Efstratiou, N., Biagi, P., Elefanti, P., Karkanas, P. and Ntinou, M. 2006. Prehistoric exploitation...

Prehistoric exploitation of Grevenahighland zones: hunters and herdersalong the Pindus chain of westernMacedonia (Greece)

Nikos Efstratiou, Paolo Biagi, Paraskevi Elefanti,Panagiotis Karkanas and Maria Ntinou

Abstract

The surveys and excavations carried out in the highland zone of the Grevena Pindus Mountains haverevealed that the watershed that separates western Macedonia from Epirus was (seasonally)inhabited in different prehistoric times, from the Middle Palaeolithic to the Bronze Age. The highest

concentration of ‘sites’ is known from the surroundings of the modern village of Samarina, which isrich in good-quality chert raw material outcrops. This territory is still nowadays heavily exploited byVlach shepherds who seasonally carry out pastoral activities, moving their flocks from the easternlowlands up to the high-altitude pastures. The excavations carried out at three different sites, all

lying on a flysch substratum, revealed the presence of a redeposited lower sediment, characterized bya polygonal soil caused by ground freezing that was later effected by erosion canals produced byhuman interference in the landscape. The results so far obtained from a few charcoal radiocarbon

dates indicate that this fact took place in at least three different periods from the middle Bronze Ageto the seventh century AD.

Keywords

Highland zone; Pindus; archaeology; Middle Palaeolithic; transhumance; pastoralism; anthracology;

soil micromorphology.

Introduction

At the end of the 1960s local amateurs discovered the first high altitude Mesolithic camps

in the eastern Italian Alps (Bagolini 1972) and, a few years later, this highland zone

became one of the most intensively investigated in Europe. These unexpected results,

which brought back the peopling of the Alpine world to the Middle Palaeolithic,

World Archaeology Vol. 38(3): 415–435 Archaeology at Altitude

ª 2006 Taylor & Francis ISSN 0043-8243 print/1470-1375 online

DOI: 10.1080/00438240600813327

were illustrated in the proceedings of two different congresses held by the Museo

Tridentino di Scienze Naturali (Bagolini 1983; Bagolini et al. 1992). They were later

followed by the proceedings of another round table on the highland zone exploitation of

south-east Europe (Biagi and Nandris 1994) and the discovery of the importance of

mountain archaeology in various regions of Europe (see, for instance, Valde-Nowak 1999;

Tillet 2000; Meshveliani et al. 2004). This work demonstrated that mountains did not

necessarily act as cultural barriers, at least from the Neolithic onwards (Schekenburger

2002), a view highly reinforced by the recent discovery of the Copper Age Similaun

mummy (Fleckinger 2003).

Given these premises, and the absence of research in the key region of the Pindus

mountain range of south-east Europe, a research project was launched by the Department

of Archaeology of the University of Thessaloniki in order to recover archaeological sites in

a region that, like the Italian Alpine zone before the 1960s, was previously thought not to

have been settled earlier than the Iron Age.

The Grevena highlands

The area considered in this paper is located within the Ligkos Mountains, in the core

of the north Pindus range (Fig. 1). It consists of a broad, uplifted landscape that

constitutes the southern edge of the Dinaric Alps. This highland zone is characterized by a

series of ridges, separated by plateaux deeply dissected by river courses, with many peaks

Figure 1 Map of Greece and the area of research.

416 Nikos Efstratiou et al.

exceeding 2,000m. The highest of these is Mt Smolikas (2,640m), at the western edge of the

region. In particular, the altitudes in the north Pindus are higher, which makes this rugged

topography relatively inaccessible even today.

The surveyed area, which yielded most of the archaeological ‘sites’, is located around

Samarina. This village lies along the eastern piedmont of Mt Gorgul’u, close to ‘the

junction of two small streams, one rising at our feet on the Mormide and separating that

from Ghumara, the other rising on the col called La Greklu near the village of

Furka. . . . Just above this confluence and on the slope below the pine woods of Gorgul’u is

Samarina itself’ (Wace and Thompson 1913: 37).

This territory is of unique geographic importance, because east of Samarina a long

watershed extends between the courses of the Samarina River or Samariniotikos, to the

west, and the Venetikos, to the east. This fact is pointed out by Hammond who reports:

the central watershed between the Adriatic Sea and the Aegean basin is formed by the

range of Greenstone between Grammos and the Zygos . . . the watershed lying further to

the east varies from 1,700m to 1,600m in height, and then turns south-west into a long

high ridges . . . which terminates in a wide plateau to the south of Milea; from the

plateau . . . the Pinios and the Venetiko take their sources.

