schooling requires student, staff and communityinvolvement. the special programs and talents these principalshave developed take on varied emphases.

For example, programs that integrate school activities withlocal businesses provide lob training and incentives for young

people to stay in school Staff and student recognition pro-grams boost morale and reduce discipline problems. Specialcampus cleanup projects instill a "pride of ownership" among

students for their campuses and reduce vandalism. These

10 education leaders and their achievements are positiveexamples for all leaders of children and adults alike

The 1991 "Principals of Leadership" are (counterclockwisefrom top left): Roger L Berkbuegler, Rolla High School, Rolla,

Missouri: Anita S Bleier. Hereford Elementary School. Hereford,Pennsylvania: Eugene T Domeno. Neil Armstrong ElementarySchool, Diamond Bar. California: Phillip L. Hobbs. Eastmoor

High School, Columbus. Ohio: Mary Ann Joyce, Horizons-on-the-Hudson Magnet School. Newburgh. New York. Janice P

Matistic. Jefferson Elementary School, Summit. New Jersey,

Frank N Mickens. Boys and Girls High School. Brooklyn, New

York: Lee Switzer. Hayes Elementary School, Fridley, Minnesota.

Wayne N. Tanaka. Robison Junior High School, Las Vegas,

Nevaoa. ana Kristine Woizen. Raymona Central Elementary

Schools, Valparaiso, Nebraska.

For more insight from the "Principals of Leadership." writeNational School Safety Center. Pepperdine University. Malibu.

California 90263.

Presented as a public service by tne National Association of

Elementary School Principals. the National Association of

Secondary School Principals and the NATIONALSCNOOL(11SAFEITCENTER

1

Pepperdine University'sNational School Safety CenterMalibu, California 90263

Non-profit Org.U.S. Postage

PAIDPepperdineUniversity

School Safety News ServicePublishing on your behalf to advocate changesthat will positively affect schools nationwide, theSchool Safety News Service is the definitive andmost comprehensive source for school crimeprevention planning available.

Subscribers receive monthly updates on themost critical issues facing our schools. Newsupdates from around the country pro-vide insight and strategies related todrugs, gangs, weapons, discipline,schoolyard bullying and otherconcerns vital to the safety of allschoolchildren. Thought-provoking

commentary from prominent experts complement thehard-news reports.

The School Safety News Service includes threeissues of the School Safety newsjournal, published inthe fall, winter and spring, and six issues of SchoolSafety Update, published in October, November,December, February, March and April. Annualsubscription is $119. ($129 outside the United States)

For more information or to subscribe to the SchoolSafety News Service, write: NSSC, 4165 Thousand

Oaks Blvd., Suite 290, Westlake Village,CA 91362. Please enclose check

with your order.It40,

trr vloteof ILfortyleand drugPabwban andrurtd Cum_School fety

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G cmd bad news ut youth anddelinquency documented by new research

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"

NATIONAL SCHOOL SAFETY CENTER NEWSJOURNAL SPRING 1992

NSSC UPDATE

Reducing drugs,delinquency anddisorder '(


In 1986, the Office of Juvenile Justiceand Delinquency Prevention initiated amassive longitudinal study on the causesand correlates of delinquency. The re-searchers have completed their five-yearstudy and have begun an additional yearof data collection. This issue of SchoolSafety examines some of the pivotalfindings of the initial report.

Youth peer networks have a signifi-cant influence Cl delinquency and ille-gal drug use. This research indicates thatassociation with delinquent peers rein-forces delinquent behavior and that earlysubstance abuse also has a sizeable im-pact on stimulating delinquent behavior.

Developing and evaluating programsthat introduce wide-ranging preventionand intervention strategies are needed.Successful efforts aimed at reducingdrug use may also help to reducedelinquency.

Schools can affect all of the knownrisk factors that lead children and youthto delinquency and drug abuse fam-ily, neighborhoods, peers, gangs.Whether appropriate or not, schools areviewed by families of delinquent anddrug-abusing youth as the primary pro-vider of services and counseling.

Two educational factors are found tobe related to delinquency and drug use:commitment to school and readingachievement. Commitment to school anddelinquency/drug use have a mutuallyreinforcing influence on each other overtime. Students who are not highly com-mitted to school have higher rates of

street crime and delinquency. Schoolperformance, as measured by readingachievement, is also related to delin-quency. Poor reading ability is an indica-tor of potential delinquency.

Schools may be the only institutionscapable of reaching these diverse areasby providing early, comprehensive re-sponses. Model school programs shouldinclude both reading remediation andcurricula that influence positive youthbehavior. The report additionally sug-gests that schools adopt programs andclassroom techniques that lead to suc-cess for all students.

The negative influence of harmfulpeer networks and the positive influenceof good schools are critical findings. Theonset of delinquency and drug abuse be-gins earlier than previously thought. Theuse of drugs at an early age intensifiesthe level of problem behaviors that arerelated to more extensive delinquent anddrug-using careers. Prevention and inter-vention must focus on the early ages.

This new research finds youth alcoholuse to be an important high-risk factor.Alcohol use is a significant problem be-havior with today's youth, requiring ameasure of attention equal to that ofdrug use prevention and interventionprograms.

Tice family remains one of the bestsources of access to troubled youth. Poorfamily attachment was found to be re-lated to both delinquency and drug use.Youth who do not feel a strong emo-tional bond with their parents are morelikely to commit street crimes and usedrugs. Parenting behaviors failure tocommunicate with and monitor children,

School Safety 2 Spring 1992

inconsistent punishment and avoidaiof discipline are all related to delquency and drug use.

In this issue of School Safety, prinresearchers from the three projects tlcontributed to the longitudinal studycuss various elements of their reseal

Welmoet van Kammen and RolfLoeber of the Western Psychiatric Iitute and Clinic, University of Pittsbireport about their work with the Pittburgh Youth Study. They examineddevelopmental sequences of problemhaviors in boys and found an importlink between early substance use anvolvement in anti-social behavior.

Researchers David Huizinga andEsbensen of the Institute of BehavicScience, University of Colorado at Ider, take a look at juvenile arrests iiDenver Youth Study. Their results icate that traditional responses to delquent acts trying to apprehend, aand sanction active serious offenderis not enough. Programs that attemlprevent delinquent behavior are nee

Terrence Thornberry, principal researcher in the Rochester Youth Deopment Study at the State UniversitNew York at Albany, reports that otime, two factors delinquent behand association with delinquent peework together to create a continuingral of delinquency.

In addition, from the Center for Itives in Education, Southwest TexaState University, Betty Cleffman e;ines the correlation between youthstance abuse and school disciplinelems, with a particular emphasis orstudents perceive the connection.

Viewing school safety from a difperspective is George McKenna, stintendent of Inglewood Unified SclDistrict, who has an intriguing solufor violence on school campuses.

Also in this issue, the ten honorethe 1992 Principals of Leadershipnition program are announced andfiled. The program honors some ofnation's best school leaders who tumade school safety and student suctheir top priorities.

7U

NATIONALSCHOOLSAFETYCENTER

Pepperchne Unit. coat, 's National School Safer) Center isa partnership of the 135 Department of Justice and U.S.Department of EciticatIon. NSSC's goal Is to promote siteschools free of drug tratt le and abuse. gangs. %capons.sandalism and hulling. to encourage good discipline.attendance and communn, support: and to help ensure aqualit, education for all children

Ronald 0. Stephens, Execum e DirectorG. Ellis Butterfield, Depots. DirectorJune Lane Arnette, Communications CoordinatorJames E. Campbell. Business ManagerBernard James, Spec ial Counsel

Pepperdine Universit, NSSC Steering Council:Da, id Dan enport. President. Chair: William B Adrian.

chta, Andrea K. Benton. Vice President.Unn chat, Allan's: Nano Slagnusson-Fagan. Dean.Graduate School of Education and N.:Whig,: Ronald F.Phillips. Dean. School 01 Lau. Charles B Runnels.Chancellor: Ronald D Stephens. Executive Director.NSSC. John 0 Watson. Vice President. Strident Affairs:James R. Wilburn. Vice President and Dean. School ofBusiness and Management. and John F Dean.Seater College

School SafetyAs part of the School Safety News Service. School So/enis published by the National School Safer) Center tocommunicate current trends and diet:nye programs inschool sato, 0, educators. la% enforcers. IJA1ers. Judges.go, ernment atilt:pals. business leaders. Journalists and thepublic Annual subs, riptton S I 15 OP Components 01 theSchool Safety Nests Service are published monthlySeptember to Ma,.

Ronald D. Stephens, FACC011% e EditorStuart Greenbaum. Guest EditorJune Lane Vrnette. Editor0. Ellis Butterfield. Sue Ann leader. Associate EditorsAnthony Rodriguez, Jane Grad). Contributing WritersKrIstene Kenney. T)pographer

Articles in this publicatIon ma, be reprinted - ladingindimduall, cop, righted matertal % lb credit to St into!Stitch. NSSC and a cop, of reprints to NSSC. SchoolWeil cm:outages the ,ubinission of original articles.arrnork. book re, lens and letters to the editor and stiltre, to, and consider each item for publication

Correspondence for St hind Stint and the National SchoolSatets Center should be addressed to National SchoolSalem, Center. 4105 Thousand Oaks lil,d.. Suite -250.Westlake Village. CA 51302. telephone 805/373.5577.FAX 5051371.92''

Prepared under Giant No 85-NI1'-CX-003 and landed inthe amount of S9(gt.000 ts, the On ice of Jusende Justiceand Delinquent:, PrecentIon. Office of Justice Programs.

S Department 01 Justice and the U S Depaoment ofEducation Points of 1. re% or opinions in this document arethose tit the author and do not necesuanl, represent theoffico position or policies of the S Department ofJustice. S Department of Education or PepperdineUnicersit,. Neither NSSC our an, of as employees makesan, %arrant,. expressed or Implied. nor assumes an) legalItahtl0 or responsibtlit) En the completeness Ormetulnes, of an, intormation. apparatus. product orprocess described herein Cop) right 1592 NationalSchool Satets Center

About the cos er:who causes onal is lVs.o1110 del nIquent Ne% i asearch

links drug use education. Ner net,torks and wind)rt:14%011,111ps 1.1,10rs ,o111r1hUltirg lit pit eniledelinquen, Art% ork hs ra,koin and Barbana Design

CONTENTS

4 Understanding crimeand delinquencyNSSC Report

7 Drugs, delinquencyand disciplineBy Welnwet Sall Karmen and

Rolf Loebe r

11 'Birds of a feather'By Terre, ce P. Thornberry

15 An arresting viewof justiceBy David Huizinga and

Finn Esbensen

20 Drug use and discipline:a distressing connectionBy Betty G. Cleffinan

24 Excellence is a matterof personal concernBy Anthony Rodriguez and

Sue Ann Meador

28 'Heartware,' nothardwareBy George J. McKenna III


29 National Update

30 Legal Update


33 Resource Update

Resources



19 NSSC Resources


34 Personal and SocialResponsibility Book

35 "Principals of Leadership"

MEMMI' IMINEMBE NATIONAL SCHOOL SAFETY CENTER 1111100.11111.1111.110E

Research from the Office of Juvenile Justice and DelinquencyPrevention explores the causes and correlates of juvenile

delinquency over a five-year period.

Understanding delinquencyand crime

Juvenile delinquency is a persistent andserious social problem that has defiedsociety's best efforts to defeat it. Thetangle of biological, psychological andsocial factors that contribute to the phe-nomenon are only beginning to unravel.

The Office of Juvenile Justice and De-linquency Prevention (OJJDP) of the Of-fice of Justice Programs, U.S. Depart-ment of Justice, has pioneered supportfor longitudinal studies to understandand prevent delinquency.

Because longitudinal studies followsubjects over long periods of their lives.such studies are able to shed importantlight on a number of crucial questions.When and how do parents, peers, teach-ers and society in general affect ayoungster's decision to break the law?What is the effect of these factors at dif-ferent stages in a youngster's delinquentcareer?

Longitudinal studies are important ad-ditions to research on delinquency. Theyhave supplied objective data corroborat-ing widely held beliefs concerning theimportance of the family in preventingdelinquency. The findings show thatpoor parent-child attachment contributesto delinquency.

Longitudinal studies have providedsurprises as well. They reveal thatchronic offenders make up a small pro-portion of the juvenile offender popula-tion (6 percent to 10 percent) yet ac-count for more than half of the arrests.

They also indicate that most adolescentswho both engage in delinquent behaviorand use drugs were delinquent beforethey began to use drugs.

Studies conducted over time have hada significant impact on our understand-ing of delinquency and crime.

OJJDP longitudinal studyIn 1986, OJJDP initiated one of the mostmassive longitudinal investigations ofdelinquency ever conducted the Pro-gram of Research on the Causes andCorrelates of Delinquency. Funding hasalso been provided by the National Insti-tute on Drug Abuse, the National Insti-tute of Mental Health, the National Sci-ence Foundation and the John D. andCatherine T. MacArthur Foundation.

The researchers have completed theirfive-year program of research and havebegun an additional year of data collec-tion. The program comprises threeprojects:

The Denver Youth Survey at the Uni-versity of Colorado at Boulder. Re-searchers have been collecting dataonce a year from a sample of 1,500boys and girls and their parents inhigh-risk neighborhoods. The study isproviding sequential data covering an11-year age span (from ages 7 to 17).The Pittsburgh Youth Study at the Uni-versity of Pittsburgh. Data have beencollected twice a year from a sampleof 1,500 boys who were in grades one,


four and seven at the beginning of thestudy. The sampling was designed tooverrepresent youth at risk of becom-ing seriously delinquent. Initial andfollow-up interviews with each boy,one parent and a teacher ensure cover-age of ages 7 to 16, the period duringwhich delinquency is most likely tobegin.The Rochester Youth DevelopmentStudy at the State University of NewYork at Albany. A total of 1,000 publicschool seventh- and eighth-graders(750 boys and 250 girls) and theircaregivers were interviewed twice ayear, and data were collected fromschools, police and other agencies.This sample also overrepresentsyouths at high risk of becoming delin-quents and drug users.

The research teams at the three sitescollaborated in developing common"core" measurements to determine keyaspects of the subjects' lives. Areas cov-ered by these measurements include:

Delinquent behavior (measured by of-ficial records and self-reports);Self-reported drug use;Characteristics of the community andneighborhood;Family demographic characteristics;Parental attitudes and child-rearingpractices;Subjects' attitudes, school perfor-mance and perception of the conse-

quences of delinquency, andPeers' conventional and delinquentactivities

More than 60,000 interviews with4,000 young people and their primarycaregivers were conducted throughoutthe five years of data collection.

Subject retention rates exceed 90 per-cent at every site, despite the transientnature of the families of the juvenilepopulation in these studies. High reten-tion rates are particularly important inlongitudinal studies, which must gatherconsistent data over a period of severalyears to validate findings.

Study featuresSeveral aspects of the methodology en-hanced the study's ability to provide in-formation that can influence publicpolicy:

To ensure comprehensive findings, theresearchers adopted an interdiscipli-nary approach, studying biological,psychological, social and environmen-tal variables.

The sample size ranges from 1,000 to1,500 subjects across the sites, whichenabled the study to provide statisti-cally significant data.

Multiple cohorts, in grades one to nineat the beginning of the study, allowedthe researchers to view the data eath-ered on the core measures in chrono-logical, developmental sequences.

Researchers gathered data from inter-views with the subjects and from offi-cial police and school records, allow-ing comparison of information ob-tained by diverse methods.

Frequent interviews made it possibleto chart developmental changes andcausal influences more precisely.

Interviews with the youth and a parentprovided perspectives that facilitateunderstanding of study relationships

and outcomes. Parent interviewsyielded information about early devel-opmental stages, parenting practicesand family experiences during thechildhood and adolescent years.

High-risk youth were intentionallyoverrepresented among the youth inthe sample to ensure that serious,chronic offenders were studied. Thiswas done in part by oversamplingmales and youth living in high-crimeneighborhoods.

The study examined factors that pro-tect high-risk youth from becomingdelinquent.

Multiple-site data collection produced


P7)

replication of the findings across sites.Replication enhanced the validity ofthe research and the implications ofthe findings.

Preliminary findingsInitial findings are now available. Asfurther data are processed and analyzed.these findings will be refined to providea more comprehensive picture for eachof the core measures.

There is no single cause of juveniledelinquency or drug use, but a pattern ofcauses that varies with the individualand with age is evident. Accordingly, adiverse set of factors should be takeninto account:

Drug use. Drug use and delinquencyare clearly interrelated the more seri-

NSSC

()us the youth's involvement in delin-quency, the more serious his or her druguse. This finding applied to all age andethnic groups. Over time. it appears thatsubstance abuse stimulates more changesin delinquency than vice versa, espe-cially for preadolescents. The overlap ofdelinquency and drug use was particu-larly striking for girls.

Education. Two measures of schoolperformance were related to delinquencyand drug use: commitment to school andreading achievement. High commitmentto school is associated with lower ratesof delinquency and drug use, while highrates of delinquency and drug use are as-sociated with lower academic commit-ment. Poor reading ability tends to pre-cede delinquency, and delinquentbehavior is subsequently related to re-ductions in reading ability.

Peers. The study examined the effectsof peer influences from two perspectives: association with delinquent. drug-using peers and gang membership. Asso-ciating with delinquent and drug-usingpeers is strongly correlated with delin-quency and drug use. These relationshipsare mutually reinforcing. Membership ina gang is strongly related to delinquencyand drug use. Those who remain ingangs over long periods of time havehigh rates of delinquency. Delinquencyrates are especially high among gangmembers during the period in which theyare active members.

Family. The most seriously delinquentyouth receised the poorest parental su-pervision. Moreover, non-delinquentyouth and their parents were more likelyto demonstrate feelings of attachment.warmth and affection than were delin-quent youth and their parents.

These findings suggest that differentinterventions are needed at differentpoints along the developmental paths to-ward delinquency.

OJJDP's Program of Research on theCauses and Correlates of Delinquencywill further the understanding of thecomplex factors that may cause or con-tribute to delinquency. The collaborativeefforts at the program's three sites in

Longitudinal studies help researchersto separate cause from effectTo understand the dynamics of juve-nile delinquency, one has to be ableto see the effects of certain factorsover time. Longitudinal studies dothis by following the same personover a period of years. tracing the de-velopment of delinquent behaviorstep by step.

Other types of studies can identifyfactors that separate delinquents fromnon-delinquents, but longitudinalstudies have an important advantage.By determining that a specific factoraccompanying delinquent behaviorpreceded that behavior, a longitudinalstudy can separate a cause from itseffects.

Longitudinal studies can determineat what ages specific factors are mostinfluential. For example. family fac-tors may play a more important rolein the delinquency of younger youth.while school factors may he inure sig-nificant for older youth. Longitudinalstudies permit researchers to study theeffect of specific factors at differentstages in a delinquent career.

The following reports comprise ma-jor longitudinal studies of juveniledelinquency:

Elliott. Delbert, David Huizinga, andSuzanne Ageton. Explaining Delin-quency and Drug Use. Beverly Hills:Sage, 1985.

Elliott. Delbert. David Huizinga, andScott Menard. Multiple ProblemYouths: Delinquency. Substance Use,and Mental Health Problems. NewYork: Springer-Verlag. 1989.

Denver. Pittsburgh and Rochester consti-tute the largest shared coordination andmeasurement approach ever achieved indelinquency research, but there is stillmuch to learn.


Glueck, Sheldon. and EleanorGlueck.. Unraveling Juvenile Delin-quency. N.Y. Commonwealth Fund,1950.

Glueck, Sheldon. and EleanorGlueck. Delinquents and Non-Delin-quents in Perspective. Cambridge:Harvard University Press, 1968.

McCord. William. and Joan McCord.Origins of Crime. New York: Colum-bia University Press. 1959.

McCord. Joan. "Some childbearingantecedents of criminal behavior inadult men." Journal of Personality ofSocial Psychology, 1979.

Shannon, Lyle W. Criminal CareerContinuity of Context. New York:Human Sciences Press. 1988.

West, Donald J.. and David P.Farrington. Who Becomes Delinquent.London: Heineman. 1973.

West. Donald J.. and David P.Farrington. rhe Delinquent War nt

Life. London: Heineman, 1977.

Wolfgang, Marvin E.. Robert M.Figlio. and Thorsten Sellin. Delin-quency in a Birth Cohort. Chicago:University of Chicago Press. 1971.

Wolfgang, Marvin E., Terence P.Thornberrv, and Robert NI. Figlio.Front Boy to Man m Delin-quency to Crime. Chica zo: Universityof Chicago Press. 1987

Additional results of these studies willassist practitioners, public officials andlegislators in their efforts to prevent andreduce juvenile delinquency and sub-stance abuse. "01

BY WELMOET VAN ICAMMEN AND ROLF LOEBER

Knowledge about the early phases of substance usein young children is crucial to understanding the corre-lation between later substance use and delinquency.

Drugs, delinquencyand discipline

The "war" on drugs increasingly hasdrawn attention to the early stages of useand abuse of legal and illegal substancesin school-age children. Trends in sub-stance use at an earlier age are particu-larly worrisome and alarming. Early sub-stance use, as opposed to experiment-ation with different substances later inlife, increases the likelihood of persist-ing use and eventually of abuse for bothboys and girls.

The concern about substance use inyoung children initially has centeredaround smoking tobacco and glue sniff-ing. More and more, however, the focushas shifted to include beer or wine, andthe use of marijuana and hard drugs hasbeen documented in elementary school-age youngsters (van Kammen and others1991).

Developmental progressionSubstance abuse usually takes years toemerge, with the use of seemingly lessserious substances generally precedingthe use of more serious forms of illegaldrugs. Substance use that begins in jun-ior high and high school develops ac-cording to an orderly sequence, with

Welmoet B. van Kammer:, Ph.D., is adata administrator and Rolf Locher,Ph.D., the principal investigator on thePittsubrgh }'oath Study, Western Psychi-atric. Institute and Clinic, School ofMedicine, University of Pittsburgh.

wine or beer drinking as the first stage ofuse. Following is a second stage consist-ing of smoking and/or liquor use, whichin turn may be succeeded by marijuanaas the third stage. A final stage includesthe use of hard drugs (Kandel 1975). Notall substance-using youth, of course,progress through all these stages. But al-most invariably, a child who has usedmarijuana or other illegal substances hasattained this behavior after previous useof gateway substances such as alcoholand tobacco.

Advancement to a higher stage of usedoes not mean that the substance usecharacteristic of an earlier stage is dis-carded; instead, it is quite common thatearly substance-use patterns are retainedwhen new ones are added. Thus, young-sters who have started to use marijuanaare much more likely to continue theirprevious behaviors of smoking anddrinking alcohol.

It is not yet certain if the developmen-tal progression in substance use observedin adolescents can also be found in sub-stance-using children (luring the elemen-tary school years. It is unclear whetherthe patterns of use in these younger chil-dren indicate haphazard experimentationor reflect an orderly developmentalsequence.

Studies show that an early age of onsetof substance use (typically prior to age12) is associated with later multiple useof drugs ( Kandel 1982). Again, it is cru-


cial to know more about the early phasesof substance use in young children.

What are the characteristics that maydistinguish those who become abusersfrom those who do not? How early inchildren's lives can such distinctions benoted? How early do children start sal.-piing multiple substances? Can earlypatterns of experimentation with sub-stances predict later frequent and ha-bitual use?

Substance use and delinquencyAnother important issue is the extent towhich substance use is associated withconduct problems and delinquency. Dothe two already co-occur early in thelives of children? And, if so, to what ex-tent does the use of a single substance orthe use of multiple substances relate tothe severity of delinquent acts?

The overlap of early substance usewith conduct problems and delinquentbehavior goes beyond the fact that use ofso-called "legal" substances is illegal forminors. The overlap also does not referto law-breaking behaviors that may fa-cilitate the use of substances, such astheft of alcoholic beverages. Instead,early substance use is closely associatedwith a greater variety of other, seem-ingly unconnected. serious problembehaviors.

We know from studies on older chil-dren that their involvement in any druguse increases the likelihood of subse-

quent conduct problems and delinquentacts. Early problem behavior has beenfound to predict adolescent substanceuse. It is unclear, however, if substanceuse in young children is indicative ofconcurrent conduct problems and delin-quency, or at what age the overlap be-tween the two types of behaviors mani-fests itself. We also do not know if therelationship between these problem be-haviors becomes apparent in school aswell.

The Pittsburgh Youth StudyIn an effort to obtain a clearer picture ofthe developmental sequence of problembehaviors in young children, the Pitts-burgh Youth Study began as a longitudi-nal study to examine the causes and cor-

VAN KAMMEN AND LOEBER

relates of early forms of delinquency andsubstance use. In the spring of 1987 and1988, 2,573 boys enrolled in publicschools in Pittsburgh were randomly se-lected from the first, fourth. and seventhgrade. The boys were interviewed intheir homes. Primary caregivers (usuallytheir mothers) were also asked to partici-pate in separate interviews. Privacy wassafeguarded in such a way that othermembers present in the household couldnot overhear the interviews, and thechild and mother/caregiver were assuredthat the information they provided wasconfidential. All participation wasvoluntary.

The mean ages for the first-. fourth-and seventh-graders were 6.9, 10.2 and13.2 years. respectively. at the time ofthe interviews. The percentages of Afri-can-American boys in the three differentgrades were 54.3 percent, 51.8 percentand 53.5 percent. respectively, while theremaining boys were mostly Caucasian.These percentages were representative ofthe population of students in the first.fourth and seventh grades in the Pitts-burgh Public Schools.

About half of the sample (56.2 per-cent) lived in households where the maincaregiver had been separated, divorced,widowed or never married: 42.3 percentof the boys did not have a father or act-ing father in the home. High school hadnot been completed by 21.2 percent ofthe mothers or acting mothers, while atthe other extreme, 17.2 percent hadearned a college degree. For fathers oracting fathers living with the child, thecorresponding figures were 30.6 percentand 20.9 percent. respectively. The totalcooperation rate of the children and theircaregivers was 84.7 percent.

MeasuresThe questionnaires for the seventh-grad-ers covered 40 different types of anti-social behaviors and 16 kinds of drugs/substances. For instance, the boys wereasked if they had stolen things of differ-ing values: if they had carried a weaponor had attacked somebody with a weap-on; or if they had handled stoleci goods.


Some questions about school behavior,such as cheating on tests, skippingschool and being suspended, were alsocovered.

For the first- and fourth-grade boys,the questionnaire was modified slightlyfrom that used for the seventh-graders,because some of the questions were con-sidered too difficult for the younger chil-dren to understand. In addition, someitems dealt with problem behaviors suchas joy riding and the illegal use of creditcards, which younger children were notvery likely to have experienced. Also,these youngsters were not asked aboutillegal drugs, except for the use of:narijuana.

The questionnaire for the first- andfourth-graders included items such asstealing a bike, stealing from a store andsetting a fire. The younger children werealso asked if they had been sent homefrom school, if they had damaged ortaken things belonging to school and ifthey had hit another student. For allquestions, the boys were first asked ifthey had ever engaged in the behavior; ifthey had. they were then asked how of-ten they had done so in the previous sixmonths.

Prevalence of substance useA consistent increase in the use of eachkind of substance was observed acrossgrades. Between the first and seventhgrades. smoking tobacco and the use ofwine, hard liquor and marijuana in-creased by at least a factor of 10. Theprevalence of beer drinking multipliedby a factor of seven.

Most of the salient increases occurredbetween grades four and seven. For in-stance. smoking increased from 3.4 per-cent in the first grade to 9.3 percent inthe fourth grade and 34.7 percent ingrade seven. A notable 7.8 percent of thefirst-graders had already been drinkingbeer, compared to more than half of thesubjects in the seventh grade.

When the use of substances was re-stricted to those used in the past sixmonths, the pattern of use showed simi-lar increases for the different grades as

were shown for the lifetime rates. For in-stance, smoking during the previous sixmonths was reported in 2.1 percent ofthe first-graders and increased to 4 per-cent in grade four and 13.3 percent ingrade seven.

Use of multiple substancesAs expected, the lifetime use of one sub-stance was frequently associated withuse of one or more other substances.More than half of the boys in the firstand fourth grade who had consumedwine, 53.8 percent and 59 percent re-spectively, had also consumed beer.

Moreover, 23.1 percent of the first-graders and 30.8 percent of the fourth-graders who had consumed wine hadalso smoked cigarettes. Of the fourth-graders who had smoked, almost one-third (30.9 percent) also had been in-volved in drinking beer.

For the seventh-graders, an even moresignificant overlap between the differentforms of Aibstance use was observed.The use of marijuana overwhelminglyindicated the use of other substances,with over 83 percent of the marijuanaapp.- admitting to smoking tobacco and

,n-ning beer or wine. Drinking hardliquor strongly implied the use of beer,wine and I cro, but not necessarily tluse of marijuana. ,st smokers (80.1percent) were also beer drinkers, whileonly half of the beer drink erssmoker:.

Even for the six-month recall per;NI,the associations between the differentsubstances remained significant for all ofthe previously mentioned combinations.For instance, all marijuana users and92.9 percent of the hard liquor users hadalso been drinking beer in the previoussix months. The association betweenmarijuana and hard liquor use remainedthe same.

Thus the large majority of those sev-enth-graders who had consumed devel-opmentally advanced substances (suchas hard liquor or marijuana) also hadused substances that typically occur ear-lier in the developmental sequence (suchas beer, wine or cigarettes).

To what extent is early substance useassociated with problem behavior inschools? To examine this questionclosely, first- and fourth-grade userswere categorized as non-users, single us-ers and multiple users. The seventh-graders were classified as those who hadnever used a substance; those who hadused beer, wine and/or cigarettes; thosewho had used hard liquor; and those whohad used marijuana. Thus, the studentswho had been involved with more ad-vanced substances were separated fromthose who had been involved with lessersubstances.

First- and fourth-gradersBelonging to a more serious group ofsubstance users significantly increasedthe likelihooc I involvement in conductproblems and delinquency. For instance,trespassing was reported by 9 percent ofthe first-graders and 14.4 percent of thefourth-graders who had never experi-mented with any substance. This in-creased to 31.2 percent and 37.6 percent,respectively, for the first- and fourth-graders who had used a single substance,and to 45.8 percent and 67.9 percent, re-spectively, for boys who had already ex-perimented with multiple substances. Asimilar pattern was observed for otherconduct problems and delinquent behav-iors, with the likelihood of involvementin anti-social behavior dramatically in-creasing concurrently with the level ofsubstance use.

The higher the level of substance use,the geater the rate of school-relatedproblem behaviors in first- and fourth-grade boys. Almost 80 percent of thefirst-grade multiple substance users hadalso been involved in a fight with otherstudents, while almost 40 pei ent of thefourth-grade multiple substance users re-ported cheating on a school test.

Also examined was whether increasedinvolvement in delinquent acts was sig-nificantly higher among the differentgroups of substance users. This was doneby separately comparing the non-userswith the single-substance users, and thesingle-substance users with the multipl_.-


substance users.

Unexpected resultsSurprisingly, significant increase in

conduct problems and delinquent cis,such as theft and vandalism at schowere more frequently observed betty:the single-substance-use group and themultiple-substance-use group for first-grade boys than for fourth-grade bo. s.Advancment into more serious substanceuse was related more to conduc'. pru!-)-lems and delinquency for first-graderst;.an for fourth-graders. This conclusionis supported oy findings showing that,prior to adulthood, a developmentalpathwa; of exclusive substance usersemerges that is distinct from the devel-opmental pathway of substance-using

VAN KAMMEN AND LOEBER

youngsters who arc delinquent as well(Loeher 1988).

On the other hand. fourth-grade singlesubstance-users (compared to non-users)engaged in a higher variety of theseproblem behaviors than did single-sub-stance first-grade users. Fourth-gradeboys who had used a single substancehad skipped school, been sent homefrom school for misbehavior and stolenthings from school significantly moreoften than the boys who had never usedany substance.

Some of the significant associationsfor different groups of substance userswith certain problem behaviors, like firesetting, spray painting and skippingschool, were unique for the fourth-grad-ers but not for the first-graders. Theseproblem behaviors were characterized asactivities away from the home, whereadult supervision was unlikely. In con-trast, for the first-grade boys. uniqueassociations of problem behaviors anddifferent groups of substance users pri-marily involved acts at home, such asdamaging family property and hitting asb:ing.

Seventh-gradersThe degree of advancement into the sub-stance use sequence for the seventhgraders was clearly accompanied by in-creased involvement in a larger varietyof more serious conduct problems anddelinquent pots.

Increased invob.em !nt in substanceuse increased their l:!.elihood of school-related problem beht, iiors. Though ag-gressive behavior an vandalism inschool were i.ot charted with their group,data were collected on cheating, skip-ping school and being suspended fromschool. Seventh-graders who had alreadyexperimented v ith marijuana were alsovery likely to have skipped school (73.6percent) and to have been suspendedfrom school (84.9 percent). These be-haviors wcre also frequently reported inthe group of boys who had already re-ported the use of hard liquor (60.6percent).

Comparisons between different groups

of substance users showed that boys whoconsumed liquor were significantly morelikely to report serious delinquent acts,such as joy riding and carrying a weap-on, than boys who had only tried beer,wine and/or smoking. This behavior wasfurther accelerated in those who admit-ted to marijuana use. Almost one-thirdof the boys (30.2 percent) who had usedmarijuana also reported attacking some-one with a weapon, while only 9.1 per-cent of the boys who had used hard li-quor had been involved in such anattack. Three-quarters of the marijuanausers admitted to shoplifting (73.6 per-cent) compared to 47 percent of the li-quor-using group who emitted thesame.

The findings may be interpreted toshow that as boys advanced into the sub-stance-using sequence, they became lessinhibited resulting in delinquent acts.Examples of "disinhibition" are beingloud, being drunk in public places, gangfights, attacks with weapons and hittingto hurt. Unfortunately, the proportion ofsuch delinquent acts that were commit-ted while under the influence of a sub-stance was not studied.

