Education's Role in Preparing Globally Competent Citizens

Education’s Role in Preparing Globally Competent Citizens

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No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bulgarian Comparative Education Society and individual contributors.

BCES Conference Books:

Volume 1, 2002: Comparative Education in Teacher Training Volume 2, 2003: Comparative Education in Teacher Training Volume 3, 2005: Comparative Education in Teacher Training Volume 4, 2006: Comparative Education and Teacher Training Volume 5, 2007: Comparative Education, Teacher Training and New Education Agenda Volume 6, 2008: Comparative Education, Teacher Training, Education Policy and Social

Inclusion Volume 7, 2009: Comparative Education, Teacher Training, Education Policy, Social

Inclusion and Child Psychology Volume 8, 2010: Comparative Education, Teacher Training, Education Policy, School

Leadership and Social Inclusion Volume 9, 2011: Comparative Education, Teacher Training, Education Policy, Social

Inclusion, History of Education Volume 10, 2012: International Perspectives on Education Volume 11, 2013: Education in One World: Perspectives from Different Nations Volume 12, 2014: Education’s Role in Preparing Globally Competent Citizens © 2014 Bulgarian Comparative Education Society (BCES)

© 2014 Nikolay Popov, Charl Wolhuter, Klara Skubic Ermenc, Gillian Hilton, James Ogunleye, Oksana Chigisheva

ISBN 978-954-92908-4-4

Education’s Role in Preparing Globally Competent Citizens

BCES Conference Books Volume 12

Nikolay Popov Editor-in-Chief Charl Wolhuter Editor of Part 1 Klara Skubic Ermenc Editor of Part 2 Gillian Hilton Editor of Part 3 James Ogunleye Editor of Part 4 Oksana Chigisheva Editor of Parts 5–7

Bulgarian Comparative Education Society

This is a peer review book. Each paper is reviewed by two editors – the relevant part editor and the editor-in-chief. Members of the International Advisory Board are also involved in the peer review process. Finally, the six-member international editorial board takes decisions on papers to be included in the book.

International Advisory Board Peter L. Schneller, Prof. Dr. University of Mount Union, USA Patricia K. Kubow, Prof. Dr. Bowling Green State University, USA Alexander W. Wiseman, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Lehigh University, USA Kas Mazurek, Prof. Dr. University of Lethbridge, Canada Marco Aurelio Navarro-Leal, Prof. Dr. Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, México Johannes L van der Walt, Prof. Dr. North-West University, South Africa

Nicholas Sun-Keung Pang, Prof. Dr. The Chinese University of Hong Kong Lilia Halim, Prof. Dr. Universiti Kebangsaan, Malaysia Joachim Schroeder, Prof. Dr. Universität Hamburg, Germany Oksana Chigisheva, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Southern Federal University, Russia Jana Kalin, Assoc. Prof. Dr. University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Bruno Leutwyler, Prof. Dr. University of Teacher Education – Zug, Switzerland

Education’s Role in Preparing Globally Competent Citizens BCES Conference Books, Volume 12, 2014 Popov, N., Wolhuter, C., Ermenc, K., Hilton, G., Ogunleye, J., Chigisheva, O. (Eds.) Quire format 70 x 100 / 16 Printed quires 47.5 Book size B5 – ISO (17 x 24 cm) Paperback, 760 pages Published by BCES Printed by Investpress Sofia, Bulgaria May 2014

Education’s Role in Preparing Globally Competent Citizens. BCES Conference Books, Vol. 12 5

Contents

Preface ............................................................................................................................ 16

Part 1 Comparative Education & History of Education

Charl Wolhuter State of Published Research on the Teaching of Comparative Education ...................... 17

Johannes L van der Walt Three ways of looking at the phenomenon education system ......................................... 24

Ferdinand J Potgieter Considering a pedagogy of discernment as primus inter pares: implications for comparative educationists ............................................................................................... 32

Larry Prochner, Ailie Cleghorn, Anna Kirova, Darcey Dachyshyn & Christine Massing Culture and Practice in Early Childhood Teacher Education in Namibia and Canada ..... 39

Manuel Jacinto Roblizo Colmenero The Practice of Dialogic Learning as a Successful Means to Overcome Inequalities: ‘La Paz’ Learning Community Case ...................................................................................... 47

Isabel Guadalupe Munguía Godínez Political Formation of Citizenship in Young People from High School Level: A Comparative Study between Mexico and Germany ........................................................ 53

Lynette Jacobs & Corene de Wet Essential Values for Global Citizenship: How Do South African Learners Fare? ............ 59

Syed Nitas Iftekhar Learning from the Past, Strategizing for the future. Education for all in India: The Present and Beyond 2015 ............................................................................................................ 67

Shelley Terzian International Influences on Post-Soviet Armenian Education .......................................... 73

Irena Stonkuvienė (Not)Forgettable History of Vladimir Lenin All-Union Pioneer Organization .................... 80

Education’s Role in Preparing Globally Competent Citizens: Contents 6

Ivančica Marković Game – an example of historical influence on cultural and social events during 18th and 19th centuries ................................................................................................................... 87

Part 2 Pre-Service and In-Service Teacher Training & Learning and Teaching Styles

Ruth Roux & Jorge Luis Mendoza Valladares Mexican teachers’ training experiences, perceived needs and interest in inquiry-based teaching ........................................................................................................................... 95

Marco Aurelio Navarro-Leal & Zaira Navarrete-Cazales The Mexican education reforms and the teacher education system at the turn of the century ........................................................................................................................... 102

Marie Mc Andrew, Julie Larochelle-Audet, Corina Borri-Anadon, Maryse Potvin Pre-service teacher training in ethno-cultural, religious and linguistic diversity offered by Québec universities: a quantitative and qualitative portrait ........................................... 108

Eveline Christof Reflective Ability as a Core Competence of Future Teachers ........................................ 114

Rafaela Garcia Lopez & Mª Jesús Martínez Usarralde Transformation of a School into a Cooperative School: The Miracle of an Educational Tool for a Better School ................................................................................................. 121

Ricardo Lozano Reflections Following Three Years of Training the Next Generation of Educators in Turkey: Constructing an Optimistic, yet Realistic Understanding of the Teaching Profession ..................................................................................................................... 129

Edina Kovács & Adrienn Fekete The Professional Identity and Achievement of Education Majors in the Cross-Border Region of Hungary, Romania and Ukraine .................................................................... 136

Motladi Angeline Setlhako Anxieties, challenges and successes in the transition to online teaching in an Open and Distance Learning environment: the UNISA experience ............................................... 145

Bobo Segoe Peer support: the traits and perceptions of Open Distance Learning (ODL) students ... 152


Lisa Wiebesiek-Pienaar, Tebello Letsekha, Thenjiwe Meyiwa, Bukiwe Feni Pre-service and In-service Training, Indigenous Knowledge and Foundation Phase Teachers’ Experiences in the South African Classroom ................................................ 159

Amelia Molina García Pedagogical training and culture for global citizenship: reflections for its creation ........ 165

Barbara Šteh & Jana Kalin Conceptions of Learning and Significant Learning Experiences among Pedagogy and Andragogy Students at the University in Ljubljana and the University in Belgrade ....... 171

Manuela Heinz Initial Teacher Education in Ireland: Structure, policy developments and implications for practice .......................................................................................................................... 178

Renata Čepić, Sanja Tatalović Vorkapić, Jana Kalin Characteristics of a good elementary school teacher – analysis of teachers' self-perceptions .................................................................................................................... 185

Sandra Ozola, Maris Purvins, Inga Riemere Managerial Skills of Teachers in Schools of Latvia in the Context of Lifelong Learning 193

Claudio-Rafael Vasquez-Martinez, Fátima Carrillo, Lya-Adlih Oros-Méndez, Miguel Alvarez, Maria Morfin-Otero Implications for the Development of the Individual through Teacher Training in Environments where there are Universal Processes of Development, Mediated by Virtual Interactions .................................................................................................................... 200

Valentina Tsybaneva The Language Development of the Language Teachers in In-Service System ............. 205

Tatjana Simović, Veljko Simović, Ljiljana Milović, Biljana Balov Students' and teachers' views on teaching styles and methods .................................... 211

Franc Cankar, Olga Dečman Dobrnjič, Stanka Setnikar Cankar Some Indicators which show the Quality of the Schools in Slovenia............................. 216

Sandra Saraí Dimas Márquez Condiciones sociales, institucionales y personales del profesor de Educación Superior: un estudio en la Licenciatura en Ciencias de la Educación de la UAEH en México ..... 223


Part 3 Education Policy, Reforms and School Leadership

Gillian L. S. Hilton Assuring the Quality of Higher Education Systems and Its Link to Improvement in Learning Cultures: the role of the international reviewer ............................................... 229

Nicholas Sun-keung Pang & Zoe Lai-mei Leung Promoting Quality of Early Childhood Education through Assessment for Learning: Preparing Future Globally Competent Citizens ............................................................. 239

Corene de Wet Letters to the editor and popular discourses on hazing in South African schools and school hostels ................................................................................................................ 249

Michael W. O’Sullivan & Ewelina K. Niemczyk Mentoring for global competence: Teachers preparing their peers for international service learning .......................................................................................................................... 257

Laura J. Dull Historical Thinking in Difficult Times .............................................................................. 265

Graciela Amira Medécigo Shej Public policies on migrant matters: A balance in México ............................................... 270

Snježana Dobrota The Role of Music Education in Preparing Globally Competent Pupils ......................... 275

Haim Henry Gaziel The effect of the school organization on teachers’ efficacy and satisfaction ................. 281

Part 4 Higher Education, Lifelong Learning and Social Inclusion

James Ogunleye Interactions between vocational education and training and the labour market in France: a country report ............................................................................................................. 289

Alberto G. Canen, Ana Canen, Rejane P. Costa Higher Education and the Preparation of Multicultural Global Citizens: the case of a technological curriculum ................................................................................................ 296


Paweł Grygiel, Grzegorz Humenny, Piotr Świtaj, Sławomir Rębisz, Marta Anczewska Between Isolation and Loneliness: Social Networks and Perceived Integration with Peers of Children Diagnosed with ADHD in Regular Classrooms ........................................... 303

Marta Anczewska, Alicja Multarzyńska, Joanna Krzyżanowska-Zbucka, Marcin Flak, Magdalena Peccabin, Joanna Roszczyńska-Michta, Justyna Waszkiewicz, Justyna Tucholska Lessons from the recovery training programme for service users empowerment ......... 311

Izabela Nowak, Piotr Świtaj, Katarzyna Charzyńska, Marta Anczewska Social inclusion through interventions targeting psychosocial difficulties in schizophrenia ................................................................................................................ 318

Gertrude Shotte Internationalisation, Regionalisation and Localisation: Reflections on Co-habitation in ‘the Third Space’ in Tertiary Education ................................................................................. 326

Elizabeth Achinewhu-Nworgu & Queen Chioma Nworgu Mitigating Circumstances in Higher Education .............................................................. 333

Elizabeth Achinewhu-Nworgu, Helen Nworgu, Julie Nworgu Child Protection: A Look at Some Internet Regulations ................................................. 340

Elizabeth Achinewhu-Nworgu, Steve Azaiki, Queen Chioma Nworgu, Helen Nworgu An Increase in Higher Education Fees and Human Rights Legislation ......................... 347

Elizabeth Achinewhu-Nworgu, Queen Chioma Nworgu, Shade Babalola, Chinuru Chituru Achinewhu, Charles Nna Dikeh Exploring land ownership and Inheritance in Nigeria .................................................... 354

Dong Zhao Buddhist Echoes in University Education: A Comparative Study of China and Canada 362

Changjun Yue Gender and Migration: Evidence from College Graduates in China .............................. 371

Xiaohao Ding An Analysis of the Employment of Secondary Vocational Education Graduates in Urban China ............................................................................................................................. 379

Reyna del Carmen Martínez Rodríguez & Lilia Benítez Corona Factors that enhance didactic implementation of human development courses in Polytechnic Universities engineering students .............................................................. 385


Lilia Benítez Corona & Reyna del Carmen Martínez Rodríguez Resilient competencies in the comprehensive educational training for engineering students ......................................................................................................................... 391

Emma Leticia Canales Rodríguez & Gabriela Abaunza Canales Teaching and learning in higher education in Mexico: New proposals to improve old practices ........................................................................................................................ 398

Daina Vasilevska Distance Education as a Factor of Development of Virtual Academic Mobility .............. 404

Olga Nessipbayeva Kazakhstan in the European educational system .......................................................... 411

Amanda S Potgieter Student Thresholding into Academia: Teaching Writing to The Budding Academics’ Society ........................................................................................................................... 418

Shade Babalola A critical analysis of the under-achievement of Afro-Caribbean boys within a 16-19 education setting ........................................................................................................... 425

Friday Owhornugwu Obodo Is Nigerian higher education admission policy in breach of Human Rights law? ........... 432

Gordana Stankovska & Myqereme Rusi Cognitive, Emotional and Social Characteristics of Gifted Students with Learning Disability ........................................................................................................................ 438

Куралай Мухамади / Kuralay Mukhamadi Инновационные технологии обучения государственному языку в Казахстане: современное состояние и перспективы / Innovative technologies of the state language teaching in Kazakhstan: current condition and future .................................................... 443

Part 5 Educational development strategies in different countries and regions of the world: national, regional and global levels

Oksana Chigisheva VET/TVET terminological ambiguity from cross-national perspective ........................... 449

Andrey Blinov, Olga Nikolaevskaya Intellectualization of Education as a Priority of the State Development ......................... 454


Sanja Tatalović Vorkapić, Renata Čepić, Matina Mulc The Comparison of Professional Self-Perceptions between Preschool and Primary School Teachers in Croatia ............................................................................................ 461

Oksana Chugai Legislative History of Adult Education in the USA ......................................................... 469

Olena Goncharenko The Importance of Communicative Competence in Teaching Pupils from National Minorities of Ukraine and the United States .................................................................. 475

Anna Polenova Principles and Practices of Teaching English to Undergraduates Majoring in Economics in Contemporary University Education .......................................................................... 480

Людмила Семеновна Сильченкова / Ludmila Silchenkova Компетентностный подход в практике овладения младшими школьниками письменными видами речи / Competence-Based Approach in the Practice of Written Speech Types Mastering by Primary School Pupils ...................................................... 487

Ольга Александровна Моисеева / Olga Moiseeva Проблема организации образования современной молодежи: современные тенденции / The Problem of the Organization of Education of Today's Youth: Current Trends ........................................................................................................................... 495

Наталья Анатольевна Савотина, Елена Михайловна Клемяшова, Владимир Александрович Сковородкин / Natalia Savotina, Elena Klemyashova, Vladimir Skovorodkin Технологический подход в воспитательной практике современной России / Technological Approach in the Educational Practice of Modern Russia ........................ 503

Виктория Викторовна Скляднева / Victoria Sklyadneva Специфика воспитания и образования казачества в условиях вузов (на примере МГУТУ им. К. Г. Разумовского) / Training and Educational Specificity of Cossacks at Higher Educational Establishments (a Case of Moscow State University of Technologies and Management named after K. G. Razumovskiy) ...................................................... 514

Татьяна Алексеевна Спиридонова / Tatyana Spiridonova Современные исследования и государственная политика в области развития одаренных детей / Current Research and the State Policy on the Development of Gifted Children ......................................................................................................................... 522

Александра Вячеславовна Бойкова, Нурия Минияровна Ахмерова / Aleksandra Boykova, Nuriya Ahmerova


Применение некоторых современных образовательных технологий в контексте современных глобальных образовательных тенденций / Application of Some Modern Educational Technologies in the Context of Contemporary Global Educational Trends 531

Надежда Борисовна Качайнова / Nаdezhda Kachainova Модернизация российского образования в контексте глобализации / Modernization of Russian Education in the Context of Globalization .................................................... 539

Татьяна Игоревна Лаптева / Tatyana Lapteva Роль системного и интегрального подходов в развитии образования в России / The Role of Systemic and Integrated Approaches in the Development of Education in Russia ........................................................................................................................... 548

Игорь Леонтьевич Набок / Igor Nabok Об этнологической «недостаточности» педагогического образования / About Ethnological «Insufficiency» of Pedagogical Education................................................. 555

Лариса Александровна Данченок, Людмила Николаевна Иванова-Швец / Larisa Danchenok, Liudmila Ivanova-Shvets Стратегические направления развития компетентностного подхода в подготовке конкурентоспособных специалистов / Strategic Directions for the Development of Competence-Based Approach within Training of Competitive Specialists ..................... 564

Светлана Сергеевна Золотарева / Svetlana Zolotareva Особенности компетентностной модели подготовки бакалавра дополнительного образования детей в вузах России / Peculiarities of Competence-Based Training Model of the Bachelor of Additional Education of Children in Higher Education Institutions of Russia ....................................................................................................................... 571

Нина Геннадьевна Тихомирова / Nina Tikhomirova Кластер специальных компетенций бакалавра дополнительного образования в сфере культурно-досуговой деятельности / Cluster of Special Competences of the Bachelor of Additional Education in the Sphere of Cultural and Leisure Activity ........... 581

Ольга Николаевна Жидкова, Роман Викторович Каптюхин / Olga Zhidkova, Roman Kaptyukhin Использование открытых образовательных ресурсов в образовании / The use of Open Educational Resources in Education ................................................................... 589

Нина Викторовна Никольская / Nina Nikolskaya Сохранение культурной идентичности и подготовка глобально компетентных граждан в русле двуязычного образования в Великобритании / Preservation of Cultural Identity and Preparation of Globally Competent Citizens in the Mainstream of Bilingual Education in Great Britain ............................................................................... 599


Оксана Алексеевна Першукова / Oksana Pershukova Факторы развития многоязычного образования в странах Западной Европы / Development Forces of Multilingual Education in the Western European Countries .... 608

Светлана Тевельевна Махлина / Svetlana Mahlina Курс «Семиотика и лингвистика» в подготовке культурологов / The Course ‘Semiotics and Linguistics’ in Preparing Culture Studies Students ................................ 617

Мария Николаевна Тюрина / Maria Tyurina Изучение английского языка в современном глобализирующемся мире / English Language Learning in Modern Globalizing World.......................................................... 623

Татьяна Леонидовна Павлова, Олеся Владимировна Цигулева / Tatyana Pavlova, Olesya Tsiguleva Мобильность в условиях интернационализации образования / Mobility within Internationalisation of Education ................................................................................... 631

Надежда Васильевна Осипова / Nadejda Osipova Разработка концепций глобального образования как ответ на вызов времени и решение насущных проблем образования в контексте глобализационных процессов / The Development of Global Education Concepts as the Reply to the Challenge of the Time and the Solution of Vital Educational Problems in the Context of Globalization Processes ................................................................................................ 636

Елена Владимировна Абдулова, Светлана Геннадьевна Крылова, Светлана Алигарьевна Минюрова / Elena Abdulova, Svetlana Krylova, Svetlana Minyurova Виртуальное образовательное пространство для межкультурного взаимодействия / Virtual learning environment for intercultural interaction................................................ 643

Ляйля Муталиева, Лаура Байтенова / Lyailya Mutalieva, Laura Baitenova Особенности формирования компетентностной модели при подготовке специалистов в сфере туризма / Peculiarities of Competence-Based Model Formation as a Part of Training Specialists in the Sphere of Tourism ............................................ 649

Olga Nikolaevskaya Effectiveness of Educational Development on the Basis of Intellectualization of Managerial Potential ...................................................................................................... 654

Part 6 Key directions and characteristics of research organization in contemporary world

Galina Zashchitina Toward Effective Communication: The Pragmatics of Tropes in Mass Media Discourse .. 657


Maryana Salamakha Studying of the English Environmental Protection Terminology in the Aspect of Thematic Groups and Hyper-Hyponymic Relations ...................................................................... 663

Nataša Vujisić Živković & Sunčica Macura Milovanović Contemporary Educational Sciences Challenged by the Ethnocentric Pedagogic Heritage and Contemporary Epistemological-Methodological Approaches ................................. 670

Лариса Сергеевна Тихомирова / Larisa Tikhomirova Речевое воздействие в социальной рекламе / Speech Influence in Social Advertising .................................................................................................................... 677

Наталия Васильевна Данилевская, Светлана Евгеньевна Овсянникова / Nataliya Danilevskaya, Svetlana Ovsyannikova Просветительская функция социальной рекламы / Educational Function of Social Advertising ..................................................................................................................... 682

Part 7 International scientific and educational cooperation for the solution of contemporary global issues: from global competition to world integration

Мария Алексеевна Беляева / Maria Belyaeva Прокреационное образование как условие подготовки глобально компетентных граждан / Procreation Education as a Condition of Preparing Globally Competent Citizens .......................................................................................................................... 691

Эльвира Владимировна Королева / Elvira Koroleva Значимость высшей школы в искоренении истоков ментального терроризма социальных болезней / The Significance of Higher Education for the Elimination of Social Diseases’ Mental Terrorism ................................................................................. 700

Анна Леонидовна Чернышова / Anna Chernishova Демографическая ситуация в современном мире в период глобальных социально-экономических трансформаций: обзор и тенденции развития / Demographic Situation in Contemporary World within Global Economic and Social Transformations: Overview and Development Trends .............................................................................................. 709

Нина Григорьевна Ивельская / Nina Ivelskaya Сфера образования как «локомотив роста» объектов экономики в аспекте системообразования / The Sphere of Education as a ‘Growth Engine’ of Economic Facilities in the Aspect of System Formation ................................................................. 717

Светлана Алексеевна Петренко, Людмила Алексеевна Петренко / Svetlana Petrenko, Ludmila Petrenko


Пути и условия реализации гендерного неравенства в системе школьного образования / Ways and Conditions of Gender Inequality Realisation in the System of School Education .......................................................................................................... 723

Наталья Геннадьевна Хорошкевич / Natalya Khoroshkevich Охрана труда на промышленном предприятии: социологическое исследование / Labour Protection at the Industrial Enterprise: Sociological Research .......................... 729

Ольга Бисеновна Тапалова, Николай Анатольевич Нигай, Бахытжан Жетесович Нуралиев, Эльмира Болатовна Шайхысламова / Olga Tapalova, Nickolay Nigai, Bahytzhan Nuraliyev, Elmira Shaykhislamova Исследование мотивационной направленности и особенностей самоактуализации личности при аддиктивной зависимости / The Study of Motivational Orientation and Peculiarities of Self-Actualisation of the Addicted Individual ......................................... 735

Максат Нурадилович Калимолдаев, Гульшат Аманжоловна Амирханова / Maksat Kalimoldayev, Gulshat Amirkhanova Математическая модель экономического роста с учетом человеческих ресурсов / Mathematical Model of Economic Growth with Provision for Human Resources .......... 742

Information & Reviews

Luis Enrique Aguilar & Jose Alberto F. Rodrigues Filho Los observatorios como un recurso de investigación, intercambios, producción y diseminación de conocimiento / The Observatories as a resource for research, exchange, production and dissemination of knowledge ................................................ 749

List of Contributors ........................................................................................................ 752

Education’s Role in Preparing Globally Competent Citizens. BCES Conference Books, Vol. 12

16

Preface

This volume contains papers submitted to the XII Annual International Conference of the Bulgarian Comparative Education Society (BCES), held in Sofia and Nessebar, Bulgaria, in June 2014, and papers submitted to the II International Partner Conference, organized by the International Research Centre ‘Scientific Cooperation’, Rostov-on-Don, Russia. The volume also includes papers submitted to the International Symposium on Comparative Sciences, organized by the Bulgarian Comparative Education Society in Sofia, in October 2013.

The XII BCES Conference theme is Education’s Role in Preparing Globally Competent Citizens. The II Partner Conference theme is Contemporary Science and Education: New Challenges – New Decisions.

The book consists of 103 papers, written by 167 authors and co-authors, and grouped into 7 parts.

Parts 1-4 comprise papers submitted to the XII BCES Conference, and Parts 5-7 comprise papers submitted to the II Partner Conference.

The 103 papers are divided into the following 7 parts: Part 1: Comparative Education & History of Education (11 papers); Part 2: Pre-service and In-service Teacher Training & Learning and Teaching

Styles (20 papers); Part 3: Education Policy, Reforms and School Leadership (8 papers); Part 4: Higher Education, Lifelong Learning and Social Inclusion (23 papers); Part 5: Educational development strategies in different countries and regions of

the world: national, regional and global levels (28 papers); Part 6: Key directions and characteristics of research organization in

contemporary world (5 papers); Part 7: International scientific and educational cooperation for the solution of

contemporary global issues: from global competition to world integration (8 papers).

The distribution by languages is: 70 papers are in English, 32 in Russian, and 1 in Spanish. As in the previous eleven volumes, studies presented in this book cover all levels of the educational system – preschool, primary, lower secondary, upper secondary, postsecondary and higher education, as well as doctoral programs.

The global character is one of the typical established features of the BCES Conference Books. The geography of countries included in the studies, presented in this volume, encompasses the world: Armenia, Austria, Brazil, Canada, China, Croatia, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia (FYR), Mexico, Namibia, Netherlands, Nigeria, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Serbia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom, USA.

Prof. Dr.habil. Nikolay Popov Editor-in-Chief, BCES Chairperson May 2014


Part 1 Comparative Education & History of Education

CHARL WOLHUTER

STATE OF PUBLISHED RESEARCH ON THE TEACHING OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Introduction

The original self-declared brief of this conference, at its inception in 2002, was to be an International Conference on Comparative Education in Teacher Training. This remained the title of the conference, even after the creation of related thematic sections since 2005. The first thematic section, the direct descendant of the conference in its original form, has since evolved to assume the general name of Comparative Education and History of Education, but this author, as the chairperson of that thematic section since its founding, still thinks of this section and the conference as stemming from the mission of “Comparative Education in Teacher Training”, as a central component of that, the teaching of Comparative Education at universities.

As such this conference occupies a unique niche in the international landscape of organised Comparative Education. And at that, a facet gruesomely neglected by the Comparative Education fraternity. Yet as Erwin Epstein (2011) put it, “for the future of the field of Comparative Education, one can hardly think of something more crucial than the teaching of Comparative Education”. Despite attention given to the teaching of Comparative Education, during the Comparative Education World Conference in Cape Town, South Africa, in 1998; and despite a few sessions devoted to that topic in subsequent CIES (Comparative and International Education Society) conferences, notably in San Antonio, Texas in 2000; the formation of a teaching of Comparative Education SIG (Special Interest Group) of the CIES in 2011, and despite the activities of the Bulgarian conference, as explained in the preceding paragraph, the teaching of Comparative Education remains a grossly underdeveloped field in the broader field of Comparative and International Education scholarship.

The aim of this paper is to take stock of and to reflect on the current state of published literature on the teaching of Comparative Education, as part of the run-up to the planned book volume on the teaching of Comparative Education. Comment and input by and involvement of delegates at this conference are then invited.

State of Published Research on the Teaching of Comparative Education 18

The body of literature on the teaching of Comparative Education

The body of published literature on the teaching of Comparative Education, falls into three major parts, namely a series of articles published in the Comparative Education Review, three editions of a book on Comparative Education at universities worldwide, and a series of articles on students’ expectations and experiences of Comparative Education courses.

Articles published in the Comparative Education Review Since the inception of the Comparative Education Review, the top journal in the

field, an article on the teaching of Comparative Education has appeared first very regularly, and then with increasing less frequency. In one of the first volumes of the journal, one of the founding fathers of Comparative Education and the first editor of the journal, George Z. F. Bereday (1958), published an article entitled “Some methods of teaching Comparative Education”. In this article he distinguishes between the area and the problem (thematic) approach in the teaching of Comparative Education, and a combination of the two. He supplies examples of these various approaches from programs which were running at that stage at universities in the United States of America, as well as of textbooks used in such programs. This article was followed up by a number of others in the next issues of the journal. These include Edmund J. King (1959) “Students, Teachers, and Researchers in Comparative Education”, Isaac L. Kandel (1961) “A New Addition to Comparative Methodology”, Robert Belding (1958) “Teaching by Case Method in Comparative Education”, and Anthony Scarangelo (1959) “The Use of Motion Pictures in Comparative Education”.

Then the spate of articles on the teaching of Comparative Education came to an end. Only seven years later, two other eminent comparativists of the 1960s, Harold J. Noah and M. A. Eckstein (1966) published another article in the Comparative Education Review, entitled “A design for teaching Comparative Education”. In this they reflect on their recent teaching of a Comparative Education course to graduate students at Teachers College, Columbia University and Queens College, City University of New York. They contrasted their teaching of Comparative Education in the mold of the positivist social science paradigm of Comparative Education in the 1960s, i.e. teaching students about the relations between education and social phenomena. This stood in contrast to the old teaching which focused on the description of foreign systems of education and at most interpreting foreign systems of education from their societal contexts. Noah and Eckstein proposed a new method of teaching, namely that of hypothesis testing. This entailed the testing of propositions about the relation between education and society. In their view this equips students for fieldwork after completion of their studies, when they can put Comparative Education into use (for example when they are engaged in foreign aid projects). In their articles they also discussed the textbook which they used and enumerated the topics they included in their course.

After another four years Eckstein (1970) once again published an article “On teaching Comparative Education”. In this article he pleads for the teaching of Comparative Education and the research methodology of Comparative Education not to be treated as two separate entities, but to become a functional whole. He distinguished between the teaching of Comparative Education at beginner or pre-

Charl Wolhuter 19

graduate level, where there is merit for the teaching of foreign education systems, in a descriptive manner, and advanced, post-graduate courses, where, linking up with his thesis in his 1966 article (explained above) and to the theme of his then recently published book, Toward a Science of Comparative Education (1969) (in which he and co-author Harold Noah propagated the wholesale use of the natural science research method for Comparative Education research) he advocated teaching students to do Comparative Education research in a positivistic manner, by hypothesis testing.

Another five years down the line Merle L. Borrowman (1975) published her paper entitled “Comparative Education in teacher education programs”. In this article she attempts to answer the question as to if the inclusion of Comparative Education makes for a better teacher. Since no research had been done on this, according to Borrowman, she could only express a considered and motivated opinion. She argues that a thoughtful exploration in depth of the way different human communities socialize and educate could provide not only a substantial core for General Education but could also at least significantly sensitize potential teachers to the most important pedagogical issues. However, given the many competing demands of various scholarly fields of Education for a place in teacher training programs in the United States of America (as the first two articles, Borrowdale’s article limits its periscope to the United States of America) it is unlikely that Comparative Education will secure a firm place and large space in teacher education programs at most universities. Yet she also expresses severe doubt that student teachers who get a one semester exposure to Comparative Education (in the optimistic scenario that their program will include a semester course on Comparative Education) will profit significantly from such a course. The pessimistic tone of the article is continued when she draws attention to the – at that stage just beginning of – the performance or competency-based model of teacher education and how ominious that boded for the future of Comparative Education in teacher education programs in the United States of America. She concludes with the suggestion that comparativists should look wider than teacher education programs to find a niche for Comparative Education in university programs.

A full twenty-one years lapsed before the next – and the last, before the articles on this topic dried up completely. In contrast to the previous articles, which exclusively focused on the United States of America, Leon Tickly and Michael Crossley (2001), in their article “Teaching Comparative and International Education: A framework for analysis” took mainly the United Kingdom, and to a lesser extent South Africa, Tanzania, Australia and Papua New Guinea as their framework of analysis. According to them, at that stage the debate on the teaching of Comparative Education centred around the question as to whether Comparative and International Education should be taught integrated in other courses of Education, or in separate courses/programs. They argued that rather than portray the future of comparative and international education in terms of a simple dichotomy – continued specialization or integration – it is more helpful to open the debate further and locate it within a broader analysis of the changing nature and context of university teaching and, in particular, of courses offered at the advanced studies level of continuing professional development. In so doing, they propose a third approach, which they call the transformative approach.


They criticize the historical way of teaching Comparative Education in British universities as a study of national systems of education and contend that the contemporary challenge to the national focus of educational systems brought about by globalization that may now require a fundamental reappraisal of the nature and role of both mainstream educational studies and comparative and international education – and of Comparative and International education teaching itself. They draw attention to the changing context of teaching of Comparative and International Education at British universities. This changing context include the phenomenon of globalization, and the resultant convergence of education policies and practices worldwide, students seeking continuing professional development rather than initial professional education (and therefore Comparative and International Education courses need to be made relevant to the needs of these students seeking continuing professional development) making an ever larger percentage of the student body of universities, the internationalization of universities and the rise of transnational campuses and programs, meaning students who need a new and different curriculum (than the traditional one). The integration and specialization models Tikly and Crossley see as complementary rather than as mutually excluding each other and being in a state of competition with each other; but the debate about the teaching of Comparative Education should rather centre around the issues raised above – the transformative model of teaching Comparative and International Education.

Three editions of a book on Comparative Education at universities worldwide From the activities of the annual international conference on Comparative

Education and Teacher Education, organised by the Bulgarian Comparative Education Society since 2002, emanated the book Comparative Education as Discipline at Universities Worldwide, edited by Wolhuter and Popov (2007) in 2007. This volume contains chapters on the evolution and current outlook of Comparative Education at universities in thirteen countries/regions worldwide. Each of the chapters was written by a professor of Comparative Education in that particular country/region. This volume was followed by a second edition a year later, entitled Comparative Education at Universities Worldwide, edited by Wolhuter, Popov, Manzon and Leutwyler (2008), and this time published jointly by the World Council of Comparative Education Societies and the Bureau of Educational Services, Sofia, Bulgaria. A much expanded edition, this volume contains chapters on the position of Comparative Education at universities in 36 countries/regions. An even more expanded edition, this time with chapters on Comparative Education at universities in 42 countries/regions, appeared in 2013, this time edited by Wolhuter, Popov, Leutwyler and Ermenc (2013). These 42 countries/regions are: Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Netherlands and Flanders, Norway, Russia, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and Ireland, Canada, the United States of America, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, Mexico, Uruguay, Greater China (including Hong Kong and Taiwan), Japan, Kazakhstan, (South) Korea, Malaysia, Thailand, Egypt, Iran, Oman, Burundi, Central Africa, Ruanda, Benin, Southern Africa, Tanzania and Uganda. In a concluding chapter to this volume, Wolhuter, Popov, Ermenc, Manzon and Leutwyler (2013) synthesised the contents of the book. The objectives of Comparative Education courses appear to

Charl Wolhuter 21

be fivefold: the description of education systems, understanding education systems, evaluating education systems, application to improve practice, and furthering of the philanthropic ideal. A total of eleven countries reported the existence of specialist programs of Comparative Education at Masters level. The chapters in the volume indicated that a course “Comparative Education” is taught at Bachelors of Education level in almost 50 countries and at Masters level in 34 countries. Ten countries (twenty per cent) reported a compulsory module/course for the subject at Bachelors level. However, in most of the countries that exclude Comparative Education as an explicit course in Bachelors of Education programmes, Comparative Education is subsumes in courses such as: Intercultural and Comparative Education, Intercultural Pedagogy, International Understanding, Polycultural Education, Globalisation and Education, Global Education, Education Systems in the European Union, Education Systems Worldwide, Education Systems and Administration, Education and Development, and Post-Colonial Education.

Research on students’ expectations from and experience of Comparative Education The international conference on Comparative Education and Teacher Training

also gave impetus to research on students’ expectations from and experience of Comparative Education courses. This research culminated in a nine country study (cf. Wolhuter et al., 2011), surveying what students in these countries expect from a Comparative Education course. The results showed startling differences regarding students’ perceptions of and motivations for studying Comparative Education. Their diverse motivations, the study concluded, are linked to contextual factors. In the case of the United States of America, the dominant motives for enrolling in Comparative Education courses are related to international understanding within the context of education as part of international aid. The hierarchy of expectations of the American students might be understood against the background of these students’ experience and career plans in international aid. American student expectations may also result from the amount of foreign aid (and education as part thereof) that the United States of America has been engaged in the past half century, ever since the advent of independence of large parts of the Third World, The Cold War, and the Truman Doctrine. In the case of Ireland the most important motivation was to help students to find a job to teach abroad. The Irish student teachers were mainly in there early twenties and intended to teach abroad at some stage of their career. They also indicated that they hoped it would develop their capacities to teach in the newly developing multi-cultural classrooms in Ireland and to also develop their general teaching strategies. The Greek and South African students looked to Comparative Education to illuminate and to guide the domestic education reform project. Both Greece and South Africa has recently become the scene of fundamental societal reconstruction, of which education is not only an integral part, but in which education had been assigned a pivotal instrumental role to bring about. Bulgarian students’ expectations, on the other hand, seem to resolve around gaining of fuller knowledge and insight of their own education system. While undergoing societal and educational transformation as South Africa, Bulgaria as a fully fledged member of the erstwhile Eastern Block, never suffered from academic isolation as South Africa did during the years of the international academic boycott. But the existence of an intransparent government and political-bureaucratic machinery up to 1990


might have created a yearning to know and to understand their education system better. In contrast to South Africa, Tanzania has long since passed through the post-independence educational and societal reconstruction of the 1960s – a project that bore limited success, and whatever educational reform is currently taking place, takes place within the prescribed fixed parameters of the World Bank Structural Adjustment Programme (which Tanzania had little option but to sign) and the neo-liberal global economic revolution. Tanzanian students therefore have a somewhat more detached (from everyday practice), purely intellectual expectation from Comparative Education courses. Oman has recently commenced to develop a mass education system, therefore Omani students, as their South African and Greek counterparts are interested in the value of Comparative Education to illuminate and to guide domestic educational reform. A unique expectation which transpired among the responses of the Omani students, is that, in a country with one public university, and 5097 students studying abroad (total tertiary enrolment 68154), Comparative Education will be seen a means to obtain knowledge of foreign education systems, which will facilitate students to proceed to further (post-graduate) studies abroad. Similarly, among the Thai post-graduate cohort, an interesting expectation was what would assist them in finding an appropriate research design for their theses. Cuban students viewed Comparative Education as a way to gain a fuller understanding of various countries’ societies and cultures. Cuban students’ expectations could have been shaped by their country’s history of using education to create a new society and culture since 1961. They view Comparative Education as revealing how their own as well as other societies and cultures were shaped by education, and how education contributes to the accomplishment of societal goals, such as societal justice. This study was followed up by another study of the author (Wolhuter, 2012) when discovering, as a visiting professor at Brock University, Canada, teaching Comparative Education to a class of international students, yet another rationale for studying Comparative Education, namely to prepare international students for the exigencies of studying at university level in the host country.

Conclusion

To put all of the above together, the teaching of Comparative Education is pivotal to the field’s future; yet it is an aspect increasingly marginalised in the research agenda, as reflected in the top journal(s) of the field. While substantial work has been done as part of the extended activities of the international conference of Comparative Education and Teacher Training, a lacunas is a book on the various issues involved in the teaching of Comparative Education, guiding teachers and further research in that area. Delegates are invited to give comment and to participate in such a project.

References Belding, R. (1958): Teaching by Case Method in Comparative Education. Comparative

Education Review, 2 (1): 31-32. Bereday, G. Z. F. (1958): Some Methods of Teaching Comparative Education. Comparative

Education Review, 1(3): 4-7.

Charl Wolhuter 23

Borrowman, M. L. (1975): Comparative Education in teacher education programs. Comparative Education Review, 19(3): 354-362.

Eckstein, M. A. (1970): On teaching Comparative Education. Comparative Education Review, 4(3): 275-282.

Epstein, E. H. (2011): Presentation during the inaugural meeting of the Teaching of Comparative Education SIG (Special Interest Group), CIES (Comparative and International Education Society), 2011 Annual CIES Conference, Montreal, Canada, 1-5 May 2011.

Kandel, I. L. (1961): A New Addition to Comparative Methodology. Comparative Education Review, 5(1): 4-6.

King, E. J. (1959): Students, Teachers, and Researchers in Comparative Education. Comparative Education Review, 3(2): 33-36.

Noah, H. J. & Eckstein, M. A. (1966): A design for teaching Comparative Education. Comparative Education Review, 10(3): 511-513.

Scarangelo, A. (1959): The Use of Motion Pictures in Comparative Education. Comparative Education Review, 3(2): 24-2.

Tickly, L. & Crossley, M. (2001): Teaching Comparative and International Education: A framework for analysis. Comparative Education Review 45(4): 561-580.

Wolhuter, C. (2012): Also a Door to the Inside of a New House — Yet another use for Comparative Education. In: Popov, N., Wolhuter, C., Leutwyler, B., Ogunleye, J. & Almeida, P.A. (Eds.) International Perspectives on Education. BCES Conference Books, Volume 10. Sofia: Bulgarian Comparative Education Society: 23-28.

Wolhuter, C. & Popov, N. (Eds.) (2007): Comparative Education as Discipline at Universities Worldwide. Sofia: Bureau for Educational Services.

Wolhuter, C., Popov, N., Manzon, M. & Leutwyler, B. (Eds.) (2008): Comparative Education at Universities World Wide (Second Edition). Sofia: World Council of Comparative Education Societies and Bureau for Educational Services.

Wolhuter, C., Popov, N., Leutwyler, B. & Ermenc, K. S. (Eds.) (2013): Comparative Education at Universities Worldwide (Third Edition). Ljubljana & Sofia: Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana & Bulgarian Comparative Education Society.

Wolhuter, C. C., Sullivan, M. O., Anderson, E., Wood, L., Karras, K. G., Mihova, M., Torres, A., Anangisye, W. A. L., Maarman, R. F., Al-Harthi, H. & Thonghew, S. (2011): Students’ expectations of and motivations for studying comparative education: A comparative study across nine countries in North America, Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin America. Educational Research, 2(8): 1341-1355.

Wolhuter, C., Popov, N., Ermenc, K. S., Manzon, M. & Leutwyler, B. (2013): The Chequered Global Picture of Comparative Education at Universities. In: Wolhuter, C., Popov, N., Leuwyler, B. & Ermenc, K. S. (Eds.) (2013): Comparative Education at Universities Worldwide. Ljubljana & Sofia: Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana & Bulgarian Comparative Education Society: 371-396.

Prof. Dr. Charl Wolhuter Comparative Education professor North-West University Potchefstroom Campus South Africa [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

Part 1: Comparative Education & History of Education 24

JOHANNES L VAN DER WALT

THREE WAYS OF LOOKING AT THE PHENOMENON EDUCATION SYSTEM

Abstract

One of the questions that intrigue philosophers of science is how to approach the phenomenon education system. Does one, as an education system expert, approach the phenomenon from a preconceived rationalistic idea of what such a system should entail and consist of, or should one’s orientation rather be that education systems develop haphazardly as circumstances dictate and that one can at most only describe post hoc what has been constructed as far as the different structures are concerned? Or is there a third possibility that enables the education systems expert to steer through between these two extremes as far as understanding the phenomenon education system is concerned? The central thrust of this paper is to argue for the third alternative. The following steps will be followed for the purpose of explicating the thesis of this paper. The first section contains a brief depiction of foundationalism, in terms of which the phenomenon education system is approached on the basis of certain preconceived rationalistic ideas. That is followed by a section in which a post-foundationalist orientation to the same problem is outlined. The section thereafter contains a discussion of the post-post-foundationalist orientation that is regarded as probably the most acceptable approach to education system studies in the current postmodern conditions. The implications of each orientation are discussed as the argument unfolds.

The need to reflect about our approach to the study of education systems

One of the questions that intrigue philosophers of science is what our epistemic orientation should be when we study the phenomenon (“the”) education system. Does one, as an education system expert, approach the phenomenon from a preconceived rationalistic idea of what such a system should entail, or should one’s orientation rather be that education systems develop haphazardly as circumstances dictate and that one can at most only describe post hoc what has been constructed as far as the different structures are concerned? Or is there a third possibility that enables the education systems expert to steer through between these two extremes as far as understanding the phenomenon education system is concerned? The central thrust of this paper is to argue in favour of the third possibility.

The next section of this paper contains a brief depiction of foundationalism as the first possibility. That is followed by a discussion of the post-foundationalist possibility. The final section discusses the post-post-foundationalist orientation that is arguably the most acceptable approach to education system studies in the current postmodern conditions. The implications of each orientation are discussed as the argument unfolds.

Johannes L van der Walt 25

The foundationalist approach to the study of “the” education system

Foundationalism is typical of the Enlightenment project: its proponents suppose that human reason can attain certain knowledge based on self-evident foundational experiences or a priori propositions from which necessary and universal conclusions could be reached. Absolutism guides the definition of Reason. In some cases, foundationalists see scientific language as attempting to re-present a meta-narrative System (with a capital “S”) that corresponds precisely to reality, while others settle for a local-narrative system (with a lower case “s”) that is merely internally coherent (Schults, 1999: 2). According to Rorty (2004: 53), in the foundationalist frame, thinkers are conscious of the principles that underlie the moral character of their teachings, of the normative resources that reinforce their ideological stances and of the intellectual and cultural assumptions of modernity. Foundationalists endorse “the old Platonic argument to the effect that if there is nothing ‘out there’ (the Platonic forms, the will of God, natural law) that makes our moral judgments true, there is no point in forming such judgments at all”. Foundationalists seem to argue that there must be an ideal or “Platonic blueprint” for every phenomenon that we encounter in real life, including the education system.

According to Lee (2007: 159-161), foundationalism maintains that there is a single directional justification and that foundational beliefs justify the derived beliefs, and not vice versa. Traditional foundational philosophy assumes that common ground in the sense of “being rational” exists, and that an epistemology can be constructed on that common ground. Therefore, in foundationalist thinking, “to suggest that there is no such common ground seems to endanger rationality” (Rorty, 1979: 316-317).

What are the implications for education systems studies of this orientation? An education systems scholar with foundationalist leanings would conceivably think along the following lines. She will first of all search for some or other theoretically pre-existent overarching and rationally worked out education system in terms of which she could approach, analyse, understand and explain any particular education system. She will probably regard the unique system under scrutiny as an exemplar or copy of the ideal or “Platonic” notion of “education system” that she has preconceived about what an education system ideally should be. She might attempt to explain every detail of the particular and unique system under investigation on the basis of the overarching foundational narrative or system that she has in mind, have set ideas about how the processes within that system have to unfold to be regarded as effective (among others based on a similar overarching teaching and learning theory); she might attempt to describe the system under investigation in great detail as part of the preconceived education system that she has in the back of her mind, will advise the various actors in the actual education system to manage the processes therein strictly according to the preconceived foundational plan, will have contingency plans ready if the actual system did not comply in all respects with the foundational (ideal) plan (she will advise the actual system to reform in order to comply with the ideal plan), and will measure the outcomes of the education system under scrutiny against the expected outcomes as presaged in the overarching design.

Three ways of looking at the phenomenon education system 26

The post-foundationalist approach to teaching and learning

According to Hiestand (2005: no page number), the term “post-foundationalism” might include soft foundationalism, coherentism, reliablism and relativism. In general, says Schults (1999: 3), post-foundationalists argue that we cannot get “behind” or “under” our beliefs to justify them; all we have is the criteria of coherence with other beliefs within our culturally conditioned web. All of these aspects reflect the anti-rationalistic1, anti-formalistic and anti-positivistic sentiments of post-foundationalism (Makrides, 2013: 272).

The post-, anti- or non-foundationalist frame has taken leave of (the notion of) fixed and firm foundations in the form of widely accepted norms, principles or values, as are typical of the foundationalist approach. Instead, this approach is multi-layered, plural, and tolerant and allows many, even mutually contradictory standpoints in its ranks. It also has a strong relativising character that rejects notions of exclusivity, absoluteness (in the sense of thinking on the basis of firm and solid norms) (Makrides, 2013: 253). Put differently, it does not depart from any preconceived (rationalistic) ideas about an “ideal” or “blueprint” system. It furthermore not only questions but also rejects the systematic appeal to human reasoning but also relativises a systematic appeal to human reasoning and recognises the contingency and limitations of human discursive (verbal and non-verbal) potential and practices when attempting to gain an understanding of reality (Makrides, 2013: 255, 271, 272).

The post-foundationalist orientation is contrasted with the certainty sought within the modern project, particularly in its positivistic guise. It embodies the belief that reality is more complex and multi-layered than one might initially think, and hence requires a more flexible and open attitude that allows for the existence of even contradictory perspectives about, in this case, how an education system should be structured (Makrides, 2013: 271-272). Post-foundationalism has generally moved away from all-encompassing narratives and absolute claims for capturing and understanding reality in an objective way. Since humans are seen as forming an integral part of reality, intending to understand it not as outside observers but as involved persons, the attainment of final, precise, objective and perennial knowledge about things may be seen as rather illusory, and this undermines the optimism about correct knowledge, the dream of absolute certainty and the making of universal claims about, in this context, “the” education system (Makrides, 2013: 273).

Post-foundationalism in the guise of non- or anti-foundationalism goes even further in asserting that we have absolutely no foundational beliefs that are independent of the support of other beliefs; rather, we subsist in a groundless web, attempting merely to maintain coherence in our local praxis. Justifying beliefs is only a matter of determining whether they cohere with the other beliefs in a particular web or context. Relativism often shapes the view of reason. It sees understanding as rooted in particular traditions or contexts, each of which has its own coherence (Schults, 1999: 2, 8). Rorty (1991: 64), one of the exponents of this view, maintains that instead of basing one’s actions on principles, one assumes a

1 Makrides uses the term “anti-rational”, which is not correct. Postmodernism can be seen as

irrationalistic, in the sense already explained of making reason play “second fiddle” to a more basic purpose.


pragmatic stance, based on common sense, instinct, intuition, the force / power of argument (Rorty, 1991: 96, 67), debate with others, consensus-seeking, know-how, pragmatic experimentation and muddling through. We have no deep premises to draw on from which to infer that, for instance, one education system is better or more efficient than another. All we can do is recontextualize various developments in (in casu) education systems studies and portray them as stages in a story of progress (Rorty, 1991: 110). He also avers that we can only come under epistemic rules when we have entered the community where the game governed by those rules is played. To be in a certain conversational situation is the only legitimate context to justify our knowledge. Knowledge, he insists, is justified not through finding a privileged foundation, but by gaining social agreement from a community. Consequently, knowledge can be valid only in a certain society from which its social agreement comes (Rorty, 1979: 187).

What are the implications of this approach to scholarship for the education systems expert? An education systems expert with post-foundationalist inclinations would conceivably practise her subject along the following lines. She would firstly have no firm philosophical or normative foundation in the sense of an overarching narrative or system that defines and normatively prescribes what an education system should look like. As a result, she would entertain no fixed principles as a foundation for her views about the education system. She will probably regard the myriad of education systems in the world as a ‘market place’ of ideas about how systems could be organised and structured, and she will make her own inferences (constructivistically and interpretivistically) about what she has observed and analysed. The label ‘patchwork scholarship’ could be appropriate for her kind of scholarship (Schreiner, 2005: 12). The results of her scholarship will be multi-layered, loosely related, pluralistic, and she would be tolerant of the views and opinions of her colleagues about the structure of education systems. She will probably have no overarching view about how an education system should manifest; she understands the possibility of contingencies arising, and the limits of reasoning. Her research is done for the purpose of helping her colleagues and her students interpret reality (i.e. the education systems in the world), thereby gaining a better understanding of their own realities and education systems. She places no premium on the mastering of positivistic facts, but rather on personal interpretation of what she observes and researches. She allows room for contradiction and incoherence, but seems intent on discovering coherence among her findings. She measures the effectiveness of an education system against norms that are only relatively fixed.

The third possibility

The non- or anti-foundational approach could mean the end of education (and by extension, of education systems studies) as we know it, Wright (2010: 120-123) contends. Educating along non- or anti-foundational lines could mean the detachment of knowledge from reality. Understanding could be equated with unconstrained imagination about what education systems are or should be like. Knowledge (of education systems, in this case) could be reduced to solipsistic or personal(istic) experience and interpretation. There is a distinct possibility that an education systems expert working on the basis of this orientation might fail to obtain knowledge of reality because s/he might be led to believe that there is no such thing


as objective reality, no actual order of things, and that the notion of “reality” only exists within the conventions and linguistic constructions of all those involved in a particular education system. To do research along these lines, according to Wright (2010: 123), is to fall into the epistemic fallacy of confusing reality with knowledge of reality – it is a fallacy to deny the reality of the universe simply because it is beyond our intellectual powers to fully comprehend it. This conclusion is false; since we are unable to identify and understand the essence of real things does not mean that nothing real exists, that only experiences, conclusions and interpretations exist.

It can be added to this objection of Wright’s that to deny the existence of foundations such as principles, norms and firm worldview suppositions is fallacious. The fallacy of such denial can be illustrated in the thinking of Rorty, where he appeals to the norms and standards of neo-liberalism, social-democracy or a particular community. It is impossible for any person to think and argue without appeal to some or other foundation, whether this foundation is only superficial, as in Rorty’s case, or deep and profound, as in the case of individuals who appeal to life and world view principles and even religious convictions (Lee, 2007: 163-164). Wilber (2000: ix-x, 37) also questions the notion that truth is culturally situated, in other words that there are no transcendental or universal truths. It is wrong-headed, he argues, to claim that no judgments are universally true: to make this universal claim and then simultaneously deny all other claims (Wilber, 2000: 36).

Post-foundationalism has not completely eradicated the need among scholars to hark back to foundations in the form of norms and principles that seem to play a role in the background of a person’s thinking. While Van Huyssteen (2004: 10) on the one hand argues for the abandonment of foundationalist notions of rationality typically rooted in foundationalism and for the quest for secure foundations for the various domains of knowledge, he also rejects all forms of deconstructive postmodernism and the adoption of relativist forms of non-foundationalism or contextualism as reactions against universalist notions of rationality. His post-post-foundationalist stance is clear: over against the objectivism of foundationalism and the extreme relativism of most forms of non-foundationalism, his post-post-foundationalist notion of rationality helps to acknowledge contextuality, the shaping role of tradition and of interpreted experience, while at the same time enabling scholars to reach out beyond their own groups, communities, and cultures, in plausible forms of inter-subjective, cross-contextual, and cross-disciplinary conversations.

Scholars as rational agents are always socially and contextually imbedded. On this view, Van Huyssteen (2004: 11) claims, rationality is alive and well in all the domains of human life. All the many faces of human rationality relate directly to a pre-theoretical reasonableness, a “common-sense rationality” that informs and is present in our everyday goal-directed actions. From these everyday activities in ordinary time we can identify epistemic values like intelligibility, discernment, responsible judgement, and deliberation, which guide us when on an intellectual level we come to responsible theory choice and commitment. It is in the pursuit of these goals and ideals that we become rational persons as we learn the skills of responsible judgement and discernment, and where we articulate the best available reasons we have for making what we believe to be the right choices, those reasons


we have for holding on to certain beliefs (for instance, about the structure of an education system). For this reason we cannot talk abstractly and theoretically about the phenomenon of rationality anymore; it is only as individual human beings, living with other human beings in concrete situations, contexts, and traditions, that we can claim some form of rationality, Van Huyssteen avers. (Note how Van Huyssteen restores the status of rationality, thereby avoiding the excesses of rationalism, typical of foundationalism.)