(Hammond 1967: 11, see also Map 1 at pp. 4–5)

The surface of this watershed is characterized by an undulating plateau with altitudes

gradually increasing towards the north west, from 1,400 up to 1,900m (Plate 1). It is rich in

springs and watering holes, which are seasonally exploited by the Vlach shepherds of

Samarina and the neighbouring villages of settled pastoralists (Koupatsari) to water their

flocks.

The origin of this landscape, the flanks of which are gently rounded by a dense, shallow

drainage system, is a direct consequence of its lithology, which consists of a soft, easily

eroded flysch formation developed along a north-west–south-east trending zone. To the

north and south it is bounded by igneous rocks of the Pindus ophiolite. The flysch consists

Plate 1 The long, narrow watershed from the west (photo: P. Karkanas).

Prehistoric exploitation of Grevena highland zones 417

of thin, bedded alternations of fine-grained siltstones and coarse-grained sandstones, with

occasional scatters of small, isolated outcrops of Mesozoic limestones (Plate 2), which

include light grey (10YR7/1)1 radiolarian chert nodules (Brunn 1952, 1956).

Continuous, parallel stripes of detached vegetation mat, tongue-shaped lobes and deep

scars are widespread along the slopes of the flysch (Plate 3). These typical periglacial

features are produced by gelifluction (solifluction), frost creep or ground-ice slump due to

seasonally frozen ground (Lewkowich 1988). The slope processes result in mass movement

Plate 2 Hilly grassland with limestone outcrops on the top of the watershed.

Plate 3 Detached vegetation mat due to frost-creep (photo: P. Karkanas).


of sediments saturated with water from higher to lower ground. Extensive talus slopes can

be observed beneath most of the free faces of the limestone outcrops (Plate 4). They are

most likely due to repeated freeze-thaw loosening of the rocks on the face by frost wedging.

Climatic characteristics

The climatic characteristics of the territory are transitional between Mediterranean and

Continental ones, with a few Central European features (Polunin 1980; Ntafis et al. 1997).

The winters are cold, with minimum temperatures well below 08C. The mean January and

July temperatures of 758C and þ158C are typical of the highland zones of the north

Pindus, while the summer drought does not exceed one to two months, during which

downpours are very frequent. In general, precipitation is evenly distributed during

throughout the year, with a mean annual rainfall of some 1,000–1,500mm. In the central

massif of Mt Smolikas, where it is often of orographic origin (Bailey 1997a: 325), it is in

the range of 2,000mm. Above 1,000m, snow may last several months, from December to

the end of the spring (Polunin 1980).

The present-day vegetation cover is conditioned by latitude, altitude, relief and

substrate. Below 1,000–1,100m the supramediterranean, deciduous oak forest is very

common, with various temperate elements. The oromediterranean bioclimatic stage

composition, with Pinus nigra subs. pallasiana (black pine), predominates from 1,000m up

to 1,700–1,800m. A low percentage of other species of Mediterranean pines, namely

P. leucodermis and P. mugo, is also present. The northern exposures are covered by

oromediterranean formations of Fagion hellenicum with F. sylvatica (beech) and, locally,

Abies borisii-regis (fir). At higher altitudes, up to some 2,300m, the lower altimediterranean

Plate 4 Samarina 5 test-trench at the foot of a highly shattered limestone outcrop: the blocks of soilon the side of the trench were systematically removed during the excavation (photo: N. Efstratiou).


or subalpine vegetation is characterized by scattered P. heldreichii. The mountain peak

cover (upper altimediterranean or alpine stage) is treeless, with alpine rocky meadows of

Poaceae (Quezel and Barbero 1985; Ntafis et al. 1997). Due to current and recent intense

human activity, the present-day vegetation is mainly composed of grasslands and patchy

woods of black pine or beech. The traditional economy of the area is based mainly on sheep

herding and its vegetation sustained numerous flocks in summer pastures, which, during the

last three decades of the nineteenth century, numbered ‘81,000 head of sheep’ (Wace and

Thompson 1913: 159) at Samarina itself, ‘the highest of the Vlach villages’ (Hammond

1967: 266).

