Effects of Conflicts Among the Pastoral Communities. Case Study of Mandera County

EFFECTS OF CONFLICTS AMONG THE PASTORAL COMMUNITIES.

CASE STUDY OF MANDERA COUNTY, KENYA.

ABUBAKAR MOHAMED AHMED

A research project submitted to the Department of Development Studies in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Bachelors of Development Studies

of Mount Kenya University.

AUGUST 2014

ii

TABLE OF CONTENT

TABLE OF CONTENT…………………………………………………………………ii

LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………….v

LIST OF FIGURE…………………………………………………………………........vi

DECLARATION……………………………………………………………………….vii

DEDICATION………………………………………………………………………....vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………………………………………...ix

ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………...x

CHAPTER ONE…………………………………………………………………………1

INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………….1

1.1 Background of the Problem...................................................................................... 1

1.2 Statement of the problem ......................................................................................... 3

1.3: Objective .................................................................................................................. 3

1.4: Research questions ................................................................................................... 4

1.5: Significance of the Study ......................................................................................... 4

1.6 Limitation and Delimitation of the Study ................................................................. 5

1.7: Assumption of the study........................................................................................... 7

CHAPTER TWO........................................................................................................... 8

LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 8

2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 8

2.1 Causes of Conflits ..................................................................................................... 8

2.2 Local measures in place to prevent recurrence of ethnic conflict ........................... 11

2.3 Effectiveness of Peace Committee in Peace Building and Conflict Management .. 14

2.4 Effect of Conflict ..................................................................................................... 18

2.5 Theoretical Perspectives .......................................................................................... 21

2.6 Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................... 28

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CHAPTER THREE……………………………………………………………………29

RESEARCH DESIGN METHODS…………………………………………………...29

3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 29

3.1 Research Design ...................................................................................................... 29

3.3 Study Population ..................................................................................................... 29

3.4 Sample size and Procedures .................................................................................. 30

3.5 Data Collection and Administration of Instruments ............................................... 31

3.6 Data Analysis and Presentation ............................................................................... 31

3.7 Piloting of the instruments ...................................................................................... 31

3.8 Validity .................................................................................................................... 32

3.9 Reliability ................................................................................................................ 32

3.10 Ethical Considerations........................................................................................... 32

CHAPTER FOUR………………………………………………………………………33

DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND PRESENTATION………………33

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 33

4.2 Demographic Factors .............................................................................................. 33

4.3 Causes of Conflict ................................................................................................... 39

4.4 Effect of Conflict ..................................................................................................... 38

4.5 Effectiveness of Peace Committee and Local Measures in Conflict Prevention .... 39

CHAPTER FIVE……………………………………………………………………….45

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS……45

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 45

5.2 Summary of the findings ......................................................................................... 45

5.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 47

5.4 Recommendations ................................................................................................... 48

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REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………46

APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………………..50

Appendix I: Questionnaire ............................................................................................ 50

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Sample Size ..................................................................................................... 28

Table 4.1: Response Rate .................................................................................................. 33

Table 4.2: Gender of the Respondents .............................................................................. 34

Table 4.3: Age Brackets of the Respondents .................................................................... 35

Table 4.4: The Level of Education ................................................................................... 36

Table 4.5: Monthly Level of Income ................................................................................ 37

Table 4.6: If ever been a victim of violence in your region .............................................. 38

Table 4.7: The main cause of conflict in your region ....................................................... 39

Table 4.8: Agreement with the statements on Causes of Conflict .................................... 40

Table 4.9: The main effect of conflict in Wajir County ................................................... 38

Table 4.10: Level of Agreement with the Statements of Effect of Conflict ..................... 41

Table 4.11: Whether there are peace building committees in the region .......................... 39

Table 4.12: Whether peace building programs have been carried out to promote peaceful

coexistence among communities ...................................................................................... 39

Table 4.13: The immediate institution that responds to resolve conflict whenever it occurs

........................................................................................................................................... 40

Table 4.14: If the civil society is doing enough to educate the community on the need for

peace ................................................................................................................................. 40

Table 4.15: Level of Agreement with the Statements on Peace Committees…………...44

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LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework……....……………………………………………...28

Figure 4.1: Response Rate ................................................................................................ 34

Figure 4.2: Gender of the Respondents............................................................................. 34

Figure 4.3: Age Brackets of the Respondents ................................................................... 35

Figure 4.4: The Level of Education .................................................................................. 37

Figure 4.5: Monthly Level of Income ............................................................................... 38

Figure 4.6: If ever been a victim of violence in your region ............................................ 38

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DECLARATION

I declare that this project proposal is my original work and has not been presented in any

other institution for consideration of any certification. Where information has been

borrowed from other sources, these are specifically accredited and references cited using

current APA system and in accordance with anti-plagiarism regulations.

Name: Date:

Signature:

This project has been submitted for appraisal with my approval as University Supervisor;

Name: Date:

Signature:

viii

DEDICATION

I am dedicating this project to the dearest figures in my life, the Almighty God for He has

been true to me throughout my academic journey. This work is also dedicated to all the

members of my family who have shown me unconditional support throughout my

academic journey.

ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost is to give honor and praise to the Almighty God for giving me grace,

strength, good health and providence during the time of my study. I wish to acknowledge

my supervisor Mr. Karuri for the support, advice, guidance and constructive critical

comments as well as the sacrifices he made towards the success of this work and for the

time he sacrificed to guide me through.

Many thanks again to my family members, for their patience and encouragement

throughout the period of my study.

May the Almighty bless them all.

x

ABSTRACT

The study investigated effects of conflicts among the pastoral communities. The study

population was 350 residents comprising the Provincial administration officers (DC’s,

DO’s, and Chiefs), Civic leaders, senior security personnel (OCS, OCPD),

representatives of Civil Society Organization and Faith- based groups and local residents.

The study adopted a descriptive research design. The study employed both probability

and non-probability sampling procedures. The researcher utilized available sampling

procedure to get a sample totaling to 165 respondents comprising of 120 local residents,

23 provincial administration officers, 3 senior security officers, 9 civic leaders and 10

representatives of the civil society and Faith-based organizations.

The study concluded that provincial administration plays a significant role in conflict

resolution, there was peace building programs carried out to promote peaceful

coexistence. It also concluded that peace campaigns yield much in peace building and

peace committee are effective approach to peace building and conflict management and

that women are critical to be involved in decision making levels for peace building and

conflict management and that low level of employment also plays a role in this. Incase

these young adults are fully absorbed in the labour markets there will no one to conduct

these inhumane actions. The study recommended that peace resolution initiatives such as

meeting people in churches and launching peace campaigns should be adopted in the

peace preaching process. Training of youths and women should also be given more

priority. This would empower them with more knowledge on what brings conflict among

communities and how to resolve it amicably. Formal education should also be

encouraged among the youths which will finally promote and enhance development

among other communities. The county government should also emphasize much on

having local barazas whereby all the stakeholders in the district can fully participate

giving their opinion in regard to peace process and train everyone to be a peacemakers.

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Problem

Over the years, communities have endured frequent conflicts over natural resources; it

can be attributed to increased competition for shrinking resources, particularly land.

Conflict is a manifest in structural inequity and unequal distribution of power. It is a

situation with at least two identifiable groups in conscious opposition to each other as

they pursue incompatible goals. Conflicts are common phenomena in many regions of the

world, especially in dry lands, that are endowed with scare natural resources. Global

environmental change coupled with population increases has led to unprecedented

demand for resources. The consequences have been competition over control of and

access to the meager resources which in turn trigger conflicts. Climate related

environmental changes have been observed to be among the major causes of the conflicts

(Sterzel et al., 2012). Climate change in the Greater Horn of Africa (GHA) has been

evidenced by increasing frequency of droughts from one in every six years to one in

every three years. In Ethiopia, for example, drought frequency has increased from 6-8

years to the current 1-2 years (Meier etal., 2007).

Thought to be part and parcel of a pastoral culture and livelihood of resident

communities. More so conflicts between Mandera communities are deemed to be

resource based resulting from competition over pasture and water. A cattle rustling is the

act of forceful raiding of livestock from one community by another using guns and

leaving behind destruction of property and loss of lives. This concept should be

understood alongside cattle raids which involve stealing livestock from one community

by another without destroying property or killing people. Traditionally Mandera

2

communities practiced cattle raids using crude weapons such as; sticks, spears, bows,

arrows and clubs. These raids are practiced as means of reciprocity, for poor families to

acquire livestock and restock particularly after droughts or epidemics. However, in 1990s

this cultural practice transformed itself and is now referred to as ‘cattle rustling’, with the

main weapons used being guns. Prior to 1990 cattle raids are meant to steal livestock, by

scaring away their owners, but cattle rustling involves destruction of property and

murder. Cattle rustling have become a commercial entity along the boundaries of pastoral

communities and stolen livestock are never recovered. The actors in cattle rustling

involve politically linked and power wielding personalities sometimes not pastoralist.

The cattle rustling menace has left Mandera County to bear the brunt of destruction and

murder. It is interesting therefore to enquire what went wrong to a culture of reciprocity

that turned violent (USAID 2008).