An important linkThis study showed an important link be-tween advancement in substance use andinvolvement in anti-social and delin-quent behavior. The result was repli-cated across the three grade samples. Inparticular, it showed that increased pen-etration into the substance use sequencewas related to higher incidence ofschool-related problem behaviors.

The present results need to he vali-dated by additional data from longitudi-nal studies. Prospective data collected onchildren's substance use and delinquentbehavior will extend knowledge aboutboth the developmental sequences andinteraction of these two types of problembehavior.

A dual focus on substance use and de-linquency may he particularly necessaryfor .revention studies. Substance useany, conduct problems and delinquentbehaviors appear to he more , sely re-


laced during early childhood than in ado-lescence.

It may also help to determine whichearly pattern of use is predictive of latercontinued use, focusing on which par-ticular pattern of substance use is associ-ated with subsequent law violations andmental health problems. Follow-up databeing collected on a subsample of 1,500boys in the Pittsburgh Youth Study willno doubt increase knowledge of these in-teractions over time.

In any event, substance abuse educa-tion for children in elementary schoolmay very well serve a two-fold pur-pose preventing drug and alcohol useand forestalling delinquent behaviors.

ReferencesI. Kandel. D.B. 1975. Stages in adolescent involve-

ment in drug use. Science 190: 912-914.2. Kande!, D.B 1982. Epidemiological and

pst chosocial perspecti \ es on adolescent druguse. Journal 01 Amen, an .4/i thoin Child 21:3/8-47.

3. Locher, R. 1988. The natural histories ofjusenilcconduct problems, substance use and delin-quency: Evidence for developmental progres-sions. In Advances in Clinical PsNchology, ed.B. B. Lahet and A.E. Kazdin. 73-124. Nell York:Plenum.

4. tan Kammen. W.B.. R. Locher. and M.Stouhamer-Locher. 1991. Substance use and itsrelationship to conduct problems and delin-quency in young boys. Journal of youth andAdolescence 20: 399-413.

This paper was published in a more ex-(ensure version in the Journal of Youthand Adolescence ( 1991 ).

The authors are much indebted to thestaff of the Life Histories Studies Pro-grant for their valiant efforts to collectand process the data. David Farringtonprovided valuable comments on an ear-lier draft of the paper.

The study tvas supported by Grant No.86-JN-CX-0009 of the Office of JuvenileJustice and Delinquency Prevention, Of-fice of Justice Programs. U.S. Depart-ment of Justice. Points of view or ()pin-ions in this document are those of theauthors and do not nece. oily representthe official position or policies of theU.S. Department of Justice.

BY TERENCE P. THORNBERRY

Which comes first delinquent behaviar or association with delinquentpeers? Interactional theory research suggests that both are correct and

that these factors mutually influence each other over time.

`Birds of a feather'

Criminologists have demonstrated astrong. relationship between youths hav-ing friends who are delinquent and en-gaging in delinquent behavior them-selves. This oft-researched relationshipcan be seen in two interconnectedobservations.

First, a great deal of delinquent con-duct is committed in the company ofothers. That is, many delinquents com-mit their delinquent acts when they arewith friends. This was observed earlierthis century by researchers Shaw andMcKay (1942) and has been discussedmore recently by Zimring (1981) and byReiss and Farrington (1991). This repre-sents the more direct link between peersand delinquency.

Second, perhaps the strongest corre-late of delinquency is association withpeers. Adolescents who are delinquentare apt to have friends who arc delin-quent; adolescents who are non-delin-quent arc apt to have friends who arenon-delinquent. This has been demon-strated in countless studies, including theworks of Akers et al. and .;ohnson andElliott et al. This is the more generallink between peers and delinquency.

In the effort to understand delinquent

Terence P. Thontherry, Ph.D., is theprincipal investigator on the RochesterYouth Development Study. School ofCriminal Justice. University of Albany,State University of Nov York.

conduct, there appears to he little evi-dence disputing the fact that peers are animportant factor to consider. This is con-firmed by common sense and generalobservations, as well as scientific study.

Theoretical ControversyWhile the empirical observation that de-linquent peers and delinquency go handin hand appears indisputable, the mean-ing of this relationship is not so clear-cut In fact, there is little agreementabout the causal relationship betweenthese variables. Does associating withdelinquent peers cause delinquency ordoes engaging in delinquency cause oneto associate with other delinqu mts?

Some researchers support a peer pres-sure or peer influence model. Accordingto this view, the delinquent peer groupinfluences individual members of thegroup to he delinquent. The group ap-pears to positively reinforce the delin-quency of the individual. The more theserewards increase over time, the greaterthe likelihood that the person will con-tinue being delinquent. In a very realsense, the group corrupts the individual.In this model. associating with delin-quent peers is seen as a major cause ofdelinquency.

This argument is powerful and persua-sive. Everyone has experienced pressurefrom friends to behave in certain ways.so it is reasonable to think that delin-quents are pressured by their delinquent

School Safety 11 Spring 1992CL..

friends to he delinquent. It is so persua-sive that this relationship is generallydiscussed by laypersons and the massmedia in exactly this manner. That is.one of the most common explanationsfor delinquency is "peer pressure.-

As persuasive as this idea is, however.it is not the only way to understand therelationship between having delinquentpeers and being delinquent. Anothermodel is available, one to which re-searchers generally refer as the selectionmodel. In this concept, delinquent be-havior is caused by other factors. includ-ing poor parenting. low self-esteem,poverty and frustration because of schoolfailure. Youths w ho are already delin-quent then select each other as friends.

This too is a powerful and persuasiveargument. Individuals often associatewith people from their workplace.Teachers, for example, often havefriends who arc teachers. However, thesefriends did not infThence the originalchoice to become a teacher. Somethingelse caused the individual to elect a ca-reer as a teacher. A selection processthen increases the odds that teachers w ill"hang an und- together.

The selection model makes the sametype of argument w ith respect to delin-quency. With this view, some externalfactors cause youths to he delinquentfirst: then. the more delinquent they are,the more probable is their association

ith other delinquents.

THORNBERRY

Policy implicationsThus there are two contradictory modelsof the relationship between associatingwith delinquent peers and engaging indelinquency. In the peer influencemodel, associating with delinquent peerscauses delinquency. In the selectionmodel, prior delinquency causes adoles-cents to associate with other delinquents.Does it make a difference which modelis correct?

The implications of this differencewith regard to the formation of effectivepolicy are quite important. The most ef-fective way to change something is toidentify causal factors and alter them.Therefore, the proper identification ofsuch factors is central to the develop-ment of effective intervention.

The peer influence model states thatassociating with delinquent peers is amajor cause of delinquency. It then fol-lows that delinquency intervention pro-grams should be designed to both breakup delinquent peer groups and teachyouth to avoid negative peer influence.Many programs of this type alreadyexist.

On the other hand, the selection modelsays that associating with delinquentpeers is an effect, not a cause, of delin-quency. It then follows that interventionprograms should not be targeted at delin-quent peers the real causes of delin-quency lie elsewhere. Resources targetedat breaking up the peer group are likelyto be ineffective since, after all, thegroup's behavior is only "birds of afeather flocking together."

Thus it does make a difference whichof these two models is correct. An accu-rate understanding of the causes of delin-quency leads directly to policy choicesconcerning proper ways to prevent andtreat delinquency. Because of this,criminological researchers have at-tempted to analyze both models to seewhich is more accurate. To date, how-ever, they have not resolved the issue.

A third modelBecause this issue remains unresolved, athird model that explains the correlLtion

between associating with delinquentpeers and engaging in delinquency hasbeen proposed It is called interactionaltheory (Thornberry 1987) It maintainsthat both socialization and selection pro-cesses take place people interact withone another over time so that they mutu-ally influence each other's behavior.

Associating with delinquent peers in-creases delinquency. Such peer groupsprovide normative support for delin-quency; they define delinquency as ac-ceptable behavior and erode support forconventional values. In addition, thepeer group positively reinforces delin-quent behavior. The more the group re-wards delinquency, the more probable itis that the person will commit delinquentacts. This is similar to the socializationperspective discussed earlier.

But this is only half the story. The sec-ond hypothesis contends that delinquentbehavior also causes association with de-linquent peers. The more a person en-gages in delinquency, the more likely hewill be to select other delinquents for as-sociates. In general, it is implausible thatserious delinquents will associate with"saints" or that "saints" will associatewith serious delinquents. Thus being de-linquent causes one to select other delin-quents as friends, a view similar to theselection perspective discussed earlier.

This seems to be the way youngstersbehave in the real world. They get intotrouble and begin to hang around withthe "wrong" crowd, which gets theminto more trouble. Then, they hangaround with an even tougher crowd, andso on. Conversely. youngsters who areable to stay out of trouble seem to asso-ciate with the "right" crowd, which helpsthem keep out of trouble.

If the interactional theory model is ac-curate, associating with delinquent peersincreases a person's involvement in de-linquency and engaging in delinquencyincreases a person's association with de-linquent peers. This pattern of associa-tions should be supported with empiricalevidence. The issue is examined usingdata from the Rochester Youth Develop-ment Study (RYDS).


Rochester Youth Development StudyRYDS is a longitudinal study of seriousdelinquency and drug use. A sample ofadolescents and their parents are inter-viewed at six-month intervals to betterunderstand the factors associated withthe development of delinquency. Thepresent analysis is based on responsesfrom the first six interviews, conductedwith the adolescents during the springsemester of the seventh or eighth gradethrough the fall semester of the 10th or11th grade.

Sample selectionThe RYDS sample consists of 987 stu-dents who attended the seventh andeighth grades of Rochester publicschools during the 1987-1988 academic

year. To ensure that serious chronic of-fenders were included in the study. thesample overrepresented youth at highrisk for engaging in delinquency.' Thedata has been adjusted or "weighted" torepresent the total seventh- and eighth-grade population.

Once the sample was selected and thestudents and parents provided informedconsent to take part in the study, the firstround of interviews began. The studentinterviews usually took place in a privatesetting in the school. but those who werehard to locate at school were inter\ ewedat home.

By the sixth round of interviews, 90percent of the original sample of stu-dents remained in the panel. The adoles-cents interviewed in round six were

compared with the initial sample of 987in terms of demographic characteristicsand delinquent behavior. The respon-dents who had dropped out of the studywere no different than those who had re-mained in the study.

HypothesesIf the interactional theory is proven ac-curate, two types of relationships shouldexist.

1. Having delinquent friends and en-gaging in delinquent behavior should berelated. That is. the more one associateswith delinquent peers, the more oneshould report being delinquent.

2. Having delinquent frie:.ds at onepoint in time should he associated withcommitting delinquent behavior at alater time; and committing delinquentbehavior at one time should be associ-ated with having delinquent friends later.Over time, these variables should mutu-ally influence each other.

MeasuresTo test the hypotheses of this study, twoconcepts are measured associatingwith delinquent peers and engaging indelinquency. Both are measured with re-sponses from the adolescent interviews.Peer deiinquency is based on questionsthat ask respondents how many of theirfriends committed any of eight delin-quent acts. Response categories rangealong a four-point scale, from "most ofthem" to "none of them." The eight de-linquent behaviors range from skippingschool and damaging property to moreserious crimes of assault and robbery.The eight responses are added togetherto form this scale.

Delinquent behavior is measured byresponses to the self-reported delin-quency items included in the adolescentinterview. At each round, the respon-dents were asked how often they com-mitted each of 32 delinquent acts duringthe past six months.' For this analysis, asubset of "street crimes" was selected,consisting of 13 items that refer to rela-tively serious types of offenses such asburglary, robbery and assault.


I

ResultsThe results of the cross-sectional analy-sis of the relationship between associa-tion with delinquent friends and streetdelinquency show that they are stronglyrelated to each other.

Of respondents who have relativelyfew delinquent friends at year one, 20.8percent report committing at least onestreet crime and 79.2 percent report nostreet crimes. On the other hand, of thoserespondents who have more delinquentfriends at year one, 37.6 percent reporthaving committed street crimes and 62.4percent do not. Thus incidence of streetcrime increases as one moves from hav-ing fewer delinquent friends to havingmore delinquent friends.

The same type of relationship is seenat year two and year three. Indeed, thisassociation seems to become strongerwith time. By year three, 7.1 percent ofthe respondents with fewer delinquentfriends report committing street crimes.but 34.4 percent nearly five times asmany of those with a greater numberof delinquent friends do so.

These findings clearly indicate thatthere is a strong correlation between as-sociation with friends who are delin-quent and committing street crimes.From these cross-sectional analyses,however, it is not possible to determinewhether this relationship is a result ofpeers influencing one another toward de-linquent beehaviors or youngsters select-ing friends who engage in the same typeof activities. Of course, as friends inter-act with one another, both socializationand selection could be occurring.

To examine this issue, it is necessaryto isolate the measures of peer delin-quency and respondent delinquency.First, the impact of early associationwith delinquent peers on subsequent in-dicators of delinquency was examined.Next, the impact of early delinquent be-havior was compared with later peerdelinquency.

It is clear from the data that there is astrong relationship between associatingwith delinquent peers at one point intime and subsequent involvement in

THORNBERRY

street crimes. Associating with fewer de-linquent peers at year one is related torelatively low involvement in streetcrimes at year two (15.7 percent), buthaving more delinquent peers at yearone is associated with higher involve-ment in street crimes at year two (44.0percent).

The same kinds of relationships areseen as one moves from year two to yearthree. If. in year two, one had fewer de-linquent friends, then involvement instreet crimes in year three is ratherlow 9.7 percent; hut, if in year two.one had more delinquent friends. theninvolvement in street crimes at yearthree is higher 23.5 percent.

Both of these findings suggest that as-sociating with delinquent friends leads tohigher involvement in delinquency. Thisis consistent with a socialization effect.

Next, the temporal order of these twovariables is reersed and the relationshipbetween earlier involvement in streetcrimes and the subsequent associationwith delinquent peers is examined. Astrong relationship is again observed.

Youngsters who commit street crimesat an earlier point in time are quite likelyto associate NA ith delinquent peers at sub-sequent times. Of those who did not re-port street crimes at year one, 22.7 per-cent had "more" delinquent friends atyear two; but of those who reportedstreet crimes at year one. 60.1 percenthad "more" delinquent friends at yeartwo. The same pattern was seen fromyear two to year three. Of those who donot report street crimes at year two. 19.9percent have "more" delinquent friendsat year three; of those who do reportstreet crimes at year two. 48.5 percenthad "more" delinquent friends at yearthree.

These results clearly suggest that com-mitting. street crimes at one point in timeis associated with having a greater num-ber of delinquent friends at a later pointin time. This is consistent with a selec-tion effect.

Panel modelsThese results strongly suggest that peer

delinquency and delinquent behavior aremutually or reciprocally interrelated.Neither the socialization nor the selec-tion model was eliminated, suggestingthat both these processes are at work.

Although the preceding analysis sup-poses that these variables are recipro-cally related, the issue cannot be settledby relying on cross-tabular analysis inwhich the relationships are examinedseparately. To address this issue moredirectly, a panel model using the firstfive rounds of data from the RochesterYouth Development Study is estimated.From this, results are provided that si-multaneously estimate the effects ofstreet crimes on peer delinquency and ofpeer delinquency on street crimes.'

Beginning at round one. it can be seenthat associating with delinquent peers in-creases delinquent behavior at round two(positive effect of .17). Then, at roundtwo, delinquent behavior increases thechances of associating with delinquentpeers (positive effect of .36). The pro-cess repeats itself. From round two toround three, associating with delinquentpeers increases delinquency (.1 i ) andthen delinquency increases delinquentpeer associations (.29), and so on.

This panel model indicates that associ-ating with delinquent peers and engagingin delinquency are reciprocally related.Over time, peer associations increase thelikelihood of delinquency. Delinquentbehavior further isolates the personwithin delinquent peer networks, andthat in turn further increases the likeli-hood of delinquent behavior. Neitherfactor can be considered simply as acause of the other over time, eachfactor exerts a similar causal impact onthe other.

Delinquent relationshipsInteractional theory proposes that associ-ating with delinquent friends does causeone to be more delinquent. But being de-linquent also causes one to associatewith more delinquent friends. The em-pirical results presented here arc mostconsistent with this view. These tw ovariables appear to mutually influence


each other over the course of life. Thissuggests the need to take this dynamicinfluence into account as society tries tounderstand the development of delin-quency and prevent it.

EndnotesI. The oversampling is done in tsso v.-ay,. Males are

°vet-sampled because they are more likely to hechronic offenders and to engage in serious delin-quent behavior than are females i75 percent ver-sus 25 percent). in addition. students are selectedproportionately to the resident arrest rates of thecensus tracts in which they lived V. hen the

sample kk as drawn,

2. Prior research has demonstrated that this is a

valid and reliable slay of measuring delinquency3. The analysis reported here is a very simplified

kersion of the type of analysis needed to examinethe issue of reciprocal relationships for thesevariables Store complete analyses are reportedin Krohn et al. 1991 and Thornberry et al. 1992.

ReferencesI Akers. Ronald L.. Markin D. Krohn, Lonn

Lanza-Kaduce and Marcia J. Radoses tell. 1979.-Social learning and des tam behav ior: A specifictest of general theory ."Antert«In .S0( 101(P:twat

Review 44:636-6552 Elliott. Delbert S.. David H. Huinnga and

Suzanne S..Ageton. 1985. EApianinie De/m-ammy and Drue Use. Bev erl) Hills: Sage.

3 Johnson. Richard E 1979. Jut oak Delinquent.and Its Oronns. Cambridge: Uni..ersity of Cam-bridge Press

4 Krohn. Mary in D., David Huizinga and Welmoetan Kammen 1941. "Peer, and delinquency.- In

Urban Delinquency and Substance Abuse, Tech-meal Report submitted to the Office of Juvenile

Justice and Delinquency Prevention.5 Reiss. Albert J. and David P. Farrington. 1991.

-Ads ancing Kum ledge about co-ofl'ending Re-sults from a prospectie longitudinal survey ofLondon males.- Journal (}omit! Lau and

6. SClc,11:.1("1. 181.21:i3161.)-.3M)-cc K. al. 1942. Jul tattle De-

briquettes and I 'rhan Areas. Chicago: Universit;,of Chicago Press.

-7. Thornberry Terence P. 1987 "Toward an inter-actional theory of delinquency.- Crumno/aek15:563-891

8. Thornberty. Terence P . Alan J. Lizotie. Mary inD Krohn. Margaret Farm,. orth and Sung JoonJung. 1992 "Delinquent peers. beliefs. and delin-

quent behavior A longitudinal test of interac-tional theory." Unpublished manuscript. Schoolof Cnimnal Justice. The University at Albany.State University of Nev. York

9 /liming. Franklin k 1981 "Kid,,. groups andsame Sonic implications s t a cell -known se-

v rct ../aurna/ hilt and ( ',nun uh,s;\

tth7-K55

BY DAVID HUIZINGA AND FINN ESBENSEN

Successfully handling chronic offenders is an enormouschallenge. New research examines the effectiveness of current

juvenile justice policies and practices in Denver, Colorado,

An arresting viewof juvenile justice

During the past three decades, differingopinions reg:irdina the value and out-come of the arrest and incarceration ofjuveniles have flourished. One view, thelabeling perspective, focuses on the ef-fect of arrest and juvenile justice pro-cessing on the future behavior of juve-nile offenders. It has been suggested thatfollowing arrest and processing, the wayothers perceive offenders, as well as theway others respond to them, is changed.

As a result of being identified by ar-rest and processing, youths are labeledor tagged as being "bad kids." Becauseof the label, reactions to the youths byparents, teachers, friends and others maychange and alter normal social activities.The end result is a perception of them-selves as "had kids."

The act of official sanctioning thusproduces a label that hinders normal pro-social development. It causes youths toidentify themselves as had, seek outother "had" kids, and become the s crything that they have been called. This,together with learning experiences andnew friends, leads to an escalation of fu-ture illegal behavior (Paternoster andlovanni 19891.

A different perspective concerns not

David Hui:inga. Ph.D.. is the principalinvestigator and Finn Esliensen,a reAMrCh (5 (11 MI the Denser

malt ,Curves, Institute of BehavioralSciences, l'nicersity of Colorado.

only the effect of arrest and official processing on the future behavior of the of-fender but also the effect of the officialsanctioning on the behavior of others. Inthis concept. arrest and processing areconsidered negative experiences thatserve to deter the offender from futureillegal behavior. By way of example, italso inhibits others from engaging in thisbehavior. This deterrence perspectivesuggests that arrest and official process-ing are important not only for reductionof ft"ure illegal behavior. but also forreinforcement of belief in the rules andlaws of society within others (Smith andGartin 1989).

A third view is based upon a doctrineof incapacitation protecting societyfrom future illegal behavior by identify-ing, arresting and incarcerating offendersearly in their criminal career. Based on a"get tough" arrest orientation and incar-cerating offenders so that they are re-moved from society, incapacitationserves to protect others from future vic-timization by these offenders.

A lack of consensusEach of these three viewpoints have ad-vocates and opponents. While each viewmay have merit, and descriptions of par-ticular youths exist to illustrate eachview, the appropriateness of each pointof view can he questioned. Currently.there is a lack of consensus regarding theeffect of arrest on future delinquent he-


havior, though both the labeling and de-terrence perspectives have some researchsupport. The research, to date, however,has not been supportive of the incapaci-tation perspective.

Three reasons for the failure a inca-paccation to have a major impact on ju-venile crime rates are often given. First.as evidenced b) the FBI's UniformCrime Reports and by supporting, atten-dant data, only a fraction of all offendersare arrested or are brought to the formalattention of the police. Thus only a smallsubset of the offending population willever be prevented from offending duringa period of incapacitation.

Second, a continuous and relativelyunlimited supply of individuals is avail-able to replace those who do get caughtand/or incapacitated.

Third, as evidenced b) past research, anumber of offenders are essentially "ex-perimenters- and will not repeat their of-fenses after the first time, without anyform of official intervention. For thisrather substantial group. incapacitationseems an unnecessary, and perhaps. un-productive policy (Wolfgang and others19721.

Federal and state policy differAgainst this background, it is interestingthat federal and state policies appear toreflect adherence to somewhat diffe:-,mtphilosophies. The federal juvenile justicepolicy, as epitomized by the 1974 Juve-

HUIZINGA AND ESBENSEN

nile Justice and Delinquency Prevention(JJDP) Act, has been one of removingstatus offenders from the justice systemand of reducing reliance upon commit-ting youth to training schools.

In contrast, the states have been moreadherent to a deterrence/incapacitationmodel. This has resulted in a drastic in-crease in the number of juveniles con-fined in both public and private deten-tion facilities. The increase is especiallymarked in private facilities; between1975 and 1987, private facilities experi-enced an increase of 122 percent in totaladmissions (Thornberry and others1991). Yet. this increase in juvenile con-finement has not resulted in any com-mensurate decrease in the juvenile crimerate (Schwartz 1989).

The Denver Youth SurveyData from the Denver Youth Survey areused to examine who gets arrested, whatkinds of offenses are committed, and theeffect of arrest on a youth's subsequentdelinquent behavior.

The Denver Youth Survey is a studyof child and youth development spon-sored by the Federal Office of JuvenileJustice and Delinquency Prevention. Itinvolves both boys and girls who were 7.9, 11. 13 and 15 years old at the start ofthe survey in 1987.

To understand their development,these youths and one of each of theirparents have been followed and inter-viewed annually over the past five years.providing information about psychologi-cal and social development, families,friends, school, neighborhoods, as wellas their involvement in pro-social activi-ties, delinquency and drug use. Some in-formation was provided by the youth ofthe study when they were I I, 13. 15 and17 years old. It includes their involve-ment in delinquent behavior and theircontacts with the police and other juve-nile justice agencies. Arrests include ci-tations or delinquent behak ior, since ci-tations are issued as an alternative toarrest for some offenses. (Traffic of-fenses arc excluded from the data givenin this article).

Who gets arrested?To provide a description of the youththat are arrested, the proportions of vari-ous demographic groups arrested in 1989were examined. Males have a higherprobability of being arrested than do fe-males; about 19 percent of the boys and10 percent of the girls were arrested.Given the greater involvement of boys indelinquency more frequently reported.this is not too surprising. Of those ar-rested, about half of both boys and girlsare arrested more than once during theyear.

Differences in arrest rates for differentrace/ethnic groups were not found in theDenver neighborhoods surveyed. Al-though there were some differences,with Caucasians having somewhat lowerarrest rates, statistically these differenceswere not significant. The age of juve-niles. however, appears to be highly re-lated to the probability of arrest. witholder youths having higher arrest rates.Approximately one-fourth of the twooldest cohorts (25 percent of the 17-year -olds and 24 percent of the 15-year-olds) were arrested during 1989. Thiscontrasts with 10 percent of the 13-year-olds and 3 percent of the 11-year-oldsreporting an arrest during the year.

Types of offensesOf additional interest are the types of de-linquent behavior of the youths who arearrested. Are all the arrested youths seri-ous delinquents? What proportion of themore serious offenders arc arrested?What proportion of minor offenders arearrested?

To answer these questions, youthswere categorized on the basis of themost serious type of offense they hadcommitted during the year The catego-ries included ( I ) "street offenders" whoare involved in offenses such as robbery,aggravated assault, auto theft, theft over$100 and gang fights: (2) "other seriousoffenders" who are involved in other of-fenses such as theft between $50-$100,minor assault and damaging property;(3) "minor offenders" who are involvedin generally less serious behaviors and


status offenses; and (4) "non-offenders"who are involved in no offenses or intrivial unrecorded behaviors. In this se-quence of types, street offenders are thegroup most frequently involved in allkinds of delinquency, both serious andminor.

Given the greater involvement ofstreet offenders in delinquency, is agreater proportion of these individualsarrested than that of the other groups?

The answer is yes. During 1989,38 percent of the street offenders werearrested, while 17 percent of the otherserious offenders, 14 percent of the mi-nor offenders, and 4 percent of the non-offenders were arrested. Thus, in the mixof individuals coming to the attentionof the police, roughly two-thirds of thearrestees are street or other seriousoffenders.

It is important to note, however, thatalthough a greater proportion of streetoffenders are arrested and, together withother serious offenders, make up the ma-jority of all arrestees, less than half ofthese active street offenders and aboutone-fifth of the other serious offendersare arrested in a given year. The major-ity are not arrested.

Although a good proportion of streetand other serious offenders arc arrested.they were not necessarily arrested for aserious offense. Because these individu-als are also very frequently involved inminor )ffenses, they have a high prob-ability of being arrested for a less seriousoffense. Examination of the most seriousoffense for which these individuals werearrested indicates that more than half ofthe arrested street. and other serious of-fenders are arrested only for a minor de-linquent act.

Effects of arrest on future behaviorAs noted earlier, there is some debateabout whether arrest deters or increasesfuture delinquent behavior, or whether ithas any effect at all. To examine this is-sue, changes in the level of delinquencyinvolvement from 1988 to 1939 were ex-amined tor h,111 arrested and non-ar-rested individuals. There is little indica-

ti

tion that being arrested has had a deter-rent effect on most of the individualsthat were arrested.

Of the street and other serious offend-ers, 74 percent of the arrested and 61percent of the non-arrested maintainedtheir level of delinquency involvementin the following year. Additionally, mostof the minor offenders and non-delin-querns remained in the same low-leveldelinquency category the following year.However, within this low-level group, agreater percentage of the arrestees in-creased their delinquent behavior tomore serious forms of offenses in thefollowing year than did their counter-parts who were not arrested.

It would be difficult to predict the ef-fect of an arrest on any one particularadolescent, since the effect may not besimilar for individual persons. However,considering the arrestees as a group, itappears that arrest has little overall ef-fect on subsequent delinquent behavior,and may, in fact, have some tendency toincrease the level of involvement in fu-ture delinquency for some youth. Itclearly does not appear to have a deter-rent effect for most of the individualswho are apprehended.

What happens to arrested youth?As described previously, street offendershave a higher probability of being ar-rested than do other offender types. Be-cause only 16 percent of cases werehandled in an informal manner, therewas a high probability that any indi-vidual case would go to court once ar-rested. Of those cases proceeding tocourt, most (82 percent) resulted in afine in addition to some other punitivemeasure, including:

probation (17 percent):restitution (18 percent):community service (34 percent): orcommitment to a juvenile facility (10percent).

(These categorics of disposition are notmutually exclusive, since a case can re-ceive multiple penalties. 1-knee the to-tals add to more than 100 percent.)

An additional question about the kindof treatment received by different typesof offenders is also of interest. Are themore serious street offenders treatedmore severely by the justice system?

The answer appears to be yes. Sepa-rate flow charts for each of the delin-quent types were constructed and resultsindicate that street offenders did receivemore severe treatment by the justice sys-tem than did other offender types. Al-though street offenders comprise only 38percent of youth appearing in court, theyaccount for 55 percent of probationcases, 63 percent of rest (talon cases and67 percent of youth committed to atraining center.

Arrest is relatively commonThese findings suggest that arrest is arelatively common occurrence for youthin the neighborhoods included in theDenver study. For the older youth, al-most half are arrested before they be-come adults, most likely because of aminor offense. Arrest rates increase withage. Males are substantially more likelyto come to the attention of the police,which is consistent with their differentialrate of involvement in delinquency. Nosubstantial racial differences were found.

The more serious street offenders havea higher probability of being arrestedthan do other types of youth, and theseoffenders are also the recipients ofharsher sanctions following a court ap-pearance. The findings also suggest,however, that the majority of street andother serious offenders do not get ar-rested. Among those arrested, the arresthad little effect in deterring most indi-viduals from future delinquent behavior.

As a result, it seems that, in additionto good law enforcement, it is necessaryto pay greater attention to preventionstrategies to successfully reduce involve-ment in delinquent behavior. Althoughsuccessfully handling known offenders isan enormous challenge, simply respond-ing to delinquent acts, trying to appre-hend and sanctioning active serious of-fenders is not enough. Programs thatprevent delinquent behavior are needed


for both the large number of active of-fenders that are not apprehended andthose who have not yet begun their de-linquent career.

The potential importance of preven-tion programs has implications for boththe juvenile justice system and forschools. Schools can play a central rolein preventing delinquency. School is amajor part of the lives of our youth.However, not only are safe, orderly andsecure schools needed, but also manage-ment, teaching and extracurricular prac-tices that lead to success for all chil-dren not just some of them. Someinnovative programs in this directionhave been designed.

In addition, schools often are seen asthe first source of help sought by parentsof troubled youth, and schools could pro-vide an important function in this regard.Under these circumstances, a consider-ation of opportunities for schools and theexpansion of schooi activities in delin-quency prevention strategies and pro-grams seems clearly warranted.

ReferencesI. Paternoster R. and L. lovanni. 1989. The Label-

ing Perspective and Delinquency: An Elabora-tion of the Theory and an Assessment of the Evi-dence. Justice Quarterly 6:360-394.

2. Schwartz, I. 1989. In Justice for Juveniles. Lex-ington MA: Lexington Books.

3. Smith, D.A. and P.R. Gartin. 1989. SpecifyingSpecific Deterrence: The Influence of Arrest onFuture Criminal Actis ity. American Journal ofSociology 54:94-106.

4. Thornberry, T.P., S.E. Tolney, T.J. Flanagan, andP. Glynn. 1991. Children in Custody, /987: AComparison of Public and Private Juvenile,'ustody Facilities. Washington D.C.: U.S. De-partment of Justice.

5. Wolfgang, M.E.. R.M. Giflio, and T. Sellin.1972. Delinquency in a Birth Cohort. Chicago:University of Chicago Press.

Prepared under grants from the Office ofJuvenile Justice and Delinquency Pre-vention, U.S. Department of Justice (86-JN-CX-0006) and the National Instituteof Drug Abuse (ROI-DA-05183). Pointsof view or opinions expressed in this pa-per are those of the authors and do notnecessarily represent the official posi-tions or policies of these agencies.

NSSC Publications

The National School Safety Center (NSSC) serves as a national clearing-house for school safety programs and activities related to campus security.school law. community relations. student discipline and attendance, and theprevention of drug abuse gangs. weapons and bullying in schools.

