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Effect of Dairy Manure and Rice PlantingMethods on Yield, Soil Quality, Water-UseEfficiency, and Economics of Rice andSucceeding Wheat CropMuhammad Tahir a , Anwar-ul-Hassan Khan a , Munaza Batool a ,Hafiz Muhammad Zeeshan a , Muhammad Iqbal a & Abdul GhaffarKhan aa University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Institute of Soil andEnvironmental Sciences , Faisalabad , PakistanAccepted author version posted online: 20 Jun 2012.Publishedonline: 13 Jul 2012.

To cite this article: Muhammad Tahir , Anwar-ul-Hassan Khan , Munaza Batool , Hafiz MuhammadZeeshan , Muhammad Iqbal & Abdul Ghaffar Khan (2012) Effect of Dairy Manure and Rice PlantingMethods on Yield, Soil Quality, Water-Use Efficiency, and Economics of Rice and SucceedingWheat Crop, Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 43:14, 1897-1914, DOI:10.1080/00103624.2012.689398

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Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 43:1897–1914, 2012Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 0010-3624 print / 1532-2416 onlineDOI: 10.1080/00103624.2012.689398

Effect of Dairy Manure and Rice Planting Methodson Yield, Soil Quality, Water-Use Efficiency, andEconomics of Rice and Succeeding Wheat Crop

MUHAMMAD TAHIR, ANWAR-UL-HASSAN KHAN,MUNAZA BATOOL, HAFIZ MUHAMMAD ZEESHAN,MUHAMMAD IQBAL, AND ABDUL GHAFFAR KHAN

University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Institute of Soil and EnvironmentalSciences, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Presently, directly seeded rice (DSR) is preferred over transplanted puddle rice (TPR)because of its high water-use efficiency (WUE). Also, TPR deteriorates the soil physic-ochemical properties, so in these conditions dairy manure has been used to reduce bulkdensity, increase hydraulic conductivity, and improve soil nutrient status. Experimentswere conducted to study the effects of manure and rice planting methods on yield, soilquality, WUE, and economics of rice and the succeeding wheat crop. Results showedthat TPR increased kernel yield by 10.26% compared to DSR. However, it deterio-rated soil physical properties and reduced soil nitrogen by 7.31% at 0–15 cm deep andnitrate concentration by 61.40% at 0–35 cm deep, which significantly reduced succeed-ing wheat yield by 18.21%. The residual soil organic fertility after crop harvest wasproportional to the level of dairy manure used.

Keywords Directly seeded rice, soil quality, water use efficiency, wheat response

Introduction

Presently, the success of agricultural production is not only assessed by maximizationof yield but also the impacts on soil fertility, water resources, and environmental safetyare included in assessments of best management practices. Agriculture has transformedfrom single-goal to multigoal management systems (Tilman et al. 2002). Therefore, a cru-cial task is to quantify the simultaneous impacts of management practices on crop yield,water-use efficiency, soil carbon (C) storage, nutrient leaching, and environmental safety.Per-capita water availability in Pakistan has been decreasing at an alarming rate becausepopulation pressure puts Pakistan in the category of “high stress” countries in terms oflimited water resources. In 1951, per capita availability was 5300 m3, which fell to thecritical scarcity level of 1000 cubic meters in 2010, and is likely to further reduce to 800cubic meters per capita by 2020 (Pakistan Economic Survey 2011–12). So, the agriculturalproductivity in Pakistan will be affected by changes in water resources.

Received 21 September 2010; accepted 18 October 2011.Address correspondence to Muhammad Tahir, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Institute of

Soil and Environmental Sciences, 38040, Faisalabad, Pakistan. E-mail: tahir.soilphysics@gmail.com

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The rice–wheat rotation is one of the largest agricultural production systems of theworld. In South Asia, the rice–wheat system occupies about 13.5 million ha including2.2 million ha in Pakistan (Ladha et al., 2000). Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is an importanttarget for irrigation water-use reductions, because of its relatively large water require-ments compared with other crops. Tilman, Fargion, and Wolff (2001) stated that theglobal use of N fertilizers increased seven-fold between 1960 and 1995, and anotherthree-fold increase is expected by 2050 unless there is a substantial increase in water-useefficiency.

On the other hand, the productivity of the cropping system is declining or stagnating,and puddling is one of the factors responsible for that (Mohanty et al. 2006). Puddling is notonly time-consuming and capital intensive but also causes subsurface compaction that isnot conducive for the following wheat crop (Bajpai and Tripathi 2000). This also adverselyaffects rooting density (Pagliai, Vignozzi, and Pellegrini 2004) and N utilization of thefollowing wheat crop. Puddling also leads to destruction of soil structure and influencesvarious soil hydraulic properties. Puddling breaks capillary pores, destroys soil aggre-gates, disperses fine clay particles, and lowers soil strength in the puddle layer (Sharmaand De Datta 1986). Furthermore, industrialization in the rice zones has further caused alabor shortage for timely transplantation of rice, thus resulting in reduction of yield. Thedeclining water resource base has further compounded the situation. Rice transplanting islabor intensive and requires 200–250 man-hours per hectare, which is about 0.25 of thetotal labor requirement for the crop. Paddy transplanting by manual labor results in a lowand nonuniform plant population, resulting in reduced crop yields (Anonymous 1987).Therefore, along with improving our water resources, there is need to find an alternativetechnology that is more water efficient and less labor intensive. One such technology isdirectly seeded rice (DSR), which is more water efficient than the traditional puddle trans-planted rice (Mann, Munir, and Haqqani 2004) and is economical, feasible, and effectivein maintaining optimum plant population. However, practically, its feasibility is in ques-tion because of heavy weed invasion, poor water management, and large tonnage seedrequirement. According to Bhushan et al. (2007), water-use efficiency (WUE) in the rice–wheat system was greater with DSR (0.45 g L–1) than transplanted rice (0.37–0.43 g L–1).According to Aslam, Qureshi, and Horinkova (2002) using direct-seeding method, the totalcropping season could be reduced by about 2 weeks, avoiding the nursery preparationand transplanting phases, and the overall irrigation requirement is reduced, resulting insignificant water saving of up to 25%.

