EFFECTS OF CONFLICTS AMONG THE PASTORAL COMMUNITIES.
CASE STUDY OF MANDERA COUNTY, KENYA.
ABUBAKAR MOHAMED AHMED
A research project submitted to the Department of Development Studies in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Bachelors of Development Studies
of Mount Kenya University.
AUGUST 2014
ii
TABLE OF CONTENT
TABLE OF CONTENT…………………………………………………………………ii
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………….v
LIST OF FIGURE…………………………………………………………………........vi
DECLARATION……………………………………………………………………….vii
DEDICATION………………………………………………………………………....vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………………………………………...ix
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………...x
CHAPTER ONE…………………………………………………………………………1
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………….1
1.1 Background of the Problem...................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the problem ......................................................................................... 3
1.3: Objective .................................................................................................................. 3
1.4: Research questions ................................................................................................... 4
1.5: Significance of the Study ......................................................................................... 4
1.6 Limitation and Delimitation of the Study ................................................................. 5
1.7: Assumption of the study........................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER TWO........................................................................................................... 8
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 8
2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Causes of Conflits ..................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Local measures in place to prevent recurrence of ethnic conflict ........................... 11
2.3 Effectiveness of Peace Committee in Peace Building and Conflict Management .. 14
2.4 Effect of Conflict ..................................................................................................... 18
2.5 Theoretical Perspectives .......................................................................................... 21
2.6 Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................... 28
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CHAPTER THREE……………………………………………………………………29
RESEARCH DESIGN METHODS…………………………………………………...29
3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 29
3.1 Research Design ...................................................................................................... 29
3.3 Study Population ..................................................................................................... 29
3.4 Sample size and Procedures .................................................................................. 30
3.5 Data Collection and Administration of Instruments ............................................... 31
3.6 Data Analysis and Presentation ............................................................................... 31
3.7 Piloting of the instruments ...................................................................................... 31
3.8 Validity .................................................................................................................... 32
3.9 Reliability ................................................................................................................ 32
3.10 Ethical Considerations........................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER FOUR………………………………………………………………………33
DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND PRESENTATION………………33
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 33
4.2 Demographic Factors .............................................................................................. 33
4.3 Causes of Conflict ................................................................................................... 39
4.4 Effect of Conflict ..................................................................................................... 38
4.5 Effectiveness of Peace Committee and Local Measures in Conflict Prevention .... 39
CHAPTER FIVE……………………………………………………………………….45
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS……45
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 45
5.2 Summary of the findings ......................................................................................... 45
5.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 47
5.4 Recommendations ................................................................................................... 48
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REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………46
APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………………..50
Appendix I: Questionnaire ............................................................................................ 50
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Sample Size ..................................................................................................... 28
Table 4.1: Response Rate .................................................................................................. 33
Table 4.2: Gender of the Respondents .............................................................................. 34
Table 4.3: Age Brackets of the Respondents .................................................................... 35
Table 4.4: The Level of Education ................................................................................... 36
Table 4.5: Monthly Level of Income ................................................................................ 37
Table 4.6: If ever been a victim of violence in your region .............................................. 38
Table 4.7: The main cause of conflict in your region ....................................................... 39
Table 4.8: Agreement with the statements on Causes of Conflict .................................... 40
Table 4.9: The main effect of conflict in Wajir County ................................................... 38
Table 4.10: Level of Agreement with the Statements of Effect of Conflict ..................... 41
Table 4.11: Whether there are peace building committees in the region .......................... 39
Table 4.12: Whether peace building programs have been carried out to promote peaceful
coexistence among communities ...................................................................................... 39
Table 4.13: The immediate institution that responds to resolve conflict whenever it occurs
........................................................................................................................................... 40
Table 4.14: If the civil society is doing enough to educate the community on the need for
peace ................................................................................................................................. 40
Table 4.15: Level of Agreement with the Statements on Peace Committees…………...44
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LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework……....……………………………………………...28
Figure 4.1: Response Rate ................................................................................................ 34
Figure 4.2: Gender of the Respondents............................................................................. 34
Figure 4.3: Age Brackets of the Respondents ................................................................... 35
Figure 4.4: The Level of Education .................................................................................. 37
Figure 4.5: Monthly Level of Income ............................................................................... 38
Figure 4.6: If ever been a victim of violence in your region ............................................ 38
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DECLARATION
I declare that this project proposal is my original work and has not been presented in any
other institution for consideration of any certification. Where information has been
borrowed from other sources, these are specifically accredited and references cited using
current APA system and in accordance with anti-plagiarism regulations.
Name: Date:
Signature:
This project has been submitted for appraisal with my approval as University Supervisor;
Name: Date:
Signature:
viii
DEDICATION
I am dedicating this project to the dearest figures in my life, the Almighty God for He has
been true to me throughout my academic journey. This work is also dedicated to all the
members of my family who have shown me unconditional support throughout my
academic journey.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost is to give honor and praise to the Almighty God for giving me grace,
strength, good health and providence during the time of my study. I wish to acknowledge
my supervisor Mr. Karuri for the support, advice, guidance and constructive critical
comments as well as the sacrifices he made towards the success of this work and for the
time he sacrificed to guide me through.
Many thanks again to my family members, for their patience and encouragement
throughout the period of my study.
May the Almighty bless them all.
x
ABSTRACT
The study investigated effects of conflicts among the pastoral communities. The study
population was 350 residents comprising the Provincial administration officers (DC’s,
DO’s, and Chiefs), Civic leaders, senior security personnel (OCS, OCPD),
representatives of Civil Society Organization and Faith- based groups and local residents.
The study adopted a descriptive research design. The study employed both probability
and non-probability sampling procedures. The researcher utilized available sampling
procedure to get a sample totaling to 165 respondents comprising of 120 local residents,
23 provincial administration officers, 3 senior security officers, 9 civic leaders and 10
representatives of the civil society and Faith-based organizations.
The study concluded that provincial administration plays a significant role in conflict
resolution, there was peace building programs carried out to promote peaceful
coexistence. It also concluded that peace campaigns yield much in peace building and
peace committee are effective approach to peace building and conflict management and
that women are critical to be involved in decision making levels for peace building and
conflict management and that low level of employment also plays a role in this. Incase
these young adults are fully absorbed in the labour markets there will no one to conduct
these inhumane actions. The study recommended that peace resolution initiatives such as
meeting people in churches and launching peace campaigns should be adopted in the
peace preaching process. Training of youths and women should also be given more
priority. This would empower them with more knowledge on what brings conflict among
communities and how to resolve it amicably. Formal education should also be
encouraged among the youths which will finally promote and enhance development
among other communities. The county government should also emphasize much on
having local barazas whereby all the stakeholders in the district can fully participate
giving their opinion in regard to peace process and train everyone to be a peacemakers.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Problem
Over the years, communities have endured frequent conflicts over natural resources; it
can be attributed to increased competition for shrinking resources, particularly land.
Conflict is a manifest in structural inequity and unequal distribution of power. It is a
situation with at least two identifiable groups in conscious opposition to each other as
they pursue incompatible goals. Conflicts are common phenomena in many regions of the
world, especially in dry lands, that are endowed with scare natural resources. Global
environmental change coupled with population increases has led to unprecedented
demand for resources. The consequences have been competition over control of and
access to the meager resources which in turn trigger conflicts. Climate related
environmental changes have been observed to be among the major causes of the conflicts
(Sterzel et al., 2012). Climate change in the Greater Horn of Africa (GHA) has been
evidenced by increasing frequency of droughts from one in every six years to one in
every three years. In Ethiopia, for example, drought frequency has increased from 6-8
years to the current 1-2 years (Meier etal., 2007).
Thought to be part and parcel of a pastoral culture and livelihood of resident
communities. More so conflicts between Mandera communities are deemed to be
resource based resulting from competition over pasture and water. A cattle rustling is the
act of forceful raiding of livestock from one community by another using guns and
leaving behind destruction of property and loss of lives. This concept should be
understood alongside cattle raids which involve stealing livestock from one community
by another without destroying property or killing people. Traditionally Mandera
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communities practiced cattle raids using crude weapons such as; sticks, spears, bows,
arrows and clubs. These raids are practiced as means of reciprocity, for poor families to
acquire livestock and restock particularly after droughts or epidemics. However, in 1990s
this cultural practice transformed itself and is now referred to as ‘cattle rustling’, with the
main weapons used being guns. Prior to 1990 cattle raids are meant to steal livestock, by
scaring away their owners, but cattle rustling involves destruction of property and
murder. Cattle rustling have become a commercial entity along the boundaries of pastoral
communities and stolen livestock are never recovered. The actors in cattle rustling
involve politically linked and power wielding personalities sometimes not pastoralist.
The cattle rustling menace has left Mandera County to bear the brunt of destruction and
murder. It is interesting therefore to enquire what went wrong to a culture of reciprocity
that turned violent (USAID 2008).
1.1.1 Pastoralists communities
Across the African continent Pastoralists reside in over 21 countries. Pastoralism is a
major economic production strategy in which people raise herds of animals, mostly in
arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs). ASALs cover about 80% of Kenya's landmass and
support about a third of the country's human population and 70% of the national livestock
herd. An estimated 13 million cattle, 25 million goats, 14.9 million sheep, 1.7 million
donkeys and 2.9 million camels are found in Kenya's ASALs (KNBS 2010). Pastoralist
contributes approximately 12% to the country's gross domestic product (FAO 2005), with
the livestock sector providing an estimated 90% of all employment opportunities and
more than 95% of household incomes in ASALs (Kaimba et al. 2011).