NSSC's pnmary objective is to focus national attention on the importanceof providing safe and effective schools The following publications have beenproduced to promote this effort

School Safety News Service includes three symposium editions of SchoolSafety. newsjournal of the National School Safety Center. and six issues ofSchool Safety Update. These publications feature the insight of prominentprofessionals on issues related to school safety. including student discipline.security. attendance, dropouts. youth suicide, character education and sub-stance abuse NSSC's News Service reports on effective school safety pro-grams. updates on legal and legislative issues, and reviews new literature onschool safety issues. Contributors include accomplished local practitionersand nationally recognized experts and officials (S119 00 annualsubscription

School Safety Check Book (19901is NSSC's most comprehensive texton crime and violence prevention inschools. The v- is divided intosections on schc, :iimate anddiscipline. school attendance. personalsafety and scnool security. Gearedfor the hands-on practitioner. eachsection includes a review of the problemsand prevention strategies. Usefulcharts. surveys and tables. as well aswrite-ups on a wide variety of modelprograms. are included. Each chapteralso has a comprehensive bibliographyof additional resources 219 pagesiS15.00,

Set Straight on Bullies (19891 examines the myths and realities aboutschoolyard oully.ng Changing attitudes about the seriousness of the problemare stressed It studies the characteristics of buliles and bullying victims And.most importantly. it provides strategies for educators. parents and students tobetter prevent and respond to schoolyard bullying Sample student and adultsurveys are included 89 pages. (510 00)

Child Safety Curriculum Standards11991) helps prevent child victimizationby assisting youth-serving professionals in eaching children how to protectthemselves Sam.)le strategies that can be integrated into existing curricula orused as a starting point fo developing a more extensive curriculum are givenfor both elementary and secondary schools The age - appropriate standardsdeal with the topics of substan_e abuse. teen parenting, JU.c.tic. gangs,weapons bullying runaways. rape. sexually transmitted diseases. childabuse. parental abductions. stranger abductions and latchkey children Eachof the 13 chapters include summaries standards. strategies and additionalresources for each grade level 353 pages (975 00)

Right to Safe Schools: A Newly Recognized Inalienable Right (19831 is adetai'ed. fully annotated explanatioi, of the sa'e schools provision of the Cali-rernia slate cons! and its rn.iny :roptCd1.01,S 20 pages (S3 001

Gangs In Schools: Breaking Up Is Hard to Do(1988) offe-- an introduction to youth gangs,providing the latest information on the varioustypes of gangs including ethnic gangs, stonergroups and satanic cults as well as givingpractical advice on preventing or reducing gangencroachment on schools. Already in its seventhprinting, the book contains valuable suggestionsfrom law enforcers, school principals. prosecu-tors and other experts on gangs. The concludingchapter describes more than 20 school- andcommunity-based programs throughout thecountry that have been successful in combatinggangs. 48 pages. tS5.00)

School Crime and Violence: Victims' Rights (19861 is a current and compre-hensive text on school safety law The book offers a historical overview of vic-tims' rights. describes how it has been dealt with in our laws and courts. andexplains its effect on America's schools. The authors cite legal case historiesand cover current school liability laws. The book explains tort liability. sovereignimmunity. duty-at-large rule. intervening cause doctrine and foreseeable crimi-nal activity. as well as addressing their significance to schools. The concludingchapter includes a -Checklist for Providing Safe Schools." 106 pages. (S15.00)

Educated Public Relations: School Safety 101(1986) offers a quick course in public relations forschool district public relations directors, adminis-trators and others working to achieve safe. effec-tive schools. The book explains the theory of publicrelations and successful methods for integratingpeople and ideas It discusses how public relationsprograms can promote safe schools and qualityeducation and gives 101 specific ideas and strat-egies to achieve this goal. The text includes aspecial chapter by Edward L. Bemays. consideredby many as the father of contemporary publicrelations. which updates his classic work TheEngineering of Consent. 72 pages (S8 00)

EDUCATEDPUBLIC RELATIPHS

ICI

The Need To Know: Juvenile Record Sharing (1989) deals with the confiden-tiality of student records and why teachers. counselors. school administrators,

police. probation officers. prosecutors, the courts and other professionals whowork with juvenile offenders need to know and be able to share information con-tained in juvenile records. When information is shared appropriately, improved

strategies for responding to serious juvenile offenders. and for improving publicsafety. can be developed. The second part of the book reviews the legal stat-

utes of each state, outlining which agencies and individuals are permitted ac-

cess to various juvenile records and how access may be obtained A modeljuvenile records code and sample forms to be used by agencies in facilitating

iuyeniffe record sharing also are included 88 pages. (S12.001

Polls of rievt, Or opo,ons are those of the autho,s and do not neressady ,epresent !no

efitc.ta; pospen or oo',C,eS Of the U S Dapartment of Justice U S Department of Educahon

or Popper? ne Lfr. i ers,ty Prices Sub!ec: to change i,ahout rm.,- not 1,noton


Resource Papers

The National School Safety Center (NSSC) has produced a series of specialreports on a variety of topics related to school safety. Each NSSC ResourcePaper provides a concise but comprehensive overview of the problem. covers anumber of prevention and intervention strategies. and includes a list oforganizations, related publications. arid article reprints on the topic.

Safe Schools Overview offers a review of the contemporary safety issuesfacing today's schools, such as crime and violence, discipline. bullying, drug/alcohol trafficking and abuse, gangs, high dropout rates, and school safetypartnerships.


Corporal Punishment In Schools outlines the arguments for and againstcorporal punishment It also discusses the alternatives to corporal punishmentthat have been developed by schools and psychologists.

Drug Traffic and Abuse in Schools, after summarizing students' attitudes andbeliefs about drugs. covers drug laws and school rules, the legal aspects ofstudent searches and drug testing: and the connection between drug use andtruancy, crime and violence.

Weapons in Schools outlines a number of ways to detect weapons oncampus, including using searches and metal detectors, establishing a securityforce, and eliminating book bags or lockers where weapons can be hidden

Role Models, Sports and Youth covers a number of programs that link youthand sports. including NSSC's urban school safety campaign that usesprofessional athletes as spokesmen. several organizations founded byprofessional athletes to help youth combat drugs: and a number of programsestablished to get young people involved in school or neighborhood teams.

School Bullying and Victimization defines bullying, offers an overview ofpsychological theories about how bullies develop. and covers interventionprograms that have been successful.

School Crisis Prevention and Response identifies principles and practicesthat promote safer campuses. Reviews of serious schools crises fatalshootings, a terrorist bombing, armed intruders and cluster suicide. Interviewswith the principals in charge also are included.

Student and Staff Victimization, after outlining schools' responsibility toprovide a safe educational environment. covers strategies for dealing withvictimization.

Student Searches and the Law examines recent court cases concerningstudent searches, including locker searches, strip searches, searches byprobation officers, drug testing, and searches using metal detectors or arug-sniffing dogs.

Increasing Student Attendance, after outlining the problem and providingsupporting statistics. details strategies to increase attendance by preventing.intervening with and responding to students who become truants or dropouts.

Display Posters"Join a team, not a gang!"(19891 Kevin Mitchell. home run leader with theSan Francisco Giants.

The Fridge says 'bullying is uncool! (1988) William The Fridge"Perry, defensive lineman for the Chicago Bears.

"Facades..."(1987) A set of two, 22-by-17-inch full-color posters producedand distributed to complement a series of drug-free schools TV public serviceannouncements sponsored by NSSC

All resources are prepared under Grant Nc. 854.1U.CX-0003 from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delmouency Prevention. 01-1.ce of Justce Programs U S Department of Justice Points

of view or opinions ;n these documents are tnose of the aJthors and do not necessarily represent the official position or poi cues 0 the U S Department o, Justice. U S Department ofEducation or Pepperdise Un ersity Prices subject to change without prior notification. Charges cove, postage and handling. Check must accompany order.

PublicationsSchool Safety News Service 13119 annuaiiy)Child Safety Curriculum Standards (575)Educated Public Relations (S8)Gangs in Schools (SS)Right to Safe Schools 1331

School Crime and Violence (315)School Discipline Notebook (S51School Safety Check Bock IS151at Straight on Sullies (S10)

The Need to Know (512)

NSSC Order FormResource PapersSafe Schools Overview 154)Alternative Schools for Disruptive Youth 1341

Corporal Punishment in Schools (S41Drug Traffic and Abuso in Schools1541

- Increasing Student Attendance (S41Role Models. Sports and Youth (S41School Bullying and Victimization (S4

- School Cnsis Prevention and Response (34)Student and Staff Victimization (salStudent Searches and the Law (34)Weapons in Schools 1541

Display Posters"Join a team. not a gang,Kevin Mitcheit133)

- The Fndge says 'bullying is uncool'William 'The Fridge' Perry (S3)'Facades (Set of 21 ($3;

Name Title

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C.ty7ip

Mail order to: NSSC, 4165 Thousand Oaks Blvd., Suite 290, Westlake Village, CA 91362


LJO

BY BETTY G. CLEFFMAN

Students themselves report that using drugs adversely affects theirperformance and behavior. A clear no-tolerance policy and active

classroom management can help to curb student drug use.

Drug use and discipline:a distressing connection

School discipline and student drug abusecontinue to he major concerns amongeducators and the general public (Moles1991). Student drug abuse insidiouslyimpairs a school's mission to developthe full potential of all students. Thewidespread use of drugs by school-agedyouth is well documented, but less evi-dent is what to do about student drugabuse and its obvious connection toschool discipline.

An inside look at behaviors associatedwith student drug abuse, coupled with abroad view of classroom and schoolwidediscipline, will provide better under-standing for a response to this problem.Specific suggestions for educators, par-ents, students and the community willfollow. For the sake of definition, "use"and "abuse" are used interchangeably,since illicit use of drugs by youth isabuse. Additionally, use of the term"drugs" includes alcohol, the leadingdrug of choice among school-agedyouth.

An inside lookFrank discussions among drug-using stu-dents abound in the literature. Whilethese do not represent hard research,they do provide stark accounts of both

Betty G. Cleffinan, is director of SpecialEducators Eliminating Drugs (ProjectSEED), Center for Initiatives in Educa-tion.Southwest Texas State University.

student drug practices and student per-ceptions of their effects. The followingsamples are representative of many suchreports on the pervasiveness of studentdrug use and its influence on school per-formance and behavior.

Jackson and Jackson (1983) inter-viewed high school students frommiddle-class, suburban neighborhoods.Asked what percentage of students in herschool smoked marijuana regularly, onestudent reported a staggering 85 to 90

percent: also that almost everyone hadtried it. She added that more than halfthe kids in her school had "tried tripping,maybe 60 percent. But I think only 25 to30 percent still do it regularly." Anotherstated that kids brought bourbon andscotch and all kinds of drugs to school.

Lamenting that a closed campus injunior high forced him to "get high" inthe bathroom, one individual preferredhis high school's open campus. Duringfree periods he could "jump out to theback of the school and everybody wouldbe hack there getting high and drinking."

Regarding schoolwork and behavior,one boy admitted that marijuana ad-versely affected him during school: ".when I wake up, I feel really burned out.I can't study at all when I smoke pot ...if you smoke a joint at two in the after-noon, at five you're still a little drowsy."One girl remembers getting high beforetyping a paper: "I can sit down and do itand it will seem really easy. Then I'll go


back and read it when I'm straight andI'll say. 'how could I have written some-thing like that?" One explained what itwas like trying to hide his "stoned" con-dition: ". .. you just sit there and try tosurvive without blowing it. You justhang in there. That's a waste of classlight there. Sometimes you get too highso you can't even go to class becauseyou're afraid." Many students reportedthat smoking marijuana in school sapstheir ambition, as in one comment: "Youjust doodle or go to sleep."

Beschner, Friedman, and colleagues(1986) interviewed students from aroundthe United States who had similar re-ports on school performance and behav-ior. One student described feeling para-noid in class because he had smoked pot.Another, who reported using "a lot ofacid," explained, "... when I took myexams, I couldn't even see the paper.The teacher came up to me and I startedlaughing at her face."

A young client in counseling con-fessed feelings of paranoia and a desireto withdraw from everyone. He blameddrug use for his declining ability to com-plete schoolwork and for his eventualdropping out of school. He describedschool as just another authority and"drugs just helped me rebel against au-thority" (Utada and Friedman 19861.

All arc aware of the potential link be-tween student drug use and criminal be-havior, with its devastation on the school

and community. Children fitting this pat-tern begin minor delinquency in late el-ementary school, begin drug. use in theirearly teens. and then exhibit increasedand more severe crimes with escalateddrug use (Ksander and Stuck 1986).Their school conduct problems includevandalism, violence and truancy not

to avoid detection of drug use. but to en-gage in criminal activity in the commu-nity. For obvious reasons, these childrenseldom remain in the regular publicschool. They often come from homes oflow socio-economic status (SES) and ac-companying problematic environments.One comprehensive national survey indi-cated that:

Children,from families who receive.food stamps. or +n which the parentsare unemployed. are three times morelikely than most children to teal pres-sure to take drugs, twice as likely tofeel pushed into disobevinq authority,and four times more likely to tealprodded into joining a gang (Coles1990.)

The students in the following ex-amples. which emphasiie influence onschool discipline. fit the SES and behav-ior pattern.

Having been disciplined earlier by theschool principal, one 16-year-old boy.leaving a party at night. spotted theschool and decided to have his revenge.He and a friend broke in and vandalizedthe school. which included symbolic ic-

timization of the principal (Carpenterand others 1988).

Before his placement in a detention fa-cility for criminal behavior. a 13-year-old boy displayed the classic behaviors.In elementary school, he "talked hack toteachers" and "pushed other kids." At12. he began using alcohol and mari-juana. He described himself at school as"always in trouble" and failed seventhgrade twice because he "never went toschool." He described cutting school todrink and engage in criminal activityI Carpenter and others 1988).

Encouraged by his older brothers, an-other student named Gallo (proudly

nicknamed for the wine) began smokingmarijuana at age 4. drinking wine at 8,doing hashish at 9 and hard liquor at 10.On entering middle school, he increasedhis alcohol consumption and reportedgetting "kicked out practically everyday.- He was eventually suspended forstriking the principal, who accused himof drug possession (Carpenter andothers 1988).

interestingly. Gallo did well in an al-ternative school where he could take"cigarette breaks and he independent.-He was also very proud that he wouldaraduate at age 17 and had a clear visionof his future: he would serve in the mili-tary to hone his mechanics skills andeventually buy an automobile repairbusiness and he his own boss. This vi-sion of the future included a "partying"lifestyle in which he could pay his beerand "reefer" bills: "... you gotta paythat.- This ironic allegiance to responsi-bility, along with Gallo's determinationto be independent and succeed. makesone wonder what he might have accom-plished with a supportive environmentabsent of drugs.

Though many students interview ed ad-mitted the damaging effects of drug useon their academic progress. it is worthnoting how quick they were to mention(he few students w ho appeared to be do-ing well in spite of regular drug use.Gallo. himself, believed smoking mari-juana enhanced his progress at the alter-native school.

A look at student perceptions of theirdrug -using behavior gives educators abetter grasp of the dimensions of schooldiscipline i,sues, such as non-participa-tion. inability to concentrate, low qualityschoolwork, truancy, vandalism, vio-lence and dropping out.

In his work with these young people,Bruce Jackson (1983) concluded thathigh numbers of students spend much oftheir time in school stoned or drunk: fewteachers know how to handle this situa-tion and simply ignore it: and studentdrug use presents a daily managementproblem for teachers. Suggestions forhandling these problems will be en-

School Safety 21 Sprung 1992

What canschools do?

1. Teach decision-making skills.negative peer resistance skills,and facts concerning dangersof drugs.

2. Set clear policies, guidelinesand procedures that clarify tostudents, staff and parents thatdrug use will not be tolerated.

3. Train staff to recognize and actupon signs of drug use.

4. Provide opportunities for stu-dents to seek help for them-selves or others.

5. Develop a plan for workingwith parents.

6. Involve the community.

7. Within school board and legalguidelines, enforce penaltiesfor drug use or sale.

8. Establish procedures for work-ing with the police.

9. Work with outside agenciesthat provide therapy and sup-port programs for addictedstudents.

10. Provide group and individualsupport for students returningfrom treatment.

hanced by clarifying the meaning ofschool discipline.

A broad view of disciplineIn addition to being masters of content,classroom teachers are also managers oftime, space and people. Certainly, iftime and space are managed well. man-

CLEFFMAN

aging people is made easier. Too oftendiscipline, as it relates to people man-agement, is narrowly defined as absenceof disruptive behavior. So grateful is theteacher that a particular student is notbeing disruptive that the student is al-lowed to be a non-participant even to

sleep during class. This hands-off ap-proach to non-participating students hasnegative consequences, especially inlight of the drug-related withdrawing be-haviors mentioned earlier. The teachermay be ignoring a student who needshelp. The teacher may tacitly communi-cate that he or she is afraid of the stu-dent. or worse, that the student is notworthy of contributing. The student mayperceive this teacher as someone inwhose presence one can be "stoned"with impunity. And finally, the teacherhas ro standard of participation againstwhich non-participation can be identi-fied as a problem that may requireattention.

Establishing from the outset that allstudents must participate in class and re-

inforcing that expectation communicatesto students that the teacher cares, ex-pects students to learn, believes everystudent has something meaningful tocontribute. and will know if something iswrong.

What can be learned from interviewswith students about schoolwide disci-pline? Time and space managementemerge as targets. Administrators need

to explore questions such as: Do students

have times and unsupervised places theycan go to use drugs during the day? Arestudents frequently tardy to class'? Arestudents visible in halls during classtime? Is the school clean'? Are adminis-trators and other staff members highlyvisible at key times during the day?

In terms of people management, arepersonnel trained ana mobilized to heconcerned and act on these issues'? Dur-ing passing periods in one school, ad-ministrators walk the halls and teacherspost themselves outside their rooms.With this high profile approach, theseeducators deter vandalism and disrup-tion. encourage students to keep hall-

ways free of debris. and engage in posi-tive banter with students as they pass.

This broad view of discipline involvesmore than responding to misbehavior. Itrequires managing time, space, peopleand other resources. Students then havethe best chance to reach full potentialand know that school personnel expectthem to do so.

Policy guidelinesDifferent schools have different prob-lems and must rely on the "peculiarcharacteristics of students, family, teach-ers and community" (Thompson 1990).Schools struggling with gang activity.parents' abusing and supplying drugs tochildren. and students bringing weaponsto school will adapt guidelines differ-ently than will a school without thoseproblems. Common to all schools is theneed for a clear policy to fight studentdrug use.

The need for policy is emphasized byconsidering the r-nsonc why some edu-cators do not respond to suspected stu-dent drug use. School personnel may heafraid that:

they might he wrong;they will not he supported bysupervisors:they might be targets of studentreprisals;they might be sued by parents:parents will deny the problem: ornothing will happen (Ogden andGerminario 19881.

These fears can be combated by thebroadly approved, well-planned team ap-proach to identification, gathering of de-scriptive behavior and progressive de-grees of confrontation all with theaim of helping the student.

Few educators will argue that a linkexists between student drug use andschool discipline problems. What con-cerns many is whether they can make adifference in the face of this widespreadproblem. There is reason for hope.

Schools that have set high expecta-tions fir all students and have imple-mented comprehensive drug use preven-

School Safety 22 SprIng 1992

Lion and intervention programs are re-porting successful results (Pellow 1991).Additionally, a number of national sur-veys, including the well-known highschool survey administered by the Uni-versity of Michigan, are showing down-ward trends in student drug use andhealthier attitudes about its harmful ef-fects (Wallack and Corbett 1990). As in-dicated in these surveys, there is reasonfor optimism but not complacency.

Listening to students; managingschool classrooms effectively; maintain-ing buildings and grounds; and establish-ing a widely supported drug use preven-tion policy with guidelines and pro-cedures can help ensure that drug usereleases its hold on the nation's schoolsand communities.

References1. Beschner, G. "Understanding Teenage Drug

Use." In Teen Drug Use. Ed. G. Beschner andA.S. Friedman. Lexington. MA: LexingtonBooks. 1986.

.2. Carpenter. C.. B. G/assner. B.D. Johnson, andJ. Loughlin. Is'idr Drugs. and Crime. Lexington.MA: Lexington Books. 1988.

3. Coles. R. and L. Genevie. "The Moral Life ofAmerica's School Children." Teacher Magazine(March 1990):43 -49.

4. Jackson. M. and B. Jackson. Doing Drugs. NewYork: St. Martin's. 1983.

5 Ksander. NI. and M.F. Stuck. "Case Studies ofSeriously Involved Youths." In Kids. Drugs.and Crime. (see Carpenter).Moles. O.C. "Student Misconduct and Interven-tion." School Safety i Winter 1991r 4-7Ogden. E.H. and Vito Germinano. The At-RiskStudent: Answers far Educators. Lancaster. PA:Technomic Publishing Company Inc.. 1988

8. R.A. and James L. Jengeleski. "A Surveyof Current Research Studies on Drug EducationPrograms in America." Journal of Drug &tura-non 21 (19911: 203-209.

9. Thompson. Scott D. "Forward." In Student Disci.Mine Strategies: Research and Practice. Ed.O.C. Moles. Albany. NY: State University of New

York Press. 1990.10. Utada. A. and A.S. Friedman. "The Family Scene

When a Teenager Uses Drugs: Case Vignettes andthe Role of Faintly Therapy.- In Teen Drug Use.I see Beschner).

11. Wallack. L. and K. Corbett. "Illicit Ding. To-

bacco. and Alcohol Use Among Youth: Trendsand Promising Approaches in Prevention." InYouth and Drugs: Society's Mued .1,fessaes. EdH. Resnik. Rockville. MD: Office for Substance

Abuse Prevention. 1990.

J

NSSC Documentaries

School Crisis: Under Control

"Imagine a gunman invading yourschool. Or terrorists planting a bomb.Or a classroom of students held hos-tage. These situations may seem un-real even impossible.... Every

) school urban, rural or suburbanis vulnerable. When will a crisis strikeyour school? And will you be ready?"

'ef)These words, spoken by acclaimed

actor Edward James Olmos, combinewith news footage of actual school cri-sis events to provide a commpellingintroduction to 'School Crisis: Under

Control." a 25-minute, award-winning documentary on school crisis preven-tion, preparation. management and resolution sponsored by NSSC. This in-formative videotape is designed to help schools and communities preparefor the unexpected by designing crisis prevention and response plans.These plans will improve the community's ability to overcome such disas-ters and also will help schools avoid potential liability

,iHigh-Risk Yoapthe °Nam'

h

"Feeling good about yourself can't hebought on a street corner It must be builtfrom within. But there are dangers youshould know about. Those pressures wecall 'risk factors....-

This powerful message to America'stroubled children is presented in "High-Risk Youth/At The Crossroads." a 22-minute. award-winning documentary onyouth drug abuse prevention hosted byactor LeVar Burton.

By combining real-life profiles and commentary from nationally renownedauthorities, the documentary provides a compelling case to look beyond currentdrug abuse intervention strategies exemplified by the "Just Say No" campaign.Researchers have identified individual, family, peer. community and school-relatedproblems that make kids more prone to use illegal drugs The focus on positiveresponse suggests that the most promising approach to "high-risk youth" and drugabuse is one of prevention, not simply intervention This important theme isreinforced throughout the fast-paced program

Principals play pivotal roles inkeeping their schools safe andeffective places of learningBut, without the support ofparents, teachers, law enforc-ers and other legal, govern-ment and community re-sources, they can't fulfill theirresponsibility.

A recipient of eight nationaland international awards ofexcellence, this film, "What'sWrong With This Picture?: isdesigned to encourage dia-logue between school princi-pals and their communityresources. It presents thecritical issue of school safety in

a frank and straightforward way, dramatizing real-life incidents of school-related crime and violence, drug abuse and suicide.

Name

Tile

Affiliation

Address

City State

%%ANN ON

WaingWhoever thought bullies wereere alltalk and no action needs to viewthe film "Set Straight on Bullies,"produced to help school adminis-trators educate faculty, parentsand students about the severityof the schoolyard bullying prob-lem. The message is clear: bully-ing hurts everyone.

The 18-minute. Emmy-winning educational film tells the story of a bullyingvictim and how the problem adversely affects his life as well as the lives of thebully, other students, parents and educators

"I'm always scared. I'm scared to come to school...) don't want to be afraidanymore," the bullying victim says. In fact. NSSC based the film on researchindicating one in seven students is either a bully or a victim of bullying


Zip

Mall to: NSSC, 4165 Thousand Oaks Blvd., Ste. 290, Westlake Village. CA 91362

-High-Risk Youth,A1 the Crossroads'(550 VHS) copies 1'365 VHS, copies

"School Crisis Under Control'

'Set Straight on Bullies'(650 VHS) copies (S200 16mm) comes

"What's Wrong With This P,cturerIS40 VHS) copies 15160 16mrn) cow!,

Charges cover postage and handling. and are stitwel to change wahoutprior notthcabon Check must accompany order.


BEST CCPY AVAILABLE

PRINCIPALS OF LEADERSHIP

Positively motivating teachers and students towardexcellence yields dual rewards superior education

and a secure environment,

Excellence is a matterof personal concern

The "Principals of Leadership" recogni-tion program has named tell of this na-tion's school administrators as exem-plary models of professional excellence.

Now in its seventh year, the "Princi-pals of Leadership" program is spon-sored by the National School SafetyCenter (NSSC). the National Associationof Elementary School Principals(NAESP) and the National Associationof Secondary School Principals(NASSP), in cooperation with the U.S.Department of Education.

The recognition program honors someof the best school leaders, people whoinspire their students and staff with theircommitment to a secure and affirmingenvironment. The 10 honorees success-fully head elementary, middle and highschools around the country.

Approximately 120 candidates wereselected from a field that consisted ofprincipals recognized by the U.S.Department of Education, NASSP andNAESP and referrals from NSSCpersonnel based on site visits andnational resource reviews. The candi-dates were then rated in several catego-ries, including school climate. studentenvironment, school/community rela-tions, and school safety policies andprograms.

A passion for people"There's nothing more important to ournation than outstanding schools. We all

benefit when students receive the bestlearning opportunities possible, and thatrequires outstanding school leadership."says Dr. Timothy J. Dyer, executivedirector of NASSP. "These schoolleaders have developed a positive schoolclimate, created high expectations, andbuilt community involvement allessential for excellent education."

"Keeping schools safe and secureplaces for learning isn't automatic,"says Samuel G. Sava, NAESP's execu-tive director. "Now, along with being theinstructional leader, building manager,personnel and finance director, topcounselor, and parent coordinator.school principals have taken on the jobof school safety and crisis managers.These principals surely deserve all therecognition we can give them. They'retruly heroes."

Dr. Ronald D. Stephens, executivedirector of the National School SafetyCenter, adds, "Outstanding principalshave a passion for people. They careabout their students and know them byname. Their personal touch communi-cates their commitment to each child'ssuccess. These leaders inspire all of us tobetter and safer schools."

Great leaders have one foot planted inthe present and the other in the future.They deal with the "here and now" whilelooking ahead, planning for the realitiestheir students will face at later times.

They are able to recognize new ideas


as exciting possibilities. Really goodleaders welcome new ideas, knowingthat from them emerge potential benefitsfor their school community.

Challenging studentsMinds that are being challenged andinspired to stretch the limits of intellec-tual capacity will be less inclined toengage their energy in unproductive ordeviant behavior. Stella Loeb-Munson,one of the 10 "Principals of Leadership,"is an advocate of this theory, the basisfor curricular and disciplinary strategieswhere she is principal at CaledoniaElementary School in East Cleveland,Ohio.

"Schools in which superior educationis ongoing have such demandingrequirements for production and are soinvolved in the educational process thatsafety becomes a by-product of thedemand. Busy minds have no timeallotted for mayhem," she says.

"The creative process is a ceaseless,time-intensive taskmaster and providingquality education is, indeed, a creativeprocess," Loeb-Munson continues."Assessment of needs, identification ofmethods and strategies to meet thoseneeds, both academic and social,implementation and monitoring are tasksthat must be performed by everyoneinvolved in the educational processstudents, teachers, parents andcommunity."

Loeb-Munson has created a uniquesystem of classroom management thatallows the students in the school councilto play an active role in establishinghigh academic standards for themselvesand their peers. In this manner, shefocuses attention away from maladaptivebehavior and onto the academic future.Successful schools are primary compo-nents of a successful communitywhere adult wisdom is assimilated withyouthful creativity.

Planning in advanceWorking with the community to providesafe educational institutions that areconducive to quality education is atheme growing roots throughout ournation's schools. Honoree Myra C.Bryan. principal at Socastee High Schoolin Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, hasorchestrated a safe school plan thatinterfaces law enforcement officers.parents and students. This effort coordi-nates safety procedures for situationsranging from fires, tornadoes and violentintruders on campus to field trips. "Ourhope is that we will rarely need thisplan. However, we are secure in theknowledge that we each know our roles,responsibilities and mutual need for oneanother," Bryan commented.

Bryan is aware of the realities thatface schools in the areas of attendance,truancy and dropout rate; she sees thefate of precariously situated students asthe primary responsibility of the school."If students don't want to be in school,then we are doing something wrong. Ifstudents are 'pushed out' of schoolbecause they are hopelessly doomed tobe unsuccessful, then we are doingsomething wrong," she explained.

She has created a three-dimensionalprogram that deals specifically withstudents who are at risk of school failure.Identifying the students, and settingpriorities to meet individual needs, is thefirst step. Second is a program develop-ment phase, which involves services,support systems, job responsibilities andtraining. The third phase incorporatespeer counseling and teacher mentors

with individual and group counseling.Her goal is that no one will "fall throughthe cracks" for lack of understanding.

Relating to the publicAnother honored principal, DiannaLindsay of New Ther Township HighSchool in Winnetka, Illinois, usesregular period-by-period checks ofattendance to help ensure that unautho-rized persons are spotted immediately."A school must take speedy action toprovide up-to-date, accurate dailyinformation to give adults vital informa-tion about their population of learners,"she states.

Throughout her administrative careershe has maintained an excellent workingrelationship with the press providingan open house for the press andrealtors, supplying regular press releasesand addressing public issues with com-plete candor.

With any position of leadership coniesthe task of listening to criticism anddeciphering constructive or maliciouscontent. "The principal must differenti-ate between constructive criticism anddestructive fault-finding," Lindsay says."Justified criticism either from within oroutside the school is the basis for safety,order, growth and improvement."

Emphasis at New Trier is on academ-ics, with more than 95 percent of theClass of 1991 advancing to differentcolleges and universities. There is acollege and career guidance staff of Live,serving a class of fewer than 700 grad-uates. The comprehensive programprovides each student with large andsmall group meetings, which includeparents. In the junior year, each studentbegins one-on-one sessions with acollege counselor; these meetings alsoinclude parents and continue throughoutthe application and acceptance pro-cesses. This orientation toward the futurekeeps students involved in productiveendeavors, helping to create a positiveschool climate.

Preparing for the futureAt Cass Technical High School in

School Safety 25 Spring 1992.0%

Detroit, Michigan, honoree David Sneadserves as principal where he himselfonce graduated as a student. One of hisinnovations, the Human Resources/Teacher Academy, allows the school toutilize its most precious resource the

student as an investment in its ownacademic future. Most of the curricula atCass were technical, geared to the train-ing of chemists, engineers, scientists andelectricians. When students interested inhuman service professions sought admis-sion, there was no appropriate programin place. The school, Snead commented,"had to scramble to find a curriculum tomeet their needs."

Students interested in becomingteachers, lawyers, social workers orpsychologists now work within the care-fully crafted framework of this Acad-emy, joining the Young Educators'Society as well. They participate ininternship programs with mentors fromtheir chosen professions, just as studentsfrom other curricula do. With the imple-mentation of the Academy, Snead seesthe future at Cass Technical as "verybright."

The mastery learning concept isincorporated into the school's curricu-lum. Snead explains, "I am a firmbeliever that all children can learn mostthings. They just learn at different ratesof speed. Therefore, it is incumbentupon principals to be supportive of staffand students to help them reach theirmaximum potential."

Motivating studentsDorothy Travis Johnson is being honoredfor her work at the Lapham ParkAssessment and Suppo; t Center inMilwaukee, Wisconsin. The studentpopulation is composed of at-risk youth,transferred from other junior and seniorhigh school settings. "Most important forlong term success is the school's abilityto get to the root of the problem and tosolve that problem," she states.

To this end, she has developedmotivational activities specific foryouths with severe behavior problems.For example, students at Lapham Park

PRINCIPALS

have worked together to produce acreative writing project entitled "MamaDon't Allow No Guns Around Here."The publication is dedicated to Johnson,who is described as having the visionand inspiration to help us (the students]become part of the solution in Milwau-kee and no longer a part of the [weap-ons] problem."

The school atmosphere providesappropriate behavior models from a staffexpected to be interested in everystudent. In Johnson's case, such interestextends to the funding needed to provideenrichment programs. When placed on awaiting list for lack of sufficient busi-ness sponsors, her response was asuccinct, "Not quite." This "Principal ofLeadership" found partners for herschool within the small business commu-nity located nearby. According toJohnson, the relationship between thesebusinesses and the school is "a positiveone." Her students benefit from "mentor-ing..., work experiences, field trips.financial contributions" offered by localbusiness people.- In addition, they "par-ticipate in some decision-making regard-ing the school."

The secret of her school's environ-ment is developing confidence in thestudent, for "confidence is the linkbetweet: potential and performance.-Because it is an alternative school. shecontinues. "many students at LaphamPark had prior contact with the media.all negative...I want the public to see thepositive activities our students arc nowengaged in.-

Being visibleDiscipline with dignity instills moral andsocial guidelines without breaking thewill of non-conforming students.Stephen Swymer of General WayneMiddle School in Malvern, Pennsylva-nia, is honored for an approach thatutilizes high visibility. "The first priorityfor me," he says, "is to create andmaintain a safe, positive school climateso that learning can take place."

Visiting every classroom three or fourtimes each day allows Swymer to "mon-

itor the school's climate, interact withstudents and staff, monitor curriculumand be proactive in dealing with themanagement of the school. Beingvisible," he continues "also enables meto continuously empower the missionand purpose of' our school. Throughthe visits, he is able to know each ofthe approximately 645 students by name.

Swymer's nationally recognizeddiscipline program "fosters positivestudent self-esteem." It is based upon thepremise that there are no bad children,just had decisions. He has affirmed that"people in education who think there arebad kids have no business being there.They should get out."

He sets the tone even before schoolbegins, greeting both faculty and stu-dents in front of the building with "It's abeautiful day for school." One sitevisitor, a secondary school evaluator.described Swymer's energetic personalstyle. "1 don't know how long he cankeep up the pace he sets for himself, but,for the sake of education. I hope it is fora eery long time.-

Educating parentsHonoree Francine C. Fernandez, princi-pal of Kailua Elementary School inKailua, Hawaii, also values establishinga working rapport with those in herschool. As "school leader," she declares,her role "is to involve everyone inactively and aggressively creating aneffective school culture that helps to'inoculate' students from crime. vio-lence, substance abuse, gangs and otherunsafe situations."

Her student population is both diverseand transient, and the school is quicklybecoming "the locus of advocacy" for itschildren. Fernandez states that "familiesare...turning to the school for advice anddirection." The Elementary SchoolCenter established at Kailua Elementarypromotes interagency cooperation,enabling families to receive help fromeducators, psychologists, pediatriciansand other parents.