There is a general consensus that wheat yields will increase if puddling opera-tions for rice establishment are reduced or eliminated (Fujisaka, Harrington, and Hobbs1994). Because of aerobic soil conditions under DSR, as required by the followingwheat crop, there is no need for the number of plowings required to change the anaer-obic to aerobic soil conditions of rice grown under the traditional puddled transplantingsystem; however, lower yields may be due to delayed and improper use of herbicides(Khan 2007).

Organic materials are important soil additives to improve soil physical properties.These are important to sustain the productivity of soils, particularly in semi-arid regionswhere there is low input of organic materials, such as Pakistan. Poor surface soil aggre-gation, high penetration resistance, high bulk density, low porosity, and slow infiltrationlimit agricultural productivity, while increasing soil organic-matter content through theaddition of organic amendments such as farm manure has proven to be a valuable practicefor maintaining or restoring soil quality (Wander et al. 2002). Organic production has alsobeen promoted as environmentally beneficial (Oquist, Strock, and Mulla 2007) by reducing

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agricultural impacts on water quality. Under progressively increasing intensity of cropping,the emerging deficiencies of iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), sulfur (S), and recently manganese (Mn)have become critical and are being managed by soil fertility restoration practices, includ-ing application of organic manure. To sustain good crop yields without deterioration of soilfertility, it is important to work out optimal combination of fertilizers and manures in thecropping system (Rekhi, Benbi, and Singh 2000). For sustainability in crop production, itis neither chemical fertilizer nor organic manures alone but their integrated use has beenobserved to be highly beneficial (Khan et al. 2001).

The objectives of the present study were to (i) determine the effects of rice plantingmethods on yield, soil quality, WUE, and economics of rice and the following wheat crop,and (ii) evaluate the effect of dairy manure on yield, nutrient uptake, soil nutrient status,and physical properties of soil.

Materials and Methods

Experimental Site

Field experiments were conducted at the research farm (latitude, 31◦ 26’ N and 73◦06’ E; altitude, 184.4 m) at the Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University ofAgriculture, Faisalabad, Punjab, Pakistan, to study the effect of manure and rice plantingmethods on yield, soil quality, WUE, and economics of rice and wheat crops during thecropping years July 2007 to April 2008.

Climate

The climate of Faisalabad is subtropical and high temperatures during the summer arecharacteristic of this city. The mean maximum and minimum temperatures in summer are39 and 27 ◦C, respectively, and in winter are 21 and 6 ◦C, respectively. The summer seasonstarts from April and continues to October. May, June, and July are the hottest months. Thewinter season, on the other hand, starts from November and continues to March. December,January, and February are the coldest months.

Soil

The experimental soil (0–15 cm deep) was analyzed for initial soil physicochemical prop-erties. The soil of the experimental field was a loam, having the following characteristics:sand 40.70%, silt 37.30%, clay 22%; pH 7.9; organic matter, 0.75% and 0.50% at depthsof 0–15 and 15–30 cm, respectively; nitrogen (N), 0.55 g kg –1 at 0–15 cm deep; availablephosphorus (P), 10.5 mg kg –1 at 0–15 cm deep; exchangeable potassium (K), 125 mg kg –1

at 0–15 cm deep; and bulk density, 2.48, 2.52, 2.54, and 2.56 mg kg –1, at depths of 0–5,5–10, 10–20, and 20–30 cm.

Manure Analysis

Using standard methods, the manure used for the experiment was analyzed for the follow-ing characteristics and their results are given on a dry-weight basis: moisture content, 60%;organic C, 39%; total N, 1.025%; available P, 0.45%; available K, 0.75%; nitrate (NO3

–),290 ppm; and C/N ratio 38.05.

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Experimental Design and Cultural Practices

Rice. The first experiment was laid out in split-plot arrangements with sowing methods[transplanted puddle rice (TPR) and DSR] in main plots and manure in subplots havingthree replications, with net plot size of 9 × 9 m2. The nursery rice was sown on 23 June2007. Plants were transplanted from the nursery to the field on 24 July 2007, keeping row-to-row and plant-to-plant distances of 9 inches each. Direct sowing of rice was done on23 June 2007, using a seed rate of 70 kg ha–1, keeping row-to-row distance of 9 inches.Dairy manure (DM) levels used were M0 (no manure), M1 (20 Mg ha–1), and M2 (40Mg ha–1). Recommended NPK (136–67–60 kg N/P2O5/K2O ha–1) fertilizers were addedto M0 (DM at 0 Mg ha–1) whereas in other treatments the recommended doses of NPK weremaintained using mineral sources (urea, diammonium phosphate, and sulfate of potash)after analyzing manure composition. All of the P and K was added at the time of sowing,whereas N was used in three splits. No herbicide was sprayed on the rice crop but threehoeings were carried out in the DSR treatments to control weeds. Manure was appliedaccording to the treatment plan at 3 weeks prior to sowing.