He then correctly argues that a person always relates to his or her world through interpreted experience only. As such a person has no standing ground, no place for evaluating, judging, and inquiring, apart from that which is provided by some specific tradition or traditions. “In this sense,” he says (Van Huyssteen, 2004: 46, 118), “interpretation is at work as much in the process of scientific discovery as in different forms of knowledge”. We approach everything, including “the” education system, in terms of our interpretation frameworks and our own subtle pre-suppositions and points of departure. (Note how Van Huyssteen restores the status of interpretation frameworks, which are relatively firm and lasting, thereby avoiding the relativism of post-foundationalism.)

Van Huyssteen is clearly searching for a third epistemic possibility, one that would steer through between foundationalism and post-foundationalism. Olthuis (2012: 1) supports him in saying that in future, worldviews need not be seen, in the first place, as conceptual systems2 but rather as faith-oriented, sensory expectancy filters operating implicitly and largely beneath our conscious awareness, i.e. somewhere in the background of our consciousness. It is now widely acknowledged that everyone comes outfitted with a wide array of pre-judgements, that everyone has built-in biases, and that all of these built-in convictions et cetera help us to gain our own peculiar perspective3 on what we experience in life, such as an education system. Wilber (2000: xi-xii) agrees in saying that the post-post-foundationalist orientation will help us to avoid the excesses (particularly the relativity and disjointedness) of post-foundationalism in that it will help us to be more aware of wholes, to weave the pluralistic voices together into tapestries of integral intent. It will help us overcome the fractured worldview that post-foundationalism has brought about. People have come to understand that the only way to overcome the problem of a fractured worldview is to embrace (not foundationally) the notion of a worldview framework (Wilber, 2000: 35). The fact that the “system is sliding” (as the post-foundationalists would argue) does not mean that meaning cannot be established, that truth doesn’t exist, or that contexts won’t hold still long enough to make a simple point (Wilber, 2000: 47).

According to Boeve (2000: 255-256), a post-post-foundationalist approach to life and education would entail recognition of the fact that each one of us possesses a personal and unique worldview in terms of which we approach a phenomenon. Our task in these conditions is to engage with worldviews different from our own, to enter into a dialogue with them. According to a post-post-foundationalist view, dialogue becomes a social calling; people have to understand that they are obliged to deal with worldview differences and discontinuity. The differentness of others’

2 Typical of foundationalism. 3 Interpretatively.


worldviews should not be seen as a threat but rather as opportunities to question and to enrich one’s own views.

What are the implications of this third approach to the study of education systems? An education systems expert with a post-post-foundationalist orientation will acknowledge that, on the basis of built-in convictions playing a role in the background, she is able to steer through between claims regarding universal and absolute truths and total relativism. This approach will enable her to steer through between foundationalism “with its faith in reason, science and technology as the singular, linear, inexorable and progressive forces for health, knowledge, continual growth and success” on the one hand (Olthuis, 2012: 2), and post-foundationalism’s desire to embrace difference and pluralism, on the other. She would understand the need to do research on the basis of a worldview framework, not in a mechanistic-deterministic manner and certainly not slavishly. She will be aware of the existence and force of her fundamental principles, convictions, norms, suppositions and use them as a foundation for her research. She would hold and express reasons for entertaining certain beliefs and be conscious of her convictions working in the background of her scholarship. She will also work with an integrated view of the world, particularly with respect to the place and function of education systems. She will furthermore focus on interpreted experience about education systems. She will work inter-subjectively and contextually (wary of post-foundationalist contextualism, as mentioned). She will follow a goal-directed strategy, again not slavishly or mechanistically.

Conclusion

An education systems expert should be au fait with the three broad orientations to research on education systems outlined above, and should align his or her approach to the subject with one or more of them. It would probably be wise to follow the third because of its greater epistemological balance.

Bibliography Boeve, L. (2000): 'Katholieke' universiteit: vier denkpistes. Ethische Perspectieven, 10, 250-

256. Hiestand, G. (2005): Towards a Post-foundationalism and epistemic certainty.

Retrieved July 11, 2013 from Iustificare: http://iustificare.blogspot.com/2005/04/toward-post-foundationalism-and.html

Lee, H.-M. (2007): Postmodern Epistemology and Schooling. Potchefstroom: North-West University.

Makrides, V. N. (2013): Orthodox Christianity, Modernity and Postmodernity: Overview, Analysis and Assessment. Religion, State and Society, 40 (3-4), 248-285.

Olthuis, J. H. (2012): A vision of and for love: Towards a Christian post-postmodern worldview. Koers - Bulletin for Christian Scholarship, 77 (1), 1-7.

Rorty, R. (1991): Objectivity, relativism and truth. Philosophical Papers. Vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Rorty, R. (2004): Philosophical Convictions. The Nation, 53-55. Rorty, R. (1979): Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature. Princeton: Princeton University Press.


Schreiner, P. (2005): Religious Education in Europe. Oslo: Oslo University. Retrieved November 9, 2012 from Comenius Institute. ci-muenster.de/pdfs/themen/europa2.pdf.

Schults, F. L. (1999): The veritable ideal of systematicity: a post-foundationalist construal of the task of Christian Theology. Paper presented to the Systematic Theology Group of the AAR. Boston, MA.

Van Huyssteen, J. W. (2004): Alone in the world? Human Uniqueness in Science and Technology. Grand Rapids: William B Eerdmans Publishing Company.

Wilber, K. (2000): Sex, Ecology, Spirituality. The spirit of evolution. 2nd revised ed. Boston & London: Shambalala.

Wright, A. (2010): Dancing in the Fire: A deconstruction of Clive Erricker's Postmodern Spiritual Pedagogy. Religious Education: The Official Journal of the Religious Education Association, 96 (1), 120-135.

Prof. Dr. Johannes L van der Walt Faculty of Education Sciences North-West University Potchefstroom Campus South Africa [email protected]


FERDINAND J POTGIETER

CONSIDERING A PEDAGOGY OF DISCERNMENT AS PRIMUS INTER PARES: IMPLICATIONS FOR COMPARATIVE EDUCATIONISTS

Abstract

Making use of hermeneutic phenomenology and morality critique as methodological navigation points, this paper challenges the phantasmatic prestige and power of normative orders and the education systems that are designed to keep them alive. It is suggested that what education needs is not morals and ethics, but a pedagogy of discernment that will teach pupils to keep their eyes open and to recognise the tragic truth that normative systems maintain themselves at the cost of obliterating the onticity of singularisation, mortality and the non-normalisability of the human condition.

The Problem

Life begins and ends between the head and the foot of the bed. For the journey between these two signposts of existence – i.e. between natality and mortality – we depend, amongst others, on education. However, all is not well on the education front. The pursuit of the agein perenne – the perpetual and timeless process of leading each successive generation towards a meaningful, flourishing and fulfilling life – seems to be losing its appeal. The current strife in Syria, the recent “Arabic Spring” uprisings, the conflict between the Muslim north and the Christian south of Nigeria and Mali (Potgieter, Van der Walt & Wolhuter, 2014: 1), as well as the countless incidents of “...slaughtering, murders, tortures, incarcerations, land expropriations, internments...”, etc. (Schoeman, 2013: 308) all count as examples of education that, although advocating and almost exclusively promoting natality in spirit and principle, demonstrate, instead, the tragic integrative violence (Schoeman, 2013: 309) of the normative systems that it supports.

Efforts to counter this have resulted, over the years, in various “pedagogies”: pedagogy of the oppressed (Freire, 2007), pedagogy of hope (Van Teeffelen, 2012) and pedagogy of trust (DeMeulenaere, 2012), to name but three. In this paper, I propose that a pedagogy of discernment as the primus inter pares (first among equals) of all other pedagogies, may hold the key to understanding the integrative violence of normative systems and thus to understanding why education, while claiming to be protecting and maintaining life, is not only promoting, but effectively causing death, instead. I conclude by asking seven core, fundamental, normative questions that comparative educationists may have to consider in this regard.

Conceptualising education

Most contemporary conceptualisations of education are located somewhere between John White’s seemingly irreconcilable polarities of “education for Smithian

Ferdinand J Potgieter 33

efficiency and education for Deweyian democracy”1 (Howe, 2014: 77). They nevertheless all advocate natality as life-force, referring to education as being an essential, praiseworthy endeavour in which a relatively more mature person interacts with a less mature person for the purpose of guiding, forming, equipping and enabling the latter for his or her future calling or occupation, including to become a mature and responsible, whole member (with integrity of character) of the various societal relationships that s/he will belong to in future (Basave, 2006: 1; Potgieter, Van Crombrugge, 2006: 12, 13, 23, 41, 59, 62, 64, 86 et seq.; Van der Walt, Valenkamp & Wolhuter, 2012: 20, 21; Potgieter, Van der Walt, Wolhuter & Valenkamp, 2013: 290, 292; Cuypers, 2014: 55, 56). They all envisage a person who will be able

• to lead a meaningful life (Seo, 2014: 90), • to discern between what is right and wrong, good and bad, • to act on what has been so discerned, even at personal cost, • and to take responsibility for such actions and behaviour (Noshulwana, 2011:

16). Favouring and supporting natality, conceptualisations of education are

customarily enmeshed in conflicts of value – the kind of value that is usually attached to the notion of the “human good” (resp. “the common good” / creating and promoting the conditions of and for the “good life”/“the flourishing life”) (cf. White, 1995: 3; Parekh, 2000: 156; Potgieter, 2011: 397; Potgieter, et al, 2013: 295; Seo, 2014: 87-89; Van der Walt, 2014: 38). It is believed that education should contribute to the enhancement of the quality of life of all concerned as well as of broader society (refer Strauss, 2009: 509), while the school should continue to offer dialogic spaces for teachers and their pupils in which to rehearse and develop these qualities (White, 2009: 9; Seo, 2014: 91). If these persuasions were, at the very least, credible or believable, why do we then continue to witness so much evil in this world, as pointed out above?

Normative systems and their phantasmatic claims

Gray (2003: 12) and Van der Walt (2014: 4) allude to the observable failure of education to produce consistently and reliably a new generation of whole, noble citizens with integrity, remarking that human beings seem to be driven by conflicting needs and illusions. They are subject to every kind of infirmity of will and judgement and thus unable to live together peacefully, explaining why they are often engaged in strife, whether on a personal, community or (inter-)national level. In this regard, Peck (2006: 184) observes: “We see dogmatism, and proceeding from dogmatism, we see wars and inquisitions and persecutions. We see hypocrisy: people professing the brotherhood of man killing their fellows in the name of faith, lining their pockets at the expense of others, and practicing all manner of brutality”. Despite unparalleled advances in almost every field of human endeavour, especially technology, our streets still abound with the hungry and homeless, and violence and war still continue to plague us (Olthuis, 2012: 2/7; Van der Walt, 2014: 38).

1 Although these Whitean polarities can be demonstrated to relate meaningfully to the notions

of natality and mortality, it falls outside the scope and purpose of this paper.

Considering a pedagogy of discernment as primus inter pares: implications for comparative educationists 34

The above-mentioned examples have inspired many teachers, parents, pupils and education administrators to distrust the phantasmatic promises and claims (of the “good life”) of the normative systems that they have been educated to support and defend (Van der Walt & Potgieter, 2014: 5). Nowhere was this perhaps better illustrated than in 1976, in South Africa, when the majority of the school-going population at the time were finally conscientised into understanding that they needed to liberate themselves from the phantasmatic power of an oppressive normative system. These uprisings marked the beginning of the end of Apartheid – leading to the first democratic elections in South Africa’s history in 1994.

An increasing number of people worldwide now prefer to construct and accept their own, individual ethical and moral systems, and also to live in accordance with such systems (Koelble & Li Puma, 2011; Standish, 2004). I argue that it is for these reasons that the scholarly contemplation of a pedagogy of discernment, as primus inter pares, should lead to rethinking the place and role of moral and ethical systems that are supposed to continue guiding education.

Ethics, morals and the essential fallability of normative systems

The phantasmatic prestige of “grand narratives” (resp. normative systems) is such that their followers subject themselves wilfully to its presumed power. Ethics and morals presuppose, as the conditions of their possibility, that human life is finally normable and that some univocal field of normative power, in principle, covers and secures human life (cf. Pearce and MacLure, 2009; Pelcova, 2008; Vox Nova, 2010; Kourie, 2006). They remain naive about the norms that they seek to posit, because they believe the phantasmatic promise and claim of their particular normative system, namely that it can provide human beings with the wherewithal to master the human condition (Schürmann, 2003: 621, 773; Schoeman, 2013: 305, 306). However, the essential fallibility of all normative systems lies in the fact that although they present themselves as the cure that will get rid of all evil, they actually prolong the societal diseases that they are supposed to cure (Schoeman, 2013: 305). In this regard, Hannah Arendt argues that it is not the absence or loss of values that is creating the preconditions for evil (as moralists keep telling us), but the oversupply – the barrage – of values, instead (Arendt, 2006: 150).

Educational efforts to ground and articulate the norms that teach us what we are supposed to do and who we are supposed to be, may therefore be questioned (Schoeman, 2013: 307). Because of the presumed and wilfully delegated power and prestige of normative systems, their subjects believe these systems to be based on some or other highest principle; they believe the systems to hold exclusive rights to the promise of life that they offer their subjects (Schoeman, 2013: 309). Although there is certainly a case to be made that normative systems (and the morals and ethics that help to propagate them) make our lives liveable, they also effect integrative violence.

There exists an original, undeniable discord between morals and ethics and that to which they apply; between norms and those who are subjected to such norms. It is a discord that is perpetually being denied (Schoeman, 2013: 309) by the self-generating power and prestige of all normative systems (Schoeman, 2013: 309). As a result, morals and ethics never come to grips with the integrative power of normative systems. Even though every single ultimate normative referent that has


ever been promulgated in the history of humankind can testify to this, morals and ethics simply do not see how a normative system necessarily entails a denial within its very structure (ibid.). Indeed, according to Schürmann (2003: 613) each tranquilitas ordinis2 gives rise – at some stage – to conflict and discontent (ibid.) and it is precisely in this regard that all normative systems execute their integrative violence. By simply denying the singularity of any human subject that seeks to escape a particular normative system’s own terms, it forces all its human subjects to fit in – sometimes even by force and coercion, if need be (ibid.). It subdues, suppresses and regulates every conceivable case or contingency (ibid.) and in doing so, it denies the ontic inescapability of mortality. So, while the morals and ethics that are derived from normative systems do their best to promise life, they all eventually cause death (Schürmann, 2003: 28).

Towards a pedagogy of discernment

Instead of education systems worldwide that insist on curtsying to the phantasmatic power of norms and values, I suggest that we consider a pedagogy of discernment as the basis of our efforts to reclaim the original appeal of the agein perenne. What we need is a new generation of individuals who are fine with embracing their singularity and the onticity of their mortality. We need people who will be able to expose the hubris of the normative systems that seek to enslave them. Instead of pedagogies that strive to addict people to the power of norms and values, we need a pedagogy of discernment, as primus inter pares, that will accompany people towards keeping their eyes wide open so that they may acknowledge everything that natality (and, hence, all normative systems) is not prepared to concede, namely singularisation, mortality and the non-normalisability of the human condition.

Implications for comparative educationists

Against the backdrop painted above, I argue that comparative educationists should consider the implications of a possible pedagogy of discernment as primus inter pares and how it might relate to the alluring nature of the agein perenne. For this purpose I suggest that they do it against the decor of the core questions that philosophy of education is usually expected to articulate convincingly in a situation such as this – normative questions that pertain to the basic forms or features of a pedagogy of discernment as educational endeavour. With reference to the work of Schürmann (1991: 219), Curren (2013: 232) and Schoeman (2013: 313), I propose that a pedagogy of discernment as primus inter pares should, amongst others, refer to the tasks, duties and obligations of all role-players and stakeholders in education. It should reflect on and address not only the teaching activities of the teachers and educators who are involved, but also the learning activities of all those millions of pupils who attend public and private schools everywhere.

To understand properly any aspect of a possible pedagogy of discernment and its incorporation and possible implementation in education systems worldwide, I finally propose adapting the thinking of Curren (2013: 232) so that comparative

2 Eng. “the tranquillity of order”; the peace of all things; a well-ordered concord.


educationists may ask at least the following seven core, fundamental and normative questions:

• What are the proper aims of a pedagogy of discernment? • Why are these aims considered to be the proper aims of a pedagogy of

discernment? • On what ontological, epistemological and anthropological authority do these

aims rest? • What responsibilities do these aims entail? • How, or in what manner, should the realisation of these aims in terms of the

agein perenne, as alluded to above, be managed and conducted? • What should its communicated content (expressed in education policy,

legislation and other acts of state) be? • Why should its communicated content look and read the way it does?

Conclusion

Stakeholders and role-players in education are increasingly distrusting the phantasmatic promises and claims of the normative systems that they have been educated to support and defend. We need comparative educationists to ponder the merits and demerits of a possible pedagogy of discernment as primus inter pares with a view to start shaping a new educational system – including its aims, its kinds of pedagogy, its distribution, its organisational structures, its teachers, its assessment systems, etc. – that will eventually produce a generation who will no longer be the addicted followers of normative systems (White, 2013: 302; Cuypers, 2014: 56).

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LARRY PROCHNER, AILIE CLEGHORN, ANNA KIROVA, DARCEY DACHYSHYN & CHRISTINE MASSING

CULTURE AND PRACTICE IN EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHER EDUCATION IN NAMIBIA AND CANADA

Abstract

This comparative and qualitative study-in-progress focuses on two early childhood teacher education (ECTE) programs in contexts where the participants are undergoing rapid social and personal change: a program in Namibia and a program for immigrant childcare educators in Canada. The objective is to provide in-depth understanding of the ways in which differing ideas about ECTE are reflected in practice. It is important to ensure that ECTE programs prepare teachers to dovetail children’s preparation for school with meaningful connections to the culture and language of the home community, since more and more children spend their preschool years in early childhood (EC) centres that are becoming increasingly westernized in character. The data will stem from analysis of early childhood care and education and ECTE curricula; policy and other documents; focused observations in ECTE classes; and interviews with teacher educators and students. The results are expected to illuminate issues and strategies which are most likely to be effective for ECTE programs, with implications for teacher education in a range of settings in both the majority and minority worlds.

Objective and Context of the Problem

This comparative and qualitative study-in-progress is carried out in an early childhood teacher education (ECTE) program in Namibia and in a worksite-embedded training program for immigrant childcare educators in Canada.1 For the purposes of this paper, we will focus on describing the conceptual framework of this study, the methodology, and the research sites. The primary objective of the study is to provide in-depth understanding of the ways in which differing conceptions of what children need in the preschool years are played out in teacher training programs in social contexts where the participants are experiencing rapid social and personal change: in Canada, the 2006 census indicates that 1 in 5 people are foreign born while, in Namibia, 35% of the population live on less than $1 a day and about 57,000 children have been orphaned by HIV/AIDS (Statistics Canada, 2006; UNICEF, 2012). The selection of this African site will allow insights into historical, linguistic, and cultural differences that too often are ignored in loose generalizations about Africa. Previous studies suggest that, in such settings, Western and local cultural norms relating to the preschool years may conflict in ways that compromise the oft-stated aim of preparing children for school, thus putting children at increased risk for later school failure and drop-out. It is of note that academic discourse confirms the need for the kind of up-to-date research on ECTE that we propose (LeVine, 2003; Pence & Nsamenang, 2008).

1 The programs have an integrated approach to childcare, development, and education led by

adults who are variously called educators or teachers.

Culture and Practice in Early Childhood Teacher Education in Namibia and Canada 40

Trends in ECTE and in early childhood care and education (ECCE) seem to be moving in two directions at once. In an apparent move away from psychological theoretical assumptions about the universality of child development, there is increasing recognition of the validity of local ways of knowing and a greater value placed on linguistic and cultural diversity (Cannella, 1997; Dahlberg, Moss & Pence, 2007). At the same time, the legacy of colonialism in countries such as Namibia continues to discourage the inclusion of indigenous knowledge and activities in ECTE programs (Abdi & Cleghorn, 2005; Goduka, 1997; Gonzales, 1999; Serpell, 1993; Shizha, 2006; Swadener, Kabiru & Njenga, 1997). A comparable situation is found in Canada, where language barriers and a lack of recognition for foreign experience and qualifications (Statistics Canada, 2006) channel many newcomers into work with children which are not seen as professional. The percentage of immigrants (15%) employed as EC educators in Canada is higher than for any other occupational sector (Service Canada, 2012). In order for immigrant EC educators to be construed as professionals, they must detach themselves from their experiential, tacit, and intuitive ways of knowing (Jipson, 1991). Thus the privileged position of Western child development knowledge leaves no space for teachers to bring in their own understandings of the sociocultural contexts in which they, and the children with whom they work, live (Stott & Bowman, 1996). These apparently opposing patterns are thought to impede the establishment of ECTE programs that are broadly effective and locally adapted. In fact, it seems that, despite efforts to recognize local cultures as valuable resources for planning appropriate education programs, it is still the case that ECTE planners “are taking their cues from imported models that reinforce value shifts towards the individualistic, production oriented cultures of the west” (Myers, 1992, p. 29).2 We ask whether this is the most desirable direction for all.

Conceptual Framework

This research builds on preliminary studies in Zimbabwe, India, South Africa, and Canada, where a range of interpretations was observed among EC teachers and teacher educators about the meaning and application of key concepts such as best practice, child-centred approach, developmentally appropriate practice, and play-based curriculum (Cleghorn & Prochner, 2003; 2010). Cleghorn and Prochner (2003) used a conceptual framework drawn from LeVine et al. (1994) to provide insight into Western and non-Western visions of childhood via two distinct models of childcare, the pediatric and the pedagogical.3 Although the LeVine et al. models refer to the features of infant child care in only two contexts – one African and one middle-class North American – they point to very different conceptualizations of early socialization that tend to persist into later teaching-learning situations, whether formalized or not. We have found their respective features to be manifested in

2 Culture is defined here as the ways of thinking, speaking, seeing, believing, and behaving

that characterize the members of a social group (Geertz, 1975). 3 These models are ideal types in the sociological sense, that is, seemingly dichotomized

concepts made up of essential characteristics that are used in the social sciences for the purposes of analyzing and understanding social phenomena (Max Weber, 1946, cited by Babbie, 2002).

Larry Prochner, Ailie Cleghorn, Anna Kirova, Darcey Dachyshyn & Christine Massing 41

various ways in teachers’ attitudes and approaches in EC programs in India and in eastern and southern Africa; they also bring attention to shifts in practice that coincide with rural-to-urban migration, decrease in child mortality, increase in access to preschool and regular schooling, and increase in the formal training of EC teachers (LeVine, 2003).

To elaborate, the foregoing can also be considered with regard to social change and development (Hsueh & Tobin, 2003). On the one hand, ECTE program planners may equate beliefs about universality in child development with trends in global development (Dahlberg, Moss & Pence, 2007; Kagitçibasi, Sunar & Bekman, 2001). On the other hand, ECTE and EC programs may be expected to reflect local community values and approved behaviours while responding to social change by, for example, educating teachers in the still dominant theories of child development, “best practice”, and the like (Lubeck, 1996). However, while social, economic, and technological change can be rapid, culture tends to change slowly. It is in this regard that the pediatric-pedagogical models may also be discussed in terms of the cultural values that tend to change over time; e.g., interpersonal relatedness to independence, emotional interdependence to autonomy, material interdependence to material emancipation, and, collective to individualistic identity (Kagitçibasi, 2007).

Keeping in mind the seemingly dichotomized nature of the concepts under consideration, it is important for EC teacher educators to understand how each model may relate differently to a group’s needs for economic survival,4 the pediatric model to a rural, subsistence economy and the pedagogical model to the highly differentiated economy of urban North America, for example. That is, when the home environment is relatively impoverished, non-literate, and non-Western, as in rural and semi-rural Namibia, the prevailing pediatric model of child care will likely emphasize health and physical survival; the teaching of moral and other values may occur through oral storytelling, with little use of language between adults and children for encouraging or answering questions, reading stories, or vocabulary building – the kinds of discourse patterns found in schools. Beyond infancy, one may observe a shift in focus to children’s mastery of specific skills through observation and imitation, via the respect-obedience model (LeVine et al., 1994), a model that suggests a culturally shared vision of the adult-to-be as one who can function within a hierarchical society where the authority of a parent or other adult (such as a teacher) is not to be questioned (Shumba, 1999).

In contrast, the pedagogical model of early socialization is adapted to the social and economic structure of societies such as Canada, where the dominant group’s vision of the adult-to-be is of a person who values individual competition and achievement and is ideologically oriented towards democratic ways of doing things – within families as well as in school and society at large. Typically, the child-rearing methods of middle-class educated parents dovetail with the kinds of interaction patterns that the child will encounter in school (LeVine, 2003), for example, extensive listening, speaking, reasoning, explaining, asking, answering, comparing, labelling, and counting. We ask to what extent this model fits with the experience of immigrant families and immigrant childcare educators. Does the

4 Social and economic change can bring a loss in cultural values along with a need for cultural

survival or revival.


immigrant child find school a familiar place, as would a middle-class Western child? What do EC teacher educators need to know about the borders such children cross between home and school?

The researchers’ earlier studies thus suggest that, especially in social contexts undergoing rapid social change, an ECTE program may reflect a number of transitions and possible discontinuities: societal change in terms of economic and other aspects of development; conceptual change among ECTE students in terms of shifts in thought towards more Western or globalized notions of how children are to be socialized in the preschool years; home/school language and cultural differences, and so on. Similar transitions and discontinuities are also reflected in the history of immigrants’ experiences in Canada where accounts describe the effects of a sharp discontinuity between early socialization in the home community and the culture that is encountered at school (Kirk, 2004). Thus, if it is the case that one of the main functions of preschools is to prepare children for formal schooling, then EC teacher educators may need explicit knowledge about the kinds of boundaries that they and young learners are expected to cross (Giroux, 1992). If some EC educators wonder about the meaning and application of such Western-generated concepts as child-centred approaches, developmentally appropriate practices, and play-based curriculum, it is not surprising then if the early school experience is also unfamiliar and seemingly irrelevant for the young children in their charge (Jegede & Aikenhead, 1999).

Methodological Approach Research Questions Although Namibia and Canada share connections through their colonial

histories, they differ in significant ways, not the least of which is Canada’s place as a “developed” (minority world) nation. Thus the central question of this research asks the extent to which, and in what ways, the above-described dimensions and varied conceptions of young children’s preschool needs are played out in each ECTE setting in light of the economic, political, social, cultural, and linguistic differences between them. In this we also ask if the increasing globalization of thought in the field of early childhood education may be found to undermine sound, locally appropriate ECTE practice. To explore this multifaceted matter, the following sub- questions provide initial direction with emergent findings and tentative explanations providing more precise foci:

1. What do policy documents and curriculum guides say about ECTE practice in each setting? What is the possible intersection/influence of both the pediatric and pedagogical models depending on the context and what is occurring at that particular time?

2. How are local ways of doing reflected in the organization of space, the use of materials, and the scheduling of activities?

3. What theories of childcare and child development are EC student teachers exposed to?

4. What are student teachers’/teacher educators’ views about “best practice” in ECE, the use of a child-centred approach, developmentally appropriate practice, and the role of play in learning?


5. How does the ECTE program’s orientation to child learning dovetail with the experience to be encountered in primary school, as described in policy documents and by local teacher educators?

Brief Description of the Research Settings Namibia. The first African site is the University of Namibia (UNAM), which

offers a Bachelor of Education in Early Childhood Development and a Master of Education in Early Childhood Development (ECD). The four-year undergraduate program prepares teachers for pre-primary and grades 1-4 (University of Namibia, 2012). This is a professional degree designed to meet the learners’ needs, potential and abilities. Graduates will be able to teach in one Namibian language as well as in English, learning also how to ease the transition from an indigenous language to learning via English, the official language. A learner-centered approach is to be used which presupposes that teachers have a holistic view of learning, valuing the learner’s life experiences as a starting point for their studies (Sibuku, 1997).

Canada. The Canadian ECTE site is a worksite-embedded training program for immigrant childcare educators in a large city in western Canada. All twenty-two students in the program are currently working in child care centres or family-based care and originate from Africa, Latin America, or Asia. They attend class for three hours a week during their regular workday. In contrast to conventional ECTE programs, which compartmentalize learning into discrete subjects and courses, this program has an emergent, integrated curriculum whereby discussions during one class determine the content for the next. Students are encouraged to incorporate their cultural practices, beliefs, and expectations into their weekly assignments. It is through these assignments and the discussions held in class that differences are identified along with some possible tensions between cultural beliefs and practices and the Western conceptualization of appropriate ECE practice.

Data Collection and Analysis Qualitative methods represent a growing trend in early childhood research

(Hatch, 2007) due to the need for “more ethnographic research which can paint in the fine-grained reality of educational processes within early childhood settings” (Siraj-Blatchford & Siraj-Blatchford, 2001, p. 194). Qualitative methods permit in-depth understanding of already-identified broad issues and require a sustained time on site to bring the importance of culturally linked patterns of thought and practice into focus (Aubrey, David, Godfrey & Thompson, 2000).

Fieldwork in the two sites is taking place over two years, following student teachers from the first day in their program. As in all ethnographic work, attention will be paid to repeated, regular events as well as to exceptional episodes, since these can bring to light matters that are out of the participants’ “line of vision” (Carspecken & Wolford, 2001). Data-gathering strategies include: analyzing documents pertaining to ECTE philosophy, curriculum, and policy; and reconstructing the cultural meanings of educational processes from the participants' perspectives through observations, video and audio recordings of coursework and practice, and follow-up interviews with teacher educators and student teachers. Organization and analysis of qualitative data will involve: identifying overarching themes and ideas in the data sources, categorizing and coding, summarizing and


interpreting findings to arriving at tentative explanations, and building theoretical insights connected to the literature and theory that generated the study.

Importance of the Study

It is increasingly important to ensure that ECTE programs prepare teachers to dovetail children’s preparation for school with meaningful connections to the culture and language of the home community. Current academic discourse points to the need for more qualitative/ethnographic research which describes the specifics of educational processes that foster learners’ engagement with schooling. Such in-depth knowledge can be incorporated into ECTE programs so that identifiable problems in the early years are less amenable to cultural bias and superficial remedial responses. The results will also illuminate issues and strategies which are most likely to be effective for ECTE programs, with implications for the policy and practice of teacher education in a wide range of settings in both the majority and minority worlds.

References Abdi, A. & Cleghorn, A. (Eds.) (2005): Issues in African education: Sociological

perspectives. New York, NY: Palgrave-Macmillan. Aubrey, A., David, T., Godfrey, R. & Thompson, L. (2000): Early childhood educational

research: Issues in methodology and ethics. New York, NY: Routledge Falmer. Babbie, E. (2002): The basics of social research. Toronto, ON: Nelson Thomson. Cannella, G. (1997): Deconstructing early childhood education: Social justice and revolution.

New York, NY: Peter Lang. Carspecken, P. F. & Wolford, G. (Eds.) (2001): Critical ethnography and education. Oxford,

UK: Elsevier Science. Cleghorn, A. & Prochner, L. (2003): Contrasting visions of early childhood education:

Examples from rural and urban settings in Zimbabwe and India. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 1(2), 131–153.

Cleghorn, A. & Prochner, L. (2010): Shades of globalization in three early childhood settings: Views from India, South Africa and Canada. Rotterdam, NL: Sense.

Dahlberg, G., Moss, P. & Pence, A. (2007): Beyond quality in early childhood education and care: Languages of evaluation (2nd ed.). London, UK: Falmer.

Geertz, C. (1975): The interpretation of cultures. London, UK: Hutchinson. Giroux, H. (1992): Border crossings: Cultural workers and the politics of education. New

York, NY: Routledge. Goduka, I. (1997): Rethinking the status of early childhood care and education (ECCE) in

rural and urban areas of South Africa. Early Education and Development, 8(3), 307–321. Gonzales, M. C. (1999): The World Bank and African primary education: Policies, practices

and recommendations. Africa Today, 46(1), 119–134. Hatch, J. A. (Ed.) (2007): Early childhood qualitative research. New York, NY: Routledge. Jegede, O. J. & Aikenhead, G. S. (1999): Transcending cultural borders: Implications for

science teaching. Journal for Science and Technology Education, 17, 45–66. Jipson, J. (1991): Developmentally appropriate practice: Culture, curriculum, connections.

Early Education and Development, 2(2), 120–136.


Kâgitçibasi, Ç. (2007): Family, self, and human development across cultures: Theory and applications (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Kâgitçibasi, Ç., Sunar, D. & Bekman, S. (2001): Long-term effects of early intervention: Turkish low-income mothers and children. Applied Developmental Psychology, 22, 333–361.

Kirk, D. (2004): Beyond the “academic” curriculum: The production and operation of biopower in the less-studied sites of schooling. In B. M. Baker & K. E. Heyning (Eds.) Dangerous coalitions? The uses of Foucault in the study of education (pp. 117–135). New York, NY: Peter Lang.

LeVine, R. A. (2003): Childhood socialization: Comparative studies of parenting, learning and educational change. Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Center, University of Hong Kong.

LeVine, R. A., Dixon, S., LeVine, S., Richman, A., Leiderman, P. H., Keefer, C. H. & Brazelton, T. B. (1994): Child care and culture: Lessons from Africa. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Lubeck, S. (1996): Deconstructing ‘child development knowledge’ and ‘teacher preparation’. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 11, 147–167.

Myers, R. G. (1992): The twelve who survive. New York, NY: Routledge. Pence, A. & Nsamenang, B. (2008): A case for early childhood development in sub-Saharan

Africa. Working Paper No. 51. The Hague, NL: Bernard van Leer Foundation. Serpell, R. (1993): The significance of schooling: Life journeys in an African society. New

York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Service Canada (2012): Early childhood educators and assistants. Retrieved from

http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/qc/job_futures/statistics/4214.shtml Shizha, E. (2006): Legitimizing indigenous knowledge in Zimbabwe: A theoretical analysis

of postcolonial school knowledge and its colonial legacy. Journal of Contemporary Issues in Education, 1(1), 20–35.

Shumba, O. (1999): Critically interrogating the rationality of Western science vis-à-vis scientific literacy in non-Western developing countries. Zambezia, 26(1), 55-75.

Sibuku, C. M. (1997): Beginning teachers’ perceptions of a learner centred approach to teaching in Namibia. (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Alberta.

Siraj-Blatchford, I. & Siraj-Blatchford, J. (2001): An ethnographic approach to researching young children’s learning. In G. MacNaughton, S. A. Rolfe & I. Siraj-Blatchford (Eds.) Doing early childhood research: International perspectives on theory and practice (pp. 193–207). Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.

Statistics Canada (2006): Immigration in Canada: A portrait of the foreign-born population. 2006 census: Immigration: Driver of population growth. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-557/p2-eng.cfm

Stott, F. & Bowman, B. (1996): Child development knowledge: A slippery base for practice. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 11, 169–183.

Swadener, E. B., Kabiru, M. & Njenga, A. (1997): Does the village still raise the child? A collaborative study of changing child-rearing and community mobilization in Kenya. Early Education and Development, 8(3), 285–306.

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Prof. Dr.Larry Prochner University of Alberta Canada [email protected] Prof. Dr. Ailie Cleghorn Concordia University Canada [email protected] Prof. Dr. Anna Kirova University of Alberta Canada [email protected] Assoc. Prof. Dr. Darcey Dachyshyn Aga Khan University Tanzania Ms. Christine Massing University of Alberta Canada





MANUEL JACINTO ROBLIZO COLMENERO

THE PRACTICE OF DIALOGIC LEARNING AS A SUCCESSFUL MEANS TO OVERCOME INEQUALITIES: ‘LA PAZ’ LEARNING COMMUNITY CASE

Abstract

The paper presents a successful educational practice that, inspired by the dialogic learning methodological principles, is implemented through a learning community. Theoretical bases are introduced, along with some defining traits of didactic practice. The focus is on the ‘La Paz’ learning community case, as a means to illustrate both with significant data and relevant human stories how dialogic learning can change lives and decisively contribute to break the cycle of poverty and marginality. Located in two of the poorest neighborhoods in Spain, the experience is particularly representative due to, firstly, the extremely deprived living conditions of the population; and, secondly, because of the intense changes that this educational practice has represented both for the school community and for the neighborhoods as a whole.

The principles of dialogic learning

Succinctly exposed, dialogic learning is based on seven principles: 1. Egalitarian dialogue: in professor Ramón Flecha’s words, ‘a dialogue is

egalitarian when it takes different contributions into consideration according to the validity of their reasoning, instead of according to the positions of power held by those who make the contributions’ (2000, p. 2).

2. Cultural intelligence: the idea of intelligence is usually linked to the idea of what can be achieved in the academic order and, somehow related, to marks achieved in a coefficient intelligence test. The concept of cultural intelligence, in contrast, focuses on a number of skills that are not limited to this academic sphere –though it is not completely excluded. Cultural intelligence comes out by the capability to handle a situation in one specific social context, with all its wide diversity of connotations. Therefore, academic intelligence is not completely out of cultural intelligence, but this one transcends the purely academic field to include other relevant intellectual aspects oriented to solve problems and appropriately manage situations. To put another way, academic intelligence is an integrating part of cultural intelligence, but this concept goes beyond to imply also two other kinds of intelligence: the so-called practical intelligence and the communicative intelligence (Aubert, Flecha, García, Flecha & Racionero, 2008, pp. 183-187). Whereas the first aforementioned one arises from what it is learnt by doing, the second relies on individuals’ language skills to get across and to receive communicative feedback from other interlocutors.

As could be easily noticed, this aspect is particularly relevant in the practice of dialogic learning, so solidly rooted in communicative basis. As professor Adriana Aubert et al put it, ‘el aprendizaje dialógico reconoce esta inteligencia y promueve que los niños y las niñas se ayuden entre sí para resolver actividades, de forma que quienes tienen mayor habilidad en una tarea ayuden al compañero o compañera al

The Practice of Dialogic Learning as a Successful Means to Overcome Inequalities 48

que le cuesta más para que, finalmente, sean ambos quienes puedan resolver la actividad con éxito’ [dialogic learning acknowledges this intelligence and promotes that boys and girls help each other to solve activities, in such a way that those most skilled help the less-skilled mates so that both can successfully solve the activity].

3. Transformation: put simply, what this idea is putting forward is no more, no less than education can change the social reality, overcoming existing inequalities. It is in this sense that a strong criticism to the theories of reproduction emerges, given that for this theoretical approach education is a mechanism that reproduces social differences, whereas for the dialogic learning education can be legitimately thought as a means to overcome them. As professor Ramón Flecha puts it, ‘unfortunately, however, the reproductionists had for years appeared as if they were clairvoyant intellectuals, exposing what they called the naïvete and lack of scientific basis of emancipatory proposals like Freire’s. But with the evolution of the social sciences credence has now been given to transformative alternatives and both the reproduction model and the structuralism it was based upon have been discredited’ (Flecha, 2000, p. 13).

4. Instrumental dimension: an important remark by professor Flecha is that ‘dialogic learning embraces every aspect of learning. It therefore involves the acquisition of all instrumental knowledge and all necessary skills. Dialogic learning is not opposed to instrumental learning’ (2000, p. 15). The instrumental dimension of learning emphasizes the idea that education can enhance economically disadvantaged people’s lives by providing an essential tool for social promotion. Subsequently, it rejects the idea that education should limit its objectives when offered to worse-off groups, because of their less propitious cultural settings. The instrumental dimension of dialogic learning firmly opposes, therefore, to proposals like Ausubel’s (1989, in Aubert et al, 2008, pp. 202-204), who systematically highlighted the unwillingness of less affluent groups to achieve educational goals equitable to those of children enjoying the so-called cultural capital.

5. Meaning creation: meaning is created through education if decisively contributes to provide our lives with a value and a sense that are not imposed by external forces or authorities, but by the very individuals through communication; in short, ‘meaning is recreated when interpersonal interaction is actually directed by ourselves’ (Flecha, 2000, p. 18).

6. Solidarity: it is difficult to think of an idea with a higher number of connotations than solidarity, and this diversity affects also to the term when it is applied to educational practices. However, in my view, there is one particular meaning that more significantly covers the experience of solidarity in the educational context, and that is expressed in the following words: ‘Lo que es realmente solidario no es que todos los chicos y chicas tengan la oportunidad de ir a los centros de enseñanza sino que todos y todas consigan los mejores resultados’ [‘what is really solidar is not that all the children have the same opportunity to attend educational centers, but that all the children achieve the best results’] (Aubert et al, 2008, p. 225). I found it particularly relevant because it reflects the marked commitment of dialogic learning not only with the educational achievements of a majority of students but, more significantly, with the success of those coming from disadvantaged contexts, who would be beforehand condemned to failure if we take into consideration some well-known theoretical approaches. In everyday school life,

Manuel Jacinto Roblizo Colmenero 49

solidarity implies that outstanding students teach low performers, with a mutual benefit for both, but also that, for instance, skillful children in the playground are helped with those who are succeeding in the classroom, and vice versa. Solidarity means, as well, that nobody can be left behind, and that success will come out of the collective effort of the learning community, including not only professionals of education, but also volunteers, as relatives and other socially committed people.

7. Equality of differences: ‘Equality is the aim, and this includes an equal right to differences’ (Flecha, 2000, p. 25). It means that the idea of equality should be inclusive, recognizing the value of the differences that could exist in the educational community. In this way, for instance, Muslim women, supposedly so culturally retarded, according to some stereotypes and prejudices, can not only serve as linguistic supports in foreign languages, but also can show how gender differences are prevailing in every culture, including occidental ones.

Dialogic learning in practice

The dialogic learning presented its, so to speak, administrative face by INCLUD-ED project. Promoted by the CREA, an institution attached to the Universidad de Barcelona, INCLUD-ED – the educational research project with highest EU funding – investigated how educational practices could be evidence-based in order to be successful. In the following link, INCLUD-ED Final Conference presentations, made by researchers and protagonists, can be found: http://creaub.info/included/2012/01/11/videofinalconference/.

The didactics of dialogic learning works out in practice by some very characteristics means. The first one is the interactive groups, which are the result of organizing the whole class into several smaller groups, made up with students with different skills, interests and levels of educational achievement. In a very characteristic manner, these groups are headed by a grown-up. Obviously, it implies the involvement of adults, others than the teacher, that serve as volunteers, no matter if they are administrative staff of the center, relatives, neighbors, teacher training students in practice or, more significantly, individuals that, being fully conscious of the social value of learning communities, decide to use some of their leisure in being part of this project.

Another very distinctive activity is the dialogic literary circles. In my view, the relevance of this activity, particularly when it comes to marginalized social groups as the ones in the case we will mention afterwards, is given by how useful it turns out to be to enhance the reading skills – so essential in the educational process due to its linguistic nature, as emphasized by Bernstein (1993). Probably this can be approached as the obvious part in the benefits of the activity, even though it is not despicable at all. But beyond this linguistic outcome, no less relevant is the fact that these dialogic literary circles firmly boost the participants’ self-steem and confidence, particularly if they are adults who are not used to the habits of academic activity, and make them feel at ease in the practice of something that a short time ago was somehow strange to them.

The success is inextricably linked also to participation of different social agents that actively conjugates their efforts with the school’s ones. This kind of initiatives symbolizes the relevance of the societal involvement for the success of what happens inside the classrooms. In this sense, the work that associations like Miguel


Fenollera (http://ajmiguelfenollera.blogspot.com.es/) do with socially excluded children very adequately represents the idea that education, particularly in this kind of social settings, is a collective purpose.

Case study in a worse-off and marginalized setting: ‘La Paz’ School

The point is to what extent methodological and theoretical principles are really working in everyday educational practices. That is why I would like to focus this paper’s attention on one illustrative case of learning community that takes places in my hometown, Albacete. It is the reality of ‘La Paz’ School and also remarkably of the neighborhoods where it is located, namely ‘La Estrella’ and ‘Las Seiscientas’. The reference to the neighborhoods is obliged, not only because the social setting is always relevant to every educational analysis, but mainly because in this case we are referring to two of the worst-off and most deprived areas in Albacete, as well as in the whole country Spain (Observatorio Municipal de Igualdad de Oportunidades de Albacete, 2011, pp. 137-143). By and large, school life is hardly separable from the neighborhood life, but this is particularly true in this case, because transformation process in the school came hand by hand by the transformation process in the neighborhood, and vice versa.

‘La Paz’ experience as a learning community begins after the educational failure of the previous school, named ‘San Juan’, which came out with really worrisome drop-out and absenteeism rates, and with serious problems in the coexistence between children, relatives and teachers, and also among children themselves. During the paper presentation, we will have the chance to illustrate this reality through some local newspaper pieces of news, with some highly significant headlines, as a means to contrast the reality of the center before and after becoming a learning community.

In any case, these differences appear also through some data that clearly show a contrasting reality. If we look at the center enrolment rates before the transformation into a learning community, we find some serious causes for concern. In 1994-1995 academic year, the number of students enrolled in ‘San Juan’ School was 334; in 2005-2006, the figure dropped to 45, as a result of the difficult coexistence and the worrisome academic performance of their students. Most of the parents desperately tried to enroll their children in another center, running away from the never-ending atmosphere of conflict and violence, and from the inefficiency of the educational system that was implemented. The learning community began in 2006-2007 with 114 students; after the first years of the experience, the figures not only were no longer decreasing, but increased up to 190 students in 2010-2011 – more than tripling the enrolment rate. Besides, whereas in 2006 the number of absentees students plus those who dropped out was 122, in 2009 fell to 13 – with significant improvements in essential skills, as linguistics, and the coexistence atmosphere.

Another question that can immediately come up is the economic cost of the new model. Probably, the improvement in educational performance is the result of a significant increase in the quality and quantity of resources invested by educational officials, and that is where the ultimate explanation lies on. This is not the reason, though. The 2005-2006 ratio students per professional was 5’88 in the last course before the implementation of dialogic learning, and 5 years later the ratio was 8’05. When it comes to economic resources, the monthly expenditure in professionals per


student was 400 euros in 2005-2006, which drop to slightly over 300 in 2010-2011. Similarly, the number of students taught per 1000 euros of monthly spending on professionals was 2’4 in 2005-2006, and 5 years later it reached 3’25.

But, certainly, the main contribution of the implementation of the principles of dialogic learning in the neighborhoods of ‘Las Seiscientas’ and ‘La Estrella’ is not so much related to the saving in public budget as to the deep transformation that the school is promoting in the human communities. Determinist theoretical bases that put the emphasis on how low performers in education come from less affluent groups collapse if look at the personal lives of some of the protagonists of this educational practice. ‘La Paz’ learning community has managed to transform stories of prison, drug addiction and marginality in stories of integration and personal and family development. Personal stories like Rafael Layón’s ‘Yiyo’ (http://vimeo. com/34869131) or Vanessa’s (Racionero et al, 2012, pp. 50-51) incarnates the transformation that education, through successful practices, can bring to people.

Conclusion: breaking the cycle of poverty through education

It is frequent to find that statistical data show how highly conditioning could be some sociological factors – like parents’ cultural level, social class or gender – for future educational development of individuals. Research has shown, however, that evidence-based educational practices are apt to break the cycle of poverty and marginality. Dialogic learning, as implemented in learning communities, shows the high potential of education as a transformative tool. We have proved through one particular case settled in southern Spain that, even when taken a population with really high levels of unemployment, crime rates and marginality, scientific approaches to education can dramatically change living conditions and enhance personal lives. For this purpose, the active contribution of the whole educational community is needed. Education, therefore, turns out to be a collective commitment that involves a variety of agents for something that, in the end, goes far beyond the walls of the school to reach every person in the neighborhood.

‘La Paz’ is showing on a daily basis that education can change lives, but not only those of students, but also the lives of the neighborhoods where it takes place. The whole human community is to be held responsible for these changes, but the origin, the heart of the change is at school, and that is quite a statement.

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en la sociedad de la información. Barcelona: Hipatia. Bernstein, B. (1993): Clases, códigos y control. La estructura del discurso pedagógico.

Madrid: Morata. Flecha, R. (2000): Sharing words. Theory and practice of dialogic learning. Lanham:

Rowman & Littlefield. INCLUD-ED Final Conference 6th December 2011. http://creaub.info/included/2012/01/11/

videofinalconference/. Accessed on 26th February 2014.


Layón, R. INCLUDE-ED Final Conference 6th December 2011. http://vimeo.com/34869131. Accessed on 26th February 2014.

OBSERVATORIO MUNICIPAL DE IGUALDAD DE OPORTUNIDADES DE ALBACETE (2011): Barrios de Albacete: igualdad, situación social y recursos. Albacete: Ayuntamiento de Albacete. http://www.albacete.es/es/por-temas/movilidad-y-transportes/ficheros/estudiodebarriosfase1definitiva2.pdf/view. Accessed on 26th February 2014.

Racionero, S., Ortega, S., García, R. & Flecha, R. (2012): Aprendiendo contigo. Barcelona: Hipatia.

Dr. Manuel Jacinto Roblizo Colmenero Lecturer in Sociology of Education Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha (UCLM) Albacete, Spain [email protected]



ISABEL GUADALUPE MUNGUÍA GODÍNEZ

POLITICAL FORMATION OF CITIZENSHIP IN YOUNG PEOPLE FROM HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL: A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN MEXICO AND GERMANY

Abstract

This chapter presents an analysis on civic values in the Mexican and German youth population (high school education students), considering the set of capabilities and civic dispositions that mobilize young people of both countries, and which together reflect the calls “civic virtues”, with the purpose of knowing what characterizes the political formation of the youth citizenship in Mexico and Germany.

The study is from a comparative perspective, which takes as its main methodological reference the classic text of George F. Bereday (1968) El método comparativo en pedagogía, displaying in this text the level prior to the comparison called juxtaposition, which is the simultaneous examination of various civic virtues among both populations.

Introduction

It is difficult to find in the history of humanity such a vertiginous social, economic and technological revolution as carried out in the transitions from the twentieth to twenty-first century, modifying our way of thinking, interacting and communicating among individuals of every nation.

We live in an increasingly “small” world in which everyday people and groups of people of different ideological and cultural symbol interact in a diversified scene, in an increasingly complex network of relations between individuals and with instances of power, a world involving for Montes (2012) a coexistence that requires everyday more tolerance, more solidarity and more sophisticated interrelation mechanisms that allow conviviality that transform into affordable a world more just and capable of transcending the risks of a dehumanization that destabilized the species of sense of existence.

A global citizenship is required, a social transformation from its ethical bases, which entails a need to adapt not only our individual but also collective behavior, that affects, of course, education also, (Ayuso, 2007; Delgadillo, 2006), not only in the means but also in the purposes.

Is in the field of education in which it is established, not unique but determinately, the axiological conception of values transmission of the members of a society, from one generation to another, and that this has an impact on the formation of mechanisms for moral judgment, emotional management, treatment of the difference and decisions making that contribute to improve the conviviality and to exercise a responsible and informed citizenship aiming it towards the achievement of justice and equity.

That is why many of the controversies related to democratic theory, have found a space, although reduced, in educational reflection, especially with the issue of citizenship education (Bárcena, 2010: 40).

Political Formation of Citizenship in Young People from High School Level 54

This paper recovers the experience of academic exchange carried out in Germany as part of a research project studying the Master of Education Sciences, training in interculturalism and education program. The study population is located in the educational context of high school, specifically in a high school incorporated into the Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo (UAEH) and in the German case, in the comparable educational model Gymnasiale Oberstufe in the State of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW).

In this sense, the civic values that make the political education in Mexican and German young people are analyzed, considering the field of research on citizenship as educational problem, which is analyzed from a set of capabilities and civic dispositions, called “civic virtues” that every human being deployed in the exercise of citizenship, which includes not only the knowledge, interest and participation in public or political sphere, but also the way how is put into practice freedom, critical thinking , interpersonal confidence and towards the institutions of public interest.

The comparative education as a method of research

For Calderón (2000), the comparison as a method of social sciences, compares complex operations and see links under variable conditions, that is, as a way to connect facticities (events which may or may not happen) and relate relations (Schriewer, 1989: 83, cited in: Calderon, 2000: 11).

In this sense, if we start from an epistemological notion, compare is to confront one thing with another (Sartori & Morlino, 1999). Furthermore, compare involves assimilating and differentiate the limits, that is, it is considered comparable (very similar) to what properties or characteristics, and not comparable (too different) with respect to what other properties or characteristics (Sartori & Morlino, 1999). “Comparative education is therefore a challenging discipline of reflection and analysis, which enrichment requires institutional support to promote itself through teaching and the development of comparative research projects between educational systems of other countries, the results will allow us to know more deeply the policies and models that guide them, as well as the actions undertaken by the different actors involved in its configuration” (Calderón, 2000: 16).

In the words of Sartori & Morlino (1999), we compare to “locate”, to learn from the experiences of others, to have terms of paragon (who does not know other countries does not know its own).

Analysis of the civic virtues in students of Mexico and Germany

The study was conducted with a sample of 156 students of high school, 78 participants from every nationality, in an age range of 16-22 years old, the average is 17 years, 97 women and 59 men, of which 42 percent work and 58 percent no.

German students are found in an age range of 17-19 years, with 50 women and 28 men, of whom 51 work and 27 not. Compared with Mexican students, their age range is between 16 and 22 years old, with a mean of 17.5 years, of which 47 are women and 31 men, and only 10 work, while 68 do not.

Now, with regard to the activities carried out by young students, when they are declared to participate in associations, the following is observed: while Mexican students have greater participation in cultural groups, German students have it in

Isabel Guadalupe Munguía Godínez 55

sports groups; emphasizing that while the lowest percentage of participation in Mexico is the activity as a candidate (a leader who represents the students in a classroom), in Germany the lowest percentage of participation was obtained for the altruistic institutions.

In relation to the reasons that make students participate in an organization, the biggest reasons for Mexican students with equal percentages are “to change certain things” and “to help others” while the German is “help others”. “This guideline give us to think that both young Germans and Mexicans have a willingness to translate the feeling of brotherhood in acts of support to groups or other collective movements, in addition to do this actively” (Heller, 1998).

Regarding the associations that young people form part, the majority of both German and Mexican students form part of a sports association and political associations are those of which least form part, however, for Mexican youth, percentages of young people participating in politics are higher than those of the Germans, 57.7 versus 1.4 respectively. This means appealing to Kymlicka (2001), Mexican youth have greater capacity and willingness to engage in public discourse on issues related to public policy, that is, Mexican youth show greater public spirit that young Germans.