1.1.1 Pastoralists communities

Across the African continent Pastoralists reside in over 21 countries. Pastoralism is a

major economic production strategy in which people raise herds of animals, mostly in

arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs). ASALs cover about 80% of Kenya's landmass and

support about a third of the country's human population and 70% of the national livestock

herd. An estimated 13 million cattle, 25 million goats, 14.9 million sheep, 1.7 million

donkeys and 2.9 million camels are found in Kenya's ASALs (KNBS 2010). Pastoralist

contributes approximately 12% to the country's gross domestic product (FAO 2005), with

the livestock sector providing an estimated 90% of all employment opportunities and

more than 95% of household incomes in ASALs (Kaimba et al. 2011).

Many of these communities are affected by conflicts, while the Sahel region and East

Africa show sustained levels of inter-pastoral violent conflicts with associated potential

impacts on their livelihoods. For example in northern Kenya, pastoral communities have

a long history of conflicts. In the broadest sense, conflict can be defined here forceful

interaction as a result of opposing views. As pastoralism revolves around livestock, the

conflicts are predominantly about livestock and its related productive assets - water, land

and pasture. These resources closely tie conflicts to the violent theft of livestock, referred

3

to as raiding, which is both a contributing factor and an articulation of conflict. On the

one hand, raiding leads to distrust between communities which is a prerequisite of

conflict (Mwangi 2006). On the other hand, communities use raiding to articulate their

hostility toward enemy communities (Eaton 2008).

1.2 Statement of the problem

Conflicts among the pastoral communities are largely caused by competition over control

of and access to natural resources particularly water and pasture. Other causes of conflicts

include historical rivalry, deep-seated cultural values, land issues, political incitements,

and idleness amongst the youth and more recently proliferation of illicit arms (USAID,

2005). In Kenya conflicts are of many different kinds, Juma (2000) classifies them into

four main categories: Conflicts among pastoral communities, conflicts linked to presence

of refugees, conflicts between pastoralists and crop farming communities and ethnic

clashes. He observes that current environmental pressures have changed conflict

dynamics. Despite the efforts of peace building, conflicts reoccur in pastoral regions

across the globe and worst still the frequency of conflicts seems to be increasing in

frequency. Due to conflict, many people are left homeless, landless, abused, injured and

even dead. For instance, in February 2008, a total of 385 houses were torched in Kirindon

and Pirrar divisions of Trans Mara district following a clash between Maasai and Kipsigis

communities (KRCS, 2008). The Maasai clans of Moitanik, Siria and Uasin Gishu and

Kuria clans of Nyabasi and Bwirege most often do resort to violent conflict over land

ownership and grazing areas (Conflict mapping: An Insider’s perspective). It is against

this background that the current study sought to examine the effects of conflicts among

the pastoralists living Mandera County Kenya.

1.3: Objective

The general objective of the study was to investigate effects of conflicts among the

pastoral communities in Mandera County.

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1.3.1: Specific Objectives

i. To establish the sources of conflicts among the pastoral communities in Mandera

County.

ii. Examine the Local measures in place to prevent recurrence of ethnic conflict in

Mandera County.

iii. Evaluate the effectiveness of peace building initiative in conflict resolution in

Mandera County.

1.4: Research questions

i. What are the sources of conflicts among the pastoral communities in Mandera

County?

ii. What Local measures in place to prevent recurrence of ethnic conflict in

Mandera County?

iii. What is the effectiveness of peace building initiative in conflict resolution in

Mandera County?

1.5: Significance of the Study

The findings of this study were significant to:

1.5.1: Non State Organization

The findings and recommendations in this research study will help non state

organizations which preach peace so as to enable them to know the best practices to

prevent conflict.

1.5.2: To the policy makers

The findings and recommendations in this research study further will help the policy

makers involved on conflict matters to make it more effective and efficient polices. This

5

is because it will provide them with an opportunity to evaluate their existing conflict

policies and identify weakness thus improving their existing policies on conflict

prevention.

1.5.3: To Other Researchers

Last but not least other researchers will also benefit from this study given that the

findings there in will provide them with relevant materials to use a reference in their

future researches and provide them with a deeper understanding of conflict among

pastoralist communities.

1.6 Limitation and Delimitation of the Study

Certain limitations were likely to be encountered during the study. This however, neither

affected reliability nor validity of the research findings since measures were in place to

address such effects. Firstly, the study area by geographical coverage is wider and

therefore required a bigger sample size so as to have a wider representation. The

researcher however, limited to a smaller sample size due to financial constraints.

Nonetheless, adequate sampling strategy was in place to ensure the selected respondents

be representative of the whole. Secondly, it is in the human nature that people tend to

glorify themselves and as such some information may be exaggerated especially by those

in peace programs. The researcher alleviated this by ensuring that the respondents are

drawn from all sectors of the target population.

The study covered Effects of Conflicts among the Pastoral Communities case Study of

Mandera County, Kenya. The study was limited to Mandera County. The study was

carried out within a period of two months. The study population was 350 residents

comprising the Provincial administration officers (DC’s, DO’s, and Chiefs), Civic

leaders, senior security personnel (OCS, OCPD), representatives of Civil Society

Organization and Faith- based groups and local residents.

1.6.1: Confidential of Information

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Some non-state organizations have rigid policies; the respondents might not be free in

answering the questions posed to them fearing victimization by the authorities. This will

be overcome by assuring the staff that the study will not be used anywhere else or by

somebody else except by the researcher and only for academic purposes.

1.6.2: Lack Materials

Difficulty in assessing relevant literature due to unavailability of relevant materials given

that there are few books, journals on the same topic under the study more so on Kenyan

context. The researcher will read widely and refer to as many books and journals as

possible.

1.6.3 Uncooperative respondents

There were times when the researcher encountered un-cooperative respondents who do

not understand the significance of the research and the researcher had to explain to them

carefully the importance of this study and the way it would affect their working lives in

the organization or their current state of them i.e. pastoralists

1.6.4: Inadequate resources

The study was limited by time factor. The research overcame this limitation by just

focusing on Mandera County only.

1.7: Assumption of the study

This study assumed that the respondents will provide reliable and valid information that

would be used to make conclusions in relation to the study.

The questionnaire and the interviews collected reliable information from respondents and

provides ease of analysis of such information.

7

The respondent provided honest information about the knowledge of the development

projects in their area.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter will review literature on the effect; causes and effectiveness of peace

committees in peace building and conflict management, determine local measures in

place to prevent recurrence of ethnic violence.

2.1 Causes of Conflicts

2.1.1 Climatic Conditions

Three types of pastoralism are mentioned in literature. They are distinguished by the

basis of land use and whether the pastoralists are mounted or pedestrian: mounted

flatland nomads, pedestrian flatland nomads and mountain dwelling pastoralists (Khan

1994). Various forms of pastoralist systems react differently to changes in the ecological,

environmental and economic situations. It is partly true that pastoralists systems are

largely products of climatic and environmental factors. Pastoralists rear livestock with

different levels of drought and feed-shortage sensitivity. The characteristics of the

animals and the environmental conditions they face determine the number and

composition of the herds. They have lived in the harsh and unpredictable environment for

centuries. Their production systems are a product of climatic and environmental factors

and their objective is to accumulate and maintain as much wealth, in terms of livestock,

as possible. In their long history livestock is not only a valuable source of food but also

acts as a wealth reserve, a sacrificial gift and a means of marriage and other ceremonial

payments.

The loss of animals during droughts provided a justification for carrying out raids against

other communities and depleting their resources so as to offset their own losses to restock

the herds resulting to violence. This is aggressive confrontation and is an essential

component of the pastoralists’ strategies to restore depleted herds is accepted practices

9

among the pastoralists groups (Markakis 1993). To some extent, therefore, cattle's raiding

is both a response to disasters such as drought, and an attempt to increase the yields of

their livestock by increasing their numbers in good season as an insurance against bad

seasons.

2.1.2The Role of Government Policies and Programs

Interaction with the state plays an important role in the creation of ethnic/tribal identities

which eventually become faultiness for conflict. Anthropological analysis of historical

processes of construction and reconstruction of ethnic identities in Africa shows that

identity formation in the past was characterized by a high degree of dynamism and

fluidity. This interaction first, with the colonial administration and later with

‘independent’ states, has modified that situation; freezing existing ethnic identities as

well as creating new fixed ones. Although tribal labels were largely a creation of the

colonial administration, they gradually became a social reality as various groups found it

convenient to be recognized administrative entities when dealing with the state. Tribal

labels worked as new poles of aggregation and were readily exploited by people as a way

to adapt to a drastically altered socio-economic and political environment. Kapteijns

(1993) shows how clan and communal identity is a product of Somalia's late-colonial and

post-independence interaction with each other and with the state in the context of

patriarchy and the capitalist world economy.

Since ancient times pastoralism involved the protection of livestock from wild animals

and later against human thieves making it prudent for them to be armed. Markakis argues

that the use of terms such as "war-like" and "violent" is a way of creating an enemy-

image and using it as an ideological justification for counter aggression (Markakis 1993).

Successive regimes have used this to justify a close scrutiny over pastoralists. The

government officials believed that the only way to deal with the cattle rustling menace is

brute force. However, despite the use of force they failed to achieve an end to cattle

raiding. Instead it has exacerbated the problem since the raiders have tended to acquire

sophisticated weapons to counter those of the government security forces.