Wheat. For the wheat trial, the same layout was utilized as for rice, thereby keepingresidual effects of planting methods of the previous rice crop, transplanted puddle rice(rTPR) and directly seeded rice (rDSR), in main plots and the applied plus residual effectsof manure in subplots. There were three replications. For wheat, DM levels used wererM0 (no applied plus residual manure), rM1 (20 Mg ha–1 applied plus residual manure),and rM2 (40 Mg ha–1 applied plus residual manure). An NPK rate of 105–85–65 kgN/P2O5/K2O ha–1 was applied to the M0 treatment, whereas in M1 and M2 treatmentsthese rates were maintained using mineral sources (i.e., urea, diammonium phosphate, andsulfate of potash) after manure analysis, considering the NPK contents in the manure. AllP and K were added at the time of sowing, whereas N was applied in three splits. Wheatvariety AS-2002 was sown using a seed rate of 125 kg ha–1, with drill, keeping row-to-row distances of 9 inches. Weed-control practices included herbicide applications [BuctrilSuper 60 EC (bromoxynil + 2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid) at 750 mL ha–1 andPuma Super (fenoxaprop-P-ethyl) at 1250 mL ha–1]. The crop was harvested at maturity150 days after sowing.

Agronomic Parameters Studied

At maturity, the harvest was realized on an area of 1 m2 per plot. Agronomic parameters ofrice (plant height, number of branches panicle–1, panicle bearing tillers m–2, 1000-kernelweight, kernel yield, and straw yield) and wheat (plant height, number of spikelets perspike, number of tillers per m–2, 1000-grain weight, grain yield, and straw yield) wererecorded at harvest. Roots of rice and wheat were sampled at 0–15 cm deep, within rows,by means of a soil core 15 cm long with volume of 750 cm3, when growth ceased and dryroot weight was recorded. Rice and wheat WUE and economic analysis were also recorded.

Soil Analysis

The hydrometer method was followed for particle-size analysis after dispersing the soilwith 0.5% sodium hexametaphosphate solution. Nitrogen in soil was determined usingmacro-Kjeldahl’s apparatus by Gunning and Hibbard’s method of sulfuric acid diges-tion and distillation of ammonium into 4% boric acid (Jackson 1962). Phosphorous

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was determined using a spectrophotometer at 880 nm. Soil K was determined in theextract using a Jenway PFP-7 flame photometer (Jenway, Staffordshire UK) (U.S. SalinityLaboratory Staff 1954). Near the root sampling positions, soil samples were taken to mea-sure the soil bulk density at depths of 0–5, 5–10, and 10–20 cm by the core method. Afterthe harvest, soil samples were collected from 0–15 cm deep and were analyzed for N, P, andK concentrations. Soil samples from depths of 0–35, 35–70, and 70–105 cm were collectedfor determination of nitrate (NO3

–) concentration. Nitrate was analyzed by chromotropicacid method (Sims and Jackson 1971). Hydraulic conductivity and penetration resistancewere measured using a Guelph permeameter and soil penetrometer methods, respectively.

Plant Analysis

The samples of grains and straw were kept at 65 ◦C for 48 h and then ground using agrinding mill. The dried and ground shoot material (0.1 g) was digested with sulfuric acidand hydrogen peroxide according to the method by Wolf (1982), and concentrations of N,P, and K in grain and straw of rice and wheat were obtained. Nitrogen was determined usinga micro-Kjeldahl’s apparatus by Gunning and Hibbard’s method (Jackson et al. 1962),total P was determined on a spectrophotometer using 400-nm wavelength (U.S. SalinityLaboratory Staff 1954), and K in the digested material was determined using a JenwayPFP-7 flame photometer (Jenway, Staffordshire, UK) (U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff 1954).

Experimental Design and Statistical Analysis

All the obtained data for total yield were subjected to statistical analysis of varianceaccording to the procedure outlined by Gomez and Gomez (1984).

Results and Discussion

Growth, Yield, and Yield-Contributing Attributes of Rice and the Following Wheat Crop

Results of field trials revealed that growth and yield parameters of rice and wheat cropswere significantly affected by manure and rice planting methods (Tables 1 and 2). In rice,the maximum plant height (106.87 cm), branches penicles–1 (15.20), 1000-kernel weight(24.33 g), kernel yield (3.66 Mg ha–1), and straw yield (5.42 Mg ha–1) were observed withtreatment combination TPR + M2 and showed significant increases (51.08, 29.55, 36.19,23.26, and 16.48%, respectively) over M0 + DSR, which showed minimum values of theseparameters except for plant height, which was least in the case of DSR + M1. Maximumroot weight at 0–15 cm deep within rows (2.32 g plant–1) and panicle-bearing tillers m–2

(552.4) were observed in the case of DSR + M2, which showed 40.45% increase overTPR + M0 and 27.44% increase over TPR + M1, respectively. These results contradictthose of Bhushan et al. (2007), who described that the yields of rice in the conven-tional puddled transplant and direct seeding on puddled or unpuddled flat-bed systems asequal. In the following wheat crop, the maximum plant height (76.63 cm), spikelet spike–1

(17.13), 1000-grain weight (37.73 g), grain yield (4.55 Mg ha–1), and straw yield (6.98 Mgha–1) were observed with treatment combination rDSR + rM2 and showed significantincreases (4.31, 16.29, 8.22, 27.07, and 23.75%, respectively) over rTPR + rM0, whichshowed minimum values of these parameters except for grain yield and straw yield, whichwere least in the case of rTPR + rM1. Similarly, Gangwar, Singh, and Sharma (2004)in a 3-year field study indicated that adoption of direct seeding in rice crops preceding