Many of these communities are affected by conflicts, while the Sahel region and East
Africa show sustained levels of inter-pastoral violent conflicts with associated potential
impacts on their livelihoods. For example in northern Kenya, pastoral communities have
a long history of conflicts. In the broadest sense, conflict can be defined here forceful
interaction as a result of opposing views. As pastoralism revolves around livestock, the
conflicts are predominantly about livestock and its related productive assets - water, land
and pasture. These resources closely tie conflicts to the violent theft of livestock, referred
3
to as raiding, which is both a contributing factor and an articulation of conflict. On the
one hand, raiding leads to distrust between communities which is a prerequisite of
conflict (Mwangi 2006). On the other hand, communities use raiding to articulate their
hostility toward enemy communities (Eaton 2008).
1.2 Statement of the problem
Conflicts among the pastoral communities are largely caused by competition over control
of and access to natural resources particularly water and pasture. Other causes of conflicts
include historical rivalry, deep-seated cultural values, land issues, political incitements,
and idleness amongst the youth and more recently proliferation of illicit arms (USAID,
2005). In Kenya conflicts are of many different kinds, Juma (2000) classifies them into
four main categories: Conflicts among pastoral communities, conflicts linked to presence
of refugees, conflicts between pastoralists and crop farming communities and ethnic
clashes. He observes that current environmental pressures have changed conflict
dynamics. Despite the efforts of peace building, conflicts reoccur in pastoral regions
across the globe and worst still the frequency of conflicts seems to be increasing in
frequency. Due to conflict, many people are left homeless, landless, abused, injured and
even dead. For instance, in February 2008, a total of 385 houses were torched in Kirindon
and Pirrar divisions of Trans Mara district following a clash between Maasai and Kipsigis
communities (KRCS, 2008). The Maasai clans of Moitanik, Siria and Uasin Gishu and
Kuria clans of Nyabasi and Bwirege most often do resort to violent conflict over land
ownership and grazing areas (Conflict mapping: An Insider’s perspective). It is against
this background that the current study sought to examine the effects of conflicts among
the pastoralists living Mandera County Kenya.
1.3: Objective
The general objective of the study was to investigate effects of conflicts among the
pastoral communities in Mandera County.
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1.3.1: Specific Objectives
i. To establish the sources of conflicts among the pastoral communities in Mandera
County.
ii. Examine the Local measures in place to prevent recurrence of ethnic conflict in
Mandera County.
iii. Evaluate the effectiveness of peace building initiative in conflict resolution in
Mandera County.
1.4: Research questions
i. What are the sources of conflicts among the pastoral communities in Mandera
County?
ii. What Local measures in place to prevent recurrence of ethnic conflict in
Mandera County?
iii. What is the effectiveness of peace building initiative in conflict resolution in
Mandera County?
1.5: Significance of the Study
The findings of this study were significant to:
1.5.1: Non State Organization
The findings and recommendations in this research study will help non state
organizations which preach peace so as to enable them to know the best practices to
prevent conflict.
1.5.2: To the policy makers
The findings and recommendations in this research study further will help the policy
makers involved on conflict matters to make it more effective and efficient polices. This
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is because it will provide them with an opportunity to evaluate their existing conflict
policies and identify weakness thus improving their existing policies on conflict
prevention.
1.5.3: To Other Researchers
Last but not least other researchers will also benefit from this study given that the
findings there in will provide them with relevant materials to use a reference in their
future researches and provide them with a deeper understanding of conflict among
pastoralist communities.
1.6 Limitation and Delimitation of the Study
Certain limitations were likely to be encountered during the study. This however, neither
affected reliability nor validity of the research findings since measures were in place to
address such effects. Firstly, the study area by geographical coverage is wider and
therefore required a bigger sample size so as to have a wider representation. The
researcher however, limited to a smaller sample size due to financial constraints.
Nonetheless, adequate sampling strategy was in place to ensure the selected respondents
be representative of the whole. Secondly, it is in the human nature that people tend to
glorify themselves and as such some information may be exaggerated especially by those
in peace programs. The researcher alleviated this by ensuring that the respondents are
drawn from all sectors of the target population.
The study covered Effects of Conflicts among the Pastoral Communities case Study of
Mandera County, Kenya. The study was limited to Mandera County. The study was
carried out within a period of two months. The study population was 350 residents
comprising the Provincial administration officers (DC’s, DO’s, and Chiefs), Civic
leaders, senior security personnel (OCS, OCPD), representatives of Civil Society
Organization and Faith- based groups and local residents.
1.6.1: Confidential of Information
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Some non-state organizations have rigid policies; the respondents might not be free in
answering the questions posed to them fearing victimization by the authorities. This will
be overcome by assuring the staff that the study will not be used anywhere else or by
somebody else except by the researcher and only for academic purposes.
1.6.2: Lack Materials
Difficulty in assessing relevant literature due to unavailability of relevant materials given
that there are few books, journals on the same topic under the study more so on Kenyan
context. The researcher will read widely and refer to as many books and journals as
possible.
1.6.3 Uncooperative respondents
There were times when the researcher encountered un-cooperative respondents who do
not understand the significance of the research and the researcher had to explain to them
carefully the importance of this study and the way it would affect their working lives in
the organization or their current state of them i.e. pastoralists
1.6.4: Inadequate resources
The study was limited by time factor. The research overcame this limitation by just
focusing on Mandera County only.
1.7: Assumption of the study
This study assumed that the respondents will provide reliable and valid information that
would be used to make conclusions in relation to the study.
The questionnaire and the interviews collected reliable information from respondents and
provides ease of analysis of such information.
7
The respondent provided honest information about the knowledge of the development
projects in their area.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This chapter will review literature on the effect; causes and effectiveness of peace
committees in peace building and conflict management, determine local measures in
place to prevent recurrence of ethnic violence.
2.1 Causes of Conflicts
2.1.1 Climatic Conditions
Three types of pastoralism are mentioned in literature. They are distinguished by the
basis of land use and whether the pastoralists are mounted or pedestrian: mounted
flatland nomads, pedestrian flatland nomads and mountain dwelling pastoralists (Khan
1994). Various forms of pastoralist systems react differently to changes in the ecological,
environmental and economic situations. It is partly true that pastoralists systems are
largely products of climatic and environmental factors. Pastoralists rear livestock with
different levels of drought and feed-shortage sensitivity. The characteristics of the
animals and the environmental conditions they face determine the number and
composition of the herds. They have lived in the harsh and unpredictable environment for
centuries. Their production systems are a product of climatic and environmental factors
and their objective is to accumulate and maintain as much wealth, in terms of livestock,
as possible. In their long history livestock is not only a valuable source of food but also
acts as a wealth reserve, a sacrificial gift and a means of marriage and other ceremonial
payments.
The loss of animals during droughts provided a justification for carrying out raids against
other communities and depleting their resources so as to offset their own losses to restock
the herds resulting to violence. This is aggressive confrontation and is an essential
component of the pastoralists’ strategies to restore depleted herds is accepted practices
9
among the pastoralists groups (Markakis 1993). To some extent, therefore, cattle's raiding
is both a response to disasters such as drought, and an attempt to increase the yields of
their livestock by increasing their numbers in good season as an insurance against bad
seasons.
2.1.2The Role of Government Policies and Programs
Interaction with the state plays an important role in the creation of ethnic/tribal identities
which eventually become faultiness for conflict. Anthropological analysis of historical
processes of construction and reconstruction of ethnic identities in Africa shows that
identity formation in the past was characterized by a high degree of dynamism and
fluidity. This interaction first, with the colonial administration and later with
‘independent’ states, has modified that situation; freezing existing ethnic identities as
well as creating new fixed ones. Although tribal labels were largely a creation of the
colonial administration, they gradually became a social reality as various groups found it
convenient to be recognized administrative entities when dealing with the state. Tribal
labels worked as new poles of aggregation and were readily exploited by people as a way
to adapt to a drastically altered socio-economic and political environment. Kapteijns
(1993) shows how clan and communal identity is a product of Somalia's late-colonial and
post-independence interaction with each other and with the state in the context of
patriarchy and the capitalist world economy.
Since ancient times pastoralism involved the protection of livestock from wild animals
and later against human thieves making it prudent for them to be armed. Markakis argues
that the use of terms such as "war-like" and "violent" is a way of creating an enemy-
image and using it as an ideological justification for counter aggression (Markakis 1993).
Successive regimes have used this to justify a close scrutiny over pastoralists. The
government officials believed that the only way to deal with the cattle rustling menace is
brute force. However, despite the use of force they failed to achieve an end to cattle
raiding. Instead it has exacerbated the problem since the raiders have tended to acquire
sophisticated weapons to counter those of the government security forces.
10
In the 1980s state brutality increased when pastoralists easily obtained deadly firearms
from neighbouring countries undergoing political turmoil like Sudan. This proliferation
of arms took place since the state had lost its monopoly of legitimate violence (Africa
Now 1996). Weapons were acquired not only for defensive but also offensive purposes.