A mediation program teaches reason-ing skills, allowing conflict to he solved


with a clear mind and a sensitive heart.Teachers, parents and students have beentrained in alternative methods forsettling differences. Parents also signcontracts regarding reading aloud totheir children, with vocabulary anddiscussion tips provided by the school.

"We train the parents. We keep themotivation going," she comments.Attendance, tardies and dropouts aredealt with through personal visits toparents. with official documentation.Fernandez maintains that "educatingparents has been the most successfulstrategy for curtailing the problem."

Getting students involved"A never ending journey of learning andexcellence," is the mission statement ofMoriches Elementary School inMoriches, New York, led by "Principalsof Leadership" honoree Paul Casciano.Active involvement for students andfamilies is promoted by the wide di-versity of programs that foster achieve-ment and students' recognition of theconcern of faculty members.

Project Reach Out pairs a student whois at risk with a caring buddy on thestaff. Before- and after-school child care,an after- school homework club andextensive intramural, music, and clubprograms help keep learning as a pri-mary focus, while supporting individualneeds.

"Schools cannot control the family-related problems a child brings into theclassroom each day," Casciano says."However, we can minimize the impactof those problems during the approxi-mately six hours the children spendwith us.-

Civic responsibility is encouragedthrough regular community serviceprojects, including senior citizen lunches(prepared and served four times a year);town recycling; the Adopt-A-Familyprogram: holiday food drives; the St.Jude's Children's Research HospitalMath-A-Thou; and various projects forthe homeless. A zest for living is pro-moted in all areas. "Rhetoric can't re-place hard work,- Casciano states, "self-

.J

interest can't replace commitment."

Thinking criticallyBleyle Junior High School of Cypress-Fairbanks Independent School District inHouston. Texas, is directed by honoreeWilliam Martin. Members of the Bleylecommunity are encouraged by Martin'sfive guiding force for the school day:

We will give good effort;We will be fair with one another:We will take care of one another:We will accept one another'sdifferences: andWe will continuously bank at thehighest levels.

A constant focus on fair-minded,critical thinking is the foundation of hiseducational philosophy. Critical thinkingskills are modeled throughout the school,with all of the curriculum rewritten bythe faculty to incorporate the fifthobjective, to "continuously think at thehighest levels." The school motto is,"We are the United Mind Workers!"

School attendance is consistently oer97 percent. The celebration of peopleand ideas incorporated in the schoolwidecore value system is the key. Accordingto Martin. "If children know they andtheir ideas are valued and, if children

know they will share ownership in theeducational program of the school, theywill come to school daily."

Working as a family"Principals of Leadership" honoree JodyTyson leads Stovall Junior High School,Aldine Independent School District, alsoof Houston, Texas. Half of the ethni-cally diverse student population isidentified as at-risk. This honoreewrites, "Rewarding desirable behaviorseems to be the quickest way to aidingpositive school climate. Multiple andflexible extracurricular activities mustabound to meet needs and energies."Over 100 activities and opportunitiesfunction on the campus, sponsored byfaculty, staff and parents.

Stovall is divided into nine "families,"with 150 students and six to nineteachers working closely throughout theday. Each family has its own name,crest, family colors and, of course, rules.Infractions result in removal of familyprivileges; positive achievements arecauses for family celebration.

The largest student organization isSAD (Students Against Drugs), withbefore-school programs attended by 700to 800 students each month. Commu-nitywide rallies, complete with bands,

Words of wisdom from the principals

drill teams, cheerleaders, celebrities andkids of all ages are a popular attraction.Says Tyson, "Our kids really are proudto be drug free!"

There are few positions in the profes-sional world that carry as much responsi-bility or have as many societal obliga-tions as those of principals. Their"facilities" yield products that do notdepreciate over time what theyproduce is human potential.

As honoree David Snead wrote, "ThePrincipals of Leadership programacknowledges those administrators whohave committed themselves to provide aclean, safe and secure environment and aquality education. By doing so, it isgratifying to know that others recognizethe problems with which educators areconfronted and the critical role thatschool safety plays in the total educa-tional process."

These principals transform personalphilosophies into well-defined goals,harmonizing leadership perspective withthe school community and a commit-ment to the academic, social and emo-tional well-being of each student.

Prepared by Anthony Rodriguez, studentintern, and Sue Ann Meador, associateeditor of School Safety.

The following words of w ,dom come directly from thefiles of this year's Principals of Leadership. When askedto provide advice to others about leadership, educationand safety, they responded:

Contain, train and retain the staff for maximuneffectiveness.Make your school as safe and secure an envi-ronment as you would want to have your ownchildren attend.Have the courage to stop doing things thatdon't work.Love what you do or do something else.

gCS1 COPY AVAILABLE

Catch students doing things right, rather than doingthings wrong.Listen to people with your ears hear them withyour heart.Believe that our profession can shape the work:.future.Define the passion in your heart for education.Be the chief learner and teacher.Encourage risk-taking for the sake of learning.We cannot demand a standard of behavior from ourstudents and fail to exhibit those same standards.Do not take students' basic need of safety for granted or

overlook it until an incident occurs.


Ileartware,' not horrdware

In my 30 years of working in inner-city schools, I have witnessed the de-cline in student behavior that mirrorsthe rise of violence in society theincrease in violent assaults on cam-pus, gang involvement, drug use,sexual activity, suicide and other actsthat, besides bringing great harm tothose involved, leave others in thecommunity feeling helpless, power-less, even more disadvantaged thanbefore.

Typically, the schools' response isgreater reliance on the police andother campus security agencies. I pro-pose that educators give education achance: that we teach values and re-spect for human life through a com-prehensive school-based programcentered on a non-violence curricu-lum at all grade levels. Some of thekey ingredients would be:

Parent involvement. Parent centersat every school should be a budgetedpriority. These centers would bestaffed by parent workers who wouldcoordinate all parent volunteer activi-ties on a daily basis, including super-vision, class visitations, phone calls toother parents and support for teachersand staff. Parents walking the halls ofschools daily are more effective thanpolice officers in creating a nurturingand "student-friendly" atmosphere.

In this regard, parents should be in-formed about, and encouraged to use,laws that allow them to request paidtime off from work to visit schoolduring school hours. A California lawallows parents up to four hours a yearper child. It has been in effect for ayear but most parents are not aware oftheir right and few schools promote it.

Curriculum. A non-violence cur-riculum should be made mandatory inall schools in order to prepare our

children to live in a multiethnic,multicultural and economically disparatesociety. Students can be taught to recog-nize the behaviors that create conflict,hatred, oppression, racism, sexism, pov-erty and other conditions that generateviolent responses. Conflict resolutionshould he taught at all grade levels.

Peer counseling and community ser-vice. This should be mandatory, particu-larly for grades 7-12. Teams of peercounselors trained in conflict resolution,nurturing and peer support activitieswould be as active as athletic teams andas aggressive as middle linebackers inrescuing potential dropouts and other at-risk students. The celebration of savedlives is more significant than any athleticaward banquet. Community-serviceprojects should be required of all studentclubs and athletic teams.

Anti-gang education. Programs in thisaspect of non-violence, particularly de-signed to address the needs of ycsangmen, must be implemented no later thangrade four. Most negative, violent andgang-related activity in our society isinitiated by males, with vulnerable fe-males participating as supporters and ul-timate victims. Male mentors must beactively recruited to serve as role modelsfor male students. The absence of fathersin so many homes is self-generating andwill continue to expand unless an educa-tion approach is adopted that specifi-cally addresses young men. end it mustbe unapologetic in the face of resistancefrom other segments of the communitywho may be unnerved by the concept ofa unified minority male agenda thatseeks salvation through cooperationrather than competition.

As an educator, I call upon my col-leagues to demand an educational solu-tion rather than the reactionary responseof demanding expanded law enforce-

ment. Most education codes do notaddress the concept of love as a re-quired behavior on the part of educa-tors. While demanding increased sala-ries and decision-making authority,we have forgotten our professionaland ethical commitment to behavedifferently and effectively in responseto the needs of disadvantaged chil-dren. We can no longer label the vic-tims as "at-risk youth" and "drop-outs" when we may be guilty ofgenerating a risk-enhancing environ-ment with "push-out" behaviors.

The home-school relationship, too,must be expanded. It can no longer benarrowly defined by a handful of par-ents assisting the school throughPTA, advisory council and boosterclub activities. Ideally. a parentwould be present in every classroomevery day, observing the educationalprocess. We educators must encour-age parents' presence or it will neveroccur. Too often I have heard my col-leagues protest the presence of "toomany" parents; apparently, many ofus feel intimidated by the thought ofthem observing our teaching on adaily basis. Yet excellence noth-ing to fear from observation. Weshould reject our fear and movebravely into the 2Ist century before itis too late. Individual acts of heroismon the part of a few heroic teachersare insufficient to institutionalize ex-cellence; our thrust must be designedto change our collective behavior aseducators. When the community re-sponds to problems of violence withdemands for metal-detectors atschools, or more patrol cars or otherenforcement hardware, we must re-spond with "heartware"; the educa-tional community must respond aseducators.

George J. McKenna 111 is superinten-dent of the Inglewood Unified SchoolDistrict. This editorial first appearedin the Los Angeles Times, March 27,1992.


NATIONAL UPDATE

Success strategiesfor urban schools

Many are working toward meeting theobjectives of Education 2000. The Coun-cil of the Great City Schools, which in-cludes over 70 national organizations,has developed a series of strategies thatsupport these goals.

The Council maintains that meetingthe national educational goals cannot beaccomplished by schools alone; it seeksto share information that will enable allinterested organizations to actively par-ticipate in addressing the complex prob-lems that face urban schools.

In a series of workshops, Councilmembers have formulated additional ob-jectives to help achieve the nationalgoals.

The development of these new objec-tives was not intended to denigrate theAmerican educational system. Rather, itis hoped that these additional, relatedgoals will serve as impetus for furthercreative action regarding the goals ofEducation 2000. By directing attentionto the specific needs of urban schools,the Council hopes to gain a broad baseof public support for its set of year 2000goals for all urban children. Councilgoals and related objectives are:

Goal One: All children will start schoolready to learn.

Provide full developmental programsfor needy children;Adequately staff and equip prekinder-garten programs;Supply child care to children ofstudents;Offer parenting training; andCoordinate affordable communitypreschool services.

Goal Two: Urban schools still increasetheir graduation rates .vo they are atleast comparable to the national aver-age, especially among students of vari-ous racial, disability, language, ethnicand economic backgrounds.

Reduce dropouts by 50 percent by theyear 2000; and by another 50 percentby 2010;Reduce annual in-grade retention ratesby 10 percent;Increase rates of annual graduation:Increase daily attendance rates; andIncrease the number of dropouts whoreturn to school.

Goal Three: Schools and communitieswill demonstrate high expectations forall learners so that urban students willattain a level of achievement that will al-low them to successfully compete withstudents nationally and internationallyin our global community.

Close the gap in levels of academicachievement between urban and sub-urban students;Close the gaps in racial, ethnic, cul-tural and socio-economic academicachievement levels;Improve student test scores across allfour quartiles;Increase numbers of students who takethe SAT or ACT; boost average scoresannually;Equal or exceed norms on nationallystandardized tests;Increase enrollment in core curriculumsubjects; andIncrease student enrollment in ad-vanced science, math and college pre-paratory courses.


.11

Goal Four: Schools will be adequatelystaffed with qualified teachers who areculturally and racially sensitive and whoreflect the racial characteristics of theirstudents.

Increase percentages of minorityteachers;Provide adequate multicultural train-ing and curricula: andIncrease the number of teachers, par-ticularly special area teachers.

Goal Five: Graduates will be fitly pre-pared to enter and successfully completehigher education, experience successfulemployment, and exercise their responsi-bilities as citizens.

Increase the number of graduates whoenter four-year degree programs;Upgrade vocational education;Increase community participation andthe number of eligible registered vot-ers; andIncrease skills for reasoning. criticalthinking, problem solving and deci-sion making.

Goal Six: Schools will be free of drugsand alcohol, students will be well-nour-ished and healthy. and schools will bewell-maintained and safe.

Reduce drug and alcohol use, posses-sion and distribution:Expand Drug-Free School Zones;Provide adequate nutrition and nutri-tion education:Ensure student health:Reduce teen pregnancy rates;Develop students' self-confidence andself-esteem;Provide buildings that are clean, bar-rier-free and well-maintained:Ensure students a safe and supportiveenvironment; andCoordinate interagency services toyouth and families.

When urban students' primary needsof adequate nutrition, physical and emo-tional health and security in their learn-ing environment are attained, they willthen be able to pursue a comprehensiveand meaningful education.

LEGAL UPDATE

Making goodthe wrong done

Perhaps no other issue generates moreattention in safe school discussions thesedays than the subject of liability. Thespecter of liability often serves as thecatalyst for change. This change wouldnot otherwise occur with regard toschool safety if not for the need to com-ply with the injunctive orders that arc is-sued in the ordinary civil case.

Moreover, when damage awards arcmade in liability cases, school officialsoften find themselves paying twicefirst to change the environment to elimi-nate the unsafe conditions and second tocompensate the victim for any injuriessustained.

A wider range of remediesIn the past, man) liability issues wereeasy to avoid through a combination ofgood management and anticipation ofthe type of school safety issues thatfound their way into courts: failure to su-pervise or failure to warn. But today.courts and legislatures are devising newrights to provide victims of unsafeschool environments remedies that in-creasingly include monetary damages.

This year, the Supreme Court of theUnited States approved this trend by expaneling the range of remedies in suitsagainst school districts that receive fed-eral funds. The suit, while limited in itsfacts to sexual harassment, provides aframework for expanding school damageliability by simply following the federaldollar to the doorstep of the school.

In Franklin v. Gwinnett County PublicSchools, the Court held that Title IX ofthe Education Amendment of 1972 per-mits suits for damages against school of-

ficials found liable for sexual harassmentthat occurs on campus.'

In Franklin, a student from NorthGwinnctt High School filed suit allegingthat while attending the high school shewas subject to continual sexual harass-ment by a teacher. The student describedthe abuse as including "sexually orientedconversations in which she was askedabout her sexual experiences with herboyfriend and whether she would con-sider ha% ing sexual intercourse with anolder man.- The student also alleged thatthe teacher also a sports coach at theschool forced sexual relations withher while on campus. In one such inci-dent. the teacher allegedly "interrupted aclass, requested that the teacher excusethe student]. and took her to a private

office.'Other teachers were said to have been

aware of the problem and to have con-fronted the principal. Although Hill de-nied the allegations. he eventually re-signed. Franklin's allegations have nevergone to trial.

She pressed her complaint and filed alawsuit seeking damages from the schooldistrict. However, a federal judge in At-lanta, Georgia, dismissed her suit, rulingthat Title IX did not permit damageawards, and an appeals court upheld thatconclusion.

Pro ions assumptions no longer holdPrior to Franklin most schools would notthink that such a suit would result indamage awards. First. most state publicschools assume that they arc protectedfrom damage awards because of the sov-ereign immunity from such suits that the


state enjoys, including the EleventhAmendment protection from such suitsin federal court.

Second, even when such suits werefiled in state or federal court, the rangeof remedies for liability often includedonly a declaratory judgment or injunc-tive relief in some form.

Further, while criminal charges mighthave been filed against the teacher in-volved, the scope of liability for theschool would he thought limited andeasy to defend. This would he particu-larly true N,Yheci the basis of the suit wasintentional harassment as was thecase in Fran, lin.

However, hi Frank/in, the basis of thesuit was Title IX which provides that:

No person in the United States shall,on the basis of sex, he excluded fromparticipation in, he denied the benefitsof, or be subjected to discriminationunder any education program receiv-ing Federal financial assistance.'

The Supreme Court held that Congressintended to provide a wide ranoe of rem-edies for violations of Title IX. The dif-ficulty in the Franklin case was interpre-tive: Congress neither expresslyprovided that violations to Title IX couldbe enforced in a private lawsuit nor didit mention anything about monetarydamages for such violation.

Dissenting viewsBecause the Court approves of damageawards by inference, the Frank/in caserepresents something of a major case inliability law. As a matter of policy. how-ever, much has been said against such aruling.

The Department of Education has itsown enforcement branch, the Office ofCivil Rights, that investigates allegedviolations and brings action in appropri-ate cases. Often the prospect of losingfederal funding for educational programsis enough to encourage prompt correc-tion of Title IX violations.

Even the United States governmentfiled a brief in the Franklin case urgingthe Court to take these features out of

Title IX enforcement. But the SupremeCourt held that Congress implicitly pro-vided both the right of action and theremedy of monetary damages in Title IXcases.

Using any available remedyRelying on traditional notions of dueprocess, the Court noted that "lwlherelegal rights have been invaded, and afederal statute provides for a generalright to sue for such an invasion, federalcourts may use any available remedy tomake good the wrong done.'

Noting that this principle runs deep inAmerican jurisprudence, the Court con-

ments the Court ruled that it could inferthat damages were appropriate eventhough Congress did not expressly pro-vide for them.

Significantly, the ruling of the Courtin the Franklin case was influenced bythe nature of the suit. "Title IX placedon the Gwinnett County Schools theduty not to discriminate on the basis ofsex We believe the same rule shouldapply when a teacher sexually harassesand abuses a student,- the Courtreasoned.'

Implications to considerAfter Franklin several issues must he

As the prevalence of sexual harassment in societygenerally unfolds, school districts may find them-selves paying particular attention to screening andcriminal record checks at the hiring of teachersand other employees who have supervision overstudents.MO.

eluded that only Congress would limitremedies statutory cases. "Absent cleardirection to the contrary by Congress,the federal courts have the power toaward any appropriate relief in a cogni-zable cause of action brought pursuant toa federal statute...'

In this regard. the Court noted thatwhile the provisions of Title IX were si-lent on this question, Congress had beenmoving purposely toward more expan-sive remedies in statutory civil rightscases. In 1986, Congress passed theCivil Rights Remedies EqualizationAmendment." Its provisions made iteasier to sue states in federal court byeliminating Eleventh Amendment sover-eign immunity for actions based on TitleIX, Title VI, §504 of the RehabilitationAct of 1975 and the Age DiscriminationAct of 1975.

The 1986 law also provided that insuits against the state "remedies [were[available ... to the same extent as suchremedies are available ... in the suitagainst any public or private entity otherthan a state."' In light of these develop-

considered. First is the notion that sexualharassment constitutes discriminationunder Title IX. As the prevalence ofsexual harassment in society generallyunfolds, school districts may find them-selves paying particular attention toscreening and criminal record checks atthe hiring of teachers and other employ-ees who have supervision over students.

Second, the Franklin case clarifies afederal standard for determining whendamages are appropriate for violations offederal statutory lass . Once a right of ac-tion is found, broad remedies are pre-sumed unless Congress expresses other-wise. Therefore. liability lawsuits infederal courts have been reduced to asimple formula: if you find a right of ac-tion, then you can sae for damages.

However, finding a right of action isnot always easy. In a prior Title IX case.Cannon v. University of Chicago, the

court did not find express language byCongress providing for a right of action,but the Court inferred such a right.' Inlight of Franklin. federal courts may bemore reluctant to find a private right of


I 0

action in a federal statute that is silent onthe question of remedies.

Third, the reasoning of the Court inFranklin may influence the developmentof liability standards in the states. Statesare free to apply different rules of inter-pretation to their own statutes. More-over, state law may even prevent statecourts from hearing certain cases. Moststates now permit some exceptions toblanket immunity from damage suits.particularly in damage actions involvingnegligent acts of state employees. AfterFranklin, most victims of state actionwill likely run to the federal courts withtheir claims. States may move to providea state court forum for suits likeFranklin, in order to avoid having to de-fend those claims in federal courts. Forexample, Minnesota just passed a lawthat makes schools liable for damages insexual harassment cases." The Minne-sota law defines sexual harassment asunwelcome sexual advances.

Finally, the result in Franklin adds an

additional tool to the traditional enforce-ment of the Department of Educationover safety issues in schools that receivefederal funds. The role of the Depart-ment of Education in this regard hasbeen less than clear in the past.

The Frank/in decision provides a natu-ral platform for federal emphasis on safeschool issues. This much is clear: whenschools use federal funds to help imple-ment their educational programs thehave quite a lot to consider.

Endnotes

I. Frank/to 1. Go moot Como, Pubhi112 S.Ci. 1025. 117 1, 1.(1.2d 205. 60

4167, 72 Ed. Lim Rep 32 (1992 )2. id. at 112 S.Ci. 1031.3 20 U.S.C. § 1681(a).4. hank/in a) 112 SCI. 1013. citing lull

327 U.S. 678. 684 (19461.

5 Id. at 112 S Ct. 1035.

6. 42 U.S.C. § 200d-7.7. Id.

8. Franklin at 112 S.Ci. 107.9.

11,4 0.

Cannon 1.. of ('hiramo.

(19791.

10. Minn. Situ. Ann. § 363.01 iiVet 19921.

Prepared by Bernard James, specialcounsel /or IVS'SC.

LEGISLATIVE UPDATE

A good idea thatmakes for bad law

States that have serious street gang prob-lems have now started to fight hack.Legislatures at the state and local levelare discussing policies and passing lawsdesigned to take the fun and profit out ofgang activity. These laws created tomake juvenile and adult gang membersaccountable for their activities havelong been advocated by juvenile justicelaw enforcement experts.

Now that several states have begun toaddress the subject. it is worth comment-ing on patterns that are emerging. Thesetrends will be discussed in this columnin upcoming issues of School Safety.

One emerging pattern is the enactmentof laws that mandate parental responsi-bility. There is increasing agreement thatone of the keys to stopping the escala-tion of gang-related violence is to obtainthe cooperation of parents of "hard core"and "at-risk- juveniles. These discus-sions frequently examine the possibilityof making parents responsible as amatter of law -- for the violent acts oftheir children.

Parental responsibility is really not anew concept: many states have existinglam s that make parents and guardians li-able for the acts of their children whodestroy public property.

Some states routinely enforce lawsthat fine parents for their truant children.Other laws make parents liable for fail-ure to secure guns and rifles that end upin the hands of children,' or for failing toadequately support their children whoend up as wards of the state. Wisconsineven has a law that makes parents liablefor the support of their unmarried chil-

dren when they have babies out of wed-lock.' But the expansion of the conceptas an additional tool in the war againststreet gang activity is focused on thecriminality of parental unfitness.

California, Florida, Kentucky andNew York have led the way by enactinglegislation on criminal parental responsi-bility. Other states and cities have foundthe policy attractive and arc tinkeringwith different versions of such a law.The city of Norwalk, California, nowfines parents of delinquent children up to$2500 and Grand Rapids, Michigan,prosecutes parents for the crimes of theirchildren.

Parental responsibility policies repre-sent a radical departure from settledcommon law. Under the common law,the parent-child relationship was not abasis for vicarious liability. At commonlaw, parental liability for a child's tortwas imposed only when there was anagency relationship or when the parentwas himself or herself guilty in sonicway in the commission of the crime.This notion led to the laws that exist inmost states which make parents respon-sible for "contributing to the delin-quency of a minor.-

But parental responsibility as a matterof criminal law is serious business. It in-fers, among other things, that parentshad criminal intent as a motivating fac-tor in their failure to play a proper rolein raising a child. This concept repre-sents a serious flaw in such laws and ex-plains why parental responsibility lawshave not become more popular.

First, proving criminal intent is very


difficult as a practical matter. Inferringthis intent runs into constitutional prob-lems. Parental responsibility over theraising of a child is deemed a constitu-tional right, implicit in the concept ofliberty (or privacy, as most modernscholars refer to it) in the Bill of Rights.State laws that regulate activity in thisrealm must he carefully formulated toavoid invalidation on this ground.

Second, in order for the parental re-sponsibility law to evade this flaw, itmust he carefully drafted and expertlyenforced to avoid intruding too muchinto the fundamental rights of parents.This may be too great a burden for moststate policymakers to overcome.

Phrases such as "reasonable care, su-pervision and control" do not have an es-tablished meaning that would permit fairnotice to parents of what constitutes vio-lation of parental responsibility laws,The standards of notice in all states re-quire that the terms of a law be preciseenough that ordinary citizens (not law-yers) are not forced to guess what activ-ity violates the law. Standards of noticealso prevent law enforcement officialsfrom arbitrarily enforcing the law.

For example, the California courts re-cently nullified one of their laws. InGary Williams v. Ira Reiner,' the courtinvalidated the law because it "lacks thenecessary specificity to provide eitherfair notice to parents or a standard ofenforcement."

In short, parental responsibility mayrepresent a good idea that makes for abad law. The difficulty of being suffi-ciently precise may result in a law that isvague and unevenly enforced, impingingon the fundamental right of privacy.

EndnotesI. Fla. Stat. Ann. §§790. I 73-790.174 (West 1976 &

Supp. 1990).2. Wis. Stat. Ann. §49.90 (West 1987 & Supp.

19901.

3 . I Cal. app. 4d I I I I: 2 Cal. Reporter 2d 472(1992). The state has tiled an appeal on thematter before the California Supreme Court.


RESOURCE UPDATE

A new approach toviolence prevention

.'.1! *41,.tilki

14.1..11 11, 1,14k-. } 5 ,e

" cl IV.

Deadly Consequences, by DeborahProthrow-Stith, M.D., Harper Collins,1991.

Too much violence exists in our lives.We all abhor it, yet we do little toactively prevent it. The consequences ofviolence affect the victim and theperpetrator. but all of us suffer from itsrepercussions.

Unfortunately, the criminal justicesystem is reactive, Little happens until acrime is committed and then it is toolate for prevention strategies. It isimportant to determine ways to inter-vene before blame becomes necessary.Deadly Consequences examines the

importance of both preventing violencethrough multidisciplinary approachesand of providing young people withalternatives to such behavior.

Deborah Prothrow-Stith, M.D. iscurrently Assistant Dean at the HarvardSchool of Public Health. She served fortwo years as the Massachusetts Com-missioner of Public Health, and hasworked for Community Care SystemsInc., a Boston-based psychiatric firm,Dr. Prothrow-Stith is known for herwork in adolescent health and in pre-venting youth violence.

As a medical practitioner, the authorhas seen more than her share of theconsequences of violence in theemergency room. She believes that thiscarnage demands a public healthapproach; intervention and preventionof violent acts should be responsibilitiesof medical professionals, not unliketheir attention to attempted suicide andchild abuse.

A public health approach alone,however, cannot change the course ofviolence in this country. She contendsthat collaborative efforts from agenciesrepresenting criminal justice. public andmental health, social services andeducation arc necessary.

A multidisciplinary approach toviolence is the most effective cure forthis burgeoning epidemic. according toProthrow-Stith. Help is possible byaltering attitudes and behavior, not onlyof those committing the crimes, but alsoof those professionals dealing with thedilemma. A change of perspective,though, requires knowledge of thecauses of violence.

Poverty leads to violencePoverty, rather than race. makes victimsvulnerable to violence. Those awash inpoverty, Prothrow-Stith writes, strikeout at the nearest target. usually anotherperson or group of people just likethemselves.

Research indicates that regardless ofrace or class, when large numbers ofmen are out of work and large numbersof families are headed by women, therate of crime and violence in thatcommunity rises iharply. Althoughanger is a normal human emotion, free-floating or non-specific angeraccompanied by feelings of frustrationand helplessness will often result inhopelessness.

Additionally, the negative impact ofthe media, including television andmovies, is more profound than par-enting practices in influencing anti-social young adults. Young males


f0/

growing up in poverty and in homesthat lack non-violent male role modelsarc the most vulnerable to television'smessage that heroes use violence toserve their purposes.

Consequently, the lives of childrenwho are poor are shaped by an environ-ment saturated with violence and fear.

Those who witness and are thevictims of violence often become itsperpetrators. That which separatesarmed teenagers in inner-city neighbor-hoods from their more affluent peers inthe suburbs are the choices that areavailable. When there is no realopportunity, adolescents by defaultchoose what makes them feel better,what the media portrays as glamorousand exciting, and what counteracts thegrinding boredom of poverty.

Contrary to pop,_:ar beliefs, Dr.Prothrow-Stith contends that gang anddrug violence are manifestations, notcauses, of our nation's terrible problemwith violence. As reported in the book.psychologist Mohammed Seedat blamesescalating gang violence in Boston onthe rage of children whose basic needfor protection and safety a need that

every child possesses has not been

met.Gangs satisfy a whole range of'

normal adolescent needs, such as peerapproval and acceptance. Violentgangs, however. are not normal. Ac-cording to the author, violent gangsarise when young people face a futureof limited opportunity and despair.Unfortunately, fighting and violencepresent these children with an alterna-tive to the boredom and the feelings ofdepression that are endemic in thepoorest neighborhoods.

More than just a drug problemThe drug problem decimating the inner-city neighborhoods is more than just adrug problem. It is also a job problem, ahousing problem, a family problem, aproblem of hope and hopelessness.Prothrow-Stith believes that a societywhich thwarts the desire of so manyyoung people to have a place in its

legitimate economic life is tragically inneed of reform.

Violence also surrounds the sale anddistribution of drugs. However, thisviolence does not originate with theinability to handle anger and otheremotions. Instead, it is calculated andpremeditated. Unfortunately, the federalgovernment pours billions of dollarsinto the prohibition of drugs but fewresources are allocated to preventionand treatment of drug use.

Education, or the lack of it, has aprofound influence on young lives.Social scientists and educators haveproven that children tend to performacademically as they are expected toperform. For a variety of reasons.teachers often harbor negative expecta-tions and reinforcement for blackstudents, quickly desiroying thesestudents' enthusiam and performance inschool.

Dr. James Corner, professor of childpsychiatry, believes that when kidsrealize that they are not part of theeconomic and social mainstream, theystop trying to bond with school andwith teachers. They loose faith in theschool's power to educate them, in theirown power to become educated, and inthe notion that any of it matters.

As a result, by the time many of thesestudents reach high school, they cannotread or write. Many drop out, whileothers join gangs and perpetuate theviolence in their communities. Schoolscan prevent violence by ensuring thatall children are well-served academi-mlly and by teaching children tomanage conflict and anger.

Learning prevents violenceThrough her research, Prothrow-Stithobserved that learning itself is a form ofviolence prevention. She also observedthat:

Cognitive skills learned throughstudying help children reason theirway through stressful and dangeroussituations.Well-developed language skills helpyoung people think before striking

and use words instead of force topersuade.Circumstances that promote learningpromote the survival of children.Children who succeed at school are atless risk for violence than their non-successful peers.

Prothrow-Stith developed a violenceprevention curriculum while workingwith students in Dorchester, Massachu-setts. The curriculum is designed to fitwithin a tenth-grade health course anddeals with using anger to better oneselfand one's family. The curriculummodels a successful campaign to reducesmoking. It is designed to teach youngpeople. especially inner-city males, thatthey are at risk of becoming both theperpetrators and the victims of violenceand that violence is not inevitablethey do have choices.

The violence prevention courseprovides these young people withalternatives to fighting. The lessonspresent information about violence andhomicide and the nature of anger andways of dealing with it. Conflictresolution and mediation also areaddressed, but violence prevention,which is more crisis-driven, re,eivesthe majority of the attention.

Educating students about violence isnot an easy process. Prothrow-Stithbelieves that there is no better placethan school for children to learn to getalong with one another peacefully.However, the help of the entire commu-nity is needed in order to save youthfrom the vise of violence.

Individually, we do not have thepower to ban the sale of handguns, endthe sale of illicit drugs or require thatviolence be portrayed realistically in themass media. Deborah Prothrow-Stithbelieves that collectively we canaccomplish what appears to be anoverwhelming task. It is the ordinarypeople. the people who care, who canmake a difference.

Prepared by Jane Grady, executive as-sistant for NSSC.


106

NSSC offers newresource for teachingresponsibility

Teaching personal and socialresponsibility is the theme of anew book soon to be publishedby the National School SafetyCenter. This 130-page book,written by two education practi-tioners, offers insight into thedifficult task of preparing stu-dents to take responsibility forthemselves and the communi-ties in which they live.

Human nature. all too often.seeks the lowest level of re-sponsibility while seeking thehighest expression of freedomand rights. When left un-checked at home and school,this often translates into disobe-dience, disruption, violence, tru-ancy, early pregnancy, drugabuse and, in general, a lack ofappropriate self-control and mo-tivation in young people.

Schools can play an importantleadership role with students,parents and the community inteaching responsibility skills.Children can be taught to be au-tonomous, self-reliant, coopera-tive, decisive, respectful andpersistent. The ideas, sugges-tions and model curricula setforth in Developing Personaland Social Responsibilityare designed to serve as aframework on which to buildsuccessful school and commu-nity programs aimed at trainingyoung people to be responsiblecitizens.

To reserve your copy, sendcheck for $9 per copy to NSSC,4165 Thousand Oaks Boule-vard, Suite 290, Westlake Vil-lage, CA 91362. Check mustaccompany order.

Myra C. Bryan

Paul Casciano

Francine C. Fernandez

Dorothy T. Johnson

PRINCIPALS4LEADERSHIPiM

Excellence is a focal topic this Olympic year, The imagination iscaught, riveted upon the dreams and long-held hopes of thededicated individuals who push themselves toward personalperfection. Nothing less than the best is acceptable, yet much

more than the best is demanded as each strives to excel,extending personal goals to increasing levels of achievement.The quest for excellence is a common theme among thisyear's

Principals of Leadership. These outstanding men and womenhave displayed to their respective schools, and the communitiesthat surround them, positive examples of guidance; they confirmthe trust accorded them by their students' parents. Excellencehas been defined as that which "cannot be coerced or mandated.

Rather, it is a condition to which individuals may aspire." Each

of these men and women have decided that the norm is unac-

ceptable, that the usual can become the unusual through dili-gence and perseverance.

