1

Rice in the FilipinoDiet and Culture

Filomeno V. Aguilar, Jr.

Precolonial World of RicePrestige food.Produced in limited quantities

mainly swidden cultivation.Given as tribute to overlords.Consumed more by elites than non-

elites.Consumed in postharvest feasting.An article of trade.

2

Harvesting was accompanied by strict religious tabus. For three days before, harvesters had to remain continent and keep away from fire. Neither could outsiders enter the house: otherwise, they believed, the rice would be all straw with very few grains. In some places they even camped in the field all during the harvest, lest the rice decrease—as they said—by running away angry because the house had not been left to it alone. Harvesting was usually done by women, and men could not join them even if the crop would be lost for want of reapers. […] And once the harvest was finished, more tabus were enforced for seven days—for example, houses were closed to outsiders, and cooking fires had to be rekindled each time.

Rice was reaped panicle by panicle, leaving stalks standing, with a sickle … or any kind of knife… the rest were sunned and stored unthreshed in field granaries…or under the house… It was threshed as needed by being trampled underfoot…scraped against a seashell…or pulled through with the hands…

Scott (1994, 190)

Colonial TransformationsPlow technologyPanday Pira as first foundrymanCommercialization of agricultureRice exports 1793, 1830s-1870Rice surplus as tributeCamote and mais introducedGender change in farm laborRice as staple of elites

3

Igorrote village and terraces for rice planting

Rice harvester, Philippines

4

La recolleccion del Arroz

Busy with the rice harvest

5

From Abundance to Hunger1870s to the present

Philippines as net importer from 1870sMainland Southeast Asia net exportersRice importation as entrenched policy

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1909-1

0

1912-13

1915-1

6

1918-1

9

1921

-22

1924-2

5

1927-28

1930-3

1

1933-34

1936

-37

1939-40

1942

-43

1945-46

1948

-49

1951-5

2

1954

-55

1957-5

8

1960

-61

1963

-64

1966-6

7

1969

-70

1972-7

319

76197

919

82198

519

88199

119

94199

720

00

kg/d

ay

Figure 1

Per Capita Crude Estimates of Apparent Availability of Milled Rice For Consumption, Philippines,

1909-2002, In Kg/Year

6

Highs and Lows in Crude Rice Per Capita Consumption (kg/yr)

1911-12 571924-25 120.91935-36 76.71972-73 801992 77.21999 99.62000 101.82001 101.92002 104.6

Hunger

Episodic1930sSecond World Warearly 1970smid and late 1990s

Seasonal “bitay an koron”