With regard to the vote, nine in ten German students plan to vote, compared to the case of Mexico which is 74.4. Questioning about the main reason why will exercise the vote, German students mentioned that is because it is their right, while Mexico's youth will vote because they want to choose their rulers.

Asking about several statements about political culture, both German and Mexican students mostly agree with be in disagreement that politics is a matter of adults, in Germany a considerable percentage agrees with this statement; as well as students from both countries support that politics is for both men and women. Questioning students about participates in politics, Mexican and German population strongly agree they do this to find their own benefit, however, in Germany a considerable percentage points is in disagreement.

In relation to what they believe is the main difficulty for students to participate in the improvement of school life, while young Germans consider it is because of not knowing how to do it or who to turn to, young Mexicans think the main difficulty is the lack of interest of students. It is interesting that both German and Mexican students believe that it is task of the school to prepare students to participate in the political life of the country.

In relation to what are public figures in whom students have higher and lower confidence, Germany population answered they rely completely on the figures of judges and police, while in Mexico do not trust anything in the police figure; both countries rely heavily on the figure of the teacher.

When questioned in relation to which person should govern a country, while German students believe it has to be person chosen by the people, Mexican students consider they must be experts in political and government affairs.

Conclusions

In this second decade of the 21st century, High School education is staged in a difficult situation, on the one hand, due to the demands of quality, equity and coverage; and on the other, the variants and complex social and cultural conditions


in which it operates and seeks its legitimacy as a forming and not formalizing school towards higher education.

In relation to the civic virtues that characterize both populations, we note the following: students in Mexico and Germany are characterized for a passive citizenship (Bárcena, 1997, cited in Molina, 2011: 34-35), since they demonstrate an awareness of the possession of their rights and duties as citizens, acquired by the fact of being part of a particular community or society (citizenship by affiliation), however, little participation or demand of full exercise of those duties is also shown (citizenship by conviction) with knowledge and responsibility in acting, which makes to still not reach an active citizenship.

Although both populations present features of a passive citizenry, we also find interesting points of convergence and divergence, which make us think in the cultivation of a possible active citizenship or simply targeting a sort of communities of sense or relocation phenomena in response to the ravages of economic and cultural globalization.

For example, as convergence points, we find that in both populations show an arrangement for solidarity actions to pairs of friends and groups; the processes of civic socialization are stronger and more durable with reference to classmates and friends than other means of socialization, in addition to, there is a willingness to respect and tolerate other that thinks differently.

The divergence points are explained in terms of social and cultural conditions through which citizenship operates in Mexican and German youth. The Mexican youth civic spirit is more characterized by the desire for a democratic and fair society under the idea that the country must be transformed from within and not from without, by policies generating better living conditions among Mexican people. Bárcena (2010: 35) translates this as a subjective definition that democracy requires, an effect or consequence of the action of men, whose nature is to be an essentially political being, assumes options of value, a normative reference for ideals and aspirations.

On the other hand, the German youth, displays a civic spirit, marked by comfort, having social conditions and educability, fully favorable for optimal personal and professional development.

We also note that German youth shows a higher level of confidence in the figures and entities responsible for the impartation of justice, a situation that contrasts with young Mexicans who trust less on authority, probably because they do not perceive certainty at the time of impart justice.

Finally, we found the Mexican youth have a greater willingness to engage in matters of collective interest than the German youth, in addition to, the former show greater interest in improving the context and school climate, which German young people already have. Following Kymlicka (2001: 345), we shall say that Mexican youth show greater public spirit than German youth, engaging themselves in the discourse on public policy issues.

As Heller (1998: 225) says, this results in the provision of civic bravery: the virtue to speak out for a cause, or an opinion that we believe is the correct, as a democratic conviction, in the hope that justice can be done.

This raises major challenges for the case of the Mexican high school level education on citizenship education and the way how they are being trained or


educated in citizenship, certain segments of the youth population. The mission of pedagogical reflection in democratic social contexts must be the interest in moral and civic education as one of the main priorities of any “modern” educational system wishing to increase their own quality levels and extend the estimation for democracy, conceived as a form of civic life (Bárcena, 2010: 47).

Training in values must be understood as a process of nature evolutionary, permanent, that allows to develop the autonomy of subjects to forge and define their own criteria of moral judgment and to develop the ability to adapt their behavior (Schmelkes, 2004).

For all these reasons, it is possible to open new veins of knowledge around the topic that concerns us, delve, for example, in transversal studies that take into account how to generate the conditions for the construction of an active and participatory citizenship, and new educational approaches in the context of the implementation of the Integral Reform for High School Education in Mexico, as well as those arising due to the process of integration and unification that Germany and the European Union experiences.

References Ayuso, J. & Gutierrez, C. (2007): Educación en valores y profesorado. Revista educación en

valores, (1) 7, Venezuela, 108-118. Bárcena, F. (2010): El oficio de la ciudadanía. Introducción a la educación política. Mexico:

Editorial Paidós Mexican Publishing. Bereday, G. (1968): El método comparativo en pedagogía. Barcelona: Herder. Calderon, J. (2000): Teoría y desarrollo de la investigación en educación comparada.

Mexico: Editorial Plaza Valdés. Delgadillo, V. (2006): La integración del ser humano a partir del desarrollo de su identidad

con las instituciones educativas. In Hirsh, A. (Ed.) Educación, Valores y Desarrollo Moral, (II) (449-518). Mexico: Gernika.

Heller, Á. (1998): Ética ciudadana y virtudes cívicas. In Heller, Á. (Ed.), Políticas de la postmodernidad. Ensayos de crítica cultural. (214-223). Barcelona: Ediciones Peninsula.

Kymlicka, W. (2001): La política vernácula. Nacionalismo, multiculturalismo y ciudadanía. Barcelona: Editorial Paidós.

Molina, A. (2011): Proyecto: Componentes de formación ciudadana desde el programa de Formación Cívica y Ética en el segundo grado de educación secundaria. SEB / CONACYT.

Montes, L. (2012): Educación y ciudadanía en el México del siglo XXI. In: Memoria de la IX Jornada Nacional de Investigadores en Educación y Valores. Educación y valores para el mundo global: la humanidad como noción ética. Mexico. http://www.reduval.org.mx/ files/memoria_ixjornada/html/mesas/formacion_ciudadania_03.html. Accessed November 2013.

Sartori, G. & Morlino, L. (1999): La comparación en las ciencias sociales. Madrid: Editorial Alianza.

Schmelkes, S. (2004): La formación en valores en la educación Básica. Library to update the teacher. Mexico: SEP.


Isabel Guadalupe Munguía Godínez, MEd Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo Mexico [email protected]


LYNETTE JACOBS & CORENE DE WET

ESSENTIAL VALUES FOR GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP: HOW DO SOUTH AFRICAN LEARNERS FARE?

Abstract

Respect for oneself, for one another, for property and for the world is needed within the global context. In line with global trends, the South African government has consistently included these principles in its policy documents over the last 20 years. While media reports suggest that the behaviour of learners, specifically in secondary schools, reflect disrespect we acknowledge that media reporting can be biased. Thus, a survey was conducted in 11 secondary schools from 3 provinces. The aim of this study was to evaluate the behaviour of learners in the schools through the experiences and observations of the participants, taking into account the various contextual factors within which the South African school system functions. An international questionnaire, adapted for the South African context, was administered to a non-probability sample of 690 learners. We found that in line with media reports, the behaviour of secondary schools learners to be in dissonance with the values of global citizenship and as portrayed in the curriculum documents of South Africa. Particularly in more privileged schools, learners seem to be engaged in destructive behaviour, such as consuming alcohol on the school premises, and destroying school property.

Introduction

On 15 March 1995 the ideals for education in post-apartheid South Africa were published in the White Paper on Education and Training, the document that directed education policy development by the Government of South Africa after 1994 (RSA, 1995: 2). In chapter 2 (section 6) it is stated that:

Successful modern economies and societies ... require citizens ... to take responsibility for personal performance, to set and achieve high standards, and to work cooperatively.

Chapter 4 of this document describes the values and principles of education and training. It documents the Government’s vision of education and training as part of “basic human rights” (section 2), with the “realisation of democracy, freedom, equality, fairness and peace as prerequisites for learning” (section 13). It is further stated that “restoration of the culture of teaching, learning and management involves the creation of a culture of accountability” (section 12) and foregrounds the “importance of due process of law” (section 16). It is explicitly stated that through the envisaged education system, citizens will become “empowered to participate confidently and constructively in social and civic life” (section 16). Over the past twenty years, the different curriculum documents have also captured this vision by explicitly stating issues of human rights and social justice as core principles on which education in South Africa is based (Department of Basic Education, 2011: 5).

This vision that the government of South Africa had at the start of the so-called new South Africa, resonates with what is required for global citizenship. Johansson

Essential Values for Global Citizenship: How Do South African Learners Fare? 60

(2009: 90) explains that children, as world citizens, should learn to “take care of themselves as well as others and the world”. While nobody disputes the need for good mathematical, reading and writing skills, these are not the sole indicators of being adequately prepared for life (Zhao, 2008: 48). Helterbran and Strahler (2013: 311), based on several authors, inter alia identify competences such as “integrity”, “responsibility” and “respect for people and things” as essential characteristics that should be developed in children.

The realities in South African schools however, appear to be quite different from the ideal that is captured in the baseline policy document (RSA, 1995) and the drive towards global competent citizenship described in the literature. The South African media regularly lashes out at the school system in the country, creating the impression that there is chaos. Under the headline Pupils beg cops for protection, Nair (2013: 6) reports on learners who are desperate for protection, following the death of a pupil after being assaulted by his peers. Gibbs (2013: 6) reports that Teachers work in constant fear, and claims that pupils have no respect for authority at schools. Under the heading Criminalising bad behaviour at schools fails to address root causes, Burton (2013: 9) avers that learners and staff need to be equipped with skills to identify and mitigate problematic behaviour. Similarly, Stokes (2011: 10) (Schools should teach attitude) argues that schools should focus on the virtues such as politeness, diligence, punctuality, enthusiasm and cooperation in addition to academic prowess. If these and many other media reports are to be believed, South African schools might be failing in their task as set out in the policy documents.

However, newspaper agencies have their own agendas, and the possibility exists that these representations can be skewed. De Wet (2003: 36) points out that media reports are sometimes biased, and reporting often focuses on severe cases that will sell newspapers (Jacobs, 2012: 27-28). Thus, in order for us to refute or confirm newspapers’ portrayals, and to explore the efficacy of policy implementation, the following research question is posed: To what extent does the behaviour of secondary schools learners in the country resonate with the values needed of global citizens, as portrayed in the curriculum documents of South Africa?

Research methodology

This paper is the result of a larger research project on school violence in South Africa (refer inter alia to Jacobs (2013 and 2012). We used an existing research instrument that has been implemented extensively in comparative international studies (Benbenishty & Astor, 2005). The specific questionnaire was designed for learners, and we adapted it for the South African context before distributing it to a convenient sample of 11 schools in three of the nine provinces in the country. The selection of these schools was based on warnings in the literature about the difficulty of persuading people in developing countries to take part in surveys (Bless, Higson-Smith & Kagee, 2006: 120-121), and recommendations to use as good a sample as possible under the circumstances (Davies, 2007: 54-55). We obtained the necessary permission to conduct the survey and each of the schools was requested to randomly select 80 pupils who were willing to participate in the study. Of the 880 questionnaires, the schools returned 713, and we were able to use 690 (78%). We took specific steps to promote the integrity of our research.

Lynette Jacobs & Corene de Wet 61

The integrity of the research We requested the Life Orientation teachers at the schools to administer the

questionnaires during class time. This was done not only because moral education falls within the scope of this learning field, but also to provide a safe environment for debriefing the learners (Strydom, 2011: 122). The questionnaires were unmarked and not numbered. The participants were requested not to write their names or the names of their school on the questionnaires. The participants were also assured that they were free to refrain from responding to the items and they could even return their questionnaires blank. Once they had responded to all items with which they felt comfortable, they were requested to seal the questionnaires before returning them to the teacher.

Analysis of data The data were captured by an experienced person, and analysed using the

StataIC11 package. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of internal consistency of responses was calculated as 0.9176, which suggests a high level of internal reliability (Pietersen & Maree, 2007: 216). The aggregated data were explored based on the mean scores of the data, and the significance of differences between mean scores from respondents in various contexts analysed using the Student’s t-test and the one-way ANOVA statistics (using the Sheffé post-hoc test). While these are often used to infer findings, in this paper we used them to differentiate between groups without claiming to generalise the findings.

The following independent variables were used to explore the various school contexts: • Different geographical-demographical contexts:

- School setting (urban schools and rural schools); - Enrolment figures (750 or fewer learners and more than 750 learners).

• Different economical-technological contexts: - School classification system of South Africa (poorer schools and more

affluent schools). • Different socio-political contexts:

- Race composition of the schools (single race schools; schools in which the majority of the learners are from one race with a small number of learners from other races (partially integrated); and multiracial schools (fully integrated).

In the questionnaire, statements were made about the behaviour of others that the participants experienced or observed. Respondents had to indicate on a five-point scale whether specific behaviours had taken place in the 12 months prior to the survey. On the scale, 5 indicated that the specific behaviour always occurs, and 1 indicated that it never occurs. While any score of above 1 indicates that such behaviour does occur, in the percentages indicated in our discussion of the results, we use the term regular to denote a score of 3 or higher (sometimes, often and always). Using the behaviours as dependent variables in the discussion that follows, we will refer to differences between the means of variables as follows: similar differences (small differences); notable differences (moderate to large, but not statistically significant); and statistically significant differences (95% probability).


Results

In the questionnaire, the learners were asked about the behaviour of others that they observed or experienced themselves. We selected from the survey questionnaire, items that related to learners’ respect for themselves, others and other people’s property. We first provide an overview of some behaviours in each section, after which we compare the prevalence of these behaviours in different contexts.

Harmful practices The participants in the study were asked to indicate how often they observed

harmful practices at school. It became clear that many learners in the secondary school environment engage in harmful practices, thus showing disrespect for themselves. Learners seem prone to often becoming involved in fights (72.01%). Regular alcohol consumption on the school premises was reported by 49.64% of the participants, while using illegal drugs (including marijuana) at school was reported by 58.42%.

In the schools in our sample, the level of fighting between learners in urban and in rural schools was similar. However, the levels of alcohol usage on school premises were found to be statistically significantly higher in urban schools than in rural schools (t=5.342; p=0.000), while the usage of illegal drugs on the school premises were notably higher in rural schools than in urban schools.

From the sample, it appears that fighting among learners is statistically significantly higher in larger schools (enrolment of more than 750) than in smaller schools (t=4.2829; p=0.0000). Alcohol usage on campus is similar in larger and smaller schools, but illegal drug usage is notably more common in the smaller schools than in the larger schools.

It appears that destructive behaviour is more common in more affluent schools than in economically disadvantaged schools. Fighting was reported to occur statistically significantly more often (t=3.4033; p=0.0007); alcohol consumption on the school premises also takes place statistically significantly more frequently (t=7.0950; p=0.0000); while using illegal drugs on the school premises occurs notably repeatedly in the affluent schools in the sample.

The data from this sample furthermore show that fighting happens statistically significantly less often at single race schools, than at partially integrated schools (F=) or fully integrated schools (F=). The prevalence of fighting in the latter two categories of schools was similar. Alcohol usage on the school premises (F=22.21; p=0.0000) and illegal drug usage (F=16.89; p=0.0000) however, is significantly higher in partially integrated schools.

Attitude towards others The participants were furthermore asked about their own experiences in being

on the receiving end of disrespectful behaviour. Of all the participants, 35.62% indicated that they regularly experience intimidation by other learners; 33.04% indicated that they are regularly mocked, insulted and humiliated; 17.33% reported that they are regularly marginalised and 16.52% regularly experience sexual harassment. While these are examples of many acts that could be used to measure disrespect towards others, it does indicate that a notable number of learners in the schools in our sample regularly experience a lack of respect from their peers.


The analysis of the data furthermore showed that participants in rural schools that participated in the study experienced intimidation, notably more often than their peers in urban schools, while participants from urban schools in the sample are significantly more regularly mocked, insulted and humiliated (t=3.5809; p=0.0004). Notably, more participants from rural schools experience regular marginalisation and social exclusion, while the levels of sexual harassment are similar in schools from these two contexts.

Considering the school size, it was found that participants in large schools (more than 750 learners) experienced being mocked, insulted and humiliated statistically significantly more frequently than their peers in smaller schools (t=4.320; p=0.000), as well as experiencing intimidation more often. However, the experience of participants from larger schools and smaller schools were similar with respect to sexual harassment and marginalisation and social exclusion.

Being mocked, insulted and humiliated occurs statistically significantly more often in the affluent schools in the sample than in the poorer schools (t=4.5312; p=0.0000), while marginalisation and social exclusion seems notably more common in the economically disadvantaged schools. The levels of intimidation, as well as that of sexual harassment were measured as similar in the more affluent schools and in the schools in poor communities.

The regularity with which participants from single race schools are mocked, insulted and humiliated is statistically significantly lower than their peers in partially integrated schools (F=13.65; p=0.0000) or in fully integrated schools (F=13.65; p=0.0000). However, the levels of intimidation, marginalisation and social exclusion, as well as sexual harassment in the schools in the sample, were found to be similar.

Attitude towards things Four indicators were used to probe the experiences of participants, in terms of

the attitude of other learners towards property. Two indicators related to their own experiences, and two to general observations in the school. 57.60% of the participants indicated that they regularly experience their personal belongings or equipment being stolen at the school, while 24.08% regularly experience other learners intentionally destroying or breaking their personal belongings. Furthermore, 70.18% of the participants reported that other learners destroy property at school, draw graffiti on the walls or damage the furniture, while 77.37% indicated that learners steal things from other learners and from teachers.

We then explored the experiences and perceptions of participants from various contexts, to get a better understanding of these behaviours. The data suggest that learners from urban and rural schools have similar experiences with regard to the theft of personal belongings or equipment, but that there is a notably higher incidence of intentional destruction or breakage of personal belongings by participants from rural schools. The destruction of things at school, drawing graffiti on the walls or damaging the furniture (t=3.6543; p=0.0003) and also stealing items from other learners and from teachers (t=2.6713; p=0.0077) takes place statistically significantly more often in rural schools than in urban schools.

Considering the behaviour of learners towards property in smaller and larger schools, the data suggest that learners’ experiences in these contexts with regard to their personal belongings or equipment being stolen at the school; learners


intentionally destroying or breaking their personal belongings, as well as learners stealing from other learners and teachers, are quite similar. However, participants from larger schools (more than 750 learners) indicated a statistically significantly higher level of destruction of property at school, drawing graffiti on the walls or damaging the furniture (t=4.1943; p=0.0000).

Analysing the responses of learners from more privileged schools, compared to participants from economically disadvantaged schools, it seems that the theft of personal belongings of the participants occurs more frequently in disadvantaged schools. However, learners intentionally destroying or breaking others’ personal belongings, learners stealing from other learners and teachers, as well as the destruction of items at school, drawing graffiti on the walls or damaging the furniture in these two contexts were reported to be similar.

Lastly, schools with different learner compositions were considered, and again experiences seem to be fairly similar across different types of schools. The only difference which emerged was that the destruction of property at school, drawing graffiti on the walls or damaging the furniture takes place statistically significantly more regularly in integrated schools, than in single race schools (f=4.00; p=0.024).

Discussion

The aim of the paper is not to generalise findings to all secondary schools in the country. Yet, if one considers that quite diverse schools took part in the study, there is reason for concern about the behaviour of learners. It seems common practice to engage in behaviour that will cause harm to themselves, as well as showing disregard for their peers and the school.

Schools in specific contexts need to address certain realities. Substance abuse is a particular problem in urban schools, and so is hurtful behaviour, such as ridicule and humiliation. However, these schools seem to be more successful at preventing the destruction of personal and school property. Learners in rural schools, on the other hand, seem to more regularly use illegal drugs; to exclude and marginalise others; to damage school property; and to steal from others.

Fighting seems to be a problem specifically in larger schools, together with vandalism, intimidation, humiliation and general rudeness. More affluent schools need to be aware of the high levels of substance abuse, while social exclusion and theft are particular problems in poorer schools.

In terms of learner composition, partially integrated schools show the highest level of alcohol and drug abuse, while vandalism is highest in fully integrated schools. However, it seems that in general, disrespectful behaviour does not particularly vary across schools with different learner compositions.

Conclusion

Globally, there is a need for people to show respect, and this requirement is acknowledged in education policy documents in South Africa. This said, looking at the way in which secondary school learners act, success cannot be claimed. It is apparent that the behaviour of secondary schools learners in the country renounce the values that are needed by global citizens, as portrayed in the curriculum


documents of South Africa. Roleplayers need to heed the warming expressed by the author E.M. Forster in 1938, in an essay titled ‘What I believe’:

“Tolerance, good temper and sympathy - they are what matter really, and if the human race is not to collapse they must come to the front before long”.

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“worlds” of one country. In N. Popov, C. Wolhuter, P. A. Almeida, G. Hilton, J. Ogunleye & O. Chigisheva (Eds.) Education in One World: Perspectives from Different Nations. BCES Conference Books, Vol. 11, pp. 59-66. Sofia, Bulgaria: Bulgarian Comparative Education Society.

Johansson, E. (2009): The preschool child of today - the world-citizen of tomorrow? International Journal of Early Childhood, 41(2), pp. 79-95.

Nair, N. (2013, November 25): Pupils beg cops for protection. THE TIMES, 6. Pietersen, J. & Maree, K. (2007): Standardisation of a questionnaire. In K. Maree (Ed.) First

Steps in Research (pp. 215-223). Pretoria: Van Schaik. RSA (1995): White Paper on Education and training. Pretoria: Government Printers. Stokes, T. (2011, September 8): Schools should teach attitude. WITNESS, 10. Strydom, H. (2011): Ethical aspects of research in the social sciences and human services

professions. In A. S. De Vos, H. Strydom, C. B. Fouché & C. S. Delport, Research at grass roots for the social sciences and human service professions (4th ed., pp. 113-130). Pretoria: Van Schaik.

Zhao, Y. (2008, December): What knowledge has the most worth. The Education Digest, 48-52.


Dr Lynette Jacobs School of Education Studies University of the Free State South Africa [email protected] Prof. Dr. Corene de Wet School of Open Learning University of the Free State Bloemfontein South Africa [email protected]


SYED NITAS IFTEKHAR

LEARNING FROM THE PAST, STRATEGIZING FOR THE FUTURE EDUCATION FOR ALL IN INDIA: THE PRESENT AND BEYOND 2015

Abstract

Education for All has been an international driver in the past decade for states that have been progressing rapidly and been making remarkable progress in education practically eradicating illiteracy and achieving nearly universal primary education along with gender parity.

India being the second largest populated country in the world constituting a significant portion of the world population has made significant progress over the last couple of decades in the field of education. This progress undoubtedly has been through the efforts of the political system within the country and undeniably it can be attributed to the international targets such as Education for All (EFA) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). Such national and international efforts have been made to prepare globally competent citizens in India as well as in other countries. Yet as the deadline for EFA approaches, some states and regions within India remain far from achieving some goals and urban rural disparities exist that hold back India as a whole from achieving set targets for 2015 as a nation. India remains to be under the lower third in the Educational Development Index with EDI of .790 (UNESCO, 2012). Therefore, it is important to make a final assessment of progress under the framework of EFA with a vision beyond 2015 that will help achieve international and national targets in the coming decade. This paper concludes that as India prioritizes to prepare globally competent citizens in the coming years there needs to be a well thought-out education strategy that can be implemented via reforms in these key areas – access, quality, governance.

Introduction: Progress in the MDGs and EFA Goals

The global agenda Education for all (EFA) was launched at Jomtien in 1990 and reaffirmed in Dakar in 2000 that adopted six major goals for education, two of which also became UN Millennium Development Goals later in the same year. The Dakar goals covered the attainment of Universal Primary Education (UPE) and gender equality, improving literacy and educational quality, and increasing life-skills and early childhood education programmes, and were to be achieved within a span 15 years active from 2000. UPE and gender equality were recognized in the MDGs as goal 2 & 3.

India has abided by the 11th Strategy of Dakar framework for action EFA implementation and published EFA assessment reports. The national EFA assessment reports haven’t gone beyond the data more specifically into the weaknesses and the challenges in the system that would help in strategizing for the future.

Before EFA goals were adopted by India, a major step towards education in India was in the form of The National Policy on Education (NPE) in 1986. Thereafter, in 1988 National Literacy Mission was launched in India. NPE laid the

Learning from the Past, Strategizing for the future. Education for all in India 68

foundation of several centrally assisted schemes in order to accelerate progress towards the EFA goals. In fact, NPE 1986 amended and adopted in 1992 states “In our national perception, education is essentially for all…”.

The situation many countries as well as international organisations face now is no less than a fork which has led to a debate which can be only resolved with time. The question on one hand is whether the EFA & MDGs goals be continued and revised on the base of the original set of goals or whether to introduce new international targets. Either way it is important to evaluate the feasibility, sustainability of the conclusions that may surface around 2015.

Current Scenario of Education in India

Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) The formulation of Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) in 1976

under the national policy for children ECCE did not create a major impact until the 86th amendment to the Indian Constitution which enjoined the state “to provide ECCE and education to all children until they complete six years of age”. Over the course of the last two five-year plans there has been a significant jump in preschool enrolment from 19 percent in 1990 to 55 percent in 2010 (UNESCO, 2012), though there is a huge ground that still needs to be covered. Estimated infant mortality rate is also at a staggering 48 percent. Along with neighbouring countries such as Nepal and Bangladesh the gap in nutrition between the richest and the poorest in India also exceeds the gap between urban and rural areas (UNESCO, 2012). Furthermore, the quality of pre-school education remains to be inconsistent between government and private pre-schools. Though private schools provide better quality it reinforces inequality between the rich and poor and between boys and girls. It necessitates for a comprehensive and co-ordinated approach to early childhood development from birth to transition into schooling. The quality of pre-school education in the early years of childhood make a crucial difference to children’s learning in early primary grades.

Universal Primary Education In retrospect, the focus of EFA and MDGs was more on the quantity and quality

was sidelined until quantity targets were met. India increased access to primary education over the last decade but that has not ensured quality. Deformed quality of education has inevitably led to inequalities in the system that has had negative consequences. One such consequence is private tutoring that has been an offspring of the inequality which is further leading to inequality and waste of educational resources. National and regional initiatives such as mid-day meal scheme, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (Movement for Education for All), Right to Education Act, Educational Guarantee Scheme, Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya Scheme etc. have pushed the net enrolment ratio in primary education around 92 percent in 2010, yet nearly 1.6 million out-of-school children exist. India constitutes for about one-third of the worlds’ out of school children. Access to the children left behind should be provided by maintaining standards of quality across the country to ensure a healthy state of primary education in India. Quality assurance is a prerequisite for reducing dropout rates and increasing survival and primary cohort completion rates. It will also improve significantly the transition from primary to secondary education.

Syed Nitas Iftekhar 69

In future, target assessments combining enrolments into primary school together with completion rates will provide a better view of the situation.

Skill development for the youth The issues related to adolescents and youth fall under the purview of various

ministries such as MHRD, Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Ministry of Labour etc. who have actively pursued this target under policies like NPE, 1986 and National Youth Policy, 2003. Despite great achievements in national youth literacy, the unemployment rate (age 15-24) has persisted around 10 per cent over the last decade and for age group 20-24 the usual unemployment status was more than 18 per cent in the year 2009-2010. Such high unemployment rates partly suggest mismatch between the skills demand and supply, although they are affected by other factors as well (Mitra & Verick, 2013). This scenario mandates a comprehensive view of skills development through public and private initiatives with an aim to maintain high standards of quality and the labour market dynamics. Children need to complete lower secondary education to acquire foundation skills. Completion and drop-out rates in lower secondary have been affecting youth skills especially among the disadvantaged groups (UNESCO, 2014). Youth illiteracy among the marginalized groups should also be addressed soon because this youth illiteracy translates into adult illiterates.

Adult literacy Though, proportions of adult illiterates have improved in the last decade the

number of adult illiterates in India has remained at 287 million since 1990 to 2010 because of the population growth. India constitutes of more than one-thirds of the world’s adult illiterates which needs serious attention from the government. Defining literacy has been a debate in many developing nations, and literacy should be recognised as a continuum and as the laying stone of lifelong learning. Adaptation of skills and ICT (Information Communication Technologies) with functional literacy skills as base for lifelong learning has to be a core element of the basic education agenda. The goal, targets and indicators for literacy have to be defined in a way that makes sense in relation to an overarching human capability agenda (Ahmed, 2013). Furthermore, multiple literacy skill levels need to be recognized. In India, like many other countries there is need to expand formal and non-formal adult education with the concept of life-long learning.

Gender parity and equality Girls’ education has been a cause of concern for India for a long time. EFA

goals and given indicators for gender parity have adopted the liberal feminist approach of having the same number of enrolments for boys and girls. Measures for quality have not been given adequate focus and relationships with other factors play an important role (Ramachandran, 2009). India recognizes the importance of improving the status of women and empowering them with the means of proper education. Several programs, schemes have been implemented across the country such as Mahila Samakhya Programme, Sarva Shiksha Abhyan etc. that have had a positive impact on the gender parity index in recent years. Yet, the task at hands is unfinished and needs attention to improve access and most importantly quality to girls. It is vital to understand the intermeshing of various inequalities that are associated and gender relations as they dissect in different ways in different regions of the country one offsetting the other reinforcing the other in some way. In


secondary education, gender parity trends vary by region, income group and level (UNESCO, 2014). India should address the challenge it currently faces in achieving gender parity in secondary education, in the post 2015 development agenda.

Quality Quality aspect of EFA has witnessed various results in accordance to the various

efforts made by different countries. India has made efforts for the same, yet significant quality deficiencies exist that are visible in indicators of the other five EFA goals. Countries with have achieved targets in terms of quantity are aggressively pursuing ways to improve quality which in itself is explanatory of the fact that quality is the backbone of an education system. Focusing and prioritizing on improving the quality of education in the coming years will have an immediate effect on various educational levels in India. Pupil-teacher ratio should be reduced in India by introduction of well qualified teachers; currently this indicator is much higher than world average in primary as well as secondary education.

India in totality has evaded the commitment to improve the state of education and despite the visible efforts of the government and civil societies; the indicators in the country are still far from satisfactory. As various countries across the world progress rapidly, it necessitates India to design and follow a strategy post-2015 that would encompass the needs and correspond to the concerns in the education sector.

EFA goals and MDGs have played an important role, and acted like a catalyst on an international level to create the urgency to point out and address the issues in education. India has indeed benefitted from the same and made commendable progress in some areas yet, the experience in the last decade should be taken as a learning lesson to further improve and build upon the foundation laid by EFA goals and MDGs. International as well within state learning should be promoted to capitalize on the strengths of the education system in India and eliminate the weakness in the future. Major reforms in key areas such as quality of education and governance are the need of the hour.

Post 2015 Strategy

The past decade with EFA goals & MDGs should be a basis for evaluating and visioning a future. The global and national agenda beyond 2015 needs to be articulated in a coherent manner that would be complimentary each other. First of all, education needs to be recognized as the main concern for development in India as it has been widely acknowledged in the past internationally. Education will not only facilitate individuals’ escape from poverty, but also generates productivity that fuels economic growth. A one-year increase in the average educational attainment of a country’s population is estimated to increases annual per capita GDP growth from 2% to 2.5% (UNESCO, 2014).

The post 2015 education agenda must be regionally flexible to adapt and sensitive to states wise needs and differences. Recent trends suggest, universal primary completion and universal lower secondary completion are not expected be achieved for the poor, marginalized groups in India for at least another two generations (UNESCO, 2014). The post 2015 targets would a herculean task to achieve without great contribution from the government and cooperation with civil societies and international organisations. Future course of action has been suggested


briefly regarding each EFA goal in the previous sections, and along with that India needs to shift focus to a few key areas in the coming years.

It should prioritize to address the learning crisis in India by enhancing access and quality of primary and lower-upper secondary education. To achieve universal lower secondary education and work towards universal upper secondary education in India, it is of vital importance to reach out to those who are facing disparity due to poverty, location, ethnic and gender. Public current expenditure on secondary education per pupil (unit cost) at PPP in constant has decreased from approximately US$422 in 1999 to US$375 in 2009, yet the next section discusses some financial options that India should consider to increase government spending. Improving teacher training and quality of teachers is most vital to address the learning crisis. Increasing number of teachers with qualifications is necessary to ensure quality in education.

Furthermore, it is necessary to go beyond conventional definition of learning and re-think learning. India needs to cultivate lifelong learning to build a learning society that should enable all youth and adults to participate in lifelong learning programs related to work, citizenship and personal fulfilment. Non-formal education should be given equal importance such as Community Learning Centres etc to help eradicate a major hurdle of adult functional literacy.

Globally there is also a pressing need for Education for Sustainable Development and many countries are practising ESD and strategizing to develop ESD beyond 2015 as the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD, 2005-14) comes to an end. Education for Sustainable Development allows every human being to acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values necessary to shape a sustainable future. Education for Sustainable Development means including key sustainable development issues into teaching and learning; for example, climate change, disaster risk reduction, biodiversity, poverty reduction, and sustainable consumption. It will help sustain people, communities and ecosystems and advocate the message of learning to live together. It is utmost important to re-orient education in this direction. Education for Sustainable Development requires far-reaching changes in the way education is often practised today. Moreover, as the latest Global Monitoring Report by UNESCO (2014) has suggested each post-2015 goal must be clear and measurable, with the aim of ensuring that no one is left behind. To achieve this, progress should be tracked by the achievements of the lowest performing groups, making sure the gap between them and the better-off is narrowing.

Financing Education beyond 2015

The lack of a financing target for EFA should be addressed after 2015 on a global level. In contrast to the huge challenge India faces in the quality of education, percentage spending on education of Gross National Product (GNP) has gone down from 4.4% in 1999 to 3.3% in 2010. The total public expenditure on education as % total of government expenditure has also seen a decline from 12.7% (1999) to 10.5% (2010). Both expenditures are currently lower than the world average. India should allocate at least 6% of GNP to education or at least 20% of their budget to education and an international target post-2015 for the same would cement the need for greater financial support (UNESCO, 2014).


In 2011, India devoted spending of as low as US$212 per primary school child and US$375 per secondary school child. Inter-state education spending varies across the country which affects the marginalised sections. For instance in the state of Kerala, education spending per pupil was about US$685 whereas, in the poorer state of Bihar it was US$100. It is necessary to distribute and allocate financial resources evenly across the country. Introducing education cess and increasing it to 3 per cent of all taxes collected by central government in India, was a positive yet insufficient step in making more resources available towards elementary education. If India reduces tax exemptions, tackles tax evasion and diversifies its tax base, it could greatly change this picture (UNESCO, 2014). To achieve Education for All, it is important to develop funding mechanism so as to shift education spending in favour of the marginalized to overcome educational deprivation and inequality.

Conclusion

The trend over the last two decades suggests that India has made relatively slow progress in achieving the EFA goals and the MDGs. India would not be able to achieve most EFA goals by 2015 along with many other countries. It necessitates a revision of these goals with better indicators for evaluation and targets that shall play a role in better shaping education in the next decades. It is expected that the challenges highlighted and suggestions presented in this paper will present cause for dialogue and future research to understand the educational scenario in India and strategize ways to improve it. As explicated in previous sections the education in India, in the coming years will play a major role to prepare globally competent citizens. Therefore, education development beyond 2015 must be given greater priority not only in India, but all over the world.

References Ahmed, M. (2013): Squaring the Circle: EFA in the Post-2015 Global Agenda. UKFIET

International Conference on Education and Development 2013. Retrieved from http://www.ukfiet.org/cop/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Ahmed_Squaring-the-Circle-EFA-in-the-Post-2015-Global-Agenda.pdf

Mitra, A. & Verick, S. (2013): Youth employment and unemployment: An Indian perspective. New Delhi: ILO. http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---sro-new_delhi/documents/publication/wcms_211552.pdf

Ramachandran, V. (2009): Towards gender equality in education. EFA Mid Decade Assessment. New Delhi: National University of Education Planning and Administration.

UNESCO (2000): The Dakar Framework of Action. Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO (2012): Youth and Skills: Putting education to work. EFA Global Monitoring

Report. Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO (2014): Teaching and Learning: Achieving quality for all. EFA Global Monitoring

Report. Paris: UNESCO. Mr. Syed Nitas Iftekhar Beijing Normal University, China [email protected]


SHELLEY TERZIAN

INTERNATIONAL INFLUENCES ON POST-SOVIET ARMENIAN EDUCATION

Abstract

The information in this article is drawn from the study, Curriculum Reform in Post-Soviet Armenia: Balancing the Local and Global Contexts in the Armenian Secondary Schools (2010). Further, the article discusses how the World Bank, Open Society Institute Assistance Foundation – Armenia (OSIAF-A), and the European Union imported educational standards into the Armenian secondary schools. The research indicates that since independence from the Soviet Union, Armenian education has achieved a balance between local and global perspectives in their post-Soviet curriculum reform. In addition, in 2005, the Armenian Government and the Ministry of Education and Science (MOES) signed the Bologna Process, affirming the alignment of higher education with the international standards of the European Union (EU).

Introduction

Since 1991, when Armenia became independent from the Soviet Union, organizations such as the World Bank and the Open Society Institute Assistance Foundation – Armenia (OSIAF-A) played a crucial role in implementing the Armenian National Curriculum (Curriculum) and State Standards for Secondary Education (SSSE) throughout the education system. In addition, in 2005, the Armenian Government and the Ministry of Education and Science (MOES) signed the Bologna Process, affirming the alignment of higher education with the international standards of the European Union (EU). As in many other post-Soviet countries, educational reform in Armenia was given substantial support by international organizations, beginning in 1991. Assistance in policy development by these organizations was sought by many post-Soviet countries that were formerly closed to the Western concept of democracy (Armenuhi Tadevosyan, 2008). As a result, (beginning in 1994 to 1996) post-Soviet countries incorporated the concepts of civil society and democratization, which have been promoted by Western governments and international agencies (Ishkanian, 2008).

Methodology

The 2010 research study was limited to the examination of educational change in the areas of curriculum, teacher practice, and legislative initiatives in the Armenian secondary school since 1991. Further, it investigated the World Bank’s and Open Society Institute’s (OSI) recent influence on curriculum reform in this post-Soviet nation. Research involved collecting data through observations of two professional development sessions, in July, 2005 and August, 2006 at School 43, a Ministry of Education and Science (MOES)-designated School Center in Armenia, and included a document analysis of the Armenian National Curriculum and State

International Influences on Post-Soviet Armenian Education 74

Standards. In addition, I interviewed educational personnel (teachers and principals) from three Armenian secondary schools – Numbers 43, 160, and 119. These schools were chosen to compare how different schools were implementing and/or responding to reform mandates. Also, interviews were conducted with officials in the field from the Armenian Ministry of Education and Science (MOES) and policy developers from the World Bank and Open Society Institute (Terzian, 2010).

Decentralization and Globalization Armenia

In Armenia, decentralization took a major role in educational reform and by 1995, Western governments introduced grants for programs promoting democratization. By 1997, over 2,000 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) were registered with the Armenian Ministry of Justice. Ishkanian (2003) believed that the link between civil society and NGOs is a late twentieth century phenomenon that should be understood in the context of deregulated and increasingly global economies. G. Shabar and Dennis A. Rondinelli (2007) posit:

Decentralization remains a core prescription of international development organizations for promoting democratic governance and economic adjustment, and is seen by many of its advocates as a condition for achieving sustainable economic, political, and social development and for attaining the UN’s Millennium Development Goals.

Jan Orbie and Lisa Tortell (2009) define globalization as the “liberalization of international trade, the expansion of foreign direct investment, and the emergence of cross-border financial flows” (p. 3). Orbie and Tortell (2009) posit that the European Council Declaration on Globalization states that “globalization is a source of opportunity rather than a threat” (p. 3). These scholars believe that the European Union “has repeatedly declared its commitment to promote the social dimension of globalization” (p. 3). The European Union (EU) is considered a global institution invested in joining post-Soviet countries to the EU’s democratic and open market philosophy (Archer, 2008).

The World Bank and Open Society Institute Assistance Foundation – Armenia (OSIAF-A)

In 2004, the Armenian Ministry of Education and Science (MOES) applied for a second World Bank loan to begin the second stage of reform – the World Bank’s Educational Quality and Relevance Project (EQRP). The EQRP replaced the first World Bank program in Armenia, the Education Financing and Management Reform Program (1998-2002). This program had focused on structural aspects of the secondary schools, such as decentralization and textbook revision. This second group of loans assisted the Armenian Ministry of Education and Science (MOES) with its implementation of national curriculum, assessment procedures, and training teachers in updated instructional practices. As stated in the Educational and Quality Relevance Project (EQRP) Midterm Report:

The goal of the Education Quality and Relevance Project is to support the government reforms in general education. The project has the aim of ensuring its relevance to the new economy and knowledge society needs

Shelley Terzian 75

along with carrying forward reforms to improve the efficiency of the education system (World Bank, 2006, p. 177).

Douglas Bartamayan (pseudonym), a high-level official in World Bank education programs, stated in an interview that the Project Implementation Unit (PIU) is responsible for overseeing the implementation of the EQRP. He described the PIU as follows:

The Project Implementation Unit works under the regulations of the Ministry and World Bank, but is a World Bank-funded department that focuses on implementing World Bank programs such as the Educational and Quality Relevance Project. The main mission is to oversee the project’s implementation. The Ministry of Education and Science is in charge of defining strategies for the secondary schools, higher education programs, and technical education reform programs (D. Bartmayan, personal communication, June 25, 2008).

Three policy group participants from MOES explained why the Ministry chose the World Bank for loan assistance. Nancy Nijayan (pseudonym), a high-level administrator from MOES, explained:

The World Bank was chosen because it is the only place where you get concessional loan money. We are borrowing from the Bank because it is the only place where we can afford to borrow money. We cannot borrow from the open market – it is too expensive – at least for educational projects. You can get an IDA loan which is a grant to reform the system and in the private market you will not find many places where you can borrow for social programs – this is one reason. The second reason, and a very important one, is that the Bank draws academic expertise from all over the world and from their experiences from the lessons learned in different regions. So, you have this big public organization that is also a think tank, but then can tap into other think tanks and regions, and provide you with the best practical knowledge. So, these are the reasons we chose the Bank (N. Nijayan, personal communication, June, 24, 2008).

Nijayan further asserted that the World Bank’s success with reforms in other regions was attractive to the MOES, especially since the Bank’s programs were intended to make education relevant to the social and political changes in post-Soviet Armenia. She continued:

The objective with the World Bank’s Quality and Educational Relevance Project was to create a secondary general education that fit with a knowledge economy and was relevant for the labor market of the day. For example, if there is a high demand in the market for certain a professional like scientific technology professionals, then the state has to react to this. It is not only the Armenian market, but the European market too. You have to look at the trends abroad--not only your country when you design your educational system (N. Nijayan, personal communication, June, 24, 2008).


Scott Amenyan (pseudonym), an expert from the Armenian National Institute of Education (NIE), discussed why civic education became important to post-Soviet Armenia. Scott explained the following:

With a small amount of money, we have supported the creation and development of a model which can be a real example of how to implement reforms on decentralization throughout the whole country. For example, we have community schools and the decentralized schools models in a few states in Armenia (S. Amenyan, personal communication, June 19, 2008).

Danelyan, a middle-level official from OSIAF-A, affirmed Amenyan’s statement, explaining:

Schools should be a place not only for students and teachers, but for parents and the community. Community schools have been part of the OSIAF-A agenda as well as a focus for the Educational Quality and Relevance Project by the World Bank. The purpose is to make the management structure accessible to parents, so they can give service to the schools, the school boards, and the student councils (A. Danelyan, personal communication, June 19, 2008).

The Armenian Ministry of Education and Science (MOES) has lessened its authority by granting decision-making responsibilities to the administration, teachers, and community of each Armenian secondary school. Jennifer Bartanyan (pseudonym), a high-level official from MOES, stated:

In the beginning, one person used to make all of the decisions. Now each school is independent and has their own school board that discusses issues, like budget, hiring of teachers, and choosing the Ministry of Education and Science-approved materials (J. Bartanyan, personal communication, June 20, 2008,).

Danelyan, from OSIAF-A, explained that although school boards have increased interaction between the school and the community, there are still organizational difficulties. Danelyan posited that the current dysfunction with making curricular and financial decisions is due to the lack of autonomy in decision-making during the Soviet period. This was affirmed by Stuart Katayan (pseudonym), a social studies expert from the National Institute of Education. Stuart noted that the school boards were still weak:

First, school boards are reacting to old bureaucratic methods. Most school boards are under control of the school principals, and most elections of school principals are not fair – so it is the same as in Soviet times. If you do not have such an environment like fair elections in the country, then you are not going to have fair elections or people operating fairly in the schools (S. Ketayan, personal communication, June 19, 2008).

Interestingly, Ketayan’s account suggests that although most former Soviet republics have made the transition to democracy, understanding participatory behaviors in cultures where authority was centralized requires the internalization of democratic practices.

Shelley Terzian 77

The European Union and International Standards

In 2005, Armenia joined Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine in signing the Bologna Declaration. According to a study issued by the GHK, an international consulting firm, the European Commission’s goal for having member-seeking countries sign the Bologna Declaration is “to direct the development of teacher education towards the adaptation of the education system to European principles” (GHK, 2011). The implementation of these reforms is a complex, challenging process, which can be traced to the educational community’s attachment to the old system. Nijayan, a higher-level official from the Armenian Ministry of Education and Science believes that the “Standards of the Bologna Process for higher education and special education have changed the qualifications for the general education sector, so the educational system can be aligned with standards for European education” (N. Nijayan, personal communication, June 24, 2008).

Danelyan, a middle-level official with OSIAF-A, explained that the Bologna Process required the Armenian secondary schools to incorporate European standards at the primary, middle, and high school levels. He stated that “the MOES is responsible for the educational system as a whole, so there cannot be this kind of contradiction like one sector is going towards European standards and the other one is not; so the political decision is to integrate European Standards so every sector has the same reforms” (A. Denelyan, personal communication, June 19, 2008).

In 1996, Armenia signed the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA), a cultural, political, and economic alliance between Armenia and the European Union (H.-J. Zahorka, 2003). Joining the PCA was Armenia’s first attempt to align their Curriculum to the democratic practices of the European Union. For example, the values of civic education such as tolerance, openness, and human rights were promoted alongside a new Armenian national identity. The Ministry of Education and Science has promoted building respect for the Armenian national identity by including national symbols in each classroom.

Requirements for acceptance into the European Union impacted both the curriculum and facilitation of new skills in Armenian secondary schools. Special emphasis was placed on providing professional development in the subjects of civic education and information communication technology (ICT). The new social and political values reflected ideas of the “Copenhagen criteria”, which required applicant countries to adapt to democratic practices to enable them to integrate into the European Union. Stuart Katayan, an expert from the Armenian National Institute of Education, discussed why the topic of civics became important to post-Soviet Armenia:

Civics is the subject where we have the most investment. For example, we have more training for civics teachers than Armenian and ICT teachers. During the last 10 years, we had much training for civics teachers because that is an important value for our society (S. Katayan, personal communication, June 19, 2008).

Amenyan from OSIAF-A asserted that the special emphasis on civic education was due to the need to align Armenia with the tenets of the European Union:


The approach to education from the civic perspective is more important in the reform stage we are now in with secondary education. Now it is a priority, because we want to be a member of the European Union. Values of human rights were not a priority during Soviet times (S. Amenyan, personal communication, June 19, 2008).

Gina Shakian (pseudonym), an Armenian language teacher asserted that civic education was an important topic because now teachers can share their thoughts and opinions:

We are now looking at civic education at our teacher training sessions – an important topic for the democratic changes for education, and I like that we have this information on how we can learn to express our opinions. We did not have these types of sessions in the Soviet Union (G. Shakian, personal communication, June 25, 2008).

Conclusion

This article discusses the World Bank’s and OSIAF-A’s engagement in Armenian curriculum reform. The Ministry of Education and Science (MOES) adoption of a civil society involves including principles of a democratic participation throughout the Armenian National Curriculum. Armenia aims to meet membership requirements of the European Union by introducing international standards, so the Armenian secondary schools can compete in a global world. The Armenian National Curriculum was written with the intention of including democratic elements, thus preparing the Armenian system of education for entry into the European Union. The reorganization of civic understanding in the schools illustrates the government’s vigorous attempt to use curriculum reform to realize the desired social, political, and economic changes in post-Soviet Armenia.

International scholars note that global forces are changing the state’s role in school reform. As stated in Armenia’s National Curriculum, global developments “have a direct impact on educational systems, and create a new diversity of educational objectives” (National Curriculum, 2004, p. 1). Nancy Kendall believes that specific programs created by globalizing entities represent “global prescriptions for restructuring daily practices and relations of state, market, and society” (Kendall 2007, p. 283).

References

Primary Sources

Khachatryan, S., et al. (2007): Human development report on education: Educational transformations in Armenia. UNDP & the Armenian Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://www.undp.am/docs/publications/2007/.

Republic of Armenia Ministry for Education and Science (2004): National curriculum for general education. Yerevan: Republic of Armenia Ministry for Education and Science, State Standard for Secondary Education.

World Bank Armenia (2006): Education and Quality Relevance Project, Midterm Report. Yerevan.

Shelley Terzian 79

Secondary Sources

Archer, C. (2008): The European Union. New York: Routledge. Cheema, G. S. G. & Rondinelli, D. A. (2007): From government decentralization to

decentralized governance. In Cheema, G. S. G. & Rondinelli, D. A. (Eds.) Decentralizing governance: Emerging concepts and practices (pp. 1-20). Cambridge: Ash Institute for Democratic Governance and Innovation.

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Ishkanian, A. (2008): Democracy building and civil society in post-Soviet Armenia. New York: Routledge.

Kendall, M. (2007): Education for all meets political democratization: Free primary education and the neoliberalization of the Malawian school and state. Comparative Education Review, 51 (3), 281-305.

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UNDP and the Ministry of Trade and Economic Development. Dr. Shelley Terzian Dominican University USA [email protected]


IRENA STONKUVIENĖ

(NOT)FORGETTABLE HISTORY OF VLADIMIR LENIN ALL-UNION PIONEER ORGANIZATION

Abstract

The article focuses on the research on the most massive children’s organisation of the 20th century, i.e., Vladimir Lenin All-Union Pioneer Organization, and its activities. The period of soviet pedagogy has been most actively investigated by Russian scientists, who have analysed its various phenomena, including pioneer activities, not only from historical but also from anthropological, sociological, educational, literary and other perspectives. However, the scientific discourse on the soviet pedagogy issues is relatively stagnant in the Baltic States and in Lithuania in particular. The soviet history is considered to be too ‘fresh’, ‘painful’, whereas the pioneer organisation, as one of the cogs of communist propaganda, does not deserve any attention of researchers. Attempts are made to compensate the deficit of theoretical discourse by the data of empiric research.

Introduction

Young Pioneer Organization, also Vladimir Lenin All-Union Pioneer Organization was the most mass communist organisation for 10-15 year old children in the 20th century. It is said to have been born 19 May 1922. On that day the resolution on establishment of the organisation for the children of proletarians was adopted in the Congress of the Russian Union of the Communist Youth. It was decided that this organisation shall be formed on class-based (proletarian) foundation, whereas the main method of activity organisation shall be ‘reorganized scouting’ (Мальцева, 2006). The main symbols, rituals and activity forms were borrowed from scouts, though all this was slightly ‘reorganised’. The green scout’s neck tie was replaced by a red one, the three lily petals in the scout’s badger were changed into three flames of the bonfire. Similar division into detachments, principle of play-based activities organisation, romanticisation of activities, young pioneers’ rallies around the bonfires, jamborees similar to scouts and other rituals remained. Even the scouts’ motto ‘Be Prepared’ and the response to it ‘Always prepared!’ were used and only later they were detailed.

However, a big number of elements of pioneers’ and scouts’ organisations look similar only at first sight. Penetrating deeper into the activity of these organisations, obvious differences may be observed. The most considerable difference may be identified comparing goals of these organisations. The scouts’ organisation focuses on common human values: help to the weaker, love of the Motherland and environmental protection, whereas pioneers emphasise the class struggle. Comparing the texts of regulations of scouts and pioneers it is revealed that the regulations of scouts contain personal qualities that have to be acquired. On the other hand, the regulations of pioneers lack dynamics. The pioneer has to meet the ideal. An ideally educated pioneer is ready for everything: even to die if the party asks for it (Леонтьева, 2007). The soviet propaganda used an image of pioneer-hero as a prototype of an ideal pioneer. This image was being created employing both life

Irena Stonkuvienė 81

stories of children, who really existed and various propaganda tricks. The examples of heroism were also illustrated employing artistic means as well: music, fine arts, photography, films, literature and others.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union (1991), the pioneer organisations met different fate in separate soviet republics. In some countries (e.g., in Russia, Byelorussia) pioneers’ activities were continued, whereas in other former soviet republics pioneer organisations ceased to exist (e.g., in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia).

For a long period of time educators and educational scientists in the Baltic republics have avoided looking back to the soviet experience. It has been gradually understood that forgetting some fragments of the near past is not an advantage because soviet heritage (or/and collective behaviour) appears to be more vital than expected. A. Trimakienė (2007), who is encouraging researches on soviet pedagogy, points out that timely and self-critical reaction would have been much more effective than silent push or oblivion. However, the scientific discourse on the soviet pedagogy issues is relatively stagnant. The analysis of spare publications of researchers about the soviet period would probably create an impression that pioneer organisations as well as other achievements or failures of soviet pedagogy have never been observed in the Baltic States.

However, the soviet period has been a part of the history in the Baltic States, i.e., the part of it which is remembered again and again. This reference is of varied nature: sometimes it contains pain and sometimes nostalgia may be clearly noticed. On the other hand, a big number of people perceive this not as ‘plain’ history but as years of their childhood. Therefore their belonging to pioneer organisation at that time may be evaluated from different perspectives.

Therefore, one of the objectives of the article is to provide a short overview of how researchers from foreign countries evaluate activities of pioneer organisations. An attempt will be made to analyse remembrances of Lithuanian people who were born and grew up in the soviet period about pioneer activities in their childhood. This objective will be attained employing the data of the research started in 2013 employing the method of qualitative unstructured interview.

Young Pioneer Organization - an organizations for children, ‘a monster of Communist propaganda’ or ‘a bureau for collection of scrap-iron and scrap paper’?