From superiority in overall school climate to programs prepar-ing tomorrow's adults for tomorrow's job market, from firmnurturing of potential dropouts to innovative curriculum, theseexamples of excellence demonstrate advantageous use of allavailable talent. Constructive and creative utilization of time isclearly evident, as is emphatic stress upon mental discipline asthe best means of achieving an orderly, safe, productive school

environment.The 1992 "Principals of Leadership" are (counterclockwise

from top loft): Myra C. Bryan, Socastee High School, MyrtleBeach, South Carolina; Paul Casciano, Moriches ElementarySchool, Moriches, New York; Francine C. Fernandez, KailuaElementary, Kailua, Oahu, Hawaii; Dorothy Travis Johnson,Lapham Park Assessment Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin; DiannaLindsay, New Trier Township High School, Winnetka, Illinois;Stella Loeb-Munson, Caledonia Elementary School, East Cleve-land, Ohio; William Martin, Bleyl Junior High School, Houston,Texas; David Snead, Cass Technical High School, Detroit,Michigan; Stephen Swymer, General Wayne Middle School,Malvern, Pennsylvania; and M. Jody Tyson, Stovall Junior HighSchool, Houston, Texas.

Presented as a public service by the National Association ofElementary School Principals, the National Association of Sec-ondary School Principals and the NATIONALooNLAL

SAFETYCENTER

Pepperdint University, Malibu, California 90263

803/373.9977

;g7.41Imi

Dianna Lindsay

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M. Jody Tyson

Stephen Swymer

Stella Loeb-Munson William Martin

109

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PAIDPepperdineUniversity

School Safety News ServicePublishing on your behalf to advocate changesthat will positively affect schools nationwide. theSchool Safety News Service is the definitive andmost comprehensive source for school crimeprevention planning available.

Subscribers receive monthly updates on themost critical issues facing our schools. Newsupdates from around the country pro-vide insight and strategies related todrugs, gangs, weapons. discipline.schoolyard bullying and otherconcerns vital to the safety of allschoolchildren. Thought-provoking


The School Safety News Service includes threeissues of the School Safety newsjournal, published inthe fall. winter and spring. and six issues of SchoolSafety Update, published in October. November.December. February, March and April. Annualsubscription is $119. (S129 outside the United States)

For more information or to subscribe to the SchoolSafety News Service. write: NSSC. 4165 Thousand

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UPDATE

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From reading, writing and arithmetic to rage, risk andretaliation, teachers today face many new challenges.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

NATIONAL SCHOOL SAFETY CENTER NEWSJOURNAL FALL 1992

NSSC UPDATE

Reading, writingand retaliation

By Ronald D. StephensNSSC E.recutive Director

Teachers have increasingly become thetarget of violence and intimidation inAmerica's public schools. Years ago.teachers, along with law enforcement of-ficers or other supervising adults, wereheld in high esteem.

Today they must rely on much morethan official authority they must havepersonal qualities and skills to assistthem in commanding a level of respectand control necessary to witch youngpeople.

In 1978. the National Institute ofEducation's Violent Schools/SafeSchools Study reported that 5,200 teach-ers were assaulted or attacked everymonth 1,000 seriously enough to re-quire medical attention. Although therehas not been a major study since 1978, acomposite of other regional and state re-ports, including news media accountsof violence directed at teachers, indicatesthat teacher victimization is increasing.

The United Federation of Teachers inNew York and the New York City Boardof Education have jointly established theVictim Support Program (VSP) to helpteachers through the trauma and recov-ery of violent events. But the physicalharm does not reflect the entire picture.Psychological damage can be equally dis-abling to the teacher. A 1987 U.S. De-partment of Education survey reportedthat 29 percent of teachers had consid-ered leaving the teaching profession be-cause of violence and intimidation.

Many report that their university train-ing did not adequately prepare them to

do their work. The California TeacherCredentialing Commission has becomeso concerned about this issue that it hasestablished a State Advisory Panel to de-velop recommended teacher training andleadership strategies to better prepareteachers for the classroom. The final re-port. with recommendations, should beavailable by September. 1993.

Creating a positive campus climate be-gins by empowering teachers with theskills necessary to control and managestudents. Educators are now beginningto realize the importance of safety factorsto the educational process.

Teacher safety will become a majorbargaining chip of the 1990s. Alreadyteachers are demanding to know who isin their class, the kind of emergencybackup support they will have when adisruptive problem occurs, the type ofcommunication capability available andthe kind of support the district will pro-vide to teacher victims.

Supporting the teacher requires a vastarray of district services. As state andmunicipal governments tighten theirbudgets and cut back on nonteaching po-sitions, the budget reductions directly af-fect teaching effectiveness. Many of theservices that once supported the teacherare no longer available. Reduced custo-dial care, counseling cutbacks. reductionof school security personnel, textbookand supply retrenchment, increased classsize all of these changes place new re-quirements on the teacher.

Teacher effectiveness is synonymouswith system effectiveness. For educationto flounsh, it is essential to developsystemwide strategies that comprehen-

sively and collectively engage thecommunity's resources and energies. Ourteachers deserve this basic support.

Several key individuals have contrib-uted to this issue of School Safety, focus-ing on the current trends and issues ofteacher and staff victimization.

Edward Muir of the United Fed-eration of Teachers examines efforts toprevent school crime and victimizationin New York City schools. Historically,efforts there have centered on enhancingsupervision, technology and hardware.

Kendall Johnson, a family therapistand mentor teacher in a school fortroubled teens in Claremont, California,has written a new book about school cri-sis management. His article on cumula-tive traumatic stress provides an inter-vention model to help schools buildteamwork and cohesion after chronic ex-posure to crisis and stress.

VSP program psychologist/coordinatorJune Feder and the National Organiza-tion for Victim Assistance in Washing-ton. D.C., suggest ways to help under-stand and support individuals who havebeen victimized. Peter Commanday pro-vides practical techniques for dealingwith disruptive students. Through hisPeacemaking Institute, Commanday con-ducts training seminars that are aimed atimproving teachers' chances of everydaysurvival.

Michael Grant. a veteran school-teacher. had an explosive device contain-ing one-fourth of a stick of dynamitethrown at his head. Currently on leave ofabsence from his teaching duties, Grantoffers his personal perspective on howschools can prevent such incidents.

Bernard James of NSSC discusses cur-rent issues in school liability as they re-late to teacher and staff victimization.Who will assume the risk of teaching intoday's often violent schools?

A noteworthy local study validatesnationally reported estimates regardingthe number of students who carry weap-ons to school. Kelly Jay Asmussen re-ports about his survey of senior highschool students from a small urban cityin the Midwest.

School Safety 2 Fall 1992 1 1

NATIONALSCHOOL 10SAFETYCENTER

popperdine l noel-sus 's National School Salon Center isa partnership of the S Department 01 Justus; and I' SDepartment of 1:dt:cation NSSC's goal is to promote ateschools tree of drug milli. end abuse. gangs. ,eapi ins.xandalisin and bulls Mg: id encourage good di, While.attendanc and ci tnimunits support: and to help ensure aquallt education for all Children

Ronald D. Stephens. Exc.:time Ones torEllis Butterfield, Demos Directin

June Lane Arnette, (ommumsations DirestorJames E. C'anipbc11, Business ManagerIternard James, Special (-mime'

Pepperdine C niversits. NSSC Steering Council:1)as id Dos import. Presixlent. Clam: IA rlham It Adrian.Pros ost. t ice ('lair: Andros K Benton. Em:mist! N. icePresident. I arts I) I lorphaker. Eectitit e ViceChancellor. Nano Slagnussoit Fagan. Dean. GraduateSchool 01 Education and !NAL hitlog!... Ronald F. Phillips.Dean. School Ill I.au. Charles li Runnels. Chant ellor.Ronald 1). Stephens. Etecutix e Director. NSSC. Jain, R.\r;r1hurn S ice Preident and Dean. School of Businessand Slanageineni. John 51 ikon. Dean. `waxer College

School Safety-Xs part 01 the School Safets Sees Set, ice. School Glen

po1,11,11,1b the Notional School Sotets Center I.compliant ate current trends and et lex tis e programs inschool solets to educators, Liss entomrs. Loa sort. judge,.it ermitent O t t it tilt. htismess leaders journalists and the

pub', Annual whusnff,uun S59,(8) Components ill theSelttol Sailers Nesss-Sers ice are IsAshed monadsSepia nther through Sias

Ronald I). Stephens, E ,estrus,. 1,11mlJune Lane Arnow. I dm,Sue Ann Meador. Assm late I donI.. Ellis Butterfield, Aooate htuorKristen; Kenn). s po,Itapher

A 1 ix les in Mi. pubhsaum ilia, Iv rep tilled e,Iudinemilt, nlu.ills ors righted puleri il i ith ciedit In

NsSt.' and a sirs dl reprints In \SS( hootS ari It ensourages the subintssion 01 original articles.arts, rids. book res th,. and lelih to the editor and xillles ieu and consider cash nem tor publis.ation

Coirespondense 101 it hoot Sider, and the National ',shodSolos Centel should he addressed to Notional S. boshSolos (enter. a1 it thousand Oaks BEd . Stale 20.socestloke 'h 11(.2. telephone so. I- law...EAN 005.,1 0

Prepared under Grant No KC MI' CX iNNI ?, Iandesi h) theOth, e id Jusenile Justice and Delinquenes Pro onion011ise of Jushse Programs. S Ilepaninent tit Justice andthe S. Department dt Education Points of s :es, oropinions in this dm unient are these of the author and donot necesarils rept eseni the 01'1u:tat position in phhh,:hes ohthe S I /epartinnt at Justice. t' S Department ofEducatton or Pepperdine Unisersits Neither NSW noran) of its employ cc, makes ans is arrant, . expressed I innnpheJ. our actuates ,tit, legal Ilahilit) or re,ponsibilitfor the aCititac. completeness or metal:less of ,ins

apparatus. ptisiuct or mves. describedherein. Cops right a t P012 National School Solos Center

About the oiler:

In a Lot. er East Side, Nen York. schoolroom. a leacherdemonstrates on the blackboard. Photo Ks Jacob Riis.circa 111116, courtess of the Bettman Archix e.

%

mir

CONTENTS

4 Monitoring the trendsby Edward Mull

7 Reducing the traumahr June Feder

9 Understanding traumaNutiunul Organizatimifor Victim Assistance

10 Who assumes the risk?by Bernard lames

13 The great illusionhr Michael J. Grant

15 The trouble with troublehi' Peter Martin Connnanday

20 Architects of excellencehr Tani Welsh

23 From fistfightsto gunfightshr H. Woodrow Hughes

24 The tip of the icebergby Kendall Johnson

28 Weapon possession inpublic high schoolsby Kelly Jay Asmussen


31 National Update


33 Legal Update

34 Resource Update

Resources


.11


19 NSSC Resources

22 School Safety News Service


35 Principals of Leadership

EDWARD MUIR

Conventional efforts to prevent teacher victimization and schoolviolence have focused on enhancing security forces, technology

and hardware, Additional approaches are indicated.

School staff victimization:Monitoring the trends

The United Federation of Teachers(UFT) has been tracking incident reportsfrom New York City school staffers formore than 20 years. This process was in-stituted because the anecdotal reportsfrom teachers did not match the officialreports from the hoard of education. TheUFT noted a serious underreportingproblem.

The UFT's early reports were rathersimple. Union representatives in schoolswere given forms to report assaults andthefts. For years. the form was called the"assault/robbery form." All the data washand entered on long ledger sheets. Theunion's School Safety Committee andthe school system's Office of SchoolSafety agreed in the mid-I970s to sharedata. The board's data collection and re-porting was also done by hand.

Early reportsWhat kinds of problems were found inthe 1970s'? Contrary to what some peoplebelieve, they were not the good old days.Note these examples from the 1978 an-nual report:

September 23: "A large group ofmale students kicked open my door.

Edward Muir is director of the SchoolSafety Department of the United Federa-tion of Teachers in New York. He is afrequent contributor to School Safetyand consultant to NSSC.

While one student held me against thewall, the others grabbed at my breasts,buttocks and thighs."

October 6: "She approached me fromthe rear and attempted to strangle me.Her grip was so tight around my neckthat I could not even call for help."

October 18: "One of the boys pushedmc. I fell backwards, hitting my spineand head on the corner of the closet. Theheadaches, vomiting and blurred visionbecame quite severe."

November 16: "Two unknown malesentered my room, assaulted me andripped the gold chain from my neck."

November 30: "Parent assaulted mewith fists and with an umbrella. Shewould not let me out of the room."

December 13: "While attempting tostop two students from fighting, one stu-dent turned to me and kicked me in thegroin and scratched my face. I was out ofwork for seven weeks."

January 6: "A student assaulted mc.He tried to strangle me with my ownjewelry. He punched me in the face andattempted to stab me with a twelve inchknife."

January 13: "As I sat behind my desk


I was hit by a Jack Daniels bottle thrownin my door."

March 1: "During a conference witha male parent. the parent punched me inthe jaw and neck. When he left the build-ing he told the principal that I was adead man."

March 21: -- "Three youths entered myroom and asked my name. When I toldthem, one hit me on the head. As I stoodup to defend myself, one sprayed a sub-stance into my face. I was immediatelyblinded." (This teacher was hospitalizedwith acid burns to the corneas.)

Each of these incidents is pretty tough,but not one mention of a gun was made.

Focus on manpowerFormerly, a great deal of the focus cen-tered upon increasing the number andimproving the performance of securityguards, called Student Service Officers.They were poorly trained and poorlypaid. Many came from a federal jobs pro-gram. the Comprehensive EmploymentTraining Act. The requirements wereminimal, with unemployment a majorcriterion. Officers wore no uniforms andwere utilized solely in the high schools.Some proved more trouble than theywere worth.

In the 1977-78 school year, incidentsinvolving teachers totaled 3,367 an

increase of 7 percent from the previousyear. Included were 2,287 physical at-tacks and 834 thefts, of which 164 wererobberies or forcible thefts. Because ofsimple data gathering procedures, littleelse can he concluded concerning thestaff. However. one trend continues. Themajority of incidents occur in a distinctminority of schools.

In the mid-1970s. Los Angeles psy-chiatrist Alfred Block published an ar-ticle comparing the symptoms of schoolcrime victims to the symptoms of war-time victims suffering from combat fa-tigue and post-trauma stress. UFT's workwith teacher 1 ictims showed Block'stheory to he

The union offered services of a verypractical nature to the membership im-pacted with these problems. Victimswere advised of their rights and the pro-cedures to follow in order to protectthose rights. However, through providingthis advice over the phone and in person,it became apparent that staff victims hada great many needs that were not beingaddressed.

During the I 980s. the school securityforce in New York improved markedly.One important step provided guards withuniforms and radios. They were givenimproved training and deputized as spe-cial officers with arrest powers. The Of-fice of School Safety expanded its opera-tion into the middle and elementaryschools. By the end of the decade, the of-fice became a division: it was the sixthlargest police force in the nation, withover 2,500 officers.

Focus on technologyAlong with increased staffing, the boardof education invested more money in se-curity technology, though not alwayswith the desired results. One of the firstattempts, SCAN, was a victim of the1975 recession. SCAN was a personalalarm system placed in 20 high schools,with each staff member given a pen-sized activator. When activated, a signals as sent to a console in the securityroom. The console would indicate the lo-cation of' the activation and assistance

could be designated.With the budget crunch, the system

collapsed. In some instances, the personmonitoring the console was laid off andno replacements could he found. Activa-tors were lost and could not he replaced.The hoard could not afford to continuethe repair contract. One school was justpartially wired for the system when theproject was abandoned.

Another significant investment wasmade in burglar alarms that rang at acentral station when actuated. Thiselaborate and expensive system was onlymoderately successful. At times the noiseof passing trucks or nearby subway trainsset off the alarms. Another problem waspolice response time. In some New YorkCity police precincts, a school break-in isa very low priority crime. Additionally. itwas determined that the perpetrators of-ten knew that they had at least half anhour to carry out their spoils.

a talk -hack system. The concept wassimilar to SCAN. However, instead ofbeing remote and portable, the activatorwas hard wired to the wall a few feet be-low the public address speaker. Asidefrom being very limited in emergencysituations, in some schools, students hitthe switch many times throughout theday.

Effective investmentsSome technology investments did proveto be effective. Computerized card entrysystems have been very successful in thehigh schools. Students are given a photoidentification card. As they enter school,they are required to insert the card into aterminal. The computer determines if thecard is valid, marks the student presentfor the day, indicates if the youngster is"wanted" by a dean or guidance coun-selor, and even flashes "Happy Birth-day!" Young intruders can thus be ex-

Computerized card entry systems have been verysuccessful in the high schools, Students are given aphoto identification card. As they enter school, theyare required to insert the card into a terminal. Thecomputer determines if the card is valid, marks thestudent present for the day, indicates if the young-ster is "wanted" by a dean or guidance counselor,and even flashes "Happy Birthday"

Closed circuit television was tried inseveral large schools and was foundwanting. The concept is good camerasmonitor corridors and exits so that asmall security staff can respond to trou-ble in a hurry.

Problems existed with vandalism, suchas spray-painted lenses. There was a lackof maintenance and repairs for camerasand monitors and too little staff to estab-lish short monitoring assignments. Longassignments caused "EGO," eyes glazingover. so that riots in corridors went un-seat and unreported.

Pei haps the worst application of agood idea came with a type of two-waypublic address system, sometimes called


eluded from the school.Perhaps the New York program that

received the most attention was the metaldetector program. As the 1991-92 schoolyear began, 20 high schools and twomiddle schools were involved. The pro-ject included a number of security offic-ers who went from school to school withhand-held detectors. The 22 participatingschools were visited once a week by thedetector teams.

To move the students into schoolpromptly. every third or )urth studentwas "scanned." In th first two years ofthe program, there was significant im-provement in the reduction of weaponsand incidents in those schools. How-

MUIR

ever, by the end of June 1992, sonicflaws became evident. Students learnedthe routine. Incidents rose on days whenthe detector squads were not there.

Another technological component thataccompanied the metal detector conceptwas the electro-magnetic door lock.While students were arriving and beingscreened, some method was needed toensure that guns and knives were notsmuggled through side and hack doors.Assigning a security officer at every exitwas wasteful: that person became aS25,000 per annum lock.

The electro-magnetic door locks,which delay opening and indicate at acentral station that an exit is being at-tempted. seemed to he an answer. Onesignificant problem arose over the use ofthese locks: they did not conform to firedepartment regulations. The solution in-cluded tying that system into the firealarm and placing a smoke detector sys-tem throughout the building.

The current pictureAt the beginning of the 1991 school year.New York City schools had 2,500 trainedsecurity officers deployed in more than1,000 school buildings. Some schoolshad safety technology and programs.Several other factors have had a seriousimpact on the safety picture.

The city of New York, along with therest of the Northeast, was in the midst ofa recession. An early retirement programushered 4,000 experienced teachers outof the system in June of 1991: little morethan half were replaced by new teachers.School opened in September of 1991with 2500 fewer teachers and 25,000more students, pushing enrollment aboveone million. The ratio of school staff tostudents was for past the point ()I' peril.

The second factor was the alarming in-crease in the possession and use of gunsby teenagers in the city.

The 1991-92 school year proved to bethe most violent for staff since recordshave been kept, with over 4.000 inci-dents. City schools experienced 131 inci-dents involving gulls in and around cam-puses, comnared to 45 for the prior year.

Thirty-two people were shot and 4 peoplewere killed. The following are examples.

November 19: Teacher shot in leftarm as he departed a Brooklyn school.

November 25: Teacher shot andwounded, and student shot and killed ata high school.

January 7: Teacher shot as she wasreturning to school from a meeting. Shelater died of her wounds.

February 4: Shots fired into teacher'scar as she was parking in front of theschool.

April 16: Student shot and burnedteacher with a stun gun.

June 2: Teacher forced at gunpoint todrive perpetrator out of the area.

In addition to the technology programsand security personnel, the city policedepartment assigned more police officersto the schools. But the 1991-92 schoolyear was the worst on record forstaff safety. Why?

It is surmised that the loss of many ex-perienced teachers, a worse ratio of staffto students and cutbacks in supportiveservices were responsible for the in-creased violence.

Security forces, technology and hard-ware can only do so much. If a schoolsystem suffers from understaffing, over-crowding and inexperienced staff at alllevels, there will he severe problems re-gardless of the security package that isprovided.

The data show that a high percentageof staff victims are new teachers. Despiteall efforts security officers, securitytechnology, procedures and policy a

vital piece is missing. Flow can we pre-vent a staff member from becoming a

ictim?

Proposed strategiesBy late winter last year, a series of vio-ICIICC prevention workshops were intro-


duced at five school sites throughout thecity. Reports from participants were mostencouraging.

The LIFT was also instrumental inplacing the Straight Talk About RisksProgram (STAR) into New York Cityschools. The anti-gun violence programwas designed by the Center to PreventHandgun Violence. First introduced tolocal middle schools on a pilot basis, itwill expand into the high schools andlower grades 0\ Cr the next two years. Itis much too soon to evaluate the pro-gram. STAR complements a number ofmediation programs already in place inour schools.

Schools certainly cannot tackle thisproblem alone. When dealing with thegun issue, help is nceded on the enforce-ment end. Very stiff federal and statepenalties for anyone who sells a handgunto a child are ineffective. The same buyand bust programs used in the war on

drugs could he milifed against gunsellers.

The LIFT goes well beyond the bread-and-butter issues, operating many col-laborative programs with the hoard ofeducation. The Victim Support Programis one such effort.

Three full-time staff members and fivepart-time people serve thousands of staffschool crime victims. Sometimes, aphone call and a letter is all that is need-ed. At other times, people need helpdealing with the school system's bureau-cracy or the criminal justice system.Some victims need psychological coun-seling, which is provided in a number offormats. including short-range, indi-vidual or group sessions.

All of these programs, involving bothprevention and intervention, dependupon a reporting system that provides anaccurate picture of the safety and securitysituation in each school one that canprovide systemwide data in trends, aswell as time and location studies of inci-dents in any school.

Hopefully. with an accurate inkirmit-lion base, additional solutions will soonemerge to eradicate the senseless victim-isation of school staffers.

1 11 J

JUNE FEDER

An attack against a teacher can have serious emotionalc.nd psychological consequences. Concerned response

helps victims regain a sense of control and focus.

Reducing the traumaof teacher victimization

Victims of violence nd abuse often ex-perience debilitating pain. In addition tothe pain resulting from physical injury.victims often experience psychologicaltrauma. The sudden, unexpected ruptureof the fundamental sense of safety causedby victimization can lead to varying de-grees of psychological distress.

Problems can include initial feelings ofshock, disbelief, confusion, disorienta-tion, helplessness and vulnerability.Later, individuals may experience otherstrong emotional reactions includingfear, anger, rage and self-blame. Addi-tional problems may develop, such assleep disturbance, nightmares, depres-sion, phobic reactions and other kinds ofdifficulties. These reactions may persistfor weeks, months or even longer, andmay affect many areas of functioning.

Second injuryIn addition, victims often suffer injurynot only from the incident, but also fromthe system that fails to provide sufficientsupport as well. Many victims reportthat, rather than receiving help in the af-termath of an incident, they are ostra-cized, avoided, ignored and sometimeseven abused. This phenomenon is sowidespread that researchers have termed

June Feder, Ph.D.. is a psychologist andcoordinator of the Ilitim Support Pro-gram for the United Federation of 7.each-ers in New York City.

it the "second injury," since victims areinjured twice: first by the assailant andthen by systems and individuals who letthem down.

The trauma of victimizationOn November ID. 1091, Gail was teach-ing geography to her fifth-grade class.The students were attentive and in-volved. Suddenly. the door opened and astudent intruder approached. He pointedtwo guns at her and fired three times. Nobullets were discharged.

Later the school administration in-formed her that the guns were "justtoys.- They then followed with advice topull herself together and resume herclassroom duties. That night Gail suf-fered a severe and debilitating asthma at-tack, had terrifying and recurring night-mares, and subsequently became afraidto leave her house.

On April 16. 1992, six intruderspushed their way into John's high schoolEnglish class. They arranged themselvesalong one side of the room while block-ing the door. For no apparent reason. onestarted a fight with another. While Johnwas distracted, a third approac;;...; himon the left and deeply slashed his armwith a razor, causing him to need morethan 30 stitches.

Since the incident, John, a 20-yearschool system veteran, has been con-fused, withdrawn and unable to work. Hereports that, after three months at home,


1

his principal has called him only once.In September 1989. the United Federa-

tion of Teachers and the New York CityBoard of Education initiated the VictimSupport Program (VSP) to provide ser-vices to school staff victimized by schoolcrime. Included are psychological coun-seling and various forms of practical as-sistance. In the past three years. VSP hasreached more than 6,000 injured staffmembers and provided intensive servicesto almost 1,000.

In general. VSP has found that formany victims, the treatment that they re-ceive in the aftermath is a critical factoralong the road to recovery. Thus, whenvictims perceive concern, support andprotection, they appear much better ableto cope with the emotional onslaught thatvictimization produces.

In contrast, when victims perceive ei-ther the absence of support or active in-sensitivity, they may feel far more vio-lated than after the original assault. Forexample, teacher victims report thatwhile, on some level, they can come toterms with the actions of the assailantperhaps a student driven by a loss of con-trol or an intruder driven by greed orfear they cannot come to terms withlack of support from those from whomthey might have expected help. This ex-perience, when it occurs, compounds thepsychological injury, so that victims feelabandoned and betrayed.

At first, this phenomenon might seem

FEDER

perplexing for two reasons. One, it fliesin the face of our widely accepted notionsabout support for people in need, andtwo. it contradicts general conceptionsabout pro-social behas for among peoplein helping professions.

Response to victimsThe response to victims is complex andmay interfere with the wish, as well asthe ability, to show support. Victimsseem to bring oot a "univers,11 fear ofcontamination" in others. Individualsaround victims respond as if victimiza-tion were "catching," as if feeling orshowing empathy for the injured personmakes them similar to that person andthus, vulnerable to the same fate.

"Blaming the victim" or refrainingfrom support increases psychological dis-tance and reduces feelings of vulnerabil-ity, causing people who might he poten-tially helpful to hack away. This isparticularly true where there is bothphysical and psychological proximity. asin the case of teacher victims in relation-ship to colleagues and supervisors.

Other issues compounding the risk ofsecond injury for teachers include super-visory accountability for school inci-dents, which might attribute blame to theindividual victim rather than school se-curity conditions, and the inclination ofteachers to blame themselves, feeding thecorresponding tendency in others.

Many school staff victims receive ad-equate and sufficient support; indeed,many report that they are treated withcare, concern and sensitivity. Those whoperceive such support fare considerablybetter in the aftermath of victimizationthan those who do not. They have fewerdifficulties, appear better able to copewith problems that do arise and to get onwith their lives, and seem to experiencefewer residual problems down the road.The available support appears to givethem an emotional cushion that buffersthe intense response to violation.

Support for victimsWhat constitutes adequate support?While specific needs may vary from indi-

victual to individual. there are generalprinciples which can guide interactionwith those who have been hurt,

11 Respond as quickly as possible.This might seem obvious, but victims of-ten speak with bitterness about delays insecuring administrative, security ormedical assistance. One teacher told of adelay of more than 20 minutes beforehelp arrived after she reported that agun-wielding intruder had entered andthen left her student-filled room. Thesekinds of experiences can add greatly tofeelings of distress.

2) Find out what individuals need.This may not be so easy since victimsthemselves do not always know whatthey need. For example, many injuredpeople experience initial emotionalnumbness. This affords protectionagainst overwhelming feelings of distressin the immediate aftermath. yet may alsocloud their judgment about the bestcourse of action.

Roy was attacked in his classroom bystudent intruders who robbed him of hiswristwatch, heat him and fractured hisnose. After he secured superficial medi-cal attention in the school emergencyroom, he agreed to return to his teachingduties for the day and then agreed to apreviously scheduled classroom observa-tion by his supervisor. Days later, athome recovering from his injuries(which required several months awayfrom work), he spoke with rage about in-adequate and unreasonable requests.

The point is that someone needs to as-certain the best course of action follow-ing an incident, with the focus on meet-ing the victim's needs.

3) Be available. Some victims have aneed to talk and for someone to listen.They may feel frightened. confused andagitated. Some may need reassurance.Some may need guidance or companywhile they wait for medical or otherkinds of help. Above all, it is importantto ensure that the injured person is notleft alone.

When Joe, a school system veteran, re-called being attacked in the school by agang of armed intruders who punched


his face and damaged his eye, he notedthat following his report to the principal,he was left alone in an office for close toan hour to complete paperwork. ThenJoe was sent home by himself. This in-creased his feelings of bitterness and iso-lation and contributed to his decision notto return to teaching.

4) Be aware of critical periods jolhat.-ing an incident. Although individualsmay be vulnerable throughout the courseof recovery, (here are periods in whichshows of support are particularly impor-tant. These include the immediate after-math, the initial days after the incident.court appearances, encounters with po-lice and other criminal justice personneland the return to work.

Although school personnel cannot heinvolved at each juncture, they can be in-voked at important points. In addition.particularly in cases where there is ex-tended time out of work. individuals ap-preciate periodic contact.

1,iI. brutally assaulted by a drug-crazedintruder and requiring a six-month con-valescence, spoke with great affectionand gratitude about the calls and cardswhich she received during that time. Infact, the show of concern enabled her toreturn earlier than she had anticipated.This contrasts sharply with the many sadand angry reports from teacher victimsabout no calls and no contact.

The return to work is often a bench-mark in the course of recover\ . It is notsurprising that individuals frequently re-experience arousal emotional distressand vulnerability. Displays of concernfrom colleagues and supervisors can helpvictims adjust. In fact, just before they gohack to work, individuals should he en-couraged to take an accounting of anyspecial needs and requests and discussthese with their supervisors. Concernedresponse helps victims to gain a sense ofcontrol and focus.

An attack against a teacher or schoolstaff member can have serious emotionaland psychological consequences. Avail-able and adequate support can greatlyease distress and he a powerful tool inrecovery.

Understanding crisis reaction and traumaAs caretakers of a community within acommunity, administrators of schoolsmust deal with the effects of tragediesthat occur both on and off school cam-puses. Whether the immediate tragedyis suffered by a student, staff memberor a large group of people, the ripplingemotional trauma that occurs canhave long-term effects on the schoolenvironment.

The crisis reaction and its accompa-nying trauma is a unique experienceshared by most victims. When indi-viduals are victimized by violentcrimes, they experience both a physi-cal and emotional reaction. Theseverity of the reaction is affected byfive factors:

the intensity of the event;the suddenness of its occurrence;the duration of the event:the victim's ability to understandwhat happened; andthe stability of the victim'sequilibrium at the time of theevent.

Individuals exist in a normal stateof equilibrium. Each individual estab-lishes his or her own boundaries,usually based on a personal under-standing of the world. Occasionalstressors will move the individual outof this state. Most people. however,return to a familiar and comfortablerange of equilibrium.

Trauma throws people so far outof their normal range that it is diffi-cult for them to restore a sense ofbalance. After they do establish a newbalance, it will differ from the previ-ous one and will have new boundariesand new definition.

Trauma may he precipitated by anacute stressor or many chronic stres-sors. An acute stressor is an event thatis sudden, arbitrary and often random.Examples include crimes perpetrated

by strangers, natural disaster, man-madedisaster, accidents and acts of war.

Chronic trauma refers to stressorsthat occur over and over again, eachtime pushing the individual toward theedge of the state of equilibrium, or be-yond. Examples of chronic stressorsinclude familial abuse and chronicillness.

Developmental stressors occur duringtransitions in life, such as adolescence,marriage, parenthood and retirement.Planned stressors include beginning anadvanced degree, accepting a new job orplanning a vacation.

An individual suffering from chronicor developmental stress may be morevulnerable and at a higher risk for emo-tional trauma after an acute stressoroccurs.

The emotional response of the crisisreaction has three stages. Feelings ofshock, disbelief and denial accompanythe first stage, which may last only a fewmoments or may continue for months.

During the second stage, victimsexperience a cataclysm of emotions:anger, fear, frustration, confusion, guiltor grief.

Anger may be directed at God, humanerror, the criminal justice system andeven oneself. Anger may become con-fused with the desire for vengeance. Justas anger is a normal response, so is thedesire for revenge, which often subsideseven though overwhelming rage maycontinue.

In the aftermath of a catastrophe in-volving life-threatening injury or death,a sense of terror may emerge. Terror is aresidual emotion that results from thephysical response of panic. It may be-come the foundation for panic attacks inthe future.

Frustration is a by-product of thefeelings of hopelessness and powerless-ness that accompany a crisis event. Afterthe initial impact, frustration may con-

tinue when victims or those support-ing them are unable to successfullyobtain help.

Often plaguing the victim and caus-ing confusion is the question "Whyme?" While it is a question that usu-ally has no answer, humans tend toseek order and rationality in theirexistence. Hence, unanswered ques-tions lead to even more frustration. Inthe effort to establish an answer, vic-tims turn inward, feeling guilt andblaming themselves for the crisis andvictimization. Survivors frequently areplagued with internal questions con-cerning why they survived whileothers died.

Intense grief or sorrow over losses isnot uncommon. Losses to the victiminclude loss of personally significantproperty or loved ones; loss of controlover one's life; loss of trust or faith inGod or other people; loss of a sense offairness or justice: loss of a sense ofimmortality and invulnerability; lossof identity or future; and loss of mean-ing or values.

The third stage of the emotionalresponse is the reconstruction of equi-librium. Out of the emotionalupheaval, the victim establishes a newequilibrium. This can be a very diffi-cult, time-consuming process.Experiencing both good and had days,life for the victim during this phaseoften resembles a roller coaster ride.

Most people live through a traumaand are able to reconstruct their liveswith outside help. Trained profession-als can assist victims through severalprocesses that help them recover, in-cluding re-defining values and re-establishing meaning, trust, identityand a new equilibrium and future.

Adapted with permission from TheNational Organization for VictimAssistance in Washington, D.C.

BEST COPY AVAILABLESchool Safety 9 Fall 1992

11111111111111111.11111111111111.1111111 BERNARD JAMES 11111111111111111111.11111=1.1.11

When a teacher is victimized in the line of duty, who isheld liable? Must teachers and other school personnel

assume the risk and teach at their own peril?