10

In the 1980s state brutality increased when pastoralists easily obtained deadly firearms

from neighbouring countries undergoing political turmoil like Sudan. This proliferation

of arms took place since the state had lost its monopoly of legitimate violence (Africa

Now 1996). Weapons were acquired not only for defensive but also offensive purposes.

Another impact of state repression is the manner in which army officials steal confiscated

livestock (Ocan, 1994). The plunder create a destitute, demoralized and brutalized society

and the gun is seen as saviour to forestall any further raids and to restore past glory.

During the 1970s, the Turkana in collaboration with some elements in government and

the security organs employed sophisticated raiding methods using heavy guns, military

trucks for transport and large scale networks of smuggling extending up to Sudan.

Consequently, from a means of obtaining a few animals and improving one's fighting

prowess, raiding has evolved into military operations using conventional war tactics and

involving thousands of livestock resulting in young men, women and children being

brutally murdered and property plus food stores being set on fire and shops looted.

Government's reaction has been to send military helicopters to bombard the suspected

bandits' hideouts, with little success. The government also puts renewed emphasis on the

policy of de-pastoralisation. After all these years it can be said, the key to a mutually

beneficial production relationship between the state and pastoralists has not yet been

found (Markakis 1993). In theory, violence is a monopoly of the State. So any kind of

violence is by definition a challenge to the state’s authority. Open violence, even when it

is not directed against the state itself, is always an affirmation of political autonomy from

the government. Violent and, sometimes, indiscriminate interventions by the security

forces appear very much as primarily directed towards re-establishing the state’s unique

right to violence, and only secondarily towards conflict resolution. Direct conflict

resolution interventions of the state in form of military operations for disarmament, like

those carried out with heavy weaponry (including fighting helicopters) against

communities changed the balance of power between different pastoral groups, with a

consequent rise in cattle raiding and violence against the weakened parties.

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2.1.3 Regional Instability and Proliferation of Automatic Weapons

Several decades of regional instability has adversely affected Eastern Africa. The civil

war and related problems in Southern Sudan since 1955; the many years of civil war and

internal rebellions in Uganda mainly by the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) first led by

Alice Lakwena in the late 1980s and presently by Joseph Kony; nearly two decades of

civil war in Ethiopia; and the collapse of the central government in Somalia in 1991 have

contributed to increased cattle rustling. Each of these factors has contributed to increase

in the availability of modern weapons. Members of some groups benefit from the lack of

effective administrative control in the area, as it allows them to organize and carry out

livestock raids with relative impunity. The supply of arms and ammunition continues

today, principally from the Sudan, Ethiopia, Northern Uganda and Somalia. The

estimated supply of firearms in Northern Kenya is currently around 90,000 –

100,000.The proliferation of weapons is an important income generating activity for

some people, who sell them to pastoralists. Because does not provide pastoralists with

adequate security many of them feel they need modern weapons to protect themselves,

their families and their livestock. (UN Report 2000).

Recently Kenyan government officials reported that the disarmament program was

progressing and forceful disarmament went into force after this date as scheduled.

Despite this exercise, reports have indicated that security is still fluid in the region, with

road ambushes still taking their toll on travelers and cattle raids are still persistent.

2.2 Local measures in place to prevent recurrence of ethnic conflict

2.2.1 Council of elders

Informal conflict management mechanisms have proved to be on the rise in many

spheres. Gilligan & James (2001) observed that in most African communities, whenever

there was a problem, it was the role of elders to bring both the victim and the offender

together. The whole process was aimed at building relationship and respect since the

12

council of leaders prioritized forgiveness and reconciliation of the victim and offender as

well as the whole community (Zehr & Howard, 1990).

According to Adan & Pkalya (2006) informal conflict management mechanisms is

increasingly being relied upon by communities partly due to lack of faith in the judiciary

and expenses associated with court procedures. An example of the infusion of traditional

mechanisms in modern conflict management is the system of elders under Land Disputes

Tribunal Act, 1990. Conflict mapping: An insider’s perspective (2011), observed that

main causes of conflict in Mandera County are disputes over land for pasture and

grazing. The recurrence of intra and inter community conflicts in Mandera County brings

into focus the role played by informal conflict management structures.

In Sudan, Oricho (2007) noted that the old men had an extra ordinary alacrity and

wisdom. They could listen and handle cases of diverse nature in the community. In many

occasion, they managed to bring community together when there was conflict and

disorders. Example is the Litongo elders of Kuria community and the Modagashe

Declaration in North Eastern which had proved to be potentially capable of guaranteeing

peace and security (GOK, 2006).

The council of elders kept the community social structure strong with respect, trust and

honesty. The elders argued that forgiveness was paramount and the forgiveness was a

journey rather than an event. It was part of healing and an act of empowerment

(Hakimani, 2009). By and large, the institution of council of elders though still very

much in use even today have somehow been weakened by the very nature that they are

unable to enforce the punishment on its members because of the legal challenges (Pkalya

et al 2004).

Gothrie W.K.C (1975) also noted that council of elders in many occasions emphasized

the role of men as key decision makers which then created partiality in terms of decision

making and issues deeply affecting women and young people. This could be undoing the

efforts of elders in conflict management and peace building and therefore worth further

investigation.

13

2.2.2 Inter- ethnic marriages and resource management agreement

Adan & Pkalya (2006) observed that in the traditional African societies inter- clan

marriages was encouraged to create bonds between communities so as to eliminate

fighting between members on the basis that it was an abomination to fight with one’s in

laws. This practice seems to have failed at some point especially during the PEVs.

Adan & Pkalya (2006) also observed that in most communities especially pastoralist

communities where scarcity of resources was the main cause of conflict, resource

management agreement helped to do reduce tensions. In Mandera district for instance,

before movement of animals during dry seasons begin, Borana and Somali elders sit and

negotiate and a general agreement reached on access to water and pasture. In Mandera

again, scarcity of resources have often run communities into conflict especially between

the Maasai and Kipsigis thereby necessitating assessment of measures in place to prevent

recurrence of conflicts.

2.2.3 Civil Society and FBO’s

Although religions are often blamed for inciting conflict, it can also help resolve conflict

and reduce tensions. It is noted that faith based actors have provided emotional and

spiritual support to war affected communities and promoted reconciliation and re-

integration (Bouta et al, 2005). Generally, the non state initiatives have formed the

foundation upon which the local conflicts have been addressed by both government and

communities.

The civil society organizations have been in the fore front promoting reconciliations and

dialogue among warring communities. They have also provided early warning to relevant

authorities before outbreak of conflict (GOK, 2006). The role of civil society and faith

based organizations in conflict hot spots such as Trans Mara therefore calls for in depth

assessment to determine its challenges towards prevention of conflict recurrence.

14

The USAID Pro Mara (2012) came up with the sports initiative and forest conservation in

Trans Mara district with the main aim of promoting inter- community peaceful co-

existence and environmental conservation. Before the tournament could commence,

peace messages had to be relayed to the youths as a sign of promoting peaceful co-

existence. This however has failed to explain the recurrence of ethnic conflict especially

between the Kipsigis and Maasai in the areas of Kirindon where pro Mara initiatives have

been active.

Kathina (2000) observed that religious leaders both Christian and Muslim helped in

reconciliation meetings to promote peace especially in Mandera. For instance, the

religious leaders merged with the administrative channels in peace building through

peace awards whereby chiefs from most peaceful areas got cash prizes. These gestures

need to be put into practice in other conflict prone areas as morale booster to peace

builders.

2.3 Effectiveness of Peace Committee in Peace Building and Conflict Management

Over the years, communities have endured frequent conflicts over natural resources.

According to Rogge (1993) ethnic clashes in Kenya can be attributed to increased

competition for shrinking resources, particularly land. Others may be due to dispute over

boundaries, cattle theft, access to water points and tribal differences. As a result,

communities in conflict areas resorted to their own community driven efforts to prevent

and manage conflicts between them and their neighbours. It is out of these that peace

committee model was established at district, division, location up-to village level to help

in peace building through promotion of peaceful co-existence in society as well as fill the

security void left by the government in conflict prone areas (Adan & Pkalya, 2006).

Local peace committees (LPCs) is a generic name for committees or other structures

formed at the level of district, town or village with the aim to encourage and facilitate

joint, inclusive peacemaking and peace building processes within its own context.

Peacemaking in this case implies negotiation of a cease fire or an accord that brings

hostilities to an end.

15

In South Africa, the peace committee model in the Post Apartheid Era of early 1990s was

mainly established to strengthen the capacities of communities to contribute to their own

safety. It gave priorities to disputes and it was effective in dispute resolution since it was

seen as an alternative to conventional criminal Justice system where blaming and

punishing was the order of things (Cartwright & Jenneker, 2005). Peace committee

gathering was always focused on the future. For instance, what could be done to reduce

the likelihood of conflict occurring. It was the mandate of peace committees to defuse

disputes that had potentials of breaking the peace by emphasizing peace building as a

means of preventing relapse into war or violence and also creating a self-sustaining

peace.

In Kenya, peace committees are very critical in resolving issues and challenges facing

security at grass root levels (Economic Recovery Strategy and Medium Term Plan, 2008-

2012). This is because it is widely acknowledged that communities are better placed and

informed in making decisions that affect their own lives and should therefore be

facilitated. Notably, peace committees have provided the best practices in not only

mitigating against potential conflicts but also in promoting dialogue among contending

parties (GOK, 2009).