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Table 1Effect of dairy manure and rice seedling establishment methods on the agronomic traits

and yield components of rice (Oryza sativa) in rice–wheat system

Treatments

Plantheight(cm)

No. ofbranches

(panicle−1)

Paniclebearing

tillers (m−2)

1000-kernel

weight (g)

Kernelyield

(Mg ha−1)

Strawyield

(Mg ha−1)

Rootweight

(kg m−3)

TR + M0 99.30 b 14.80 a 444.6 b 20.57 b 3.49 ab 5.27 a 1.78 cTR + M1 97.13 b 13.40 b 433.5 b 21.37 b 3.31 bc 5.24 a 1.79 cTR + M2 106.9 a 15.20 a 458.2 b 24.33 a 3.66 a 5.42 a 2.10 bDSR + M0 70.73 c 11.73 c 528.7 a 17.87 c 2.97 d 4.65 c 2.12 bDSR + M1 65.30 d 12.60 bc 535.9 a 17.93 c 3.16 c 4.80 bc 2.32 abDSR + M2 72.47 c 13.23 b 552.4 a 18.57 c 3.26 c 5.08 ab 2.50 a

Notes. The data are averages of three replications. Means sharing similar letter(s) in a column donot differ significantly at P = 0.05.

Table 2Effect of applied and residual dairy manure and rice seedling establishment methods on

the agronomic traits and yield components of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in rice–wheatsystem

Treatments

Plantheight(cm)

No. ofspikelets(spike−1)

Numberof tillers(m−2)

1000-grain

weight (g)

Grainyield

(Mg ha−1)

Strawyield

(Mg ha−1)

Rootweight

(kg m−3)

rTPR + rM0 73.47†c 14.73 b 315.3 c 34.87 b 3.58 de 5.64 c 1.92 brTPR + rM1 73.73 c 15.13 b 319.7 bc 35.13 b 3.50 e 5.62 c 2.17 brTPR + rM2 74.33 c 15.47 b 335.6 ab 36.33 ab 3.84 cd 5.93 c 2.35 abrDSR + rM0 75.77 ab 16.70 a 322.9 bc 36.10 ab 4.08 bc 6.34 b 2.15 brDSR + rM1 76.60 a 16.77 a 329.0 abc 37.37 a 4.28 b 6.50 b 2.33 abrDSR + rM2 76.63 a 17.13 a 343.9 a 37.73 a 4.55 a 6.980 a 2.79 a

Notes. The data are averages of three replications. Means sharing similar letter(s) in a column donot differ significantly at P = 0.05.

wheat produced a greater overall mean wheat yield compared with manual and mechani-cal transplanting. Hobbs et al. (2002) also reported a 10% yield advantage for wheat on asilt loam soil following unpuddled rice. However, contradicting our findings, he found thatthe method of seeding adopted in the preceding rice crop did not bring about significantvariation in the root dry weight of wheat.

Nutrient (NPK) Uptake and Status in Soil at the Harvest of Rice and Succeeding WheatCrop

Table 3 depicts the statistical behaviors of total N, P, and K uptake by rice and also theirconcentrations in soil at crop harvest. Data showed that maximum N uptake (108.20 kgha–1) was observed with treatment combination TPR + M2. It was followed in descendingorder by DSR + M2, TPR + M0, TPR + M1, DSR + M0, and DSR + M1, which showed104.30, 101.00, 99.67, 99.00, and 94.77 kg N uptake ha–1. A similar trend was observedin the case of P and K uptake. Different treatment combinations showed P uptake by rice

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Wheat Response to Directly Seeded Rice 1903

Table 3Effects of dairy manure and rice seedling establishment methods on nutrient uptake by

rice and soil nutrient status

Nutrient uptake (kg ha−1) Nutrient contents in soil

Treatments N P KN

(g kg−1)P

(mg kg−1)K

(mg kg−1)SHC

(mm h−1)

TPR + M0 101.0 abc† 31.67 ab 138.1 ab 0.49 e 13.53 b 133.0 b 55.6 eTPR + M1 99.67 abc 29.00 ab 136.0 abc 0.48 e 14.53 ab 140.0 a 70.7 dTPR + M2 108.2 a 33.00 a 143.7 a 0.52 d 15.27 a 145.0 a 75.0 cdDSR + M0 97.00 bc 29.33 ab 133.0 bc 0.67 c 14.43 ab 130.0 b 81.9 cDSR + M1 94.77 c 27.67 b 129.3 c 0.69 b 14.87 ab 140.3 a 98.1 bDSR + M2 104.3 ab 32.33 a 138.3 ab 0.73 a 15.40 a 145.0 a 108.7 a

Notes. The data are averages of three replications. Means sharing similar letter(s) in a column donot differ significantly at P = 0.05.