Another impact of state repression is the manner in which army officials steal confiscated
livestock (Ocan, 1994). The plunder create a destitute, demoralized and brutalized society
and the gun is seen as saviour to forestall any further raids and to restore past glory.
During the 1970s, the Turkana in collaboration with some elements in government and
the security organs employed sophisticated raiding methods using heavy guns, military
trucks for transport and large scale networks of smuggling extending up to Sudan.
Consequently, from a means of obtaining a few animals and improving one's fighting
prowess, raiding has evolved into military operations using conventional war tactics and
involving thousands of livestock resulting in young men, women and children being
brutally murdered and property plus food stores being set on fire and shops looted.
Government's reaction has been to send military helicopters to bombard the suspected
bandits' hideouts, with little success. The government also puts renewed emphasis on the
policy of de-pastoralisation. After all these years it can be said, the key to a mutually
beneficial production relationship between the state and pastoralists has not yet been
found (Markakis 1993). In theory, violence is a monopoly of the State. So any kind of
violence is by definition a challenge to the state’s authority. Open violence, even when it
is not directed against the state itself, is always an affirmation of political autonomy from
the government. Violent and, sometimes, indiscriminate interventions by the security
forces appear very much as primarily directed towards re-establishing the state’s unique
right to violence, and only secondarily towards conflict resolution. Direct conflict
resolution interventions of the state in form of military operations for disarmament, like
those carried out with heavy weaponry (including fighting helicopters) against
communities changed the balance of power between different pastoral groups, with a
consequent rise in cattle raiding and violence against the weakened parties.
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2.1.3 Regional Instability and Proliferation of Automatic Weapons
Several decades of regional instability has adversely affected Eastern Africa. The civil
war and related problems in Southern Sudan since 1955; the many years of civil war and
internal rebellions in Uganda mainly by the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) first led by
Alice Lakwena in the late 1980s and presently by Joseph Kony; nearly two decades of
civil war in Ethiopia; and the collapse of the central government in Somalia in 1991 have
contributed to increased cattle rustling. Each of these factors has contributed to increase
in the availability of modern weapons. Members of some groups benefit from the lack of
effective administrative control in the area, as it allows them to organize and carry out
livestock raids with relative impunity. The supply of arms and ammunition continues
today, principally from the Sudan, Ethiopia, Northern Uganda and Somalia. The
estimated supply of firearms in Northern Kenya is currently around 90,000 –
100,000.The proliferation of weapons is an important income generating activity for
some people, who sell them to pastoralists. Because does not provide pastoralists with
adequate security many of them feel they need modern weapons to protect themselves,
their families and their livestock. (UN Report 2000).
Recently Kenyan government officials reported that the disarmament program was
progressing and forceful disarmament went into force after this date as scheduled.
Despite this exercise, reports have indicated that security is still fluid in the region, with
road ambushes still taking their toll on travelers and cattle raids are still persistent.
2.2 Local measures in place to prevent recurrence of ethnic conflict
2.2.1 Council of elders
Informal conflict management mechanisms have proved to be on the rise in many
spheres. Gilligan & James (2001) observed that in most African communities, whenever
there was a problem, it was the role of elders to bring both the victim and the offender
together. The whole process was aimed at building relationship and respect since the
12
council of leaders prioritized forgiveness and reconciliation of the victim and offender as
well as the whole community (Zehr & Howard, 1990).
According to Adan & Pkalya (2006) informal conflict management mechanisms is
increasingly being relied upon by communities partly due to lack of faith in the judiciary
and expenses associated with court procedures. An example of the infusion of traditional
mechanisms in modern conflict management is the system of elders under Land Disputes
Tribunal Act, 1990. Conflict mapping: An insider’s perspective (2011), observed that
main causes of conflict in Mandera County are disputes over land for pasture and
grazing. The recurrence of intra and inter community conflicts in Mandera County brings
into focus the role played by informal conflict management structures.
In Sudan, Oricho (2007) noted that the old men had an extra ordinary alacrity and
wisdom. They could listen and handle cases of diverse nature in the community. In many
occasion, they managed to bring community together when there was conflict and
disorders. Example is the Litongo elders of Kuria community and the Modagashe
Declaration in North Eastern which had proved to be potentially capable of guaranteeing
peace and security (GOK, 2006).
The council of elders kept the community social structure strong with respect, trust and
honesty. The elders argued that forgiveness was paramount and the forgiveness was a
journey rather than an event. It was part of healing and an act of empowerment
(Hakimani, 2009). By and large, the institution of council of elders though still very
much in use even today have somehow been weakened by the very nature that they are
unable to enforce the punishment on its members because of the legal challenges (Pkalya
et al 2004).
Gothrie W.K.C (1975) also noted that council of elders in many occasions emphasized
the role of men as key decision makers which then created partiality in terms of decision
making and issues deeply affecting women and young people. This could be undoing the
efforts of elders in conflict management and peace building and therefore worth further
investigation.
13
2.2.2 Inter- ethnic marriages and resource management agreement
Adan & Pkalya (2006) observed that in the traditional African societies inter- clan
marriages was encouraged to create bonds between communities so as to eliminate
fighting between members on the basis that it was an abomination to fight with one’s in
laws. This practice seems to have failed at some point especially during the PEVs.
Adan & Pkalya (2006) also observed that in most communities especially pastoralist
communities where scarcity of resources was the main cause of conflict, resource
management agreement helped to do reduce tensions. In Mandera district for instance,
before movement of animals during dry seasons begin, Borana and Somali elders sit and
negotiate and a general agreement reached on access to water and pasture. In Mandera
again, scarcity of resources have often run communities into conflict especially between
the Maasai and Kipsigis thereby necessitating assessment of measures in place to prevent
recurrence of conflicts.
2.2.3 Civil Society and FBO’s
Although religions are often blamed for inciting conflict, it can also help resolve conflict
and reduce tensions. It is noted that faith based actors have provided emotional and
spiritual support to war affected communities and promoted reconciliation and re-
integration (Bouta et al, 2005). Generally, the non state initiatives have formed the
foundation upon which the local conflicts have been addressed by both government and
communities.
The civil society organizations have been in the fore front promoting reconciliations and
dialogue among warring communities. They have also provided early warning to relevant
authorities before outbreak of conflict (GOK, 2006). The role of civil society and faith
based organizations in conflict hot spots such as Trans Mara therefore calls for in depth
assessment to determine its challenges towards prevention of conflict recurrence.
14
The USAID Pro Mara (2012) came up with the sports initiative and forest conservation in
Trans Mara district with the main aim of promoting inter- community peaceful co-
existence and environmental conservation. Before the tournament could commence,
peace messages had to be relayed to the youths as a sign of promoting peaceful co-
existence. This however has failed to explain the recurrence of ethnic conflict especially
between the Kipsigis and Maasai in the areas of Kirindon where pro Mara initiatives have
been active.
Kathina (2000) observed that religious leaders both Christian and Muslim helped in
reconciliation meetings to promote peace especially in Mandera. For instance, the
religious leaders merged with the administrative channels in peace building through
peace awards whereby chiefs from most peaceful areas got cash prizes. These gestures
need to be put into practice in other conflict prone areas as morale booster to peace
builders.
2.3 Effectiveness of Peace Committee in Peace Building and Conflict Management
Over the years, communities have endured frequent conflicts over natural resources.
According to Rogge (1993) ethnic clashes in Kenya can be attributed to increased
competition for shrinking resources, particularly land. Others may be due to dispute over
boundaries, cattle theft, access to water points and tribal differences. As a result,
communities in conflict areas resorted to their own community driven efforts to prevent
and manage conflicts between them and their neighbours. It is out of these that peace
committee model was established at district, division, location up-to village level to help
in peace building through promotion of peaceful co-existence in society as well as fill the
security void left by the government in conflict prone areas (Adan & Pkalya, 2006).
Local peace committees (LPCs) is a generic name for committees or other structures
formed at the level of district, town or village with the aim to encourage and facilitate
joint, inclusive peacemaking and peace building processes within its own context.
Peacemaking in this case implies negotiation of a cease fire or an accord that brings
hostilities to an end.
15
In South Africa, the peace committee model in the Post Apartheid Era of early 1990s was
mainly established to strengthen the capacities of communities to contribute to their own
safety. It gave priorities to disputes and it was effective in dispute resolution since it was
seen as an alternative to conventional criminal Justice system where blaming and
punishing was the order of things (Cartwright & Jenneker, 2005). Peace committee
gathering was always focused on the future. For instance, what could be done to reduce
the likelihood of conflict occurring. It was the mandate of peace committees to defuse
disputes that had potentials of breaking the peace by emphasizing peace building as a
means of preventing relapse into war or violence and also creating a self-sustaining
peace.
In Kenya, peace committees are very critical in resolving issues and challenges facing
security at grass root levels (Economic Recovery Strategy and Medium Term Plan, 2008-
2012). This is because it is widely acknowledged that communities are better placed and
informed in making decisions that affect their own lives and should therefore be
facilitated. Notably, peace committees have provided the best practices in not only
mitigating against potential conflicts but also in promoting dialogue among contending
parties (GOK, 2009).
Through this, the DPC model was embraced to serve as an important vehicle to promote
national healing, reconciliation and cohesion among various communities in the country.