Through this, the DPC model was embraced to serve as an important vehicle to promote

national healing, reconciliation and cohesion among various communities in the country.

Though guidelines have been in place to provide impetus for peace building and conflict

management processes, the Kenyan government is still reluctant in fast tracking the

development of National Policy on peace building and conflict management ((GOK,

2009)).

Effectiveness of peace committee in conflict management and peace building has been

dwindling with minimal success registered in countries that embarked on rolling out the

program. Though the model has progressed on well in certain regions, in some it is

marred with a lot of challenges that therefore calls for critical and in-depth analysis aimed

at improving the performance of peace committee. While peace building initiatives

16

invariably change depending on the context in which they must be undertaken, it is

estimated that about half of the countries emerging from violent conflict return to war

within 5 years which therefore cast doubts on the present capacity of peace building

initiatives to secure sustainable peace (Adan and Pkalya 2006).

The success story of peace committee model in South Africa as espoused by Cartwright

& Jenneker (2005) indicated that the peace committee model of operation accounted for

its success. First, the peace committee operated on agreed set of procedures in that when

conflict arose, it arranged for peacemaking gathering which brought the disputants and

other interested partners to help understand and resolve the disputes. Again the peace

committee members were governed by code of good practice by ensuring that they

worked within the law and never took sides in disputes and also never gossiped about

their work (Cartwright & Jenneker, 2005).

This aspect of uniformity and legality in co-ordination seems to be lacking in some

countries. Adan & Pkalya (2006) observed that in conflict resolution, every member of

the society should work towards the retention of conflict and its escalation and that there

was need to establish the real cause of conflict instead of spreading rumours and

incitements. District peace committees (DPCs) in the past, communalized criminality and

never assisted in identifying criminals. The report also pointed that the DPCs only held

their meetings when there was conflict which ought not to be the case.

The most undoing part of peace committees in most countries is the issue of payment.

The model of South Africa seems to be gaining ground with marked success because the

members are paid. In fact, Cartwright & Jenneker (2005) noted that unlike other countries

in which peace committee members are encouraged to volunteer, peace committee’s

members in South Africa are paid. Payment is meant to recognize the value of their work

and to avert criticism that if professional are paid, why not poor peace committee

members. USAID (2009) in Uganda also noted that Pader peace program in Northern

Uganda even though has successfully addressed the gaps in current peace building and

17

conflict mitigating mechanisms through its trained peace committees at county and sub

county levels, still faced the challenges of funding and logistical support.

In Kenya, peace committees face similar challenges of funding and logistical support.

This is coupled with lack of clear and legally sanctioned framework from which peace

committees should operate. For instance, up to date the National policy on peace building

and conflict management from which the peace committees should draw its’ mandate and

direction has not been enacted into law (Adan & Pkalya, 2006).

By and large, peace committees are by no way prefect institutions guaranteed of success

if fully supported and strengthened. This is because they are mechanisms to build peace

at local level under very trying circumstances. Ball (1998) noted that success of peace

committees in peace building can be borrowed from the south Africa model in which he

observed that peace committee managed to bring an end to political violence by

implementing the National peace accord of 1991 at both regional and local levels when

institutions of the state were unable for a variety of reasons to find non violent solutions

to inter group conflicts. Peace Net commities in Mandera County revealed that the district

peace committees at community level were weak and needed strengthening. The DPC

amassed the traditional age set leaders who are highly respected by community members

referred to as “ilishuyieta ile Trans Mara” with agenda of conflict resolution and peace

building through mapping of conflict hot spots and scheduling of community peace

building meetings. This however has achieved little (Mayeku, 2009). This therefore calls

for more research which the study seeks so as to establish dwindling effectiveness of the

committee in peace building and conflict resolution.

18

2.4 Effect of Conflict

2.4.1 Loss of human lives

The most direct effect of raiding on human well-being is the loss of lives and injuries

caused during the raids. In Mandera alone, there were recorded 592 raid-related deaths

between 2006 and 2009 (Cewarn 2010). Raiders reported in interviews that wounded

raiding fellows, especially when unable to walk, are left behind and often shoot

themselves to ‘escape’ punishment by the attacked group. Injured and killed raiders

reduce the labour available for livestock herding and community protection. As raiders

are almost exclusively young men, the raiding does not only affect the community in

short terms, but also reduces the future prosperity of the community. However, not only

raiders fall victim to the conflicts. Beyond the physical impacts of the conflicts on

humans, Pike (2010) have documented negative psychological consequences, for

example, traumas.

2.4.3 Effects on livestock numbers

The effects of conflict and raiding on livestock numbers among pastoral communities can

be both direct and indirect. Indirectly, raiding contributes to loss of livestock through the

spread of diseases (Bett 2009). The direct effect of raiding can be both positive (for the

raiding community) and negative (for the raided community). From the raider's

perspective, raiding can appear to be an effective and direct tool to increase their own

herd, at the cost of those who are raided. If two or a few groups in a confined area

reciprocally raid each other without selling livestock to outside actors, the total number of

livestock may remain fairly the same. However, the development of commercialisation

(see previous discussion) has extracted large numbers from the traditional raiding circle,

despite efforts of security forces to curb the trading of stolen livestock (Eaton 2010).

Mandera County experienced a net loss of livestock of more than 60,000 animals due to

raids between 2006 and 2009 (Cewarn 2010). This number has to be treated with caution

as raided communities tend to report higher numbers hoping to receive higher

19

compensations. Yet, the number points to the dimension of losses that some communities

experience.

During this research, 75% of the pastoralists and raiders reported to have lost livestock,

partly due to raids and drought-related incidences. A reduction in livestock population,

even by small numbers, is critical especially for the pastoralists who depend on livestock

for income and food security. Similarly, it was reported that losing livestock also goes

hand-in-hand with the loss of societal recognition. Without livestock, young men cannot

marry as they are unable to pay dowry. Elders, functioning as communal judges, are

suffering from loss of livestock, too. During focus group discussions in Mandera, elders

complained that the youth does not respect them anymore. A raider said referring to the

youth and elders summarised that ‘without cattle, you are useless’ (McCabe 2004).

Particularly for women and children, the loss of livestock whether caused by raiding,

drought or disease can result in lack of nutrition.

2.4.3 Loss of homes and resources

The conflict between the Mandera Communities is mostly about livestock raiding which

usually takes place in some distance to the villages. However, occasionally, bigger kraals

and even entire villages are attacked. Based on the interviews and the Cewarn, (2010)

data, it is possible to define an approximate corridor where the conflicts between the

Mandera communities are most intense with respect to the level of perceived insecurity

and number of reported raiding incidences and attacked homesteads. For example, 20

homesteads were reported to be looted and destroyed between 2006 and 2009 in and

around Mandera West. In 2009, a village of was found abandoned due to insecurity

caused by Mandera raiders. Only the school staff and the students had remained; they

were constantly protected by the nearby military camp. While the abandonment of entire

settlements is a rare case, the loss of pasture and water points is a common phenomenon

in conflict-prone rangelands of northern Kenya. Eriksen and Lind (2009) point to the

formation of loose grazing associations to expand territory. In these so called ‘arumrum’,

‘up to a few hundred households’ come together to take over larger areas with pasture.

20

Watering points are a source of conflict particularly during dry periods. Several

exchanges of gunfire are witnessed between the communities trying to access the

borehole at night.

2.4.4 Insecurity and its subsequent effects

In Mandera West communities, there is an omnipresent perception of pronounced

insecurity. In Mandera County, 76% of the people interviewed felt insecure or highly

insecure (USAID 2009). When asked about the reason for the insecurity, the interviewees

in both communities gave these replies: raids, conflicts or the enemy. Insecurity and the

perception of it have three major effects, which in turn reduce human well-being: first,

inefficient resource utilisation, second, closing of markets and schools and third, posing

an obstacle for investments. Earlier estimates by Morton (2001) show that between 15%

and 21% of north-western rangelands has become more or less inaccessible to Mandera

pastoralists due to enduring inter-community ethnic tensions. The insecurity is further

increased by highway robbery of bandits who take advantage of the power vacuum. In

addition, the underutilization of pasture bares the risk of encroachment of certain species

which deplete the pasture or make it inaccessible. Unused boreholes can become a source

of livestock poisoning. The concentration of people and livestock increases the likelihood

of overuse of resources and poses a potential source of new conflict. The majority

residents are afraid to move freely when conflicts are ongoing, similarly Kaimba (2011)

found that livestock raiding interrupts the mobility which is an integral part of

pastoralism in the region. Women in the nearby villages have reduced the picking of wild

berries because they are afraid to get killed or raped. This shows how insecurity

undermines adaptation to drought as the picking of wild berries was reported to be an

important strategy to adapt to water and pasture scarcity.

The effects of insecurity on pastoral livelihoods go beyond a reduction of food resources,

livestock markets are also not used because of insecurity. The lack of secure markets

limits the ability of the pastoralists to sell livestock prior to or during dry periods and

hence contributes to food insecurity. Insecurity does not only interrupt education; it also

21

poses an obstacle for development. Today, Mandera County is one of the poorest and

most marginalised counties in Kenya (KNBS 2010). Beyond the physical effects,

insecurity negatively affects the inter-communal relations. Community members of

Mandera County often express strong negative feelings and distrust towards the others.