in the following descending order: TPR + M2 > DSR + M2 > TPR + M0 > DSR +M0 > TPR + M1 > DSR + M1, whereas K uptake by rice is in the following descendingorder: TPR + M2 > DSR + M2> TPR + M0 > TPR + M1 > DSR + M0 > DSR +M1. Rice planting methods and dairy manure had a significant effect on NPK contentsof soil at rice crop harvest. Data trends showed that manuring significantly increased theNPK content in the soil at rice harvest while TPR significantly reduced the N contents ofthe soil compared to DSR. The interactive effect showed that maximum N contents (0.63 gkg –1) in the soil at rice harvest were observed with treatment combination DSR + M2,which showed a 15% increase over TPR + M2, the treatment combination having mini-mum soil N contents. It followed in descending order by treatment combinations DSR +M1 DSR + M0 TPR + M2, and TPR + M2, which showed 11, 9, and 4% increase overTPR + M1. Data showed that maximum P contents of the soil at rice harvest (15.40 mgkg–1) were observed with treatment combination DSR + M2, whereas K contents weregreatest (145 mg kg–1) with M2 treatments in DSR and TPR plots (two statistically simi-lar treatments). Our results are in line with those of Gangwar, Singh, and Sharma (2004),who observed that the available NPK content of soil was significantly greater under directseeding of rice compared to mechanical transplanting. Similarly, according to Sarwar et al.(2008), increase in soil organic-matter content improved the physical properties of the soiland would have caused increased root development, resulting in more uptake of water andnutrients. Our results are also in agreement with those of Salim, Mian, and Hassan (1988),who stated that application of organic materials alone or in combination with inorganicfertilizer helped in proper nutrition and maintenance of soil fertility.

Nutrient (NPK) uptake and their status in soil at the harvest of succeeding wheat cropis obvious from Table 4. Data showed that N, P, and K uptake by wheat crop were sig-nificantly influenced by rice planting methods and manure with significant interaction.Treatment combination rDSR + rM2 showed best results, giving 86.73 kg N uptake ha–1.It was followed by rDSR + rM1 (85.73 kg N ha–1) and rDSR + rM0 (83.57 kg N ha–1);however, these three treatments were statistically at par with each other. Treatment combi-nation rDSR + rM2 showed the greatest P uptake (37.90 kg ha–1) by wheat crop; however,this treatment was statistically similar or at par with all other treatments except rTPR +rM1, which showed minimum uptake. A similar trend was observed with K uptake.

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Table 4Effects of applied and residual dairy manure and rice seedling establishment methods on

nutrient uptake by wheat and soil nutrient status

Nutrient uptake (kg ha−1) Nutrient contents in soil

Treatments N P KN

(g kg−1)P

(mg kg−1)K

(mg kg−1)SHC

(mm h−1)

rTPR + rM0 77.27†c 34.70 ab 155.0 d 0.60 b 13.0 b 108.0 b 132.9 drTPR + rM1 78.47 c 33.33 b 158.7 cd 0.62 b 14.0 b 109.0 b 178.4 abrTPR + rM2 81.17 bc 36.60 ab 166.3 b 0.65 ab 14.7 ab 119.3 a 184.3 abrDSR + rM0 83.57 ab 36.40 ab 163.3 bc 0.62 b 13.7 b 110.0 b 153.1 crDSR + rM1 85.73 a 36.27 ab 174.7 a 0.69 a 14.7 ab 114.7 ab 172.9 brDSR + rM2 86.73 a 37.90 a 180.3 a 0.70 a 16.0 a 120.3 a 192.6 a

Note. The data are averages of three replications. Means sharing similar letter(s) in a column donot differ significantly at P = 0.05.

Effect of previous rice planting methods and applied plus residual dairy manure on soilPK contents at 0–15 cm deep was also significant at the harvest of wheat crop. Data trendshowed that increasing manure rates increased NPK reservoir of the soil, whereas theirdecreased contents were observed in wheat plots where previously puddling in transplantedrice was practiced. Treatment combination rDSR + rM2 showed the greatest soil NPK con-tents at wheat harvest: 0.70 g kg –1, 16.0 mg kg–1, and 120.3 mg kg–1, respectively. Similarto our results, Saha et al. (2008) reported that long-term application of inorganic nutri-ents along with farmyard manure improved grain mineral composition. Similarly, Dear,McDonald, and Falconer (1979) reported that the amount of available NPK was signifi-cantly greater when rice was directly seeded in the preceding crop, followed by manual andmechanical transplanting, and that uptake of N, P and K by wheat was reduced significantlyin previous puddle plots.

Soil Physical Properties at Harvest of Rice and Succeeding Wheat Crop

Soil saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) was significantly affected by rice establishmentmethods and manure (Tables 3 and 4). In the rice trial, 43.43% more Ks (96.26 mm h–1) wasobserved in DSR than in TPR (67.11 mm h–1) while statistically similar Ks was observedwith both transplanting methods, after succeeding wheat crop. Effect of manure on Ks

was significant both for rice and wheat. After rice harvest, increases of 22.72 and 33.59%were observed with M2 over M1 and M0, respectively. Similarly, M2 increased the Ks by22.85 and 31.77% over M0 and M1, respectively, at wheat harvest. Interactive effect of riceestablishment methods on Ks was also significant. After rice harvest, the greatest valuesof Ks were observed with treatment combination DSR + M2, showing a 95.54% increaseover M0 + TPR, which had the lowest value. At harvest of the succeeding wheat crop,treatment combination rDSR + rM2 showed the most increase in Ks value (44.92%) overrM0 + rTPR. At wheat harvest in the month of May, 106.93% more Ks was observed whencompared to that at harvest of rice in the month of November.