Though guidelines have been in place to provide impetus for peace building and conflict
management processes, the Kenyan government is still reluctant in fast tracking the
development of National Policy on peace building and conflict management ((GOK,
2009)).
Effectiveness of peace committee in conflict management and peace building has been
dwindling with minimal success registered in countries that embarked on rolling out the
program. Though the model has progressed on well in certain regions, in some it is
marred with a lot of challenges that therefore calls for critical and in-depth analysis aimed
at improving the performance of peace committee. While peace building initiatives
16
invariably change depending on the context in which they must be undertaken, it is
estimated that about half of the countries emerging from violent conflict return to war
within 5 years which therefore cast doubts on the present capacity of peace building
initiatives to secure sustainable peace (Adan and Pkalya 2006).
The success story of peace committee model in South Africa as espoused by Cartwright
& Jenneker (2005) indicated that the peace committee model of operation accounted for
its success. First, the peace committee operated on agreed set of procedures in that when
conflict arose, it arranged for peacemaking gathering which brought the disputants and
other interested partners to help understand and resolve the disputes. Again the peace
committee members were governed by code of good practice by ensuring that they
worked within the law and never took sides in disputes and also never gossiped about
their work (Cartwright & Jenneker, 2005).
This aspect of uniformity and legality in co-ordination seems to be lacking in some
countries. Adan & Pkalya (2006) observed that in conflict resolution, every member of
the society should work towards the retention of conflict and its escalation and that there
was need to establish the real cause of conflict instead of spreading rumours and
incitements. District peace committees (DPCs) in the past, communalized criminality and
never assisted in identifying criminals. The report also pointed that the DPCs only held
their meetings when there was conflict which ought not to be the case.
The most undoing part of peace committees in most countries is the issue of payment.
The model of South Africa seems to be gaining ground with marked success because the
members are paid. In fact, Cartwright & Jenneker (2005) noted that unlike other countries
in which peace committee members are encouraged to volunteer, peace committee’s
members in South Africa are paid. Payment is meant to recognize the value of their work
and to avert criticism that if professional are paid, why not poor peace committee
members. USAID (2009) in Uganda also noted that Pader peace program in Northern
Uganda even though has successfully addressed the gaps in current peace building and
17
conflict mitigating mechanisms through its trained peace committees at county and sub
county levels, still faced the challenges of funding and logistical support.
In Kenya, peace committees face similar challenges of funding and logistical support.
This is coupled with lack of clear and legally sanctioned framework from which peace
committees should operate. For instance, up to date the National policy on peace building
and conflict management from which the peace committees should draw its’ mandate and
direction has not been enacted into law (Adan & Pkalya, 2006).
By and large, peace committees are by no way prefect institutions guaranteed of success
if fully supported and strengthened. This is because they are mechanisms to build peace
at local level under very trying circumstances. Ball (1998) noted that success of peace
committees in peace building can be borrowed from the south Africa model in which he
observed that peace committee managed to bring an end to political violence by
implementing the National peace accord of 1991 at both regional and local levels when
institutions of the state were unable for a variety of reasons to find non violent solutions
to inter group conflicts. Peace Net commities in Mandera County revealed that the district
peace committees at community level were weak and needed strengthening. The DPC
amassed the traditional age set leaders who are highly respected by community members
referred to as “ilishuyieta ile Trans Mara” with agenda of conflict resolution and peace
building through mapping of conflict hot spots and scheduling of community peace
building meetings. This however has achieved little (Mayeku, 2009). This therefore calls
for more research which the study seeks so as to establish dwindling effectiveness of the
committee in peace building and conflict resolution.
18
2.4 Effect of Conflict
2.4.1 Loss of human lives
The most direct effect of raiding on human well-being is the loss of lives and injuries
caused during the raids. In Mandera alone, there were recorded 592 raid-related deaths
between 2006 and 2009 (Cewarn 2010). Raiders reported in interviews that wounded
raiding fellows, especially when unable to walk, are left behind and often shoot
themselves to ‘escape’ punishment by the attacked group. Injured and killed raiders
reduce the labour available for livestock herding and community protection. As raiders
are almost exclusively young men, the raiding does not only affect the community in
short terms, but also reduces the future prosperity of the community. However, not only
raiders fall victim to the conflicts. Beyond the physical impacts of the conflicts on
humans, Pike (2010) have documented negative psychological consequences, for
example, traumas.
2.4.3 Effects on livestock numbers
The effects of conflict and raiding on livestock numbers among pastoral communities can
be both direct and indirect. Indirectly, raiding contributes to loss of livestock through the
spread of diseases (Bett 2009). The direct effect of raiding can be both positive (for the
raiding community) and negative (for the raided community). From the raider's
perspective, raiding can appear to be an effective and direct tool to increase their own
herd, at the cost of those who are raided. If two or a few groups in a confined area
reciprocally raid each other without selling livestock to outside actors, the total number of
livestock may remain fairly the same. However, the development of commercialisation
(see previous discussion) has extracted large numbers from the traditional raiding circle,
despite efforts of security forces to curb the trading of stolen livestock (Eaton 2010).
Mandera County experienced a net loss of livestock of more than 60,000 animals due to
raids between 2006 and 2009 (Cewarn 2010). This number has to be treated with caution
as raided communities tend to report higher numbers hoping to receive higher
19
compensations. Yet, the number points to the dimension of losses that some communities
experience.
During this research, 75% of the pastoralists and raiders reported to have lost livestock,
partly due to raids and drought-related incidences. A reduction in livestock population,
even by small numbers, is critical especially for the pastoralists who depend on livestock
for income and food security. Similarly, it was reported that losing livestock also goes
hand-in-hand with the loss of societal recognition. Without livestock, young men cannot
marry as they are unable to pay dowry. Elders, functioning as communal judges, are
suffering from loss of livestock, too. During focus group discussions in Mandera, elders
complained that the youth does not respect them anymore. A raider said referring to the
youth and elders summarised that ‘without cattle, you are useless’ (McCabe 2004).
Particularly for women and children, the loss of livestock whether caused by raiding,
drought or disease can result in lack of nutrition.
2.4.3 Loss of homes and resources
The conflict between the Mandera Communities is mostly about livestock raiding which
usually takes place in some distance to the villages. However, occasionally, bigger kraals
and even entire villages are attacked. Based on the interviews and the Cewarn, (2010)
data, it is possible to define an approximate corridor where the conflicts between the
Mandera communities are most intense with respect to the level of perceived insecurity
and number of reported raiding incidences and attacked homesteads. For example, 20
homesteads were reported to be looted and destroyed between 2006 and 2009 in and
around Mandera West. In 2009, a village of was found abandoned due to insecurity
caused by Mandera raiders. Only the school staff and the students had remained; they
were constantly protected by the nearby military camp. While the abandonment of entire
settlements is a rare case, the loss of pasture and water points is a common phenomenon
in conflict-prone rangelands of northern Kenya. Eriksen and Lind (2009) point to the
formation of loose grazing associations to expand territory. In these so called ‘arumrum’,
‘up to a few hundred households’ come together to take over larger areas with pasture.
20
Watering points are a source of conflict particularly during dry periods. Several
exchanges of gunfire are witnessed between the communities trying to access the
borehole at night.
2.4.4 Insecurity and its subsequent effects
In Mandera West communities, there is an omnipresent perception of pronounced
insecurity. In Mandera County, 76% of the people interviewed felt insecure or highly
insecure (USAID 2009). When asked about the reason for the insecurity, the interviewees
in both communities gave these replies: raids, conflicts or the enemy. Insecurity and the
perception of it have three major effects, which in turn reduce human well-being: first,
inefficient resource utilisation, second, closing of markets and schools and third, posing
an obstacle for investments. Earlier estimates by Morton (2001) show that between 15%
and 21% of north-western rangelands has become more or less inaccessible to Mandera
pastoralists due to enduring inter-community ethnic tensions. The insecurity is further
increased by highway robbery of bandits who take advantage of the power vacuum. In
addition, the underutilization of pasture bares the risk of encroachment of certain species
which deplete the pasture or make it inaccessible. Unused boreholes can become a source
of livestock poisoning. The concentration of people and livestock increases the likelihood
of overuse of resources and poses a potential source of new conflict. The majority
residents are afraid to move freely when conflicts are ongoing, similarly Kaimba (2011)
found that livestock raiding interrupts the mobility which is an integral part of
pastoralism in the region. Women in the nearby villages have reduced the picking of wild
berries because they are afraid to get killed or raped. This shows how insecurity
undermines adaptation to drought as the picking of wild berries was reported to be an
important strategy to adapt to water and pasture scarcity.
The effects of insecurity on pastoral livelihoods go beyond a reduction of food resources,
livestock markets are also not used because of insecurity. The lack of secure markets
limits the ability of the pastoralists to sell livestock prior to or during dry periods and
hence contributes to food insecurity. Insecurity does not only interrupt education; it also
21
poses an obstacle for development. Today, Mandera County is one of the poorest and
most marginalised counties in Kenya (KNBS 2010). Beyond the physical effects,
insecurity negatively affects the inter-communal relations. Community members of
Mandera County often express strong negative feelings and distrust towards the others.
The distrust decreases the motivation and the capability of the communities to choose a
cooperative path which is a prerequisite for peaceful and effective resources sharing.