The distrust decreases the motivation and the capability of the communities to choose a

cooperative path which is a prerequisite for peaceful and effective resources sharing.

Inter-communal relations particularly deteriorate when raids include the rape or

abduction of women. This practice could increase the incentive for parents to marry off

their daughters early into the ‘safe hands’ of a husband. Another response to such hostile

attacks is retaliation which further fuels the conflict (Eaton 2008). Overall, the results

suggest that the asymmetry found in the motives of raiding does not translate into major

differences in the (perceived) effects of the conflicts. The destructiveness of the conflicts

was stressed in both groups.

2.5 Theoretical Perspectives

There are a number of theoretical explanations for the onset of violent conflicts. The most

prominent of these are;

2.5.1 Primordialist Approach

The primordialist approach asserts the existence of “ancient hatreds” among ethnic and

cultural groups: “the urge to define and reject the other goes back to our remotest human

ancestors and indeed beyond them to our animal predecessors.” According to this view,

“tendencies toward xenophobia and intolerance are more natural to human societies than

liberal politics of interest, ethnic conflict and the conflict potential of ethnicity”. While

ethnic emotions appear to be primordial, they are a socially and politically constructed

reality drawn from the historical memories of past injustices and grievances (Suny 2001).

Suny illustrates this by stating that, National identities are saturated with emotions that

have been created through teaching, repetition, and daily reproduction until they become

common sense. These tropes betrayal, treachery, threats from others, and survival are

22

embedded in familiar emotions anxiety, fear, insecurity, and pride. Group history is

socially constructed. As Suny argues, “Nations are particular forms of collectivity that are

constituted by a process of creating histories.” National history, he further explains, is

constructed so that it consists of “continuity, antiquity of origins, heroism and past

greatness, martyrdom and sacrifice, victimization and overcoming of trauma.”Also, the

past gives this particular form of imagined community a potent claim to territory, the

‘homeland.

In its pure form, the primordialist view implies a sense of hopelessness. If one is

invariably and always a Serb, a Zulu, or Chechen and if ethnic divisions and tensions are

natural, then little or nothing can be done to prevent or resolve ethnic conflict.

Understanding ethnic hatred as something that is ingrained in ethnic groups and cannot

be changed is a simplified view of a complex problem. It prevents those who build peace

to see that ethnic animosities exist in combination with other factors and that addressing

each dimension of the problem is necessary to resolve conflict. Confining explanations of

ethnic conflict solely to primordial causes also implies a degree of ignorance and

prejudice towards the societies affected by conflict. As Akbar describes, Ideas and

arguments about ethnicity are usually based on the assumption that ethnic identity is a

characteristic of primordial and tribal societies. Only backward societies cling to the past

(Rothschild 1998).

All multi-ethnic societies, when subject to a convergence of a particular set of factors and

conditions, carry the potential of ethnic conflict. Under the stress of a major structural

change that brings a sense of chaos and uncertainty, the consciousness of historically

rooted ethnic identities and emotions are employed as vehicles to ethnic violence for

political purposes. Viewing historically rooted ethnic animosities as the only cause of

conflict is insufficient, as Ganguly (1998) argues. A proper understanding of the causes

of ethnic political mobilization and conflict is crucial, and we must move beyond

simplistic discussions of ‘ancient hatreds’ to search for more systematic explanations.

Also, if we view groups’ historical and current realities as a result of pre-determined or

23

“primordial” factors, then, “The road is open to exclusivist, homogeneous nations that in

our ethnically mixed, fluid, changing world re-quire desperate policies of deportation and

ethnic cleansing to secure.” On the other hand, as Suny argues, if we view our realities as

socially constructed, the possibilities for cooperation and peaceful cohabitation are

greater (Rothschild 1998).

2.5.2 Institutional Approach

Institutions play an important role in regulating the level of the conflict potential of

ethnicity. They define inter-ethnic relationships by either facilitating or obstructing inter-

group cooperation. Crawford notes that institutions both constrain behavior and provide

incentives for cooperation and compliance in norms, rules, and procedures for allocation,

participation, representation, and accountability. According to her, whether or not identity

politics turns into violent conflict depends on the functioning of state institutions. Where

identity politics is practiced, states can channel it in peaceful political competition as long

as they can make credible commitments to shape and uphold agreements made among

culturally defined political actors. The proponents of the institutional approach would

argue, for example, that the nineteenth century tensions among the three ethnic groups in

Switzerland are now managed by the current political system consociational democracy

by institutionalizing ethnic pluralism and giving the three groups equivalent power-

sharing. On the other hand, as Enloe and Nagel, (2001) argue, if the state’s administrative

structures and legal institutions distribute resources based on ethnicity, this encourages

political mobilization along ethnic lines. In sum, Countries whose political institutions

politicize cultural ethnic identity are more vulnerable to cultural ethnic conflict than

countries whose political institutions promote social integration of diverse cultural

groups.

Communist, colonial and democratic political arrangements have various institutional

effects on inter-ethnic relations and thus on conflict potential. For example, communism

is sometimes blamed for creating or reinforcing ethnic/national divisions but suppressing

the expression of ethnic conflicts, and consequently, for recent outbursts of ethnic

24

violence in the post-communist regions of the world following the system collapse. In the

words of Brunner, (1996) in the communist systems, nationality ethnicity conflicts were

suppressed, compulsorily canalized or even consciously instrumentalized ethnic

intolerance to take place. Such a situation, exploited by political entrepreneurs, leads to

inter-ethnic competition and conflict. Democratic institutions are considered to promote

inter-ethnic cooperation and thus mitigate the conflict potential of ethnicity. In a

democratic multinational state, stability is generally maintained by means of political

bargaining and compromise between ethnic subgroups. The transition from

authoritarianism to democracy in multinational states means first of all the disintegration

of the coercive system of checks and controls. This inevitably leads to ethnic flare-ups as

ethnic communities begin to organize, to mobilize their members, and to voice their

grievances and demands upon the state and each other. However, while conflict may not

happen in or among established democracies, conflict often does happen in democratizing

states. (Crawford 1998).

2.5.3 Political Entrepreneurs Approach

The instability and uncertainty that result from a major structural change and the

institutional inability to regulate inter-ethnic relations provides a perfect condition in

which political entrepreneurs can manipulate ethnic emotions in order to mobilize groups

for their own political purposes. Politicians exploit ethnic differences by drawing upon

historical memories of grievances and whip up hatred in order to gain or strengthen their

power. The dynamic that develops between political entrepreneurs and their followers

causes an inter-ethnic security dilemma. As Kaufman (1997) explains, belligerent leaders

stoke mass hostility; hostile masses support belligerent leaders, and both together threaten

other groups, creating a security dilemma which in turn encourages even more mass

hostility and leadership belligerence. Political entrepreneurs manipulate fears and

uncertainties of ethnic groups they represent and are able to awaken a consciousness of

common grievances and a desire to rectify these wrongs. They help create and reinforce

ethnic polarization in the society. Furthermore, “Ethnic cleavages allow political

entrepreneurs to mobilize grievances against distributions of benefits that are perceived to

25

be unfavorable to the group.” Rhetoric of fear, blame, and hate are used by political

entrepreneurs as a tool of division and control.

According to Zupanov (1997), “Politicians whose goal is that of exploiting and/or

provoking ethnic/national hatred are in control of media production which is controlled

and directed by hate-prone politicians that provokes national intolerance and hatred in the

population leading to violence.” The disposition towards ethnic intolerance can be

strengthened by new or old political leadership if the leaders do not have the necessary

political sense of responsibility and do not resist the temptation to avert attention from the

acute socio-economic problems by creating national concepts of enemies. This is the big

chance for the forces of the old regimes that either lost, or are afraid of losing, their

power. Therefore, the politicians’ manipulation of ethnic emotions leads to particular

actions such as intolerance. The political entrepreneurs approach to explaining the causes

of ethnic conflict is closely related to the institutional approach. Politicians who use

ethnicity to their advantage can successfully operate only within those institutional

arrangements that support/allow such practice or are unable to prevent it. The success of

political entrepreneurs in mobilizing ethnic groups into violent conflict depends on the

strength of the existing state institutions: “If states provide a legitimate arena for

entrepreneurs to compete and if resources available for allocation are abundant, identity

politics, like other kinds of political competition, will be legitimate and stable. Morris,

(1999) similarly illustrates the connection between political leadership and institutions.

According to her, the two are “the filter through which all other causes of conflict have to

pass. She also notes that “institutions can fuel grievances through political exclusion or

inefficiency.

2.5.4 Competition over Resources Approach

Political mobilization of ethnic identities results in ethnic intolerance and competition

over resources and rights which, if unresolved, can lead to a violent conflict. When

resources are scarce, it is easier for political entrepreneurs to capitalize on the conflict

potential of ethnicity. As described by Organization for Economic Cooperation and

26

Development (OECD 2001) and United States Agency for International Development

(USAID 2001), these groups are all the more likely to be vulnerable to such maneuvering

when they find themselves in situations characterized by a lack of opportunities.”