7

0.00% 20.00% 40.00% 60.00% 80.00% 100.00% 120.00%

RP

NCR

Balance Luzon

Visayas

Mindanao

Urban

Rural

Grow by Self Get it Free from Family Get it Free from Co

Get it With Subsidy Barter/Exchange Buy in Market

Figure 2

Main Source of Rice Consumed

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

NCRIloc

os

Cagay

an V

alley

Centra

l Luz

on

Southe

rn Ta

galog Bico

l

Wester

n Visa

yas

Centra

l Visa

yas

Easte

rn Visa

yas

Wester

n Mind

anao

Northe

rn Mind

anao

Southe

rn Mind

anao

Centra

l Mind

anao CAR

ARMM

g/da

y

Corn 1987

Corn 1993

Rice 1987

Rice 1993

Figure 3

Consumption of Rice and Corn by Region, Philippines

8

Wester

n Visa

yas

Centra

l Visa

yas

Easte

rn Visa

yas

Wester

n Mind

anao

Northe

rn Mind

anao

Southe

rn Mind

anao

Centra

l Mind

anao

0204060

80100

120140

160

180

g/day

1987

1993

Figure 4

Mean Per Capita Corn Consumption, Main Corn-Eating Regions, Philippines

Consumption of Other Cereal Products by Region, Philippines

05

1015202530354045

NCRIloc

os

Cagay

an V

alley

Centra

l Luz

on

Southe

rn Ta

galog Bico

l

Wester

n Visa

yas

Centra

l Visa

yas

Easte

rn Visa

yas

Wester

n Mind

anao

Northe

rn Mind

anao

Southe

rn Mind

anao

Centra

l Mind

anao CAR

ARMM

g/da

y 1987

1993

Figure 7

Consumption of Other Cereal Products By Region, Philippines

9

0

5

10

15

20

25

NCRIloc

os

Cagay

an V

alley

Centra

l Luz

on

Southe

rn Ta

galog Bico

l

Wester

n Visa

yas

Centra

l Visa

yas

Easte

rn Visa

yas

Wester

n Mind

anao

Northe

rn Mind

anao

Southe

rn Mind

anao

Centra

l Mind

anao CAR

ARMM

g/da

y 1987

1993

Figure 8

Consumption of Bread and Other Flour Products by Region, Philippines

02468

10121416

NCRIloc

os

Cagay

an V

alley

Centra

l Luz

on

Southe

rn Ta

galog Bico

l

Wester

n Visa

yas

Centra

l Visa

yas

Easte

rn Visa

yas

Wester

n Mind

anao

Northe

rn Mind

anao

Southe

rn Mind

anao

Centra

l Mind

anao CAR

ARMM

g/da

y 1987

1993

Figure 9

Consumption of Noodles by Region, Philippines

10

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

1,2 3,4 5,6 7,8 9 up

1982

1987

1993

Figure 10

Mean Per Capita Consumption of Rice and Products By Household Size, Philippines

HH size 1982 1987 19931 to 2 421 400 3603 to 4 324 333 3125 to 6 308 311 2837 to 8 302 298 269

9 and above 287 275 271

Mean Per Capita Consumption of Rice and Products by Household Size, Philippines, in

g/day

Table 1

11

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1,2 3,4 5,6 7,8 9 up

g/da

y 1982

1987

1993

Figure 11

Total Mean Per Capita Consumption by Household Size, Philippines

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

income class

gram

s/da

y 1978198219871993

Figure 12

Per Capita Rice Consumption by Income Class, Philippines, Various Years

12

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

80.00%

1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000

First Decile

Second Decile

Third Decile

Fourth Decile

Fifth Decile

Sixth Decile

Seventh Decile

Eighth Decile

Ninth Decile

Tenth Decile

Figure 13

Percentage of Food Expenditure to Total Expenditure

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000

First Decile

Second Decile

Third Decile

Fourth Decile

Fifth Decile

Sixth Decile

Seventh Decile

Eighth Decile

Ninth Decile

Tenth Decile

Figure 14

Percentage of Cereal Expenditure to Total Expenditure

13

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

20.00%

25.00%

30.00%

35.00%

1985

1988

1991

1994

1997

2000

Cereal

Roots

Fruit

Meat

Dairy

Fish

Food Eaten Out

Figure 15

Percent Share of Selected Food Groups to TotalFood Expenditure, All Urban

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

20.00%

25.00%

30.00%

35.00%

40.00%

45.00%

1985

1988

1991

1994

1997

2000

Cereals

Fruit

MeatDairy

Fish

Food Eaten Out

Figure 16

Percent Share of Selected Food Groups to TotalFood Expenditure, All Rural

14

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

20.00%

25.00%

30.00%

35.00%

40.00%

45.00%

50.00%

RP Poor MiddleIncome

Rich

Low in Quality

Poor in Taste

Poor in Color

Poor in Smell

Figure 18

Rating of NFA Rice by Income Group

1731

1865

2131

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Pesos Per Household

Poor

Middle-Income

Rich

Estimated Subsidy Per Household from NFA Rice

Figure 19

15

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

Jul-9

8Ja

n-99

Jul-9

9Ja

n-00

Jul-0

0Ja

n-01

Jul-0

1Ja

n-02

Jul-0

2Ja

n-03

Jul-0

3Ja

n-04

Jul-0

4

Overall Hunger

Moderate Hunger

Severe Hunger

Figure 20

Severity of Hunger, Philippines: Total Households, July 1998 to August 2004

Figure 21

Mean Per Capita Total Food Consumption, Philippines, 1978-1993

16

Table 2

Year Total Food

Consumpt

ion

Cereals and

Cereal Products

Fish, Meat and

Poultry

Fruits and Vegetables

Starchy Roots and

Tubers

Milk and Milk

Products

Sugars and

Syrups

Fats and Oils

Others

1978 896 367 133 249 37 33 27 13 37

1982 915 356 154 232 42 44 22 14 51

1987 864 345 157 218 22 43 24 14 41

1993 803 340 147 183 17 44 19 12 41

Total Food Consumption, g/day

Mean One-Day Per Capita Food Consumption, Philippines, Various Years

Contradictory Centrality of Rice

Most Filipinos as mere consumersAlienation from productionRice as mere commodity

Electric rice cookers1990-95 15,000/mo1996-97 23,000/mo1998 to present 20,000-21,000/mo

17

Amorsolo’s “Ricefields”

Amorsolo’s “Rice Planting” (1946)

18

The Passing of Ricescapes

UrbanizationGreen RevolutionStructural and symbolic

marginalization ofrice cultivation

“Disarticulated agriculture”Pahiyas as touristified event

Continuing Sumptuary Importance of Rice

Symbol of prosperity and “good luck”: Newly weds, New houseFiestas and everyday: Crucial for commensality, social relationsSacred and spiritual aspectDefines a “real” meal despite fastfoodsOrganic farming

Rice reinvigorates life.