Researchers suggest that the most important limiting factor reducing root growth issoil strength. Soil penetration resistance was significantly affected by manure and riceestablishment methods (Figures 1a and 1b). Our data showed that 14.03 and 19.97% less

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Wheat Response to Directly Seeded Rice 1905

a

1200

1400

1600

1800

TPR+M0 TPR+M1 TPR+M2 DSR+M0 DSR+M1 DSR+M2Treatments

kPa

surface30 cm

b

1200

1300

1400

1500

rTPR+rM0 rTPR+rM1 rTPR+rM2 rDSR+rM0 rDSR+rM1 rDSR+rM2Treatments

kPa

surface

30 cm

Figure 1. Effects of different treatments on soil penetration resistance (kPa) at the harvest of (a) riceand (b) wheat.

penetration resistance was observed in DSR, at surface and 30 cm deep, respectively, ascompared to TPR. Similarly, at the harvest of wheat crop, 5.87 and 4.86% less pene-tration resistance was observed with rDSR as compared to rTPR. Effect of manure onsoil penetration resistance is also evident from Figure 1. Penetration resistances of soilwere reduced by 6.21 and 19.82% at rice harvest and 11.03 and 38.24% at wheat har-vest with manure treatments M2 over M1 and M0, respectively. Statistically insignificantdifferences in penetration resistance were observed at 30 cm deep with different manuretreatments. Interactive effect of rice establishment methods with manure showed that atrice harvest, treatment combination DSR + M2 reduced the penetration resistances by18.66 and 20.10% at 0 and 30 cm deep, respectively, over TPR + M0. At wheat harvest,the least soil penetration resistance was observed with rDSR + rM2 (12.08 and 5.28% lessthan rTPR + rM0at 0 and 30 cm deep, respectively). Similar to us, Sarkar and Kar (2005)noted differences in soil penetration values after harvest of wheat following transplantedrice and directly seeded rice and revealed that the soil under wheat following transplantedrich was the most compact.

Figures 2a and 2b show the effect of rice establishment methods and manure on soilbulk density (BD) at rice and wheat harvest. Results indicated that in TPR treatmentsBD of soil (1.50 Mg m–3) was greater (3.86%) than in DSR treatments (i.e., 1.44 Mgm–3 at 0–5 cm deep). Similarly, increases of 4.16 and 2.26% in the bulk density of soilwere observed with TPR treatments over DSR treatments, at 5–10 and 10–20 cm deep,respectively. Statistically insignificant difference in bulk density was recorded at wheat

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(a)

1.40

1.45

1.50

1.55

1.60

0-5 cm 5-10 cm 10-20 cmDepth

Bul

k de

nsit

y (M

g ha

–1)

TPR+M0TPR+M1TPR+M2DSR+M0DSR+M1DSR+M2

(b)

1.40

1.45

1.50

1.55

1.60

0-5 cm 5-10 cm 10-20 cm

Depth

Bul

k ds

ensi

ty (M

g ha

–1)

rTPR+rM0rTPR+rM1rTPR+rM2rDSR+rM0rDSR+rM1rDSR+rM2

Figure 2. Effects of different treatments on soil bulk density at harvest of (a) rice and (b) wheat.

harvest planted after TPR and DSR. Figure 2 also shows that effect of manure on bulkdensity was significant at all depths. At rice harvest, M2 decreased the bulk density of soilby 0.9 and 2.2% at 0–5 cm deep; 0.64 and 1.74% at 5–10 cm deep; and 0.56 and 0.55% at10–20 cm deep, over M0 and M1, respectively. Similarly, at wheat harvest rM2 decreasedthe bulk density of soil by 1.03 and 1.03% at 0–5 cm; 1.10 and 1.42% at 5–10 cm; and0.65 and 0.93% at 10–20 cm deep, over rM1 and rM0, respectively. Interactive effect ofrice establishment methods with manure showed that at rice harvest, treatment combina-tion DSR + M2 showed the greatest reduction in the bulk density (i.e., 5.53, 6.04, and2.96% at 0–5, 5–10, and 10–20 cm deep) over TPR + M0, respectively. At wheat harvest,treatment combination rDSR + rM2 showed the greatest reduction in the bulk density,that is, 0.91, 0.88, and 1.85% at 0–5, 5–10, and 10–20 cm deep, respectively, over TPR +M0. Data trend showed that bulk density of soil increased by 2.27 and 3.82% at 5–10 cmand 5.77 and 7.71% at 10–20 cm compared to 0–5 cm deep at harvest of rice and wheat,respectively. Similarly, Mosaddeghi, Mahboubi, and Safadoust (2009) found a significantreduction in bulk density of soil with manure application (i.e., 1.30, 1.36, and 1.41 Mgm−3 for M60, M30, and M0, respectively), confirming the reduction tends to increase withincreasing application. Their results also suggested that organic manures can alter soilstrength through a dilution effect on the soil, by bonding particles, increasing aggregation,and increasing soil elasticity.

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Wheat Response to Directly Seeded Rice 1907

NO3– and Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) Contents of the Soil at Different Depths after

Rice and Succeeding Wheat Crop

Figure 3a indicates that puddling of the soil in rice crop decreased the nitrate contents of thesoil by 61.40 and 28.67% at 0–35 and 35–70 cm deep of the soil, respectively, whereas itincreased the NO3

– contents by 16.57% at 70–105 cm deep of the soil over DSR. In regardsto manure treatments, M1 and M2 decreased the nitrate leaching by 2.61 and 5.00% andby 9.23 and 13.90% at 35–70 and 70–105 cm deep, respectively, over the M0 treatment.

(a)

15

25

35

45

55

0-35 35-70 70-105Depth (cm)

TPR+M0TPR+M1TPR+M2DSR+M0DSR+M1DSR+M2

(b)

15

25

35

45

55

0-35 35-70 70-105Depth (cm)

rTPR+rM0rTPR+rM1rTPR+rM2rDSR+rMrDSR+rM1rDSR+rM2

NO

3– con

cent

rati

on (

mg

kg–1

)

Figure 3. Effects of different treatments on soil NO3- at harvest of (a) rice and (b) wheat.