As Lake and Rothchild (1998) note, Property rights, jobs, scholarships, educational

admissions, language rights, government contracts, and development allocations all

confer particular benefits on individuals and groups. Whether finite in supply or not, all

such resources are scarce and, thus, objects of competition and occasionally struggle

between individuals and, when organized, groups. When scholars discuss competition

over resources, they often refer to the economic competition over resources. The

argument is that: under difficult economic conditions, high unemployment and poor

prospects for the future, people feel victimized and blame their misfortune on other ethnic

groups. This leads to inter-ethnic competition. In his analysis of peace accords and ethnic

conflicts, de Varennes (2003) found that in almost all conflicts, ethnic groups’ demands

focused on securing basic rights for their group. For example, they demanded more

effective political participation, a fairer share and distribution of education, employment

opportunities.

In the literature, there are various notions on what mechanisms may facilitate ethnic

competition. These mechanisms include economic and political processes such as:

racially split labor markets, employment segregation, the cultural division of labor, the

replacement of local control with more inclusive domains of control and sovereignty, and

expansion of state systems. According to Kposowa and Jenkins, (1998) all of these

developments increase the likelihood of ethnic competition over resources. In the past

two decades, the concept of internal colonialism has been used extensively to account for

economic and political differences along ethnic lines. According to the internal colony

theory, when a group establishes its dominance within the society, it is able to maintain a

cultural division of labor, a system of stratification where objective cultural distinctions

are superimposed upon class lines. When ethnic groups find themselves victimized and/or

threatened by other groups, identification in terms of their ethnicity becomes particularly

27

important, because their ethnic group is seen as the source of protection from other

groups and a possible provider of a secure environment. Inter-ethnic competition can lead

to “the silencing of divergent opinions. In the context of a major structural change within

an ethnically diverse society, political entrepreneurs attribute their ethnic group’s have-

nots to the exploitation and denial of access to resources and rights by the other groups.

Advantaged groups, on the other hand, begin to see the others as those who will take

away their haves should they gain a position of power within the society. Institutional

factors fuel inter-ethnic competition by facilitating politics of exclusion (Williams 1994).

28

2.6 Conceptual Framework

Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework

Independent Variables Dependent variables

Causes of Conflict Effect of conflict

Source, Author (2014)

Climatic Condition

Government Policies

and Programs

Regional Instability and

proliferation of

automated weapons

Loss of Livestock

Loss of Homes and

Resources

Insecurity

Loss of Human Lives

29

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH DESIGN METHODS

3.0 Introduction

This chapter describes the research design, the study site, study population, sampling

strategy and data collection instruments that will be adopted in this study. It also presents

approaches of determining validity and reliability of research instruments, data analysis

and ethical considerations.

3.1 Research Design

According to Kothari (2003), research design refers to the way a study is planned and

conducted as well as procedures and techniques used to address the research problem.

This study adopted both descriptive and historical research design. Since the study is

majorly concerned with describing such things as attitudes, values and behavior,

descriptive design therefore becomes adequate for the study. The researcher employed

both quantitative and qualitative approaches to data collection, analysis and presentation.

Historical design assisted in exploring, explaining and understanding the past about the

subject from data already available. The aim was to collect relevant information on the

effect of conflict among pastoralist communities.

3.3 Study Population

According to Nachmias & Nachmias (1996), a population is an aggregate of all cases that

conform to certain characteristics which are of interest to the researcher. This study

focussed on Mandera County. The study population will be 350 residents comprising the

Provincial administration officers (DC’s, DO’s, and Chiefs), Civic leaders, senior

30

security personnel (OCS, OCPD), representatives of Civil Society Organization and

Faith- based groups and local residents.

3.4 Sample size and Procedures

Sampling refers to the process of selecting a portion of the population that conforms to a

designated set of specifications to be studied. Kendall & Kendall (2005) observes that

sampling is advantageous for it allows the researcher to draw generalization and reduce

bias. According to Nachmias & Nachmias (1996), sampling is necessary because it is

extremely expensive and nearly impossible to collect data from all members of the study

population. The study employed both probability and non-probability sampling

procedures.

3.4.1 Purposive Sampling

Purposive sampling ensures that only participants who are knowledgeable about an issue

in question are selected (Brink, 1996). The researcher therefore purposively sampled

DC’s, DO’s, OCS, OCPD and selected affected people from the population.

The researcher therefore procedure got a sample totaling to 165 respondents comprising

of 120 local residents, 23 provincial administration officers, 3 senior security officers, 9

civic leaders and 10 representatives of the civil society and Faith-based organizations.

Table 3.1: Sample Size

Respondent Sample Size

1 Local residents 120

2 Provincial Administration 23

3 Senior Security Officers 3

4 Civic Leaders 9

5 Civil society and faith based organizations 10

TOTAL 165

Source: Researcher (2013)

31

3.5 Data Collection and Administration of Instruments

Data collection is the process of acquiring subjects and gathering information needed for

a study; methods of collection varied depending on the study design, (Kothari,

2004).Primary data will be collected for this study. Primary data will be collected by

administering a semi-structured questionnaire. This type of questionnaire used both

closed and open-ended questions. Closed questions have predetermined answers and

usually collect quantitative data while open-ended questions give the respondents free

was answered and usually collect qualitative data. The use of questionnaire ensures

collection of data from many respondents within a short time and respondents are free to

give relevant information because they are assured of their anonymity (Mugenda and

Mugenda, 2003).

3.6 Data Analysis and Presentation

The study applied both qualitative and quantitative techniques in data analysis and

presentation. Qualitative data from FGD’s and Interviews was analyzed by coding

common themes and presenting in form of generalized statements.

Quantitative data from questionnaires was analyzed using descriptive and inferential

statistics. Measures of distribution, percentages and frequencies were applied in

analyzing the data with the aid of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version

20.

3.7 Piloting of the instruments

Pilot study is a small version or trial run of the major study. It is mainly done to assess

feasibility, (Brink, 1996:60). 2 divisions in Mandera County will be selected for piloting

of the instruments. The aim of piloting was provide an opportunity to refine the data

collection instruments such as questionnaires before embarking on the actual study.

32

3.8 Validity

Validity refers to the extent to which an instrument measures what it purports to measure.

It has to do with how accurately the data obtained in the study represents the variable of

the study Kothari, (2003).

In this study, expert judgment of content validity will be employed. The decision to use

expert judgment as a method of determining validity is guided by Kothari (2003), who

argues that the determination of content validity is primarily judgmental and intuitive,

and can be determined using a panel of persons who judged how well the instrument

meets the standards. On this basis, suggestions were obtained from the research experts at

Nairobi University, peace and conflict studies department so as to improve on the clarity

of the items in the questionnaires that was to be used in the study.

3.9 Reliability

Reliability is the extent to which a measuring instrument contains variable error, error

that appear inconsistently from observation to observation during any one measurement

attempt or that vary each time a given unit is measured by the same instrument

(Nachmias & Nachmias, 1996). Data collection instruments, questionnaires, interview

guides and Focus Group Discussions were pre-tested to eliminate defects that might

interfere with the instruments reliability.

3.10 Ethical Considerations

The participants were informed about the study design and procedure so as to gain a clear

outset of the objectives of the study and ensure cooperation, free and informed responses

during the study. All the responses given were confidential. This was achieved by

ensuring that data collected from the respondents are guarded against unauthorized access

unless authorized by the respondents.

33

No record of respondents name or address was kept. This ensured anonymity to the

extent that data collected cannot be linked to a particular respondent. It also helped clear

doubt within the respondents that the information they gave might be used against them.

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND PRESENTATION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the analysis of data findings on Peace committees in peace building

and conflict management in Mandera County in Kenya. The research targeted Provincial

administration officers (DC’s, DO’s, and Chiefs), Civic leaders, senior security personnel

(OCS, OCPD), representatives of Civil Society Organization and Faith- based groups and

local residents. The commendable response rate was achievable after the researcher

administered the questionnaires personally and made personal visits and phone calls to

remind the respondents to fill-in and return the questionnaires.

4.2 Demographic Factors

4.2.1 Response Rate

Table 4.1: Response Rate

Respondent Frequency Percentage

Response 152 92%

Non- Response 13 8%

Total 165 100%


34

Figure 4.1: Response Rate


From table 4.2 and figure 4.2 it is clear that the study targeted a sample size of 165

respondents from which152 filled in and returned the questionnaires making a response

rate of 92 %. This response rate was satisfactory to make conclusions on the effects of

conflicts among the pastoral communities.

4.2.2 Gender of the Respondents

Table 4.2: Gender of the Respondents


Male 83 55%

Female 69 45%

Total 152 100%


Figure 4.2: Gender of the Respondents


92

8

Response

Non- Response

55

45

Male

Female

35

From table 4.3 and figure 4.3 it is clear that the majority of the respondents as shown by

55% indicated that they were males whereas 45% of the respondents indicated that they

were females, this is an indication that both genders were involved in finding out the

effects of conflicts among the pastoral communities.