Although almost nothing is known of the vegetation history of the area, and the effect of

the human impact on the landscape, Wace and Thompson report that, along the eastern

slopes of Mt Gorgul’u, around the end of the nineteenth century, the Samarina villagers

‘cut the trees recklessly and wastefully, and allowed sheep and goats to be pastured in the

cleared areas, so that young pines had no chance of coming to maturity even in this hill

country so well adapted for their rapid grow. So the destruction proceeded till the slope of

Gorgul’u was bare’ (1913: 45).

Soils and sediment

The study of the area’s pedo-sedimentary history is of major importance for the

understanding of the palaeoenvironmental changes that took place there through time in

relation to the past climate. The typical soil beneath the watershed grassland slopes is

immature, with a weakly developed profile. It undoubtedly derives from an anthropogenic

disturbance of the vegetation cover, which has led to frequent churning, solifluction and

creeping that have prevented any further development of the soil horizons. Beneath the

root mat of the A horizon, the sediment consists of a light brown sandy loam.

Nevertheless, remnants of deep soil profiles can be noticed in a few small depressions of

the flat areas of the watershed. They are represented by typical chernozems (Mollisols or

Phaeozems) with a well-developed A horizon, some 50cm thick (mollic epipedon), beneath

the compact root mat of grasses. The mollic epipedon is a uniform, dark greyish brown

(10YR4/2) clay with a granular structure. A gleyed horizon of bluish-greenish grey colour,

characteristic of waterlogged conditions, is commonly formed beneath. Some reddish-

brown prairie soils (Argiustolls or Luvic Phaeozems) are described for the open wood

areas, recorded in the same zone at slightly lower altitudes (some 1,600m) (Institute of

Forest Research 1990).

The surveys

Our archaeological surveys were aimed at producing evidence of hunter-gatherer survival

strategies in these high-altitude environments. With a few exceptions (Toufexis 1994;

Wilkie and Savina 1997), research in the area had rarely been undertaken previously,

despite the fact that it is located between Epirus (Bailey 1997b; Runnels and van Andel

2003) and Thessaly (Runnels 1988; Runnels and van Andel 1993; Apostolika-Kyparissi


2000), areas known for their prehistoric record. The methodology of our research was

formed around a predictive site-location model based on early Holocene sites in alpine

Italy (Biagi and Nandris 1994; Biagi 1998). According to this model, high-altitude

watersheds could have provided easy passageways from one region to another, as well as

spots where the presence of almost perennial water sources could facilitate animal

encounters and overnight stays.

Fieldwork was conducted by a small team in four successive years from 2002 to 2005,

each season lasting an average of two weeks (Efstratiou et al. 2003: 581). Our research

took account of existing data from past archaeological (Wilkie and Savina 1997) and

ethnographic work (Chang and Tourtellotte 1993). However, field walking constituted the

main project tool, supplemented by small-scale excavations on selected spots and

palaeoenvironmental studies. As is often the case in surveys (Cherry et al. 1991: 14;

Runnels et al. in press), there is significant pressure to explore the selected area at a

sufficient level of intensity, while making the best use of the time and resources allocated to

the project.

A total of ninety-one sites was discovered (see Fig. 2). Many (forty-six sites) are located

in the surroundings of the village of Samarina, notably along the high, right-hand terraces

of the Samarina River, at the piedmont of the Gorgul’u and on the elongated watershed

Figure 2 Distribution map of the archaeological sites discovered during the 2002–5 surveys (dots).The square indicates the location of the modern village of Samarina (S).


between the saddle of La Greklu, the easiest passage that links western Macedonia to

Epirus, and the Mormide outcrop (Wace and Thompson 1913: Map I).

The archaeological discoveries

John Nandris (pers. comm. 1980) was the first to recognize the presence of Middle

Palaeolithic artefacts from the terraces of the Samarina river, south of the village itself, in

the autumn of 1980. Apart from these occasional discoveries, the archaeology of the area

was restricted to the presence of a few classical sites, one of which is still being excavated

(Drougou and Kallini 2003). The 2002–5 surveys have demonstrated that most of this

highland zone was crossed or seasonally (ephemerally) settled during three main periods,

the Middle Palaeolithic (Fig. 3), the very end of the Pleistocene and/or the beginning of the

Holocene and after the end of the Neolithic. A few finds indicate that at some periods of

the Late Palaeolithic the Mormide area was also sporadically visited (Fig. 4, nn. 1 and 2).

The oldest archaeological ‘sites’ so far discovered are to be attributed to the Mousterian.