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Integrated effect of two factors showed that maximum nitrate concentration at 0–35 cmdeep (46.75 mg kg –1 of soil) was observed in the M2 treatment in DSR while the minimum(26.67 mg kg –1 of soil) was in the case of the M2 treatment in transplanted rice. At 35–70 cm deep, maximum nitrate concentration (32.17 mg kg–1 of soil) was observed in theM1 treatment in DSR while the minimum (20.74 mg kg–1 of soil) was in the case of theM1 treatment in transplanted rice. At 70–105 cm deep, the maximum nitrate concentration(25.71 mg kg–1 of soil) was observed with the M0 treatment in TPR whereas the minimum(18.18 mg kg–1 of soil) was in the case of the M2 treatment in direct seeded rice. Figure 3aalso shows that there was a significant decrease in nitrate concentration with increasingdepth.

Nitrate concentration of soil at harvest of wheat crop planted after DSR and TPRgrown under different manure treatments is evident from Figure 3b. Results revealed thatrDSR showed relatively greater concentration of nitrate (44.26 mg kg –1 of soil) at 0–35 cm deep in wheat plots compared to rTPR (41.48 mg kg–1 of soil). Under differentmanure treatments nitrate contents of the soil at 0–35 cm deep were nonsignificant. As forinteraction of manure treatments and residual effect of previous rice-sowing methods onnitrate contents, treatment combination rDSR + rM2 plots showed statistically less nitratecontents (36.70 mg kg–1 of soil) as compared to all other treatment combinations, whereasall other treatments combinations were statistically insignificant. At 35–70 cm deep, theeffects of different rice-sowing methods, manure treatments, and their interaction on soilnitrate concentration at wheat harvest were insignificant. At 70–105 cm deep, statisticallygreater nitrate contents (18.91 mg kg–1 of soil) were recorded in wheat plots with rTPRcompared to rDSR. Effect of different manure treatments and their interaction with previ-ous rice-sowing methods, at 70–105 cm deep, was insignificant. Figure 3b also revealedthat the greatest nitrate contents were recorded at 0–35 cm deep, which were 58.43 and50.98% more than the contents at 70–105 and 35–70 cm deep, respectively. Our resultsare in line with those of Unger, Motavalli, and Muzika (2009), who found that floodingdecreased NO3-N under 5-week flood treatments compared to 3-week flowing and controltreatments. With results similar to ours, Chang and Entz (1996) also stated that greatermanure application rates resulted in a nitrate buildup within the root zone and minimal losswas observed below 150 cm.

The effect of different treatment combinations on SOC at rice and wheat harvest isevident from Figures 4a and 4b. At the harvest of rice, 5.93, 8.43, and 15.16% greater SOCcontents were observed in DSR plots than TPR plots at 0–5, 5–10, and 10–20 cm deep,respectively. Manure application significantly increased the SOC contents of the soil at alldepths that were tested. At rice harvest, maximum SOC contents of the soil were observedwith M2, which were 15.23 and 20.23%; 8.33 and 19.82%; and 6.86 and 14.72% greaterthan M1 and M0 at 0–5, 5–10, and 10–20 cm deep, respectively. Regarding the interactionsof different manure treatments with rice-sowing methods, maximum SOC contents werefound with M2 in DSR plots, which were 25.60, 31.68, and 31.17% greater than M0 in theTPR plots at 0–5, 5–10, and 10–20 cm deep, respectively. At the harvest of wheat crop,statistically similar SOC contents were observed in previous DSR and TPR plots; however,increasing manure application rates significantly increased the SOC contents of the soil atall depths that were tested. In regards to manure, maximum SOC contents of the soil atwheat harvest were observed with rM2, which were 11.26 and 23.92%; 9.03 and 24.43%;and 7.30 and 16.43% more than rM1 and rM0 at 0–5, 5–10, and 10–20 deep, respectively.Regarding the interactions of different manure treatments with rice-sowing methods, themaximum SOC contents were obtained with M2 in previous DSR plots, which were 30.63,33.33, and 28.21% greater than M0 in previous TPR plots at 0–5, 5–10, and 10–20 cm

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Wheat Response to Directly Seeded Rice 1909

(b)

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Depth

SOC

con

cent

rati

on (

%)

rTPR + rM0rTPR + rM1rTPR + rM2rDSR + rM0rDSR + rM1rDSR + rM2

0–5 cm 5–10 cm 10–20 cm

(a)

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0–5 cm 5–10 cm 10–20 cmDepth

SOC

con

cent

rati

on (

%)

TPR + M0TPR + M1TPR + M2DSR + M0DSR + M1DSR + M2

Figure 4. Effects of dairy manure and rice planting methods on soil organic carbon (a) at rice harvestand (b) at wheat harvest.

deep, respectively. There were increases of 2.55 and 0.95% in SOC contents of the soil inrM2 and rM1 treatments, respectively, compared to rM0, when again applied to wheat afterrice application. These observations are well supported by the findings of Eghball (2000),who observed the effect of P- and N-based manure on soil properties and stated that 25%of applied manure C remained in soil after 4 years.