4.2.3 Age Brackets of the Respondents

Table 2.3: Age Brackets of the Respondents


20 and below 18 12%

21-30 yrs 34 22%

31-40 yrs 51 34%

41-50 yrs 27 18%

51 and above 22 14%

Total 152 100%


Figure 4.3: Age Brackets of the Respondents


Above is table 4.4 and figure 4.4 on the age of the respondents, the study requested the

respondents to indicate their age category, from the findings, it is clear that most of the

respondents as shown by 34% indicated that they were aged between 31 to 40 years, 22%

of the respondents indicated 21 to 30 years, 18% of the respondents indicated 41 to 50, 14

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35%

20 and below

21-30 yrs

31-40 yrs

41-50 yrs

51 and above

12%

22%

34%

18%

14%

36

% 51years and above, whereas 12% of the respondents indicated 20 years and below, this

is an indication that respondents were well distributed in term of their age.

4.2.4 The level of education

Table 4.4: The Level of Education

Education Level Frequency Percentage

No Education 29 19

Primary Level 43 28

Secondary level 33 22

College 25 16

University 16 11

Postgraduate 6 4

Total 152 100


37

Figure 4.4: The Level of Education


On the academic qualification of the respondents, the study requested the respondents to

indicate their academic qualification, from the findings, the study found that most of the

respondents as shown by 28% indicated that they had only primary education, 22%

indicated they had only secondary education, 19% indicated they had no education at all,

16% had college education, 11% had university education whereas 4% of the respondents

indicated they had post graduate education. This is an indication that most respondents

lacked education which may be the cause of violence.

4.2.5 Monthly level of Income

Table 4.5: Monthly Level of Income

Respondents Frequency Percentages

Below Ksh 10,000 98 64%

Ksh 10,000 – Ksh 30,000 21 14%

Ksh 30,000 – Ksh 50,000 12 8%

Ksh 50,000 – Ksh 80,000 10 7%

Ksh 80,000 – Ksh 120,000 7 5%

Above Ksh 120,000 4 3%

Total 152 100%


0 5 10 15 20 25 30

No Education

Primary Level

Secondary level

College

University

Postgraduate

19

28

22

16

11

4

38

Figure 4.5: Monthly Level of Income


On the level of income of the Respondents of the respondents, the study requested the

respondents to indicate their income, from the findings, the study found that most of the

respondents as shown by 64% indicated that they earned below Ksh 10,000, 14%

indicated they earned Ksh 10,000 – 30,000, 8% indicated they earned Ksh 30,000 –

50,000, 7% earned Ksh 50,000- 80,000 whereas 5% of the respondents indicated they

earned below Ksh 40,000. This is an indication that respondents were relatively well

remunerated.

4.2.6 If ever been a victim of violence in your region

Table 4.6: If ever been a victim of violence in your region


Yes 83 55

No 69 45

Total 152 100


Figure 4.6: If ever been a victim of violence in your region

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Below Ksh 10,000

Ksh 10,000 – Ksh 30,000

Ksh 30,000 – Ksh 50,000

Ksh 50,000 – Ksh 80,000

Ksh 80,000 – Ksh 120,000

64

14

8

7

5

55

45

Yes

No

39


From the finding on the agreement on if ever been a victim of violence in your region, the

study found that majority of the respondents as shown by 55% indicated that they have

been victims of violence, 45% indicated they are not victims of violence, the above

information show that most people in the regions are victims of violence.

4.3 Causes of Conflict

4.3.1 The main cause of conflict in your region

Table 4.7: The main cause of conflict in your region


Climatic condition 19 13

Poor government policies and programs 45 30

Regional Instability 88 58

Total 152 100


From the finding on the main cause of conflict in your region, the study found that

majority of the respondents as shown by 58% indicated that regional instability is the

main cause of violence, 30 % indicated poor government policies and programs while

13% indicated climatic condition the above information show that regional instability is

the main cause of violence.

40

4.3.2 Agreement with the statements on Causes of Conflict

Table 4.8: Agreement with the statements on Causes of Conflict

Mea

n

Sta

nd

ard

dev

iati

on

The loss of animals during droughts provides a justification for

carrying out raids against other communities and depleting their

resources so as to offset their own losses to restock the herds resulting

to violence

2.75 0.23

Interaction with the state plays an important role in the creation of

ethnic/tribal identities which eventually become faultiness for conflict

2.67 0.29

When the government use weapon to control cattle raiding, raiders

have tended to acquire sophisticated weapons to counter those of the

government security forces

2.83 0.25

Lack of effective administrative control in the area, allows raiders to

organize and carry out livestock raids with relative impunity

2.87 0.31


From the findings Interaction with the state plays an important role in the creation of

ethnic/tribal identities which eventually become faultiness for conflict as shown by mean

of 2.67, the loss of animals during droughts provides a justification for carrying out raids

against other communities and depleting their resources so as to offset their own losses to

restock the herds resulting to violence as shown by the mean of 2.75. When the

government use weapon to control cattle raiding, raiders have tended to acquire

sophisticated weapons to counter those of the government security forces as shown by

41

mean of 2.83, and lack of effective administrative control in the area, allows raiders to

organize and carry out livestock raids with relative impunity as shown by the mean of

2.87.

4.4 Effect of Conflict

4.4.1 The main effect of conflict in Mandera County

Table 4.9: The main effect of conflict in Mandera County


Loss of human lives 69 45

Loss of livestock 42 28

Loss of homes and property 17 11

Insecurity 24 16

Total 152 100


From the finding on the effect of conflict in the region, the study found that majority of

the respondents as shown by 45% indicated that loss of human lives is the main effect of

violence, 28 % indicated loss of livestock, 16% indicated insecurity while 11% indicated

loss of homes and property the above information show that loss of human lives is the

main effect of violence.

4.4.2 Level of Agreement with the Statements of Effect of Conflict

Table 4.10: Level of Agreement with the Statements of Effect of Conflict

Mea

n

Sta

nd

ard

dev

iati

on

Watering points are a source of conflict particularly during dry periods 2.87 0.21

The most direct effect of raiding on human well-being is the loss of lives

and injuries caused during the raids

2.59 0.26

Losing livestock also goes hand-in-hand with the loss of societal 3.13 0.20

42

recognition

The lack of secure markets limits the ability of the pastoralists to sell

livestock prior to or during dry periods and hence contributes to food

insecurity

3.05 0.27


From the findings on the effect of conflict, the most direct effect of raiding on human

well-being is the loss of lives and injuries caused during the raids as shown by mean of

2.59. Watering points are a source of conflict particularly during dry periods as shown by

the mean of 2.87. The lack of secure markets limits the ability of the pastoralists to sell

livestock prior to or during dry periods and hence contributes to food insecurity as shown

by mean of 3.05, and that losing livestock also goes hand-in-hand with the loss of societal

recognition as shown by the mean of 3.10.

4.5 Effectiveness of Peace Committee and Local Measures in Conflict Prevention

4.5.1 Whether there are peace building committees in the region

Table 4.11: Whether there are peace building committees in the region


Yes 109 72

No 43 28

Total 152 100


From the finding on the agreement on whether there are peace building committees in the

region, the study found that majority of the respondents as shown by 72% indicated there

are peace committees while 28 % indicated there are no peace committees, the above

information show that there are peace committees in Mandera County.

4.5.2 Whether peace building programs have been carried out to promote peaceful

coexistence among communities

Table 4.12: Whether peace building programs have been carried out to promote

peaceful coexistence among communities

43


Yes 65 43

No 87 57

Total 152 100


From the finding on the agreement on whether peace building programs have been

carried out to promote peaceful coexistence among communities, the study found that the

respondents as shown by 43% indicated peace building programs have been carried out to

promote peaceful coexistence while 57 % indicated they have not been carried out, the

above information show that peace building programs have not been carried in all regions

in Mandera County.

4.5.3 The immediate institution that responds to resolve conflict whenever it occurs

Table 4.13: The immediate institution that responds to resolve conflict whenever it

occurs


Local Elders 24 16

Government Administration 41 27

Religious leaders 18 12

NGOs 69 45

Total 152 100


From the finding on the immediate institution that responds to resolve conflict whenever

it occurs, the study found that majority of the respondents as shown by 45% indicated

that it was NGOs, 27% indicated government administration, 16% indicated local elders,

while 12% indicated religious leaders.

4.5.4 If the civil society is doing enough to educate the community on the need for

peace

Table 4.14: If the civil society is doing enough to educate the community on the need

for peace


Yes 65 43

44

No 87 57

Total 152 100


From the finding on the agreement on whether the civil society is doing enough to

educate the community on the need for peace, the study found that majority of the

respondents as shown by 57% indicated the civil society is not doing enough to educate

the community on the need for peace while 43 % indicated the civil society is doing

enough to educate the community on the need for peace in all regions in Mandera

County.

4.5.6 Level Of Agreement With The Statements On Peace Committees

Table 4.15: Level of Agreement with the Statements on Peace Committees

Mea

n

Sta

nd

ard

dev

iati

on

In Kenya, peace committees face similar challenges of funding and

logistical support

2.60 0.30

Peace committees are very critical in resolving issues and

challenges facing security at grass root levels

2.47 0.32

Though guidelines have been in place to provide impetus for peace

building and conflict management processes, the Kenyan

government is still reluctant in fast tracking the development of

National Policy on peace building and conflict management

2.67 0.32

Effectiveness of peace committee in conflict management and

peace building has been dwindling with minimal success registered

in counties that embarked on rolling out the program

2.97 0.24


45

From the findings regarding peace committees, the study found that the respondents

indicated to a great extent that Peace committees are very critical in resolving issues and

challenges facing security at grass root levels as shown by mean of 2.47. In Kenya, peace

committees face similar challenges of funding and logistical support as shown by the

mean of 2.60. Though guidelines have been in place to provide impetus for peace

building and conflict management processes, the Kenyan government is still reluctant in

fast tracking the development of National Policy on peace building and conflict

management as shown by mean of 2.67, and effectiveness of peace committee in conflict

management and peace building has been dwindling with minimal success registered in

counties that embarked on rolling out the program as shown by the mean of 2.97.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

From the analysis and data collected, the following discussions, conclusion and

recommendations have made. The responses were based on the objectives of the study.