Analysing pioneer activity, the focus is mainly laid on the works by Russian scientists, who extensively analysed this children’s organisation. Some of these studies, typical products of soviet period such as ‘Theory and Methods of Pioneer Work’ are perceived as ‘an aggregate of generalised, interrelated and reliable knowledge of pioneer organisations and its activity’ (Мальцева, 2006). Since pioneer origination and school fully merged in 60s–70s of the 20th century, in soviet pedagogy ‘pioneer problems’ were frequently ascribed to various pedagogical problems encountered by 9 (10) – 15 year old children.

The majority of post-soviet Russian authors (representatives of pedagogy science) express a moderate attitude towards the pioneer organisation. Some of them present the pioneer organisation as one of the most important institutions of pedagogical system in 30s–90s of the 20th century, which contributed to upbringing of a soviet individual as ‘a builder of communism’ enormously, while the others

(Not)Forgettable History of Vladimir Lenin All-Union Pioneer Organization 82

(culture anthropologists, literature scientists, sociologists, etc.) carried out researches on pioneerism as a specific socio-cultural phenomenon of the 20th century. The later express a more critical attitude towards this organisation. Analysing the activity of pioneers in the context of other children movements that emerged after the crash of the soviet system, the biggest emphasis is laid on differences in the pioneer organisation, the researchers show a transit from impregnable ‘monolith’ to a broad variety of separate children organisations, from one ideological focus to a variety of goals and objectives, from orientation only to the collective (troop, brigade) to communication between the collective and an individual, from obligatory involvement to voluntary participation, from governmental control to self-government, from rigidness to flexibility and others (Попович, 2008). Hoverer, according to M. I. Rozkov (Рожков, 2007), one of the main differences between the pioneer organisation and other children organisation is that the latter ones are not ‘organizations for children’ but ‘children organisations’ and are established following not only ideological goals but mainly interests of children. On the other hand, the pioneer organisation declared ‘pursuance of high communism ideals’, though these ideals were hardly reflected at subjective level (Мальцева, 2006: 117-118). Being particularly ‘high’, these goals were very distant to children and neither provided them with a choice, nor stimulated their individual and social activity. Though social activity of adolescents was particularly propagated (this was characteristic of 70s–80s of the 20th century (Фарафонова, 2000)), the researches conducted during the soviet period revealed that children’s perception of the social values (such as patriotism, internationalism, diligence, etc.) that were encoded not only in the resolutions of the Communist party but also in the Statute of Pioneers was not comprehensive and lacked depth and, moreover, this perception did not find any reflection in daily activity (Мальцева, 2006: 188). Orientation to large-scale campaigns (events, programmes, etc. at national level) did not bring expected results and children were just observers and listeners as well as passive ‘mass movement units’ (ibid: 163). The mechanism of compulsion and obedience resulted in formation of conformists (ibid: 192). The pioneer organisation was identified as an organisation ‘controlled by educators’ as well as an ‘organisation controlling children’. The individuals, who did not obey the control and did not meet the required standard, i.e., ‘behaved in an inappropriate way’, were expelled from the organisation. The analysis of separate cases showed that the reasons for expulsion sometimes were absurd (Безрогов, 2010: 56).

At the sunset of the Soviet Union some scandalous works were published, where the organisation of pioneers was showed as an ideologised formation of the soviet propaganda compared even to the Hitlerjugend organisation or mockingly presented as ‘bureau for collection of scrap-iron and scrap paper’ (Северин, Кудинов, 1990). The book Informer 001. The Myth of Pavlik Morozov by Y. Druzhnikov (1995) about the most famous pioneer Pavlik Morozov attracted considerable attention not only in Russia but also abroad. Y. Druzhnikov doubted not only Pavlik’s heroism but also the fact that he had ever been a pioneer. His book was met as defamatory or even blasphemous by a big number of members of the Russian society (for example, Бушин, 1998; Кононенко, 2003). And the version that Pavlik Morozov was murdered not by his relatives but by the squad of OGPU


(Unified State Political Administration) caused the wave of indignation in Russia's state institutions.

The life and death of Pavlik Morozov received a considerable attention from foreign researchers as well. In her book Comrade Pavlik: The Rise and Fall of a Soviet Boy Hero (2005) C. Kelly doubted the reliability of information presented by Y. Druzhnikov. Responding to that, the author of Informer 001 accused the Oxford professor of plagiarism and subservience to the Committee for State Security (Дружников, 2005). Analysing stories about P. Morozov as well as those about other pioneers, various Western authors emphasise that such stories are frequently predetermined not only by particular behaviour of children but more by interpretations of adults that are under influence of ideologies and propaganda mechanisms. For example, the American researcher J. K. DeGraffenried (2009), who analysed pioneer stories in the context of World War II, notices that military and pioneer narratives differ. The research conducted by another American researcher M. E. Peacock (2008) analysed how the propaganda mechanism operated not only in the Soviet Union but also in the Western world.

The examples of the overviewed researches show that it is complicated to present a unified picture of the pioneer organisation: images are different approaching pioneers through the prism of political history or analysing the organisation in the light micro-history or daily history, culture anthropology and other sciences. Different emphases are laid highlighting educational rather than ideological aspects. According to S. Leontjeva (2007), the most holistic view may be formed following inductive principle, i.e., going from separate cases to the aggregate image. The outcome is different analysing belonging to pioneer organisation as a certain collective experience and describing experience of children, who saw pioneer organisation not as ‘a totalitarian monster’ but rather a community, where they spent their childhood peacefully, free from serious conflicts or hesitations.

What did it mean to be a pioneer in Lithuania?

In Lithuania illegal and barely legal pioneer (Spartak) groups were formed in 1923. The pioneer organisation was legalised during the first period of soviet occupation (1940-1941), whereas its growth in Lithuania accelerated after World War II. In 1960s to 1980s pioneer participation in the pioneer organizations became formal, as most of the pupils age 10 to 15 became its members. The informants of the research stated: ‘We all were pioneers’. Only children of dissentients or the ones from extremely religious families would remain outside pioneer organisations. Despite prosecution, active elimination of ‘religious prejudices’, religiosity of families and activities of the Catholic Church were the main reason, which prevented attainment of hundred-percent membership of Lithuanian children and youth in Communistic organisations.

However, the informants remembered only very few cases, when classmates were not members of pioneer organisation:

Some parents who were stronger believers did not let their children join the organisation. (Woman, 1949);


We had only one girl who was not a pioneer in our class. She was from exiles' family. A group of us visited her home to ask her mum to let her be a pioneer. But she didn't. (Woman, 1947).

Taking into account the fact that the pioneer organisation as well as school were fully converged, the life of children, who did not belong to this organisation, was not very easy:

So, she [the girl, who was not a pioneer] was virtually an outcast. Because we all felt that we all belonged to a group. There was a sense of collectivism. Nearly like some sort of musketeers: ‘All for one, and one for all’. (Woman, 1947);

Children did not push away. Only some teachers did. One teacher called the pupils who were not pioneers a circle of prudes. But nevertheless such child was excluded. They did not take part in the events, school celebrations, excursions. They were already different. And children want to stay all together, don't they. (Woman, 1949). Thus, one of the main stimuli to become a pioneer was ‘not stand out from

others at school’ (Woman, 1949). In fact, officially it was announced that only the best children deserved to be pioneers and that it was ‘some sort of honour’ (Man, 1950), however, the ones, who believed in this, became disillusioned very fast:

It was a question of status, promotion to a higher level. All my classmates were Little Octobrists, while Gintarė and I became pioneers, since we were born in 1971, while all the others in 1972. I always was of petite physique, short, therefore becoming a pioneer as if added some ‘weight’ to me - I was no longer a midget. <...> But more than that I wanted to become a Komsomolet, because I was bored to death of being a pioneer, I was sick of all that rubbish, like meetings, lines. (Man, 1971).

A big number of the informants pointed out that being a pioneer ‘meant nothing, absolutely nothing’. According to one of them:

If it meant anything, I would remember, wouldn't I. One day those pioneer's neckties came from somewhere and we all were rushed to join the organisation. (Woman, 1951).

Namely the red necktie was pointed out by the informants as the main indication of belonging to the organisation. It did not only decorate a boring school uniform (this fact was mentioned by all the female informants) and evidenced being a pioneer but also obligated and disciplined:

Necktie was some kind of disciplinary thing as well. If you wear a necktie, it means you are a pioneer and must behave. (Man, 1950).

On the other hand, there were informants, who pointed out that ‘necktie on your neck hardly meant anything’:

We just had to wear it. You could not be without it. If you come to school without it, teacher would ask you immediately, why you forgot it. You got


fed up of it, you would think why on Earth I need this burden on my shoulders. You had to wear a necktie, while you were not allowed to have a sacred medal on your neck. Teachers would rip it off your neck. They even checked under the uniform. But we still wore both, necktie and sacred medal. Because everyone did that. (Woman, 1949).

This episode clearly demonstrates a certain antithesis between ideologies (communist and Christian) and their symbols (red necktie and saint medallion). However, refusal to wear a necktie, or calling it ‘a herring’ or ‘red snot’ (Woman, 1974) was more frequently an adolescent revolt against moralising and controlling adolescents rather than against the soviet ideology. When asked about the latter, the informants would frequently answer: ‘What ideology are you talking about?’ However, their further stories showed that the fingers of ideology and propaganda were rather sticky. This could have been hardly noticeable in daily life, where behavioural bilingualism prevailed, i.e. the difference between private and official self-expression (Stonkuvienė, Tilk, Kestere, 2013: 119).

Both, the analysed scientific publications as well as presented episodes from the interviews enable the author to reveal the multiple dimension and contradictoriness of the organisation as well as the period, when the pioneer organisations flourished. It is hardly surprising that evaluations are also different, quite contradicting and range from admiration for ‘exotica’ to condemnation, repulsion or, what is even worse, conscious ignoring, from non-critical description of exclusively positive features to highlighting of absurd situations. On the other hand, a complete and clear picture of pioneer organisation is hardly possible taking into account not only a period of almost a hundred years of its existence but also a vast geographical territory. In fact, historical research is necessary next to a comparative analysis.

References DeGraffenried, J. K. (2009): Becoming the Vanguard: Children, the Young Pioneers, and the

Soviet State in the Great Patriotic War. Thesis/dissertation. Austin, Tex.: University of Texas.

Kelly, C. (2005): Comrade Pavlik: The Rise and Fall of a Soviet Boy Hero. London: Granta Books.

Peacock, M. E. (2008): Contested Innocence: Images the Child in the Cold War. Website: https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/18087/peacockd19527.pdf?sequence=2

Stonkuvienė, I., Tilk, M., Kestere, I. (2013): Children and youth organizations: an overview of the development of children and youth organziations. In: History of pedagogy and educational sciences in the Baltic countries from 1940 to 1990: an overview. Riga: Raka.

Trimakienė, A. (2007): „Naujojo žmogaus“ kūrimas: sovietinės pedagogikos atvejis. Naujasis Židinys-Aidai, 1–2: 43-45.

Безрогов, В. Г. (2010): Советская школа между почтой и пионерией: казус Наташи К. в конце семидесятых. In: Антропология советской школы. Культурные универсалии и провинциальные практики. Пермь: Пеермский гос. ун-т.

Бушин, В. (1998): Он все увидит, этот мальчик. Website: http://nationalism.org/ pioneer/pmorozov_bushin.htm


Дружников, Ю. (2005): Катриона Келли, Павлик Морозов и Лубянка. Website: http://magazines.russ.ru/voplit/2006/3/dru12.html

Кононенко, В. (2003): Убит, но ещё опасен: И снова покушения на юного коммуниста Павлика Морозова. Website: http://www.sovross.ru/old/2003/111/111_4_1.htm

Леонтьева, С. Г. (2007): Дети и идеология: пионерский случай. Website: http://childcult. rsuh.ru/print.html?id=58600

Мальцева, Э. (2006): Детская общественная организация как пространство социального воспитания подростков. Дисс. на соискание ученой степени доктора педагогических наук. Ижевск.

Попович, Н. В. (2008): Современное состояние детского общественного движения Омской области. Website: http://vernadsky.tstu.ru/pdf/2008/04g/08g_14.pdf

Рожков, М. (2007): Социально-педагогическое сопровождение детских объединений и организаций. Website: http://vestnik.yspu.org/releases/pedagoka_i_psichologiy/34_1/

Северин, Н., Кудинов, В. А. (1990): Роман с барабаном: два взгляда на пионер. oрг. Москва: Молодая гвардия.

Фарафонова, Л. (2000): Идея воспитания социальной активности личности в деятельности пионерской организации в советской педагогике 60-х - середины 70-х годов. Текст: дисс.канд.пед.наук. Хабаровск.

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Irena Stonkuvienė Faculty of Philosophy Vilnius University Vilnius Lithuania [email protected]

http://childcult.rsuh.ru/article.html?id=58610


IVANČICA MARKOVIĆ

GAME – AN EXAMPLE OF HISTORICAL INFLUENCE ON CULTURAL AND SOCIAL EVENTS DURING 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES

Abstract

In her work, the author presents the list of children’s games (kept in the Brlic Family Archives in Slavonski Brod) from the first half of the 19th century. The list of children’s games is in the manuscripts in the files of Ignjat Alojzije Brlic dated from 1830 to 1835. Using this list as an example, the author proves that children’s games also played an important role in social and cultural events, especially in the socialising of children in Slavonia in 18th and the first half of 19th century.

Introduction

By implementing Theresian school reform in 1774, the state had assumed the role of regulating and controling education (i.e. for the first time in the Habsburg Monarchy, education became a state matter) (on school rules in 1774 and Theresian school reform see Horbec & Švoger, 2010, pp. 5-47). However, due to poor financial support, reform progressed very slowly and did not have the effect of socialisation desired by the Enlightenment reformers. Even though the educational situation was a little better on the military frontier at the end of the 18th century in comparison to the civilian parts of Slavonia, the existing network of ordinary schools was not enough to support mass literacy. This would not happen until Mazuranic’s reform. In these unfavourable educational conditions, other means of acquiring knowledge developed. One example of this can be found in the records of the Brlic Family Archives which lists children’s games from the beginning of the 19th century. One can assume that similar games had existed previously, during the 18th century at the peak of the Enlightenment, because all the games listed contain entertaining as well as educational elements.

According to Johan Huizinga, culture has always been created and encouraged in games. Games were not limited by reason or separated from human norms (Huizinga, 1996, p. 168). Games are found as parts of culture even before culture itself. All important human activities have always been intertwined with games – from speech to beliefs and rituals. “The primeval community fulfils its consecration, sacrifice and mysteries through true game in the purest sense of the word” (Huizinga, 1996, p. 12). In 18th century culture, elements of game were present in many spheres, especially in the politics of European countries. Games were evident in the politics of state offices which were often filled with political games, intrigue, and open confrontation, and wars (Ibid, p. 169). The artistic world of the 18th century saw playfulness, especially in rural areas where people enjoyed gatherings and the richness of children’s games. Since the era of Enlightenment was crucial in making the Habsburg Monarchy a modern and organised state, it is interesting to observe education and science being promoted by the government how these concepts were accepted by ordinary people. The best way to see this is through playing and games. Very often, games were a reflection of daily needs which later became a source of acquiring knowledge. This often added to learning and was

Game – an example of historical influence on cultural and social events during 18th and 19th centuries 88

sometimes the primary way of acquiring knowledge and new information. In fact, receiving formal education at the beginning of 18th century in the Habsburg Monarchy was reserved only for a small number of people. This was seen particularly in rural areas in which higher levels of education were reserved for exceptionally talented children from wealthy families.

Everyday life was permeated with various requests, social expectations, and pressures which found their ‘lighter’ form in games. The children subconsciously re-enacted all occurrences from their own surroundings which influenced their lives. Besides acquiring knowledge, game was also important in preparing children for some serious activity later in life. Games very often reflected the need to rule and compete with others. They also suppressed harmful impulses, at the same time fulfilling wishes with their fiction and imagination (Ibid, p. 10).

Therefore, the list of games in the Brlic Family Archives is very important because it points out the values acquired during 18th and 19th centuries. Since culture is in its definition one way of limitation and self-control, children’s games are a great source and example of learning social norms of those times.

The List of Games from the Brlic Family Archives

1. THE BIRDMAN This game is a favourite when a lot of friends meet. People form a circle and

choose one person to be the birdman. The birdman has to back away from the circle. The others choose a bird for each of themselves. The birdman then comes to the circle, the others cover his eyes, and the group forms a kolo (a dance in a circle) around him singing,

Little birds jump all around, Singing and turning, But the birdman watches Hoping to catch one To stop it from singing.

This is sung until the birdman whistles and when the sparrow whistles, the kolo stops, the birdman raises his hand and puts two of his fingers together, the index finger and the middle finger to make it seem he stopped and stretched out his hand. The chosen person has to approach the birdman and put his finger between the birdman’s two fingers to show that the bird has been caught. Now the birdman shouts, ‘Male, male! – or – female, female!’ depending on which one he thinks he caught. If he is wrong, the one that was caught breaks free and turns in the kolo singing:

Alas, birdman, the bird flew away Because it was a male, not a female (or vice versa) But do not fear, there are birds enough singing joyfully. Stretch a hand and catch a few So as not to stand unhappy!

The birdman whistles again, the kolo stops and everything is repeated. When he guesses correctly, he catches this person and asks, ‘1. How big are you? 2. What do you look like? 3. How do you sing?’ The one that was caught has to respond to these questions. If he is a sparrow, he will say small, with a big head. To the second question he answers, brown-grey, and to the third, I don’t sing, I chirp.

Ivančica Marković 89

Once these questions are answered, the kolo starts again and sings: Tell me quickly what kind of bird you have It will fly away if you don’t know its name.

If the birdman does not guess which bird he caught while this is sung, he has to let it go and the kolo turns again singing,

Oh, birdman, your bird flew away Because it was not a lark but a sparrow.

If he guesses which bird he caught, then the caught bird has to cover his eyes, kiss the birdman and become the new birdman. While this is happening, the kolo dances and sings,

Oh, joyful birdman, rejoice now Because you caught a young bird To take your place now, It already behaves like one.

2. THE CRAFTSMAN The group sits at the table and each member chooses which craft to represent.

Each craftsman has to know how to describe his craft with his hands, e.g. shoemaker sows with his hands, blacksmith forges on the table… One member of the group is the guild master who governs the craftsmen. He has to know who chose which craft and its name. He orders the business to start, i.e. each craftsman uses his hands to explain his craft. The guild master suddenly, without saying a word, copies one and then another craftsman who has to do exactly as he does. Everybody has to watch the guild master carefully. If they do not, they have to give a pledge, if they dare to show with their hands what is not their craft, they have to give a pledge. One had to give a pledge for any wrongdoings in their work.

This is a pleasant and fun game. When a skilful guild master gets enough pledges, these are later redeemed.

3. A DAREDEVIL OR KERCHIEF AROUND THE KOLO Children form a circle facing the kolo with their hands on their backs. One goes

around the kolo, waving a woven kerchief and sings, A daredevil walks around Alas for the one he hits Those who turn Will suffer the most.

Everybody sings, To whomever he is near I do not want to be next to.

The child who goes around the kolo can go around two or three times and hit anybody who turns. During the singing, he puts the kerchief in anyone’s hand and goes around until he reaches the one he gave the kerchief to and takes his place. At that moment he hits the person on his right with the kerchief who then has to runaround the kolo until he gets to his place unless the one with the kerchief is faster and hits him before he takes his place. Then the song starts again and the child who has the kerchief goes around the kolo doing everything described all over again. In this game it is important to keep an eye on everyone so you can see where the kerchief is. If your left-side neighbour has it, you have go around the kolo quickly so as not to get hit. Most of the time you can see where the kerchief is, but it often


happens that someone sees incorrectly so he runs in vain, and that is the funniest part.

4. THE RING We put a ring on a rope of medium length (pantlika) tying the two parts of the

rope. The children form a circle so that they hold the rope with both hands. They pull the ring on the rope quickly around the circle so that it cannot be seen where the ring is and it is hard to guess who is holding it. They can sing,

The ring goes around the kolo, Those who seek cannot see it And if the seeker cannot find it Whenever he finds it, the found one seeks.

One child stands in the circle trying to guess where the ring is. When he thinks he knows where it is, he grabs the hand of this person. If he is right, the person holding the ring has to give a pledge, and if he is wrong, he has to give a pledge and continue the search.

5. BUYING OUT THE PLEDGE When a game in which pledges are given is finished, all the pledges are put in a

hat. One child takes them out. When he takes out a pledge he asks the first person next to him, ‘What must the one whose pledge I’m holding do?’ His friend says what can buy out the pledge and those whose pledge that is have to do it with no right to objection (so as not to spoil the group). He continues taking out the pledges and those who they belong to have to buy them out as it is said.

6. MAKING A BRIDGE One boy has to form a bridge. He picks out a girl and they stand in the centre of

the room. They hold their hands and raise them to form a bridge. Pairs go under the hands. When they lower their hands and catch a pair, this pair has to kiss to be let go. After the kiss, that pair forms the bridge. The game continues as long as the group wants it.

7. KISSER’S YARD The culprit stands in the centre of the room and calls forth the person of the

opposite sex. They hold their hands and spread them to see whose yard is longer. Then the culprit kisses the person he called and this is called the kisser’s yard.

8. MAKING A STATUE The one making a statue stands in the centre of the room, on a stool and has to

pose the way someone from the group makes him. He stands until all members of the group have modelled him.

9. PICKING PARSLEY If a boy is picking parsley, he has to approach a girl and say – I – pluck –

parsley and kiss the girl after each word. When a girl picks parsley, she kisses the boys.

10. THE ORCHARD The group sits in a circle; each member chooses which fruit to represent. One

starts by saying, ‘An apple is the fruit chosen, but a plum does not deflect.’ Each of those who chose plum says the same thing for a different fruit, e.g. a plum is the fruit chosen but rowan does not deflect. If someone names the fruit that was not chosen, they have to give a pledge.

11. THE BAT


The group forms a kolo, one with his eyes covered is in the middle. The kolo moves slowly until he hits the ground with a stick, then it stops and starts again, and he points the stick to someone, this person approaches changing his voice three times. The bat has to name the person pointed. If he doesn’t, he has to give a pledge, and the kolo continues turning, he has to guess all over again. If he guesses correctly, the other person has to give a pledge and take his place.

12. THE OLD CACKLER One member of the group stands in the centre of the room. The other one

approaches, takes him by the chin and says or sings, My dear old cackler, I grip your chin firmly. If you make me laugh I will take your place.

The old cackler has to pull different faces to make the other one laugh. If that person laughs, he has to give a pledge and be the old cackler. If he doesn’t laugh, the old man has to give a pledge, and another member of the group approaches and does the same.

13. FALLING IN THE WELL The culprit stands in the centre of the room saying, ‘I fell in the well.’ Another

asks, ‘How deep?’ He responds, ‘Two, three fathoms deep or as deep as you want.’ Then they ask, ‘Who will pull you out?’ He chooses a person of the opposite sex to kiss him the number of fathoms he fell. Then the one who pulled him out takes his place and has to get out in the same manner.

14. BEGGING The culprit takes the person of the opposite sex who wants to take him by the

hand and goes from one person to another. If it is a boy, he stands in front of another boy saying, ‘I am begging for some bread, and a kiss for my sister.’ Then he stands in front of girls and says, ‘I am begging for some bread for my sister, and a kiss for me.’ (The bread is not given but kisses are).

15. KISSING THE DOOR The culprit stands with his back to the door and calls for someone of the

opposite sex to stand facing him. This person calls the third person of the same sex to stand with his back towards his. The fourth one calls another person to face him and so on until all members are lined up. Now the last one shouts, ‘Turn around’. Those who were turned with their backs are now face to face and they hug and kiss. The culprit who was standing with his back to the door is now facing the door so he has to kiss it. This is his punishment.

16. SHOWING WHAT YOU ARE LIKE The culprit goes from one person of the opposite sex to another asking to be

kissed. It is up to each person to decide whether to kiss him or not. 17. THE BELL One chair less than the number of children is set. When the kolo starts between

the chairs, one has a bell. The kolo starts singing, Dance the kolo while the master is away, For when he comes you cannot play. He will be home soon, Ring the bell before he does, Be careful to hear the bell


Because the kerchief will come soon. The one with the bell rings and the kolo stops, each person tries to sit on a chair.

The one who does not succeed gives a pledge, takes the bell and the game continues. 18. KISS YOUR SHADOW A person stands in the light (of a candle or lantern) so that his shadow is cast on

the person he wants to kiss.

Game as a form of secondary socialization

All of the games mentioned have the following similarities: they contain rules that each participant has to obey, they reflect the relations in the society that children are a part of, and they emphasize the hierarchy of important and desirable professions and achievements. Games were important because they helped children learn social values and norms. Although the rules of everyday life bear no significance to games, each of these games demanded order (Huizinga, 1996, p. 18). Even the slightest deviation ruined the game, rendering it useless and insignificant. It is indisputable that the need for order and discipline was one of the major elements of Maria Theresa and Joseph II’s Enlightenment reforms. Children’s games in 18th and 19th centuries therefore correspond to these aims and reflect them.

At the same time, being in the military was the primary profession of the Military Frontier. Every family or joint household had to have at least one man in the Habsburg army as a Frontier soldier from the age of 16 to 60. It is therefore surprising that there were no games to reflect this commonality. However, there is a game which replicates the relations between craftsmen and crafts. One can conclude that it was more desirable to be a craftsman than a soldier. This is evidenced by the fact that the majority of boys entered the world of craft via apprenticeship. In many ways this was very hard, but it was a way of avoiding military service. Another thing that games emphasize is male-female relationships. On the Military Frontier these were very important because the Military Frontier provided a large pool of unpaid army reserves for the Monarchy so early marriages and a high birth-rate were encouraged. Although a high birth-rate was necessary to ‘make up for’ those killed on the battlefields and in wars that the Habsburg Monarchy waged, the additional population was required in order to cultivate the fields that soldiers received from the emperor in lieu of money for their military service.

An example of the importance of marriage on the Military Frontier can be seen in the cases of Jela Varšić and Kata Čobić.

Very often, young girls ran away because they did not want to marry the man their families had chosen for them. Sometimes they ran away across the border with a neighbouring country. They would very often return to their community after some time spent in Bosnian villages near the Sava. This was the case of Jela Varšić who ran away to Turkey in November 1781, and returned to Gundinci in May 1783. She was punished with 40 whiplashes (on physical punishment of women see Buczynski, 1994, pp. 103-104). Then she was sent to the regiment headquarters in Vinkovci for quarantine and further punishment (CSA, BS, 1783).

Kata Čobić from Babina Greda did not want to marry the man her family had chosen so she took an apple with 20 silver coins from another man which in those times meant she accepted his marriage proposal. When the marriage with the new groom was announced in the church three times and everything was ready, Kata


disappeared. She returned 6 weeks later, on Christmas Eve. Without going through the quarantine, she came to the Midnight Mass when the church was full of people and the probability of contagion was very high (Vaniček, 1875, p. 567).

In doing this, Kata broke military regulations on the movement on the Military Frontier. When she was interrogated to determine her punishment, the girl admitted that she had run away because she no longer wanted to marry the bridegroom. He had cursed her soul and brain because she was late for ‘the little wedding’ (the church’s wedding preparation). Kata claimed she had fled to her relatives in Piškorevci but there were two witnesses who confirmed that Kata was actually on the other side of the Frontier, in the Posavina village of Donja Mahala. She was sentenced to twenty whiplashes, and she and her family was quarantined and forbidden from any contacts with other villagers of Babina Greda (CSA, BS, 1784).

These two examples clearly show the need for the development of male-female relations from the earliest age. Children’s games allow all children, regardless of their sex and age, to be involved. They provide a space for children to show their sympathies towards someone with kissing, touching, or choosing. Some of the games mentioned had this particular purpose (i.e. stronger and more open communication between boys and girls). Games can soften barriers and encourage male-female socialisation so that later on, at marriage age, embarrassing situations like the two mentioned above could be avoided.

Fundamentals of the Enlightenment such as pride, interest in education, and gathering information are also a part of these games. In its fundamental teaching, the Enlightenment ideas connected people through knowledge, but they spread further according to power and wealth. This point of view can be glimpsed in some of these games where knowledge and ability had an important role in the continuation of the game. However, a game could also be continued by giving ‘a pledge,’ a renunciation of something material which a child imitated from the real life. Since the Enlightenment accepted the idea of reasonable and spontaneous development of humankind, it is obvious how games found their place in education, especially in this area. These games were entertaining as well as educational because they moved from simple play to a source of knowledge and acquiring values of the society.

To conclude, because of the desire to create a well organised state, an individual was faced with new trials and required to have new skills which could be gained only through formal education. School becomes an important part of growing up, directly affecting the development of the whole society. However, the educational process for children in Slavonia, especially in the military area, was extremely difficult. As I have already stated, the interest in schooling was weak mainly because everything was taught in German.

A child immediately had to start learning the language which was utterly foreign to his ear and pronunciation… He was taught at the school desk in a boring manner, by a strict and sometimes merciless teacher who thought that a child must be severely punished if he could not immediately memorise difficult forms, unusual expressions… Such a teacher… did not feel any love for the child he had to teach. So education was based on coercion, and that is why people opposed it. (Cuvaj, 1910, p. 230)

Conversely, the organisation of formal education on the Military Frontier was an important element of civil, everyday social life. All children (boys and girls alike)


from the age of 6 to 12 had to attend school but barely 35% obeyed this regulation (Ibid, p. 226).

This reluctance towards the new school obligations was evidenced in children’s games as well. Each game had elements such as tension, unification, exchange, connection… One can see that the concept of reality through games actually reflected the contrast between a peaceful life and everyday demands which very often broke their rhythm and harmony.

The educational process was therefore not painless. Games primarily reflected the wish for entertainment and relaxation, but they were also a way of learning although most people were not aware of it.

Summary

The list of children’s games from the Brlic Family Archives is an important indicator of the great influence that these games had on learning in Slavonia during 18th and the first half of 19th century. During the Enlightenment, school and education became important segments in a child’s life. This process was very difficult in Slavonia, especially in the Military Frontier region. Children’s games became more than just games and evolved into sources of knowledge thus enabling the acquisition of social morals and norms. Games were frequently a supplement to learning and sometimes even the primary means of acquiring knowledge and new information. Besides learning, games played an important role in preparing children for some serious activity later in life. What is especially emphasised in games are male-female relationships, overcoming barriers between boys and girls and their socialisation.

References Buczynski, A. (1994): Organizacija policije i pravosuđa u Vojnoj krajini. Povijesni prilozi 13

[Organisation of Police and Legislation in the Military Frontier. Historical articles 13]. Zagreb.

Croatian State Archives (CSA), Knjiga zapovijedi (BS), Records for 17th May 1783. Croatian State Archives (CSA), Knjiga zapovijedi (BS), Records for 29th December 1784. Cuvaj, A. (1910): Građa za povijest školstva Hrvatske i Slavonije III [Material for the History

of Education in Croatia and Slavonia III]. Zagreb. Horbec, I. & Švoger, V. (2010): Školstvo kao politicum: Opći školski red iz 1774. Anali za

povijest odgoja 9 [School system as politicum: General School Order of 1774. Annals for the History of Education 9].

Huizinga, J. (1996): Homo ludens: o podrijetlu kulture u igri [Homo ludens: On the Origin of Culture in Games]. Zagreb.

The Brlic Family Archives, Slavonski Brod, box 31, file 19. Vaniček, F. (1875): Specialgeschichte der Militär Grenze. Wien.

Dr.sc. Ivančica Marković Faculty of Teacher Education, Osijek Croatia [email protected]


Part 2

Pre-Service and In-Service Teacher Training & Learning and Teaching Styles

RUTH ROUX & JORGE LUIS MENDOZA VALLADARES

MEXICAN TEACHERS’ TRAINING EXPERIENCES, PERCEIVED NEEDS AND INTEREST IN INQUIRY-BASED TEACHING

Abstract

The effective implementation of any educational reform is largely dependent on teachers’ preparation. In the case of the National English Program in Basic Education (NEPBE), implemented in secondary schools in Mexico by the Secretariat of Public Education in 2009, teacher preparation strategies have been designed by both public and private higher education institutions throughout the country. Most strategies have been designed from the perspective of teacher educators and based on administration needs. Little attention has been given to the views, needs, and interests of teachers. Teachers are required to know how to analyze their learners’ needs. However, no attempt is made to understand the teachers’ perspectives on their own learning needs. This paper presents the results of a survey that examined the training experiences, perceived training needs, and interest in classroom research of 297 English language teachers of secondary school in northeast Mexico. Results indicated training experiences of teachers were limited to standalone courses. Other training strategies such as mentoring, peer observation, conferences, networking and conducting research, were not common among the teachers. Taking courses and conducting classroom studies were considered as training activities that have a high impact on teaching performance. Contents that were thought that would strengthen their teacher were related to: lesson planning; use of technology; the pedagogical approach of the NEPBE; and knowledge on how to identify students’ needs. Little more than half of the participants considered that knowing how to identify and satisfy students’ needs was most important for teaching English. A high percentage of teachers reported disposition to learn about inquiry based teaching. These results are the base on which a carefully-planned teacher training program should be designed.

Key words: teacher training; English as a foreign language; secondary school teachers, Mexico

Mexican teachers’ training experiences, perceived needs and interest in inquiry-based teaching 96

Introduction

Secondary teachers throughout Mexico are faced with the challenge of a curriculum reform. In the case of English language teachers the reform has taken the form of the National English Program for Basic Education (NEPBE), implemented in 2009 and launched in 2010. The purpose of the NEPBE is to prepare students to demonstrate “multilingual and multicultural competencies to successfully respond to the communication challenges of the global world; build a broad view of linguistic and cultural diversity; and demonstrate appreciation for their own and other peoples’ cultures” (Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2011, p. 9). The NEPBE will eventually include standards for language teaching and learning; guidelines for materials design, evaluation, certification of language competencies; and criteria for teacher development activities and programs. Four years have passed since the creation of the program and no guidelines or criteria related to the professional development actions that would meet the needs of the program are available yet.

The field of English language teaching (ELT) has developed a variety of strategies to improve the knowledge and abilities of teachers. Strategies fall into one of two strands (Johnson, 2006; Kumaravadivelu, 2003; Richards, 2008; Vélez-Rendón, 1998). One strand is focused on the managerial aspects of professionalism; it represents the views of education bureaucracies, teaching organizations, and regulatory bodies. Generally, actions that correspond to this “top down” strand promote short term courses and international certifications. Teachers are trained in the use of the methods promoted by international book publishers and training programs are based on the opinions and intuitions of course designers. Although these actions may have positive effects on teachers’ learning, their top-down approach is disconnected from the teachers’ everyday reality, turning them into consumers of theories and approaches that become irrelevant once the courses and workshops are over.

A second strand of strategies for teacher development focuses on the teachers’ own views of teaching and the processes by which they reflect on their teaching beliefs and practices. The actions taken from this “bottom-up” perspective are long-term and involve helping teachers become autonomous, strategic researchers and decision makers that engage in knowledge-construction activities in collaboration with other members of their communities of practice (Burns, 2000; Crooks, 1997; Freeman & Richards, 1996).

Although there is still no theoretical framework about the way in which teachers learn to teach, how they relate theory to practice, and how they construct their belief systems, there are some notions of how they develop knowledge about teaching. Research conducted in English speaking countries in the past decade have found, for example, that previous experiences as language learners influence their way of teaching in the classroom much more than what they learn in teacher education programs (Freeman, 1999). Studies have also found that although teacher education programs allow them to understand and use some concepts of teaching discourse (Richards, et al, 1996), the readings and discussions they engage in during courses do not always have an impact on what they do in the classroom (Johnson, 1994). Research results also indicate that the actions teachers take and decisions that they make in the classroom are more related to their belief systems and contextual factors

Ruth Roux & Jorge Luis Mendoza Valladares 97

related to administration matters, than with what they learn in certification courses (Burns, 1996).

This study was conducted to obtain information about the training experiences, perceived learning needs, and interest in classroom-research of secondary education English language teachers. The aim was to design a teacher training proposal, based on teachers’ realities. Specifically, the study was intended to respond to the following research questions:

1. What are the teachers’ previous training experiences? 2. What are the teachers’ perceived training needs? 3. To what extent are they interested in inquiry-based teaching?

Research Methods

The Sample Non-probability, convenience sampling was used; the participants were drawn

from the part of the population which was readily available and convenient, which reduced costs and made data collection relatively fast. The participants in the study were 297 secondary English language school teachers in the State of Tamaulipas in Mexico. They taught in 32 municipalities. They were enrolled in English language courses specifically opened for secondary education teachers, offered by the State public university in six cities.

The participants were 70% female and 30% male teachers. Their ages were mostly (92%) in the range between 26 and 55; only a small percentage (8%) were younger than 26 and older than 55. Most of them (79%) had undergraduate degrees, some had master’s degrees (15%), and a smaller number had high school or technical studies (6%). The undergraduate degrees were in the field of education (68%) and other fields (32%) such as accounting and engineering. Very few reported having the Teaching Knowledge Test certification (11%) and even less indicated that they held the TOEFL certificate (5%). Almost half of the participants (46%) taught 19 hours or less per week; 54% taught 20 hours or more. 68% had six or more years of teaching experience, while 32% had five years or less. Almost all of the participants (97%) had tenure in their teaching jobs.

Design of the Study This study used survey methodology. The decision to use a questionnaire was

based on its capacity of wide application and its efficiency in terms of researcher time, researcher effort, and financial investment (Dörnyei, 2003). The project included other data collection techniques such as interview, focus group discussion and classroom observation. This report, however, focuses only on part of the data collected by means of the questionnaire.

Instrument The questionnaire contained one open-ended and forty eight closed-ended

questions. The questions were about the teachers’ (a) educational and career development, (b) perceived training needs and interests, and (c) attitudes towards inquiry-based teaching. The instrument was written in Spanish to ensure a better comprehension of the items and response options. It was tested three times on samples of 10, 16 and 12 secondary school English language teachers. After every trial, the researchers discussed the appropriateness of the procedures and the


instrument, and questions that were considered unclear or confusing by the participants of the pilot test were corrected.

Procedures Data were collected in the facilities of the public state university in which the

teachers of the Department of Secondary Education of the State Ministry of Education were taking special English language courses. Data collection took four weeks and was conducted by the researchers and three assistants. Teachers were not given a time limit to individually respond to each item. Completing the questionnaire took an average time of 14 minutes. After data were gathered, they were put through the SPSS program. The next step was to calculate frequencies and percentages. The results are presented in the following section.

Results

Results are presented in relation to the research questions they respond to.

1. What are the teachers’ training experiences? To investigate the training experiences of the participants in the study, an item

of the questionnaire asked about the activities they had participated in the previous year, and provided a set of options for them to select. The response options were: courses, conferences, degree programs, peer observation, teacher networking, research and mentoring. Results indicated that of the 297 teachers, 142 (48%) took courses, and 155 (52%) did not participate in any professional development activity in the previous year. Of the 142 teachers who took courses, 124 (87%) were standalone, non-degree and 18 (13%) were courses that led to a university degree. Other training strategies such as mentoring, peer observation, conferences, networking and conducting research, were not marked by the teachers.

Results seem to indicate that the training experiences of teachers were limited and followed the top-down, knowledge transmission model of learning. Teacher training practices that involve autonomy, self-initiative and decision-making were not in the day-to-day social activities in which the teachers got involved.

2. What are the teachers’ perceived training needs? Even though teachers did not participate in a variety of training activities, they

valued the impact these activities can have on teaching. Another item requested them to mark the impact of the strategies on a scale that included the categories none, low, moderate and high. Results indicated that what they considered to have high impact on teaching were: 57 (19%) taking courses; 44 (15%) conducting research; 34 (11%) obtaining a degree; 18 (6%) networking with other teachers; 16 (5%) attending conferences; 11 (4%) participating in peer observation; and 9 (3%) participating in mentoring activities.

Although teachers valued taking courses, probably because that is what they do, they also recognized that conducting classroom research could have an impact on their teaching. This may indicate their need to receive guidance and support on how to adopt an inquiry approach to their teaching. Teachers probably require opportunities to better understand how to identify a problem, design an intervention, and evaluate the results of the intervention. Working with a problem-solving perspective in collaboration with other teachers can improve their teaching.


To identify the participants’ training interests, a questionnaire item asked what they considered most important for teaching English as a foreign language. Of the 297 teachers, 120 (51%) considered as most important strengthening their professional development to satisfy students’ needs; 33 (14%) identifying own strengths and weaknesses; 24 (10%) designing materials; 23 (10%) preparing classes carefully; 14 (6%) reflecting on practice; 12 (5%) interacting with other teachers to find solutions to common problems; and 8 (4%) proposing innovations to the academy.

Roughly, half of the teachers were more interested in satisfying students’ needs, which may reflect the high demands that the National English Program for Basic Education is placing on teachers on issues of evaluation. The program specifies that teachers must be ready and able to evaluate the students’ competencies before, during and after their educational intervention to teach them according to their needs.

To continue investigating the teachers’ needs and interests, the instrument required them to mark the type of knowledge they considered would strengthen their teaching. The options of response included a wide variety of topics; some of them more technical and others more theoretical. Participants were more interested in practical knowledge. The participants marked the following as important to improve their teaching: 72 (25%) lesson planning; 51 (18%) use of technology; 44 (16%) knowledge regarding the pedagogical approach of the NEPBE; 34 (12%) knowledge of how to identify students’ needs; 23 (8%) knowledge about teaching strategies; 23 (8%) materials design; 16 (6%) speaking and listening development; 7 (2%) critical thinking; 6 (2%) educational policy; 4 (1%) second language reading and writing; 3 (1%) autonomous learning; and 2 (1%) action research.

Although 68% of the participants had six or more years of teaching experience, 32% had studies in fields not related to education and only 5% had a teaching certification. These could be reasons for the interest of one fourth of the teachers in knowing more about lesson planning. The students’ skillful use of technology in comparison with the lack of technology skills of teachers may explain their interest in learning about technology use to strengthen their teaching. Finally, due to the incipient stage in the implementation of the NEPBE, it seems reasonable that some teachers consider that knowing more about the program would strengthen their teaching performance.

3. To what extent are they interested in inquiry-based teaching? Inquiry-based teaching refers to systematic ways of collecting and analyzing

evidence from teaching, documenting teaching and learning classroom experiences, and making what is perceived and learned from these processes visible to others. Classroom research can be very helpful when changes in teaching practice are needed. Most teachers, however, do not perceive themselves as researchers and conceive research activities as difficult.

In this study teachers were given a set of statements that expressed views on classroom research. Teachers were asked to evaluate the statements with the use of a scale that included five categories: strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, and strongly disagree. Teachers had positive views on classroom research. Considering the 297 teachers of the sample, 249 (84%) strongly agreed and agreed with the statement that classroom research can help them in the future; 229 (77%) strongly


agreed and agreed that doing research positions English teaching as a recognized profession; 247 (83%) agreed with the statement that research is necessary for the professional development of EFL teachers; 261 (88%) agreed and strongly agreed with the statement that research helps teachers identify and solve teaching problems; 264 (89%) considered that all teachers can learn to do classroom research; 264 (89%) reported that they were interested in acquiring the abilities to do classroom research; and 235 (69%) were interested in doing classroom research.

This disposition to learn about teaching through classroom research can lead to high levels of professional development in the long run, if proper support and guidance is given to teachers. A carefully-planned strategy should be designed to prepare teachers to collect information about students’ needs and the results of their teaching on the use of English as a foreign language by their secondary students. Such strategy should involve the use of technology.

Conclusions

EFL teachers should be guided into new and varied ways of professional development, especially those with degrees in fields different from education. Although almost 70% of them had more than five years of teaching experience, some considered important knowing how to identify their own strengths and weaknesses, probably because they are not aware of what they have learned from practice.

Degree and non-degree courses are the only professional development activities that the teachers had engaged in. They seemed aware, however, that classroom research impacts teaching more than degree courses and the majority expressed their interest in developing research abilities. These results suggest that actions to promote more reflective types of professional development could be well accepted. Teachers need to know about and experience other training practices such as peer observation and participation in teachers’ networks to improve the results of their teaching.

Further studies regarding the training needs and interests of secondary English language teachers in México could focus on the participants’ knowledge about and attitudes toward the National English Program for Basic Education. Information obtained in the incipient stage of the program’s implementation could provide more ideas on the specific issues they could investigate in their classrooms.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to FONDOS MIXTOS-CONACYT-Gobierno del Estado de Tamaulipas for providing grant number 177444 to conduct the study on Needs and Interests of Secondary EFL Teachers. We are also thankful to the reviewer of this paper.


References Burns, A. (1996): Starting all over again: From teaching adults to teaching beginners. In D.

Freeman & J. Richards (Eds.) Teacher learning in language teaching (pp. 154-177). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Burns, A. (2000): Facilitating collaborative action research. Some insights from AMEP. Prospect, 15(3), 23-34.

Crooks, G. (1997): What influences what and how second and foreign language teachers teach. The Modern Language Journal, 81, 67-69.

Dörnyei, Z. (2003): Questionnaires in Second Language Research: Construction, Administration, and Processing. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Freeman, D. (1999, July): Towards a descriptive theory of teacher learning and change. Paper presented in the International Study Association on Teachers and Teaching (ISATT) Conference. Dublin, Ireland.

Freeman, D. & Richards, J. (1996): Teacher learning in language teaching. NY: Cambridge University Press.

Johnson, K. (1994): The emerging beliefs and instructional practices of pre-service English as a second language teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 10, 439-452.

Johnson, K. (2006): The sociocultural turn and its challenges for second language teacher education. TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), 235-257.

Kamaradivelu, B. (2003): Forum: Critical language pedagogy. A postmethod perspective on English language teaching. World Englishes, 22(4), 539-550.

Richards, J. C., Ho, B. & Giblin, C. (1996): Learning to teach in RSA Cert. In D. Freeman & J. C. Richards (Eds.) Teacher learning in language teaching (pp. 105-123). Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company.

Richards, J. C. (2008): Second language teacher education today. RELC Journal, 39(2), 158-177.

Secretaría de Educación Pública (2011): Programa Nacional de Inglés en Educación Básica. Fundamentos Curriculares. México: SEP.

Vélez-Rendón, G. (1998): Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. NY: Cambridge University Press.

Dr. Ruth Roux Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas México [email protected] Dr. Jorge Luis Mendoza Valladares El Colegio de Tamaulipas México [email protected]



Part 2: Pre-Service and In-Service Teacher Training & Learning and Teaching Styles 102

MARCO AURELIO NAVARRO-LEAL & ZAIRA NAVARRETE-CAZALES

THE MEXICAN EDUCATION REFORMS AND THE TEACHER EDUCATION SYSTEM AT THE TURN OF THE CENTURY

Abstract

The paper reviews the Mexican reforms to basic education during the last decade of the last century as well as the first of the new century in relation to the implications that they have for the teacher education system. After a brief description of the system, the paper examines the modernization reform in the government of Carlos Salinas and the educational reform of the President Enrique Peña.

Introduction

As the rest of the countries, during the last decades Mexico has undergone through a series of reforms in different sectors of public administration aimed to contend with the process of globalization. The education sector has not been refrained from reforms (Navarro & Contreras, 2013) and is the purpose of this paper to briefly review the case of the teacher education system in this country at the turn of the century.

To accomplish the task, we start with a brief description of the system and then go to analyze the modernization reform of the last decade of the 20th century and the current reform after the first decade of the new century, to finish the paper with some thoughts in relation to this particular reform.

The current structure of Mexican teacher education

Nowadays there are 464 Normal Schools with a total enrolment of 131,025 students and 18,253 faculties (SIBEN, 2013). From that number of schools, 273 are public and 191 private. They train teachers for preschool, elementary, bilingual and intercultural elementary, secondary, special, initial, physical and artistic education. The enrolments of the public schools count for more than 93,000 students (SEP, 2013). Both, private and public schools operate the official subjects and do not have research as an institutional duty, like universities do. There are no regulations for entrance and promotions of academic personnel. There is an average of 32% of full time faculty in these schools and 30% of them are graduate diploma holders: 246 hold a PhD, 3382 hold a master’s degree; 10,684 hold a four year diploma; 401 normal basic school teacher; 1,8301 have less than a four year program (Cf. SIBEN, 2013). The largest teacher education school in Mexico, established 35 years ago, is the National Pedagogical University (UPN) which works with 76 Academic Units and 208 Sub-Units all over the country, as a nationwide network to face regional and local demands (UPN, 2013). On the other hand, 45% of the students come from

1 There is a lack of consistency in the figures; about 2000 teachers are missing. Nevertheless

all the data was taken from the same source: Sistema de Información Básica de la Educación Normal (SIBEN).

Marco Aurelio Navarro-Leal & Zaira Navarrete-Cazales 103

families with a monthly income of 250 US dollars, or less; with a schooling average of the father of 9 grade and 6 grade for the mother (cf. Santillán, 2012).

Graduate studies for teachers and for faculty of normal schools, are very recent. With the reform of 1984, when normal education became a four year program like university programs, normal schools were allowed to offer this level of education. Normal schools became centers for re-training of teachers in specialization, masters and doctoral programs. The starting point was in Mexico city, where the normal schools were the first to have specialization (Diploma) programs in 1997 and master’s programs in 2000 (Ávalos, 2011).

Nowadays, continuing education and graduate studies are compulsory requirements to be a “good teacher”, according to the international criteria that permeates educational policies and its correspondent “credentialist” movement (Navarrete, 2013).

During the last decade, it can be noticed a remarkable reduction in the normal schools enrolments, while in the school year 2002-2003 there were 166,873 students, for the school year 2011-2012, enrolments were 133,770 students. The downsizing could be motivated by: 1) the creation of new universities, technological institutes, technologic universities, polytechnic universities that are attracting more students; 2) the diversification of programs in all higher education institutions; and 3) the loss of reputation of teachers, sometimes perceived as annoying, sluggish, strikers, in contrast with the generalized perception of the 19th and 20th centuries.

The program of Modernization

With the name of “modernization”, the government of Carlos Salinas (1988-1994) carried out a number of reforms as a process of updating structures to surpass the severe economic crisis of the previous years. The modernization of the country included the privatization of public enterprises and industries. From then onwards, the next regimes adopted the neo-liberalism as an economic doctrine and the neo-conservatism as the moral orientation. This thinking was the inspiration for the entrance application of Mexico to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994, in spite of the armed opposition by the Zapatista Army. In this context the educational system was demanded to design policies for the new world order.

Since 1991, the National Union of Workers of Education had a proposal to mend the disarticulation among normal schools by means of creating a common core segment of the curriculum and a set of different options with paths for the fields of specialization of teachers. The aim was to cancel the encyclopedic design of the curricula and to orient teacher education towards the development of intellectual competences for continuous and independent learning. This proposal also had the aim to articulate theoretical and methodological contents with a critical practice in real school processes. This proposal was included in the National Agreement for the Modernization of Basic Education in 1992 (ANMEB, for the Spanish initials) that was signed for representatives of all stakeholders, with the aim to build an educational system of high quality which will be the major support of a self-reliant, prosperous and just country, and to compromise resources for this sector, excellence in teaching, updating of contents and the implementing of a new educational

The Mexican education reforms and the teacher education system at the turn of the century 104

federalism. With this agreement, the governments of the States were in charge of the schools that formerly were in hands of federal government, which kept the duty of enforcing in the Republic the Article Third of Mexican Constitution, arranging with the States some programs and actions to surpass the educational lags.

The modernization process went on with the reformulation of contents and approaches of basic education with new challenges for the education of teachers and the gap with what was taught in normal schools. These challenges were also taken into account for the 1997 normal school curriculum (Czarny, 2003).

Articles 3 and 130 of the Constitution were amended in relation with the legal personality of churches. Modifications made possible the participation of church in education, leaving behind all the problems between conservatives and liberals during the 18th century and the inconveniencies between the church and the government with the Constitution of 1917. In 1990, the National Pedagogic University implements the four year programs of preschool and basic education for the indigenous populations.

During the next years of the Salinas administration a number of actions were taken for reorganizing the educational system: obligatoriness of the secondary school, the enactment of the General Law of Education of 1993, the quest for educational quality and equity with the same priority as coverage; the emphasis in learning scientific, technological and labor competences; the promotion of entrepreneurs participation in school management and more linkages with labor sector. The main objectives were to decentralize education and introduce it into the new world order.

The current reform

Mexico is currently experiencing a restructuration process in relation to composition, development and ends of the education system. This restructuration initiated at the end of Felipe Calderón administration (2006-2012), but it was implemented until the arrival of the president Peña Nieto (2012-2018), and the “deal for Mexico” subscribed with representatives of the parties of the opposition and derived an initiative to reform articles 3rd and 73rd of the Political Constitution. Among others, the main changes to Article 3rd were:

• For compulsory education the State will provide quality, in such a way that educational materials and methods, school organization, educational infrastructure and suitability of teachers warranty the best learning of pupils.

• Additionally, the entrance to teaching service and the promotion to directive and supervising functions, in basic and middle public education, will be on the basis of academic merit competition.

• For the assurance of quality in education services it is created the National System of Educational Evaluation in charge of the National Institute for the Evaluation of Education, as an autonomous public organism.

On the other hand, the modifications of the Article 73rd of the Constitution were: • to establish the professional teaching service; • to organize and sustain in the Republic, the rural, elementary, higher,

secondary and professional schools; scientific research, fine arts and technical education; practical schools of agriculture and mining, arts and


crafts, museums, libraries, observatories, and all the institutes concerned with general culture of inhabitants of the nation and to legislate about these kind of institutions;

• to legislate about vestiges and fossil remains and about archeological, artistic and historic monuments, which conservation is of national interest; as well as to dictate laws for the convenient distribution among federation, states and municipalities of the education function, unifying and coordinating the education of the Republic, to ensure the fulfillment of the ends of education and its continuous improvement in a framework of inclusion and diversity;

• the academic certificates will take effects in the entire Republic; • to legislate on copyright and another figures related to intellectual property. These were the most significant issues of the constitutional reform of February

26, 2013 and from which the Legislative Power elaborated on the correspondent regulations: 1) The Law of the Teaching Professional Service, 2) The Law of the National Institute for the Evaluation of education, and 3) the necessary reforms to the general Law of education.

The enactment of these reforms in August 23rd in 2013, have created a complex political scenario with the demonstrations of teachers from some of the sections of the Union, against this constitutional reforms, especially the ones that are related with the yearly evaluations that jeopardize their jobs when failing three times.

According to some experts, the General Law of the Teaching Professional Service states that teachers holding and indefinite contract will not lose their jobs when failing evaluation; but those teachers who reject to be evaluated will be fired; on the other hand, the teachers holding a provisional contract will also be evaluated, like the new teachers, and will have three evaluations to obtain a definite contract. According to Ramirez (2013), the general definition formulated in Article 3 of the Constitution admits different interpretations in relation to the extent of new regulations, particularly on the light of the principle of not retroactivity of laws when they imply damage of the individuals, as it is stated in the Article 14 of the same Constitution.