In this area it is represented by several assemblages characterized by a very high

Levalloisian component. These sites are particularly numerous on the western terraces of

the Samarina river, just to the north of the village itself, where dense scatters of artefacts

were discovered in 2005, as well as along the watershed between the La Greklu saddle and

Mormide (Fig. 2).

Although most of the artefacts from these sites were obtained from local light grey

chert, a few of them were chipped from liver-coloured radiolarian chert, green quartz and

transparent quartz. Most of the Middle Palaeolithic tools consist of unretouched flakes/

flakelets, sometimes with faceted chapeaux de gendarme butts, although Levallois cores,

different types of side scrapers, denticulated specimens and Levallois flakes and blade-like

flakes are also represented (Fig. 3).

Apart from the Mousterian-Levalloisian assemblages, two typical Upper Palaeolithic

tools have been collected from the surface of Samarina 16a (S6a). These two artefacts, a

prismatic bladelet core and a double, long end scraper (Fig. 4, nn. 1 and 2), indicate that

the watershed was traversed during warmer oscillations of the last Glacial period by

people who carried exogenous chert pebbles, which were later manufactured at their high-

altitude camps.

A similar phenomenon is known for the very end of the Late Palaeolithic and/or the

very beginning of the Holocene. Unfortunately, almost nothing is known of the

deglaciation process of the Ligkos Mountains. Nevertheless, it is now clear that the last

hunter-foragers of the Final Pleistocene and/or the first hunter-foragers of the Early

Holocene frequented the high-altitude landscapes of the Pindus range in western

Macedonia. Their passage, and most probably summer settling, is indicated by the

occurrence of hypermicrobladelet and hypermicroflakelet cores of different types, obtained

from different varieties of exogenous flint collected from several sites (Fig. 4, nn. 3–8), and

also by a few fragmented bladelets and one isosceles trapeze, which might be attributable

to the (Late) Mesolithic (Fig. 4, n. 9).

After this period, the prehistoric presence in these mountains is attested by a relatively

low number of sites, which have yielded flat-retouched or foliate tools. The most


important of these are the finds from a former, at present almost dissected 1,783m-high

glacial basin (Vasilitsa 7d: V7d) (Fig. 4, nn. 13–15), and along the middle altitude (1,230m)

right-hand terraces of the Venetikos (Agios Athanasios1: AA1) from which typical Late

Figure 3 Middle Palaeolithic tools: Levallois core (1), different types of scrapers (2–8 and 11),Levallois points and flakes (9, 10, 12 and 13). S12 (1), S27 (2), S29 (3), S7a (4), S6 (5 and 7), S13 (6),

S43 (8), S40 (9), S7 (10 and 12), S14 (11), S27 (13). All the tools are made on local light grey chert,except for 3, which is of very dark green quartzite (1:2) (drawings: P. Biagi and G. Almerigogna).


Neolithic painted pottery and one greenstone axe have been recovered. This should

indicate that, from this period onwards, people began to ascend the river courses

descending from the Pindus down to the Grevena Plain, to settle seasonally and slowly re-

conquer the mountain zones that had been abandoned since the beginning of the

Holocene.

Sporadic Late Neolithic finds are also known from other sites, among which is

Samarina 8, whose surface yielded a small greenstone chisel (Fig. 4, n. 16).

Traces of Bronze Age frequenting are known from several localities, which have yielded

typical ceramic potsherds, charcoal radiocarbon dates and structural remains, among

which are hearths. Furthermore, still undated small stone cairns have been found along

the top of a few high-altitude ridges. These discoveries may suggest that specialized

pastoralism was already practised in this region in the Middle/Late Bronze Age, contrary

to suggestions that this phenomenon is a recent one (Halstead 1987, 1991). During this

period people were already crossing the western Macedonia-Epirus watershed, most

probably to move their flocks seasonally from the winter lowland pastures of the

Thessalian Plain to the high-altitude, summer ones, following movements comparable to

those of more recent Vlach shepherds who still inhabit these zones (Cherry 1988: 6).