Inter-communal relations particularly deteriorate when raids include the rape or
abduction of women. This practice could increase the incentive for parents to marry off
their daughters early into the ‘safe hands’ of a husband. Another response to such hostile
attacks is retaliation which further fuels the conflict (Eaton 2008). Overall, the results
suggest that the asymmetry found in the motives of raiding does not translate into major
differences in the (perceived) effects of the conflicts. The destructiveness of the conflicts
was stressed in both groups.
2.5 Theoretical Perspectives
There are a number of theoretical explanations for the onset of violent conflicts. The most
prominent of these are;
2.5.1 Primordialist Approach
The primordialist approach asserts the existence of “ancient hatreds” among ethnic and
cultural groups: “the urge to define and reject the other goes back to our remotest human
ancestors and indeed beyond them to our animal predecessors.” According to this view,
“tendencies toward xenophobia and intolerance are more natural to human societies than
liberal politics of interest, ethnic conflict and the conflict potential of ethnicity”. While
ethnic emotions appear to be primordial, they are a socially and politically constructed
reality drawn from the historical memories of past injustices and grievances (Suny 2001).
Suny illustrates this by stating that, National identities are saturated with emotions that
have been created through teaching, repetition, and daily reproduction until they become
common sense. These tropes betrayal, treachery, threats from others, and survival are
22
embedded in familiar emotions anxiety, fear, insecurity, and pride. Group history is
socially constructed. As Suny argues, “Nations are particular forms of collectivity that are
constituted by a process of creating histories.” National history, he further explains, is
constructed so that it consists of “continuity, antiquity of origins, heroism and past
greatness, martyrdom and sacrifice, victimization and overcoming of trauma.”Also, the
past gives this particular form of imagined community a potent claim to territory, the
‘homeland.
In its pure form, the primordialist view implies a sense of hopelessness. If one is
invariably and always a Serb, a Zulu, or Chechen and if ethnic divisions and tensions are
natural, then little or nothing can be done to prevent or resolve ethnic conflict.
Understanding ethnic hatred as something that is ingrained in ethnic groups and cannot
be changed is a simplified view of a complex problem. It prevents those who build peace
to see that ethnic animosities exist in combination with other factors and that addressing
each dimension of the problem is necessary to resolve conflict. Confining explanations of
ethnic conflict solely to primordial causes also implies a degree of ignorance and
prejudice towards the societies affected by conflict. As Akbar describes, Ideas and
arguments about ethnicity are usually based on the assumption that ethnic identity is a
characteristic of primordial and tribal societies. Only backward societies cling to the past
(Rothschild 1998).
All multi-ethnic societies, when subject to a convergence of a particular set of factors and
conditions, carry the potential of ethnic conflict. Under the stress of a major structural
change that brings a sense of chaos and uncertainty, the consciousness of historically
rooted ethnic identities and emotions are employed as vehicles to ethnic violence for
political purposes. Viewing historically rooted ethnic animosities as the only cause of
conflict is insufficient, as Ganguly (1998) argues. A proper understanding of the causes
of ethnic political mobilization and conflict is crucial, and we must move beyond
simplistic discussions of ‘ancient hatreds’ to search for more systematic explanations.
Also, if we view groups’ historical and current realities as a result of pre-determined or
23
“primordial” factors, then, “The road is open to exclusivist, homogeneous nations that in
our ethnically mixed, fluid, changing world re-quire desperate policies of deportation and
ethnic cleansing to secure.” On the other hand, as Suny argues, if we view our realities as
socially constructed, the possibilities for cooperation and peaceful cohabitation are
greater (Rothschild 1998).
2.5.2 Institutional Approach
Institutions play an important role in regulating the level of the conflict potential of
ethnicity. They define inter-ethnic relationships by either facilitating or obstructing inter-
group cooperation. Crawford notes that institutions both constrain behavior and provide
incentives for cooperation and compliance in norms, rules, and procedures for allocation,
participation, representation, and accountability. According to her, whether or not identity
politics turns into violent conflict depends on the functioning of state institutions. Where
identity politics is practiced, states can channel it in peaceful political competition as long
as they can make credible commitments to shape and uphold agreements made among
culturally defined political actors. The proponents of the institutional approach would
argue, for example, that the nineteenth century tensions among the three ethnic groups in
Switzerland are now managed by the current political system consociational democracy
by institutionalizing ethnic pluralism and giving the three groups equivalent power-
sharing. On the other hand, as Enloe and Nagel, (2001) argue, if the state’s administrative
structures and legal institutions distribute resources based on ethnicity, this encourages
political mobilization along ethnic lines. In sum, Countries whose political institutions
politicize cultural ethnic identity are more vulnerable to cultural ethnic conflict than
countries whose political institutions promote social integration of diverse cultural
groups.
Communist, colonial and democratic political arrangements have various institutional
effects on inter-ethnic relations and thus on conflict potential. For example, communism
is sometimes blamed for creating or reinforcing ethnic/national divisions but suppressing
the expression of ethnic conflicts, and consequently, for recent outbursts of ethnic
24
violence in the post-communist regions of the world following the system collapse. In the
words of Brunner, (1996) in the communist systems, nationality ethnicity conflicts were
suppressed, compulsorily canalized or even consciously instrumentalized ethnic
intolerance to take place. Such a situation, exploited by political entrepreneurs, leads to
inter-ethnic competition and conflict. Democratic institutions are considered to promote
inter-ethnic cooperation and thus mitigate the conflict potential of ethnicity. In a
democratic multinational state, stability is generally maintained by means of political
bargaining and compromise between ethnic subgroups. The transition from
authoritarianism to democracy in multinational states means first of all the disintegration
of the coercive system of checks and controls. This inevitably leads to ethnic flare-ups as
ethnic communities begin to organize, to mobilize their members, and to voice their
grievances and demands upon the state and each other. However, while conflict may not
happen in or among established democracies, conflict often does happen in democratizing
states. (Crawford 1998).
2.5.3 Political Entrepreneurs Approach
The instability and uncertainty that result from a major structural change and the
institutional inability to regulate inter-ethnic relations provides a perfect condition in
which political entrepreneurs can manipulate ethnic emotions in order to mobilize groups
for their own political purposes. Politicians exploit ethnic differences by drawing upon
historical memories of grievances and whip up hatred in order to gain or strengthen their
power. The dynamic that develops between political entrepreneurs and their followers
causes an inter-ethnic security dilemma. As Kaufman (1997) explains, belligerent leaders
stoke mass hostility; hostile masses support belligerent leaders, and both together threaten
other groups, creating a security dilemma which in turn encourages even more mass
hostility and leadership belligerence. Political entrepreneurs manipulate fears and
uncertainties of ethnic groups they represent and are able to awaken a consciousness of
common grievances and a desire to rectify these wrongs. They help create and reinforce
ethnic polarization in the society. Furthermore, “Ethnic cleavages allow political
entrepreneurs to mobilize grievances against distributions of benefits that are perceived to
25
be unfavorable to the group.” Rhetoric of fear, blame, and hate are used by political
entrepreneurs as a tool of division and control.
According to Zupanov (1997), “Politicians whose goal is that of exploiting and/or
provoking ethnic/national hatred are in control of media production which is controlled
and directed by hate-prone politicians that provokes national intolerance and hatred in the
population leading to violence.” The disposition towards ethnic intolerance can be
strengthened by new or old political leadership if the leaders do not have the necessary
political sense of responsibility and do not resist the temptation to avert attention from the
acute socio-economic problems by creating national concepts of enemies. This is the big
chance for the forces of the old regimes that either lost, or are afraid of losing, their
power. Therefore, the politicians’ manipulation of ethnic emotions leads to particular
actions such as intolerance. The political entrepreneurs approach to explaining the causes
of ethnic conflict is closely related to the institutional approach. Politicians who use
ethnicity to their advantage can successfully operate only within those institutional
arrangements that support/allow such practice or are unable to prevent it. The success of
political entrepreneurs in mobilizing ethnic groups into violent conflict depends on the
strength of the existing state institutions: “If states provide a legitimate arena for
entrepreneurs to compete and if resources available for allocation are abundant, identity
politics, like other kinds of political competition, will be legitimate and stable. Morris,
(1999) similarly illustrates the connection between political leadership and institutions.
According to her, the two are “the filter through which all other causes of conflict have to
pass. She also notes that “institutions can fuel grievances through political exclusion or
inefficiency.
2.5.4 Competition over Resources Approach
Political mobilization of ethnic identities results in ethnic intolerance and competition
over resources and rights which, if unresolved, can lead to a violent conflict. When
resources are scarce, it is easier for political entrepreneurs to capitalize on the conflict
potential of ethnicity. As described by Organization for Economic Cooperation and
26
Development (OECD 2001) and United States Agency for International Development
(USAID 2001), these groups are all the more likely to be vulnerable to such maneuvering
when they find themselves in situations characterized by a lack of opportunities.”
As Lake and Rothchild (1998) note, Property rights, jobs, scholarships, educational
admissions, language rights, government contracts, and development allocations all
confer particular benefits on individuals and groups. Whether finite in supply or not, all
such resources are scarce and, thus, objects of competition and occasionally struggle
between individuals and, when organized, groups. When scholars discuss competition
over resources, they often refer to the economic competition over resources. The
argument is that: under difficult economic conditions, high unemployment and poor
prospects for the future, people feel victimized and blame their misfortune on other ethnic
groups. This leads to inter-ethnic competition. In his analysis of peace accords and ethnic
conflicts, de Varennes (2003) found that in almost all conflicts, ethnic groups’ demands
focused on securing basic rights for their group. For example, they demanded more
effective political participation, a fairer share and distribution of education, employment
opportunities.