Some specialists on this subject argue that the acknowledgement of the complex nature of the teaching work should be the starting point to establish just criteria and reliable mechanisms for evaluation. In this sense they argue that the evaluation of teaching work through a mass written exam is notoriously insufficient; and likewise, to assess the work of a teacher as a function of the results on the performance of his students is not tenable, since their performance is highly affected by deficiencies and gains accumulated by students as a product of their previous social experience and school trajectories (Ramirez, 2013: 15).

This argument is sustained by education research carried out in several parts of the world and in successful international innovative experiences that manifest that, among all the factors that impinge in school results, the most important is the performance of the teacher. The intervention of the teacher is decisive, either as an individual or as a collective action; it exerts accumulative effects along the educational trajectories of children and adolescents. Even in the most adverse social and school conditions, to have or not to have a teacher constitutes a radical difference for the pupils (Fuentes, 2013: 20-21).

The Mexican education reforms and the teacher education system at the turn of the century 106

Teachers’ demonstrations continue during the first months of 2014 as a response of what legislators approved last August. According to Raphael (2013), we consider that the principal matter to discuss on this reform should not be the uncertainty or unreliability of teacher evaluation, but a professional career that asserts integral improvement of the teacher work.

Final thoughts

No doubt that a plan is neither static nor definitive. A plan struggles its implementing on a socio-historical and political reality, where contingencies are part of the process of transformation and where even the plan is adjusted. In this political arena, the educational reform is a planned change that constitutes a referent where institutional programs to educate teachers acquire a sense.

In this educational reform a just evaluation of teachers should concentrate on teaching practice and should be sensible to cultural diversity of Mexican society and to the socioeconomic conditions of students and their families, as well as the conditions where teachers work. We cannot get round the teachers that work in multi-grade schools or those who work with large classes with difficult conditions to ask students for highly cognitive standards. An evaluation focused on the teacher practice should be used also for entrance to teaching service (Ramírez, 2013: 13).

It is important to notice the participation of scholars on this educational reform, either submitting their reflections or proposals from their own research, or from their reflective practice. The participation of scholars as political actors is a relevant advancement in educational issues; usually their participation was null or relegated to the classroom. As experts on Mexican education, their open participation is already a gain from this reform. Normal schools should take note of new demands and discussions to be faced by the new curriculum of future teachers.

References Ávalos, M. D. (2011): La reflexión de la práctica docente y la intervención educativa como

significantes vacíos en la Maestría en Educación Básica Interplanteles. En R. N. Buenfil y Z. Navarrete (Coords.) Discursos educativos, identidades y formación profesional. Producciones desde el Análisis Político de Discurso. México: Plaza y Valdés-PAPDI.

Czarny, G. (2003): Las escuelas normales frente al cambio. Un estudio de seguimiento a la aplicación del Plan de Estudios 1997. Cuadernos de Discusión No. 16. México: SEP.

Fuentes-Molinar, O. (2013): Las tareas del maestro y los desafíos de la evaluación docente. En Ramírez, R. (Coord.) La Reforma Constitucional en Materia Educativa: Alcances y Desafíos. México: Senado de la Republica, Instituto Belisario Domínguez. pp. 17-34.

Navarrete, Z. (2013): Formación e identidad. En Ducoing, P. y Fourtul, B. (Coords.) Procesos de formación. Tomo I. Estado del Conocimiento 2002-2012. México: COMIE / ANUIES.

Navarro-Leal, M. A. & Contreras, K. I. (2013): Neoliberal reforms and governance in Mexican higher education. In Turner, D. & Yolcu, H. (Eds.) Neo-liberal Educational Reforms: A Critical Analysis. London: Routledge.

Ramírez, R. (2013): Introducción. En Ramírez, R. (Coord.) La Reforma Constitucional en Materia Educativa: Alcances y Desafíos. México: Senado de la Republica, Instituto Belisario Domínguez. pp. 11-16.


Raphael, R. (2013): Carta a la CNTE. En El universal. Opinión. En: http://www. eluniversalmas.com.mx/editoriales/2013/08/66178.php (Consultada: 26 de agosto de 2013).

Santillán, M. (2012): La formación Docente en México. México: DGESPE-SEP. En http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/43765204.pdf (Consultada: 29 de junio de 2013).

Secretaría de Educación Pública (SEP) (2013): Información Estadística e Indicadores Educativos. Consultada el 15 de junio de 2013. http://planeacion.sep.gob.mx/estadistica-e-indicadores/estadisticas-e-indicadores

SIBEN (2013): Sistema de Información Básica de la Educación Normal. consultada el 29 de junio de 2013. http://www.siben.sep.gob.mx/pages/estadisticas

Universidad Pedagógica Nacional (UPN) (2013): Conoce la UPN. En http://www.upn.mx/ index.php/conoce-la-upn/ique-es-la-upn (Consultada: 28 de junio de 2013).

Prof. Dr. Marco Aurelio Navarro-Leal Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas México [email protected] Mtra. Zaira Navarrete-Cazales Department of Educational Research Center for Research and Advanced Studies (DIE-CINVESTAV) México [email protected]




MARIE MC ANDREW, JULIE LAROCHELLE-AUDET, CORINA BORRI-ANADON, MARYSE POTVIN

PRE-SERVICE TEACHER TRAINING IN ETHNO-CULTURAL, RELIGIOUS AND LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY OFFERED BY QUÉBEC UNIVERSITIES: A QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE PORTRAIT

Key words: Ethno-cultural, religious and linguistic diversity; Teacher training; Québec

Abstract

This portrait of pre-service teacher training in diversity at the 12 Québec universities is the first part of a comparative research program on the development of this field and the issues it raises. Combining quantitative and qualitative methodologies, it is based on a content analysis of 37 courses covering approaches to ethnocultural, religious and linguistic diversity in an educational milieu and on interviews with 35 university trainers who teach these courses. The study shows this training has expanded significantly over the last ten years in the province but still faces numerous challenges, chiefly related to the lack of established institutional anchorage for this field.

Context

Over the past 30 years, major changes have occurred in Québec schools as a result of an increased and more diverse flows of migration, a greater integration of ethnic minorities into French-language institutions and a broader awareness of equal-rights issues – not only for immigrant communities, but also for the diverse communities who have long resided in Québec (Mc Andrew, 2010a; Bouchard & Taylor, 2008). A school integration and intercultural education Policy has been implemented by the Department of Education in 1998 followed by various measures by local school Boards to insure the mastery of French as a common language, the promotion of equal opportunities for students of various origins as well as positive interethnic relations and appreciation of diversity among the full student body (Mc Andrew, 2010b; MEQ, 1998). To achieve such goals, the attitudes and skills of teachers who are still largely ethnically homogenous, although the presence of teachers with an immigrant background is increasing, are central. Thus in the last ten years, various training programs, courses or ad hoc initiatives to support the adaptation to ethno-cultural, religious and linguistic diversity within classrooms and educational settings, have been implemented by various faculties of education who are responsible for pre teachers training in the province or by national or local educational authorities who oversee in-service training. However, there had been no complete, or even partial, assessment of the state and challenges of the field until our team undertook our research project.

The need for such an assessment had been identified though as a priority in numerous government documents such as the 2008 governmental Action plan, Diversity: An Added Value (MICC, 2008) and the 2010 report of the Quebec Human Right Commission on racial profiling (CDPDJ, 2010). The issue was also one of the 2013 priorities on the agenda of the joint committee between the departments of

Marie Mc Andrew, Julie Larochelle-Audet, Corina Borri-Anadon, Maryse Potvin 109

Education and of Higher Education and Universities, where civil servants and deans of all the Faculties of education in Québec exchange about their respective programs and aim at harmonizing them.

This is why a team of researchers and graduate students from various institutions embarked on an extensive research project1 to examine how ethno-cultural diversity is dealt within the pre-service and in-service training of various school professionals in Quebec, in other provinces of Canada as well as in selected European countries, with a special focus on French-speaking contexts. The project also includes a theoretical component aiming at identifying the knowledge attitudes and skills that should be pursued in the field (Potvin et al, 2014, in press) as well as a practical component supporting the establishment of provincial, national and international networks of trainers in this field (Larochelle-Audet, 2013) The report (Larochelle-Audet et al, 2013; Mc Andrew et al, 2013) that we present in this article, limited to pre-service training of teachers in Quebec, is part of this process.

Methodology

The realization of the portrait was carried through various stages, involving both quantitative and qualitative methodological approaches. First, the research team used key words related to the theme of diversity to draw up a list of 254 courses titles likely to look at ethnocultural, religious and linguistic diversity from teacher training programs on the web sites or from official documents of the 12 Quebec universities (9 French-medium and 3 English-medium) involved in such programs. After analyzing the course description for these 254 courses, we selected 70 of them which, on the one hand, effectively dealt with ethno-cultural, religious or linguistic diversity and, on the other hand, did so with a clear link with the taking into account of such diversity within the educational milieu. After validation with the instructors of these courses, the list of relevant teacher training courses was reduced to 41. Using these 41 courses, a descriptive analysis of their content was developed, organized by university and by program. These key informants also sent us detailed course outlines for 37 courses, which enabled us to develop a typology of courses and of their objectives based on the discipline they were related to and the importance they explicitly granted to knowledge, attitudes and skills. To complement this analysis, interviews were conducted with 35 trainers, 21 professors and 14 instructors, from 10 of the 12 universities offering these programs. The interviews dealt with what the trainers saw as the main challenges linked to intercultural training from an educational perspective and in terms of institutional anchorage at their institutions. Also discussed was the actual content of the courses they taught (such as the proportion devoted to various types of diversity, the specific groups studied, the theoretical approaches and concepts selected, the type of knowledge and facts transmitted, the competencies targeted, as well as the pedagogical and evaluation methods used).

1 Potvin, M., Armand, F., Estivalèzes, M., Kanouté, F., Rahm, J., Mc Andrew, M. & Low, B.

(2012-2014): L’enseignement sur la diversité ethnoculturelle en formation initiale et continue des professionnels de l’éducation dans les universités: développement du champ théorique et pratique, au Québec et dans une perspective comparative. Grant from the Canadian Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC).

Pre-service teacher training in ethno-cultural, religious and linguistic diversity offered by Québec universities 110

Key findings

Significant progress First, the portrait reveals that intercultural pre-service teacher training in Québec

universities has grown significantly over the last ten years as exemplified by the fact we identified 41 current courses that deal effectively with ways of taking diversity into account in an educational milieu. To a great extent, this expansion is due to the education reform in Québec in the 2000s (MEQ, 1997) that resulted in new programs and courses in history and citizenship education and in ethics and religious culture, while cross-disciplinary courses on diversity instituted in the 1990s were most of the time maintained by universities.

Another positive finding is the existence of a critical mass of tenured professors who devote the bulk of their teaching and research to issues related to ethnocultural, religious and linguistic diversity in an educational milieu. While such expertise is still largely concentrated in Montréal, universities in other regions of Québec are also showing interest in this field of activity, although to different degrees. Université Laval and the Université de Sherbrooke, both located in middle-size cities targeted by the government policy aiming at a more balanced regional distribution of immigrants (MICC, 2008) are the most active in this regard.

With respect to content, approaches and activities favoured in the courses, the portrait shows that they allow future teachers to be exposed to a variety of theoretical concepts (e.g. integration, prejudice and discrimination). They also include information on ethnic relations and immigration to Québec as well as knowledge related to the adaptation of the educational system to diversity (e.g. general frameworks, pedagogical practices and school-family-community relationships). Teaching on diversity also seems to be characterized by a strong pedagogical innovation and by the great importance accorded to the development of ethical positions and professional competencies needed for working in increasingly diverse educational milieux.

Major shortcomings Despite these positive findings, the portrait reveals several shortcomings in

intercultural pre-service training in Québec. First, over the last ten years courses, initiatives and activities in this field developed largely without an overall plan and without significant collaborative effort both within and between various universities. First and foremost, the respondents almost unanimously deplored the lack of coordination in many respects between professors and instructors offering courses on this subject. Several, particularly those in outlying areas, also mentioned the need for more sharing among all trainers involved in teaching ethnocultural, religious and linguistic diversity, both at their own university and province-wide.

This somewhat makeshift development is also related to the often ambiguous institutional anchorage of teaching related to diversity within pre-service teacher training programs, due to the absence of clear Ministerial requirements and guidelines covering its legitimacy and the objectives it ought to target. Most of the trainers told us that they base themselves on the twelve general competencies found in the reference framework established by the Department of education (MEQ, 2001), although one institution, situated in the multi-ethnic core of the city, the Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM), has adopted a specific 13th competency


on the taking into account of diversity. Other trainers must rely on their own personal judgment and professional expertise in order to interpret the impact of these competencies on the legitimacy of various objectives and content related to intercultural education they select within their courses. This is linked to the absence of common reference points which all professors and instructors could use to define the specific competencies that future teachers must master to assume the twofold responsibility of carrying out effective and equitable interventions in multiethnic environments and preparing all Québec students to live in a pluralistic society.

In all the universities, the ambiguous status of pre- service teacher training in the field of ethno-cultural, linguistic and religious diversity is also reflected in the sometimes difficult and often inexistent harmonization between the academic and the practical training courses, particularly during the evaluation of internships. Since there is no clear recognition of the legitimacy of intercultural education, professor and instructors of academic courses have difficulty establishing the relevance of the competencies they target in this field. Consequently, the importance of students demonstrating these competencies in internships is poorly understood and finds little acceptance.

Among the universities, the absence of a shared vision of intercultural pre-service teacher training is also problematic. Indeed although a certain degree of variation is expected to reflect local specificities, major regional and linguistic differences in this regard are likely to maintain or even increase the gaps that already exist, on the one hand between the multicultural metropolitan regions and the largely homogenous outlying regions and, on the other hand, between French-speaking teachers who often adopt an intercultural or even assimilationist paradigm and their English-speaking colleagues more influenced by the Canadian multicultural approach (Mc Andrew, 2010a, b). Indeed, teaching diversity has less institutional anchorage outside of Montréal and is often handled by one or two individuals from the same institution. In contrast, the critical-mass of tenured professors who have expertise in this field are concentrated in the universities of Montréal. The regional differences are also apparent in the issues and groups addressed. Thus, in outlying areas, more attention is paid to Aboriginal peoples and issues of recognition. In Montréal, the focus is on populations of immigrant origin with a clear distinction between French-medium universities where questions related to integration are paramount while in their English-medium counterparts more attention is paid to anti-racism. The “other” majority group is also practically absent except in the three institutions catering to the English-speaking community where its relationship with the francophone community is more often discussed.

Other problematic issues raised by the professors and instructors more specifically concern the impact and pedagogical challenges of teaching ethnocultural, religious and linguistic diversity in pre- service teacher training. They deplore the fact that, in certain universities or certain programs, graduates obtain their teaching diplomas without having taken any courses on diversity or with having been only briefly exposed to it in another more general course. Some also report that choice of some universities to encourage a wide definition of diversity, which also include social class, gender, sexual orientation and handicap, sometimes results in a very limited treatment of ethno-cultural, linguistic and religious diversity.

Pre-service teacher training in ethno-cultural, religious and linguistic diversity offered by Québec universities 112

The first concern is confirmed by the quantitative analysis which revealed significant differences in the exit profiles of students according to the program in which they were registered. Generally speaking, students in programs designed to graduate second-language teachers receive the most complete training, with several of these programs having more than one compulsory course. Future preschool, elementary and secondary school teachers also benefit from training in this area, as more than half of them must take a compulsory course, no matter what their major. On the other hand, the vast majority of students destined to teach in vocational and technical programs have no courses that address the educator’s response to diversity in the school environment.

Recommendations

Based on the results of the study, the authors made several recommendations on desirable courses of action in this area:

1) Clarify the role of teacher training in response to ethnocultural, religious and linguistic diversity and better define its targeted competencies.

2) Make this training compulsory by adding a 13th competency or by more explicitly integrating it into the 12 competencies of the Department of Education reference framework.

3) Support exchanges and joint action among trainers active in this field, including internship supervisors. This should occur on a regular basis within each institution and, on an occasional, but systematic basis, among the various Québec universities.

4) Develop research to identify and better define the essential knowledge, skills and behaviours for ensuring efficient and equitable response to ethnocultural, religious and linguistic diversity by all school staff, and, at the same time, support the experimentation of innovative training practices in this area.

5) Gather more detailed information on the knowledge and skills possessed by graduate students in the education faculties, by university or by program, and on their views of the relevance of the training they received and its long-term impact on their attitudes and professional competencies.

References Bouchard, G. & Taylor, C. (2008): Building the Future. A Time for Reconciliation. Report of

The Consultation Commission on Accommodation Practices Related to Cultural Differences (CCAPRCD). Québec.

Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse (CDPDJ) (2010): Profilage racial et discrimination systémique des jeunes racisés. Rapport de la consultation sur le profilage racial et ses conséquences. http://www.cdpdj.qc.ca/profilage/Pages/ default.aspx

Larochelle-Audet, J., coll. Audet, G., Leclercq, J.-B. & Querrien, D. (2013): Compte-rendu du deuxième Sommet des professeurs et chargés de cours engagés dans la formation interculturelle du personnel scolaire. Montréal: Chaire de recherche du Canada sur l’Éducation et les rapports ethniques/Centre d’études ethniques des universités montréalaises (CEETUM).


Larochelle-Audet, J., Borri-Anadon, C., Mc Andrew, M. & Potvin, M. (2013): La formation initiale du personnel scolaire sur la diversité ethnoculturelle, religieuse et linguistique dans les universités québécoises: portrait quantitatif et qualitatif. Montréal: CEETUM/Chaire de recherche du Canada sur l’Éducation et les rapports ethniques. http://www.ceetum.umontreal.ca/documents/publications/2013/formation.pdf

Mc Andrew, M. (2010a): Les majorités fragiles et l’éducation: Belgique, Catalogne, Irlande du Nord, Québec. Montréal: Les Presses de l’Université de Montréal.

Mc Andrew, M. (2010b): Immigration and Diversity at School: An Assessment. In C. Kirkey, R. Jarett & S. Gervais (Eds.) Quebec Questions: Québec Studies for the 21st Century (pp. 207-304). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Mc Andrew, M., Borri-Anadon, C., Larochelle-Audet, J. & Potvin, M. (2013): La formation initiale du personnel scolaire sur la diversité ethnoculturelle, religieuse et linguistique dans les universités québécoises: un premier bilan. In M. Mc Andrew, M. Potvin & C. Borri-Anadon (Eds.) Le développement d’institutions inclusives en contexte de diversité: recherche, formation, partenariat (pp. 85-103). Québec: Presses de l’Université du Québec.

Ministère de l’Éducation du Québec (MEQ) (1997): Prendre le virage du succès. Plan d’action ministériel pour la réforme de l’éducation. Québec: Gouvernement du Québec.

Ministère de l’Éducation du Québec (MEQ) (1998): Politique d’intégration scolaire et d’éducation interculturelle. Québec: MEQ.

Ministère de l’Éducation du Québec (MEQ) (2001): La formation à l’enseignement: les orientations, les compétences générales. Québec: MEQ.

Ministère de l’Immigration et des Communautés culturelles (MCCI) (2008): Diversity: An Added Value. Governmental Action Plan 2008-2013. Québec: MCCI.

Potvin, M., Borri-Anadon, C., Larochelle-Audet, J. & Mc Andrew, M. (2014, in press): Les compétences interculturelles dans l’enseignement sur la diversité ethnoculturelle en formation initiale du personnel scolaire. In M. Sanchez-Mazas, N. Changkakoti & M.-A. Broyon (Eds.) L’éducation et la formation face à la diversité culturelle. De Boeck Supérieur, Collection Perspectives en Éducation et Formation.

Marie Mc Andrew, Université de Montréal Julie Larochelle-Audet, UQAM Corina Borri-Anadon, UQTR Maryse Potvin, UQAM Corresponding author: Prof. Dr. Marie Mc Andrew Université de Montréal Canada [email protected]



EVELINE CHRISTOF

REFLECTIVE ABILITY AS A CORE COMPETENCE OF FUTURE TEACHERS

Abstract

This paper focuses on the exploration of the development of reflective ability as a core competence of prospective teachers. How can reflection and discourse competence be developed by teacher students during their teacher education studies?

Currently a method that is experimentally applied in the field of teacher education at the University of Innsbruck is being designed as a module for teacher education to stimulate students’ reflective competence.

By using the method of the Pedagogical Reflective Interview (Christof, 2009) processes of teacher students reflecting on pedagogical crisis situations can be explored. The aim is to develop a new module for teacher education in order to continue the professionalization of the teacher education studies. A new model of teacher professionalism favors teachers as reflective practitioners (Schön, 1991; Moore, 2007)

Reflection and discourse ability is therefore one of the core competences of the teaching profession. The reflection of one's own educational action serves to develop a professional teaching self. This refers to a professional teaching self with the important ability to reflect continuously at the moment of educational action and in retrospect.

Teacher students learn to apply the method of the pedagogical reflective interview (Christof, 2009) and also gain experiences as interviewees as they are researchers and respondents at the same time. An example shows how to apply this method in the field of teacher education.

Introduction There are various studies about the quality of schools and the

professionalization of teachers. Some studies have developed competence models for future teachers. They define competence areas in which teachers have to develop certain skills to meet the challenges of a rapidly changing world. These so called domains of teacher professionalism are: reflection and discourse ability, awareness of professionalism, personal mastery, collegiality and ability to differentiate (www.schule.epik.at).

The intention of the pedagogical reflective interview is to identify unnoticed learning processes and support them methodically in order to stimulate the interviewee’s reflection process. Reflection on professional activity is based on the reconstruction of subjective theories (Groeben, 1988). The student’s/The subject’s own perception of a pedagogical crisis situation is examined for inconsistencies and breaks. This changed perspective opens up new possibilities of action. The goal of the pedagogical reflective interview materializes in a transitory formation process (Alheit, 1993) which equally affects subject and structure.

Eveline Christof 115

About 40 students have participated in university courses that used the method of the pedagogical reflective interview in the last two years. There is shown one example of this reflection process out of one interview.

During the interview students follow a process of reflection with colleagues and experience this process also as respondent. By reflecting a crisis situation from their own everyday teaching experiences they gain a scheme for reflection which is also applicable to other situations.

The documentation of the specific steps of this research program forms a basis for further analysis – such as creating a typology – to provide additional insights for the field of teacher education and training.

One main goal is to help the students become reflective practitioners (Schön, 1991; Moore, 2007). Theory is used to reflect everyday classroom practice and to broaden the pedagogical expertise in a learning manner. Consequently teachers act increasingly more professional. Existing pedagogical theories are reviewed in practice and are expanded with findings from the field.

Theoretical framework The roles of teachers in the 21st century are changing. Teacher education studies

at the university have to prepare future teachers for a new professional identity. Children and young people grow up in a global world and their education should prepare them for living and working in a global society. Today schools have to face a lot of challenges such as economic growth, social change and cultural diversity. School should enable every learner to develop knowledge, understanding, skills, values and attitudes to participate actively in a global world. There are new ideas on learning like: learner in the centre, active participation, learning how to learn, learning styles, self- regulated learners. Therefore the quality of teaching is evaluated in many contexts. The evidence suggests that the main factor of the variation in pupils’ learning outcomes is the quality of teachers.

One of the key questions is: What is that teachers need to know, care about and be able to do to develop their own and others’ learning? How can teacher students develop a professional self and all the competences to meet these challenges? What are the central aspects of a “professional self”?

The Austrian ministry of education has set up a team of experts of the field of education working together in the project DEPIC (Developing of Professionalization in an International Context). So far, the group has devised the basics from which to develop professionalization and eventually put this notion into practice. The immediate concern of DEPIC is “developing professionalization of (future) Austrian teachers in an international setting” (Schratz et al, 2007). These domains of teacher professionalism are: reflection and discourse ability, awareness of professionalism, personal mastery, collegiality and ability to differentiate. The teacher education at the University of Innsbruck has taken up certain aims of the DEPIC-concept and implemented them in the curriculum of teacher training. According to Schratz et al (2007) five domains have been devised in which professionalization of teachers becomes apparent. “Domains” in this context refers to certain recurring topics which are central to the scientific discussion about professionalization (Schratz et al, 2007, p. 70 and http://epik.schule.at/).

Reflective Ability as a Core Competence of Future Teachers 116

As to reflective and discursive capabilities, teachers broaden their knowledge and skills acquired in their jobs in professional discourse with their colleagues. “Terminology being vastly heterogeneous, throughout educational scientific discussion there is the argument that professionalism and reflectivity respectively the ability to reflect upon certain issues are to be seen in close interdependence. The formula ‘professionality by reflectivity’ seems to be the common denominator.” (Schratz et al, 2007, p. 74f. referring to Reh, 2004, p. 360).

The second domain is the professional awareness of teachers, i.e. perceiving oneself as an expert in one’s profession. “Professional awareness means realising what makes the teaching profession a profession in its own right and thus drawing a clear line to other (social) jobs. At the same time teachers with professional awareness see themselves as part of a national and regional educational field which they form and by which they have been formed. They also see themselves as part of an international profession.” (ibid., p. 76).

The third domain named by Schratz et al (2007) is collegiality, which they also define as productivity of cooperation. The authors advocate a change of paradigms, away from the image of the teacher as the lone fighter towards realising the potential of a useful discourse among colleagues.

Variety is an integral part of a teacher’s daily work. The fourth domain, ability to differentiate, defines handling varieties in a productive way. “The ability to differentiate requires the knowledge to handle different situations in learning, communication and integration. It also requires the ability to offer individualising and differentiating teaching methods wherever they seem useful. Moreover it requires the ability to initiate a self-organised process of learning which individualises the learning process or stresses certain contents.” (Schratz et al, 2007, p. 78).

The fifth domain of teaching professionalism is personal mastery which refers to the power of individual know-how. “For teachers – the same applies to students – it is not only important to know what and to know how. Professionality means effectively using know-how and know-what according to situational requirements.” (ibid., p. 78f).

The present research project focuses particularly on developing reflective and discourse ability of teacher students.

To develop reflective and discursive competence of future teachers it is essential for them to learn to critically view and analyse themselves and their professional role from a certain distance. By applying a specific (social research) method they are instructed to go through a process of self-reflection to evaluate effects of future action. Reflecting not only on personal but also on structural conditions in which the teacher finds her/himself is crucial for their professionalization. Therefore, school as an organizational entity and the teaching profession itself as basic structures of the educational field have to be scrutinized.

In the seminar the teacher students are asked to verbalize a situational interaction in pedagogical settings, in which they didn’t succeed – from their perspective. The position of the teacher as a lone fighter, as mentioned above, is cracked open by showing individual teaching experiences and thus disclosing individual interpretations and “private theories” about ongoing processes. Consequently these processes are being discussed. The participants’ implicit


awareness of pedagogical situations becomes explicit and gains importance in theoretical analysis.

Methodology One method that originates from the field of qualitative educational research –

the Pedagogical Reflective Interview (Christof, 2009) – is applied in a teacher education course at the University of Innsbruck.

The Pedagogical Reflective Interview focuses on processes that always occur when methods of the social sciences – which are some kind of interaction – are used. With these processes a pedagogic concern shall be met. It is not possible to control these processes completely. The intention of applying this method is to identify unnoticed learning processes and support them methodically, in order to stimulate the interviewee’s educational reflection process. The process of reflection on professional activity is based on the reconstruction of subjective theories (Groeben, 1988). The participant’s perception of a pedagogical crisis situation is examined for inconsistencies and breaks. This should result in a changed perspective, which opens up new possibilities of action. The goal of this process materializes in a transitory formation process (Alheit, 1993) – which equally affects subject and structure.

In qualitative interviews on educational issues two processes intersect. On the one hand there is a reconstruction of subjective theories, subjective meaning which is deciphering general structures of meaning. On the other hand there is necessarily a reflection of one's actions – by the descriptions in the interview – which leads to thinking about changes of one’s own actions or thinking about changes of behavior. Necessarily, processes are stimulated which could be understood as learning and educational processes – if they are reflected. A structural superposition of learning processes becomes manifest in research situations, working with methods to reconstruct meanings.

There is also production of meaning and knowledge in interview situations on different levels. Implicit or “tacit” taken for granted knowledge must be made explicit in the interview process – a self-reflection process. The interaction between the interviewee and respondent produces communicative knowledge. On the individual level this means the explanation of practical knowledge, whereas on structural level implicit knowledge, the knowledge of rules is explained. A process of reflection on professional activity is based on the reconstruction of subjective theories (Groeben, 1988). In this process, the recovered space for thinking and action is reversed and develops its educational potential for reflective ability.

The potential of the application of this method is the identification of unnoticed individual constructions and their relation to structural frameworks. This process materializes in a transitory formation process (Alheit, 1993) which relates to the subject and the structural background. The interview is also a mediation between objective and subjective reality. In the interview there is a transformation of meaning attributions – interpretations are questioned and possibly revised. Distance to one’s own actions can help to see a larger repertoire of acting in specific (pedagogical) situations. This is a continuous development of pedagogical professionalism of (future) teachers.

In the course at the University of Innsbruck students learn about the theoretical background of this method and they also learn to apply it. They are researchers and


respondents at the same time: On the one hand, every student goes through this process of reflection as an observer – reflectivity can be experienced from an outside perspective. On the other hand, each student turns out to be a respondent – he/she is supported in reflecting a crisis situation from his/her teaching experience. The students acquire a tool for reflection, which is also applicable for other (crisis) pedagogical situations.

Steps of the pedagogical reflective interview 1. Developing an interview guideline 2. Carrying out the interview – exploring a pedagogical crisis situation 3. Transcription 4. Analysis of the interview (with focus on the crisis situation) according to the

concept of subjective theories (Groeben et al., 1988) and qualitative content analysis (Mayring, 2003)

5. Feedback with structural analysis of the reflection process 6. Exploring the impact on the self-concept 7. Broadening options to act in similar or other pedagogical situations

Example for an analysis This is an example from a teacher Training course at the University of

Innsbruck. Teachers students were conducting interviews with their colleagues to the topic of “reflecting on a pedagogical crisis situation of their own pedagogical experiences”.

During the interview a teacher student tells about a difficult classroom situation. Prehistory:

“I taught in a kind of pilot program, there were some students with special needs. This is a class in which we are particularly team-teaching, especially during intense phases. (…) Another is slightly autistic. He has a kind of syndrome. And my supervisor told me beforehand about the class, the special needs of the students and about the one with the autistic syndrome. But I've totally forgotten about that, otherwise ... well, I don’t know …”

Situation:

“A colleague and I we did that team-teaching and we organized group work for the class. They should work together about certain tasks like epochs in the history like baroque. (…) As we divided the students into groups, the one, the autistic boy was not in the classroom. I think he was on the toilet or something and then there was no group willing to let him participate in their work. Then he went away and did something else, first of all he didn’t do anything. I went back to him and told him, that this is not okay, he has to work with them and he has to integrate in the group. But the other group members said "Well, when he takes part in the group work he will always mess up” and so on (sigh). Yes, I just told them, that they should integrate him.” (…)


“And when the presentation of the results of the group work started the group, where the student with the autistic syndrome participated, came out. They started the presentation and the boy with the syndrome suddenly turned to the board and began to scribble swear words on the board. I tried to stop him but he didn‘t react.”

Analyze perception of the other - items of situational awareness: • A student shows autistic features, a physician-confirmed disease. • As we divided the students into groups, the autistic boy was not in the

classroom, he was probably in the bathroom. • The group doesn‘t like the autistic boy, and wouldn‘t let him participate. • „Such a person“ has to be treated differently than „normal“ students. • Autistic children have special needs in terms of physical contact. • You have to be careful with autistic students regarding privacy. • Autistic children should be touched firmly and consciously. • The student turns to the board and scribbles swearwords. Structural analysis of the reflection process: • Selection of an element:

▫ The student turns to the board and scribbles swearwords. • Interpretation of the behaviour:

▫ The student disregards the authority of the teacher and wants to provoke him.

• Perspective of another person: ▫ The student did not want to annoy the teacher but much more his

classmates. Maybe he wanted to pay them back, that they have excluded him. What he has always wanted to tell them, he simply wrote on the board.

Implications for personal actions: • The sharp criticism of the autistic student could just relate to his classmates,

and not to the teacher student. • This different interpretation raises other, alternative options for action. • As a conclusion the teacher student implied to emphasize on exercises to

strengthen the class community as this seems to be precisely the problem.

Expected outcomes/results The documentation of the steps of this research program is a data basis for

further analysis. The analysis of the interviews does not search for single statements of the respondents, but wants to document the process of reflection. The first step of analysis is to explore every single reflection process of the interviewees – like in the presented example. The next step looks for structural elements – are there any differences, similarities, any recurring issues? The goal of this analysis is to create a typology, which continuatively provides additional insights for the field of teacher education and in service teacher training.

Students adopt schemes to reflect their own practical experiences to continuously build up their professional self – to get an identity as reflective practitioners (Schön, 1991; Moore, 2007). Theory should be seen as a template to get new insights and to support solving practical problems. Reflecting everyday


classroom experience helps teachers to broaden their pedagogical expertise in a learning manner. Reflecting pedagogical (crisis) situations with a theoretical background enables teachers to build up their professional self step by step.

References Alheit, P. (1993): Transitorische Bildungsprozesse. Das „biographische Paradigma“ in der

Weiterbildung. In: Mader, W. (Ed.) Weiterbildung und Gesellschaft. Grundlagen wissenschaftlicher und beruflicher Praxis in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (pp. 343-417). Bremen: Universitätsbuchhandlung Bremen.

Christof, E. (2009): Bildungsprozessen auf der Spur. Das pädagogisch reflexive Interview. Wien: Löcker.

Groeben, N., Wahl, D., Schlee, J. & Scheele, B. (1988): Forschungsprogramm Subjektive Theorien. Eine Einführung in die Psychologie des reflexiven Subjekts. Tübingen: Francke Verlag.

Mayring, P. (2003): Qualitative Inhaltsanalyse. Grundlagen und Techniken. Weinheim und Basel: Beltz.

Moon, J. A. (2004): A Handbook of Reflective and Experiental Learning – Theory and Practice. London and New York: Routledge Falmer.

Moore, A. (2007): Beyond Reflection: Contingency, Idiosyncrasy and Reflexivity in Initial Teacher Education. In: Hammersley, M. (Ed.) Educational Research and Evidence-based Practice (pp. 121-138). Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore: Sage Publications.

Reh, S. (2004): Abschied von der Profession, von Professionalität oder vom Professionellen? Theorien und Forschungen zur Lehrerprofessionalität. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, 47 (3), 358-372.

Schön, D. (1991): The Reflective Practitioner. How Professionals Think in Action. London: Basic Books.

Schratz, M., Schrittesser, I., Forthuber, P., Pahr, G., Paseka A. & Seel, A. (2007): Domänen von Lehrer/innen/professionalität. Entwicklung von Professionalität im internationalen Kontext (EPIK). In: journal für lehrerinnen- und lehrerbildung, Heft 2/2007. Innsbruck, Wien, Bozen: Studienverlag, 70-80.

Ass.-Prof. Mag. Dr. Eveline Christof Universität Innsbruck Austria [email protected]


RAFAELA GARCIA LOPEZ & Mª JESÚS MARTÍNEZ USARRALDE

TRANSFORMATION OF A SCHOOL INTO A COOPERATIVE SCHOOL: THE MIRACLE OF AN EDUCATIONAL TOOL FOR A BETTER SCHOOL

Abstract

In this paper we will try to demonstrate that the educational institution is a cultural artifact, a living entity that also develops a different way of teaching. We will try to imagine another type of school where interpersonal relations are also a teaching aim; a school that goes from being obsessed with teaching for PISA testing to a school that, in addition to transmitting knowledge, is devoted to educating for life: i.e. a cooperative school (García, Traver & Candela, 2001; Parra & Peña, 2012), and we will describe the process of that change.

Introduction: Aims and motivation

We will try to describe briefly how to imagine that ‘another type of school is possible’. In just a few years, our experience has shown us that you can go from a school that can barely provide education because of discipline problems (Lamberti, 2010; Pliego, 2011); where nobody can learn anything, not even reading or writing; where respect for diversity is totally lacking; where failure to recognize the teacher's authority is reinforced by parents' attitudes; and where parent involvement is obviously non-existent. In short, the conditions are terrible, but people have not stopped trying to form and change teaching methodologies by actually planning and designing a different kind of school that has worked much better, without achieving miracles. Academic failure remains very high, but at least children learn the basics instrumental to behaving correctly and accepting diversity.

We must point out that there has been support from the government, which gave the appropriate authorizations and supervised the experience by sending an inspector who never criticized and who allowed the center to make all the proposed changes. In other words, the Department of Education (Conselleria d’Educació) has done nothing, which is significant, because it has not increased human or material resources, but it is also true that there has been no interference with the development of the project.

Center Description

The St. James School (Escuela de Santiago Apóstol) in Valencia is a Catholic, Infant and Primary School, privately owned but run entirely with public money. It is considered as ‘Compensatory Education Center’ because it brings together more than 30% of students in “need of compensation” (gypsies and immigrant pupils), which means extra human and material resources from the local authority. It is located in a suburb of the city of Valencia (the El Cabañal district) and, as mentioned above, most of the pupils are from families which are socially, culturally and economically marginalised. It is a small center, few economic resources and limited space. It has a staff of 11 teachers who are general teachers of Primary Education, 3 specialists in Early Childhood Education, a specialist in Educational

Transformation of a School into a Cooperative School: The Miracle of an Educational Tool for a Better School 122

Support for Integration in Primary Education, a specialist in Secondary Education and an educational psychologist spread across 11 classrooms (3 for Infant Education, 6 for Primary Education, 1 for Compulsory Secondary Education (ESO), and 1 for Special Education). The total number of pupils at the school is 150. The center receives external support from the Training and Resource Center for Teachers (CEFIRE) and has a training plan shared with other centers along the maritime area. The school meals service is provided by volunteers (from the university and NGOs) and paid monitors. Totally unthinkable a few years ago, the school now has a support teacher paid for by a gypsy association. The general educational organization is currently based around flexible groups: class groups of about 16-20 children who are divided into three level groups, each one of them with a teacher. There is still a high level of truancy and school failure (none of them go on to secondary education).

The teachers place the most common needs of their students into three blocks (Bonal, 1992; Ovejero, 1994):

a) Personal needs, such as lack of hygiene, clothing, food, and personal disruptions due to problems with self-image, self-esteem and hyperactive or violent behavior. More than 25 students use the daily showers service at school because their homes have no running water.

b) Social needs, such as lack of social skills, unfavorable conditions for study at home and non-acceptance of cultural diversity.

c) Educational needs, such as irregular attendance, lack of access to curriculum resources, lack of adequate balance between learning and skills that would correspond to their age and, finally, the pupils' difficulty in remaining in the educational system.

Moreover, regarding the role of families, teachers highlight the parents’ low opinion of the school and their lack of participation in the educational community. Parent meetings, before the intervention, were only attended by 8%, mostly women.

The students are characterized by: a) Being noticeably behind with their schooling (76%). b) Belonging to socially disadvantaged minority: gypsy ethnic group. c) There is another group that also belongs to a socially disadvantaged minority

culture: immigrant pupils. So far, the center has mostly received immigrants from Spanish-speaking areas such as Equatorial Guinea, Colombia and Cuba.

d) Another group came from homes in areas disadvantaged by lack of decent housing.

e) Presenting basic personal needs. At present, 25 pupils at the center use the school showers service daily at nine o'clock, as their homes have no running water.

f) Most students have learning difficulties and/or behavior issues. Racism is a burning problem. Many gypsy children bring to school feelings of rejection which is extended to everything related to the “payo” (non-gypsies), including the teacher's authority.

Once the academic year begins, the center continues to receive special registration students from the Office of Enrolment (Local Government), the

Rafaela Garcia Lopez & Mª Jesús Martínez Usarralde 123

Women's Shelter or the Guardianship Court. This added difficulty means constant adjustments and adaptations are required.

Objectives

As a result of the aforementioned circumstances at this particular center, and because school failure is very high, if not 100% (pupils at this school do not reach secondary education, so they never obtain the general education certificate), in many cases, pupils are referred to an occupational workshop until they are 16 years of age and old enough to work. Given these circumstances and seeing as the current organization and curriculum does not even manage to teach basic competences, the team of teachers, a representative from CEFIRE (Center for the Professionalization of Teachers) and two technical experts in cooperative education and cooperative schools from the University of Valencia decided to embark on a mission to transform this school into a school characterized by a cooperative model (one member of the technical team had visited cooperative schools and accelerated schools in New York and her experience was crucial to implementing the new model in this school). It was felt that applying the principles derived from cooperative learning could encourage maturity from the students in all areas: cognitive, affective and relational (Block, Everson & Guskey, 1994; Ovejero, 1994; García, Traver & Candela, 2001). There will also be improvements to teamwork among the teaching staff and greater involvement of the pupils' families (García, Traver & Candela, 2001; Parra & Peña, 2012).

In summary, the transformation caused by our intervention was focused on the following areas: awareness for cooperative learning and teamwork by teachers (Hertz-Lazarowitz, 1992); training in cooperative methodology (techniques for efficiently implementing cooperative learning with students) (Lamberti, 2010; Chung Lee, 2011); planning of teaching, in a cooperative framework for socially deprived students, greater awareness and collaboration among parents, despite the difficulties, direct intervention with teachers and their students.

The idea was to transform the methods, teaching content (by trying to make it more relevant), organization and planning of the teaching (by setting up flexible groups and planning the curriculum together) and, above all, to transform the educational relationship, giving the students a more central role and listening to their views (Bonal, 1992; Aronson & Patnoe, 1997; Pliego, 2011).

Projects

All of the projects were designed with more or less the same structure. All of them start with a theoretical and practical justification of the proposal and the reasons for doing it at this center. Then there is a section dedicated to the project's objectives; the process followed and how this is evaluated.

We will present the title of each project and its goals. In order to create a cooperative school, various strategies were developed to be

able to intervene from different perspectives. Firstly, patient and systematic work had to be done with the members of staff, by this we mean that the task was daunting. It was not easy to change the mentality, attitudes and methods of the teachers. However, the results obtained show that that we have succeeded.


The design and implementation of a Continuing Education Project was begun during 2002, although we, the technical team, joined in 2007. All teacher training courses have been approved and funded by the Department of Education (Conselleria d’ Educació) of Valencia.

Our direct involvement was with the teachers, and only occasionally with students, and this seemed insufficient given that the final recipients were those students needing remedial education. We were able to verify that all the training that they were receiving was being translated into concrete actions and a real improvement of the students. Thus, teachers had to make real what we were developing on a theoretical level, both in terms of attitudes and values and in the specific curriculum at each level. And all of this was performed through work projects and other cooperative techniques. This is how we designed and implemented with students projects such as the Cooperative Social Skills Project, the Thursday Market Project, the Intercultural Project, the Family Project and the Cooperative Learning in the Classroom Project. We also created and implemented other projects which are not expanded upon here so as not to unduly prolong the list; such as the Truancy Project, the Project for Showers and Laundry, the Inter-Agency Project (involving the Social Services, Educational Inspection, an external advisor, a Gypsy monitor, a volunteer from the Technical University and the Faculty of Literature at the Universities of Valencia and Jaume I in Castellón, etc.), the Flexible Curriculum Grouping Project (language and mathematics), the Interdisciplinary Workshop Project, the Showers and Food Project, the Workshop Project for Leisure and Recreation, and the Workshop for Health and Hygiene Project.

We also worked with families through the development of three video-letters to parents; in which students themselves, through the technique of role-playing, pass on information to their parents about the school and content related to the children's learning. We are all very happy with this project because, whereas before only 8% of families came when summoned to attend appointments, now virtually all do. In addition, the center also organized open days and exhibitions of students' work, and, in 2012, there was a highly successful gypsy exhibition by Jesus Salinas entitled ‘Brown Archangels’. As well as the pupils' families, other schools in the district and various members of the local authorities came to visit this exhibition. This activity is part of the Intercultural Project.

The center won the National Award for Quality Compensatory Education Projects 2012, awarded by the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science (MEC).

All projects implemented with the students are always preceded by a theoretical component that has been part of teacher training sessions; once this part is completed the practical design of projects begins.

1. Teacher Training Project The final objectives were: 1. Raising awareness among teachers about the need to work on projects as a

specific and effective way of treating cultural diversity. 2. Motivating teachers so that their methodological approaches take into

account working regularly through projects. 3. Knowing the steps and procedures for project development. 4. Choosing a theme so the whole center works on one specific project: the

Thursday Market Project, the Family Project, etc.


The partial objectives were identified as: • Find out teachers' preconceptions about projects. • Know how to approach the subject with students. • Specify the activities of teachers. • Specify the activities of students. • Learn to develop indices and synthesis of the projects. • Develop criteria and guidelines for evaluating projects. • Undertake a practical project with all students at the center.

2. Cooperative Skills Project Considering the specific characteristics of the intervention school's pupils, it

was essential to work on social and cooperative skills.

3. The Thursday Market Project This project aimed to bring learners and students closer to the reality in which

they live to make learning more useful and functional and, therefore, improve motivation. Then, we developed the official curriculum through the students' daily experiences in their homes, families and neighborhoods, trying to solve real problems and providing the necessary tools to deal appropriately with life.

This project aimed to develop the following capabilities: • The initiative in the students to do small research projects. • Creativity, using alternative methods and explanations for different

questions. • Solving problems using the scientific method of problem solving. • Synthesis, using different sources of information (collection, selection,

management, analysis, interpretation and presentation) and different areas of knowledge.

• Comprehensive articulation of learning. • Decision-making in determining what is relevant and therefore should be

included in the project. • Interpersonal communication, contrasting the opinions and different views of

classmates and other people involved. We performed an initial estimate of conceptual, procedural and attitudinal

content, and a series of varied and diversified activities was designed. Although this was the estimate, the impact on other areas and content was greater. The key areas worked on included: Spanish Language, Valencian Language, Foreign Language, Mathematics, Environmental Awareness, Science, Art Education and cross-over subjects, among others.

The product realization is what brings life to the project and will serve both as an evaluation of the whole process and as a presentation for parents to see at the end of year. As an example of the many products, we will list some of the ones we have made which are part of the activities undertaken by pupils of different levels.

4. Intercultural Project In the theoretical training project on intercultural education teachers covered the

following topics: • Intercultural theoretical aspects developed in this project.


• Design specifications for intercultural cooperative activities. • Skills and specific techniques for intercultural education. • Proposals to improve the peaceful coexistence of cultures. We proposed the following objectives for the whole center: a) Understand, value and accept yourself and others. b) Learn to put yourself in someone else's place. c) Improve intercultural tolerance through cooperative learning. d) Understand and appreciate the cultural wealth provided by the different

people at our center and our environment. e) Look for common elements among cultural groups which allow mutual

enrichment.

5. Family Project This project is called ‘Family Project’, it was focused on the family working

with pupils and students as direct work with parents is developed and has been developed through video production, exhibitions, open days, a Christmas party, Las Fallas (an annual Valencian festival), Saint John's Day celebrations, parent meetings, personal interviews and the Parents' School which we are now designing. The objectives are:

1. To help students show the kind of family community to which they belong. 2. Make the students think about this family model. 3. Awareness among students of equality between the sexes. 4. Gather information and research the different family models according to

town. 5. Be able to respect and value all models of family organization, especially

those different from our own. 6. Analyze the characteristics of the standard models of Western families,

Roma and other people, looking for differences and similarities. 7. Demonstrate the fact that family configurations cause different family set

ups. 8. Develop a sense of belonging to a family. 9. Understand and specify the roles within the “Paya” (non-gypsy) and gypsy

family structure. 10. Instill in families, through their sons and daughters, the importance of

school. 11. Facilitate their participation in school life; involve them in their children's

exhibitions, reading, storytelling, singing, basket weaving workshops, market, sports, showers, parties and so on.

12. Capture the ideal meaning of different families: the family as a protector of children.

13. Identify the roles within the family and their possible implications. 14. Be able to express positive emotions about families, communicating to

classmates the feelings and experiences of life in the family.

6. Cooperative Learning in the Classroom Project The objectives were: 1. Empowering the students to self-regulate their learning.


2. Changing the structure of the class to give them the opportunity to teach one each other.

3. Adjust the curriculum to the characteristics of each of the students, to develop their full potential according to their pace, interests and possibilities.

4. Include all students in the class group which corresponds to their age.

Conclusions

The main conclusion we can draw, after all these years, is that it is possible to change the school. The change we have brought might not have helped to significantly improve academic results but, thanks to the enormous effort made by teachers to find a different more meaningful and relevant approach, many children, who not only couldn't read and write before but were also impossible to teach due to discipline problems, are now able to learn the basics, to change their attitudes towards others and towards diversity and to establish respectful social relationships.

Therefore, given the circumstances of the center, we consider the intervention a success and we believe that all projects undertaken are a useful tool to facilitate student learning and reduce racist attitudes by providing the asset of being educated in terms of basic tools that will help them integrate into an increasingly exclusive world.

The other major conclusion is that to go from a school that teaches for PISA standards to a school that educates for life, requires the following conditions:

1. A thoughtful teacher, able to think for themselves, willing to test changes in their own work; teachers willing to break from the norm and believe and get excited about what they are doing; teachers willing to be continually brought up to date to work in teams, confident that all students can learn.

2. Relatively manageable school centers, not too big, not macrocenters, where the staff members can come to consensus and pull in the same direction with a clear pedagogical leadership of management teams.

3. Schools with a high degree of autonomy. Therefore, an administration that is flexible and allows change and innovation.

4. A shared idea about the meaning of education for life, translated into a plan or projects.

5. Knowledge of the reality that characterizes the center, its location and its relationship with the environment, its possibilities and limits.

References Aronson, E. & Patnoe, S. (1997): The Jigsaw classroom. Building Cooperation in the

Classroom. New York: Longman. Block, J., Everson, T. S. & Guskey, R. T. (1994): Selecting and Integrating School

Improvement Programs. Remedial and Special Education, 13(4), 13-32. Bonal, X. (1992): Escuelas Aceleradas para alumnos desaventajados. Escuela y Sociedad.

Cuadernos de Pedagogía, 13, 31-34. Chung Lee, C. (2011): Evolution of humans: understanding the nature of methods of Science

through cooperative learning. School Science Review, 92 (340), 113-120. García, R., Traver, J. A. & Candela, I. (2001): Aprendizaje cooperativo: fundamentos,

características y técnicas. Madrid: CCS-ICCE.


Hertz-Lazarowitz, R. (1992): Cooperation and helping in the classroom: A contextual approach. International Journal of Research in Education, 13(1), 113-119.

Lamberti, S. (2010): Cooperative Learning: una metodologia per la gestione efficace dei conflitti. Un progetto di ricerca-azione nella escuola primaria XXI. Revista de Educación, 12, 183-194.

Ovejero, A. (1994): El aprendizaje cooperativo. Una alternativa eficaz a la enseñanza tradicional. Barcelona: P.P.U.

Parra, M. C. & Peña, B. (2012): El aprendizaje cooperativo mediante actividades participativas. Anales de La Universitad Metropolitana, 12 (2), 15-37.

Pliego, N. (2011): El aprendizaje cooperativo y sus ventajas en la educación intercultural. Hekademos, 8, 63-76.

Prof. Dr. Rafaela García López University of Valencia Spain [email protected] Mr. María Jesús Martínez Usarralde, Lecturer University of Valencia Spain [email protected]



RICARDO LOZANO

REFLECTIONS FOLLOWING THREE YEARS OF TRAINING THE NEXT GENERATION OF EDUCATORS IN TURKEY: CONSTRUCTING AN OPTIMISTIC, YET REALISTIC UNDERSTANDING OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION

Today I understood that having a good time in class is not a very difficult thing to do. The previous line was written by Fatih, a male, classroom management student

in a teacher-training program in Turkey, as part of his daily class reflection. Three years ago, I embarked in the most exciting adventure of my life. I packed

my bags, left everything behind, moved to a foreign land, and became a professor at a teacher-training program in Turkey. As this was my first appointment as a professor and, as a way to get immediate feedback from students with regards to my teaching, I decided to ask my students to write daily reflections at the end of every class (and semester reflections at the end of every term). Students were asked to reflect upon what had happened in class, and to think about how they had grown or changed based on class topics, examples, and discussions. What follows are four lessons learned over the last three years by my students and, most importantly, by me.

In Turkey, as in many other parts of the world, the teaching profession has been associated with an idealistic sense of virtuousness inspired by a naïve enthusiasm to contribute to the betterment of the world (Lozano & Kizilaslan, 2012). However, when faced with the challenges inherent to the profession, many young teachers are confronted with the realities of low salaries, inadequate teaching facilities, heavy workloads, and crowded classes (Cakiroglu & Cakiroglu, 2003; Sabanci, 2009). These challenges “have the potential of plummeting the romantic, ideal perceptions of the profession” (Lozano & Kizilaslan, 2012, p. 139). Consequently, the main question hovering over my mind was how to provide my students with a realistic, yet optimistic understanding of the teaching profession.

Looking back at my students’ (and my own) reflections of the last three years, these are the main lessons learned regarding my question of how to provide my future teachers with a realistic understanding of education, without destroying their dream for a bright future in the profession.

First Lesson Learned: Provide Avenues for the Increasing of Students’ Sense of Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy is a person’s belief about his or her chances of successfully accomplishing a specific task (Bandura, 1982), and it is developed through the “gradual acquisition of … skills through experience” (Gist, 1987, p. 472) [emphasis mine]. When my students in Turkey were challenged by assignments somewhat foreign to the educational system to which they were accustomed (i.e. oral participation, particularly in English, their second language), initially, they were lacking the self-confidence required to complete these assignments successfully.

Reflections Following Three Years of Training the Next Generation of Educators in Turkey 130

As an individual new and foreign to my students’ culture and education system, I was in great need to adjust my teaching methods and style to one which would provide them with the self-efficacy required for the successful completion of the required assignments. The key, in my case, was the gradual introduction of this new set of assignments, along with the provision of the needed encouragement to actually step-up and experience the process of completing them (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2003).

The challenge was not an easy one, especially since students would come to my class already afraid of this yabanci (foreign) professor whose ideas were quite different from those to which they were accustomed. Sultan, one of my female, educational administration students, when referring to me in her reflection would comment that:

My friends… mentioned that Ricardo Lozano was very strict… he does not like our presentations and asks us a lot of questions. He is a very difficult person. So, at the beginning of the semester I was afraid of you.