Figure 4 Late Palaeolithic bladelet core (1) and double end scraper (2), Final Pleistocene/EarlyHolocene cores (3–7 and 8), Late Mesolithic (?) isosceles trapeze (9), Neolithic (?) transversearrowhead (10), bladelet truncation (11), sickle bladelet (12), Late Neolithic flat retouched

instruments (13–15) and greenstone chisel (16). S16a (1 and 2), S27 (3), S2 (4 and 8), S8 (5, 11 and16), S7 (6), F3 (7), S5 (9), S11 (10), S23 (12), V7g (13–15). All the tools are made on different varietiesof exotic chert (1:2) (drawings: P. Biagi and G. Almerigogna).


The excavations

A number of test trenches were opened during our survey work, only three of which

yielded a sufficient number of artefacts to sustain a small-scale excavation (Efstratiou et al.

2004: 623). The three excavated sites are those of Samarina 5 (S5) (Plate 4), Samarina 8

(S8) and Samarina 23 (S23). All are located along the highest, gently sloping pastures of

the watershed altitudes, close to natural springs (Fig. 1 and Plate 1).

Two major units were defined within the excavated areas. The uppermost, Unit 1, is a

homogeneous brown sandy loam, with a weakly developed, fine granular structure found

below a grass root mat. Its thickness varies between 30cm and 50cm. The second, Unit 2,

below is characterized by structures that in plan form a well-developed polygonal pattern

(Plate 5). These polygonal features have a diameter of 20–30cm and are bounded by fine

fissures tapered downwards. They are found below the contact with Unit 1, and are

associated with a diffuse hiatus in the field. In the case of Samarina 8, Unit 2 was incised

by deep erosion canals, which yielded most of the (redeposited) archaeological finds.

Apart from the stone tools and a few ceramic fragments, no other features indicative of

human presence were found, with the single exception of a hearth, some 50cm in diameter,

brought to light at Samarina 5. This is most probably of Bronze Age date because of the

recovery of typical potsherds from the immediate vicinity of the structure.

Detailed recording and analysis of the chipped stone artefacts found in excavation

shows that they come from more than one period, with Middle Palaeolithic flints

found together with tools most probably attributable to the end of the Pleistocene and/or

the very beginning of the Holocene, and Bronze and Iron Age ceramic potsherds and

(probably) flints. The mixed character of the excavated deposits is further confirmed by a

series of radiocarbon dates obtained from charcoal samples from Samarina 8 (Table 1).

Both data strongly suggest that the typologically earlier artefacts are redeposited.

Plate 5 Plan view of the polygonal pattern found below the topsoil at site Samarina 8 (photo:N. Efstratiou).


Soil micromorphology

Soil micromorphological analysis was conducted on samples from both selected soil

profiles and the test trenches. As far as the latter are concerned, under the microscope the

groundmass of Unit 1 exhibits locally random striated and granostriated birefringence

fabric. In most cases it is full of well-rounded, dark brown, clayey aggregates and some

clay papules, suggesting disruption of a former soil horizon. Occasionally, small sub-

angular fragments of charcoal were observed. All these properties are in agreement with

the macroscopic evidence of slow mass movement at a sloping surface due to seasonal

gelifluction and frost creep (Plate 6). However, the absence of any microscopic indication

of cryoturbation indicates that the climate was not very cold, but most likely similar to

that of the present.

The groundmass of Unit 2 is siltier and less homogeneous than that of Unit 1 (Plate 7).

It is also transected by a system of horizontal and vertical joints. Vertical silty structures

are clearly visible in thin sections and represent infillings of the fissures of the polygonal

structures. Rounded and angular aggregates of disrupted soil material from former soil

horizons are embedded in a sandy silt matrix. Interestingly, a first generation of disrupted,

dark brown silty clay fragments is embedded in a light yellowish brown clayey matrix that

is also part of larger aggregates embedded in coarser matrix of lighter colour.

Occasionally, the dark brown aggregates are impregnated with black amorphous

organomineral material. Decayed, fine root filaments are clearly visible in all cases.

Layered, dusty clay coatings are visible in voids that post-date the incorporation of the soil

aggregates.

The above features show that there were at least two generations of disruption of the

soil profile. The first corresponds to a well-developed mollic epipedon, most likely formed

under a grassland or open environment, possibly during an interstadial period. The second

corresponds to a soil weakly developed (probably) during a milder interval inside a

generically very cold period. The presence of very dusty clay coatings, which post-date the

preceding features, implies a totally barren environment during the final stage of the

development of the unit.