In the literature, there are various notions on what mechanisms may facilitate ethnic
competition. These mechanisms include economic and political processes such as:
racially split labor markets, employment segregation, the cultural division of labor, the
replacement of local control with more inclusive domains of control and sovereignty, and
expansion of state systems. According to Kposowa and Jenkins, (1998) all of these
developments increase the likelihood of ethnic competition over resources. In the past
two decades, the concept of internal colonialism has been used extensively to account for
economic and political differences along ethnic lines. According to the internal colony
theory, when a group establishes its dominance within the society, it is able to maintain a
cultural division of labor, a system of stratification where objective cultural distinctions
are superimposed upon class lines. When ethnic groups find themselves victimized and/or
threatened by other groups, identification in terms of their ethnicity becomes particularly
27
important, because their ethnic group is seen as the source of protection from other
groups and a possible provider of a secure environment. Inter-ethnic competition can lead
to “the silencing of divergent opinions. In the context of a major structural change within
an ethnically diverse society, political entrepreneurs attribute their ethnic group’s have-
nots to the exploitation and denial of access to resources and rights by the other groups.
Advantaged groups, on the other hand, begin to see the others as those who will take
away their haves should they gain a position of power within the society. Institutional
factors fuel inter-ethnic competition by facilitating politics of exclusion (Williams 1994).
28
2.6 Conceptual Framework
Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework
Independent Variables Dependent variables
Causes of Conflict Effect of conflict
Source, Author (2014)
Climatic Condition
Government Policies
and Programs
Regional Instability and
proliferation of
automated weapons
Loss of Livestock
Loss of Homes and
Resources
Insecurity
Loss of Human Lives
29
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN METHODS
3.0 Introduction
This chapter describes the research design, the study site, study population, sampling
strategy and data collection instruments that will be adopted in this study. It also presents
approaches of determining validity and reliability of research instruments, data analysis
and ethical considerations.
3.1 Research Design
According to Kothari (2003), research design refers to the way a study is planned and
conducted as well as procedures and techniques used to address the research problem.
This study adopted both descriptive and historical research design. Since the study is
majorly concerned with describing such things as attitudes, values and behavior,
descriptive design therefore becomes adequate for the study. The researcher employed
both quantitative and qualitative approaches to data collection, analysis and presentation.
Historical design assisted in exploring, explaining and understanding the past about the
subject from data already available. The aim was to collect relevant information on the
effect of conflict among pastoralist communities.
3.3 Study Population
According to Nachmias & Nachmias (1996), a population is an aggregate of all cases that
conform to certain characteristics which are of interest to the researcher. This study
focussed on Mandera County. The study population will be 350 residents comprising the
Provincial administration officers (DC’s, DO’s, and Chiefs), Civic leaders, senior
30
security personnel (OCS, OCPD), representatives of Civil Society Organization and
Faith- based groups and local residents.
3.4 Sample size and Procedures
Sampling refers to the process of selecting a portion of the population that conforms to a
designated set of specifications to be studied. Kendall & Kendall (2005) observes that
sampling is advantageous for it allows the researcher to draw generalization and reduce
bias. According to Nachmias & Nachmias (1996), sampling is necessary because it is
extremely expensive and nearly impossible to collect data from all members of the study
population. The study employed both probability and non-probability sampling
procedures.
3.4.1 Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling ensures that only participants who are knowledgeable about an issue
in question are selected (Brink, 1996). The researcher therefore purposively sampled
DC’s, DO’s, OCS, OCPD and selected affected people from the population.
The researcher therefore procedure got a sample totaling to 165 respondents comprising
of 120 local residents, 23 provincial administration officers, 3 senior security officers, 9
civic leaders and 10 representatives of the civil society and Faith-based organizations.
Table 3.1: Sample Size
Respondent Sample Size
1 Local residents 120
2 Provincial Administration 23
3 Senior Security Officers 3
4 Civic Leaders 9
5 Civil society and faith based organizations 10
TOTAL 165
Source: Researcher (2013)
31
3.5 Data Collection and Administration of Instruments
Data collection is the process of acquiring subjects and gathering information needed for
a study; methods of collection varied depending on the study design, (Kothari,
2004).Primary data will be collected for this study. Primary data will be collected by
administering a semi-structured questionnaire. This type of questionnaire used both
closed and open-ended questions. Closed questions have predetermined answers and
usually collect quantitative data while open-ended questions give the respondents free
was answered and usually collect qualitative data. The use of questionnaire ensures
collection of data from many respondents within a short time and respondents are free to
give relevant information because they are assured of their anonymity (Mugenda and
Mugenda, 2003).
3.6 Data Analysis and Presentation
The study applied both qualitative and quantitative techniques in data analysis and
presentation. Qualitative data from FGD’s and Interviews was analyzed by coding
common themes and presenting in form of generalized statements.
Quantitative data from questionnaires was analyzed using descriptive and inferential
statistics. Measures of distribution, percentages and frequencies were applied in
analyzing the data with the aid of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version
20.
3.7 Piloting of the instruments
Pilot study is a small version or trial run of the major study. It is mainly done to assess
feasibility, (Brink, 1996:60). 2 divisions in Mandera County will be selected for piloting
of the instruments. The aim of piloting was provide an opportunity to refine the data
collection instruments such as questionnaires before embarking on the actual study.
32
3.8 Validity
Validity refers to the extent to which an instrument measures what it purports to measure.
It has to do with how accurately the data obtained in the study represents the variable of
the study Kothari, (2003).
In this study, expert judgment of content validity will be employed. The decision to use
expert judgment as a method of determining validity is guided by Kothari (2003), who
argues that the determination of content validity is primarily judgmental and intuitive,
and can be determined using a panel of persons who judged how well the instrument
meets the standards. On this basis, suggestions were obtained from the research experts at
Nairobi University, peace and conflict studies department so as to improve on the clarity
of the items in the questionnaires that was to be used in the study.
3.9 Reliability
Reliability is the extent to which a measuring instrument contains variable error, error
that appear inconsistently from observation to observation during any one measurement
attempt or that vary each time a given unit is measured by the same instrument
(Nachmias & Nachmias, 1996). Data collection instruments, questionnaires, interview
guides and Focus Group Discussions were pre-tested to eliminate defects that might
interfere with the instruments reliability.
3.10 Ethical Considerations
The participants were informed about the study design and procedure so as to gain a clear
outset of the objectives of the study and ensure cooperation, free and informed responses
during the study. All the responses given were confidential. This was achieved by
ensuring that data collected from the respondents are guarded against unauthorized access
unless authorized by the respondents.
33
No record of respondents name or address was kept. This ensured anonymity to the
extent that data collected cannot be linked to a particular respondent. It also helped clear
doubt within the respondents that the information they gave might be used against them.
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND PRESENTATION
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the analysis of data findings on Peace committees in peace building
and conflict management in Mandera County in Kenya. The research targeted Provincial
administration officers (DC’s, DO’s, and Chiefs), Civic leaders, senior security personnel
(OCS, OCPD), representatives of Civil Society Organization and Faith- based groups and
local residents. The commendable response rate was achievable after the researcher
administered the questionnaires personally and made personal visits and phone calls to
remind the respondents to fill-in and return the questionnaires.
4.2 Demographic Factors
4.2.1 Response Rate
Table 4.1: Response Rate
Respondent Frequency Percentage
Response 152 92%
Non- Response 13 8%
Total 165 100%
Source, Author (2014)
34
Figure 4.1: Response Rate
Source, Author (2014)
From table 4.2 and figure 4.2 it is clear that the study targeted a sample size of 165
respondents from which152 filled in and returned the questionnaires making a response
rate of 92 %. This response rate was satisfactory to make conclusions on the effects of
conflicts among the pastoral communities.
4.2.2 Gender of the Respondents
Table 4.2: Gender of the Respondents
Respondent Frequency Percentage
Male 83 55%
Female 69 45%
Total 152 100%
Source, Author (2014)
Figure 4.2: Gender of the Respondents
Source, Author (2014)
92
8
Response
Non- Response
55
45
Male
Female
35
From table 4.3 and figure 4.3 it is clear that the majority of the respondents as shown by
55% indicated that they were males whereas 45% of the respondents indicated that they
were females, this is an indication that both genders were involved in finding out the
effects of conflicts among the pastoral communities.
4.2.3 Age Brackets of the Respondents
Table 2.3: Age Brackets of the Respondents
Respondent Frequency Percentage
20 and below 18 12%
21-30 yrs 34 22%
31-40 yrs 51 34%
41-50 yrs 27 18%
51 and above 22 14%
Total 152 100%
Source, Author (2014)
Figure 4.3: Age Brackets of the Respondents
Source, Author (2014)
Above is table 4.4 and figure 4.4 on the age of the respondents, the study requested the
respondents to indicate their age category, from the findings, it is clear that most of the
respondents as shown by 34% indicated that they were aged between 31 to 40 years, 22%
of the respondents indicated 21 to 30 years, 18% of the respondents indicated 41 to 50, 14
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35%
20 and below
21-30 yrs
31-40 yrs
41-50 yrs
51 and above
12%
22%
34%
18%
14%
36
% 51years and above, whereas 12% of the respondents indicated 20 years and below, this
is an indication that respondents were well distributed in term of their age.