This was, indeed, a difficult transition for me. How could I help my students understand the benefits my unorthodox teaching style? I began with the idea of “step-up and kill the monster!”. Through this simple illustration, I would encourage my students to take small steps towards something somehow new to them. I would also tell my students how, once they had taken a step towards killing the monster, they would realize that the monster does not exist; it is nothing but a fog which can be easily walked through. After a few weeks of gently persuading my students to step-up and kill the monster by working in small groups and increase their oral participation, their reflections began to change. For instance, Hande, a female student in my classroom management course commented:

I don’t want to forget this: This class is not a monster. Kill the monster.

Once the idea of killing the monster was clear in my student’s minds, I began to introduce more complex assignments, such as individual oral presentations. Students were aware of the fact that this new assignment would not be easy; however, with a little encouragement, they were able to understand the value of trying new things and to enjoy the benefits of an increased sense of self-efficacy. In the words of Mesut, a male educational administration student:

This semester was really stressful and tiring, but beneficial. The presentation was really hard and a little bit different… I am happy for this course because I don’t believe it was a waste of time, I would be happier if it was easier, but I cannot complain about the results.

Second Lesson Learned: Helping Students Overcome their Fear of Expressing their Thoughts and Opinions

Education in Turkey is predominantly teacher-centered. Teachers are frequently observed to be sensitive to talking, and even whispering, among students. Classroom noise, regardless of its source is, generally speaking, not tolerated by teachers in Turkey (Akkok, Askar & Sucuoglu, 1995; Atici & Merry, 2001), where “the role of the teacher is to dispense facts and the role of the student is to listen and memorize

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them” (Lozano & Kizilaslan, 2013, p. 184). It is clear that in Turkey, there are numerous excellent teachers. However, the long-established idea of respect is often expected to be expressed through submission and reservedness.

With this understanding of the Turkish education system and culture, and after a certain level of individual self-efficacy had been instilled in my students, the following challenge to my teaching was to provide students with an opportunity to express their own ideas and opinions freely in class. I began by asking simple questions, like: “Is education important?” and, once my students were comfortable enough to say “yes”, I would ask the follow-up question “why?”.

Through my teaching in Turkey, I have learned that, when students are given the opportunity and the time to think through a particular matter, they will produce the most creative answers. However; transitioning into a system of asking questions and promoting discussions was not easy. My students were literally shocked when confronted with a system in which they were encouraged to express their ideas and opinions freely. Cem, a male student in my educational administration course expressed:

At the beginning of the semester… I was shocked because of your difficult questions about education.

Initially I had to persist at communicating my genuine interest on my students’ thoughts and ideas. Betül, a female student in my introduction to education course, after understanding and believing in my honest interest not only in teaching, but also in learning, commented:

You care about our ideas and encourage us to talk in class. I mean, you and we teach the lessons together.

Once this level of understanding and trust was built, my students were more comfortable analyzing different ideas, and developing a personal opinion in relation to the different topics addressed in class. Gülçin, a student in my introduction to education course, expressed:

I learned to think on a question by asking various questions… Actually, I learned to be like a philosopher. Thus, I can overcome hard questions and interpret different things.

By the end of the semester, Irem, also a student in my introduction to education course, expressed her ideas concerning my course, and said:

From the beginning of this semester, I faced many difficulties when you asked a question, also I couldn’t express my ideas easily. This lesson taught me to look at different topics in different ways. I learned many useful things about explaining the ideas in logical order and how to think about something in a logical way. Now, I can explain my ideas easily.

Third Lesson Learned: The Importance of Cooperative Learning

Another lesson learned by both, my students and I, has been the importance of the regular integration of cooperative learning into the classroom. Cooperative learning engages students in the learning process by promoting critical thinking,


reasoning, and problem-solving skills, resulting in better self-esteem, improved collaborative skills, and increased achievement (Ahmad & Mahmood, 2010; Borich, 1996; Bramlett, 1994; Mengnin, 1995; Stevens & Slavin, 1995; Webb, Trooper & Fall, 1995).

Through my teaching, I have learned to organize my students in groups of three. Each student is then given a specific responsibility such as time-keeper, note-taker, and speaker. At the end of a short period of time, usually 20-30 minutes, students are expected to write a short essay and deliver a brief, 5-7 minute presentation, which should answer the questions of what (a definition of the object or idea addressed in that particular class), why (what is the purpose of this object or idea; why does it exist), how does it work (or what does it look like) in real life, and finally, students are expected to provide an example. By answering what, why, how, and example questions, students are required to organize their ideas in a coherent manner, and by delivering a short essay and oral presentation, their understanding of the concepts, theories or ideas addressed at the moment is easily assessed, at the same time that students are given an opportunity to demonstrate what they have learned.

One of the greatest benefits of cooperative learning is that it provides students with an opportunity to analyze, and make sense out of information, as opposed to having to deal with isolated, seemingly irrelevant facts thrown at them (Richards & Rodgers, 2001; Tomlinson, 1999). Additionally, research suggests that talking and moving are valid strategies to strengthen learning, improve memory and retrieval, and enhance learner motivation and morale (Courchesne & Allen, 1997; Jensen, 2005; Kim, Ugirbil & Strick, 1994). Based on my personal observations and experiences, cooperative learning is also an excellent support-technique to be integrated with the additional purposes of increasing students’ sense of self-efficacy, and their ability to express ideas freely in small, safe environments.

In addition to the well documented and experiential benefits of cooperative learning, my students have also observed it to be an effective practicing tool to be used in preparing for major assignments given later in the semester. Akgül, a student in my educational administration class, when referring to the benefits of cooperative learning, stated that:

The whole semester consists of kind of group working. Random groups help to manage group working in a small group. I think it helps for our midterm and final presentations. It gives us an idea of how we’re going to make group work, even in 5 minutes.

Fourth Lesson Learned: The Positive Effects of Making Teaching Fun

As I reflect upon my teaching and upon my students’ reflections on my teaching, it is interesting to see the things they remember about me. Can, a male student in my classroom management course, commented:

When I came to class… everybody, including me was surprised… when you came and looked at the whole class with a smile and said: Hi guys!

Cem’s reflection reminds me of the importance of making teaching fun, and creating a learning environment which celebrates the joys of both teaching and

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learning. “What is education?” I ask my students on the first day of school. Then I say: “Teacher speaks, speaks, speaks. Student sleeps, sleeps, sleeps. The night before the exam, student stays up memorizing the book. Then, right after the exam, all of the information slips off his brain.”. Students laugh at my definition of education, and nod their heads in agreement.

Teachers often overrate the importance of content, and underrate the part they play in stimulating students to actually desire to know and become life-long learners. How we teach is more important than what we teach. However; educators often worry about wasting precious lecture time to class discussions and collaborative learning that takes time away from covering the required material. This is interesting, especially since we are fully aware of the fact that most invariably, and within a very short period of time, students forget much of the information learned through lecturing and memorization (DiCarlo, 2009). Creating a space for fun, interaction, and trust in the classroom has been reported to promote engagement, hypothesis testing, problem solving, deep learning, and meaning (Hromek & Roffey, 2009; Robinson & Kakela, 2006).

As educators, we often focus on engagement and achievement levels. Based upon my own experiences in the classroom, I can conclude that, when teaching and learning are made fun – through walking around the room, through the use of distinctive gestures, facial expressions, body motions, voice inflections, and through maintaining eye-contact with students – engagement, and consequently, achievement levels, increase. Büşra, a future math teacher in my classroom management course, seems to have understood the concept.

When teachers are guides, and students are active participants, instruction will be more fun. Students can learn in schools very well. I understand that mathematics can be fun too. I am so happy to take this course.

When Ayten, a female student also in my classroom management course, was provided the opportunity to experience fun in the classroom, she was able to adjust her perspective on teaching and learning, and concluded that teaching can actually be enjoyable:

We learned lots of things about classroom management, students, teachers and teaching techniques. Before I took this lesson, I thought being a teacher in high school is boring but after the lesson I think it’s too enjoyable.

Conclusion

Through my reflections after three years as a professor in a teacher-training program in Turkey, I have learned 1) to provide avenues for the increasing of students’ sense of self-efficacy, 2) to help students overcome their fear of expressing their thoughts and opinions, 3) the importance of cooperative learning, and 4) the positive effects of making teaching fun.

Most of my students were interested in, and pleased by my seemingly unorthodox teaching style. These students provided me with positive feedback encouraging me to continue providing them with the gift of choice, and with avenues to express their thoughts and opinions. Also, as it is to be expected, some of my students have expressed the thought that my teaching style does not precisely


concur with their learning style and personal philosophy of education. Aylin, a female student in my classroom management class, expressed:

I have ideas about education methods and how people should be educated. I will decide my education method. I think I will be teacher centered. Because until high school I was educated with this way and, according to my education philosophy, it is more effective for children.

Regardless of my students’ personal choices, I am grateful for the opportunity to challenge them to explore and experiment with different learning and teaching styles, from which to develop their own philosophy of education. Whatever decision my students make for their future careers, I can only agree with Salih, student in my classroom management course, and say that:

I hope to be a real teacher one day, and that my students will remember me with smiling faces.

References Ahmad, Z. & Mahmood, N. (2010): Effects of cooperative learning vs. traditional instruction

on prospective teachers’ learning experience and achievement. Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences, 43(1), 151-164.

Akkok, F., Askar, P. & Sucuoğlu, B. (1995): Safe schools require the contributions of everybody: The picture in Turkey. Thresholds in Education, May, 29-32.

Atıcı, M. & Merry, R. (2001): Misbehaviour in British and Turkish primary classrooms. Pastoral Care, June, 32-39.

Bandura, A. (1982): Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37, 122-147.

Borich, G. D. (1996): Effective teaching methods. (4th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bramlett, R. (1994): Implementing cooperative learning: A field study evaluating issues of school-based consultants. Journal of School Psychology, 32(1), 67-84.

Cakıroğlu, E. & Cakıroğlu, J. (2003): Reflections on teacher education in Turkey. European Journal of Teacher Education, 36(2), 253-264.

Courchesne, E. & Allen, G. (1997): Prediction and preparation, fundamental functions of the cerebellum. Learning and Memory. 4, 1-35.

DiCarlo, S. E. (2009): Too much content, not enough thinking, and too little fun! Advanced Physiology Education, 33, 257-264.

Gist, M. E. (1987): Self-efficacy: Implications for organizational behavior and human resource management. Academy of Management Review, 12(3), 472-485.

Hromek, R. & Roffey, S. (2009): Promoting social and emotional learning with games. Simulation and Gaming, 40(5), 626-644.

Linnenbrink, A. & Pintrich, R. (2003): The role of self-efficacy beliefs in student engagement and learning in the classroom. Reading and Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 19(2), 119-137.

Jensen, E. (2005): Teaching with the brain in mind. (2nd Ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Kim, S., Ugirbil, K. & Strick, P. (1994): Activation of a cerebellar output nucleus during

cognitive processing. Science, 265, 949-951.

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Lozano, R. & Kızılaslan, I. (2012): Education in Turkey: Sentimentality meets the realities of the teaching profession. In I. Kestere, C. Wolhuter & R. Lozano (Eds.) The visual image of the teacher (pp. 126-143). Riga, Latvia: Raka.

Lozano, R. & Kızılaslan, I. (2013): Approaches to classroom discipline in Turkey and their implications for teacher education. International Journal on New Trends in Education and their Implications, 4(1), 180-187.

Mengin, J. (1995): Combining memory and creativity in teaching math. Teaching PreK-8, 25(6), 48-49.

Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. (2001): Approaches and methods in language teaching. (2nd Ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Robinson, C. F. & Kakela, P. J. (2006): Creating a space to learn: A classroom of fun, interaction, and trust. College Teaching, 54(1), 202- 207.

Sabancı, A. (2009): The effect of primary school teachers’ burnout on organizational health. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1, 195-205.

Stevens, R. & Slavin, R. (1995): Effects of cooperative learning approach in reading and writing on academically handicapped and non-handicapped students. Elementary School Journal, 95(3), 241-262.

Tomlinson, C. A. (1999): The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Webb, N., Trooper, J. & Fall, R. (1995): Constructive activity and learning in collaborative small groups. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(34), 406-423.

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ricardo Lozano Yeditepe University Istanbul, Turkey [email protected] [email protected]


EDINA KOVÁCS & ADRIENN FEKETE

THE PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY AND ACHIEVEMENT OF EDUCATION MAJORS IN THE CROSS-BORDER REGION OF HUNGARY, ROMANIA AND UKRAINE1

Abstract

Recent studies show that students with lower secondary school performance2 apply to teacher training programs; moreover, teacher training graduates showing poorer academic performance are more likely to become teachers. However, fulfilling the role of a successful teacher involves having complex knowledge and skills, such as co-operation, self-understanding and good problem-solving skills. This complexity is interpreted differently by experts. Some claim that it leads to deprofessionalization while others empathize the crucial role of teacher training development and renewal, which would compensate for the loss of prestige in the teaching profession.

Although it is not common in Hungary, Paszkál Kiss and his research group have recently carried out a competence-based assessment of students studying in higher education. Their results confirm that academic success alone does not predict competence-based achievement. Our analysis was based on two data collections performed in 2010 and 2012 on students studying in the higher-education institutions of the cross border regions of Hungary, Romania and Ukraine. Our results support the claims in literature that the academic performance of education majors is poorer than the academic performance of other students while, in some areas, other indicators of achievement demonstrate the advantage of education majors.

Introduction

The status loss of the teaching professions, the decreasing social recognition and the related phenomenon of negative self-selection have been an integral part of today’s professional dialogue. We use the plural following Fónai since teachers of all levels of education (pre-primary, primary, secondary and higher education) are often put into the same category. Besides, it is evident that teachers of different levels of education not only need different education but also different knowledge and skills (Fónai, 2012). It was two decades ago when a comprehensive study was carried out to assess the social recognition of intellectual professions. Less comprehensive studies conducted in the meantime indicate either no change or drop in the prestige of the teaching profession. According to the 1994 results, secondary school teachers are on the sixth place and primary school teachers are on the seventh place preceded by doctors, lawyers, economists, chemists and mechanical engineers (Szabó, 1998). Nevertheless, some studies also note that besides academic performance, there are other factors, such as institutional embeddedness and 1 This study is part of the “SZAKTÁRNET” research project and supported by the TÁMOP-

4.1.2.B.2-13/1-2013-0009. 2 For the purpose of simplicity, ‘achievement’ and ‘performance’ is used as synonyms.

Edina Kovács & Adrienn Fekete 137

satisfaction with both the training and teaching practice, that influence teacher attrition. Consequently, even though the statement that better performing students leave the teaching profession is valid, it is undoubtedly simplified (Bruinsmaa & Jansena, 2010; Pusztai, 2012). In addition, the interpretation of achievement is also problematic: does it exclusively refer to academic performance or we should take into consideration other academic activities and certain competences, as well?

In the following, we present an overview of the academic achievement of education majors compared to other majors, as well as, the knowledge and skills that can be significant to assess in relation to academic achievement.

Furthermore, we demonstrate the different representations of the complexity of the teacher’s role: some claim that it leads to deprofessionalization while others empathize the significance of teacher training development and renewal, which would compensate for the loss of prestige in the teaching profession.

We analyze the academic achievement of education majors compared to performance of other majors. Moreover, we examine the image that we can create about education majors based on other achievement indicators. Furthermore, we also elaborate on the relationship between achievement and the intention to remain in the teaching profession.

A complex role: deprofessionalization or a new professional identity?

In the last decade, Hungarian studies show that low earning and the loss of prestige result in negative self selection. Hence, student with lower secondary school academic performance apply to Teacher Training Programs, moreover, teacher training graduates showing poorer academic performance are more likely to become teachers nyújtottak (Polónyi & Tímár, 2001; Polónyi & Tímár, 2006; Varga, 2007; Sági & Ercsei, 2012).

At the turn of the millennium, studying the academic performance of secondary school students, Varga concludes that lower ability students and students valuing their possible earnings lower that others are more likely to choose a college-level Teacher Training Program. It is a general tendency that lower achieving secondary school students choose to apply to colleges rather than to universities, “but the lower abilities one has, the more likely that they apply to a Teacher Training Program” (writers’ translation, Varga, 2007: 315). Regarding applications to university level Teacher Training Programs the differences in abilities/achievement were not traceable compared to students choosing other majors. At the same time, there are more college graduates choosing to become a teacher, thus ultimately students showing poorer achievement are more likely to enter the teaching profession that students showing better performance.

Since for those having a university education have more favorable alternative career possibilities outside the field of the teaching profession, they more likely to choose another career area (Varga, 2007). A Swiss study draws a similar conclusion when it states that typically women form nonintellectual families having little academic interest and preferring colleges to universities choose teaching as a profession.

In our research studying new entrant teachers, we found that based on their grades, there is no difference between the academic achievement of education major graduates and non-education major graduates finishing their studies in 2007, 2008

The Professional Identity and Achievement of Education Majors in the Cross-Border Region… 138

and 2010. However, a particular tendency was displayed, namely that regardless of their gender, education majors seem to follow a feminine career strategy. More specifically, in the education major sample, both the percentage of graduate students and students planning to acquire an additional degree were higher, whereas, significantly fewer students intended to continue their studies in a PhD program (Kovács, 2012/a; 2012/b) which is a tendency typically characterizing women. According to Fényes (2009), women prefer acquiring additional degrees in order to have more cultural capital, however, they do not intend to continue their studies on a higher level of education, namely in a PhD Program.

Despite that the need for student-centered learning was already formulated at the Leuven ministerial meeting in 2009 (Leuven Communique, 2009), other indicators of achievement are usually overshadowed in Hungarian Teacher Training Programs, as well as, in higher education in general (Radó, 2011). This might be the reason why few attempts were made in Hungary to assess the complexity of student achievement. In other countries, for example in the United States, competences of undergraduate students are assessed by several means mostly involving the assessment of the value-added by the higher education institutions. One of the most widely used and accepted assessment instruments is the Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA), which was also taken over by International Assessment of Higher Education Learning Outcomes (AHELO) to assess students’ general competences. The CLA assesses critical thinking, analytic reasoning, problem-solving and written communication competences. The students have to solve real-life situations based on some sources (articles, records, maps and letters) (Klein et al., 2010). The research group of Paszkál Kiss studied competence acquired in higher education with relatively similar, own developed reading comprehension, text construction, logic and calculus tasks. According to the first results, competences considered to be crucial by the students – practical proficiency, communication skills, learning skills, and the skill to be able to achieve one’s aims – only slightly developed during their undergraduate years. Interestingly enough, the directly assessed competences show no relationship to their self-reported academic performance and efforts. These results can be explained with the following two factors: students’ self-image is unrealistic and performance in terms of grades alone does not predict competence-based achievement (Kiss, Lerner & Lukács, 2010).

In the case of education majors, the development of further indicators of achievement, such as competence, clearly has a major role since the knowledge and skills necessary for the teaching profession are complex. Based on some studies, this complexity includes, for example, cooperative skills, self-understanding and determination. Fónai claims that this strengthens the process of deprofessionalization. He refers to Etzioni’s interpretation that as for feminized professions in general, but helping professions in particular, the attributes of typical female activities were transmitted to the profession itself. Besides, the traditional subjection is presented with the phenomenon that in this dimension, the given profession is classified only as a semi-profession not as a profession (Fónai, 2012). This can be an explanation for the status-loss of the profession since though founded in a different perspective, the relevant literature consistently claims that the core value and expectation of the teaching profession is caring, which is also perceived as a general expectation during teacher training. However, in Ireland, caring as a


core value of the profession is even included in the Codes of Professional Conduct. Caring is often presented as an ethical dimension and/or interpreted as responsibility for the quality of relationships. In addition, reflected in traditions and stereotypes, caring is rather identified with the female gender (Drudy, 2008; Weiner, 2001).

Corresponding to that, our study results depict that the feminization of the profession is only partly the result of the growing number of women in the profession; the emergence of expectations and attributes traditionally identified with the female role are also contributing factors. It is supported not only with the already mentioned strong presence of the feminine career strategy, but also with the tendency that in terms of their aspirations and occupational position, the new entrant teachers remain below the average, which means that few of them continue their studies in a PhD program and work in a leading position. According to a study performed among education majors, paying attention to the emotions and problems of students is equally important for teacher candidates irrespectively to their gender (Kovács, 2012/a; 2012/b).

Emerged in the last few years, a professional discourse has drawn an entirely different conclusion from the complexity of the competences necessary for the teaching profession. Hargreaves and Fullan created a new concept to describe the professional knowledge of teachers, according to which, the professional capital of teachers is a composite of human capital referring to the individual education and qualifications of the teacher, social capital needed for handling social relations measured by the number of interactions, decisional capital consisting competences, intuition, judgment and on-the-spot problem-solving skills. The writers emphasize that decision capital can only develop during several years of professional practice in a supportive professional atmosphere (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012).

Studies approaching the question from the direction of teacher training come to a similar conclusion that problem-centered approach should be emphasized during teacher training and further trainings. Writers interested in the profession’s complexity draw a parallel between the work of the expert-researcher and the teacher since both are a certain problem-solving roles: the participants analyze individual situations being unsure and often presenting value conflicts, at the same time, applying academic theories and models is necessary to solve problems in their complexity. In addition, during knowledge-based training, the participant create knowledge on the professional field, moreover, they consciously experience their role as a student. These all contribute to the fact that knowledge transfer in not considered as a linear process, but as a collectively created and frequently renewable extension. Studies analyzing the professional development of teachers underscore that teachers who have already encountered the above mentioned approach during their studies were able to understand better students’ thinking and the development of their subject-related concepts. Thus, this encounter could improve their teaching (Borko, 2004; Szabó, 2001; Niemi, 2008).

These theories do not present the complexity of the teacher role as a factor that strengthens deprofessionalization, but as a new professional identity. On the one hand, some experts highlight that the novel approach towards the teacher role would have a positive effect on the prestige of the profession; on the other hand, others rather emphasize that it would contribute to the quality improvement of education.


Achievement indicators of education majors

During our analysis, we focus on the achievement of education majors in relation to non-education majors. For our analysis, we used the databases of two research projects entitled “Effects of Tertiary Education on Regional Development” (TERD) funded by the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund and “Higher Education for Social Cohesion – Cooperative Research and Development in a Cross Border Area” (HERD). Both data were collected in the higher-education institutions of the cross-border regions of Hungary, Romania and Ukraine in 2010 and 2012. In 2010, the entire sample consisted 1722 students including 491 education majors. In 2012, altogether 2728 students were asked, among them 204 filled the ‘teacher inset’ and were added to the subsample. In both cases, stratified group sampling was used, the teacher sample is not representative though. Hence, our statements cannot be generalized to the education major of the region, yet we consider that they support a more thorough understanding of the topic.

The questionnaires contained the same or similar questions, but certain variables were assessed either by the first or the second. We could analyze academic achievement in terms of grades only in the TERD database, while the other indicators of achievement, for example, possessing a language exam certificate, participating in academic competitions or being a number of a college for Advanced Academic Studies could be analyzed using both the TERD and HERD databases. These types of questionnaires are not suitable for competence assessment, but the 2012 data collection contained questions related to differences of reading habits.

We also analyzed the demographic variables that may explain the differences, such as parents’ education, the family’s financial status and how many books the parents and individual students possess. The ‘teacher inset’ attached to the HERD questionnaire asked students about their intentions related to entering the profession and remaining in the profession; besides, how education majors perceive the prestige, recognition and possibilities of the profession. Hence, this database made it possible to analyze the correlation between achievement and commitment to the teaching profession.

In terms of their cultural capital, there is no difference between education major undergraduates and other undergraduates. Parents highest level of education shows a similar tendency: two-third of the students entered higher-education as a first generation student. The 2012 data demonstrate a significant difference between novice kindergarten teachers and other education majors: more than three-fourth of the parents of the novice kindergarten teachers have a secondary school leaving exam. In the TERD project, the number of books that parents possess was examined. The differences are not significant yet show a tendency. 52,4 percentage of the parents of non-education majors have more than 100 books, whereas, the percentage is only 46,7 in the case of the parents of education majors. This does not seem to determine the number of book students possess since 25,4 percentage of education majors possess more than 100 books, whilst only 18,9 percentage of the non-education majors were put into the same category.

Both questionnaires used several indicators to student achievement. Only the TERD questionnaire asked school-leaving exam outcomes, though. The results show that the performance of education majors are much poorer than that of the non-education majors. Significantly more non-education majors graduated from


secondary school with excellent and good results than education majors. Furthermore, the school-leaving exam outcomes of kindergarten teachers are significantly poorer than the results of teacher training undergraduates. Only 41,9 percentage of education majors graduated with an excellent or a good result including the 36,6 percentage of kindergarten majors and 50 percentage of teacher training majors. In contrast, nearly two-third of the non-education majors achieved excellent or good results (significance: 0,000).

The 2012 survey did not shed light on the secondary school-leaving exam outcomes, however, it did ask students whether they have ever get any academic awards and/or scholarships during their secondary education. These results also support the lower achievement of education majors: 39 percentage of non-education majors got a scholarship, while only 31,9 percentage of education majors can tell the same thing about themselves (significance: 0,000).

In the 2010 database, there is no difference between students with respect to the number of intermediate language exam certificate they have: slightly more than one-third of the students acquired at least one. The 2012 data show a similar percentage in the case of education majors; in contrast, half of the none-education majors have an intermediate-level language exam certificate. Other indicators of achievement, however, display a very different tendency. Relatively few students have been members of any College for Advanced Studies, similarly, only one-tenth of them have participated in academic competitions. Among these students there are more education majors than non-education majors though.

According to the 2012 data, the percentage of teacher candidates having participated in the National Secondary School Academic Competition (so called OKTV) is significantly higher, double than of non-education majors. Nevertheless, it seems that this special interest was not maintained in higher-education since there is no difference in the percentage of education and non-education majors participating in the National Conference of Young Scholars.

However, based on the 2010 data, the OKTV participation also indicates a similar percentage, but the advantage of education majors is less considerable (7,6%). Correspondingly, the 2012 data show that more education majors have their own research topic (40 percentage in contrast with the 25 percentage of non-education majors), which tendency is also reflected in their publication activity.

In both samples, around twice as many education majors as non-education majors are members of a College for Academic Studies (significance in both databases: 0,000). Hence, it can be perceived – though with varying intensity – that more education majors have a special interest and their own research topic. As it was already mentioned, in general, education majors have more books; moreover, they read more often books of their choice, literature that is not compulsory than non-education majors: 41,6 percentage of the education majors read more than five books that are not compulsory in the given academic year as opposed to the 34 percentage of the none-education majors (significance: 0,009).

The ‘teacher inset’ of the HERD questionnaire allowed us to analyze the factors that influence whether the education majors are planning to work as a teacher and committed to the profession in the long run. The results show that neither the intention to enter the profession, nor the intention to remain in the profession correlates with indicators of student achievement such as obtaining a language exam


certificate, advanced-level secondary school-leaving examination certificate and other indicators of achievement.

Students’ views on the teaching profession also affected their commitment to the profession. The status of the profession was assesses by nine items; in all cases, students were asked to indicate their opinion on the extent to which society values a given aspect. Only the prestige perception of the profession correlates with students’ intention to teach: if one ranks the prestige of the profession high, it is more likely that they intend to teach.

Even so, whether one remains in the profession correlates with a factor which is the aggregate of the items. In other words, those ranking – in addition to prestige – professional autonomy, social recognition and career prospects higher are more likely to remain in the profession. Neither students’ perception of income opportunities, nor their gender seem to impact on attrition.

We also asked our subjects whether they have preferences for specific working conditions. Most of them would work in elite schools and foundation schools. Furthermore, the majority of teacher candidates would not refuse to work in small towns, disadvantaged regions, or among students with special educational needs. However, the percentage of those, who would not undertake the task under the latter two conditions are relatively high (40 percentage) regardless of their gender. A factor created from these three disadvantage variables shows a specific relationship to the intention to enter the profession, as well as, to remain in the profession. A high percentage of students being sure that they will enter the profession want to work under more favorable conditions. Besides, those being concerned that they will not leave the profession can imagine working anywhere, while those assuming that they might abandon the profession might be encouraged to leave by less favorable circumstances.

Conclusion

During the time of the data collection, education majors had been already studying in the Bologna system, thus the previously made distinction between students attending college-level and university-level teacher training disappeared. A higher percentage of kindergarten teachers are first generation graduates and their academic performance is significantly poorer than that of other majors. The underlying reason for that can be that the kindergarten profession is ranked four places lower than the secondary school teacher profession in the hierarchy of intellectual professions. Moreover, as a result of its low prestige, it attracts students with lower achievement and cultural capital. Comparing non-education majors to education majors, we find that – except kindergarten teacher candidates – the parents’ level of education shows a similar tendency. The families of teacher training majors possess less books and have less favorable financial background. However, it has to be noted that the difference can be assessed only with the subjective indicators in one of the databases and only with objective indicators in the other.

The academic achievement of education majors in terms of grades is poorer, moreover, education majors get significantly less scholarships and academic awards than non-education majors. According to the 2010 data, the percentage of education and non-education majors possessing an intermediate level language exam


certificate is similar, in contrast, the 2012 data reveals that significantly less education majors possess inter-mediate and advanced level language exam certificates.

A different tendency emerges if achievement is assesses with other indicators. Education majors have more books and read significantly more than students majoring in other programs. Besides, compared to non-education majors, the percentage of education majors participating in academic competitions, being a member of a College for Advanced Studies and having their own research topics is higher. Although the databases analyzed was not designed to assess competences, the above mentioned differences in grade-based achievement and other indicators might anticipate that we would come to a similar conclusion as the research group of Paszkál Kiss, namely, that academic achievement in terms of grades by itself does not predict competence-based achievement.

In connection with major choice, it turned out that the intention to enter the teaching profession and to remain in the profession are influenced by the initially chosen major and the perception of the anatomy, social recognition and the career prospects of the profession.

In conclusion, students applying to education majors have poorer academic achievement in terms of grades, however, they read more, participate in academic competitions in higher percentage and have their own research topics. Consequently, it is possible they view higher education in a more traditional way than other students. It would go well with the practical application of those theories, according to which the complexity of the teacher role is reflected in a new professional identity. The strengthening of the latter could make the teaching profession attractive to students with higher academic achievement since – as it is highlighted by some experts – the new approach will have a positive effect on the prestige of the profession.

References Borko, H. (2004): Professional development and teacher learninig: mapping the terrain.

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to pre-service teachers’ intentions to remain in the profession? European Journal of Teacher Education, 33(2), 185–200.

Drudy, S. (2008): Professionalism, Performativity and Care: Whither Teacher Education for a Gendered Profession in Europe? In B. Hudson & P. Zgaga (Eds.) Teacher Education Policy in Europe: a Voice of Higher Education Institutions. http://www.pef.uni-lj.si/tepe 2008/documents/TEPE%20proceedings.pdf. Accessed September 2013.

Fényes, H. (2009): Nemek szerinti iskolai eredményesség és a férfihátrány hipotézis. Magyar Pedagógia, 109(1), 77–101.

Fónai, M. (2012): Tanárszakos hallgatók professzió-képe: a deprofesszionalizálódás esete? In Pusztai, G. Fenyő, I. & Engler, Á. (Eds.) A tanárok tanárának lenni… Tanulmányok Szabó László Tamás 70. születésnapjára (pp. 109-128). Debrecen: Debreceni Egyetem Felsőoktatási Kutató és Fejlesztő Központ (CHERD).

Hargreaves, A. & Fullan, M. (2012): Professional Capital. Transforming Teaching in Every School. New York: Teachers College Press.


Kiss, P., Lerner, N. & Lukács, F. (2010): Kompetenciavizsgálatok módszertana, első tapasztalatok. Diplomás pályakövetés III. – Kompetenciamérés a felsőoktatásban. http://felvi.hu. Accessed April 2013.

Klein, S., Benjamin, R., Shavelson, R. & Bolus, R. (2010): Felsőoktatási tanulmányi értékelés (CLA): tények és hiedelmek. Diplomás pályakövetés III. – Kompetenciamérés a felsőoktatásban. http://felvi.hu. Accessed April 2013.

Kovács, E. (2012/a): The Characteristics of Identity Development of Pedagogy Students from the Partium Historacal Region. In Kozma, T. & Bernáth, K. (Eds.) Higher Education in the Romania-Hungary Cross-border Area. Oradea: Partium Press, Debrecen: Center for Higher Education Research and Development.

Kovács, E. (2012/b): Teacher’s Career and Educational Aspirations, based on the „Graduate Follow-up Research 2010”. Hungarian Educational Research Journal, 2(4), http://herj.hu.

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Niemi, H. (2008): Advancing research into and During Teacher Education. In B. Hudson & P. Zgaga (Eds.) Teacher Education Policy in Europe: a Voice of Higher Education Institutions. http://www.pef.uni-lj.si/tepe2008/documents/TEPE%20proceedings.pdf. Accessed September 2013.

Polónyi, I. & Tímár, J. (2006): A pedagógusprobléma. Új Pedagógiai Szemle, 56(4), 15–31. Polónyi, I. & Tímár, J. (2001): A tanárok keresete és a tudást fejlesztő felsőoktatás.

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felsőoktatási integrációja. In Pusztai, G., Fenyő, I. & Engler, Á. (Eds.) A tanárok tanárának lenni… Tanulmányok Szabó László Tamás 70. születésnapjára (pp. 86-108). Debrecen: Debreceni Egyetem Felsőoktatási Kutató és Fejlesztő Központ (CHERD).

Radó, P. (2011): Oktatáspolitikai mítoszok: a felsőoktatás a közoktatás minőségromlásáról. http://oktpolcafe.hu/oktataspolitikai-mitoszok-a-felsooktatas-a-kozoktatas-minosegromlasarol-429/. Accessed December 2013.

Sági, M. & Ercsei, K. (2012): A tanári munka minőségét befolyásoló tényezők. In: Kocsis, M. & Sági, M. (Eds.) Pedagógusok a pályán (pp. 9-29). Budapest: Oktatáskutató és Fejlesztő Intézet.

Szabó, I. (1998): Tanárok szakma - és szerepfelfogása a kilencvenes években. In: Nagy, M. (Ed.) Tanári pálya és életkörülmények, 1996/97. Budapest: Okker Kiadó.

Szabó, L. T. (2001): A „reflektív paradigma” neveléstudományi nézőpontból - Egy fogalom színe és visszája. Pedagógusképzés, 1-2, 133–140.

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Edina Kovács, PhD student University of Debrecen Hungary [email protected]

http://oktpolcafe.hu/oktataspolitikai-mitoszok-a-felsooktatas-a-kozoktatas-minosegromlasarol-429/

http://oktpolcafe.hu/oktataspolitikai-mitoszok-a-felsooktatas-a-kozoktatas-minosegromlasarol-429/


MOTLADI ANGELINE SETLHAKO

ANXIETIES, CHALLENGES AND SUCCESSES IN THE TRANSITION TO ONLINE TEACHING IN AN OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT: THE UNISA EXPERIENCE

Abstract

Meeting the needs of students in a continually evolving education environment has created new challenges and opportunities for Open and Distance Learning (ODL) Institutions. Institutions of Higher Learning (IHL) across the nation are designing new programs to promote students’ achievements and graduation. The technological developments provide new teaching strategies and tools used to promote learning. The constant growth of varied technological tools has a great influence on ODL settings to design such online programmes as an alternative way to serve diverse student populations.

Online teaching and learning is gaining popularity among ODL institutions as an alternative mode of teaching and learning, as it provides instant access to learning material as well as interaction with fellow students anytime and anywhere in the world. However, it is essential that Teaching Assistants (TA’s) connect with students to provide students with the necessary support throughout their learning experience.

This paper draws from the literature on asynchronous learning, interviews with TA’s and the authors’ own experiences on the differences of online facilitation and its challenges as experienced by TA’s. Although facilitation of online programmes is evolving fast in developing countries, the author concludes that online facilitation is empowering but there is a great demand for acquisition of new skills for both lecturers as facilitators of learning within the institution and the TA’s who provide student support.

Introduction

Modern technology is rapidly changing the face of IHL particularly ODL Institutions. These institutions have to respond to these changes and move from traditional modes of delivery and adapt curricula to meet the needs of students. The introduction of various technological tools used in the classrooms is believed to improve the performance of students (Smith & Throne, 2007). Online teaching provides institutions with tools to enhance the way in which people learn and improves teaching.

Institutions offering distance education have begun to embrace new technology to provide teaching. Research shows that internet provides instant access to worldwide communication, flow of information (Negi, Negi & Pandey, 2011), and access to educational opportunities. It removes the barrier students may experience, allowing them to learn wherever they are. New technology offers new ways of teaching and learning and allows institutions to reach students in great numbers.

The new but additional mode of teaching and learning introduced in our institution demonstrates the institution’s willingness to change, reorganise and re-curriculate their programs. This is done to accommodate the growing numbers of

Anxieties, challenges and successes in the transition to online teaching in an Open and Distance Learning environment 146

students enrolling for online courses and to keep attracting more students to choose distance education as their preferred mode of learning. Asynchronous learning appears as an appropriate online model for ODL students. ODL institutions have students around the world, separated by distance, and the internet has reduced this world to a small village and made learning accessible.

Literature Review

Scagnelli (2006) states that higher education continues to experience a significant shift towards technology for course delivery and asynchronous learning has become a growing approach to online learning. Asynchronous learning is described as distance learning that uses the internet to deliver tuition any place at any time (Hastings, 2000). In asynchronous learning students require internet to access learning material, exchange and share ideas. Unlike in synchronous learning, students do not require to be logged in at the same time (Msila & Setlhako, 2012) when participating in asynchronous learning.

Asynchronous mode of learning requires students to be independent as they need to self-direct and take control of their own learning (Canning, 2010). For example, students need to plan and manage their own time of accessing the course to read and respond to e-mails and discussion forums and also chat and engage with their peers. Although the asynchronous approach to learning makes education appealing for many students (McGugan, 2002) it does however need disciplined and focused students.

Research also shows that interaction in asynchronous learning is the key element to effective and successful online learning (Swan, 2003). This depends on frequent posting of messages or individual contributions to the topics under discussion (Balaji & Chakrabarti, 2010). The contributions that students post at their own convenient time afford them the opportunity to think and reflect before publishing their messages. The process of thinking through affords them the opportunity to develop creative, critical and analytic skills (Murphy & Coleman, 2004). These are crucial and valuable skills required for online shared and interactive learning.

Important activities in online asynchronous learning are discussions. Online discussion provides a social constructivist approach to learning (Salmon, 2000). It is a platform in which students exchange ideas, share multiple perspectives and clarify thoughts in case there is some misunderstanding. Students engage in dialogues, interact with each other, and learn from each other’s experiences (Carr & Duchasel, 2000) and TA’s have a crucial role to play in this.

The differences between online facilitation and the contact situation

Andresen (2009) makes the point that teaching in an online environment is inherently different from the usual lecture room or contact session. It serves students that are separated by space, time, location and distance but share a common goal to interact, learn and succeed. Online facilitation requires the facilitator to allow students time to engage with the material and interact with the facilitator about what they have learnt, interact with each other (Swan, 2003) and exchange their knowledge and understanding of the material.

Motladi Angeline Setlhako 147

The responsibility of the facilitator is more important than it is envisioned.

Dennen and Wieland (2007) point out that the online facilitator ensures that students engaged in deep conversation and provide reflective contributions that relate to the topic. The online facilitator should therefore adopt a new mode of communication that requires authentic learning that involves the development of deeper cognitive complexity (Ally, 2004). Thus the TA’s in the ODL environment play a significant role, not only that of assessing students’ assignments. For example, although the lead lecturer views the discourses between students’ discussions, TA’s are responsible for assessing their conversations and the written assignments. It is their responsibility to provide feedback, guide and motivate students (Edutopia, 2009).

Thorpe (2004) informs us that online facilitation has more challenges than those of everyday facilitation. For example, the TA’s responses from the online interviews identified challenges experienced in the period they have been involved in assessing students work. The most glaring challenge TA’s experienced is the occasional unavailability or slow internet connection. The internet glitches are frustrating to both students and facilitators. Another problem that which is a reality in South Africa, not all students come to the online environment with a good command of technology or access to devices. This barrier is a threat to online facilitation. The language barrier is another challenge as South Africa has 11 official languages yet the online environment demands proficiency in the language of learning, English. Not all students can communicate confidently and record their ideas in English.

It is expected of the online facilitator to develop his/her own relationship with the student as they participate in the learning discourse. Anderson (2010) notes that online facilitators need to find ways of expressing emotions, or passion in the subject matter when communicating ideas to students. Expressing passion about the course illustrates clear understanding and the intimate relationship with the module. The success of online teaching in an ODL environment depends on facilitators accepting new roles and responsibilities and acquiring new facilitation skills as well.

Research Method

An online interview was used to gather data about the role and experiences of TAs as facilitators of online asynchronous learning. Email interviews qualitative research methods were preferred because the TAs and the coordinator of the module were able to exchange multiple e-mails. The exchanges and e-mail interaction took four weeks at the convenience of both TA’s and the researcher. As with asynchronous exchange, the e-mail interview provided in-depth information which TAs volunteered freely and not shared, viewed or influenced by other participants (Schneider, Kerwin, Frechtling & Vivari, 2002). The qualitative e-mail interviews approach were helpful and beneficial for this project in that it allowed participants to explore their discrete views, re-visit their insights, allowed for introspection, reflection and for drafting and re-drafting their responses about their role as facilitators’ of online module (Meho, 2006). The approach was also selected because a qualitative e-mail interview is useful to those individuals who are not easily accessible and geographically apart as in the case of TA’s participating in this course.


In order to illustrate that the study adds to the understanding and knowledge in the field of asynchronous learning and learn from previous theory on the subject, literature was reviewed. The researcher included additional information from her experience as the designer and developer of the module. The study also relied on online interviews. Extracts from interviews comments were consolidated and e-mailed to participating TA’s so as to validate and confirm the information collected. This was done in order to ensure that the data collected accurately reflects what the participants had said or done. The confirmation of data provides descriptive validity to make sure that the interviewed participants agree that the collected data has accurately captured their opinions (Thompson, 2011).

Sample Description and Procedure

Out of twenty-one TAs recruited as part-time facilitators to assess our students’ online discussions and written assignments, only twelve responded to the initial e-mail. Out of the twelve that responded, six (two males and four females) are permanently employed teachers at different secondary schools and private colleges; four are retired male teachers and two are students busy with their Masters’ degrees. Upon agreement with the respondents for further exchange of e-mails, the researcher e-mailed further questions to understand the importance of their role; and what their relationship with students is. Further questions included their online training as well as better ways in which to communicate students.

The e-mail communication continued for a week. Every time the researcher asked probing question for further engagement and clarification. Interestingly, the respondents took time to respond to the questions asked. The responded reported that it was difficult to respond to the e-mails immediately because they needed time to think, write down their ideas, ensure that the sentences are structured properly and reflect before they could click the send button.

Findings and discussions

The article addresses one question: What challenges does the transition to online learning for ODL environment present? In addressing this question the researcher focused on:

• The role of TA’s as facilitators of the online course • The challenges they experienced in facilitating the course • The experience of the author in managing the course The findings show the intricacies involved in online teaching and learning.

Literature reveals that online learning seems to be the preferred mode of learning. It gives students the freedom of choice as well as the flexibility of time. The findings are discussed under three themes that emerged from the study:

1. Access to internet and online challenges 2. Interaction 3. Online facilitation

1. Access to internet and online challenges Asynchronous online learning is a form of distance learning delivered through

the internet. Students need computers and access to internet in order to access the course. This was identified as a serious challenge as distance learners have to access


the internet in order to go online, anytime, wherever they are. With the development of various technologies it was assumed that access to the internet was easily available, even recognising the infrastructure imbalances in South Africa.

While online asynchronous learning seems a suitable approach for the ODL environment, the author experienced some challenges while managing the module. The repeated extension of the registration period impacted negatively on management as well as the schedule for submitting assignments. The open and continuous registration delayed the process to group students to a particular TA as such students were unable to access the course. While it is assumed that many students are young and familiar with technological platforms such as e-mails, SMS’s, online learning was believed to be easy, but they found that online learning presented unique challenges.

2. Interaction and participation in online discussion Literature reveals that the core of online learning is interaction. It emphasises

three levels of interaction: interaction with content material, interaction with peers, and interaction with the facilitator. The majority of students were experiencing online interaction for the first time. This created uncertainty and self-doubt. Firstly, they were unfamiliar with the online environment and did not understand the process of online group discussion. Secondly, the tutorial letter designed to guide them through was not used as students said that they needed a face to see and a voice to hear. Some students indicated that interacting with the material without seeing a face to explain and clarify processes was difficult. Not all students have been exposed to online learning. Students therefore struggled to engage in active discussions, with the result that participation in the first two discussions was low.

3. Online facilitation Online facilitation is an important aspect of online learning and interaction with

students is critical. It is expected of online facilitators to change their roles (Andresen, 2009) and students participating in asynchronous discussion are free to access and respond to their peers’ messages. Interaction with students is on-going and as such requires patience and an open-mind so as to accommodate multiple viewpoints from students. TA’s as facilitators have acknowledged their responsibility to provide guidance, support, assess and give prompt feedback to students.

From the experience the TAs acquired over the three semesters, they have developed an understanding of what their roles are in terms of supporting students. However, the majority of them still do not think beyond guiding, motivating assessing and giving feedback to students. They do not view their roles as a very significant in the lives of distance learning students. From the roles listed, no mention is made of the ability to deal with group dynamics in an online environment. TAs as facilitators are closer to students than they realise. As such they need further skills to deal with issues that may arise.

Limitation of this investigation

The study was limited to TAs to understand the anxieties and challenges they may experience when facilitating this mode of learning. Not all TAs responded to the initial list of e-mail interview questions that were sent to all the TAs involved in


the module. Although only twelve of the TA’s participated, the findings may be useful for further research on asynchronous learning and the actual skills required facilitating online learning.

Conclusion

While online teaching and learning facilitation of asynchronous interactive discussions of students’ assignments is still in its infancy, to facilitate an online course may seem time consuming initially, but in the long term, is empowering. Interaction and facilitation of online learning is crucial to the success of the entire process, but it is how students determine their own work pace, and interact in a manner that has not previously been possible in the ODL environment. However, the role that facilitators play in the teaching and learning process has been greatly underestimated. While literature emphasises that an asynchronous approach to learning is a suitable teaching approach for the ODL environment, there is a great demand for acquisition of new skills for both lecturers as facilitators of learning within the institution and the TA’s who provide student support.

References Ally, M. (2004): Foundation of Educational Theory for Online Learning. Retrieved from:

http://cde.athabascau.ca/online_book/pdf/TPOL_chp01.pdf. Anderson, T. (2010): Toward a Theory of Online Learning. Theory and Practice of Online

Learning. Retrieved from: http://cde.athabascau.ca/online_book/pdf/TPOL_book.pdf. Andresen, M. A. (2009): Asynchronous discussion forums: success factors, outcomes,

assessments, and limitations. Educational Technology & Society, 12(1), 249-257. Balaji, M. S. & Chakrabarti, D. (2010): Student interactions in online discussion forum:

Empirical research from ‘Media Richness Theory’ perspective. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 9(1), 1-22.

Canning, N. (2010): Playing with heutagogy: Exploring strategies to empower mature learners in higher education. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 34(1), 59-71.

Carr-Chellman, A. & Duchasel, P. (2000): The ideal online course. British Journal of Educational Technology, 31(3), 229-241.

Dennen, V. P. & Wieland, K. (2007): From interaction to inter-subjectivity: Facilitating online group discourse processes. Distance Education, 28(3), 281-297.

Edutopia (2010): Mastering Online Discussion Board Facilitation: Resource Guide. TeacherStream, LLC.

Hastings, R. (2009): Asynchronous learning from the student perspective. Monroe Community College, NY. (ERIC Document Reproductions Service No. ED452891).

McGugan, S. (2002): Asynchronous Computer Mediated Conferencing to Support Learning and Teaching. An Action Research Approach. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 1(1), 29-42.

Meho, L. I. (2006): E-Mail Interviewing in Qualitative Research: A Methodological Discussion. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 57(10), 1284-1295.

Msila, V. & Setlhako, M. A. (2012): Teaching (still) Matters: Experiences on Developing a Heutagogical Online Module at UNISA. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 2(2).


Murphy, E. & Coleman, E. (2004): Graduate students’ experiences of challenges in online asynchronous discussions. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 30(2), [online].

Negi, P. S., Negi, V. & Pandey, A. C. (2011): Impact of Information Technology on Learning, Teaching and Human Resource Management in Educational Sector. International Journal of Computer Science and Telecommunications, 2(4), NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Salmon, G. (2000): E-moderating: The key to teaching and learning online. London: Kogan Page.

Scagnelli, J. (2006): Asynchronous Learning Networks in Higher Education: A Review of the Literature on Community, Collaboration and Learning. Techniques for Research in Curriculum and Instruction.

Schneider, S. J., Kerwin, J., Frechtling, J., Vivari, B. A. (2002): Characteristics of the Discussion in Online and Face-to-Face Focus Groups. Social Science Computer Review, SAGE Journals Online, 20(1), 31-42.

Smith, G. E. & Throne, S. (2007): Differentiating instruction with technology in K–5 classrooms. International Society for Technology in Education, Eugene, OR.

Swan, K. (2003). Learning effectiveness: what the research tells us. In J. Bourne & J. C. Moore (Eds.) Elements of Quality Online Education, Practice and Direction. Needham, MA: Sloan Center for Online Education, 13-45.

Thompson, M. (2011): Faculty satisfaction in Penn State’s World Campus. In J. Bourne & J. C. Moore (Eds.) Online Education, Vol. 2: Learning Effectiveness, Faculty Satisfaction, and Cost Effectiveness. Needham, MA: Sloan Center for Online Education, 129-144.

Thorpe, S. J. (2004): Towards Online Facilitator Competencies for Group Facilitators. Group Facilitation: A Research and Applications Journal, (13).

Motladi Angeline Setlhako University of South Africa South Africa [email protected]


BOBO SEGOE

PEER SUPPORT: THE TRAITS AND PERCEPTIONS OF OPEN DISTANCE LEARNING (ODL) STUDENTS

Abstract

ODL is characterised by a more diverse range of practices than ever before. Some of the traditional print and correspondence models are still viable and in use, while alternative means of student support systems, such as peer support, have also been developed. The use of peer support as an integral part of distance taught courses raises interesting challenges to our thinking about design and student support. The design of peer support activities is integral to both student support and course content with new possibilities for ODL as a result. In this study, the researcher asserts that all aspects of peer support activities in an ODL institution should be encouraged in the sense of fostering high quality learning. With the advent of time, it is becoming clear that distance education (DE) students require much more than distance tuition and learning materials. In spite of the high quality of learning materials, most distance students generally seem to need more human support at some stage during their academic pursuit. Key words: students, distance education, unqualified teachers, peer support, Open

Distance Learning, learning materials

Introduction

In most African countries and South Africa particularly, there is a high demand of alternative mode of delivery as majority of youth that are qualified for admission to conventional system cannot do so because of lack of space and finance. It is also obvious that due to limitations in both human and material resources, conventional institutions can no longer satisfy the snowballing population of a country like South Africa. Consequently, the emergence of ODL has marked a turning point in the provision of educational opportunities for millions of people that have been left out of the conventional system. Against this background, it has become increasingly necessary that support services be carefully developed and properly managed and maintained if ODL provision is to be relevant and recognised as complimentary to conventional higher education mode of teaching. The success of any ODL programme, inter alia, depends not only on how well it is designed or offered but also on how students are supported right from the outset. Services such as tutoring, technological media, counselling, peer-group support and administrative support mentioned by Ukpo (2006), are crucial in the context of DE systems in both developed and developing countries.

This paper presents a critical analysis of peer support as an important integral part of ODL activities. It hopes to enlighten the reader on how issues of peer support can affect ODL students at higher education institutions. The first section of this article gives a brief description of the background of the study based on the literature reviewed. This is followed by the theoretical underpinning, the research methodology and findings from fieldwork conducted with National Professional

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Diploma in Education (NPDE) students at The University of South Africa (UNISA). The findings are discussed with the focus on distinct areas for improvement on the implementation of peer support as an important support strategy for teachers studying at a distance. At the end, a conclusion is given on how peer support as a support strategy in an ODL context may be improved.

Background to the study

According to Ofoha (2012) ODL is one of the most rapidly growing fields of education and its potential impacts on all education delivery systems has been greatly accentuated through the proper management, planning and constant development of quality support services. For instance, peer support, needs to be designed into distance learning programmes at the initial planning phase and this support should be “fit for purpose”. The core of argument here is that by planning peer support mechanisms as integral part of a teaching and learning programme, rather than an afterthought which can be exercised when times get difficult, ODL institutions can demonstrate recognition of the importance of this learning support. As a result, peer support should be regarded as an element in the systems of the entire support services that many practitioners should see as essential for effective provision of ODL (Keegan, 1996).

Organising quality peer support to distance-learning is particularly important because students have fewer opportunities to ask a tutor for clarification on his or her comments as a result of a geographical distance (Kasprzak, 2005). This study is based on the premise that institutional investigation of peer support can initiate more debates and may also lead to improvements in education practice, as well as giving ODL institutions the chance to review their peer support strategic plans and correct practices that are contrary to those plans.

For many students, entering higher education institutions is a major transition and yet they sometimes get little or no support as they attempt to deal with this new experience. In addition, students need proper support as they go through life (Qakisa-Makoe, 2005), especially when undergoing a major change such as entering into DE study programmes at tertiary level. Research shows that providing intensive and well-organised peer support activities for beginning students through friendly atmosphere or mentoring can lead to high rates of retention (Brewster & Railsback, 2001). Simpson (2000) quotes a small scale research which suggests that support from family and friends and from fellow students is more valued by students than from tutors. Bertram (2003) emphasises that study groups are vital from an affective perspective as they provide students with motivation and support.

Against this background, this study argues that peer support which is not properly planned and encouraged, and which is not innovative in any ODL setting is doomed to failure. It may prove disastrous to much-needed institutional rejuvenation. Transforming the ODL sector to meet present and future challenges is not easy. It entails changing public perceptions and attitudes regarding this sector. It requires critical rethinking and reinterpreting the present situation in ODL institutions in aspects such as peer support services students are engaged in.

Peer support: the traits and perceptions of Open Distance Learning (ODL) students 154

Theoretical framework

A socio-constructivist learning theory supported this study. Socio-constructivist learning theory claims that the personal construction of knowledge always occurs in social contexts, since learning activities are socially and contextually bound (Woolfolk, 2007). The socio-constructivist theory also holds the view that learning occurs through interaction with other people and in specific settings. Wertsch (1997) agrees with this notion and he states that without social interaction with peers in the immediate environment it is always very difficult or almost impossible to acquire the real meaning of an important concept and to learn how to use it.