Unsafe working conditions:Who assumes the risk?

Liability. Mention of the word in almostany context generates an immediateaudience. In law, the specter of liabilityis the most effective catalyst to improv-ing, preventing and avoiding the obliga-tions such a decree imposes. Amongpublic policymakers, the desire to avoidliability acts as a constant incentive tocarefully consider the implications of anydecision.

However, a discussion that combinesthe issues of liability, safe schools andteachers generates a surprising and dis-satisfying silence. The voices advocatingchanges in the campus environment arefar outnumbered by those who rarely, ifever, consider the role of violenceagainst teachers in the continuing de-cline of the educational process in ournation's schools. The anomaly is evenmore striking in the face of the evidenceof increasing violenLe against teachers inschools. Do teachers and other schoolpersonnel assume the risk and thus teach

at their peril?

Personal riskConsider the case of Josephine M.Keane. Mrs. Keane was a Chicagoschool teacher who died "in the line ofduty." The court reviewing the lawsuitbrought on behalf of her estate described

Bernard James is special counsel toNSSC and a professor or PepperdineUniversity School of Low.

her case in this manner:"IKezinel was employed by the City of

Chicago Board of Education as a schoolteacher and was assigned to the Lewis-Champlin Grade School in that capacity.The complaint alleges that on April 20,1961, Mrs. Keane. while on the schoolpremises in her capacity as a schoolteacher, was assaulted and killed by LeeArthur Hester. a student enrolled at theschool."'

On the liability issue the court wassuccinct:

"I Keane I maintains that, under the cir-cumstances alleged the City owed a

duty to the deceased to furnish policeprotection. and that the doctrine ago\ -ernmental immunity dc,s not absolve theCity from liability. We disagree."'

In another case. Lynda Tredway. ateacher at Spingarn High School in theDistrict of Columbia. filed suit allegingunsafe conditions after being raped inher classroom after school one afternoonwhile grading papers.' The intruders as-saulted her with a knife, and then robbedand raped her. Tredway's suit was dis-missed. The court concluded that work-ers' compensation was the exclusiveremedy for her injuries. "Physical attacksby third parties sustained in the perfor-mance of the employee's duties," ex-pressed the court. "are clearly covered(under workers' compensation(. "'

These outcomes are quite ordinary.Teachers are met with decidedly differ-


ent rules on liability that make it diffi-cult almost impossible to add theirvoices to those prompting changes in thecampus environment. Public policy onschool safety for educational employeeshas simply not kept pace with the quicklydeteriorating reality o:c.Iclassrooms, pos-

ing challenges not covered in basicteacher education training curricula. Asa result, the response of the law is inad-

equate and, in some cases, nonexistent. Ifpublic policy is to respond in the future.there must he more discussion about therole and limitations of traditional ap-proaches to protecting teachers.

Immunity from suitTwo major features dominate the land-scape of liability law with regard to vio-len(:e against teachers. The first is immu-nity from quit and the second is thepublic duty doctrine.

Governmental immunity. simply put.is the protection from ordinary liabilitysuits that governments inherently pos-sess. The concept is a derivative of the

English common law notion that theCrown could not he sued without its con-sent. There is also a contemporary eco-nomic justification any money judg-ment ultimately paid as a result of aliability finding is funded by thetaxpayers.

So long-standing is the notion of im-munity that the Eleventh Amendment ofthe United States Constitution contains a

guarantee that states are illumine frontliability suits brought against them infederal courts. Clearly. if a state wishesnot to answer for injuries that arise as aresult of most government activities, itmay do so as a matter of law. However.as a matter of public policy, few statestake such an absolute position.

Niost states have made immunity frontliability suits conditional on circum-stances and procedure. This partialabrogation may merely reflect the factthat states have recognifed that account-ability for certain haiards can easily hemanaged through a self-insurance fundor by obtaining blanket policies of insur-ance, as would a homeowner or businessperson.

Ina general discussion about condi-tional i111111Ullit1, mo distinct immunityscenarios are usually helpful to illustratethe approaches. In the first setting.school operations are given blanket im-munity for all injuries that occur, pro-vided that the injury arises out of negli-gence rather than intentional conduct ofits employees. Texas has such a statute. Itprovides:

No pmfessional employee of anyschool district within this state shallhe personally liable for any act inci-dent to or within the scope of the du-ties of his position of employment, andwhich act involves the exercise ofjudgment or discretion on the part ofthe employee....Professional employee, as used in thissection, includes superintendents.principals, classroom teachers. super-visors, counselors, and any other per-son whose employment requires certi-fication and an exercise of discretion.'

Under these conditions, liabilityparticularly a money judgment -- is dif-ficult to establish. An injured teachermay still bring suit against the person(s)causing the injury, but in most instances,the juvenile or parent will not have theresources to pay the judgement that li-ability imposes.

In the second liability scenario,schools are prepared to assume liability

for injuries arising only out of certainspecified activities, with immunity per-taining to es erything else. The state hasusually decided to insure against theseoccurrences or has limited by law the

amount of recovery if will pay.Regarding those activities, liability is

an institutional rather than personal mat-ter. Personal liability may still arisewhen injuries are inflicted intentionallyor when they result from activities thatare outside the scope of employment ofthe individual.

This setting accurately describe theenvironment in most states. Arkansas,for example. has a statutory scheme thatwaives immunity for an es ent that takesplace on campus, but which also limitsthe amount of recovery. Its Education

within the ',cope Of elliploymenl orunder the direction ()I' the Board ofEducation.

These policies make it difficult forteachers filing suits seeking to establishliability based on the unsafe practices ofofficials in their district. The failure toprovide adequate securit\ is lot a basisfor a lawsuit.

Public duty doctrineMost teacher: are surprised to learn thatthe local governments that employ themhave only a general duty to provide anenvironment adequate for edlication. Re-cent teacher injury cases that have ar-gued for liability, based on the existenceof a special relationship which imposes a

The voices advocating changes in the campus en-vironment are far outnumbered by those whorarely, if ever, consider the role of violence againstteachers in the continuing decline of the educa-tional process in our nation's schools.

('ode. section 6-17-113. provides:The Department of Education is autho-Hied and directed to establish a self-insurance fund or negotiate for andprocure a group or blanket policy... in-suring (school employees' against civilliability for acts or omissions of eachemployee in the performance of his orher official duties... in the amount of$250,000 for each incident.

Connecticut laws produce much thesame effect. but take a slightly differentapproach. Its Education Code, section10-235, provides that:

Each Board of Education shall protectand save harmless any member ()I' suchboard or any teacher... from financialloss or expense, including legal fees,if arising out of any claim of allegednegligence... resulting in any injury,which acts are not wanton reckless ormalicious, provided such 'employee',at the time of the acts... was acting inthe discharge of his or her duties or


'- t,s

duty to provide effective campus security,have lost because of the so-called "publicduty doctrine.'' The doctrine, when com-bined with general principles of immu-nity, creates an environment in whichteachers do assume the risk of attacksand injury.

All states have adopted some versionof the "public duty doctrine.- tinder thedoctrine, a government is not liable fornegligence in failing to supply generalpolice protection. In fact, the doctrinepros ides immunity for all discretionaryacts and nonpolicy-making public jobs.

Police, fire and other municipal ser-vices fall into this category, designed forthe general advancement of the publicgood and welfare. Liability does not at-tach to such services because govern-ments could otherwise not alThrd to pro-vide them, given the cost of payingjudgments for injuries due to negligenceand insuring against future occurrences.Exceptions to the rule have been foundonly in instances where the municipality

JAMES

was under a special duty to a particularindividual. such as protecting a materialwitness from threatened injury by thirdparties.

In the Acorn case. described oho\ e,the court held that the city of Chicagodid not owe any special duty to theteacher. The court observed that:

Illai lure on the part of a municipalityto exercise ;i go\ ernmental functiondoes not, ... expose the municipality to

duty of the City toprotect Mrs. Keane from criminal actswas no more than the general duty toall eititens to protect the safety andwell-being of the public at large. Fail-ure of a policeman to prevent othersfrom violating the law, to the injury ofsome third party. does not of itself sub-ject the municipality to liability for theinjuries. To hold that under the cir-cumstances alleged in the complaintthe City owed a "special duty- to Mrs.Keane for the safety and well-being ofher person would impose an all butimpossible burden upon the City. con-sidering the numerous police, fire,housing and other laws, ordinancesand regulations,'

Liability and a special dulyWith this background, it is easy to seewhy no incentives exist to make teachersafety a specific item on the school safetychecklist of a local government official.The force of logic of the law and policyon the matter has a pernicious quality. Itis actually better to do nothing than toaddress the subject and in doing so createa special duty.

The general requirements for the spe-cial duty exception are as follows: (I) thegovernment must be uniquely aware ofthe particular danger or risk to which theperson is exposed; (2) there must be alle-gations of specific acts or omissions onthe part of the government: (.1 ) the spe-cific acts or omissions on the part of themunicipal employees must he either af-firmative or willful in nature; and (4) theinjury must occur while the person is tin-der the direct and immediate control ofemployees or agents of the municipality.

The case of Bloom 1'. City of New Yorkis a textbook example ()I' how a specialduty may he created by making teachersafety a priority. In 8/oom, a teacherfiled suit for injuries suffered while at-tempting to break up a fight between stu-dents in the lunchroom. Two securityguards were also assigned to the areaand one guard agreed to accompanyBloom to the spot where the disruptionwas taking place.

The court applied the public dutyanalysis to the case, but with a surpris-ingly different outcome. ".'There is nospecial duty to pro,. ide police protectionto a particular individual.- reasoned thecourt. "unless that individual establisheda special relationship with the entity .-

The court noted that "rolne way inhich a special duty can arise is by a

municipality assuming an obligation toprotect a specific class of persons from aspecific danger, which protection is re-lied upon by memhers of that class,"

Then the court provided a blueprint forspecial duty liability. "Municipal liabilitycan also occur when there is a directrelationship between the plaintiff andthe governmental body. as where thegovernment ituirte,, an ohligation toprotect it specific individual from a spe-cific danger.-

The court agreed that the school "didnot owe Bloom a special duty of protec-tion because of his status as a teacher/employee and the existence of a generalsecurity plan. Nevertheless, it wouldseem clear that if the security guardagreed to accompany Bloom to the sceneof the confrontation and provide assis-tance. and Bloom relied upon such an-ticipated support, a special relationshipwould exist.-

Thus it seems clear that When schoolsdo nothing, traditional rules of immunitypros ide an almost complete blanket ofprotection -- or at least permit the localgovernment to define the scope andmethod of liability it is willing to as-sume. The workers' compensation sys-tem most often holds the key to the scopeof liability in these instances. In theTer( /tray case, in which the teacher was


assaulted and raped in the classroom, thecourt provided a rationale for la\ twinesuch a scheme of liability.

Workers' compensation' set's es a

major purpose of... namely . to limathe go\ ernments Iiithility to a lowenough level so that all injured em-ployees can he paid some ieasonablelevel of compensation for a w iderange of job-related injuries. regard-less of fault. ...1Thej sax Ines, bothin damages recovered and in theexpense of handling the lawsuits.should be very substantial and theemployees will benefit accordingly.'

also seems clear that when teachersplay a role in pro5 iding a safe school en-s inmment with the support of school se-curity or law enforcement, this cooperit"lion provides the basis of a special rela-

tionship out of which liability for failureto discharge a special duty may be found.

After Moom, te%chers concerned w ithsafety on campus would do well to require that a campus security person or apeace officer he present on campus at alltimes. The reasoning of the case suggeststhat teachers do assume the risks of anunsafe SCh(ml ens ironment when stand-ing alone. But, a 11211 thought-out. gen-eral school safety policy augmented w ithdesignated security experts changes thetraditional liability equation, providinggreater incentives for local gm eminentto keep teachers safe.

Since most school districts alreadyhave some security personnel on campus,knowledge of the law may succeed inmaking campuses safer, or at least inmaking government accountable w lienteacher safety is c(onpromised.

EndnotesI. Acme I 11:,. 10 PP

24(1 NI:. 2d 121 i ItntSt

2. Id. at 322.3 'rredttav 1' Morro (Aumbut. 401

(1978i.4. Id. at 733.5. Feas Education Code 1210120. 240 2d at 1227 See veneralh. 57 Ain Mt 2d. Mont, 'pal. '1,11.01.

and State Tort laahtlit 6(1

ti 4(13 A 2,1,11 714

\24712

MICHAEL J. GRANT

One teacher who was violently assaulted while on the jobtells how he believes victimization of teachers can be elimi-nated by effectively controlling the school environment.

Teacher authority:The great illusion

I have been teaching approximately20 years at the secondary level (grades 6through 9) in one of the toughest districtsin New York City. I am a six-foot, 230pound, bald. Afro-American male. Withmy heard and mustache. I cut a verymenacing swath as I walk through thehallways at school.

Until recently. I believed that I wasking of my domain, a strong but fair dis-ciplinarian who was respected by my col-leagues and liked by my students. I be-lieved that there was little in my domainthat could harm me. After all, did Inot make home visits and come Outunscathed?

An explosive device containing one-fourth of a stick of dynamite was thrownat me at school, detonating about twofeet from my head. Since the incident.all of my previous assumptions havechanged. I am currently on a "line ofduty" leave of absence from my teachingposition, as I try to recover from this hor-rid experience.

Just after it happened, I remember re-gaining consciousness and seeing theoverhead lights of the ambulance cabin. Ihad no idea what had harpened to me orhow it had happened. Since then, while

Michael .1. Grant is a veteran teacherwith the New York City Public Schools..Mr. Grant is currently on leave of ab-sence while he recovers front a violentassault that occurred at school.

in therapy I have had the opportunity toreflect and now have some insights as tohow this could have happened.

Illusions of influenceNo matter what the ages of the studentsor the teacher, no matter where theschool is located or the type of class.teaching depends a great deal on illu-sions. At the secondary level, this is evenmore true.

Chief among these illusions is thatteachers have a great deal of authority inand around the school environment. thatthey wield awesome powers and can sus-pend a student with just one look.

It is no surprise to anyone who hastaught in recent years that this is farfrom the truth. In reality, teachers areamong the most vulnerable people in aschool building, and it is only by main-taining the illusion of invulnerability thatthey can do their jobs at all.

The real danger comes when teachersthemselves begin to believe in the myth.When this happens they are immediatelyat risk of becoming part of a growing sta-tistical group: teachers who have beenassaulted while in school. This is whathappened to me.

I believed that all was under control,that backup was available, and that mypresence would bring orthr. It is my firmbelief that unless this current trend ofviolence is abated, there will he anotherstatistic that will become even greater


I 7.

teachers killed in the line of duty.This predicts a grim scene, but one

that is destined to he played oser andover unless something is done to addressthe problem. It is not too late, but certainbeliefs must he eradicated before the tide

be turned. It is not enough for teach-ers to control the classroom domain. It isthe entire school environment that musthe controlled.

Any good illusionist will tell you thatw hat is important is what people per-ceive as the truth, not what actually isthere. Teacher con'rol and authority issimilarly based on perceptions. Considerthe three main areas of any school facil-ity: the school grounds, hallways andgroup meeting areas, and the classroomsthemselves. Little is said about theteacher's role outside of the classroom,on the school grounds or within theschool building itself. The perception ofwhat is expected and who is in control inthese environments determines whathappens in the classrooms.

A common junior high school scenarioserves as an example:

It is 3:00 p.m. and a crowd gathersaround two students as they begin tosquare off' for combat. There isscreaming and taunting by the grow-ing crowd. Teachers are leaving thebuilding for the day, weary and ontheir way home.

There was a time in recent history, less

than 10 years ag.o, when just the sight ofteachers in the vicinity would cause stu-dents to back off' and nonchalantly try tofade into the hackground. If a dean ap-peared, the crowd would scatter. Tetwh-ers could risk walking into the crowd,separate the combatants and disperse theonlookers.

Then, a mere look was enough to stopany student in his or her tracks, and ascowl would spell doom. Now, what ismore likely is that the teacher willchoose to fade quickly from view.

Risks are too highHave teachers become less caring andmore callous toward students? Not really.If a teacher were to wade into that crowd,at best, he or she might be ignored. Atworst, this teacher might get a bottlethrown at his or her head.

In the past. students knew that anyonewho assaulted a teacher would face im-mediate expulsion from school. Today.all that will probably happen to a studentis a five-day suspension from school. andfor some, that suspension is an excusedholiday.

This is not to say there are no teachersthat will step in and break up a fight oc-curring outdoors. However. it is under-stood that you do so at your own risk,both physically and mentally.

A great deal of a teacher's influencedepends upon the outcome when there isa confrontation with students. If theteacher emerges second best, he facesphysical harm and his reputation willsuffer proportionately. These results haverepercussions in the classroom with stu-dents that were not even involved withhe original incident. Many of my col-leagues would rather not take this type ofrisk just .a a student can have a five-dayvacation.

The illusion of controlHallways are more controlled than areasoutside of the building. While incidentsthat occur inside are more contained, therisk of injury is just as real inside as it isoutside. The risk may he even greater be-cause there is an illusion of control,

causing teachers to he more at ease. Af-ter all. what could possibly happen witheveryone watching and your colleagueswithin earshot? But even the most alertindivi !tual cannot sec everything or heeverywhere.

What has brought us to this battlefieldmentality? What has caused this declinein teacher authority and respect?

Fear of litigationThe answer is tear the fear thatcharges will be brought against theschool system for any number of outra-geous acts that have reportedly been per-petrated against little Johnny. You findmany school systems across the countryparalyzed because of this tear.

Expel Johnny for assault? What abouthis rights to an education? Place him in aspecial school for disorder Iv students?What about his sensitive psyche? Whatabout his right to freedom of expression?

Lost in all the bickering is the curtainof illusion that once protected the teacheron the job. Remember. it is the appear-ance 0f order that keeps most people inorder. To illustrate this point, think hackto your own days as a student. Did any-one ever really know the kid who was ru-mored to have been sent to reform schoolbecause of disruptive behavior? Mostnever did, but the story was well-knownand accepted by all students in theschool, and they feared what might hap-pen to them if they also behaved poorly.

When I went to school in southernCalifornia. I knew that if I was had Iwould he sent to a certain alternativeschool. There, it was rumored, the stu-dents heat you up every day and theteachers all weighed 300 pounds andchewed nails. That was enough to keepme from getting too far out of line.

Regaining controlRemember, teachers do not receiveweapon or hand-to-hand combat train-ing. What often stands between teachersand physical harm are their voices andtheir wits. If teachers are to continue todo their jobs in safety, then the illusionmust he re-created and enforced.


This can happen in a number of ways.First, every school should be designatedas a safe zone both in the law and in theminds of all who attend. Any drugs, gunsor weapons of any kind should be suffi-cient reason for expulsion from school.Any assault upon a teacher should alsohe grounds for expulsion. In addition toexpulsion, criminal prosecution shouldoccur for any of these offenses.

Secondly, all extracurricular actin itiesneed to he given top priority in schoolbudgets. Shops, computer classes,hands, teams and clubs are the reasonsmany students want to attend a specificschool. The thought of losing shop privi-leges has made many a student stop andthink twice about misbehaving, for fearof being sent elsewhere.

Third, it must always appear that ad-ministrators of the school system are 100percent supportive of their teachers. Stu-dents must not be given the opportunityto assume that a disciplinary actionagainst a particular teacher was a resultof one student's action.

What happens behind closed doors andoff the record is another matter. Manyadministrators will, once the door to theoffice is closed, read the riot act to ateacher who acted stupidly and put him-self and the students in danger. But thissame administrator will keep this en-counter confidential.

On the other hand, some principalswill run out with the slightest provoca-tion. taking statements from studentsfirst, then interviewing the teacher. Thestudents learn that all one has to do tosend the system into frenzy is cry."Wolf!"

The final responsibility for teacher andstudent safety rests with the teacher.Alert teachers have uncanny instincts fortrouble. They seem to know when troubleis in the air and are very sensitive tochanges in the environment that signaldanger.

But one should never depend on in-stincts alone. All it takes is one split sec-ond and a teacher could end up as I did,waking to the fuzzy image of flickeringlights and the interior of an ambulance.0

PETER MARTIN COMMANDAY

Many teachers complain that they did not learn how to handleviolent or disruptive students in their pro-service training. Here

are a few practical suggestions for dealing with trouble.

The trouble with trouble

Most school personnel are not beingtaught practical techniques for handlinctrouble, techniques that would increasetheir chances for everyday survival. TheCommanday Peacemaking Institute isdedicated to training professionals to staysafer in schools, on the streets and athome.

No longer is the urban, inner-cityschool the only place where serious:rouble occurs. Schools in all types ofareas are experiencing an increase in thenumber of incidents of violence or dis-ruption. The following are some conceptsand immediately usable techniquestaught by the Peacemaking Institute in aseries of workshops in schools all overthe country.

The trouble with trouble is that theemotions of individuals involved oftencloud their judgment and their ability toeffectively communicate. For instance:

Sometimes a disruptor's infuriatingverbal abuse in your face feels like apersonal attack. In the disruptor's real-ity, it has nothing to do with youyou just happen to be there.To a disruptor, saving face will alwaysbe more important than adhering toany school rule.We answer what disruptors say insteadof learning what they really mean.

Peter Martin Commanday is the directorof the Commandos. Peacemaking Insti-tute Corporation in Congers. Nest. York.

Too many of us believe that a disruptorshould "stop- just because we say so.

The follow ing mental self-defensetechniques will help a person stay safe.

Never take it personallyIt was the beginning of the day. The stu-dents were coming into the school build-ing in a reasonable order. A femaleteacher had started up the stairs to herclassroom on the third floor, when shesaw Jason sitting on the steps.

"Hi, Jason."Silence.''./asou, it i.l time to go to your houp,,-

/vont class.Jason jumped to his feet. glared at her

and screamed: "Get the f--- out of mylace. Who do you think you are, b----Don't tell me what to do: you 're not mymother!"

The great temptation is to respond toJason with an angry lecture or with sar-casm. It is a good idea to squelch that re-sponse. The remark is rarely related toyou, even though the venom is directedat your face.

No matter how personal the remarkseems, whatever is said must not hetaken personally. When you face thiskind of verbal abuse. detach yourself'emotionally. Instead of an emotional re-sponse to "get hack" at the disruptor, usea peacemaking approach. For example.


)

you can respond with absolute silence.Silence is a very effective tool. Most

disruptive students cannot handle it.They become uncomfortable and breakthe silence either with a tirade of loudabuse or a demand to he left alone. In ei-ther case. the disruptor is now focused onyou you have become the visual target.This is good. because it gives you the op-portunity to create a change in the dis-ruptor's behavior.

An alternative approach might he toignore the personal attack and respondwith a neutral remark such as:

"Jason. what's up?"This remark is not as casual as it

might appear. You are now offering thedisruptor the opportunity to choose thetopic for discussion. Sometimes this ap-proach will elicit another personal at-tack, but rarely does it happen. More of-ten. this remark stimulates the disruptorto say something related to the situation.After the first few words, the disruptorfrequently reveals his or her real sourcesof frustration or fear, making it clear thatthe disruption is not concerned withyou you are just the recipient of theoutburst.

You might consider a third type of re-sponse a non sequitur. Say somethingthat is totally unrelated to anything thathas happened up to this point:

"Jason, who let out the whiterabbits?"

The question has no value in itself. It

COMMANDAY

can work wonderfully in that it may getthe disruptor to stop. look up quizzicallyand say:

"Lady, you're cra:y.-Once again you are the visual target

the focus of the disruptor's attention.This attention allows you to continuewith your silence or casual remark all

in hopes of getting Jason to tell you whatis upsetting him.

We have all been cursed at. Sometimeswe ignore it, sometimes we respondmildly and other times we get verballyaggressive. When you choose not to re-spond in kind, you are in fact disarmingthe disruptor of a potential weapon. Donot give the disruptor ammunitionnever take it personally.

Everybody saves faceSaving face has become a common termin school settings. When kids are"dissed" (insulted) in school, they arehurt and react very strongly to regaintheir status in school and on the streets.

Kids can lose face in various typesof situations. The follow ing are someexamples.

The student is alone.Jason is sitting on the steps just beforeclass, with serious thoughts about hismom. She is in the hospital and he isn'ttoo sure what is wrong with her. Heloves his mom and in their daily struggleto survive emotionally in the :'hsence of afather in the house. they have formed astrong bond. He doesn't see or hear theteacher come up to him.

"Jason, what are you doing here? }'oubelong in class. Please leave right now."

In this setting the student is alonehe has no audience. But he still losesface, as he feels the teacher should haveread his mind and not bothered him withthis stupidity. He loses face within him-self with what seems to him to he aninsensitive and disrespectful invasion ofprivacy. So, he lashes out at the personwho has invaded his space the

teacher.Even in a private setting with a dis-

ruptor, it is best not to give lectures or

orders. Instead, take a more personalapproach:

"Jason, fume's it going?" or "Jason,ihat'.s up?"

If you don't know the student's name,try:

"Hi. how'A it going?" or "Hi, what'stip?"

On a one-to-one basis. a peacemakerstays personal and avoids questions thatcome from his or her organizationalidentity as teacher, dean or counselor.

Above all, a peacemaker uses a per-sonal tone of voice, rather than the coldofficial tone we all know too well how toassume. Convey to the student that youcare about him or her and you will morelikely end up with a conversation ratherthan a disruptive incident.

The student has an audience.If a student loses face with peers watch-ing, he or she will suffer many future in-dignities. A student in this position hasthe curious goal. not of winning a con-flict. but of prolonging it. In this way hewill he seen by his peers as a "braveknight," defying the odds against the sys-tem no matter what the cost.

The goal of the peacemaker remainsthe same in this setting. Find a a) tomake yourself' the visual target. Attractthe disruptor's attention and, at the sametime, offer the hope that if he or she willcease prolonging the conflict and allowintervention, there will be a positiveoutcome.

It is not possible in this space to dis-cuss the various physical techniques ofbody position one should use when ap-proaching one or more disruptors, par-ticularly in a crowd of' other students. Letus assume, for convenience, that thepeacemaker has safely passed throughthe crowd and into the area of conflict.The question now is, What do you do tomake yourself the visual target'?

If' you know both names of the dis-ruptors or combatants, try using humor.a great tool:

"Sara, Janet how much did youcharge for tickets to this.fight?"

If you do not know all names, use


none. You do not want to attract the at-tention of only the person whose nameyou call. He or she may turn and becomevulnerable to being hit. You also do notwant to seem more favorably inclined to-ward the one student whose name youknow.

Another way to get the attention of thedisruptors/combatants is to use sound.Bang hard with your hand on somethingor slam down anything to make a loudnoise. Or, you can whisper somethingstartling to the disruptors that the crowdcan't hear. When I am with boys I some-times whisper, "Your fly is open." Togirls I whisper, "He isn't worth it."

If the conflict is really heated a

screaming match that is about to eruptinto an actual light you can use ex-treme measures. If there is a nearby chairor table, climb up on it. You can actcrazy. say crazy things. start singing. (Ionce shouted a hodgepodge of nonsensesyllables and said I was speaking a for-eign language.)

Whether you play to the audience or tothe combatants, remember that your im-mediate goal is to get the attention of thecombatants in a way that allows each tosave face. If you cause one or more of thevolatile combatants to lose face, you willescalate the situation.

Once you have their attention, you willwant to move them away from the warzone. The further away they are from thecrowd or the place of the conflict. thegreater the possibility of keeping theirattention.

A group (?t students has gathered.A group of students is assembling to-gether when they should he elsewhere.Let's assume that the students are stand-ing in a group in the hall just beforeclass, but after the bell has rung.

As has been said, when you approach agroup of students, it is best not to addressone or several of them by name. Instead,if you choose to speak, address the wholegroup. In addition to the reasons alreadymentioned, when students are in a groupand doing something wrong (and they al-ways know), calling their names will in-

cense those who were singled out. Youare likely to get the response:

"Hey. man. why me? I'm not the onlyone here."

One very effective method of attractingand keeping the attention of groups is touse hand signals rather than voice com-mand. Everyone saves face when youmotion what to do, rather than orderwhat to do. As you attempt to move thedisruptors from the combat zone to an-other room, motion with two hands.palms up. fingers together and swingyour hands in the direction you wishthem to move. Do not single out any in-dividual. This technique is usually suc-cessful. But if it's not, you can try verbalrequests. taking care always to keep yourtone personal and calm.

Whether you are alone with a student.or with two kids with a surroundingcrowd, or dealing with a group of kidswhich needs to move on, remember to al-low all those involved to save face. If youshow respect first, you increase the prob-ability that the disruptors will respectyour efforts.

No surprisesAfter the volatile behavior has been con-trolled in a conflict situation and thepeacemaker is making progress in defus-ing the incident, the disruptors do notwant any surprises. One of the most fre-quent ways to get a disruptor to re-esca-late the situation is to introduce an unex-pected factor into the equation.

How can a peacemaker prepare adisruptor for what happens next? Thisspecific situation demonstrates thetechnique:

You are in the hallway alone withJohn. John pulls a knife and waves itthreateningly in the air, shouting to noone in particular how he plans to use it.You defuse the situation. John now asks:

"What', going to happen next? Am Igoing to get suspended?"

Most people will think these two ques-tions are connected. i think not. The firstquestion is not related to being sus-pended or any other delayed consequenceof his behavior. What is not being asked.

is a very different question: "In the next90 seconds or so, what is going to hap-pen to me?"

suggest that you answer the unaskedquestion in the following manner:

"John, we are going to go down thishallway, to stairway #6, dolyn to the .sec-ond lloor and across to room 223. as Iwant to see if the substitute teacher hasshowed up. Then we will go to stairway#I, down to the first floor to room 104.We'll go in. I'll close the door, and thenyou can tell me erervihing. I'm going tolisten and not interrupt.-

What you will probably see next is fas-cinating a sigh of relief. The individ-ual's body will actually show his or heracceptance of your description of thenext 90 seconds. The disruptor sees it asa time not to he frightened, a time of rea-sonable safety.

"No surprises" is a method of discuss-ing before the fact what is about to im-mediately happen. Students live in aworld of unexpected events. Surprisesfrom parents. teachers and the rest of theworld are always happening to them andthey are, for the most part. not ready forthe onslaught.

You lessen the tension and offer com-fort, as well as respect, by verbalizingquietly and personally in a matter-of-factmanner. the details of the immediate fu-ture. The last part of your descriptionshould center around hope. By saving. "Iwill listen to everything you have to say.and will not interrupt," you offer thedisruptor the hope of having the opportu-nity to express w hat is on his or hermind to someone who wants to listen.

Win small, sequential victoriesHow often have you heard a teacher sayto a student: "Stop that.-

In minor situations. that can work. Ina conflict, it is not wise to ask for every-thing all at once. When dealing with adisruptor, do not to try to stop everythingall at once.

A moment ago. we mi rationed John,who pulled out his knife a the hallway.We did not say how the peacemaker de-fused the situation. Let's look at what to


say and what not to say in this type ofsituation. Some might choose to say:"John, give me the kniP."

He may indeed do just that -- "give itto you." Do not make such a dangeroussuggestion. Very few combatants in thisposition will immediately weaken them-selves by conceding to such a demand.Instead, suggest very small, almost in-consequential moves:

"John, please more that k11:P11m aInt to the left. It makes me nervous. S'ee.I won't more. just a hit to the left.Thanks."

Once this is done follow with:"What's up?"Each time you talk about the knife, ask

for a small movement. in small se-quential victories these are easier forthe disruptor to accept.

If you are in a room, the last stepmight he to get John to place the weaponon a table or chair. Once this is done.while you are talking. casually move infront of the item to put it out of John'ssight. Then, at the appropriate time,place it in your back pocket.

If you are in the hallway. you mightnot have such an easy series of moves. Inthe past. I have had the disruptor slowlylower the weapon until I finally sug-gested that he put it hack in his pocket.Once we were in a room, away from thecrowd. I then again attempted to get theweapon placed on a table.

It is important not to give an order to aperson who is displaying a weapon in athreatening manner. Instead, try to winsmall, sequential victories.

In a dangerous world where people be-have unpredictably, violence may oftenerupt immediately and suddenly. Schoolpersonnel need practical techniques toreduce the probability that anyone will hehurt. Hopefully, these suggestions will hehelpful. 4-0

The Commanday Peacemaking InstituteolliTs a series ?f workshops on how tomanage a crisis with "mental self de-fense" techniques.. Contact Peter MartinCommanday, 7 Greenfield Terrace.Congers, NY 10920, 914/268-4420.

NSSC PublicationsIMF

The National School Safety Center (NSSC) serves as a national clearing-house for school safety programs and activities related to campus security.school law, community relations, student discipline and attendance, and theprevention of drug abuse. gangs. weapons and bullying in schools.

NSSC's primary objective is to focus national attention on the importanceof providing safe and effective schools The following publications have beenproduced to promote this effort.