Both the macroscopic and microscopic features of Unit 2 represent disruptions caused

by ground ice formation. The polygonal structures result from frost desiccation, and the

microscopic ones evidence downward translocation of relatively coarse material and

frequent cryoturbation in frost-disturbed soils (Rose et al. 2004; Fedoroff and Goldberg

Table 1 Radiocarbon and calibrated dates on charcoal samples from Samarina 8 (S8); calibrations

according to OxCal 3.9 (Stuiver et al. 1998)

Tree species Lab number Uncal. BP dateCal. BC/AD date

(1 sigma)Cal. BC/AD date

(2 sigmas)

Pinus nigra GrA-27089 1395þ/740 610–660 570–690Salix sp. GrA-27087 2680þ/740 885–810 920–790Abies sp. GrA-27092 2900þ/740 1180–1020 1250–950

Fagus sp. GrA-27088 3220þ/740 1535–1445 1610–1420


1982). It is suggested that these structures formed in a periglacial, but not necessarily

permafrost, environment (Rose et al. 2004) since true ice-wedge polygons have not been

observed.

Plate 6 Microphotograph of the upper soil unit: note the rounded dark aggregates dispersed in thesoil matrix (PPL, height of photo 7mm).

Plate 7 Microphotograph of the lower soil unit showing a vertical infilling with silt, transecting fromthe top the thin section, and large amounts of angular and rounded dark soil aggregates mixed in the

soil matrix (PPL, length of photo 2mm) (photo: P. Karkanas).


It is important to point out that the evidence suggests that during the warm periods

of the Last Glacial the area was characterized by an open grassland, which was later

often disrupted by frost action. Nevertheless, it is unclear whether a thick forest soil

developed around the beginning of the Holocene. The disrupted soil aggregates found in

Unit 1 most likely represent material resulting from the present, continuous gelifluction

process.

In any case, it is evident that both units are polyphased soils, which derive from frequent

disturbance and churning of the soil profiles. Because of this it is not a surprise that the

archaeological materials are found in mixed assemblages representing different periods.

Charcoal analyses

The charcoal identifications from Samarina 8 trench indicate the presence of the following

taxa (Table 2): Abies sp. (fir), Fagus sp. (beech), Pinus nigra (black pine), Juniperus sp.

(juniper), Fraxinus sp. (ash), Quercus type deciduous, Salix sp. (willow) and cf. Corylus

avellana (hazel). One sample from the Samarina 5 (see Plate 4) hearth is composed of Abies

sp. and Fagus sp. Identification has been restricted to the genus level for the majority of

the taxa. However, since all are constituents of the present-day formations of the area, we

can postulate that F. sylvatica is the beech species represented and A. borisii-regis the fir.

Juniperus species are probably J. communis or J. foetidissima, both of which grow in high

altitude areas and under cold climate. All the above species, together with black pines, are

the dominant elements of the plant communities of the oromediterranenan bioclimatic

stage in the area today. The remaining taxa (Salix, Corylus avellana and Fraxinus)

probably represent riverine vegetation. Many willow species border the river banks in the

area and they are very resistant to cold, usually forming gallery forests. The ash is

probably Fraxinus angustifolia or F. excelsior, both growing in humid forests, levees and

inundated terrains in the uplands of Greece. Hazel grows on humid soils in forested areas

or along river valleys and gorges. Quercus cerris and Q. frainetto, the dominant oak species

of the supramediterranean Quercion frainetto-cerris formations, characterize the regional

middle altitudes and, in small numbers, also occur above 1,000m.

Table 2 Plant taxa identified and their distribution in the samples (1, 2, etc.) from the excavation atSamarina 8 (S8)

Samarina 8 1 2 3 4

Abies sp. (fir) * * *cf. Corylus Avellana (hazel) *

Fagus sp. (beech) * * *Fraxinus sp. (ash) *Juniperus sp. (juniper) * * *

Pinus nigra (black pine) * * * *Quercus deciduous (oak) *Salix sp. (willow) * * *


These results are consistent with the present plant formation in the area over 1,000m

asl and indicate the existence of beech woodlands and black pine forests in the past

with an abundant component of fir. Moreover, they are coherent with and

complementary to the Holocene vegetation history of upland north-western Greece

which can be summarized as follows. Except for beech, all the above-mentioned taxa

were already present in both archaeological contexts (Ntinou and Kotjabopoulou 2002;

Ntinou 2002) and pollen records (Willis 1994a, 1994b) in the Pindus area by the end of

the Pleistocene. Around 7500 BP, according to the pollen record for north-western

Greece, black pine and fir forests were expanding, becoming the main vegetation cover

of high altitudes and mountains in the area (Bottema 1974, 1982; Willis 1994b).