Peer support, as a constructivist learning activity in an ODL setting, supports the students’ interactions with their course materials, the construction and building of knowledge and the testing of this knowledge through interaction with peers. To this end, dialogue which comes in the form of peer support activities in socio-constructivist learning is at the heart of ODL environment (Gravert, 2005). In an ODL context, there is a need to plan for effective peer support strategies or a dialogic space within which students engage with the content of the subject-matter and with the ideas of others (Mays, 2010). Du Plessis, Marais, Van Schalkwyk & Weeks (2010) contend that socio-constructivists believe that students are always confronted with complex educational situations hence they need ample opportunities to engage in meaningful, problem-solving activities with their peers.


A qualitative research design was used to study the issue of peer support in DE context. According to McMillan and Schumacher (2010), qualitative research extends the understanding of a phenomenon and contributes to educational practice, policymaking and social consciousness. Purposive sampling was employed, where 24 third year NPDE students were identified and interviewed from the four contact lesson centres, namely Durban, Nelspruit, Pretoria and Polokwane. Students in these centres came from all over South Africa and six students formed a focus group from each centre. These students were unqualified teachers who were upgrading their qualifications at UNISA. In purposive sampling, researchers purposefully seek typical and divergent data within easy reach of researchers (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010). Focus groups were chosen because compared to other forms of qualitative methods such as single interviews, they permit analysis not only of statements and reports of experiences and events, but also of the interactional context in which these statements and reports are produced (Flick, 2007). Additionally, it has been argued that “focus groups may provide quality controls because participants tend to provide checks and balances on one another that serve to curb false or extreme views” (Patton, 2002: 67).

Interview discussions were audio-taped and then transcribed verbatim. Data was recorded and organised based on an interpretive approach, derived from Wolcott’s (1993) categories of description, analysis and interpretation. This approach enabled descriptions to be developed through a process called coding, and thereafter themes were developed and analysed and the meanings of the data were subsequently interpreted (Hennink, Hutter & Bailey, 2011). In that way, the researcher confirmed information he already had from other centres and by so doing eliminated

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misconceptions. The researcher aimed at reporting the participants’ viewpoints, thoughts, intentions and experiences accurately by making use of direct quotations in the findings. Participants were told about the nature of the research and how the data would be utilised, were promised anonymity, voluntary participation and confidentiality.

Research findings and discussion

The data analysis of this study centres around three themes, namely group work as a form of peer support service, Information Communication Technology (ICT) as a form of peer support mechanism and periodic contact sessions. Therefore, the discussions of the findings of this study will be based on each of the mentioned themes.

Group work as a form of peer support service The real reason behind using group work in ODL institutions ought to be the

aim to taste the organisational advantages of teamwork in a learning exercise. Teamwork can lead to an increase in productivity, whilst the actual learning process might be made more pleasant and involve more opportunities for individual development in comparison to traditional modes of learning. Gatfield (1999) mentions an empirical study in a higher education setting which demonstrated that students working in groups achieved a higher grade point average than those working in a control situation involving individual students.

The majority of the participants valued peer support highly. Most of the learners indicated that they managed to form study groups. Members of the groups met from time to time to share ideas concerning challenging aspects of their studies, coach and motivate one another. This, they said, brought about improvement in their performances. In the participants own words:

We exchange ideas during group work and we motivate and assist one another. It is real fun.

Furthermore, most participants such as those from Nelspruit and Pretoria agreed that they supported one another throughout their studies. A group from Pretoria remarked as follows: “Study groups assisted a lot. They instilled confidence and evoked passion for studying”. Participants said that they formed study groups and met from time to time so as help one another. One participant from Durban commented that “Study groups broadened my skills and knowledge”. However, when probed further, participants complained about the long distances they had to travel to meet their peers for discussions and report backs.

ICT as a form of peer support service Technology is increasingly being adopted in many DE institutions to support the

distant teaching role and to meet the growing demands from students. Developments in DE and advances in ICT have made access to knowledge and educational services around the world feasible. When using ICT in DE, information sharing possibilities are much better online – much faster, cheaper and multi-directional than by means of surface mail. For remote and scattered students, such as many of UNISA’s students, possibilities for peer support, sharing of ideas and for a feeling of belonging to a learning community are far greater in a course supported by


technological media (online) compared with the traditional print. In this way, argues Pennells (2001: 182) “constructivist approaches to education can be brought to course design, so that courses can be anything but simply pumping knowledge”. ICT as a form of peer support will be divided into three sub-themes namely, telephone facilities, E-mails and faxes and MYUNISA facility.

Telephone facilities The majority of the participants felt that they use telephones to communicate

amongst themselves as peers so as “to support one another and update and extend our knowledge and skills”. To add, one participant from Durban stated that:

Telephones help us to discuss our assignments and exam guidelines and advice one another. I can phone members of my group at any time when I get stuck with my work.

From the above citations, it is clear that peer support through telephone discussions can catalyse a feeling of participation in an ODL context. Since participation eliminates the passiveness of an ODL student, this is a most valuable attribute of sharing knowledge.

E-mails and faxes At Unisa e-mails could be used for exchange of messages and information with

peers in order to allow for interactive and participatory learning process than the more formal methods of teaching permit. E-mail as a peer support service is popular in DE programmes because it is quick, easy and cost-effective. Similarly, paper-based faxing is one of the mechanisms that can be used by ODL learners to communicate with others.

MYUNISA facility MYUNISA facility is the official UNISA website for students, where they can

get academic support and also get online support from peers. Students can post discussion topics or questions to their discussion forums or peers for them to respond. Such a tool can support the students in the conduct of an online debate. Equally, MYUNISA supports the students with the capacity to take a stance on a topic which requires either a substantiating argument or a refutation. Students can view the arguments of their peers and add their own in the form of submissions to a dynamic online site displaying feedback in parallel frames representing the arguments presented. However, some students alluded to the fact that they do not have access to computers and therefore cannot use MYUNISA facility. Concerning this, one student from Nelspruit commented as follows:

In my place we are faced with a problem of not having computers. As a result, I cannot use MYUNISA. I stay in a village and I do not know how to use a computer.

From the above, it is evident that some NPDE students lack computer skills, let alone logging onto MYUNISA site. Consequently, they cannot use e-mails or MYUNISA fruitfully. Students also said that MYUNISA system gets overloaded at busy times (such as when UNISA assignments are due) and that students who post their answers to assignments to encourage discussion are at the risk of plagiarism as anyone can copy their answers.

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Periodic Contact lessons In an ODL setting, where contact lessons are periodically held, students can

share their views and enhance their knowledge. For example, peer interactions and related learning experiences can be monitored and assessed while lessons are in progress and instructional designs or learning methods, if necessary, can be adapted immediately (Mays, 2010). At UNISA, NPDE students attend contact lessons four times a year for about three days at the four centres, namely Durban, Nelspruit, Polokwane and Pretoria. A group from Pretoria remarked as follows:

Contact sessions are good because I always gain lot of things and I share ideas with other students. This instils confidence and enhances the passion of studying as we solve our problems together during contact classes.

From what is said, it follows that during NPDE contact lessons at UNISA, learning becomes active and meaningful, as ideas are shared, information is exchanged and problems are solved co-operatively. The class in this case becomes a social arena for examining knowledge, for testing what one knows and for increasing one’s knowledge.

Conclusion

ODL can be an isolated and solitary experience for many students. Contemporary practices in distance learning tend to provide meaningful and worthwhile opportunities for learners to interact and communicate with others in the learning process. ODL institutions should urge learners to participate in online chat sessions or to communicate with others through e-mails or telephones. Such activities, however, are sometimes devoid of any explicit learning opportunity and tend to be included as a contemporary rather than as a deliberate form of learning activity. This study has investigated several deliberate learning activities that can encourage students to interact and collaborate in a meaningful way. The findings have been discussed to provide a way for distance students to communicate so that the involvement of others acts as a stimulus and support for learning.

References Bertram, C. (2003): Exploring informal student study groups in a South African teacher

education programme. In A. Tait & R. Mills (Eds.) Rethinking Learner Support in Distance Education (pp. 14-27). London: Routledge Falmer.

Brewster, C. & Railsback, J. (2001): Supporting Beginning Teachers: How administrators, teachers and policymakers can help new teachers succeed. Oregon: University College of Oregon.

Du Plessis, E. C., Marais, P., Van Schalkwyk, A. & Weeks, F. (2010): Adapt or die: The views of Unisa student teachers on teaching practice at schools. Africa Education Review, 7(2), 323-341.

Flick, U. (2007): Doing Focus groups: The Sage qualitative research kit. London: Sage. Gatfield, T. (1999): Examining student satisfaction with group projects and peer assessment.

Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 24(4), 365-377. Gravett, S. (2005): Adult Learning: designing and implementing learning events – a dialogic

approach. 2nd Edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik.


Hennink, M., Hutter, I. & Bailey, A. (2011): Qualitative research methods. Los Angeles: Sage.

Kasprzak, J. (2005): Providing student feedback in distance education courses. An online learning magazine for UMUC Faculty. Washington, DC: The National Defense University.

Keegan, D. (1996): Foundations of Distance Education. 3rd Edition. London: Routledge. Mays, T. (2010): Conceptualising student support at Unisa. Discussion Document No. 4 in

consultation with SAIDE Education Staff. Pretoria. McMillan, J. H. & Schumacher, S. (2010): Research in Education-Evidence-Based Inquiry.

7th Edition. New Jersey: Pearson. Ofoha, D. (2012): Assuring quality evaluation practices in open and distance learning system:

The case of National Open University of Nigeria. Africa Education Review, 9 (2), 230-248.

Patton, M. Q. (2002): Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. 3rd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Pennells, J. (2001): Challenges in adjusting to new technology in supporting learners in developing countries. Paper delivered at the 9th Cambridge International Conference on Open and Distance Learning. Cambridge.

Qakisa-Makoe, M. (2005): Reaching out: Supporting Black Learners in Distance Education. Progressio, 27(2), 44-61.

Simpson, O. (2000): Supporting learners in Open and Distance Education. London: Kogan Page.

Ukpo, E. O. (2006): Support for distance learners in a Nigerian distance education programme. Open Learning, 21(3), 253-261.

Wertsch, J. V. (1997): Vygotsky and the formation of the mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wolcott, H. (1993): Description, analysis and interpretation in qualitative inquiry. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Woolfolk, A. (2007): Educational psychology. 10th Edition. New York: Pearson. Dr Bobo Segoe Senior Lecturer Department of Curriculum and Instructional Studies University of South Africa South Africa [email protected]


LISA WIEBESIEK-PIENAAR, TEBELLO LETSEKHA, THENJIWE MEYIWA, BUKIWE FENI

PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE TRAINING, INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHERS’ EXPERIENCES IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CLASSROOM

Abstract

The National Curriculum Statement for Grades R-9 (NCS) (Department of Education, 2002) asks that Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) be valued in South African schools and classrooms. Teachers are urged to use context-specific and context-relevant forms of IK to teach content; and to incorporate IK methodologies into their teaching methods. Little formal guidance has thus far been offered to teachers on best practices in this regard. Nevertheless, teachers have been innovating and adapting to their classrooms and contexts and using IKS in their classrooms. The discussion in this paper is based on interviews and group discussions with foundation phase (FP) teachers in the Nciba district in Cofimvaba in the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa as well as key informant interviews with two FP teachers in KwaZulu-Natal. In the first section of the paper, we outline the evolution of the curriculum in South Africa post 1994. We then examine the role played by IKS in the South African context. In the second section we critically discuss pre- and in-service teacher training in South Africa particularly in relation to the use of IKS in the classroom. The third section is a presentation of data collected during interviews and group discussions with FP teachers in Cofimvaba regarding the teaching of mathematics. We conclude by reflecting on the relationship between curriculum-reform, teacher training and the lived experiences of foundation phase teachers in Cofimvaba.

Introduction

South African school curriculum has undergone several revisions since 1994 when South Africa’s first democratic elections marked the official end of the apartheid era and its education policies. These curriculum changes have had a significant impact on pre- and in-service teacher training impacting significantly on teacher-preparedness. Currently school learners in South Africa learn in the context of the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) for Grades R to 9. The NCS prescribes what learners should know and be able to do, while the Assessment Standards for each grade describe the minimum level, depth, and breadth of what should be learned in each learning area (Gardiner, 2008). The NCS has been designed this way to ensure that it is flexible and has the ability to be adapted to local conditions and needs. The Department of Basic Education (DBE) expects this curriculum to be interpreted and implemented differently in diverse contexts. Although this is the case, schools in so-called ‘rural’ areas are still unable to take advantage of the opportunities created by the NCS due to the limited resources available to them. Given South Africa’s political past the terms rural and urban have a complicated history. In this paper the term ‘rural’ is taken to mean a geographic area that is

Pre-service and In-service Training, Indigenous Knowledge and Foundation Phase Teachers’ Experiences 160

located outside a city or town, while the term ‘urban’ denotes a geographical area constituting a city or town.

This paper draws on data collected during interviews and group discussions with FP teachers in Cofimvaba focusing particularly on the teaching of mathematics. The data forms part of the data collection process for a three-year long study, funded by the National Research Foundation (NRF) that aims to develop teaching and learning tools in collaboration with local teachers and community members to be used in seven rural schools. This study is located in Cofimvaba in the Eastern Cape Province. The Eastern Cape, and Cofimvaba in particular, is predominantly rural and is characterized by high levels of poverty and unemployment. Furthermore, the Eastern Cape was the province with the poorest performance in the 2012 final senior secondary results with the five poorest performing districts all being in the Eastern Cape.

The Curriculum and Policy Context with Specific Reference to the Foundation Phase

South African Curriculum reform post 1994 has been turbulent. The government introduced Curriculum 2005 (C2005) in 1998 in an attempt to provide a common, unifying curriculum for all South African learners. The education system had previously been divided along racial and geographical lines determined by the apartheid government’s education policy which resulted in discrepancies in the quality and depth of education (Moodley, 2012). Between 1998 and 2000, teachers reported experiencing problems implementing Outcomes Based Education (OBE) and C2005 (Mokhele, 2012). A review committee on C2005 commissioned by then Minister of Education, Kader Asmal, found that there was a lack of clarity in policy documents and difficulties were experienced with the implementation of C2005. As a result of the recommendations of the committee to phase out C2005 replacing it with a strengthened and streamlined curriculum the NCS was launched in April 2002. There continued to be a deterioration in learner performances, however, and in 2009 a Ministerial task team report cited issues such as teacher training, lack of proper or insufficient infrastructure, lack of Learning and Teaching Support Materials (LTSMs) among others, as challenges within the system which resulted in the curriculum being impossible to deliver. As a result of the findings of the task team, the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) was developed and implemented for the first time in 2012. CAPS do not replace the NCS, but give clear guidelines as to what content has to be taught in a particular grade or subject.

The content of the curriculum, i.e. the knowledge, concepts and skills that need to be taught and learned in each subject, term, and grade is set out in the CAPS. The compulsory subjects during the FP (Grades R to 3, children aged 5 to 9) vary slightly. Grade R learners study one official language at home language level, mathematics, and life skills comprising beginning knowledge, creative arts, physical education, and personal and social wellbeing. A second home language, at first additional language level becomes a requirement in Grades 1 to 3.

FP teachers across South Africa received CAPS Training in 2011 to prepare them for implementation in 2012. The training was run by facilitators from the DBE using a standardised facilitor’s manual provided by the DBE. Teachers all received

Lisa Wiebesiek-Pienaar, Tebello Letsekha, Thenjiwe Meyiwa, Bukiwe Feni 161

participant manuals provided by the DBE. Training was also provided to Principals and School Management Teams.

The role of Indigenous Knowledge Systems in the Foundation Phase in South Africa The CAPS documents for each of the four subjects taught in the Foundation

Phase all state the importance of “[v]aluing indigenous knowledge systems” (DOE, CAPS documents for Home language, first additional language, mathematics and life skills: 3). Other than this sentence IKS is not mentioned in the CAPS document for mathematics. Teachers indicated that while they are not ‘required’ to incorporate IKS into their teaching, they have (a) been doing so for some time in an effort to make content more understandable and context-relevant; and (b) feel urged to do so. Given that the teachers, particularly those in rural and under-resourced settings, feel the need to use IKS to make content more relevant, feel urged to do so, and have been doing so, there seems to be a gap in the CAPS documents for FP in terms of offering good practices for the incorporation of IKS into content-teaching (DOE, 2011).

Pre-Service and In-service Training for Foundation Phase Teachers

In the context of these rapid and often substantial changes to the curriculum in South Africa, teacher training both pre- and in-service has been affected. Rural and under-resourced schools have been particularly hard-hit by the myriad changes in the curriculum and the changing requirements in terms of the knowledge, concepts and skills that need to be taught. Both national and international literature and research studies (e.g. Lewin, 2004; Kruss, 2008) concur that teachers are the most important resource in schools in any drive geared towards raising education standards. Diko and Meyiwa (2012: 1) point out that “South Africa’s Department of Education… acknowledging the vital role of teachers, has over the years, established a suite of policies, curriculum and structural changes in an effort to produce more as well as… better-skilled and capable teachers”. It is clear that the manner in which the education system of a country carries out the professional development of its teachers, both pre-service and in-service is crucial. In South Africa, in rural areas in particular, classroom and context-bound realities require attention. Letsekha, Wiebesiek-Pienaar and Meyiwa (2013) argue that integrating IKS within South Africa’s schooling system will contribute to providing context-relevant education that is accessible to learners and their care-givers in rural and under-resourced settings.

Teacher Preparedness for teaching in a rural context The DBE’s Integrated Strategic Planning Framework makes minimal reference

to teaching in a rural context. This is an additional need involving in-service teachers’ professional development, in order to ensure “sustainable development education” (Vargas, 2000). Findings from the project cited above reveal that it is essential that teacher training, whether pre-service or in-service takes cognizance of both the content and context in which the actual teaching will be or is carried out.

To gain insights into how the teachers in our research site are prepared for teaching in a rural, under-resourced setting, we posed the following questions related to their preparedness as well as the manner in which they carried out the task:


1. What exposure, either through course content at college, have they had in order to prepare them to teach in a rural context?

2. How well prepared were they for the realities that they have experienced at their school and/or in their area?

It was apparent in the responses to these questions that there is a lack of bold initiative and sustained support to address issues around teaching in a rural context and best practices related to the use and/or inclusion of IKS in pre-service training and in-service development programmes.

Beyond the Teacher Certification Programme Vargas (2000) argues that a culture-sensitive regard and plan for including local

data into a school system affirms the value of traditional or IK to complement modern knowledge. Further, Vargas (2000: 378) suggests that educating for a sustainable future requires inclusion of six features: “an interdisciplinary approach; teacher-training, pre- and in-service; curricula based on the three pillars of sustainable development; social and environmental justice; meaningful political participation; and respect for local and indigenous cultures”.

Some teachers referred to the actual teaching in the classroom as a learning experience. A 58-year-old grade two teacher shared that “development and growing is for everyone irrespective of age and qualification hence in my entire junior primary school teaching career I have always been eager to learn new things”. A number of other teachers concurred with this statement. What seems to happen at school-level is that in-service teacher development rarely happens for every teacher at a school. The tendency is to get a representative to attend training who is then expected to impart new knowledge gained to the other teachers in the FP. This approach, though obviously more efficient in terms of time, is perhaps not the most effective. This method of dissemination of information for CPD is one frequently used in rural and under-resourced schools given that teachers often teach in multi-grade classrooms, and schools are often under-staffed.

Putting Policy into Practice: Integrating Indigenous Knowledges into Foundation Phase Mathematics

Developing mathematical skills in the FP requires teachers to teach a variety of essential skills, including counting, calculating, reasoning, estimation, investigating, interpretation, describing, analysing. The CAPS for FP mathematics provides teachers with a list of recommended resources to assist in teaching the above-mentioned skills. CAPS stresses that it is important for the FP teacher to allow children to have access to concrete teaching and learning aids, such as number blocks, counting frames, etc. that learners can operate as they practice. While CAPS provides a list of recommended resources, the DBE does not provide actual resources. In rural and under-resourced settings, such as Cofimvaba, the value of these suggestions is thus limited.

Due to the lack of access to recommended resources teachers modify teaching materials and strategies, making them more personally relevant to students. Although lesson plans follow the standard set by CAPS and the RNCS, teachers find ways to recognise and reinforce the culture of the students. The most innovative way teachers achieve this is by recognising IK embedded in prior and experiential knowledge that learners bring with them to the classroom, gained from living in

Lisa Wiebesiek-Pienaar, Tebello Letsekha, Thenjiwe Meyiwa, Bukiwe Feni 163

Cofimvaba. Indigenous knowledge can act as a powerful tool in the classroom, as it helps students build on their communities’ knowledge and recognises students’ culture and value systems.

The teachers that participated in our study state that learners are much more likely to retain information when they can find personal relevance in the material that they are learning. They argue that children are curious by nature and must be given the freedom to explore and discover, and be allowed to discuss what they see at home or in their communities. To enable this, storytelling is a major part of teaching in foundation phase mathematics. Children may be asked to tell their favourite folk tale or to tell stories about events that took place at home.

The teachers maintain that children learn more effectively when words, visual images and auditory input are combined; therefore much of the teaching and learning at foundation phase focuses on visual and auditory perception, which is the use of eyes and ears in learning. To achieve this teachers rely on materials collected by learners from home and around the community. For the foundation phase teacher creativity is vital, and this often requires that everyday household items that might otherwise be discarded can be recycled into useful teaching and learning materials. Through collecting simple items such tree branches, leaves, match sticks and cold drink cans learners are also taught data handling which focuses on

- Collecting data to answer questions; - Sorting the data while giving reasons; - Grouping objects and, explaining reasons for grouping. The teachers recognise that the simple games played by children at home and in

the community are essentially mathematical in nature. Incorporating such games ensures that the foundation phase learner experiences mathematical challenges as fulfilling and enjoyable. Incorporating such games also goes a long way to making mathematics an empowering, enjoyable, fun and challenging experience.

The schools in Cofimvaba have multilingual mathematics programmes. Mathematics is taught using the home language of the learners alongside the language of teaching and learning, which is English. This ensures that learners have the ability to read and understand the use of their indigenous language as a tool for learning. Incorporating indigenous knowledge and languages into everyday teaching practices also gives parents and other caregivers the invaluable opportunity to support their children in an informal and supportive environment.

The examples provided by Cofimvaba teachers of how they use various forms of IK and context-relevant materials to teach content illustrate the value of the use of IK in the classroom, and the importance of teaching methods and approaches being context-specific. The approaches that these teachers used are not necessarily covered in pre-service teacher training, nor do the teachers report them being covered in in-service training. They seem to adopt a ‘make the best of what you’ve got’ attitude towards the lack of resources, less than ideal teaching and learning circumstances and a lack of support from key policy documents and teacher-training.

Conclusion

We conclude from our discussions with FP mathematics teachers in Cofimvaba that in keeping with the RNCS and CAPS, they are valuing IKS in their classrooms with little or no guidance provided by those policy documents or the pre- or in-


service teacher-training that they receive. While the RNCS and CAPS urge teachers to value IKS in the classroom and the school, pre- and in-service teacher training and the policy documents do not recognise the unique needs of teachers and learners in rural and under-resourced settings for greater guidance and support that is context-relevant.

In closing, we argue that the findings of the study upon which this paper is based, indicate that more research is required within the Foundation Phase in order to generate evidence-based data on what we need to know and what needs to be done to adequately prepare teachers, and provide relevant support, such that all schools in South Africa are staffed by knowledgeable, well-skilled, culturally-sensitive, confident and highly effective practitioners within the context in which their classrooms are found.

References Department of Education, Republic of South Africa (2002): Revised National Curriculum

Statement for grades R-9 (Schools) - Natural Sciences. Government Gazette, Vol. 443 No. 23406. Pretoria: Department of Education, Republic of South Africa. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education.

Department of Education, Republic of South Africa (2011): National Curriculum Statement Grades R-9: Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement: Mathematics. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education.

Diko, N. and Meyiwa, T. (2012): The state of graduate teacher transition to the labour market. Paper prepared for South African Department of Higher Education and Training Labour Market Intelligence project. Pretoria: HSRC.

Gardiner, M. (2008): Education in rural areas. Johannesburg: Centre for Education Policy Development, Issues in Education Policy, No. 4.

Kruss, G. (2008): Teacher Education in South Africa Series: Teacher Education and Institutional change in South Africa. Cape Town: HSRC Press.

Letsekha, T., Wiebesiek-Pienaar, L. and Meyiwa, T. (2013): The development of context-relevant teaching tools using local and indigenous knowledge: Reflections of a sociologist, a sociolinguist and a feminist scholar. Paper presented at the 5th World Conference on Educational Sciences, Rome, 5th – 8th February.

Lewin, K. L. (2004): The pre-service training of teachers - Does it meet its objectives and how can it be improved? Background paper for the EFA Global Monitoring report.

Mokhele, P. (2012): Dealing with the challenges of curriculum implementation: Lessons from rural secondary schools. African Journal of Governance and Development, 1 (2), 23-34.

Moodley, M. (2012): Personal Communication. Vargas, C. M. (2000): Sustainable development education: Averting or mitigating cultural

collision. International Journal of Educational Development, 20 (15): 377-396.

Corresponding author: Dr. Lisa Wiebesiek-Pienaar Human Sciences Research Council South Africa [email protected]


AMELIA MOLINA GARCÍA

PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING AND CULTURE FOR GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP: REFLECTIONS FOR ITS CREATION

Abstract

I would like to share some reflections concerning the results of several investigations in the field of training of values, citizenship, basic education (primary and secondary school), at national and international contexts. First, I shall present the context in which those researches took place, then I will go to some of the results and in my conclusion I will show the proposals for the construction of global citizenship. Key words: reflective education, citizen competences, global citizenship, action

capability, basic education

Introduction

Since several decades ago, education in values for democracy, citizenship and human rights has had a prevailing position in numerous countries, not only in Latin America, but also around the world; Mexico is not the exception. One of the privileged settings to develop those educational processes is the school environment in which various special learning programs have been carried out. The curricular content or explicit strategies have been added aiming to educate for democracy and/or for citizenship. In some other circumstances, they have been considered as working manners and transversal contents that appear in an implicit form in the school curricula (cf. ICCS, 2009). We recognize the presence of philosophic-pedagogical perspectives in those training practices, in which civic, ethic, moral and social dimensional aspects can be distinguished, which aim to increase the ethical aspect (Yurén, 1995) of the society in which it is practiced. In this sense, it can be observed that education for citizenship has not been foreign in our Mexican education (Latapí, 1999), but it certainly has had variations in the way it has been present or absent in the academic curricula. During many decades after the Mexican Revolution, civic education was explicitly taught in basic education; however, during the early years of the 70’s of the 20th century, it was left implicit in the Social Sciences. Subsequently, the reappearance of Civic Education in the curricula and programs of Mexican basic education was an event that promoted a change of perspective at the end of the last century, “reacquiring” a moral status. It is first reincorporated in the secondary school curricula (SEP, 1993) and then in elementary school and preschool (SEP, 2011); meanwhile, different researchers (García-Salord & Vanella, 1992; Schmelkes, 1994, 1997 and 1998; Latapí, 1998; Molina, 2000; Luna, 2001; Yurén, 2004; Maggi et al, 2003; Conde, 2004; Rodríguez, 2009; Rodríguez & Elizondo, 2010; among others) have carried out researches referring to educational processes, the meanings that the educational actors attribute them and the way of developing the training for a citizen civic education.

In my particular case, I have carried out several researches that deal with this thematic area at various educational levels and different scenes, which have led me

Pedagogical training and culture for global citizenship: reflections for its creation 166

to some reflections: If school is a space socially recognized as a privileged setting for training citizens, how do the cultural constructs subvert such an education? In which manner could the pedagogical processes given at school settings contribute to the socio-cultural changes? When in school practices inconsistencies between saying and doing have been identified, what kind of citizens are we educating? And consequently, how could it be possible to develop competences for global citizenship, if the cultural contexts where they take place do not offer the conditions for their development?

For this reason I’m sharing some results of researches1 carried out in different contexts: basic education – both primary and secondary school (Molina, 2000 and 2011), communitarian education, especially with CONAFE communitarian instructors (Molina, 2008); international and Mexican agencies (Molina, 2007), and some other experiences regarding the evaluation of text books for basic education and other materials with the same aim.

The paper is organized in three parts: the first one presents an overview of the aspects addressed in the researches; the second includes the analysis of the more recurrent results; and the third one offers some hints to generate actions which may contribute to the development of an active citizenship.

Investigative approaches as a process of building a citizenship notion

The first research, which actually was the one with which I got involved in this thematic area, focused on analyzing the way values for democracy are built up in sixth grade of primary school (Molina, 2000; Molina & Alonso, 2001). This was an ethnographic research done during a school year, which included groups of students from eight primary schools at the capital of Mexico and its metropolitan area. The research considered the socioeconomic dimension: the selected schools represented the social strata comprised in such an area. Interactions taking place at every moment during school hours were prioritized. It was also analyzed if there were differences in the teacher-students rapport established by teachers, taking into account the economic status between them and the learners. In terms of the pedagogical dimension, it was considered the kind of teacher training, the teaching practicing in classroom and the management of contents related to value education. At that moment, the notion of citizenship as a training process for primary school learners was not yet considered, but a question emerged with regards to the practice of values encouraged and if the education of subjects committed to their society was really taking place.

The results of the first research showed that the experiences and educational processes of the individuals tend to generate a climate for a responsible exercise of freedom and of free decisions. Therefore, taking into consideration my thirteen years of experience in communitarian service, I decided to investigate as part of my doctoral thesis, the indicators and the processes that determine the political culture of the CONAFE communitarian instructors (Molina, 2008). This was the second study regarding the citizen-training subject. The research had two aspects: a qualitative perspective and a quantitative one. Regarding the first aspect, life 1 Due to space considerations, we will not make constant allusion to the researches carried out

by the author of the article, these appear in the references.

Amelia Molina García 167

experiences (stories) were reconstructed and analyzed considering contextual references. With reference to the quantitative data, besides contextualizing the stories of the communitarian instructors, constellations of political culture were set up, including the training tracks of the young participants in the programs.

Considering the above and due to the fact that I was invited to determine the status of Mexico at the beginning of the test on educational achievement concerning civic citizenship competences (IEA/ICCS, 2007 and 2008; Molina, 2007), I became interested in doing a research concerning the educational processes that took place in secondary schools to create citizenship competences (Molina, 2011). This research is focused on determining if the training practice performed by teachers in their classroom in secondary schools generates citizenship competences and if the civic and ethic competences proposed in the syllabi and programs of secondary school (SEP, 2007) are encouraged or not by teachers.

Main results: characteristics of the educational processes in school settings

Results from the three researches mentioned in the last section are presented. I have no intention to be reductionist but due to the reduced space, I shall only present the data that coincides, especially in relation to basic education. Based on those results, we were able to prove that the kind of educational services offered in the different economic strata is not the same. Some differences were present regarding the participation of parents at school because in popular areas parents’ participation is more controlled by the school due to the fact that they cannot enter the school premises so easily.

Both in primary and in secondary school, there are various contradicting situations and processes in the formation of values which should characterize the “democratic” practices of the young citizens (learners). According to our analytic perspective, such practice should promote the developing of moral judgment (Kohlberg, 1992, 1997) and agency capacity (Yurén & Mick, 2013) in the students in training. These practices are far from achieving it, since the rapport established by some teachers offer, as a common practice, an authoritarian-vertical directionality, in which the perceptions of the learners are not important; furthermore, they take for granted that “the students are the ones who should be educated”, even though teachers violate educational precepts.

Another distinctive feature in the teaching practice is that normally there is no congruence or a systematic function between the expressed values for democracy and their practice. A teacher can be talking about participation or respect, but the learner neither participates nor his rights are respected. Very seldom students have an opportunity to participate in the decisions being taken, since the teachers are the ones who determine what to do and how to do it. Therefore, the educational process goes backwards because the learner cannot conclude the educational process as a product of his own decisions. On the other hand, we can point out that where the routine work is most important and the student knows in advance what will happen, the possibilities of creating environments to reflect on or build their own knowledge is reduced; even the suitable activities to foster democratic practices and social compromise are left behind. Thus, it is required as a practice (not frequent in the observation), that teachers develop a systematic exercise, conscientious and


consistent, where every activity or promise is fulfilled. The deliberate action and thus, a reflective one, make the difference between a convinced attitude (including everything it implies) and the mechanical fulfillment of school chores (regarding contents).

In this sense, another aspect that strongly drew our attention in our research was the use of the time assigned to the civic and ethic training, where we could confirm the effective use of only the third part of the time intended for such task. The teacher or the school in general, frequently has “another more important thing” to work on, rather than working with the contents and activities designed for such training. As a result, little commitment is internalized, and after they graduate, youngsters express it is a subject in which almost anything can be included, but they cannot recall anything specific about civic or ethic aspects.

So it would be naive to think the school is the only responsible for civic-citizen training, since we have also observed in our third research (Molina, 2008)2, that the training spaces being generated as part of the social environment, in which it is required to do daily activities that involve looking up information, the use of it according to the contexts and the person addressed, the reflection regarding the type of practice to develop and the analysis of the possible effects they might have, offer a wild educational spectrum from a critic-reflexive approach, for children and youth, in whom a high sense of social culture and a commitment to the environment they live in.

Teenagers and youth participating in those experiences, acquire a distinctive feature: awareness; they become more responsible and committed, not only with the activities they perform, but also with their social environment, and the pursuit of better living conditions for the most vulnerable groups of the country.

Conclusions and reflections for global citizenship

From the previous results and the review of others researches (mentioned at the beginning of the article), as well as some theoretical references (Sen, 2000; Bauman, 2002; Giroux, 2006; Popkewitz, 2009) concerning those processes, we may conclude that it is necessary to generate actions which make possible the transformation of the teaching practices, not in isolation but designed in a systematic manner and with a specific purpose: to train the youth to decide and act responsibly, to accept the consequences derived from the educational processes and also to express his opinion.

It implies educating a person to act freely, free to choose and design his own path in the formal or informal educational field; this implies his autonomy to decide, to take care of himself and to be aware of the collective well-being.

Finally3, we keep in mind that the school still constitutes a device rich of positive educational intentions, where it is possible to carry out educational actions

2 Another vein that arose the interest in this thematic area, was the fact that I worked for more

than ten years in the National Council for Educational Development (CONAFE), where after several years, and as part of my doctoral education, I was able to carry out the research called Indicadores y procesos en la conformación de la cultura política juvenil (Molina 2004, 2008 and 2012; Molina y Ponce, 2011).

3 It is important to mention that many of these conclusions are expressed in Molina, 2013.


to regulate the process of change towards the formation of global citizenship. Therefore, it is necessary to build a notion of citizenship that springs from its socio-historic-cultural dimension, with the purpose of transforming the procedures culturally acquired in the teaching practice. To look for, like an essential component: to be able to take free decisions, search for his welfare and the possibility to create individuals socially conscious and educated.

A democratic citizenship demands a critical posture to achieve the emancipation of individuals who can act capably and will not accept the election codes determined by the international macro-organisms. This implies working on the tensions generated by the inclusion/exclusion, in which the discourse encourages the individual to generate processes of change; yet, in practice he is left behind, by presenting to him arbitrary or unilateral decisions.

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tomos de educación primaria y tres de secundaria) México: IFE. García-Salord, S. & Vanella, L. (1992): Normas y valores en el salón de clases. México:

Siglo XXI/UNAM. Giroux, H. (2006): La escuela y la lucha por la ciudadanía. México: S.XXI/UNAM. IEA/ICCS (2007): International Civic and Citizenship Education Study. International

Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. Nederland, Amsterdam. ICCS/IEA (2009): Informe Nacional del Estudio Internacional de Educación Cívica y

Ciudadana. México: SEP. Latapí-Sarré, P. (1998): Los valores desde diversas disciplinas. Documento de trabajo del

Seminario de Análisis de la educación en valores en México. México: AMNU. Latapí-Sarré, P. (1999): La moral regresa a la escuela. Una reflexión sobre la ética laica en

la educación mexicana. México: Plaza y Valdés. Luna, M. E. (2001): Formación democrática en la escuela primaria. Foro de Educación

Cívica y Cultura Política Democrática. México: IFE. Maggi, R., Alonso, G., Vidales, I. & Walker, O. (2003): Investigaciones sobre la formación y

el desarrollo moral en la escuela. In: M. Bertely, Educación, Derechos Sociales y Equidad, t. III, (pp. 967-986) México: SEP/COMIE.

Molina, A. (2000): Estudio etnográfico sobre formación de valores para la democracia en el sexto grado de primaria en ocho escuelas de la ciudad de México y su área metropolitana. Tesis de maestría, México: Universidad Iberoamericana.

Molina, A. & Alonso, G. (2000): ¿Formación de valores en la educación primaria? Una mirada etnográfica. In Hirsch, A. Los valores en educación (pp. 193-218). México: Gernika.

Molina, A. & Mejía, H. (2006): Ciudadanía y Universidad Pública. Revista Red de Posgrados en Educación, 3 (1), 76-83.

Molina, A. (2004): Indicadores y procesos en la conformación de la cultura política de los jóvenes del estado de Hidalgo: el caso de los instructores comunitarios del Consejo Nacional de Fomento Educativo (CONAFE). In: Fabré, Molina & Rodríguez, Investigación y desarrollo regional en ciencias sociales y humanidades. Hidalgo, Puebla y Tlaxcala (pp. 131-158). México: Praxis/UAEH.


Molina, A. (2007): Estado de situación de la formación ciudadana en México. Informe final. Sistema Regional de Evaluación y Desarrollo de Competencias Ciudadanas. México: ICCS/IEA/SEP.

Molina, A. (2008): Constelaciones de cultura política juvenil: el caso de los instructores comunitarios de CONAFE-Hidalgo, tesis doctoral. México: UAEH.

Molina, A. (2011): Prácticas y espacios para la formación ciudadana: una revisión desde el programa de Formación Cívica y Ética en educación secundaria. México: UAEH.

Molina, A. (2013): La agencia en la conformación de ciudadanía: una revisión de la agenda pública y el papel de los sujetos sociales en la educación. In Yurén & Mick Op. cit.

Molina, A. & Ponce, Ch. (2011): Juventud y cultura política. Revista Matices del Posgrado-Aragón, México. 6/1(14), 133-149.

Ponce, Ch. & Molina, A. (2011): Elementos que estructuran el campo de la ciudadanía entre los estudiantes de secundaria. XI Congreso Nacional de Investigación Educativa/Ponencia, COMIE, México.

Popkewitz, T. (2009): EL cosmopolitismo y la era de la reforma escolar. Madrid: Morata. Rodríguez, L. (2009): La configuración de la formación ciudadana en la escuela. Análisis de

un caso en educación secundaria. México: UPN. Rodríguez, L. y Elizondo, A. (2010): La innovación en la formación cívica y ética. Dilemas,

tensiones y paradojas del cambio curricular en la escuela primaria. México: UPN. Schmelkes, S. (1994): La formación valoral y la calidad de la educación. In: Foro

Internacional Educación y Valores. Ponencias, mayo 25 al 27. México. Schmelkes, S. (1997): La escuela y la formación valoral autónoma. México: Castellanos

Editores. Sen, A. (2000): Nuevo examen de la desigualdad. Madrid: Alianza editorial. SEP (1993 y 2011): Plan y programas de estudio 1993 (y 2011), Educación Básica Primaria y

Secundaria. México: SEP. Yurén, T. (1995): Eticidad, valores sociales y educación. México: UPN. Yurén, T. (2004): La asignatura de Formación cívica y ética en la escuela secundaria

general, técnica y telesecundaria. Su sentido y condiciones en el Estado de Morelos. México: SEP. In: <http://basica.sep.gob.mx/dgdgie/cva/sitio/pdf/materiales/resenas2002/ pdfs/9TeresaYuren.pdf>.

Yurén T. & Mick, C. (2013) (Coords.): Educación y agencia. Aproximaciones teóricas y análisis de dispositivos. México: Juan Pablos.

Prof. Dr. Amelia Molina García Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo Mexico [email protected]


BARBARA ŠTEH & JANA KALIN

CONCEPTIONS OF LEARNING AND SIGNIFICANT LEARNING EXPERIENCES AMONG PEDAGOGY AND ANDRAGOGY STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSITY IN LJUBLJANA AND THE UNIVERSITY IN BELGRADE

Abstract

This paper presents a part of the results of a comparative study in which we scrutinised the study of pedagogy and andragogy at the University in Ljubljana and the study of pedagogy at the University in Belgrade. The main focus of the study is on the questions how students understand the essence of learning at the university and whether these concepts change during their studies. We have also analysed which significant experiences influence these changes. Our arguments derive from the thesis that establishment of the students’ conceptions of learning and learning experiences that are analysed represent an important feedback when changes are introduced in the study process in order to achieve higher quality university studies. Key words: higher education, comparative study, effective teaching, conceptions of

learning, learning experiences

Introduction

Over the past 30 years, numerous studies have been involved in the question of quality teaching in higher education. Cases of best practice have been researched and questions of ensuring quality in higher education have been discussed, including how to prompt students to be active co-creators of the study process. Researchers have been focused on various aspects of teaching and learning, especially on approaches which improved learning. The variety of these studies shows that good teaching in higher education is a concept with no universally accepted definition (Devlin & Samarawickrema, 2010). In this paper, however, we aim to highlight some aspects of quality in university teaching that will help us understand the role of students in evaluating the study process and their inclusion in the processes of ensuring high quality studies.

Devlin and Samarawickrema (2010) stressed that effective teaching is broadly understood as teaching that is oriented to and focused on students and their learning. Moreover, they point out two broadly accepted components of effective university teaching: that it requires a set of particular skills and practices (Penny, 2003 in Devlin & Samarawickrema, 2010) and that it meets the requirements of the context in which it occurs (Devlin, 2007, ibid.). Based on a survey of various sources on effective teaching, various characteristics of effective university teaching can be singled out (Hativa, Barak & Simhi, 2001). Forest (2007, pp. 350-351), for example, paraphrases Lee Shulman and points out that the goal of higher education should be: to (1) ensure that students are engaged and motivated, (2) help them acquire knowledge and develop understanding, (3) enable them to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding through performance and action, (4) encourage them to engage in critical reflection of the world and their place within it, (5) develop their ability to navigate the constraints and complexities of the world in formulating

Conceptions of Learning and Significant Learning Experiences among Pedagogy and Andragogy Students 172

their own judgements and designs for action and (6) foster a lifelong commitment to critical examination and self-development. All the above-mentioned goals are mutually dependent and intertwined. To attain them means to encourage the cognitive as well as affective and social development of an individual.

Kember and McNaught (2007 in Devlin & Samarawickrema, 2010, pp. 113-114) proposed ten principles of effective teaching, conceived on the basis of a research carried out among 44 Australian teachers and 18 Hong Kong teachers, noted for their exemplary teaching. Descriptions of their own teaching practices allowed the authors to discover the following principles: (1) teaching and curriculum design need to be focused on meeting students’ future needs, (2) students must have a thorough understanding of fundamental concepts even if that means that less content is covered, (3) teaching has to be connected to real-life, current and/or local examples and relating theory to practice, (4) students’ beliefs must be challenged to deal with misconceptions, (5) a variety of learning tasks that engage students need to occur, (6) genuine, empathetic relationships with individual students should be established, (7) teachers should motivate students through displaying their own enthusiasm, encouraging students and providing interesting, enjoyable and active classes, (8) curriculum design should ensure that aims, concepts, learning activities and assessment are consistent with achieving learning outcomes, (9) each lesson must be thoroughly planned but flexible, (10) assessment must be consistent with the desired learning outcomes. It is noteworthy that, unlike other authors, Kember and McNaught emphasize “that teaching designs should meet future needs of students with regard to curriculum as well as learning outcomes” (Ibid. p. 114). They point out the importance of teachers being future oriented, while at the same time not forgetting the current needs of students.

It is important to bear in mind that the above-mentioned principles originate in teachers' opinions and thus students' opinions also have to be added in order to get the whole picture. Moreover, one has to consider the background (characteristics of the environment, university, particular faculties and departments) where the studies take place, together with a great variety of students with all their qualities, abilities, prior knowledge, experiences and needs. Due to these principles, university professors are faced with important questions that require answers if so-called professional learning communities are to be formed.

For this reason, in the comparative study entitled “Ensuring quality university study: the role and responsibility of students and teachers” that took place in 2012 and 2013 at the Department of Educational Sciences of the Faculty of Arts, University in Ljubljana, and at the Department of Pedagogy of the Faculty of Philosophy, University in Belgrade, our intention was to obtain students' feedback regarding the structure and contents of study programmes, learning and teaching forms and activities, resulting competences and their conceptions of the essence of learning, as well as their own and the teachers' roles. Undoubtedly, the results make a good basis to analyse each teacher's own practice. At the same time, in an effort to improve the quality of teaching and learning, they encourage teacher-student discussions and also discussions between teachers working in different environments – at the Universities in Ljubljana and in Belgrade.

Barbara Šteh & Jana Kalin 173

Purpose of the study

One of the central purposes of the comparative study was to obtain an insight into the way how first and third year pedagogy and andragogy students in Ljubljana and pedagogy students in Belgrade included in the first level of renewed Bologna programmes understand the essence of learning at the faculty. Furthermore, we wanted to establish the significant learning experiences that third year students encountered during their studies and the impact of those experiences. Answers to these research questions are presented in this contribution. We were, of course, also interested in the differences between answers of students in Ljubljana and in Belgrade.

Understanding learning is one of the key concepts of the pedagogical and andragogical subject area and we were interested whether it changes and approaches modern scientific concepts on active and constructive learning during the studies (Simons, 1997; Šteh, 2004; Vermunt, 1993). Moreover, with their empirical studies, researchers have established that the subjective conceptions of learning influence the quality of learning itself. A shift to higher conceptions of learning is desired, as the latter are more likely to lead to a deeper approach to learning.

Method

The study involved first and third year students studying pedagogy and andragogy at the Faculty of Arts in Ljubljana, and first and third year students studying pedagogy at the Faculty of Philosophy in Belgrade in the 2012/13 academic year.1 The sample at the University in Ljubljana included 78 first year students and 54 third year students, while the sample at the University in Belgrade included 57 first year students and 56 third year students. Data collection took place in January 2013 through a questionnaire that included closed-ended and open-ended questions together with scales of attitudes. Statistical processing was performed with the SPSS software package.

Results and discussion

Conceptions of learning To obtain insight into existing students' conceptions of learning, we asked them

of the essence of learning at the faculty and offered them a choice of various descriptions of learning. The traditional classification of learning conceptions created by the pioneering author in this field – Säljö (Boulton-Lewis, Wilss & Mutch, 1996; Kember & Gow, 1994; Marton, Dall' Alba & Beaty, 1993) and further empirical findings (Marton et al, 1993) was used as the basis to define the essence of learning. Thus students could select between the following descriptions of the

1 At its first level, the Faculty of Arts of the University of Ljubljana offers a uniform three-

year study programme of pedagogy and andragogy, while the Faculty of Philosophy of the University of Belgrade offers two separate four-year programmes – Pedagogy and Andragogy – already at the first level. Further on, when presenting results and comparisons, only students of pedagogy will be mentioned, although in Ljubljana students of the pedagogy and andragogy programme were included in the study.


essence of learning:2 learning as acquiring and memorizing knowledge; learning as acquisition of useful knowledge; learning as understanding; learning as a change of views; learning as personal growth.

Most first year students of pedagogy both in Ljubljana (71.1%) and in Belgrade (73.2%) answered that the essence of learning is in obtaining useful knowledge. There were no statistically significant differences in the representation of particular learning conceptions among the first year students of both universities. Statistically significant differences, however, occurred in the conception of the essence of learning among third year students of both universities (2Î = 20.822, n = 110, df = 3, p = 0.000).3 Third year students of pedagogy in Ljubljana who understand the essence of learning as obtaining useful knowledge are no longer the majority. In comparison to third year students of pedagogy in Belgrade, students in Ljubljana show an increased share of those who emphasize that the essence of learning is in understanding and changing of views (10.7% : 29.6%) as well as in personal growth (17.9% : 38.9%). Thus at Ljubljana University, 68.5% of third year students expressed a higher level learning conception, compared to only 28.6% of Belgrade third year students. From the first to the third year, Ljubljana students of pedagogy therefore demonstrate a shift towards more modern and higher level conceptions of learning. The question arises whether this holds true only at the declarative level, since various learning conceptions and also learning theories are discussed as a part of their study programme, or whether they have really internalized higher conceptions of learning and reconstructed their previous concepts which also guide their own learning. On the other hand, among third year students in Belgrade, the emphasis on obtaining useful knowledge is still prevailing (66.1%), also due to the fact that until then they experienced no study practice and they go through more doubts regarding usefulness of knowledge they are to master during their studies.

Significant learning experience Further on, we were interested which positive learning experiences from the

time of their studies significantly influenced the third year students in their opinions. We wanted to find in which study form this experience occurred and which aspects of changes have been detected by students on the basis of that experience. Some answers were offered to them based on students' answers to an open-end question from prior studies in this area (Šteh & Kalin, 2012).

There were statistically significant differences among students of the universities in Belgrade and Ljubljana in reference to their answers to which form of organized study prompted the significant learning experience (χ2 = 47.034, n = 110, df = 3, p = 0.000). The answer most often given by students of the University in Ljubljana was that their practical training represented the significant learning experience (63%), followed by lectures (18.5%). The latter was the answer most

2 In the questionnaire, students had a choice of descriptions without any name attached to the

category of learning. Furthermore, descriptions were given in a random order without being orderly distributed from lower to higher conceptions of learning as they are presented in this text.

3 Due to the low frequency of representation, in calculations we merged the third and the fourth categories which emphasize the in-depth understanding and a change of views, since, in reference to the contents, one complements the other.


frequently selected by Belgrade students (33.9%), followed by learning experiences that happened in group work with colleagues at projects, seminars, etc. – 19.6%, and during organized visits to institutions – 17.9%. Each of the last two answers was selected only once by students of the University of Ljubljana. Exercises would be expected to represent an important learning situation that enables students to challenge their existing subjective theories, test themselves in various new situations, and personally consider pedagogical issues. However, students' answers imply that exercises have less power – this answer was more frequently selected by Belgrade students (14.3%), while only 9.3% of Ljubljana students opted for this answer. This poses the question of the concept and scope of exercises or their contents, goals and realization. Notably, it was mostly students of the University in Belgrade who experienced the most important learning experience at lectures (33.9% of answers) – which can encourage more responsible and high quality performance of lectures. The differences in answers between Belgrade and Ljubljana students to some extent reflect the differences in the way the study programme is conceived at each university. For example, the University in Belgrade has practical training as late as during the summer semester of the third year (which was after the survey was made), so the answers did not refer to practical training.

We were further interested in the influence of such significant learning experiences students recognised in themselves. Various answers were offered, among which they could select no more than three that were most relevant to them. Students of the University in Belgrade most often pointed out that the important learning experience during their studies encouraged their motivation for study (48.2%). This was followed by the answer that development of competences relevant for professional work was important (30.4%), while next came the equally frequent selection of two aspects – one was recognizing usefulness of theory in solving actual problems and the other acquiring new experiences through work (26.6% each). While students of the University in Ljubljana most often selected the answer that the important study experience was testing themselves in actual situations (37%), it is followed with a balanced choice of two answers: first, that they acquired knowledge on the usefulness of theory in solving actual problems, and second that they developed competences important for their professional work (each selected by 35.2% of students). All these students' answers can be connected to the principles of effective teaching which were pointed out by Kember and McNaught on the basis of their study (2007 in Devlin & Samarawickrema, 2010) and are presented in the introduction. The answers students gave to this question are strongly related to the place where the important learning experience took place. Among Ljubljana students it very often occurred during their practical training where students had the opportunity to work and test themselves in some typical situations in which pedagogues or adult educators work. A considerable gap and statistically significant differences between the answers of Ljubljana and Belgrade university students are noticeable in some items, such as: acquiring experience of individual work with pupils, learning with others and from others in group discussions and increased motivation for studies. Acquiring experiences in individual work was strongly emphasized by students of the University in Ljubljana (20.4%); among Belgrade students the prevailing choices were learning with others in group discussions (19.6%) and increased motivation for their studies (48.2%).


Answers of Belgrade students can be understood in the context of answers to the question where the important learning experience took place, in which they strongly referred to the importance of lectures, group work with colleagues on projects and during seminars as well as visits to educational institutions. All these work methods evidently reflected in increased motivation for studies among Belgrade students.

Conclusion

The results of our empirical study show the importance of providing students with an opportunity for active and responsible involvement in the study process with very diverse methods. Again and again one has to look for ways to stimulate students for a higher quality level of learning, taking account of explicit learning goals, students and other contextual factors, as already emphasized by Devlin and Samarawickrema (2010). Thus it is no surprise that students in Belgrade point out that their important learning experience took place at lectures, during group work with colleagues and in organized visits of institutions, while students in Ljubljana mostly emphasize practical training. High quality discussions, organizing learning situations where students can test themselves and show their knowledge, such as individual research work or group work on a project, well organized practical training, etc. – all these can contribute to significant learning. However, the importance of the role of students' feedback in ensuring high quality university studies again became evident, since it reveals both strong and weak points of study programmes and their implementation, while indicating guidelines for introducing changes to the study process. This paper presents a small part of the results obtained in the comparative study, yet even this shows that the challenge in Ljubljana may be more frequently organizing quality discussion and particular forms of participative learning, while in Belgrade, the challenge may be integrating more opportunities for students to test themselves and show their knowledge in practical situations already in the first two years of the studies. It is particularly important that students in both Ljubljana and Belgrade are offered adequate support in connecting theory and practice, as this allows them to add meaning to their studies, work through their misconceptions and develop an in-depth understanding of contents in the areas of pedagogy and andragogy as well as independently solve topical issues and problems encountered in this subject area.

References Boulton-Lewis, G. M., Wilss, L. & Mutch, S. (1996): Teachers and adult learners: their

knowledge of their own learning and implications for teaching. Higher Education, 32(1), 89-106.

Devlin, M. & Samarawickrema, G. (2010): The criteria of effective teaching in a changing higher education context. Higher Education Research & Development, 29(2), 111-124.

Forest, J. J. F. (2007): Teaching and learning in higher education. In J. J. F. Forest & P. G. Altbach (Eds.) International Handbook of Higher Education (pp. 347-375). Dordrecht: Springer.

Hativa, N., Barak, R. & Simhi, E. (2001): Exemplary university teachers: Knowledge and beliefs regarding effective teaching dimensions and strategies. Journal of Higher Education, 72(6), 699-729.

Kember, D. & Gow, L. (1994): Orientations to Teaching and Their Effect on the Quality of Student Learning. Journal of Higher Education, 65(1), 58-74.