The purpose this study was to analyze the effectiveness of peace committee in peace

building and conflict management in Mandera County, to investigate involvement of

women and youth in peace building initiatives in Mandera County, to determine effect of

ethnic conflict in Mandera County

5.2 Summary of the findings

This research established that the loss of human lives is the main effect of violence as

represented by 45%. These findings concurs with the findings of Adan & Pkalya (2006)

who observed that in most communities especially pastoralist communities where

scarcity of resources was the main cause of conflict, resource management agreement

helped to do reduce tensions among the many ethnic communities co existing together. It

was further established that provincial administration played significant role in conflict

resolution. This shows that all representatives in the community were involved in

46

resolving conflict but the government plays a significant role since it has resources and

man power to bring volatile situations back to normalcy.

The research further established that there were peace building programs being carried

out to promote peaceful coexistence. This is a clear indication that the individuals in the

region have realised the importance of peace initiatives programs and have also realised

that no peaceful coexistence could be achieved until all parties are brought to the same

platform and be made to understand the importance of peace. It was also revealed that

that provincial administration should conduct as much as possible barazas in the district

so that they can preach peace and let the people know that it’s only with peaceful

coexistence they will be able to exploit the economic resources they have and live a good

life.

Among the reasons which made the residents feel that the civil society has been doing a

good job is because they prepared workshop for youth, women and men. They also

encouraged people to live together and they educated people to trade together and live

together. The civil societies have even taken these campaigns even in churches. They

have continued to mobilize the various stakeholders, provincial administrations, local

community leaders towards peace initiatives.

It also came to my attention that peace campaigns yield much in peace building and this

was represented by a mean of 1.93. Peace committee are effective approach to peace

building and conflict management and that women are critical to be involved in decision

making levels for peace building and conflict management and Peace committee

resolutions often result in peaceful co-existence and the government provides adequate

support to peace committees in Mandera.

The research also established that majority of the people involved in ethnic conflict were

aged between 21 and 30.This is an indication that the youths who are in their early adult

hood are the most prone to participation in ethnic conflict. This has been brought about

by poor education system making majority of them drop out of school and recruited in

47

very dangerous gangs that carries out the raids. Low level of employment also plays a

role in this. Incase these young adults are fully absorbed in the labour markets there will

no one to conduct these inhumane actions. It also revealed that the community was still

relying on traditional measures of conflict resolution and that council of elders was the

most used practiced.

5.3 Conclusion

The study concluded that main cause of conflict in the region was ethnic animosity and

that provincial administration played significant role in conflict resolution. It further

concluded that the reason behind the provincial administration being the first to respond

during these calling times is because they lived among the community and they had the

logistical capacity required to reach the scene of crimes and assist the individuals

affected.

This research also concluded that there were peace building programs being carried out to

promote peaceful coexistence. This is a clear indication that the individuals in the region

have realised the importance of peace initiatives programs and have also realised that no

peaceful coexistence could be achieved until all parties are brought to the same platform

and be made to understand the importance of peace.

The study also concluded that peace campaigns yield much in peace building and peace

committee are effective approach to peace building and conflict management and that

women are critical to be involved in decision making levels for peace building and

conflict management.

The study finally concluded that majority of the people involved in ethnic conflict are

aged between 21 and 30. This has been brought about by poor education system making

majority of them drop out of school and recruited in very dangerous gangs that carries out

the raids. Low level of employment also plays a role in this. Incase these young adults are

fully absorbed in the labour markets there will no one to conduct these inhumane actions.

48

5.4 Recommendations

This study therefore recommends that peace resolution initiate such as meeting people in

churches and launching peace campaigns should be adopted in the peace preaching

process. This would play a significant role in creating awareness of peace initiatives.

Organisations should use vehicles such as trailers and even hold public meetings and

renew the committee’s mode of doing things.

Training of youths and women should also be given more priority. This would empower

them with more knowledge on what bring conflicts among communities and how to

resolve it amicably. Formal education should also be encouraged among the youths

which will finally promote and enhance development among other communities.

The county government should emphasize much on having local barazas whereby all the

stakeholders in the district can fully participate giving their opinion in regard to peace

process and train everyone to be a peacemakers. Continuous monthly meetings and

barazas by chiefs and assistant chiefs so that mwananchi could know that there is a

government which is responsible. There should also be equal distribution of wealth and

resources and a lot of transparency in sharing the resources despite ethnicity especially at

this time of devolution in the county

Individuals should also be taken for tours in other districts to learn more about peace

building and the government should recognize peace representatives and pay them

salaries. The financial status should be boosted to cater for their transport and enable

them buy and institute things like banner which play a significant role in peace building

and also enable them reach out to people in their peace campaign mission

49

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APPENDICES

Appendix I: Questionnaire

This questionnaire is designed to collect data on the effect of conflict among pastrolist

communities with reference to Mandera County. The data shall be used for academic

purpose only and it will be treated with confidentiality it deserves. The respondents are

highly encouraged and persuaded to respond to the statements in this questionnaire in the

most truthful and objected way possible. Your participation in facilitating this study will

be highly appreciated.

Kindly ticks in the space provided with the correct answer or supply the required

information where, required, please specify and elaborate.

Name ……………………………………………………….

54

Part A: demographic information

1. Please indicate your gender

Female [ ]

Male [ ]

2. Indicate your age bracket

20 and below [ ]

21-30 yrs [ ]

31-40 yrs [ ]

41-50 yrs [ ]

51 and above [ ]

3. State your highest level of education

No Education [ ]

Primary Level [ ]

Secondary level [ ]

College [ ]

University [ ]

Postgraduate [ ]

4. Indicate your monthly level of Income

Below Ksh 10,000 [ ]

Ksh 10,000 – Ksh 30,000 [ ]

Ksh 30,000 – Ksh 50,000 [ ]

Ksh 50,000 – Ksh 80,000 [ ]

Ksh 80,000 – Ksh 120,000 [ ]

Above Ksh 120,000 [ ]

55

5. Have you ever been a victim of violence in your region?

Yes [ ] No [ ]

Part B

To complete the questionnaires read and then rate each statement according to the

following scale:

1 -Strongly agree

2 -Agree

3 – Moderately agree

4 -Disagree

5-Strongly Disagree

SECTION B: Causes of Conflict

6. Which of the following is the main cause of conflict in your region?

Climatic condition [ ]

Poor government policies and programs [ ]

Regional Instability [ ]

7. What is your level of agreement with the following statements?

Attribute 1 2 3 4 5

56

The loss of animals during droughts

provides a justification for carrying out

raids against other communities and

depleting their resources so as to offset

their own losses to restock the herds

resulting to violence

Interaction with the state plays an

important role in the creation of

ethnic/tribal identities which eventually

become faultiness for conflict

When the government use weapon to

control cattle raiding, raiders have

tended to acquire sophisticated

weapons to counter those of the

government security forces

Lack of effective administrative

control in the area, allows raiders to

organize and carry out livestock raids

with relative impunity

Section 2: Effect of Conflict

8. Which of the following is the main effect of conflict in Mandera County?

Loss of human lives [ ]

57

Loss of livestock [ ]

Loss of homes and property [ ]

Insecurity [ ]


1 2 3 4 5

The most direct effect of raiding on human well-

being is the loss of lives and injuries caused

during the raids

Watering points are a source of conflict

particularly during dry periods

losing livestock also goes hand-in-hand with the

loss of societal recognition

The lack of secure markets limits the ability of the

pastoralists to sell livestock prior to or during dry

periods and hence contributes to food insecurity

Section 3: Effectiveness of Peace Committee in Peace Building and Conflict

Management

10. Are there peace building committees in your region?

58

Yes No

11. If yes have enough peace building programs been carried out to promote peaceful

coexistence among communities?

Yes [ ] No [ ]

12. Which is the most immediate institution that responds to resolve conflict

whenever it occurs?

Local Elders [ ]

Government Administration [ ]

Religious leaders [ ]

NGOs [ ]

13. In your opinion is the civil society doing enough to educate the community on the

need for peace?


1 2 3 4 5

Peace committees are very critical in resolving issues and

challenges facing security at grass root levels

Effectiveness of peace committee in conflict management

and peace building has been dwindling with minimal

success registered in counties that embarked on rolling out

the program

In Kenya, peace committees face similar challenges of

funding and logistical support

59

Though guidelines have been in place to provide impetus for

peace building and conflict management processes, the

Kenyan government is still reluctant in fast tracking the

development of National Policy on peace building and

conflict management

Thank you for your time

Effects of Conflicts Among the Pastoral Communities. Case Study of Mandera County

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