4.2.4 The level of education
Table 4.4: The Level of Education
Education Level Frequency Percentage
No Education 29 19
Primary Level 43 28
Secondary level 33 22
College 25 16
University 16 11
Postgraduate 6 4
Total 152 100
Source, Author (2014)
37
Figure 4.4: The Level of Education
Source, Author (2014)
On the academic qualification of the respondents, the study requested the respondents to
indicate their academic qualification, from the findings, the study found that most of the
respondents as shown by 28% indicated that they had only primary education, 22%
indicated they had only secondary education, 19% indicated they had no education at all,
16% had college education, 11% had university education whereas 4% of the respondents
indicated they had post graduate education. This is an indication that most respondents
lacked education which may be the cause of violence.
4.2.5 Monthly level of Income
Table 4.5: Monthly Level of Income
Respondents Frequency Percentages
Below Ksh 10,000 98 64%
Ksh 10,000 – Ksh 30,000 21 14%
Ksh 30,000 – Ksh 50,000 12 8%
Ksh 50,000 – Ksh 80,000 10 7%
Ksh 80,000 – Ksh 120,000 7 5%
Above Ksh 120,000 4 3%
Total 152 100%
Source, Author (2014)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
No Education
Primary Level
Secondary level
College
University
Postgraduate
19
28
22
16
11
4
38
Figure 4.5: Monthly Level of Income
Source, Author (2014)
On the level of income of the Respondents of the respondents, the study requested the
respondents to indicate their income, from the findings, the study found that most of the
respondents as shown by 64% indicated that they earned below Ksh 10,000, 14%
indicated they earned Ksh 10,000 – 30,000, 8% indicated they earned Ksh 30,000 –
50,000, 7% earned Ksh 50,000- 80,000 whereas 5% of the respondents indicated they
earned below Ksh 40,000. This is an indication that respondents were relatively well
remunerated.
4.2.6 If ever been a victim of violence in your region
Table 4.6: If ever been a victim of violence in your region
Respondent Frequency Percentage
Yes 83 55
No 69 45
Total 152 100
Source, Author (2014)
Figure 4.6: If ever been a victim of violence in your region
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Below Ksh 10,000
Ksh 10,000 – Ksh 30,000
Ksh 30,000 – Ksh 50,000
Ksh 50,000 – Ksh 80,000
Ksh 80,000 – Ksh 120,000
64
14
8
7
5
55
45
Yes
No
39
Source, Author (2014)
From the finding on the agreement on if ever been a victim of violence in your region, the
study found that majority of the respondents as shown by 55% indicated that they have
been victims of violence, 45% indicated they are not victims of violence, the above
information show that most people in the regions are victims of violence.
4.3 Causes of Conflict
4.3.1 The main cause of conflict in your region
Table 4.7: The main cause of conflict in your region
Respondent Frequency Percentage
Climatic condition 19 13
Poor government policies and programs 45 30
Regional Instability 88 58
Total 152 100
Source, Author (2014)
From the finding on the main cause of conflict in your region, the study found that
majority of the respondents as shown by 58% indicated that regional instability is the
main cause of violence, 30 % indicated poor government policies and programs while
13% indicated climatic condition the above information show that regional instability is
the main cause of violence.
40
4.3.2 Agreement with the statements on Causes of Conflict
Table 4.8: Agreement with the statements on Causes of Conflict
Mea
n
Sta
nd
ard
dev
iati
on
The loss of animals during droughts provides a justification for
carrying out raids against other communities and depleting their
resources so as to offset their own losses to restock the herds resulting
to violence
2.75 0.23
Interaction with the state plays an important role in the creation of
ethnic/tribal identities which eventually become faultiness for conflict
2.67 0.29
When the government use weapon to control cattle raiding, raiders
have tended to acquire sophisticated weapons to counter those of the
government security forces
2.83 0.25
Lack of effective administrative control in the area, allows raiders to
organize and carry out livestock raids with relative impunity
2.87 0.31
Source, Author (2013)
From the findings Interaction with the state plays an important role in the creation of
ethnic/tribal identities which eventually become faultiness for conflict as shown by mean
of 2.67, the loss of animals during droughts provides a justification for carrying out raids
against other communities and depleting their resources so as to offset their own losses to
restock the herds resulting to violence as shown by the mean of 2.75. When the
government use weapon to control cattle raiding, raiders have tended to acquire
sophisticated weapons to counter those of the government security forces as shown by
41
mean of 2.83, and lack of effective administrative control in the area, allows raiders to
organize and carry out livestock raids with relative impunity as shown by the mean of
2.87.
4.4 Effect of Conflict
4.4.1 The main effect of conflict in Mandera County
Table 4.9: The main effect of conflict in Mandera County
Respondents Frequency Percentages
Loss of human lives 69 45
Loss of livestock 42 28
Loss of homes and property 17 11
Insecurity 24 16
Total 152 100
Source, Author (2014)
From the finding on the effect of conflict in the region, the study found that majority of
the respondents as shown by 45% indicated that loss of human lives is the main effect of
violence, 28 % indicated loss of livestock, 16% indicated insecurity while 11% indicated
loss of homes and property the above information show that loss of human lives is the
main effect of violence.
4.4.2 Level of Agreement with the Statements of Effect of Conflict
Table 4.10: Level of Agreement with the Statements of Effect of Conflict
Mea
n
Sta
nd
ard
dev
iati
on
Watering points are a source of conflict particularly during dry periods 2.87 0.21
The most direct effect of raiding on human well-being is the loss of lives
and injuries caused during the raids
2.59 0.26
Losing livestock also goes hand-in-hand with the loss of societal 3.13 0.20
42
recognition
The lack of secure markets limits the ability of the pastoralists to sell
livestock prior to or during dry periods and hence contributes to food
insecurity
3.05 0.27
Source, Author (2013)
From the findings on the effect of conflict, the most direct effect of raiding on human
well-being is the loss of lives and injuries caused during the raids as shown by mean of
2.59. Watering points are a source of conflict particularly during dry periods as shown by
the mean of 2.87. The lack of secure markets limits the ability of the pastoralists to sell
livestock prior to or during dry periods and hence contributes to food insecurity as shown
by mean of 3.05, and that losing livestock also goes hand-in-hand with the loss of societal
recognition as shown by the mean of 3.10.
4.5 Effectiveness of Peace Committee and Local Measures in Conflict Prevention
4.5.1 Whether there are peace building committees in the region
Table 4.11: Whether there are peace building committees in the region
Respondent Frequency Percentage
Yes 109 72
No 43 28
Total 152 100
Source, Author (2014)
From the finding on the agreement on whether there are peace building committees in the
region, the study found that majority of the respondents as shown by 72% indicated there
are peace committees while 28 % indicated there are no peace committees, the above
information show that there are peace committees in Mandera County.
4.5.2 Whether peace building programs have been carried out to promote peaceful
coexistence among communities
Table 4.12: Whether peace building programs have been carried out to promote
peaceful coexistence among communities
43
Respondent Frequency Percentage
Yes 65 43
No 87 57
Total 152 100
Source, Author (2014)
From the finding on the agreement on whether peace building programs have been
carried out to promote peaceful coexistence among communities, the study found that the
respondents as shown by 43% indicated peace building programs have been carried out to
promote peaceful coexistence while 57 % indicated they have not been carried out, the
above information show that peace building programs have not been carried in all regions
in Mandera County.
4.5.3 The immediate institution that responds to resolve conflict whenever it occurs
Table 4.13: The immediate institution that responds to resolve conflict whenever it
occurs
Respondents Frequency Percentages
Local Elders 24 16
Government Administration 41 27
Religious leaders 18 12
NGOs 69 45
Total 152 100
Source, Author (2014)
From the finding on the immediate institution that responds to resolve conflict whenever
it occurs, the study found that majority of the respondents as shown by 45% indicated
that it was NGOs, 27% indicated government administration, 16% indicated local elders,
while 12% indicated religious leaders.
4.5.4 If the civil society is doing enough to educate the community on the need for
peace
Table 4.14: If the civil society is doing enough to educate the community on the need
for peace
Respondent Frequency Percentage
Yes 65 43
44
No 87 57
Total 152 100
Source, Author (2014)
From the finding on the agreement on whether the civil society is doing enough to
educate the community on the need for peace, the study found that majority of the
respondents as shown by 57% indicated the civil society is not doing enough to educate
the community on the need for peace while 43 % indicated the civil society is doing
enough to educate the community on the need for peace in all regions in Mandera
County.