Finally, around 3000 BP, the establishment of beech is detected and is considered a sign

of anthropogenic impact upon the vegetation for areas that did not see an earlier

expansion of the species (Bottema 1974, 1982; Willis 1994b). That is the case for north-

western Greece where the study area is located. The frequent presence of beech in the

charcoal samples there speaks of a well-established tree cover, which, according to

the pollen data, indicates a later Holocene date for its use by humans that visited the

area. This suggestion is confirmed by radiocarbon dating of Fagus and Abies charcoal

(Table 1). The earlier presence of these taxa in the area cannot be excluded, but

archaeological, pollen, charcoal and radiocarbon evidence postulates an expansion of

beech woodland during the Bronze Age and in relation to the use of upland areas for

summer pastures.

Discussion

During colder periods of the Last Glacial the environment in the study area was very

harsh, with low temperatures and seasonally frozen ground. Under these conditions it is

reasonable to assume that human groups did not pay anything but sporadic and

ephemeral visits to the watershed, and even then only during warmer climatic oscillations.

Since most of the Late Palaeolithic is correlated with the cold, lower part of OIS3, and the

glacial culmination of OIS2, the near absence of related archaeological material should be

attributed to environmental/climatic factors.

Based on the evidence provided by the soil micromorphology, we suggest that the

present degraded condition of the landscape resembles the natural environment of

the milder intervals of the last glacial period. During these warm intervals (at the

beginning of OIS3 and during the interstadials of OIS5), the thick grassland would

have provided a relatively good plant biomass for animal browsing. Although flysch

is generally considered to be of poor grazing potential, it develops productive soils

and hence offers an ideal habitat for herbivores in stable environments (Bailey et al.

1993).

According to the available archaeological information we can assume a reappraisal and

intensification of human activity after the end of the Neolithic. The second millennium cal.

BC (Table 1) date from the excavated trench at Samarina 8 (S8) provides a strong

indication for an early, seasonal exploitation of highland ecological niches in Greece,

related to hunting and herding. Indeed, the presence of Bronze Age pottery sherds and


lithics along the pasturelands of the flysch watershed emphasizes the recurring character of

such visits, related, probably, to seasonal pastoral activities. Though still meagre, this

seemingly persistent evidence of human activities along the Grevena watershed from Early

Holocene times through the Neolithic to the Bronze Age may indicate that notions like

‘transhumance’ and ‘seasonality’ have long been embedded in the way of life of groups in

this part of Europe (Braudel 1972).

Repeated visits, probably by animal herders and their flocks to high-altitude summer

pastures, would represent a constant pressure on the fragile mountain environments.

Furthermore, grazing, the opening of pasturelands through the use of fire (Maggi and

Nisbet 1991: 274) and soil loss due to inclination and landslide most probably altered

other environmental gradients (such as soils), resulting in the successful expansion of

tree types such as Fagus (Willis 1994a, 1994b). Slow mass movements, due to winter

frost action, may have occurred, although not to the extent of totally disrupting the soil

cover.

Conclusion

From the discussion above, it can be suggested that the combination of the geographical

location of the watershed, a natural crossroad linking western Macedonia with Epirus

and Thessaly, the availability of different raw materials for chipping artefacts (mainly

radiolarite chert, but also quartz) and the potential richness of the available biomass,

provided optimal conditions for the exploitation of the area by the Middle Palaeolithic

hunters. Although the assemblages they left show at least two different patinas, the

lack of stratigraphic evidence makes it difficult to ascertain if all are contemporaneous

or if they pertain to different periods. Furthermore the chronological position of most

of the Middle Palaeolithic complexes of Greece is still debated (Papagianni 1993;

Matzanas 1998), which makes detailed attribution of the Grevena highland zone

industries uncertain, although they might reasonably belong to the beginning of the

OIS3. Compared with other assemblages of the same aspect, they show more similarities

with the Mousterian-Levalloisian industries so far discovered in Epirus (Dakaris

et al. 1964; Runnels and van Andel 2003), Thessaly (Runnels 1988) and Elis (Chavaillon

et al. 1964, 1967, 1969), than with those of the Argolid (J. K. Kozłowski, pers. comm.

2005).