School Safety News Service includes three symposium editions of SchoolSafety, newsjournal of the National School Safety Center, and six issues ofSchool Safety Update. These publications feature the insight of prominentprofessionals on issues related to school safety. including student discipline,security, attendance, dropouts, youth suicide, character education and sub-stance abuse. NSSC's News Service reports on effective school safety pro-grams. updates on legal and legislative issues, and reviews new literature onschool safety issues. Contributors include accomplished local practitionersand nationally recognized experts and officials. ($59.00 annualsubscription)

School Safety Check Book (1990)is NSSC's most comprehensive texton crime and violence prevention inschools The volume is divided intosections on school climate anddiscipline, school attendance, personalsafety and school security. Gearedfor the hands-on practitioner, eachsection includes a review of the problemsand prevention strategies. Usefulcharts. surveys and tables, as well aswrite-ups on a wide variety of modelprograms. are included. Each chapteralso has a comprehensive bibliographyof additional resources. 219 pages.($15.00)

Set Straight on Bullies (1989) examines the myths and realities aboutschoolyard bullying. Changing attitudes about the seriousness of the problem

are stressed. It studies the characteristics of bullies and bullying victims. And.most importantly. it provides strategies for educators, parents and students tobetter prevent and respond to schoolyard bullying. Sample student and adultsurveys are included. 89 pages. ($10.00)

Child Safety Curriculum Standards (1991) helps prevent child victimizationby assisting youth-serving professionals in teaching children how to protectthemselves Sample strategies that can be integrated into existing curricula or

used as a starting point for developing a more extensive curriculum are givenfor both elementary and secondary schools. The age-appropriate standardsdeal with the topics of substance abuse, teen parenting, suicide, gangs,weapons. bullying. runaways. rape, sexually transmitted diseases, childabuse, parental abductions. stranger abductions and latchkey children F ichof the 13 chapters includes summaries, standards, strategies and additionalresources for each grade level. 353 pages. ($75.00)

Developing Personal & Social Responsibility (1992) is designed to serveas a framework on which to build successful school and community programsaimed at training young people to be responsible citizens. 130 pages. ($9 00)

Gangs in Schools("ram, I p 11 Haw ro Ur

Gangs In Schools: Breaking Up Is Hard to Do(1988) offers an introduction to youth gangs,providing the latest information on the varioustypes of gangs including ethnic gangs, stonergroups and satanic cults as well as givingpractical advice on preventing or reducing gangencroachment on schools. Already in its seventhprinting, the book contains valuable suggestionsfrom law enforcers. school principals, prosecu-tors and other experts on gangs. The concludingchapter describes more than 20 school- andcommunity-based programs throughout thecountry that have been successful in combatinggangs. 48 pages. ($5.00)

School Crime and Violence: Victims' Rights (1992) is a current and compre-hensive text on school safety law. The recently revised book offers a historicaloverview of victims' rights, describes how it has been dealt with in our laws and

courts. and explains its effect on America's schools. The authors cite legal casehistories and cover current school liability laws. The book explains tort liability.sovereign immunity, duty-at-large rule. intervening cause doctrine and foresee-able cnminal activity. as well as addressing their significance to schools. Theconcluding chapter includes a "Checklist for Providing Safe Schools." 127

pages. (S15.00)

Educated Public Relations: School Safety 101 (1986) offers a quick course inpublic relations for school district public relations directors, administrators andothers working to achieve safe, effective schools. The book explains the theory ofpublic relations and successful methods for integrating people and ideas. Itdiscusses how public relations programs can promota safe schools and qualityeducation and gives 101 specific ideas and strategies to achieve this goal. 72pages. ($8.001

School Discipline Notebook (1992) will help educators establish fair and effec-tive discipline policies. The book reviews student responsibilities and rights,including the right to safe schools. Legal policies that regulate discipline methodsused in schools are also explained. 53 pages. (S5.00)

The Need To Know: Juvenile Record Sharing (1989) deals with the cow iden-

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tained in juvenile records. When information is shared appropriately, improved

strategies for responding to serious juvenile offenders, and for improving publicsafety. can be developed. The second part of the book reviews the legal stat-

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Points of view or opinions are those of the authors and do not necessanty represent the

official position or policies of the U S Department of Justice. U S Department of Education

or Pepperdine University Prices subject to change without prior notification


r..

Resource Papers

The National School Safety Center (NSSC) has produced a series of specialreports on a variety of topics related to school safety. Each NSSC ResourcePaper provides a concise but comprehensive overview of the problem. covers anumber of prevention and intervention strategies. and includes a list oforganizations. related publications, and article repnnts on the topic.

Safe Schools Overview offers a review of the contemporary safety issuesfacing today's schools, such as crime and violence, discipline, bullying, drug!alcohol trafficking and abuse. gangs. high dropout rates, and school safetypartnerships.

Alternative Schools for Disruptive Youth thoroughly covers the historicalbackground of alternative schools and the academic research that has beendone on their effectiveness

Corporal Punishment in Schools outlines the arguments for and againstcorporal punishment. It also discusses the alternatives to corporal punishmentthat have been developed by schools and psychologists.

Drug Traffic and Abuse in Schools, after summarizing students' attitudes andbeliefs about drugs. covers drug laws and school rules the legal aspects ofstudent searches and drug testing. and the connection between drug use andtruancy. crime and violence

Weapons in Schools outlines a number of ways to detect weapons oncampus, including using searches and metal detectors, establishing a securityforce, and eliminating book bags or lockers where weapons can be '-idden.

Role Models, Sports and Youth covers a number of programs that link youthand sports, including NSSC's urban school safety campaign that usesprofessional athletes as spokesmen; several organizations founded byprofessional athletes to help youth combat drugs; and a number of programsestablished to get young people involved in school or neighborhood teams.

School Bullying and Victimization defines bullying, offers an overview ofpsychological theories about how bullies develop, and covers interventionprograms that have been successful.

School Crisis Prevention and Response identifies principles and practicesthat promote safer campuses. It presents reviews of serious schools crisesfatal shootings, a terrorist bombing, armed intruders and cluster suicide.Interviews with the principals in charge also are included.

Student and Staff Victimization, after outlining schools' responsibility toprovide a safe educational environment, covers strategies for dealing withvictimization.

Student Searches and the Law examines recent court cases concerningstudent searches. including locker searches. strip searches. searches byprobation officers, drug testing, and searches using metal detectors or drug-sniffing dogs.

Increasing Student Attendance, after outlining the problem and providingsupporting statistics. details strategies to increase attendance by preventing,intervening with and responding to students who become truants or dropouts

Display Postersiii111111.'

"Join a team, not a gang!" (1989) Kevin Mitchell. home run leader with theSan Francisco Giants

The Fridge says 'bullying is uncool!"' (1988) William "The Fridge"Perry, defensive lineman for the Chicago Bears

"Facades..."(1987) A set of two. 224-17-inch full-color posters producedand distributed to complement a series of drug-free schools TV public serviceannouncements sponsored by NSSC

All resources are prepared under Grant No 85-MUCX-0003 from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Office of Justice Programs. U S Department ofJustice Pointsof view or opinions in these documents are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the U S Department of Justice U S Department ofEducation or Pepperdine University Prices subject to change without prior notification. Charges cover postage and handling. Check must accompany order.

PublicationsSchool Safety News Service (S59 annually)Child Safety Curriculum Standards (9751Developing Personal & Social Responsibility 159)Educated Public Rotations (99)

- Gangs in Schools (95)School Crime and Violence (9151School Discipline Notebook ($51School Safety Check Book (Sts)

- Set Straight on Bullies (9101The Need to Know (S121

NSSC Order FormResource Papers Display PostersSafe Schools Overview (S4) "Join a team, not a gang,Alternative Schools for Disruptive Youth (S41 Kevin Mitchell ($31

_ Corporal Punishment in Schools ($4) - "The Fridge says 'bullying is uncooti-Drug Traffic and Abuse in Schools (S41 William "The Fridge" Perry (S31Increasing Student Attendance (S4) "Facades "(Set of 2) (93)Pole Models. Sports and Youth (94)School Bullying and Victimization (S4)School Crisis Prevention an- Response (94)Student and Stall Victimization (S4)Strident Searches and the Law (94)Weapons in Schools ($4)

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1;?..)

BY TANI WELSH

Business /school partnerships represent one of the mostimportant educational trends sweeping the country.

Corporate America is making a difference.

Architects of excellence

The civil strife that tore apart central LosAngeles earlier this year drew wide-spread public attention to a troubled in-ner city, where jobs are scarce. urbanblight taints the landscape and gang ac-tivity is a predominant recreation foryouth.

New business districts haxc begun torise from the ashes. but the criticalissue is the long-term future of urban LosAngeles and its young residents. thosewho represent the next generation of apoverty-stricken community.

An innovative youth support pro-gram a partnership between the Cali-fornia Community Colleges and South-ern California Edison is addressingthat future by focusing on developmentof self-esteem and academic skills in Af-rican-American male teen-agers. South-ern California Edison is the sponsor ofthe program: funding was procured withthe assistance of the California Commu-nity Colleges Foundation, which pro-motes partnerships between businessesand the community college system tofund special projects.

Business-school partnerships"The partnership with Southern Califor-nia Edison is an innovative example ofhow private industry and community col-

Tani Welsh is the manager of Educa-tional Serice.s at Southern CaliforniaEdisoti.

legcs can work together to improve edu-cational opportunities for inner-cityyouths... said David Mertes, chancellorof the California Community Colleges.

Titled the Interscholastic Alliance ofAfrican-American Males (IAAM, pro-nounced "1 am"). the program offershigh school juniors the opportunities toenroll in community college courses, in-teract with prominent members of theLos Angeles business community. par-ticipate in community service projects.and participate in career counseling pro-grams and internships.

Support of IAAM is part of the South-ern California Edison (SCE) commit-ment to assist in the rebuilding of thegreater Los Angeles region.

The Alliance is serving 75 African-American youths selected from MiddleCollege High School and WashingtonHigh School in Los Angeles. and!silorningside and Inglewood high schoolsin the suburb of Inglewood.

Middle College High School. a col-laborative effort of the Los Angeles Uni-fied School District and the Los AngelesCommunity College District, is servingas the program's official home. Theschool was created on the campus ofLos Angeles Southwest College to helpreduce the high dropout rate in thecollege's service area, provide improvededucational opportunities for studentsfrom inner-city neighborhoods andremove students from street gang


environments.Roughly half of the students in central

Los Angeles drop out of high school.Even more alarming is the fact that ayoung black male has at least a threetimes greater chance of being murderedas he does of graduating from highschool with eligibility to enter the Uni-versity of California system.

Middle College High School serves300 students: 159 African-Americansand 141 Latinos. Many have expressedfear of gang influence in their neighbor-hoods and exhibit a strong desire to fin-ish high school and advance to college.

Students enrolled at Middle CollegeHigh School must sign a compliancecontract, u hich is designed to teach themresponsibility and respect for education.Teachers and administrators at theschool go beyond the typical workload.providing counseling, tutoring and otherassistance to students and helping themmake positive choices that alter thecourse of their lives.

Middle College High School cel-ebrated a milestone this year. graduatingits first class.

Family environmentThe Alliance is providing its participantsa type of close-knit "family" environ-ment. The family theme is echoed in thecollaboration of organizations supportingthe effort: SCE; Los Angeles UnifiedSchool District; Inglewood Unified

School District; Upward Bound; EqualOpportunity Program for Students;Transfer Center, California State Univer-sity, Dominguez Hills; and the Univer-sity of California, Los Angeles, Partner-ship Program.

The goal of the program is to improvethe youths' chances of achieving successand fulfillment with family, community,school and employment. Sixty-five per-cent of the Alliance students are ex-pected to graduate from high schoolwhile obtaining advanced academic orvocational training in college. Suchtraining will enable them to receive acollege associate degree, a certificate. jobskills or allow them to transfer to a four-year institution.

Academic training will go beyond theboundaries of the Middle College HighSchool campus to incorporate athletics.community service, career-related intern-ships and field trips to African-Americancultural institutions. IAAM programswill be supplemented with training in ba-sic first aid, safety and water rescue tech-niques. Students also will he providedwith swimming lessons and advancedfirst aid training in preparation for a life-guard examination.

Bringing it homeThe hope is that students will take whatthey learn hack to their neighborhoods.

"My ultimate purpose in headingIAAM is to help African-American maleyouths successfully address African-American male issues, so that they buildconstructive, positive community envi-ronments." program director MosesRobinson said.

In addition to receiving support fromadult mentors, which include businessleaders, teachers and administrators.each student receives peer support from a"buddy" assigned through the Alliance.As students' self-esteem and academicskills improve, they will he providedopportunities to serve as role models foryouths in similar programs and/or inelementary schools.

Raising students' self-esteem will heone of the chief challenges of the pro-

gram. Many of the Allianceparticipants represent thefirst generation of their fami-lies aspiring to a college edu-cation. Thcy may have suf-fered the loss of familymembers to inner-city vio-lence, come from single-par-ent families, exhibit behav-ioral problems. and havelittle or no parental or peersupport in their lives.

Alliance organizers believehigher self-esteem can bepromoted by demonstrating to studentsthat members of the community at largehave an interest and stake in their suc-cess.

Southern California Edison stronglybelieves that every youth should hegiven an opportunity to succeed in thisworld. The IAAM program provides thatadvantage.

SCE is one of the most active support-ers of the California Community Col-leges system. In addition to supportingthe Alliance. SCE funds the Early StartProgram for junior high school studentsat El Camino College. where youngstersare given a preview of their academic fu-tures as an incentive to graduate fromhigh school. Additionally. it providesstudent scholarships at community col-leges in its service area, including anEdison employee mentor for each studentrecipient.

As a business partner of the CaliforniaCommunity Colleges Foundation, SCEserves as an advocate for excellence andinnovation within the community collegesystem, which encompasses 107 cam-puses throughout California.

In its five-year history, the foundationhas administered III grants worth S-t-tmillion. The programs developed by thefoundation provide student employmentopportunities in both the public and pri-vate sectors, scholarships for students inneed of financial support. and academicincentives for students at risk of drop-ping out of high school.

The students assisted by the foundationare the future of California. and conse-


quently. the future of the communitiesand employers in our state. By joiningwith the foundation to enhance educa-tional opportunities for those most inneed, business leaders make an invest-ment in their own futures and that ofCalifornia's communities.

An investment in the futureBusiness support of schools and collegesis playing an increasingly important rolein the education of onr youth. In Califor-nia alone, state government budget cutshave drastically reduced the amount andtypes of services schools can provide tostudents at all levels.

The concept of the business-collegepartnership is one of the most importanteducational trends in our country. Thereis no better way to stress the importanceof academic achievement to those indi-viduals whose future is jeopardized bysocial and economic misfortune. Nor isthere a better method to introduce profes-sional and industrial technologies to themen and women who w ill likely be usingthem in this century and bey ond.

Business support of education providesguidance for students seeking to makethe most of their skills; represents an in-vestment in the students as well as thecommunities in which they lire andwork; and most importantly. demon-strates a commitment to disathantagedpopulations that may have no otherchampions.

Our educational system can work. Andbusinesses and corporations can he thearchitects of excellence in our schools. OP

School Safety News ServicePublishing on your behalf to advocate changes thatwill positively affect schools nationwide, the SchoolSafety News Service is the definitive and mostcomprehensive source for school crime preventionplanning available.

Subscribers receive monthly updates on the mostcritical issues facing our schools. News updatesfrom around the country provide insight and strate-gies related to drugs, gangs, weapons, discipline,schoolyard bullying and other concerns vital tothe safety of all schoolchildren.Thought-provoking


The School Safety News Service includes threeissues of the School Safety newsjournal, published inthe fall, winter and spring, and six issues of SchoolSafety Update, published in October, November, De-cember, February, March and April. Annual subscrip-tion is $59. For more information or to subscribe tothe School Safety News Service, write: NSSC,

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From fistfights to gunfights

For educational excellence to beachieved, schools must be safe and hospi-table places for teachers and students.Yet, in an ever-increasing number of ourschools, students and teachers are ex-pected to endure violence, fear and in-timidation on a daily basis.

Violence within the schools ofAmerica has increased dramatically overthe past decade and continues to escalateat an alarming rate. Gang encroachment.drug and alcohol abuse. poverty, childabuse and neglect, overcrowded class-rooms and lack of parental supervisionand discipline have rendered the once"safe harbor- of the classroom a micro-cosm of today's social ills.

In a case heard by the U.S. SupremeCourt, New Jersey v. T.L.O., JusticePowell commented on the growing prob-lem of violence in schools. He wrote:

Without first establishing disciplineand maintaining order, teachers cannotbegin to educate their students. Andapart from education, the school hasthe obligation to protect pupils frommistreatment by other children, andalso to protect teachers themselvesfrom violence by the few studentswhose conduct in recent years haspromoted national concern.

Most people equate school violencewith large urban areas such as NewYork. Chicago or Los Angeles. Whilethere has been ample reporting of theviolence plaguing big-city schools, vio-lence has invaded suburban and ruralschools with little notice by the nationamedia.

A bill introduced into the House ofRepresentatives of the U.S. Congress(H.R. 4538. "Classroom Safety Act of1992") summarized the rising tide of vio-lence in America's schools thusly:

Nearly 3,000,(X)0 crimes occur on or

near school campuses even' year:One fourth of the major school districtsnow use metal detectors in an attempt toreduce the number of weapons intro-duced into the schools by students:Twenty percent of teachers in schoolshave reported being threatened with vio-lence by a student:The despair brought on by poverty anddisenfranchisement that affects millionsof our youth is rapidly entering theschools:Schools are being asked to take on re-sponsibilities that society as a whole hasneglected. forcing teachers to reteree

tights rather than teach:Teachers are staging walk-outs to pro-test the violence which denies interestedstudents the opportunity to learn.

Teachers and administrators requirespecial skills to cope with potentially (1/4-plosive situations and violent students.Yet, they are not receiving those skills intheir university preparation programs. TheCalifornia Legislature, believing that "cer-tificated school personnel often are notprepared effectively in their professionalprograms to cope with potentially violentsituations or with violent youth." amendedthe California Education Code (CaliforniaSenate Bill 2460, Green. 1990). The re-vised code will require the CaliforniaCommission on Teacher Credentia2ing(CTC), the state agency that regulatesteacher preparation and licensing, to un-dertake leadership activities directed to-ward establishing appropriate standards ofpreparation for teachers and other certifi-cated personnel concerning violent behav-ior by students.

Anticipating that a requirement fortraining teachers and principals inhandling violence in schools would heforthcoming from the CTC. PepperdineUniversity began developing a violence


prevention curriculum to he includedin the training of future teachers andadministrators.

In June of 1992. a grant from the Pa-cific Telesis Foundation enabled theteacher preparation program to begin de-veloping and field testing a model cur-riculum for creating a safe school envi-ronment. The model curriculum will bedesigned to be presented in an applied.hands-on. interactive mode. The trainingwill focus on skills that teachers need tomaintain a safe. secure and welcomingschool climate. The curriculum will alsoaddress skills teachers need to help buildconfidence, self-esteem and pride in theirstudents attitudes crucial to creatingand maintaining a positive and cohesivecampus climate.

In addition to the faculty of Pepper-dine's Graduate School of Education andPsychology, curriculum developers willdraw upon the resources of the Pepper-dine School of Law and the NationalSchool Safety Center, a resource centeradministered by Pepperdine Universityand funded by the U.S. Departments ofEducation and Justice.

The model curriculum will lx fieldtested with the teachers at Broadway El-ementary School in the Los Angeles Uni-fied School District. a partnership schoolwith Pepperdine University. BroadwaySchool serves a diverse student popula-tion in an area plagued with social prob-lems. Poverty, crime and racial tensionseverely inhibit the instructional process.In the past year, two parents of Broadwaystudents have been killed in gang-relatedincidents.

After further development and fieldtesting, the model curriculum will bemade available to other universities foruse in teacher and administrator prepara-tion programs. The target date forcompletion of the model curriculum isJanuary 1. 1993.

H. Woodrow Hughes. Ph.D., is the Asso-ciate Dean fin. Education in the Gradu-ate School of Education and Psychology,Pepperdine University.

BY KENDALL JOHNSON

A new category of crisis is emerging in many schools, causing over-whelming personal stress, job burnout and collective despair for itsvictims. Fortunately, an intervention strategyhas been developed.

The tip of the iceberg

The first two years of this decade havebrought unprecedented difficulties to theschools. Budgetary cutbacks, economicrecession, increased litigation, theunending flow of federal and state man-dates, political tidal waves, and increas-ingly brutal violence in the homes andcommunities served by schools conspireto make children's lives more tenuousand their schooling more tumultuous.The impact of these difficulties is felt inthe classrooms, the staff room and thecrisis response team conference roomsthroughout the country.

Critical incidents affecting schools ap-pear to be increasing in frequency, com-plexity and intensity. As a result, a wholenew category of crisis, which no longerfits the model presented thus far, isemerging in many schools. This categoryincludes critical incidents which occurwithin a context of chronic traumas tothe individual or group. Explanations,projections and interventions based uponsingle-incident crises seem to miss themark in many school settings. A newway of describing and responding to cri-sis is needed that new model may betermed Cumulative Traumatic Stress.

The following case study will serve asan illustration:

Kendall Johnson. Ph.D.. is a mentorteacher in a school for troubled teensand maintains a private practice as afamily therapist.

Location: Inner-city elementary schooldistrict in the Midwest.

Situation: Following the report of anoff -campus shooting death of a first-grader, the Crisis Response Team re-sponded to the classroom and school ofthe victim. After a routine post-violentdeath intervention, the team saw an un-expected drop in staff morale. This reac-tion came as a surprise for all involved.because the staff had dealt with a num-ber of incidents more critical than this.

Complications: Precedents for the inci-dent were disclosed. The police were in-vestigating the shooting, which was con-sidered to have occurred under sus-picious circumstances. The child's 13-year -old brother, who had pulled the

trigger of the shotgun, had previouslybeen investigated for killing a third sib-ling with a shotgun two years earlier. Inaddition, the staff indicated that this in-cident was not an exception to thechronic high levels of traumatic in i-

dents which they responded to sev,,altimes a week.

They attributed these incidents to thesocial and economic depression in thearea. In the past few years, several giantmanufacturing plants that employed alarge percentage of the population hadbeen closed and relocated. Neighbor-hoods which used to be nice were nowdecimated, populated by those too disad-


vantaged to move. Homes were deterio-rating, burned down or inhabited bytransients. Drugs, violence and crimewere increasing. With the home front abattlefield, the schools played an in-creasingly pivotal role in stabilizing thelives of their students.

Reactions: Individual sti,' 'nembers uni-versally complained of overwhelmingpersonal stress symptoms. In relation totheir work they showed signs of spiritualdepletion, which manifested itself in de-pression, isolation, pessimism, numbnessand concern that their work no longerhad meaning or purpose. Un the teamlevel, there was evidence of contagiousjob burnout, organizational distrust andcollective despair.

In order to meet staff and studentneeds in this setting, and an increasingnumber of settings like it, the model ofclassroom and staff debriefings for criti-cal incident stress has to be modified.The modifications have to address morethan individual symptoms and team co-hesion and confront larger, deeper socialissues.

Cumulative traumatic stressCumulative vicarious trauma refers to aset of critical incidents affecting a clien-tele with sufficient intensity and fre-quency to result in: (1) chronic indi-vidual delayed stress symptoms among

1 'Dft." L-1

individual service providers: and (2) dis-integrating effects upon service teams.

Professionals in close contact with cli-ents who experience a variety of on-going crises and traumas develop post-traumatic symptoms: their exposure to anumher of such experiences can hio,c acumulative effect. Teachers, health andmental health professionals can he so af-fected. Cumulative vicarious trauma canhe debilitating to both individuals andthe teams they serve.

Work-related effects of cumulativevicarious trauma in individuals includechronic work-related symptoms com-monly associated with delayed stress re-sponse. Individuals suffering from cumu-lative traumatic stress exhibit many signsof physical. emotional. attitudinal andspiritual exhaustion.

The composite signs of depression. in-cluding apathy, lack of caring, sense ofpowerlessness and chronic fatigue,plague those who have experienced toomuch trauma. The individual may

hecome isolated and tend to over-identify with the staff or school to the ex-tent that family and friendship relation-ships stiffer. His or her attitude willeventually reflect unhappiness and dis-satisfaction with work, and can result indetachment front or even hostility toss ard

clientele.Perhaps most characteristicallx. too

much direct or indirect traumatic stressleads to a decline in optimism. personalsense of purpose and faith that the workis meaningful and useful. In extremecases. this spiritual depletion can extendto the indis idual's view of his or her en-tire life or of life itself.

Cumulative traumatic stress ((TS) af-fects more than the individual. When itis a work-related phenomenon. ("FS islikely to affect all members of the team.CTS ..tents from incidents af feeling theentire team. and it is contagious.

CTS initially manifests itself on thestaff level through morale problems andrelational difficulties within the team. Itdevelops into distrust of leadership andof the supporting organization. and takesthe form of defensiveness at various ley-

els of the team. As a whole. the 'AA' suf-fers from contagious 'oh burnout. Thiscan eventually lead to a collapse of teammission and purpose and collectixe de-spair. Cumulative traumatic stress leadsto both personal distress and work teamdisintegration.

("TS debriefingsCumulative Traumatic Stress DebriefingI('TSI)) is a group intervention. Thegoals are to address and moderate trau-matic stress symptoms and to buildgroup cohesiveness among participants.CTSD is designed to address issueswhich are eroding individual and teamlunctioning.

Because of the complexity of the inci-dents leading up to debriefing. thechronic and diverse reactions. and theteam level factors addressed, CTSDtends to utilize props such as flip charts.blackboards and checklists. although thatvanes ls 1th the style of the leader.

CIS() protocol follows a specific. pre-determined set of phases. These phasesinclude introduction. incidents. compli-cations. reactions, coping strategies andplanning.

The introduction phase consists of thesame basic format of other dehmetings:explain the purpose of the meeting. in-troduce the leader. outline the format ofthe meeting and lay ground rules.

hiculerit.s phaseThe incidents phase of CTS') sexes ncoput-poses. First, it gibs. the group tonarrov. the locus of discussion to thethree or four most difficult incidents ex-perienced m the recent past. This in-s olves the group reaching consensus asto %stitch incidents were. in fact. the mostdifficult. This process leads to the secondpurpose. that of individuals expressingand acknow 'edging their experiences.

\ good approach to facilitate the inci-dents phase begins by having each par-ticipant write down three or four kex in-cidents which they feel affected the teamover the past six months. Using a black-hoard or flipchart. the leader can haveparticipants call out the incidents they


,J

luxe written down and place checks afterrepeat mentions of specific exerts. Atterthe list is complete. the leader can ex-plain to the group that the need to de-

cide together 1,s111C11 were the three or

lour most important.

C 'ompit cartons phaseEvents do not lake place in a social

acuum, and their meaning and effectsneed to he understood within their con-text. The purpose of this phase is to iden-tifY and acknov, ledge the \ arIOUS factorsu1/4 Inch complicate the key incidents andthe ongoing post-incident environment.Complications can include:

the nature of .he client community:background factors and precedents:kex themes:organizational issues:practical and logistical problems: andthe interpersonal context.

A good approach for assessing these(actors begins b having participants fillin a checklist of possible complications.The checklist should provide prompts,but also pros ale space for individualcontinents and additions.

Reacritms

his phase explores. acknowledges andilidates current personal reactions tocumulanxe stressors. The process heginssit ith personal assessment and continuesby sharing these individual reactions.Once the composite personal reactionsare brought into the open. the pattern ofcumulative stressor effects upon teammemhers as individuals emerges.

Because of the wide range of possiblesymptoms. and the team members' ten-dency to minimi,e their own symptomsor dysfunction. a printed checklist is use-ful to help memhers identify their owndistress. Discussion of reactions aims atacknov, ledgment of the extent and uni-x ersalitx of chronic stress reactions

ithin the group.

(.0/nrii; Ntrateeie phaseThis phase shirts toward empowermentand focuses on individual coping tech-

niques. The purposes are to teach situ-ational stress management. inoculateagainst further incidents and develop in-dividual plans for self-care.

A good approach uses checklists ofcoping strategies for initial self-assess-ment. followed by discussion of partici-pant's use of such strategies to alleviatechronic stress symptoms. This discussioncan identify kcy additional means of cop-mg which members can incorporate intotheir individual plans.

Wren deciding whether to use propssuch as checklists, the leader should con-sider the extent to which the group isopen and ahic to learn and share fromeach other. Hee Idly group functioningand the degree of mutual support deter-mines whether the approach should hedidactic or facilitative.

Plannint; phaseThis final phase has two major purposes:to explore the effect of cumulative trau-matic stress upon staff functioning and todevelop a plan for incorporating stafflevel stress management into team pre-paredness and operations.

The planning phase begins by review-ing the types of incidents which beset thegroup and the complications listed dur-ing the complications phase. Then thegroup explores the follow ing areas furpossible change: client community;broader organization; staff preparation:training and conditioning; and schoolpolicies. operations and communications;interpersonal reactions and relationships.In addition, each member is asked whathe or she personally needs from otherteam members.

Close the planning phase with a gen-eral review of incidei ts. complications.individual reactions at d group reactions.Reinforce plans for individual and groupchanges. and note referral resources. Tocomplete the debriefing, other a final op-portunity for each participant to expressanything left unsaid and to address his orher hopes for the future.

Individual applicationsIn crisis intervention contexts. individu-

als sometimes disclose that they are incrisis because of the combination of anumber of past incidents and currentcomplications. They struggle with dailydecisions about life choices and practicalstrategies for the future. This situationpresents a puzzling glut of informationfor interviewers to work through, unlesssome system of organization keeps thesession from being sidetracked and hope-lessly hogged down.

The following modified CTSD ap-proach has proven useful in such situa-tions. When it has become apparent thata number of incidents and compile :dons

figure heavily in the individual's (Ds-tress, the intervener can provide locus hdrawing the following 2 x 2 box on paperor a blackboard:

Incidents Reactions

Complications Planning

If the situation is a crisis intervention,complete the chart during the session, as-sessing appropriately the individual'sneed for structured support and risk fac-tors. If the situation is the beginning ofan ongoing counseling relationship. useseveral sessions to gather more compre-hensive data. When working with an in-dividual, you may use the complicationsstage to explore the complications con-sidered in team debriefings, along withpersonal factors such as family issues, in-dividual background and prior trauma.

Staff and students who have been vic-

timized by school crisis need appropriateand skillful care. Those who choose toaccept the challenge of working withtraumatized children and traumatizedcommunities need to he prepared to dothe very best job possible. They them-selves need support in this very impor-tant work. Cumulative Traumatic Stress


Red Ribbon Weekcampaign promotesanti-drug message

President Bush has proclaimed theweek of October 24 to November 1as National Red Ribbon Week.

Many localities will mark the oc-casion with rallies, ceremonies,special activities and contests.

The red ribbon was designatedas the symbol of intolerance of ille-gal drug use and a commitment toa drug-free lifestyle following themurder of Federal Agent EnriqueCamarena by drug traffickers.

Red Ribbon Week provides anopportunity for schools and com-munities to unite to raise publicawareness regarding alcohol andother drug abuse. Positive atti-tudes, a key factor in the preven-tion of drug usage, can be gener-ated through the simple wearing ofa red ribbon.

Repetition of the "no use" mes-sage reinforces its meaning. Thevisual impact of hundreds of redribbons sends a nonverbal mes-sage that demands attention.Strong public commitment to adrug-free environment benefits theentire community.

Debrief ings have been helpful in provid-ing such support.

Throughout the cowl*. school dis-tricts are des eloping crisis responseteams to respond to trauma in the Ines oftheir students. It would behoove them toaddress the post-crisis needs of slat fmembers and address the issues of ennui_lative traumatic stress as well. ite

This material is adapted 11'0111 School

Crisis Management: A Team TrainingGuide by Kendall Johmst 1. availablefrom Hunter House Ito., Publishers.P.O. Box 2914. Alameda. CA 0450/5101 M5-5282.

-+; J

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School Crisis: Under Control

"Imagine a gunman invading yourschool. Or terrorists planting a bomb.Or a classroom of students held hos-tage. These situations may seem un-real even impossible.... Everyschool urban, rural or suburbanis vulnerable. When will a crisis strikeyour school? And will you be ready?"

These words, spoken by acclaimedactor Edward James Olmos, combinewith news footage of actual school cri-sis events to provide an eye-openingintroduction to "School Crisis: Under

Control," a 25-minute, award-winning documentary on school crisis prevenLion. preparation, management and resolution. This informative videotape isdesigned to help schools and communities prepare for the unexpected bydesigning crisis prevention arid response plans. These plans will improvethe community's ability to overcome such disasters and also will helpschools avoid potential liability.

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YouthAPossroa"Feeling good about yourself can't bebought on a street corner. It must be builtfrom within. But there are dangers youshould know about. Those pressures wecall 'risk factors....-

This powerful message to America'stroubled children is presented in "High-Risk Youth/At The Crossroads," a 22-minute, award-winning documentary onyouth drug abuse prevention hosted byactor LeVar Burton.

By combining real-life profiles and commentary from nationally renownedauthorities, the documentary provides a compelling case to look beyond currentdrug abuse intervention strategies exemplified by the "Just Say No" campaign.Researchers have identified individual. family, peer, community and school-relatedproblems that make kids more prone to use illegal drugs. The focus on positiveresponse suggests that the most promising approach to "high-risk youth" and drugabuse is one of prevention. not simply intervention. This important theme isreinforced throughout the fast-paced program.

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Principals play pivotal roles inkeeping their schools safe andeffective places of learningBut, without the support ofparents, teachers, law enforc-ers and other legal, govern-ment and community re-sources. they cannot fulfill theirresponsibility.

A recipient of eight nationaland international awards ofexcellence, "What's WrongWith This Picture?" is designedto encourage dialogue betweenschool principals and theircommunity resources. Itpresents the critical issue ofschool safety in a frank and

straightforward way. dramatizing real-life incidents of school-related crimeand violence, drug abuse and suicide.

Whoever thought bullies were alltalk and no action needs to viewthe film `Set Straight on Bullies."produced tc help school adminis-trators educate faculty, parentsand students about the severityof the schoolyard bullying prob-lem. The message is clear: bully-ing hurts everyone.

The 18-minute, Emmy-winning educational film tells the story of a bullyingvictim and how the problem adversely affects his life as well as the lives of thebully, other students, parents and educators.

"I'm always scared. I'm scared to come to school ... I don't want to be afraidanymore," the bullying victim says. In fact. NSSC based the film on researchindicating one in seven students is either a bully or a victim of bullying.