4.5.6 Level Of Agreement With The Statements On Peace Committees
Table 4.15: Level of Agreement with the Statements on Peace Committees
Mea
n
Sta
nd
ard
dev
iati
on
In Kenya, peace committees face similar challenges of funding and
logistical support
2.60 0.30
Peace committees are very critical in resolving issues and
challenges facing security at grass root levels
2.47 0.32
Though guidelines have been in place to provide impetus for peace
building and conflict management processes, the Kenyan
government is still reluctant in fast tracking the development of
National Policy on peace building and conflict management
2.67 0.32
Effectiveness of peace committee in conflict management and
peace building has been dwindling with minimal success registered
in counties that embarked on rolling out the program
2.97 0.24
Source, Author (2013)
45
From the findings regarding peace committees, the study found that the respondents
indicated to a great extent that Peace committees are very critical in resolving issues and
challenges facing security at grass root levels as shown by mean of 2.47. In Kenya, peace
committees face similar challenges of funding and logistical support as shown by the
mean of 2.60. Though guidelines have been in place to provide impetus for peace
building and conflict management processes, the Kenyan government is still reluctant in
fast tracking the development of National Policy on peace building and conflict
management as shown by mean of 2.67, and effectiveness of peace committee in conflict
management and peace building has been dwindling with minimal success registered in
counties that embarked on rolling out the program as shown by the mean of 2.97.
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
From the analysis and data collected, the following discussions, conclusion and
recommendations have made. The responses were based on the objectives of the study.
The purpose this study was to analyze the effectiveness of peace committee in peace
building and conflict management in Mandera County, to investigate involvement of
women and youth in peace building initiatives in Mandera County, to determine effect of
ethnic conflict in Mandera County
5.2 Summary of the findings
This research established that the loss of human lives is the main effect of violence as
represented by 45%. These findings concurs with the findings of Adan & Pkalya (2006)
who observed that in most communities especially pastoralist communities where
scarcity of resources was the main cause of conflict, resource management agreement
helped to do reduce tensions among the many ethnic communities co existing together. It
was further established that provincial administration played significant role in conflict
resolution. This shows that all representatives in the community were involved in
46
resolving conflict but the government plays a significant role since it has resources and
man power to bring volatile situations back to normalcy.
The research further established that there were peace building programs being carried
out to promote peaceful coexistence. This is a clear indication that the individuals in the
region have realised the importance of peace initiatives programs and have also realised
that no peaceful coexistence could be achieved until all parties are brought to the same
platform and be made to understand the importance of peace. It was also revealed that
that provincial administration should conduct as much as possible barazas in the district
so that they can preach peace and let the people know that it’s only with peaceful
coexistence they will be able to exploit the economic resources they have and live a good
life.
Among the reasons which made the residents feel that the civil society has been doing a
good job is because they prepared workshop for youth, women and men. They also
encouraged people to live together and they educated people to trade together and live
together. The civil societies have even taken these campaigns even in churches. They
have continued to mobilize the various stakeholders, provincial administrations, local
community leaders towards peace initiatives.
It also came to my attention that peace campaigns yield much in peace building and this
was represented by a mean of 1.93. Peace committee are effective approach to peace
building and conflict management and that women are critical to be involved in decision
making levels for peace building and conflict management and Peace committee
resolutions often result in peaceful co-existence and the government provides adequate
support to peace committees in Mandera.
The research also established that majority of the people involved in ethnic conflict were
aged between 21 and 30.This is an indication that the youths who are in their early adult
hood are the most prone to participation in ethnic conflict. This has been brought about
by poor education system making majority of them drop out of school and recruited in
47
very dangerous gangs that carries out the raids. Low level of employment also plays a
role in this. Incase these young adults are fully absorbed in the labour markets there will
no one to conduct these inhumane actions. It also revealed that the community was still
relying on traditional measures of conflict resolution and that council of elders was the
most used practiced.
5.3 Conclusion
The study concluded that main cause of conflict in the region was ethnic animosity and
that provincial administration played significant role in conflict resolution. It further
concluded that the reason behind the provincial administration being the first to respond
during these calling times is because they lived among the community and they had the
logistical capacity required to reach the scene of crimes and assist the individuals
affected.
This research also concluded that there were peace building programs being carried out to
promote peaceful coexistence. This is a clear indication that the individuals in the region
have realised the importance of peace initiatives programs and have also realised that no
peaceful coexistence could be achieved until all parties are brought to the same platform
and be made to understand the importance of peace.
The study also concluded that peace campaigns yield much in peace building and peace
committee are effective approach to peace building and conflict management and that
women are critical to be involved in decision making levels for peace building and
conflict management.
The study finally concluded that majority of the people involved in ethnic conflict are
aged between 21 and 30. This has been brought about by poor education system making
majority of them drop out of school and recruited in very dangerous gangs that carries out
the raids. Low level of employment also plays a role in this. Incase these young adults are
fully absorbed in the labour markets there will no one to conduct these inhumane actions.
48
5.4 Recommendations
This study therefore recommends that peace resolution initiate such as meeting people in
churches and launching peace campaigns should be adopted in the peace preaching
process. This would play a significant role in creating awareness of peace initiatives.
Organisations should use vehicles such as trailers and even hold public meetings and
renew the committee’s mode of doing things.
Training of youths and women should also be given more priority. This would empower
them with more knowledge on what bring conflicts among communities and how to
resolve it amicably. Formal education should also be encouraged among the youths
which will finally promote and enhance development among other communities.
The county government should emphasize much on having local barazas whereby all the
stakeholders in the district can fully participate giving their opinion in regard to peace
process and train everyone to be a peacemakers. Continuous monthly meetings and
barazas by chiefs and assistant chiefs so that mwananchi could know that there is a
government which is responsible. There should also be equal distribution of wealth and
resources and a lot of transparency in sharing the resources despite ethnicity especially at
this time of devolution in the county
Individuals should also be taken for tours in other districts to learn more about peace
building and the government should recognize peace representatives and pay them
salaries. The financial status should be boosted to cater for their transport and enable
them buy and institute things like banner which play a significant role in peace building
and also enable them reach out to people in their peace campaign mission
49
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53
APPENDICES
Appendix I: Questionnaire
This questionnaire is designed to collect data on the effect of conflict among pastrolist
communities with reference to Mandera County. The data shall be used for academic
purpose only and it will be treated with confidentiality it deserves. The respondents are
highly encouraged and persuaded to respond to the statements in this questionnaire in the
most truthful and objected way possible. Your participation in facilitating this study will
be highly appreciated.
Kindly ticks in the space provided with the correct answer or supply the required
information where, required, please specify and elaborate.
Name ……………………………………………………….
54
Part A: demographic information
1. Please indicate your gender
Female [ ]
Male [ ]
2. Indicate your age bracket
20 and below [ ]
21-30 yrs [ ]
31-40 yrs [ ]
41-50 yrs [ ]
51 and above [ ]
3. State your highest level of education
No Education [ ]
Primary Level [ ]
Secondary level [ ]
College [ ]
University [ ]
Postgraduate [ ]
4. Indicate your monthly level of Income
Below Ksh 10,000 [ ]
Ksh 10,000 – Ksh 30,000 [ ]
Ksh 30,000 – Ksh 50,000 [ ]
Ksh 50,000 – Ksh 80,000 [ ]
Ksh 80,000 – Ksh 120,000 [ ]
Above Ksh 120,000 [ ]
55
5. Have you ever been a victim of violence in your region?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
Part B
To complete the questionnaires read and then rate each statement according to the
following scale:
1 -Strongly agree
2 -Agree
3 – Moderately agree
4 -Disagree
5-Strongly Disagree
SECTION B: Causes of Conflict
6. Which of the following is the main cause of conflict in your region?
Climatic condition [ ]
Poor government policies and programs [ ]
Regional Instability [ ]
7. What is your level of agreement with the following statements?
Attribute 1 2 3 4 5
56
The loss of animals during droughts
provides a justification for carrying out
raids against other communities and
depleting their resources so as to offset
their own losses to restock the herds
resulting to violence
Interaction with the state plays an
important role in the creation of
ethnic/tribal identities which eventually
become faultiness for conflict
When the government use weapon to
control cattle raiding, raiders have
tended to acquire sophisticated
weapons to counter those of the
government security forces
Lack of effective administrative
control in the area, allows raiders to
organize and carry out livestock raids
with relative impunity
Section 2: Effect of Conflict
8. Which of the following is the main effect of conflict in Mandera County?
Loss of human lives [ ]
57
Loss of livestock [ ]
Loss of homes and property [ ]
Insecurity [ ]
9. What is your level of agreement with the following statements?
1 2 3 4 5
The most direct effect of raiding on human well-
being is the loss of lives and injuries caused
during the raids
Watering points are a source of conflict
particularly during dry periods
losing livestock also goes hand-in-hand with the
loss of societal recognition
The lack of secure markets limits the ability of the
pastoralists to sell livestock prior to or during dry
periods and hence contributes to food insecurity
Section 3: Effectiveness of Peace Committee in Peace Building and Conflict
Management
10. Are there peace building committees in your region?
58
Yes No
11. If yes have enough peace building programs been carried out to promote peaceful
coexistence among communities?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
12. Which is the most immediate institution that responds to resolve conflict
whenever it occurs?
Local Elders [ ]
Government Administration [ ]
Religious leaders [ ]
NGOs [ ]
13. In your opinion is the civil society doing enough to educate the community on the
need for peace?
14. What is your level of agreement with the following statements?
1 2 3 4 5
Peace committees are very critical in resolving issues and
challenges facing security at grass root levels
Effectiveness of peace committee in conflict management
and peace building has been dwindling with minimal
success registered in counties that embarked on rolling out
the program
In Kenya, peace committees face similar challenges of
funding and logistical support
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