Nevertheless, it is important to point out that the territory under study stands as an

isolated landscape, the only example intensively exploited in the flysch zone. It is well

known that most Palaeolithic sites in Greece are located on limestone terrain, but are

absent from the flysch basins. Bailey et al. (1993) explained this dichotomy on the basis

of differences in soil productivity and hence grazing potential for the animals, although

only on a large scale. Runnels and van Andel (2003) stressed the importance of the

karstic features (poljes) that provide an attractive environment with marshes, swamps

and lakes in Epirus. They also believe that the repeated use of the same areas for long

periods is a sign of a logistical behavioural pattern of land use. The discovery of

numerous Middle Palaeolithic sites in the flysch landscapes of the Ligkos Mountains

sheds new light on the issue of landscape exploitation during this period.


Quite a different pattern characterizes the Final Pleistocene/Early Holocene

assemblages. Apart from being both numerically and typologically very poor, they are

almost always made on flint from several exogenous, but as yet unknown, sources,

although a small quantity of local, liver-coloured radiolarian chert was also employed. It

is interesting to point out that all the artefacts of this age have been collected from

stations that had already been settled during the Middle Palaeolithic. The rare

occurrence of Mesolithic finds may indicate that the expansion of woodland on those

upland areas was becoming an obstacle for the hunting activities of human groups

seeking more diversified environments and that, as a result of this, their visits were

sporadic.

After this relatively long period, no traces of human presence have been recognized until

the Late Neolithic. They seem to intensify during the Bronze Age, possibly as a

consequence of the beginning of pastoralism in the area, an activity that may have led to

the environmental degradation of this mountain territory. The fast expansion of beech

woodland around 3000 BP could be a result of the use of high altitude pastures by the end

of the Neolithic and during the Bronze Age. In this respect the anthracological and

palaeopedological analyses are of fundamental importance in studying human impacts on

the landscape during the most recent periods of prehistory.

At present this territory is partially bare with sparse black pine and beech thickets.

Although the landscape may once have been (almost) totally forested, it is difficult with the

available charcoal data to provide a date for the opening of the canopy. It is equally

difficult to demonstrate that the woodland cover was denser in the past. The available

pedological data do not unequivocally confirm the existence of any forest soil during the

Holocene, and cannot provide us with any explanation of the reasons and the period

during which it began to degrade.

Acknowledgements

We want to express our deepest thanks to the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP)

and the Grevena Prefecture, Greece, for their continuous and generous financial support.

Thanks are also due to E. Alphas, M. Gouma, E. Prevedorou and M. Spataro who took

part in the 2002–5 research.

Nikos Efstratiou,

Department of Archaeology, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki

Paolo Biagi,

Ca’Foscari University, Venice

Paraskevi Elefanti,

Royal Holloway University of London

Panagiotis Karkanas,

Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology-Speleology of Southern Greece

Maria Ntinou,

Department of Management of Cultural Heritage and Technologies, Ioannina University


Note

1 Colours of the Munsell Soil Color Charts (2000).

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Nikos Efstratiou received his PhD from the Institute of Archaeology, University of

London, in 1983 and is currently Associate Professor of Archaeology at the University of

Thessaloniki. His research interests focus on the early periods of the Greek Neolithic and

ethnoarchaeology. He has directed excavation and survey projects in various parts of

Greece and conducted ethnoarchaeological fieldwork in Spain and Oman.


Paolo Biagi received his PhD in Prehistoric archaeology from the Institute of Archaeology,

University of London, in 1981. At present he is Full Professor of Palaeoethnology at Ca’

Foscari University, Venice. He has carried out research and excavations in northern Italy,

Sardinia, Romania, Greece, Oman and Pakistan. His main interests focus on the

prehistory of the Balkan Peninsula and the Neolithization of south-east Europe and on the

prehistory of the two shores of the Arabian Sea and the Indus Valley.

Paraskevi Elefanti is a post-doctoral research fellow at Royal Holloway College,

University of London. She is a lithic specialist and has worked on various Palaeolithic

projects in Greece and abroad.

Panagiotis Karkanas is a geologist at the Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology-Speleology of

southern Greece. His work is focused on several aspects of geoarchaeology, in particular

the micromorphology of sediments and soils at archaeological sites worldwide, including

sites in Israel, South Africa, China and Europe.

Maria Ntinou is an archaeologist with a specialization in anthracology. She carries out

charcoal analysis at various prehistoric sites in Greece and currently works as Lecturer of

Prehistoric Archaeology at the University of Ioannina.


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