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School Safety 271Fal1 1992

KELLY JAY ASMUSSEN

Results of a recent study suggest that weapon possessionin public high schools is no longer just a big-city phenomenon,

but one likely to be found throughout the United States,

Weapon possessionin public high schools

Hundreds of thousands of students makenew educational discoveries with enthu-siasm every day. yet tear of violence hin-ders the school auendance of thousandsmore. Estimates show that about 8 per-cent of urban students skip school dailyto avoid violence.' The threat of schoolviolence is so real that it overrides theirdesire to learn. Other students respondby arming themselves for protectionagainst school violence.

According to Newsweek magazine."the root causes of this bizarre and lethaltrend include all the usual demons ofAmerican society the easy availabilityof guns, the rise of drug-related crime,parental irresponsibility, and so on.-=The most advanced technological and in-dustrialized nation in the world is alsothe most violent. This may he startlingnews to some, but to others it is the sadreality that begins in kindergarten.

Fear factorsStudents arc victimized twice when theyexperience violence in school once

when they are the victim and again whentheir learning opportunities are inter-rupted.' Experiencing a crime, or feelingthreatened by the possibility of experi-encing a crime. creates fear factors that

Kelly Jay Asmus.sen, MEd., is affiliatedwith the University of Nebraska- Lincoln,where he is working on his Ph.D. inCommunity and Human Resources.

cannot he ignored. Everyone in theschool community is a potential victim,and each one is affected every time anincident occurs.

Should it he conceivable that studentsneed to protect themselves during thecourse of an ordinary school day, any-w here in America?

Times have changed considerably, andalthough weapon possession is not a ma-jor problem in most school systems, ithas become one of the top five concernsof school administrators. Young peoplehave always managed to carry weaponsof some sort to school. but today's weap-ons are much more lethal.

The national school-based Youth RiskBehavior Survey (YRBS) is administeredperiodically to measure the prevalence ofpriority health-risk behaviors among thenation's outh. In 1990. the YRBS ex-amined the prevalence of weapon posses-sion by school-age students in all 50states and three territories. Approximate-ly 20 percent of all students surveyed(grades 9-12) had carried a weapon inthe 30 days preceding the survey. How-ever, students were not asked if this be-havior had occurred while they were atschool.

Weapons in schoolThis article focuses on actual weaponpossession in public high schools. Theinformation is based on a survey that wasadministered within a small, urban, pub-


lie high school system and then com-pared with what has been accepted as thenational average.

Unfortunately, the amount of empiricalresearch on this subject is limited. Moreresearch is needed to help educators planappropriate courses of action to deal withthis problem. Conducting research of thiskind poses a delicate problem: to protectthe rights of students answering surveyforms, vet collect data that may help edu-cators protect their staff and studentsfrom potential violence.

Five primary questions were investi-gated in this sample:

What percentage of public highschool students carry weapon(s) toschool?

What are the reason. Hdicated forcarrying weapon(s) wt Nchool?What is the frequency of students car-rying weapon(s) at school?Is the threat of violence to studentswho attend public high school real orperceived?Does the fear of violence hinder stu-dents' school activities during schoolhours?

For the purpose of this study, any itemthat is taken to school with the intent tohurt someone or to protect oneself is con-sidered a weapon. Many students carryitems, such as pocket knives, to schooland do not consider them to he IA capons,Many are not aware that the school has a

1J

policy that prohibits such items at schooland unintentionally violate school policy.Obviously, other students carry theseitems knowing that they are illegal atschool.

The survey was administered to 859public high school students in grades 10,11 and 12. The participating school sys-tem is a Midwestern city with a popula-tion under 250,000 and a public highschool enrollment of 5,747.

Participating in this survey were 437female students, representing 50.9 per-cent of the sample and 422 male stu-dents, representing 49.1 percent.

National averages confirmedThe study showed that 15.6 percent ofthe students reported that they had car-ried a weapon at school during the1991-92 school year. More than 6 per-cent of the surveyed students carried aweapon to school on a regular basis(more than six times during the schoolyear), while 12 percent had carried aweapon to school more than one timeduring the year. The percentage of stu-dents who had carried a weapon duringthe 30 days preceding the survey was10.4 percent.

Tenth-graders had the highest incidentrate of weapon carrying. This group ac-counted for almost 50 percent of allweapon-carrying students in this samplestudy. More than 19 percent of the 10th-grade students. 14 percent of the llth-grade students and 12 percent of the12th -grade students carried a weapon toschool during the year.

Nearly one-fourth of all male students,compared with only 6.6 percent of the fe-males. carried a weapon to school duringthe year. This figure is consistent withthe 1990 National Youth Risk BehaviorSurvey results showing that males werefour times more likely to carry a weaponat school than females.

The weapon carried most often was aknife (9.3 percent), followed by a hand-gun (2.6 percent). club (2 percent). someother type of weapon (1.7 percent) andother gun (0.3 percent). Twenty-five stu-dents reported carrying a gun of some

type. The reported levels for both knifeand gun possession are in line with re-ported national averages.

Of the students who carried a weaponto school. about 9 percent reported thatthey carried the weapon "for their ownprotection." yet 70 percent of these indi-viduals also reported that they had notbeen approached at school by anyonewith a weapon.

Very few students carried a weapon fortheir friends or to gain status (5 percent).A little more than I percent carried aweapon for an admitted illegal purpose:all of these students reported that theyhad been arrested previously. Another 5percent carried weapons for "other rea-sons." Almost 40 percent of the studentswho carried a weapon to school carriedmore than one weapon at a time.

While at school. students typically car-ried the weapon on their person, most of-ten in a coat pocket or under theirclothes. However, if they concealed itsomewhere in the school building, it wasusually in their locker. Nearly 20 percentof the students surveyed had concealed aweapon in their car in the school parkinglot during the school year. This is 5 per-cent more than those who actually car-ried a weapon into the school building,which helps confirm the national averageof weapon possession for high schoolstudents.

Over half of the students (54 percent)had seen another student carry a weaponat school during the past year, whilemore than 70 percent had heard that an-other student had a weapon at school.

Reporting weapons at schoolOf the 403 students who would report aweapon on campus to a staff person.more than one-thirJ would opt to trust aspecific teacher or counselor with this in-formation. Students who would tell astaff person that someone was carrying aweapon at school would do so for per-sonal safety, as well as for general schoolsafety. Yet, more than 50 percent of thestudents would not tell because they"didn't want to get involved." Another40 percent of the students indicated they

School Safety 29 Fall 199213.-J

would not report because they wereafraid of retaliation, did not want to re-port a friend, or for other reasons.

A total of 66 students (13 percent) hadbeen approached in a threatening man-ner by someone at school who possesseda weapon. Of those who reported beim:,approached, 50 students had been ap-proached three or less times. Eight stu-dents had been approached more thanfour times. Yet only 13 students actuallyreported any of these events to a staffmember. Almost 60 percent of the stu-dents who carried a weapon at schoolhad been approached by another studentwho had a weapon at school.

Further illustration is provided by stu-dent reports of criminal activity atschool. More than 27 percent of the stu-dents responded that they had partici-pated in an activity at school that couldhave resulted in their arrest. Interest-ingly, 14.6 percent of the students sur-veyed had already been arrested at leastonce. Almost half of the students whohad been arrested carried a weapon toschool more than one time during theyear.

When asked about handgun accessibil-ity, nearly one-third answered that some-one owned or kept a handgun where theylived. Over one - fourth of the students

who had carried a weapon to school onmore than one occasion during theschool year had access to a handgunfrom their own home.

According to the survey. the fear ofweapons at school interfered with theeducation of more than 9 percent of thestudents. Interestingly, nearly 80 percentof those who were affected by fear hadnot been approached by anyone who hada weapon. Actually. only 2 percent ofthose who reported that fear of weaponshad hindered their education also re-ported that they had been approached bysomeone at school with a weapon.

Surprising resultsThe findings in this sample support pre-vious research that indicate approxi-mately 20 percent of high school stu-dents carry weapons to school. For a

ASMUSSEN

small urban city in the Midwest to havesimilar findings may come a surmiseto some community educators.

More than half of all the students sur-veyed had seen a weapon at school dur-ing the past year. Nearly three-fourths ofthe students had heard that another stu-dent was carrying a weapon at school.Again, this indicates that students haveknowledge that other students possessweapons at school, but do not actually re-port the weapon carriers as they indi-cated they would in the sur,,,,.y. Peerpressure may be the silent enforcer inthese cases.

The 10th-grade classes surveyed hadthe highest level of weapon possession ofthe three grades for both males and fe-males. This might be attributed to theirfear of being victimized. In speakingconfidentially with students in this sur-vey. many expressed that they "hadheard how had it was going to he on thehigh school level." so they "brought theirprotection" with them. "just in case."

Additionally, students made commentsto the effect that certain junior highschools were much worse than the seniorhigh schools they were now attending.This may indicate that the fear of vio-lence may carry over from previousschool experiences and then slowly de-crease as students progress through highschool.

Students indicated that if they carrieda weapon to school, they would do so to"protect themselves." This answer is themost baffling finding of the study. Thecommunity from which the data werecollected is considered to he a law-abid-ing, peaceful city, without a seriouscrime rate. The crime rate is steadilyclimbing like many other urban areas,yet people feel safe in most areas oftown. Why arc nearly 20 percent of thehigh school students afraid to go toschool without arming themselves, pre-pared to protect themselves, should theneed arise?

It is surprising that no more than9 percent of the students reported thatthreat of violence hindered their educa-tional or extracurricular activities. Stu-

dents reported seeing weapons at schoolfrequently; weapon carriers reportedcoming into contact with other weaponcarriers frequently. Nearly 20 percent ofthe students either had a weapon atschool or access to one. at home or in theschool parking lot.

One previous study of inner-city youthfoond "that 78 percent of the students ex-pressed fear of being a victim of a violentact, 42 percent had seen someone shot orknifed, and 22 percent had actually seensomeone killed."' It is not surprising thatthose who sec this kind of violence on adaily basis may become immune to it andexpect to see such action. When this hap-pens, the number of incidents reported bystudents may dc Tease even further.

Related studies on interpersonal vio-lence in schools suggest that learning isseriously disrupted when students andteachers are in direct danger or fear ofattack. If a teacher cannot feel comfort-able and confident in the classroom, howcan students relax and learn? When fearis involved with the learning process, itmakes no difference how good theteacher is or how good the teaching toolsare. Teachers who harbor fear tend to beabsent from school more often than thoseteachers who do not experience this fearfactor.

A recent survey in Illinois found that4 percent of the teachers had been at-tacked in or around the school, 15 per-cent were victims of attempted attacks,18 percent felt scared at least part of theday, and 20 percent avoided being aloneafter school (when students seek help

Violence against teachers seems to es-calate when students perceive the rules tohe arbitrary. unftai and applied inconsis-tently.' Yet teachers are only occasion-ally targets of violent attacks; most actsof aggression in American schools arcdirected toward other students.

Not just a big-city problemOur youth are exhibiting behaviors atschool that merely image our society atlarge. What is sad is that these behaviorscause some schools to fortify themselves


like prisons. Students arc monitoredwhen they enter, passing through secu-rity checks, many with metal detectors.There are surveillance cameras every-where and students appear to be fencedin with security wire.

School officials need to identify andstrengthen the local resources availableto help cope with school violence. Thereis a need to strengthen the family unitthrough educational programs offeredthrough our schools, emphasizing con-flict resolution, effective decision mak-ing, citizenship, cooperation and simplecourtesy. Because risk taking is a com-mon link between drug use and violence.educational interventions that identifyhigh-risk behaviors and teach safetyskills may he a good starting place.

The implications are increasinglyclear: students feel a need to bring weap-ons to school. The results of this studysuggest that weapon possession in publichigh schools is no longer a big-city phe-nomenon, but one likely to he foundthroughout the United States.

Communities and schools need tomake an informed decision concerninghow they address this problem. No com-munity is immune to violence at schooland should prepare for it accordingly.Any type of disturbance should be an op-portunity for creating a more positiveschool climate. A wise administrator willwant to prepare programs aimed at edu-cating students, parents and teachers inpreventive strategies.

Endnotes1. "Student and Staff Victimization." NSSC Re-

source Paper. National School Salet> Center. June,

1989, p. 3.

2. "It's not just New York...." Newsweek. March 9.1992. pp. 25-29.

3. "Student and Staff Victimiration." p. 2.4. Schubiner.H., R. Scott. A. Tielems, E. Po dam..

and K. Konduri. "Exposure to Violence AmongInner-City Youth." Journal ofMole \ (rat HealthCare. 1114). p. 376.

5. Morison. Kel, in P. "Not all has ens of safety ."Trends and Issue 91 from The Compiler. IllinoisCnminal Justice Information Authority. Fall.1991.

6 Evans. William 11. and Susan S. Evans. The As-sessment of School Violence." Punnet-. 29 (21.pp. 18-21.

NATIONAL UPDATE

Changing youths'attitudes about guns

In working to develop a curriculum de-signed to change youths' attitudes towardcams and violence, the Gun Safety Insti-tute (GSI) of Cleveland, Ohio. recentlycommissioned research from the ChildGuidance Center of Greater Cleveland.The "Development of the Gun-PronenessQuestionnaire: A Measure of Attitudestoward Guns and Violence among UrbanYouth" results are summarized below.

The gun attitude survey was adminis-tered to students in their classrooms, su-pervised by their teacher and a GSI staffmember. Anonymity was assured.

The data analysis yielded the followingfour factors, which address the questionof why many youth are attracted to guns.

Excitement. The respondent is stimu-lated by the potential pleasure gunswould bring. Guns are perceived as fun.High scores were awarded for agreementwith items like the following:

I bet it would feel real cool to walkdown the street with a gun in my pocket.

It 1vould be exciting lo hold a loadedgun in my hand.

I'd like to have my own ,gun.

Power/safety. Analysis showed thatthese two issues were inextricably linkedin the students' thinking. Beyond the is-Sue of guns, these children felt that safetywas achieved primarily through power.Additionally, this power was not psycho-logical in nature, but concrete and physi-cally aggressive. Inherent in this mindsetis a lack of faith in adults to provide pro-tection. as well as lack of confidence intheir own ii,. rpersonal skills such as ne-gotiation, assertiveness and conflict reso-

lution. High scores occurred when re-spondents agreed with statements like:

it 's a good feeling to win a fight.Belonging to a gang makes people /eel

safe because they've got people to backthem up.

If I carried a gun 1 wouldn't hare to beOvid of people out on die street.

Comfort with aggression. Attitudes re-garding aggressita-i and violence in ev-eryday life were measured in this subtext.There were few direct references to guns.Here it is shown that the desire to have agun is not only related to feelings aboutguns per se, but is also related to beliefsabout aggression and conflict in general.Adolescent rejection of adult values maycontribute to the desire to own a gun:gun-proneness did increase from the fifthto the seventh grade. High scores weregiven when a pupil disagreed with thefollowing:

Problems could almost always beworked out without fighting if peoplewould just talk things out.

A person who is strong inside can walkaway from dfight even if kids make fiatof him or her.

Aggressive response to shame. Thisfactor encompasses the belief that shameresulting from an insult can only he un-done through aggression. There are twostages in this pattern. First, a high scoreindicates individuals sensitive to insultsor mockery, and second, a reliance onphysical aggression is the means of re-establishing a positive self-concept.Sample items are:

A kid who doesn't get even with some-


1 i

one who makes fun of him is a sucker.If someone insults me or my family, it

really bothers me, but if I beat them up,that makes me feel better.

If someone disrespects me. I have tofight them to get my pride back.

A total of 461 fifth, seventh and ninth-grade students in the Cleveland PublicSchool System took the survey. Femalescomprised 54 percent of the sample.males 46 percent. The racial and ethniccomposition of the sample was: African-American. 65 percent: Caucasian, 20percent: Hispanic, 7 percent: and other, 8percent.

This sample of urban youth had a highdegree of exposure to guns. Almost allhad heard shots fired in their neighbor-hood. A majority reported that they hadheld a gun and that a relative of theirshad been shot with a gun. Almost one-half stated that there was a gun in theirhome. Many reported actually seeingsomeone shot. Forty-one boys and threegirls said that they owned a gun: 14 boysand six girls had been shot.

There was a statistically significantdifference between the sexes. with boysexpressing a higher average level of gun-proneness. Grade level was also signifi-cantly related to gun-proneness, withlower scores from the fifth-grade stu-dents than from the seventh-graders andninth-graders, who did not differ fromeach other. Gun-prone attitudes were notrelated to racial or ethnic backgrounds.

Oserall. gun-proneness seems to he afunction both of feelings and beliefsabout guns themselves and of more gen-eral feelings and beliefs about aggressionand fighting.

These results have important implica-tions for the development of a curricu-lum designed to decrease students' at-traction to guns. The curriculum shouldaddress the issue of aggressie responseto interpersonal problems. Learning ef-fective, nonviolent means of dealing withconflict will enable students to protecttheir self-esteem.

Prepared by Sue Ann Meador, associateeditor (4.School Safety.

LEGISLATIVE UPDATE

Drive-by shooting:Gangs and guns

States that have serious street gangproblems have now started to fight back.Le,:islatures at the state and local levelare discussing policies and passing lawsdesigned to take the fun and profit out ofgana activity. These laws designed tomake juvenile and adult gang membersaccountable for their activities havelong been ads ocated by juvenile justicelaw enforcement experts.

Juveniles are becoming more ac-quainted with guns, and the firearms areaiming up in schools at an alarmingrate. More teen-age boys die from gun-shot wounds than all natural causescombined, and a black male teen-ager isII times more likely to be killed with agun than a white male teen-ager.

Between 1984 and 1988. the firearmdeath rate among teen-agers increasedby more than 40 percent.' According tothe Centers for Disease Control, 2.5 mil-lion teen-agers carry weapons.'

Heightening the alarm are the increas-ing activities of gangs whose turf-ori-ented, "survival of the meanest" philoso-phy has resulted in gunplay in andaround campuses across the country.Drive-by shootings have become signa-ture acts of juvenile gangs.

A few states have now passed laws de-signed to discourage drive-by shoot-ings. These laws seek both to call atten-tion to the increase in drive-by shootingsand to provide stiffer penalties for thoseprosecuted. The typical law makes it acrime to shoot a firearm from or at a ve-hicle. without regard for whether the ve-hicle is moving or parked. The varia-tions apparent in the law s suggest thatlegislators has e attempted to tailor these

laws to the types of'incidenfs takingplace in their jurisdictions.

California has taken a highly visibleapproach to the problem of drive-byshootings. It passed an emergency billon drive-by shootings designed to in-crease the sentences of gang members byan additional four years to he servedafter the sentence imposed for the as-sault or homicide.' The preamble to thelegislation contained the followingadmonition:

It is the intent of the Legislature to in-crease the penalty for drive-byshootings that cause a victim to sufferpermanent paralysis or paraparesis.By increasing the penalties for thesetypes of crimes, gang members who inrecent years have accounted for a dra-matic increase in drive-by shootingsmay be more effectively removed fromthe streets of our communities for alonger period of time.'

In addition, California legislators re-moved the usual secrecy from the pros-ecution of juveniles who violate the law.making their delinquency hearings opento the public.'

Rhode Island recently passed legisla-tion that provides for a minimum 10-year sentence and a $5.000 fine for any-one who "shall discharge a firearm froma motor vehicle in a manner which cre-ates a substantial risk of death or seriousinjury. Similarly. the Texas legislaturepassed a law that punishes drive-byshooters, without regard for whethersomeone is injured as a result.'

Some states have taken steps in thisarea with little fanfare, expanding cur-

rent laws to support the prosecution ofdrive-by shooters. Washington recentlyexpanded its reckless endangermentstatute to include this activity.''

Drive-by shooting laws represent asignificant response to juvenile gangviolence. Some practical problems re-main. For example, such shootings haverisen in popularity because, in mostcases, identification of the vehicle in-volved in the shooting is difficult to ob-tain. Victims and passers-by are duckingfor cover. In cases where license num-bers are obtained, the vehicles involvedare often stolen and untraceable to theshooters. But the laws do signal achange in policy, and a change in tacticsis sure to follow.

When Isaac Fulwood Jr. resigned aschief of the Washington, D.C. PoliceDepartment in the summer of 1992, hemade the announcement at an inner-cityhigh school, where he commented onhow much times have changed:

There was no such thing as a drive-byshooting or a daily crime count....Too many young people now becomeeither criminal or victim or both.Communities may vow to take hackthe streets, but that won't happen un-less communities can reclaim the chil-dren from the streets.'"

School Safety 32 Fall 1992 -1 ,

Endnotes

1. Statistics attributed to Secretar of Health andHuman Sen ices Louis Sunk an, see Stapprngthe Violouv. The Seattle Times. Editorial, Sep-tember 5. 1992.

2 Innera. Carol. Pistol-oaciang kids put is //00/V

on alert. The Washington Times. August 23.1992. at A I .

3. Worthington. Rogers. ,Sfinneapoh% Enlists Gang

Member's //Hp. Chicago Tribune. December 15.1992 at 29.

1992 Cal. ALS 510: 1992 Cal. SB 1649: Stat..1992 ch 510.

5 Id.

6. Cal. Wel. and Inst. Code at 676 (1992).7. R.I. Gen. Laws at II-17-61 (199158. Texas Penal Code. §22 021.9. Res iced Code of Washington. 9A.36.050 (1991i.

10. limo: Fullwood'N Commitment. The WashingtonTimes. September 11. 1992 at F2.

Prepared by Bernard lante.s. .specialcouwel for NSSC.

LEGAL UPDATE

Getting whatyou bargain for

Labor law has had a profound effect onthe working environment. Nowhere isthe impact greater than upon the issue ofsafety in the workplace. When concernsof safety arise, it is not uncommon forunion workers to withhold labor untilconditions improve. Even educators haveexperience with the process.

Teachers in Chicago filed a grievancealleging that unsafe working conditionsexisted at a school where eight cancer-related illnesses. including five deaths.had occurred within a seven-year period.The city immediately responded.' Theteachers returned to work after investiga-tion showed no link between the illnessesand the school.

In Tucson, Arizona, teachers and theunion filed an unsafe working environ-ment complaint against the school dis-trict because of leaky roofs at severalsites. The district responded with plansto fix the roofs, ironically concludingthat there was no health or safety hazardcreated because "20 other district schoolslalso had] leaky rook.'.,

Given the rise in violence on schoolcampuses, one would expect that teach-ers and their unions would take a similarattitude toward the conditions created byviolence, gang activity, drugs and weap-ons. Surprisingly, this is not happening.

The lack of coordination betweenunions and teachers on the issue of safeworking conditions is odd for two rea-sons. First, unions play a major role indefining safe working conditions in thecollective bargaining agreement. In onerecent court decision in which teacherssued for back pay, the collective bargain-ing agreement defined unsafe working

conditions in the following manner.'Teachers shall not he required to workunder unsafe or hazardous conditionsor to perform tasks which endangertheir health or safety. Unsafe condi-tions are understood to include lack ofelectricity, water or inappropriateworking temperatures. Teacher atten-dance shall not he required wheneverstudent attendance is not required dueto inclement weather or unsafe work-ing conditions. All such days are sub-ject to being made up at the discretion'of the Superintendent.

The court in the case upheld the awardof hack pay when it became clear that therefusal of the teachers to work was justi-fied by the unsafe working conditionsclause. The judges concluded that "webelieve that. in this case, both the on-tractual provisions of the agreement un-der consideration and the legislationpassed in conjunction with the declara-tion of a state emergency in 1977 neces-sitate a conclusion that these days weremissed on account of the weather."

Thus, it would seem that unions couldsimply make the safe schools issue anagenda item for the collective bargainingsession. The interest of the teachers iscertainly served by bringing safe schoolsissues to the bargaining table. Moreover,it is also in the hest interest of the schooldistrict. Given the range of occurrencesalready recognized within the term "un-safe working conditions," liability mayhe created by the failure to add an occur-rence that is both prevalent and disrup-tive of the educational environment.

Second. unions may find that the fail-


1

tire to raise the issue of safe schools as apart of their duty to bargain on behalf ofteachers may result in union liaiblity toteachers. Under the causes on this issue,unions share a duty to respond to condi-tions that "adversely affect the safety ofthe workplace."' When such actions arenot pre-empted by federal law, the unionmay he liable for negligence in its duty offair representation.

Interestingly, any duty from whichliability might he tbund is also createdin the collective bargaining agreement.Agreements requiring that the union"shall" make certain that the work envi-ronment of its members is safe actuallycreate such a duty. while agreements thatavoid the mandatory language are not soconstrued.

In one such case, the court ruled that"that under the collective bargainingagreement the union had taken over foritself a managerial function, the full in-dependent right to enforce safety require-ments," adding that the safety responsi-bility assumed by the union was separateand distinct from the usual duties of apurely representative nature, such asthose involved in the processing ofgrievances.'

Given the historic working relation-ship between teachers and their unions,it should he relatively simple to add safeschools issues to the labor conditionschecklist. At a minimum, current griev-ance procedures could he expanded to in-clude specific complaints about schoolviolence. When school hoards become fa-miliar with the effect of unsafe schoolson the educational environment as a la-bor issue, changes will not he far behind.

Endnoles

. Schur)/ bound Sale. Chicago Tribune. December19. 1986. at 3.

2. oiled Prev, International. No% ember I. 1983.

3. Montour School Di%tria v. Montour Education..1ociation. 417 .A.2d 1331, 1332119791.

4. Sec annotation on Liability of Labor Union for In-jury of Death Allegedly Re,,ulting From LImafeWorking Condition,,, 14 A.L.R. 4th 1161.

5 M. .11 1180.

Prepared by Bernard Jame s. specialcounsel for N5.SC.

RESOURCE UPDATE

The truthsimply told

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Do or Die by Leon Bing, Harper-Collins Publishers, 199/, 277 pages.

Reports of yet another barrage of auto-matic gunfire bring reactions of horror.Because the public may tend to men-tally stereotype gangs and the violencethey generate, personal distaste for theanarchy gangs represent may precludeany desire to understand the reasons be-hind such actions. But beyond the gen-eralized labels are real people, andthose who live within the shadow ofgang territory tell their own stories.

In Do or Die, realistic human por-traits emerge: G-Roc, B-Dog. MonsterKody, Bianca, Claudia and others.They are carefully defined by theirwords and actions in such a way thatthe reader may discover a growing lik-ing for them. The reader becomescaught in their narrative and concernedfor their fate.

What quickly becomes clear, shouldthe reader have a stereotypical image ofgangbangers, is that these are individu-als. There are no mindsets cast instone. "I don't really like to do drive-bys." says G-Roc, "because innocentpeople might get hit, you know?" Fur-ther reading reveals that G-Roc doesindeed shoot people, but his personalcode precludes what to him is a non-necessary taking of life. A reference tosomeone who mistakenly killed thewrong people in a multiple shootingevokes the phrase. "...what he did isscandalous."

The why of gang involvement gradu-ally emerges. in terms moving becauseof their simplicity. From a juvenile pro-

Nation camp staff member, regardingadolescent masculinity: "...in any othercommunity but Watts there would be le-gitimate ways to express those feelings.Little League. Pop Warner. But if you'rea black kid living in Watts those optionshave been removed....The gang offerseverything those legitimate organizationsdo. ...You feel wanted. You feel wel-come. You feel important. And there isdiscipline and there are rules."

From a mother, whose gang-memberson died before he turned sixteen, comesthe bleak recognition that economicsplay a large part in the determination ofchildrens' futures. The working poorexist "at the bottom of the present-dayAmerican economic barrel," and for thiswoman reality is mirrored in a resignedacceptance of a way of life that "came asnaturally to her boy as hanging out atmalls comes to suburban kids."

From both Crips and Bloods comesconfirmation that the money from drugsales can provide comforts for the ex-tended family. allowing escape from amarginal existence. Relocating, thedream to "make it out," is a potentialitytoo beneficial to he ignored. The pricefor such escape. acknowledged and ac-cepted, is the destruction of their owncommunity.

There are no lengthy expositions uponsocial injustice or the trauma of violence.For insight, for a look at reality. Do orDie is a necessary piece of self-educationfor those seeking to understand the gangphenomenon. It should be noted, how-ever, that though understanding maycome to the reader, it is neither solicitednor awaited by those living the gang


lifestyle. "It don't matter what you sayabout gangbangin', you know. don'tmatter if anybody understand it or not.We just bringin' home the hate. ...That'sthe kind of world we live in."

A messagefrom the inside

"Cancelled Lives: Letters from the In-side," a video produced by Brett Hodges,co-produced by Ann Paitizzon anddirected by Martin Good. MilestoneMedia, Inc., Santa Barbara, CA, 1991.

Perhaps nothing will deter a resoluteadolescent bent upon crime and violence,but viewing Cancelled Lives: Lettersfront the Inside might give serious pauseto those who have not yet taken that"first step" toward delinquency.

Designed as a preventive measure, itoffers real words written b) real peoplein a compelling format. Excerpted arepassages from letters sent to loved onesand friends, letters written from inmatesin custody in carious juvenile facilities,jails and grim prisons, to those on theoutside.

The situations are painful. A variety ofwell-known actors narrate vignettes de-picting individual descents into gang ac-tivity and drug abuse. The hellish resultsof sexual abuse. told in a victim's ownwords, touch the heart.

Authenticity is the keynote of this pro-duction; locations are obviously not setsin a studio. Inexpressibly sad faces com-municate what words cannot. The noiseand claustrophobic conditions are cap-tured, as is the essence of humiliationduring a requisite, supervised, pre-incar-ceration shower.

There is nothing "fake" or contrivedabout this production. nothing insincereor condescending. There is no moraliz-ing, only truth. simply told. It is enough.

Prepared by rr Ann Meador, associateeditor of School Safety.

- ^p

Myra C. Bryan

4.

Paul Casciano

Francine C. Fernandez

4

PRINCIPALS4LEADERSHIPiM

Excellence is a focal topic this Olympic year. The imagination iscaught, riveted upon the dreams and long-held hopes of thededicated individuals who push themselves toward personalperfection. Nothing less than the best is acceptable, yet muchmore than the best is demanded as each strives to excel,extending personal goals to increasing levels of achievement.The quest for excellence Is a common theme among this year's

Principals of Leadership. These outstanding men and womenhave displayed to their respective schools, and the communitiesthat surround them, positive examples of guidance; they confirmthe trust accorded them by their students' parents. Excellencehas been defined as that which 'cannot be coerced or mandated,Rather, it is a condition to which individuals may aspire? Eachof these men and women have decided that the norm is unac-ceptable, that the usual can become the unusual through dili-gence and perseverance.

From superiority in overall school climate to programs prepar-ing tomorrow's adults for tomorrow's job market, from firmnurturing of potential dropouts to innovative curriculum, theseexamples of excellence demonstrate advantageous use of allavailable talent. Constructive and creative utilization of time isclearly evident, as is emphatic stress upon mental discipline asthe best means of achieving an orderly, safe, productive schoolenvironment.

The 1992 Principals of Leadership' are (counterclockwisefrom top left): Myra C. Bryan, Socastee High School, MyrtleBeach, South Carolina; Paul Casciano, Moriches ElementarySchool, Moriches, New York; Francine C. Fernandez, KailuaElementary, Kailua, Oahu, Hawaii; Dorothy Travis Johnson,Lapham ParicAssessment Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin; DiannaLindsay, New Trier Township High School, Winnetka, Illinois;Stella Loeb-Munson, Caledonia Elementary School, East Cleve-land, Ohio; William Martin, Bleyl Junior High School, Houston,Texas; David Snead, Cass Technical High School, Detroit,Michigan; Stephen Swymer, General Wayne Middle School,Malvern, Pennsylvania; and M. Jody Tyson, Stovall Junior HighSchool, Houston, Texas.

Presented as a public service by the National Association ofElementary School Principals, the National Association of Sec-

ondary School Principals and the NATIONALSCETYSAFETY

CENTER --1111N

Pepperdine University, Malibu, Cohlonda 90263

80J/373-9977

Dorothy T. Johnson Dianna Lindsay

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Stella Loeb-Munson

M. Jody Tyson

Stephen Swymer

David Snead

William Martin

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Human nature, all too often, seeks the lowest level of responsibility while seekingthe highest expression of freedom and rights. When left unchecked, this often

translates into disruption, violence, truancy, early pregnancy, drug abuse and, in

general, a lack of appropriate self-control and motivation in young people.

Schools and parents can play an important leadership role with students and

the community in teaching responsibility skills. The ideas, suggestions and model

curricula set forth in Developing Personal and Social Responsibility (1992)are designed to serve as a framework on which to build successful programsaimed at training young people to be responsible citizens.

The recently updated School Crime & Violence: Victims' Rights (1992) is acomprehensive text on school safety law. The book offers a historical overview ofvictims' rights, describes how it has been dealt with in our laws and courts, and

explains its effect on America's schools.Many educators are not familiar with the magnitude, import or specifics of the

burgeoning phenomenon of liability and litigation in the United States. This lack ofinformation and understanding can only breed more conflict and litigation. Schools

must prepare themselves for the possibility of such liability.The authors of Victims' Rights cite legal case histories and cover current

school liability laws. This useful tool provides advice to educators and school ad-

ministrators in risk and liability prevention, and in implementing campus crime pre-

vention programs.

SCI if )( )l CRIME6 V C E

VICTIMS'RIGHTS

I II "AV

Originally published in 1986, the newly revised edition of the School DisciplineNotebook (1992) will help educators establish fair and effective discipline. It reviews

student responsibilities and rights, including the right to safe schools. The correlation

between orderly, disciplined schools and safe, productive schools is examined. Le-

gal policies that regulate discipline methods used in schools are also explored.In addition, suggestions are offered for the many practical tasks required of educa-

tors, including preparing discipline codes, defining and tracking infractions, and disci-

plining special education students. A resource section suggests publications, films

and policies providing further assistance with school discipline.

Elementary Secondary *Crack Babies - ERIC

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Transcript of Elementary Secondary *Crack Babies - ERIC