Water-Use Efficiency of Rice and Succeeding Wheat Crop

Effect of different treatments on WUE of rice and wheat are presented in Tables 5 and 6.It is evident from the data that 45% increase in WUE was observed in DSR compared toTPR. Similarly, wheat sown after DSR showed 16.43% increase in WUE compared to TPRplots. Application of dairy manure to rice also improved the WUE of rice and succeedingwheat crop. Increases of 1.55 and 6.96% in WUE were observed with M2 over M1 andM0, respectively. Similarly, in wheat crop, rM2 showed 1.32 and 8.45% increases in WUEover rM1 and rM0, respectively. Interactive effects indicated that DSR + M2 and rDSR +rM2 showed maximum WUE, that is, 56.07 and 26.43% more than TPR + M1 and rTPR +rM1, in rice and wheat crops, respectively. Similarly, Kirchhof et al. (2000) reported that

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Tabl

e5

Eco

nom

ican

alys

isan

dw

ater

-use

effic

ienc

yof

rice

Exp

endi

ture

Tre

atm

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enta

Tota

lbIn

com

efr

omri

cec

Incr

ease

din

com

eov

erT

1N

etre

turn

VC

Rd

WU

Ee

TR

+M

027

1.72

376.

9214

36.7

50.

0010

59.8

33.

907.

31T

R+

M1

249.

4035

4.60

1363

.28

−5.1

110

08.6

84.

047.

12T

R+

M2

268.

0037

3.20

1503

.45

4.64

1130

.25

4.22

7.56

DSR

+M

027

6.45

381.

6512

21.7

0−1

4.97

840.

053.

0410

.16

DSR

+M

125

5.30

360.

5013

00.0

0−9

.52

939.

503.

6810

.61

DSR

+M

227

0.00

375.

2013

42.0

8−6

.59

966.

883.

5811

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aT

reat

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clud

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−1;

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;tw

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rice

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ndri

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dV

alue

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CR

)=

netr

etur

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tmen

t.e W

UE

(wat

er-u

seef

ficie

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=kg

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per

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1910

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Tabl

e6

Eco

nom

ican

alys

isan

dw

ater

-use

effic

ienc

yof

whe

at

Exp

endi

ture

Tre

atm

ents

Due

totr

eatm

enta

Tota

lbIn

com

efr

omw

heat

cIn

crea

sed

inco

me

over

T1

Net

retu

rnV

CR

dW

UE

e

rTPR

+rM

010

6.45

281.

4879

3.94

0.00

512.

464.

8120

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rTPR

+rM

185

.427

0.33

778.

94−1

.89

508.

615.

9620

.27

rTPR

+rM

210

0.0

276.

5384

8.51

6.87

571.

985.

7221

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rDSR

+rM

010

6.45

281.

4890

2.55

13.6

862

1.07

5.83

23.1

6rD

SR+

rM1

85.3

270.

3394

2.90

18.7

667

2.57

7.88

23.9

6rD

SR+

rM2

100.

027

6.53

1004

.19

26.4

872

7.66

7.28

25.6

2aE

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ditu

res

onN

PKso

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llow

s:N

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76U

S$kg

−1;P

2O

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g−1.

bSo

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the

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ndw

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5.86

US$

Mg−1

.dW

UE

=kg

ofdr

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atte

rpr

oduc

edpe

rha

per

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wat

erus

ed.

e Val

ue/co

st(V

CR

)ra

tio=

netr

etur

n/

expe

nditu

redu

eto

trea

tmen

t.

1911

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1912 M. Tahir et al.

puddling reduced root growth and water uptake from the subsoil. Our results are contradic-tory to those of Aggarwal et al. (1995), who stated that organic amendments did not affectpercolation rate and irrigation requirement of rice.

Economic Analysis of Rice and Succeeding Wheat Crop

A treatment judged effective technically might not be economical if costs are more thanbenefits obtained. Therefore, economic analysis is the ultimate yardstick for recommend-ing a technology. Economic analysis of rice (Table 5) indicated that more net return(1066.26 US$ ha–1) was observed with TPR compared to 915.47 US$ ha–1 in case of DSR,but it deteriorated the soil physical properties and soil nitrate and soil nutrient statuses, sonet return of wheat crop (Table 6) sown after DSR was 26.88% greater compared to thatsown after TPR. A similar trend was observed in the case of the value/cost ratio (VCR).Manure also had a significant effect on net return and VCR. Data trend showed that morenet returns by rice crop (i.e., 1048.56 and 974.09 US$ ha–1) were observed with M2 andM1, respectively, compared to M0 (949.94 US$ ha–1). A similar trend was observed in thecase of VCR. It is obvious from data that 10.38 and 2.54% more net return by wheat cropwere observed with M2 and M1, respectively, compared to M0. Data analysis showed thatVCR of M1 (6.92) and M2 (6.50) were more than that of M0 (5.32). Data analysis alsoshowed that net return and VCR by rice crop was maximum with treatment combinationTPR + M2, showing its significance over all other treatments; however, rDSR + rM2 wasthe best treatment in the succeeding wheat crop. Our results contradict the findings ofSingh, Sharma, and Rajendra (2001), who stated that transplanted rice give significantlygreater net returns than directly seeded rice both on puddled and unpuddled seedbeds.

Conclusions

Application of dairy manure is an effective management practice to increase water- andfertilizer-use efficiency and improve soil quality in the rice–wheat cropping system. Riceand wheat grain yields increased significantly with the application of integrated applica-tion of organic and inorganic sources. Maintaining NPK status by manure increased NPKstatus of the soil and reduced the mineral fertilizer application rates; however, long-termstudies are needed to evaluate the potential benefits of the combined use of organic andinorganic fertilizers. Results of DSR verses TPR showed that puddling of rice field gavebetter yield than direct seeding but that it decreased soil N and nitrate status of the soiland also deteriorated soil physical properties, that is, decreased hydraulic conductivity andincreased soil BD and penetration resistance, which reduced the yield of succeeding wheatcrop. The DSR also increased WUE of the rice and succeeding wheat crop.

References

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