Marton, F., Dall' Alba, G. & Beaty, E. (1993): Conceptions of learning. International Journal of Educational Research, 19(3), 277-300.

Simons, P. R. J. (1997): Definitions and Theories of Active Learning. In D. Stern & G. L. Huber (Eds.) Active Learning for Students and Teachers, Reports from Eight Countries OECD (pp. 19-39). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.

Šteh, B. (2004): Koncept aktivnega in konstruktivnega učenja. In B. Marentič Požarnik (Ed.) Konstruktivizem v šoli in izobraževanje učiteljev (pp. 149-163). Ljubljana: Center za pedagoško izobraževanje Filozofske fakultete.

Šteh, B. & Kalin, J. (2012): Students' Views on Important Learning Experiences – Challenges Related to Ensuring Quality of Studies. In N. Popov, C. Wolhuter, B. Leutwyler, G. Hilton, J. Ogunleye & P. Almeida (Eds.) International Perspectives on Education. BCES Conference Books (pp. 291-297). Sofia: Bulgarian Comparative Education Society (BCES).

Vermunt, J. D. H. M. (1993): Constructive learning in higher education. In J. K. Koppen & W.-D. Webler (Eds.) Strategies for Increasing Access and Performance in Higher Education (pp. 143-156). Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers.

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Barbara Šteh [email protected] Assoc. Prof. Dr. Jana Kalin [email protected] University of Ljubljana Faculty of Arts Slovenia




MANUELA HEINZ

INITIAL TEACHER EDUCATION IN IRELAND: STRUCTURE, POLICY DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Introduction

This paper aims to provide an overview of recent policy developments in Initial Teacher Education (ITE) in Ireland, their impact on practices and challenges for ITE providers and schools. It will outline and discuss recruitment and selection processes, recent structural and programme design changes as well as the cultural and political platforms on which teacher education is enacted.

Structure of provision and entrance to ITE programmes

Teaching is a regulated profession in Ireland and teachers employed in state-funded teaching positions must be registered with the Irish Teaching Council in order to be paid from public funds (Section 30 of the Teaching Council Act, 2001). Initial teacher education programmes for primary, second-level and further education teachers are accredited by the Teaching Council, which was established on a statutory basis in 2006. The number of places on initial teacher education courses has traditionally been limited to 1,000 places per year for both, primary and post-primary programmes by the Higher Education Authority. However, these quotas have not been rigidly enforced in recent years with numbers of ITE graduates from state-funded higher education institutions reaching in excess of 1,800 for primary and 1,400 for post-primary teacher education programmes since 2008 (Hyland, 2012, p. 17). In addition, numbers of ITE graduates from Hibernia College, a private provider of teacher education in the UK and Ireland blending online and face-to-face tuition, have been growing since 2007 (375 primary teaching graduates in 2011, first post-primary cohort graduated in 2013).

Demand for places on state-funded ITE programmes has been high with only between 30 and 40 per cent of applications resulting in offers (Heinz, 2008, 2011). Candidates are in most cases selected through competitive points systems whereby prior academic performance (post-primary performance for undergraduate programmes and undergraduate degree performance for postgraduate programmes) is rated and complemented, in the case of postgraduate programmes, by a much smaller number of available points allocated for relevant professional experience and further qualifications (Master, PhD, other third-level courses). Proficiency in Irish and, more recently, performance in English and mathematics, are also assessed as part of the selection system for primary ITE candidates. Only a small number of institutions and programmes are currently including interviews in the selection process (Dublin City University, Trinity College Dublin and the University of Limerick) (Heinz, 2011).

In terms of their profile, ITE students in Ireland have been found to be homogenously Irish (98%), predominately female (approx. 70%), high academic achievers. Studies exploring student teachers’ career motivations found that intrinsic and altruistic career values are rated significantly higher than extrinsic motivating factors and that ITE entrants are confident in their ability to become effective

Manuela Heinz 179

teachers who enjoy their work (Drudy et al., 2005; Heinz, 2011). Despite the general perception that the teaching profession continues to enjoy high social regard amongst the Irish public (Hyland, 2012), second-level student teachers have reported that they encountered discouraging advice from others in relation to their career choice before embarking on their ITE programmes (Heinz, 2011). The two reasons most frequently mentioned in relation to this discouragement are ‘increasing problems with discipline in schools’ and the ‘lack of full-time teaching positions’ (Ibid.).

As regards the latter, an oversupply of teachers and ITE graduates has been noted for a number of years by ITE providers, schools and teachers’ unions who have been expressing concern about the “casualization of teaching [and lecturing]” in Ireland which is leading to ‘severe income poverty for many teachers struggling on fixed-term (temporary) contracts in part-time positions (MacGabhann, 2012). Anecdotal evidence suggests that many graduates from Irish ITE programmes are leaving Ireland to start their teaching careers in the UK and further afield, often after unsuccessfully pursuing teaching positions in Ireland.

Recent developments at teacher education policy level

In 2011, the Irish Teaching Council published two significant teacher education policy documents: the Continuum of Teacher Education and the Criteria and Guidelines for Providers of Initial Teacher Education Programmes. The former emphasizes the centrality of cohesion and connection in teacher education policy and practice across all phases of the teaching career. It provides the framework for significant changes, including the extension and reconceptualization of both concurrent and sequential Initial Teacher Education (ITE) programmes and the introduction of a mandatory induction phase for ITE graduates.

The Criteria and Guidelines for Providers of Initial Teacher Education (Teaching Council, 2011b) lay out the specific accreditation requirements for reconceptualised ITE programmes detailing mandatory programme components, weighting between academic and practical (school placement) elements as well as a detailed list of learning outcomes for ITE graduates. The guidelines furthermore specify requirements in terms of staff qualifications, engagement and research activity as well as student-staff ratios. As regards the latter it is envisaged that the ‘ratio of students to academic staff should be a maximum of 15:1’ which ‘allows for small group work, for the modeling of effective teaching methodologies and for teaching the skills necessary for meaningful reflective practice’ (Ibid., p. 20). In the current higher education context where, due to significant cuts to HEI’s budgets, staff reduction rather than increase is the norm, this ratio can be interpreted as highly ambitious.

The blueprint for programme development emphasizes the expectation that graduate teachers have the competence to engage professionally as lifelong learners throughout their career. Linking theory and practice of learning and teaching through reflective and systematic inquiry will therefore be central to future ITE programmes aiming to develop students’ core skills in reflective practice and research/inquiry-based learning. An increased emphasis on literacy, numeracy and inclusion is also evident. Integral to all ITE programmes and central to student teacher development is the School Placement element of the programmes. What is

Initial Teacher Education in Ireland: Structure, policy developments and implications for practice 180

envisaged is the development of new and innovative school placement models based on a partnership approach between HEIs and schools.

The duration of most current ITE programmes will be extended with the new minimum duration of 4 years for undergraduate concurrent programmes (from September 2013) and 2 years for postgraduate consecutive programmes (from September 2014). Following the Teaching Council’s requirement for extended programmes, most state-funded postgraduate post-primary ITE programmes have been reconceptualised as two-year full-time “Professional Master of Education” programmes.

New Structure for Initial Teacher Education Provision in Ireland

In April 2012, the Minister for Education and Skills announced a major review of publicly provided teacher education in Ireland aimed at identifying a new structure for ITE so as to strengthen and deepen the quality of provision. The international panel of reviewers (Sahlberg et al., 2012) recommended that teacher education provision in Ireland should be consolidated according to the following configuration:

1. Dublin City University - St. Patrick’s College Drumcondra - Mater Dei Institute of Education

2. Trinity College Dublin - Marino Institute of Education - University College Dublin – National College of Art and Design

3. National University of Ireland Maynooth - Froebel College 4. University of Limerick - Mary Immaculate College - Limerick Institute of

Technology 5. University College Cork - Cork Institute of Technology 6. National University of Ireland Galway - St. Angela’s College Sligo Considering that provision of ITE in Ireland encompassed 19 state-funded

providers (plus three non-funded providers – Hibernia college and two Montessori colleges) offering 40 ITE programmes for primary and post-primary level, the restructuring of publicly funded ITE provision into 6 larger, university-based centers marks a significant change in the Irish ITE landscape.

In its report, the review panel emphasizes that teacher education institutions need to be sufficiently large and university-based in order to provide high-quality and research driven ITE programmes.

Policy into practice – new understandings and actions on the ground

Teachers as lifelong learners and the centrality of school-university partnership The new policy on the Continuum of Teacher Education sends a strong message

to beginning and experienced teachers as well as teacher educators and school leaders. It recognizes that ITE cannot provide teachers with all the knowledge and skills needed for a demanding career spanning up to a number of decades and situated in increasingly complex and ever-changing social and educational settings. Over the past two decades, the demands on Irish schools have, not unlike in many other international contexts, become increasingly complex: pupil populations have become more diverse and the teachers’ tasks and necessary skills have broadened

Manuela Heinz 181

immensely as a result of profound economic, demographic, social, cultural, technological, and occupational changes.

While an overview of the specific components of the various newly conceptualized ITE programmes is not available to date, it appears that a number of ITE programmes will engage their student teachers in action research projects. The central aims of newly designed ITE action research modules will include the development of (i) student teachers’ critical awareness and understanding of the unique dynamics of learning and teaching in school environments as well as (ii) their proficiency with research-based teaching and inquiry-based practice.

Systematic and collaborative inquiry into teaching practice and learning in schools is, of course, of great interest to and also dependent on the support of school leaders and practicing teachers. A research-based approach to teacher education throughout the continuum will require close collaboration of all involved and careful attention to the ethical dimensions of school-based research. It is clear that the successful implementation of such an ambitious initiative will, among many other factors, depend on the relationships and collaboration between university-based teacher educators and principals and teachers of schools.

The importance of collaboration between teacher educators, school leaders and teaching practitioners is highlighted in the “school placement section” of the Teaching Council’s Criteria and Guidelines (2011b, pp. 16-18) which specifies that “new and innovative school placement models should be developed using a partnership approach, whereby HEIs and schools actively collaborate in the organisation of the school placement.” In terms of the process for school-university partnership development, the document further clarifies that “such models would be actively fostered by providers based on a written policy on partnership” (Ibid., p. 16).

It is interesting to note that this “school placement section” which goes on to explain that such ‘partnership models’ will involve “greater levels of responsibility being devolved to the profession for the provision of structured support for student teachers” has triggered most questions and discussions in schools and teacher education circles. It is also the only section resulting in requests (by ITE providers) for structured support by the Teaching Council to support the implementation of the ‘mandated’ (partnership) approach. This request and the resulting negotiation process carried out by a national working group of stakeholders is testament to the enduring challenges which Irish ITE providers have been facing in this area and which have, over the past 5 years, been further compounded by budget constraints and new pressures facing schools as a result of Ireland’s economic crisis and a demanding education reform agenda.

The negotiation process consisted of 6 working group meetings and 2 open stakeholder meetings bringing together, for the first time in Irish teacher education history, representatives from the Teaching Council and the Department of Education and Skills, ITE providers, principal associations, teachers unions and the National Parents Council. Guidelines on School Placement (1st edition) were presented at the most recent stakeholder meeting in June 2013 as an addendum to the Council’s accreditation criteria for programmes of initial teacher education.

The described process of stakeholder exchange and discussion and the publication of a written document describing a partnership approach to the school


placement is a clear step forward from the previous situation where any type of exchange was restricted to the efforts of individual ITE providers working with schools in a tradition of goodwill. It is difficult to predict the impact of this process on practices on the ground in the near future. While many benefits of the partnership approach are described and specific suggestions in relation to school placement activities are forwarded, the traditional imbalance in terms of the understanding of who is (ultimately) responsible for developing partnerships and ensuring the quality of ITE programme delivery (including the school placement component) has not been explicitly challenged by this document: while it suggests that ITE providers apply a more structured approach to the identification, involvement and support of host schools following more (added by author) consultation with all stakeholders, participation of teachers and schools is described as voluntary and based on goodwill (rather than a professional responsibility, emphases added by author) (pp. 8, 10).

Initial analyses of an Irish school-university partnership research (SUPR) study exploring the design and implementation of an innovative partner school placement model highlight many of the benefits of partnership approaches while also describing the cultural and ethical dimensions and tensions experienced by the key actors in the reconceptualized hybrid space (Heinz, 2014; Higgins et al., 2012). Reflections of HEI tutors involved in the partnership project emphasise the importance of openness throughout the process, the development of a shared mission and a culture based on authentic dialogue, learning, enjoyment and consensus (Ibid). While feedback on the partnership initiative from participating schools and teachers has been very positive and promising, the study also brings to light a number of challenges including the lack of resources to support closer collaboration, the persisting difficulties experienced by HEI providers in terms of ‘recruiting’ schools and committed teachers as partners, and the cultural and ethical complexities of cross-institutional and interpersonal relationship building.

A heightened role for a whole-university approach to teacher education The ITE review panel report highlights the importance of providing ITE in

universities where a critical mass of subject discipline experts and a general research culture exit. There are ample opportunities for subject experts to contribute to teacher education across the continuum. They might, for example, provide updates on developments in their fields specifically tailored to teachers, or insight into the knowledge and abilities possessed and/or the culture shared by those who create, communicate and use knowledge within their disciplines. Teacher educators and student teachers can also benefit from more active engagement with university-based research centres, for example, in the areas of Child and Family, Innovation and Societal Change and Human Rights research, as well as related disciplines like Cognitive and Social Psychology, Sociology and Political Science, Occupational Therapy, Speech & Language Therapy, Health Promotion and Clinical Psychology (examples from NUI Galway). Bringing subject specialists and researchers who have traditionally been more removed from school education and teacher development into a new hybrid space where academic and practitioner knowledge come together in new, less hierarchical ways in the service of teacher learning

Manuela Heinz 183

(Zeichner, 2010) will be another challenge and distinct learning venture for teacher educators.

Internationalising Irish teacher education The ITE Review Panel’s report emphasizes the benefits of greater collaboration

between ITE providers in Ireland and partner institutions internationally. In particular, it notes that the proportion of outgoing students in teacher education institutions is very low by European standards. International mobility of students and staff of Higher Education Institutions is one of the key aspects of Irish and European higher education policy today. Many of the Irish ITE providers have experience as hosts for international student teachers and appreciate the positive benefits of international exchange programmes. However, programmes, particularly the one-year postgraduate programmes, have traditionally not included the opportunity for student exchange activities as they were perceived to be too short and “packed”. The new extended Professional Master of Education programmes will provide more space for ITE providers to support student exchanges and integrate comparative education themes in their programmes.

Conclusion

Recent ITE policy changes led by the Irish Teaching Council and recommendations forwarded by the ITE review panel mark the beginning of a major cultural shift in teacher education in Ireland whereby the preparation of teachers for the future is now seen to require much more interaction and close collaboration between a wide range of stakeholders and experts. Teacher educators will play a vital role in bringing this vision to fruition. They are challenged with the task of developing collaborative partnership networks both nationally, in the school settings as well as within and across universities, and internationally.

The issue of a current teacher oversupply and consequent reduction in opportunities for employment requires attention and policy action. As argued by the ITE review panel, where there is an oversupply of teachers it may not be possible to continue to attract high calibre entrants into teaching (Sahlberg et al., 2012, p. 20). The desirability of diversifying the teaching force is, furthermore, evident from both contemporary Irish research studies and policy documents (Heinz, 2011; Irish Teaching Council, 2008) and a dedicated study exploring Diversity in Initial Teacher Education (DITE) in Ireland (led by Heinz and Keane from NUI Galway) has recently been funded by the Irish Research Council.

References Coolahan, J. (2003): Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers: Country

Background Report for Ireland. Dublin: DES, Paris: OECD. Drudy. S.; Martin, M.; Woods, M. & O’Flynn, J. (2005): Men and the Classroom: Gender

Imbalances in Teaching, London and New York: Routledge. Heinz, M. (2008): The Composition of Applicants and Entrants to Teacher Education

Programmes in Ireland: Trends and Patterns. Irish Educational Studies, 27(3), 223-240.


Heinz, M. (2011): The next generation of teachers: selection, backgrounds and motivations of second-level student teachers in the Republic of Ireland. PhD Thesis, National University of Ireland, Galway.

Heinz, M. (2013): The next generation of teachers: an investigation of second-level student teachers’ backgrounds in the Republic of Ireland. Irish Educational Studies, 32(2), 139-156.

Heinz, M., Fleming, M. & Higgins, A. (2014): New teacher education policy into practice: A critical exploration of the ethical dimension of school-university partnerships. Annual Meeting of the Comparative Education Society of Hong Kong - Policy and Educational Development in a Global Context. University of Hong Kong, 28 February-1st March.

Higgins, A., Heinz, M., McCauley, V. and Fleming, M. (2012): Creating the future of teacher education together: The role of emotionality in university-school partnership. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Journal. Available at www.sciencedirect.com.

Hyland, A. (2012): A Review of the Structure of Initial Teacher Education Provision in Ireland. Background Report for the International Review Team. Commissioned by the Higher Education Authority (HEA), Dublin: HEA

Sahlberg, P.; Munn, P. & Furlong, J. (2012): Report of the International Review Panel on the Structure of Initial Teacher Education Provision in Ireland. Review conducted on behalf of the Department of Education and Skills. Department of Education and Skills.

Ireland. The Teaching Council (2008): Strategic Plan 2008-2011. The Teaching Council. Ireland. The Teaching Council (2011a): Policy on the Continuum of Teacher Education. The

Teaching Council Ireland. The Teaching Council (2011b): Initial Teacher Education: Criteria and Guidelines

for Programme Providers. The Teaching Council. Ireland. The Teaching Council. Guidelines on School Placement – 1st Edition. The Teaching

Council. MacGabhann, J. (2012): Our teachers deserve proper jobs and proper pay. Irish Times, 2nd

October. Zeichner, K. (2010. Rethinking the connection between campus courses and field experiences

in college-and university–based teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 61 (1-2), 89-99.

Dr. Manuela Heinz National University of Ireland Galway Galway, Ireland [email protected]


RENATA ČEPIĆ1, SANJA TATALOVIĆ VORKAPIĆ, JANA KALIN

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHER – ANALYSIS OF TEACHERS' SELF-PERCEPTIONS

Abstract

Views on the desirable characteristics of teachers and their professional development directly affect the organisation of the initial and continuing professional training of teachers, which in turn largely determines the development of teachers’ professional identity. In recent literature, professional identity is enmeshed in a broader societal discourse that is underpinned by values, personal qualities, ideology, relationships, status, training and qualifications. Starting from the point of view that the competences acquired are not sufficient for the teachers' professional activities, and also for reflection on their professional mission and identity and self-examination of their own experiences, beliefs, values and practices, we were interested in how the most important characteristics of quality teachers are viewed by the teachers themselves in two neighbouring countries – Croatia and Slovenia. We expected the results to be very similar due to the similarity of the cultural contexts of both countries. However, as the formation of professional identity depends not only on the broader social context, but also on the specific academic and institutional contexts in which teachers operate and develop, we also expected the answers to differ somewhat, which was confirmed by the results. Croatian teachers identified knowledge, creativity and fairness as the three most important characteristics of a good teacher, while the Slovene teachers identified the teacher's consistency as the most important feature of a good teacher, followed by knowledge and empathy. There was no statistically significant difference in the first three most important characteristics among teachers with regard to the length of their teaching experience and their age. Key words: self-perception, professional identity, continuing professional development,

elementary school teacher

Introduction

In the center of attention of educational experts and decision-makers are questions regarding the tasks of the redefined role of a teacher. Among the relevant issues are teacher competencies which are necessary to establish an approach oriented toward the students and the means of developing them, the appropriate ways of supporting the different periods of the teachers' professional development and the conditions of the personal and professional environments which need to be fulfilled in order for the full professionalisation of the teaching profession to be achieved. Results of recent research on the quality of education clearly indicate that

1 This research was run within the project: “Professional Development of Teachers:

Reputation, Identity and Transversal Competencies”, project’s number: 13.10.2.2.02., which is supported as an initial scientific project for young researchers (2013-2015) by University of Rijeka, Croatia.

Characteristics of a good elementary school teacher – analysis of teachers' self-perceptions 186

the development of students' achievements significantly depends on the process of teaching and learning, and that the impact of teachers on the grades of their students is significant (EC, 2010; Hattie, 2003; Barber & Mourshed, 2007; Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005). It has been shown that students who had effective teachers during their education achieved better results than students who had less successful teachers, and that the impact of quality teachers remains influential in their later education, as well. Based on these studies, the general conclusion that an improvement in the overall quality of education directly depends on the quality of education and the professional development of teachers can be drawn.

One of the best-known conceptualisations of what teachers know is that of Shulman (1987, p. 8), who defines a teacher’s knowledge as:

• content knowledge • pedagogic content knowledge (the ability to contextualise, situate, and

personalise the content for the students) • general pedagogic knowledge (principles and strategies of classroom

management and organisation) • curriculum knowledge • knowledge of learners and their characteristics • knowledge of educational contexts, and contexts (group, classroom,

community) • knowledge of educational ends, purposes and values. During the process of their professional development, it is important to allow

teachers to develop in all these areas, as they represent the essential components of a teacher’s professional identity (Tatalović Vorkapić, Vujičić & Čepić, 2014).

In the formation of their identity, the teachers' answer to the question of who they are is constantly being shaped with what they perceive their work to be (Graham & Phelps, 2003). Teachers are involved in the shaping of their identity from the beginning of their career. Many authors emphasise that the most important period for the formation of identity is during undergraduate studies (Sutherland, Howard & Markauskaite, 2010).

In recent literature, professional identity is enmeshed in a broader societal discourse that is underpinned by values, personal qualities, ideology, relationships, status, training and qualifications (Kosnik & Beck, 2009; Korthagen, 2004; Beijaard, 2006; Beijaard, Meijer & Verloop, 2004; Alsup, 2006 and others). To illustrate, we would like to mention some definitions of professional identity that emphasise its individual characteristics, as they are of great importance for effective teaching (Tatalović Vorkapić, 2012).

Wenger defines identity as what we know, what is foreign and what we choose to know, as well as how we know it. Our identities determine who we will interact with in a knowledge-sharing activity, and our willingness and capacity to engage in boundary interactions (Wenger, 2000, p. 239).

The term identity refers to how teachers see themselves professionally, which includes their sense of their own goals, responsibilities, work style and teaching effectiveness, their degree of satisfaction and their own career development planning (Kosnik & Beck, 2009). Korthagen’s onion model (2004) views identity as a dynamic relationship between the deep and the superficial layers of personality in contact with the professional environment. Kortahgen (2004) believes that

Renata Čepić, Sanja Tatalović Vorkapić, Jana Kalin 187

professional identity is made up of unconscious needs, feelings, values, role models, previous experiences and behaviors which, put together, create a sense of identity.

Teachers' professional identity implies both a cognitive psychological and a sociological perspective: people develop their identity in interaction with other people (sociological perspective), but express their professional identity in their perceptions of ‘who they are’ and ‘who they want to become’ as a result of this interaction (cognitive psychological perspective) (Beijaard, 2006).

Beijaard, Meijer & Verloop (2004, pp. 122-123) have identified some features that are essential for the professional identity of teachers based on a review of various studies on professional identity that are linked to the characteristics of the professional identity of teachers, the formation of their identity and studies on stories that (re)present professional identity:

• Professional identity is an ongoing process of interpreting and re-interpreting experiences (Kerby, 1991 in Beijaard et al, 2004); the teacher’s development never stops and can be best viewed as a process of lifelong learning. This, in other words, means that the formation of the professional identity implies not only the search for answers to the question – Who am I now? – but also to questions such as – Who do I want to become? and How do I see my role as a teacher? Since identity changes over time, this means that its interpretation is subject to change, which indicates that it is a dynamic construct.

• Professional identity implies both the person and the context. The teacher's identity is always formed in relation to the characteristics of the culture and the environment in which the teacher works. Teachers differ by the way they interpret professional characteristics in relation to their own values and convictions. There is no single teaching culture in a school and every teacher, influenced by their specific context, develops their own teaching culture.

• A teacher's professional identity consists of sub-identities that are more or less in harmony with each other. The notion of sub-identities relates to the different contexts the teachers work in and the relationships they build. It is important for all of these sub-identities to be well-balanced.

• Agency is an important element of professional identity, meaning that teachers should be active participants in the process of their own professional development (Coldon & Smith in Beijaard et al, 2004). The ability to reflect and self-reflect is of great importance for working on their professional development, as it allows them to integrate their experiences, knowledge and feelings into their image of themselves as a teacher, and also to plan their professional development. Professional identity is not something teachers have, but something they use in order to make sense of themselves as teachers.

Professional identity formation is a process of practical knowledge-building characterised by the ongoing integration of what is individually and collectively seen as relevant to teaching (Beijaard et al, 2004, p. 123).


Aim of the study

The basic purpose of this study was to investigate the self-perception of elementary school teachers from Croatia and Slovenia when it comes to which three characteristics they hold to be of greatest importance for being a good teacher. Within that aim, three research questions were defined: a) to determine the three most important characteristics that make a good elementary school teacher in two different samples: Croatian and Slovenian teachers; b) to analyse the correlation between these three characteristics in two different samples and the teachers' age and working experience; and c) to compare the characteristics determined in light of the two differing cultural contexts, i.e. to compare between the Croatian and Slovenian teachers. Taking into account prior relevant studies, we expected the self-perception of the teachers within these two samples to be rather similar.

Methods Subjects

Overall, two hundred and seven teachers participated in this study (two males and two hundred and five females), average age M=42.45 (SD=8.63, ranged from 24-64 years) with average working experience M=18.45 years (SD=10.03 ranged from six months to 42 years). Seventy-three of them were elementary school teachers living and working in Croatia. They were all females, working in different elementary schools within the Primorje – Gorski Kotar county. Their average age was M=43.46 years (SD=9.85) within range from 26 to 64 years. In addition, they reported about their average working experience M=18.73 (SD=11.21) which ranged from six months to forty-two years of working with school children. The Slovenian sample consisted of one hundred and thirty-four elementary school teachers (two males and one hundred and thirty-two females). Their average age was M=41.90 (SD=7.87) and ranged from 24 to 59 years. As for their average working experience, it was M=18.3 years (SD=9.35) and ranged from one to thirty-eight working years.

Measuring instrument

With the aim of exploring the three most desirable characteristics for a good educator, a measuring instrument that was created only for the purposes of this study was administered. It consisted of questions pertaining to the teachers’ age and working experience, and of one specific question: “Please, could you be so kind as to write down which three characteristics you consider to be of greatest importance for being a good teacher. Also, please rank these three characteristics according to their importance, with 1 being the most important characteristic.”

Procedure

Both samples of elementary school teachers from Croatia and Slovenia consisted of teachers working in randomly selected schools located within these two countries. Their participation was completely voluntary and anonymous, and feedback about determined findings was promised to be delivered to them. In each case, application of the questionnaire took approximately five minutes. SPSS 18.0 was used to perform necessary statistical analysis.



As a response to the first research question of this study, the three most important characteristics of a good elementary school teacher as viewed by Croatian and Slovenian elementary school teachers were determined. Croatian teachers determined these characteristics as follows:

• having knowledge and competencies for working with school children (M=0.74, SD=0.97);

• being creative (M=0.68, SD=1.08); • being fair (M=0.51, SD=0.97). Besides these three characteristics, Croatian elementary school teachers

emphasised the importance of some other characteristics such as: empathy (M=0.33, SD=0.80), being consistent (M=0.26, SD=0.71), being a patient person (M=0.26, SD=0.78), communicativeness (M=0.21, SD=0.64), caring for children (M=0.16, SD=0.47), skillfulness (M=0.15, SD=0.61), love of the job (M=0.14, SD=0.54), planning classroom activities and tasks (M=0.14, SD=0.61), headiness (M=0.14, SD=0.59), flexibility (M=0.14, SD=0.56), being an educator to children means being a learner too (M=0.14, SD=0.59), eloquence (M=0.12, SD=0.60), openness to novel and different situations (M=0.11, SD=0.54), warmth (M=0.11, SD=0.39), and humour (M=0.11, SD=0.54). A very small number of them mentioned the following characteristics as important, as well: objectivity (M=0.10, SD=0.48), diligence (M=0.10, SD=0.50), organisation skills (M=0.08, SD=0.43), sincerity (M=0.08, SD=0.43), being motivated and being able to motivate children (M=0.07, SD=0.42), optimism (M=0.07, SD=0.42), cheerfulness (M=0.05, SD=0.33), exactness (M=0.05, SD=0.37), to be able to centralise (M=0.04, SD=0.35), having a special sensibility for work with elementary school children (M=0.04, SD=0.35), having authority (M=0.04, SD=0.35), agreeableness (M=0.04, SD=0.35), sociability (M=0.04, SD=0.26), curiosity (M=0.03, SD=0.23). In addition, regarding the second research problem, no significant Spearman coefficient correlations were determined between three the most desirable characteristics (to have knowledge, creativity and fairness) and age and/or working experience. This implies that Croatian elementary school teachers have a rather strong opinion about which professional characteristics they consider to be most important and that it does not change with age or years of working experience.

Analysing the self-perception of the Slovenian sample of elementary school teachers reveals that the characteristics that are considered to be of greatest importance for a good primary school teacher differ somewhat:

• being consistent (M=1.10, SD=1.19); • having knowledge and competencies for working with school children

(M=1.01, SD=0.93); • empathy (M=0.59, SD=1.01). After having reported about these three most important characteristics,

Slovenian primary school teachers also emphasised the following features: fairness (M=0.49, SD=0.96), creativity (M=0.43, SD=0.95), openness to novel and different situations (M=0.31, SD=0.83), flexibility (M=0.26, SD=0.78), cheerfulness (M=0.18, SD=0.71), being a patient person (M=0.16, SD=0.59), having authority (M=0.13, SD=0.55) and having a special sensibility to work with elementary school


children (M=0.13, SD=0.54). A very small number of primary school teachers in Slovenia mentioned characteristics such as: communicativeness (M=0.09, SD=0.47), agreeableness (M=0.09, SD=0.43), being an educator to children means being a learner too (M=0.08, SD=0.48), being respectful (M=0.07, SD=0.40), organisation skills (M=0.07, SD=0.41), being an emotional stable person (M=0.07, SD=0.45), love of work (M=0.07, SD=0.39), tolerance of differences (M=0.06, SD=0.40) and diligence (M=0.04, SD=0.32). Very few of them also mentioned characteristics such as: being a good pedagogist, responsibility, curiosity, being a friend to children, motivation and reliability. Just like the Croatian elementary school teachers, the self-perception of Slovenian educators regarding the professional characteristics they consider important does not depend on their age or/and working experience. In other words, there were no significant nonparametric correlations between the three main characteristics (being consistent, having knowledge and empathy) and their age and working experience.

In response to the third research problem, a Chi-square test was run with the purpose of determining significant differences between the frequency of the three most preferred characteristics between the Croatian and Slovenian elementary school teachers. These two samples showed that their perception differed significanty when it comes to two main characteristics: being consistent (χ2=29.99, df=1,3, p=.001) and having knowledge (χ2=20.39, df=1,3, p=.02). In other words, the Slovenian elementary school teachers emphasised these two properties significantly more than Croatian elementary school teachers. When it comes to other important and relevant professional characteristics as pointed out by these two samples (empathy, creativity and fairness), no significant difference was determined.

Conclusion

In this study, we were interested in the most important characteristics of a good teacher, and how teachers of primary school classes in two neighbouring countries, Croatia and Slovenia, perceive them. Given the similarity of the cultural context, we expected that the results would be very similar. We are aware of the fact that, in addition to the wider social environment, the immediate environment of the school, i.e. the institutional environment, school climate and culture are also very significant school for the formation of professional identity. Due to the aforementioned, we assumed that the responses of the Croatian and Slovenian teachers would be also be somewhat different. Croatian teachers emphasised knowledge, creativity and fairness as the most important characteristics of good teachers, while the Slovene teachers, in addition to knowledge, emphasised empathy and the consistency of the teacher’s behaviour as the most important characteristics, with creativity and fairness are right behind in fourth and fifth place. Also, empathy and consistency are the fourth and fifth most common choice among Croatian teachers. Interestingly, the Slovenian teachers emphasise consistency as the most important characteristic, while Croatian ones stress professional knowledge and a competence to work with students.

In light of the theory on the development of teachers’ professional identity, we expected statistically significant differences to occur among teachers in connection with the length of teaching experience or their age. Interestingly, this was not confirmed for the first three most important features. Regardless of their age and


years of teaching experience, teachers both within the Slovenian and the Croatian sample mentioned the same three characteristics as being most important. Based on this, we can draw conclusions about the power of identity and beliefs about the most important characteristics that they recognise and try to implement in their work within a shared vision of the school.

Theoretical considerations and empirical research on teachers’ professional identity indicate that it is a construct that is impermanent and subject to change. This means that the formation of the professional identity can be at least partially influenced by initial teacher education, as well as their continuing professional development. In other words, in order to make this kind of knowledge open to analysis and reflection, and for it to contribute to the professional development of teachers and their understanding of their professional identity, it is important to create the conditions for reflection, analysis, and change in their concept of themselves and turn unconscious professional identity into conscious, especially in the initial training of teachers. Articulation and examination of their own values, beliefs and attitudes, which they themselves often do not fully understand, can encourage a better understanding of the process and the development of professionalism in teachers, as well as the development of their professional identity. In addition, it implies that knowledge on the self-perception of the teachers’ desirable professional identity can be of help to decision-makers, institutions for initial teacher training, professional associations that develop programmes for continuing professional education and others. Since identity changes over time due to contexts and relationships, it also means that its interpretation is subject to change. Therefore, in further research it would be interesting to track the longitudinal changes in the self-perception of actual and desired personal and professional characteristics of teachers in order to obtain a realistic picture of the perceived desirable professional characteristics of good teachers, as well as the factors that play an important role in the development of teachers’ professional identity. In addition, it is particularly necessary to work on the development of measuring instruments and on improving the research methodology for studying the professional identity of teachers.

References Alsup, J. (2006): Teacher Identity Discourses: Negotiating Personal and Professional Spaces.

New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English.

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Beijaard, D., Meijer, P. C. & Verloop, N. (2004): Reconsidering research on teachers’ professional identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20(2), 107-128.

Darling-Hammond, L. & Bransford, J. (Eds.) (2005): Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. San Francisco, CA: Wiley & Sons.

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Korthagen, F. A. J. (2004): In search of the essence of a good teacher: towards a more holistic approach in teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20 (1), 77–97.

Kosnik, C. & Beck, K. (2009): Priorities in Teacher Education: The 7 Key Elements of Pre-Service Preparation. London and New York: Routledge.

Shulman, L. S. (1987): Knowledge and teaching. Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1-22.

Sutherland, L., Howard, S. & Markauskaite, L. (2010): Professional identity creation: Examining the development of beginning preservice teachers' understanding of their work as teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(3), 455-465.

Tatalović Vorkapić, S. (2012): The significance of preschool teacher’s personality in early childhood education: Analysis of Eysenck’s and Big Five Dimensions of personality. International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 28-37.

Tatalović Vorkapić, S., Vujičić, L. & Čepić, R. (2014): Preschool Teacher Identity. Book chapter to be appeared in P. Breen (Ed.) Cases on Teacher Identity, Diversity, and Cognition in Higher Education. IGI-Global.

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Assist. Prof. Dr. Renata Čepić Faculty of Teacher Education in Rijeka University of Rijeka Croatia [email protected] Assist. Prof. Dr. Sanja Tatalović Vorkapić Faculty of Teacher Education in Rijeka University of Rijeka Croatia [email protected] Assoc. Prof. Dr. Jana Kalin Faculty of Arts University of Ljubljana Slovenia [email protected]





SANDRA OZOLA, MĀRIS PURVIŅŠ, INGA RIEMERE

MANAGERIAL SKILLS OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOLS OF LATVIA IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to discuss the changing roles and skills of a teacher in context of lifelong learning. This has been accomplished by the review of the literature on management, managerial skills in business field as well as education. The results of this practical research outline teachers’ understanding of managerial qualities and readiness to act as managers of teaching/learning process. Key words: management, managerial skills, teacher’s role, lifelong learning

Introduction

Skills and competencies of teachers in the 21st century face new demands and challenges (Downes, 2010; Minocha et al., 2011; Alvarez, 2009; Thach & Murphy, 1995; Shaikh & Khoja, 2011; Selvi, 2010). The teachers need to assist students to acquire the knowledge, skills and understanding. Nowadays students need to know how to plan their learning and be responsible for this process so it proves that traditional teaching approach might not produce desired results any more (Downes, 2010; Minocha et al., 2011; Alvarez, 2009; Thach & Murphy, 1995). It is also expected from 21st century teacher to collaborate with all sectors of the educational community in planning, managing, implementing, and evaluating programs (Shaikh & Khoja, 2011; Selvi, 2010). Besides professional, pedagogical, psychological and methodological skills and competencies, teachers should also have managerial skills in order to help their students learn to learn.

Theoretical background

If such terms as ‘management’, ‘manager’, ‘managerial skills’ are mentioned, as a matter of fact they are connected with business world meaning the coordination of the efforts of people to accomplish goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively. All this include processes with various activities and people managing them mainly with an aim to gain profit. Managers are those who design and facilitate the production of useful outcomes from any kind of a company. In order to do that managers should have the ability to make business decisions and lead subordinates within a company, in other words, they need certain managerial skills. According to Katz (2007) the most common skills are:

1) human skills – the ability to interact and motivate; 2) technical skills – the knowledge and proficiency in the trade; and 3) conceptual skills – the ability to understand concepts, develop ideas and

implement strategies. As Gore and Begun (2012) point out that management is a practical skill and it

is very essential for effective functioning of an organization and it finds a place in

Managerial Skills of Teachers in Schools of Latvia in the Context of Lifelong Learning 194

all kinds of organizations, including educational ones. Management can be viewed from two aspects:

1) ‘management’ as a subject taught at schools; 2) ‘management’ as a process resulting in effective managers. Schermerhorn and Chappell (2000) define four functions of a management

process: 1) planning; 2) organizing; 3) leading; 4) controlling. Donnelly, Gibson and Ivanchevich (1991) add the fifth function which is

personnel selection. These authors classify the roles of a manager in three groups with the following managerial functions:

1) interpersonal roles; 2) informational roles; 3) decision making roles. Management process with its business accomplishment cannot be overtaken and

put ‘copy/paste’ in education field, such as schools, in teaching/learning process because every field has its own aspects and characteristics, but similarities can be found. Business field deals with ‘controlling’ function, but in a teaching/learning process it is ‘evaluation’ when a teacher evaluates students’ work. Feedback is a very important aspect here because it works both – a teacher gives feedback to students and students give their feedback to a teacher about succeed and failed activities. On the basis of this feedback a teacher analyses and plans further steps in the teaching/learning process.

Mintzberg (1973) identifies a set of ten roles commonly filled by managers. These roles fall into the same three categories as defined by the above mentioned authors:

1. informational roles – how a manager exchanges and process information: monitor – collecting information from organizations, both from inside and

outside the organization, disseminator – communicating information to members within the

organization, spokesperson – representing the organization to the outsiders.

2. decisional roles – how a manager uses information in decision making: entrepreneur – initiating new ideas to improve organizational performance, disturbance handlers – taking corrective action to cope with adverse

situation, resource allocators – allocating human, physical, and monetary resources, negotiator – negotiating with trade unions or any other stakeholders.

3. interpersonal roles – how a manager interacts with other people: figurehead – ceremonial and symbolic role, leadership – leading organization in terms of recruiting, motivating, etc., liaison – liaisoning with external bodies and public relation activities.

Having analysed various theoretical sources about management and managerial skills the authors of this paper hold the following point of view – a teacher might be

Sandra Ozola, Maris Purvins, Inga Riemere 195

an expert in his/her field, but that’s no guarantee of success, teachers nowadays need a set of skills that are particularly well-suited to times of change and challenge:

1) organizational skills – set priorities, delegate, motivate and develop students; 2) communication skills – get your point across, inspire others to achieve better

results and demonstrate emotional intelligence; 3) collaboration skills – so it is possible to value and celebrate differences,

build rapport, form alliances and negotiate effectively; 4) critical thinking skills – approach problem solving logically, research

options, avoid biases and focus on meaningful data to draw the right conclusions – even under pressure;

5) emotional intelligence – build your self-awareness, self-management, social awareness and relationship management, be a source of energy, empathy, earned trust and optimism;

6) evaluation on the basis of feedback – ‘performance review’ in both ways: a teacher – students and students – a teacher.

A teacher’s role involves more than simply standing in front of a classroom and lecturing. A changing role of a teacher may cause unease for those who have entrenched in traditional understanding and approaches of teaching/learning process. An effective teacher understands that today teacher’s profession has become multifaceted. Thach and Murphy (1995) consider that teachers are responsible for operating educational system and they need strong and efficient professional competencies. According to Shaikh (2009, 2011) and Selvi (2010), it is necessary to redefine teacher’s skills because a teacher transfers changes into educational system, hence, a teacher needs new skills that must deal with all these new changes effectively.

The change of a teacher’s role is underlined in Hattie’s (2012) classification of 8 ‘mind frames’. If teachers:

1) believe that their fundamental task is to evaluate the effect of their teaching on students’ learning and achievement,

2) believe that success and failure in student learning are about what they, as teachers, did or did not do… teachers are change agents,

3) want to talk more about the learning than the teaching, 4) see assessment as feedback about their impact, 5) engage in dialogue not monologue, 6) enjoy the challenge and never retreat to ‘doing their best’, 7) believe that it is their role to develop positive relationships in classroom, 8) inform all about the language of learning, then they are more likely to have

major impacts on student learning. From the aspect of lifelong learning a teacher should teach students to learn not

only in a school, but the whole life. It demands students’ understanding about learning in continuously changing world. Knowledge is not an issue which can be given, schools and teachers can only provide methods how to gain knowledge. And, no doubt, a teacher is a key person because a process is implemented exactly the way how a teacher manages it.

Hattie (2009) gives five major dimensions of teachers as ‘change agents’ explaining that such teachers:


1) identify the most important ways to represent the subjects they teach – they know how to integrate new knowledge with students’ prior knowledge, they can adapt lessons according to students’ needs,

2) create optimal classroom climate for learning – it is based on trust where mistakes are welcome and they do carry fear effect,

3) monitor learning and provide feedback – teachers are aware that a typical lesson never goes as planned and they are flexible to any changes,

4) believe all students can reach the success criteria – teachers show a passion that all students can succeed,

5) influence a wide range of student outcomes not solely limited to test scores – teachers help students to develop deep and conceptual understandings, teach them to develop multiple learning strategies, encourage to take risks in students learning, etc.

From the aspect of lifelong learning where students learn to become their own teachers, the concept of a teacher as a manager is very important in an effective teaching/learning process. The effectiveness of teaching methodologies and styles have been examined for years, but the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) collected data from 11 countries and identified five dimensions which Turner-Bisset (2001) listed them as follows:

1) Knowledge of substantive curriculum, areas and content. 2) Pedagogic skills, including the acquisition of and ability to use a repertoire

of teaching strategies. 3) Reflection and ability to be self-critical, the hallmark of a teacher’s

professionalism. 4) Empathy and commitment to the acknowledgement of the dignity of others. 5) Managerial competence, as teachers assume a range of managerial

responsibilities within and beyond the classroom. Teaching/learning process is a complex act. Danielson (1996) estimates that a

teacher makes more than 3,000 nontrivial decisions every day. For example, Hunter compared teaching to surgery, “where you think fast on your feet and do the best you can with the information you have. You must be very skilled, very knowledgeable, and exquisitely well trained, because neither the teacher nor the surgeon can say, ‘Everybody sit still until I figure out what in the heck we're gonna do next’” (Goldberg, 1990, p. 43).

The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development outlines the key characteristics of teachers which emerged as hallmarks of the teaching/learning process:

• willingness to put in the necessary time, • love for the age group they teach, • an effective classroom management style, • positive relationships with students, • consistent excellence, • in-depth content knowledge, • capacity for growth, • steadiness of purpose and teaching personality. Rokeach (1973) points out a set of values which are important for a teacher as a

manager. He classifies them in 2 groups:


1) instrumental values which refer to preferable models of behavior, 2) terminal values which refer to the goals that a person would like to achieve

during his lifetime. On the basis of Rokeach’s framework of values, the list of character qualities for

a teacher as a manager of a teaching/learning process was worked out and used for the pilot research about teachers’ understanding and ranging of these qualities according to their importance.

Thus the new concept of a teacher as a manager of a teaching/learning process requires consideration of strategies and procedures to increase flexibility so that the curriculum:

1) is delivered through different teaching methods, 2) meets the needs of all learning styles, 3) helps students to link theory with practical life, 4) encourages students to get involved in learning process and be responsible

for their own learning, as well as to understand outcomes and have opportunities to review, record and reflect on their progress,

5) supports assessment for learning through teacher, peer or self-assessment.

Methodology

The pilot research was conducted with the aim to study the readiness of teachers to be managers of a teaching/learning process. For school selection the regionality principle was observed, specifying the school location (urban/rural), the number of students, local government support, the language of institution, etc. 150 teachers from 20 schools of Latvia took part in the questionnaire. In order to evaluate teachers’ readiness to become a teaching/learning process managers, they were asked to make the scale of qualities significance according to their understanding and experience.

Results

The ranking of the research results was done. The results show that the qualities put by teachers in a certain order according to their significance arranged the following:

1) the most significant: a) ability to cooperate (coefficient 175) b) creative thinking (coefficient 172) c) honesty (coefficient 163) d) ability to captivate (coefficient 139) e) communication (coefficient 132) f) responsibility (coefficient 122).

2) as less important qualities are considered the following ones: a) wide horizon (coefficient 56) b) self-development (coefficient 43) c) flexibility (coefficient 35) d) self-control (coefficient 34) e) ability to reflect (coefficient 22).


Conclusions

On the one hand those qualities which were defined by teachers as of top significance stress that teachers understand and are aware of the necessity and capability to cooperate, think creatively, to have good communication skills, etc., because an effective manager of any process cannot do without them. But on the other hand, the ranking of less important managerial qualities shows that teachers are not ready for becoming managers in education field because they are not ready for continuous self-development, empathy, self-reflection, etc. – they do not consider these qualities very significant. That, for its part, means that these managerial qualities which are so important in the 21st century are not developed to students in teaching/learning process. If teachers do not hold managerial skills and qualities themselves, they are not able to teach them to their students. The above mentioned allows to make the conclusion that teachers do not see themselves as the implementers of change of paradigms in education.

The similarities of the pilot research about Latvian teachers can be drawn with the conclusion of the research carried out by Wang, Haertel and Walberg (1990) where five very important factors which teachers should be aware of in managing a teaching/learning process and helping students learn are defined:

1) a teacher uses such strategies which ensure students active involvement in a teaching/learning process;

2) meta-inquiry or thinking about own thinking; it means that a teacher explains his flow of thoughts and teaches students to stop, analyse and evaluate the result they have got and on the basis of it to plan next steps;

3) process of inquiry what is based on the sequence of subject knowledge; 4) home environment/parent support; 5) social relation between a teacher and students; an effective teaching/learning

process takes place in a positive atmosphere. Having analysed the above mentioned, there is no any basis to claim that all

teachers in schools of Latvia are ready to become managers of a teaching/learning process and that not all of them are aware of a teacher’s key role in that process.

References Alvarez, I., Guasch, T. & Espasa, A. (2009): University teacher roles and competencies in

online learning environments: a theoretical analysis of teaching and learning practices. European Journal of Teacher Education, 32(3), 321-336.

Danielson, C. (1996): Enhancing professional practice: A framework for teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Donnelly, H. J., Gibson, L. J., Ivanchevich, M. J. (1991): Fundamental of Management. BPI IRWIN. Boston: Homewood.

Goldberg, M. (1990): Portrait of Madeline Hunter. Educational Leadership, 47(5), 41–43. Hattie, A. C. (2012): Visible Learning for Teachers: Maximizing Impact on Learning.

London: Routledge. Minocha, S., Schroeder, A. & Schneider, C. (2011): Role of the educator in social software

initiatives in further and higher education: A conceptualisation and research agenda. British Journal of Educational Technology, 42: no. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2010.01131.x


Mintzberg, H. (1973): The Nature of Managerial Work. New York: Harper & Row. Rotherham, A. J. & Willingham, D. T. (2010): “21st century” skills: Not new, but a worthy

challenge. American Educator, 34(1), 17-20. Schermerhorn J. R. & Chappel D. S. (2000): Introducing Management. New York: John

Wiley & Sons. Selvi, K. (2010): Teachers’ competencies. Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of

Culture and Axiology, 7(1), 167-175. Shaikh, Z. A. (2009): ZPD incidence development strategy for demand of ICTs in higher

education institutes of Pakistan. Proceedings of 3rd IEEE Symposium of Intelligent Information Technology Applications (IITA’09), IEEE Press, 661-664.

Shaikh, Z. A. & Khoja, S. A. (2011): Role of ICT in shaping the future of Pakistani higher education system. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 10(1), 149-161

Thach, E. C. & Murphy, K. L. (1995): Competencies for distance education professionals. Educational Technology Research & Development, 43(1), 57-79.

Turner-Bisset, R. (2001): Expert Teaching. London: David Fulton. Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D. & Walberg, H. J. (1990): What Influences Learning? A Content

Analysis of Review Literature. Journal of Educational Research, 84 (1), 30-43. Sandra Ozola, MA, PhD candidate Maris Purvins, PhD student Inga Riemere, Dr.Sc.Admin. Corresponding author: Sandra Ozola University of Latvia Riga, Latvia [email protected]


CLAUDIO-RAFAEL VASQUEZ-MARTINEZ, FÁTIMA CARRILLO, LYA-ADLIH OROS-MÉNDEZ, MIGUEL ALVAREZ, MARIA MORFIN-OTERO

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL THROUGH TEACHER TRAINING IN ENVIRONMENTS WHERE THERE ARE UNIVERSAL PROCESSES OF DEVELOPMENT, MEDIATED BY VIRTUAL INTERACTIONS

Abstract

The substantive question of this study is how to develop teachers, and for what, without falling into traditional patterns of behavior, but also without losing one’s sense of direction and producing a kind of informational bulimia, where knowledge is regurgitated and undigested. The transmission of information, confronts current training processes with the challenge of building signs and symbols when signals are no longer controlled by the traditional pedagogic devices, using the blackboard, the classroom and the teacher's body, but by information technology and communication, including screens, smart phones, audio devices and electromagnetic waves. The engagement with elements outside the school, whether hunger, technology, or a combination of both, or other factors, requires that the school no longer look inwards and consider itself in isolation, creating the production of subjectivities by the discipline and control classes, legitimized by means of information and communication technologies.

Introduction

The higher education system in Mexico is currently undergoing a problematic transformation so palpable that a dispute arises over the boundaries of higher education as a social institution. On the one hand are those who argue that it is an institution that seeks knowledge and the education of citizens, while on the other there are those who see it as a resource and a means of negotiation and interaction, which is presented as a factory of public skills, legitimized by private interests through technological and managerial processes, effectively driven by the demands of the market and profit, providing a consumerist education which engages with the global context.

The aims of the present paper are to describe, analyze and demonstrate the links with the information society, which are current elements in the higher education system of Mexico, and to suggest ways of moving forward. At the same time it seeks to highlight the social, subjective and technological levels, which are taken into account in creating educational opportunities, both in the public and in the private sectors of higher education, by adopting distance education models. Distance education is enhanced by global dynamics that anticipate future scenarios of educational development, creating media, and incorporating elements of transnational education.

Today higher education institutions adopt a blended approach, which is to say they adopt mediated subjectivities and action at a distance, using technologies in the global market for higher education in Mexico as a means of legitimizing citizen of

Claudio-Rafael Vasquez-Martinez, Fátima Carrillo, Lya-Adlih Oros-Méndez, Miguel Alvarez, Maria Morfin-Otero 201

training. This has become training for students immersed in the culture virtual reality, where roles are continually redefined and invented, and there is some blurring between identities.

The market for higher education

It is possible to speak of an educational purpose, which means that the university reform is framed as a rational and bureaucratic emergence of specialized work. Such reform originates from the nineteenth century, where the educational system was closely related to the needs of industry, labour and daily activity, representing a certain pragmatism that seeks to relate the educational services provided by the universities with the more specific needs of the economy and society, taking advantage of the practical nature of individuals. This structure helped them to solve the problems of business and industry through means such as isomorphism, which legitimizes patronage relationships between students and educational institutions.

According Reading (1996) it is necessary to rearrange educational institutions, as the implementation of a mediated subjectivity makes them lose their essence as producers, protectors and universally agents in forming individuals and corporations on a bureaucratic model, stressing panoptic control.

Given this, there is no doubt that the school, as part of the system, cannot remain unaffected. It is necessary to rework the curriculum by introducing this new virtual content which is supported to complement educational processes, as Perez (1998) has observed:

The role of the school is to help citizens become more educated, responsible and critical, now that knowledge (in this case about the potential and the mechanisms of seduction and awareness of the mass media and new communication technologies) is a necessary condition for the conscious exercise of individual freedom and for the full development of democracy.

Approximations to a mediated subjectivity

Devices that create subjectivity

The transmission of information confronts current training processes with the challenge of building signs and symbols when signals are no longer controlled by the traditional pedagogical devices: the blackboard, the classroom teacher and the body, but by the array of mediating technologies, including screens, smart phones, audio devices and electromagnetic waves. The engagement with elements outside the school, whether hunger, technology, or a combination of both, or other factors, requires that the school no longer look inwards and consider itself in isolation, creating the production of subjectivities by the discipline and control classes, legitimized by means of information and communication technologies.

However, these developments require the creation of a virtual reality, created by the manipulation of electronic, computing and cybernetics as a control mechanism from inside and from outside educational institutions. A mediated figure is not media communication, but a set of technologies, or “action at a distance”, as claimed by Tarde (2004). Old technologies (the mass media) coexist with the new

Implications for the Development of the Individual through Teacher Training in Environments 202

(information) technology. From this point of view, “mediated” does not mean only that it comes from the media, but that it develops through a process of mediation, referred to by Rodriguez (2009), and the trend is for integration into a globalizing world, subject to demands of the state and the market.

Subjectivity is defined as a way of life that is culturally and socially constructed, which is produced by material practices that give life to these modes of life, bring subjectivity producing devices into existence as certain structuring practices that have an impact on a way of living.

One device of control and power that is prominent in educational provision is the media, as well as information and communication technologies, which as Duschatzky (2004) has argued do not exert their power over the subject who was previously assembled, but over the subject that they create. Hence the influence of mass media and ICT in creating subjectivity, based on a constructivist epistemology of language, hegemony of the support-screens, organizing a complex spatio-temporal and perceptual-cognitive condition of life.

Therefore, “The dominant subjectivity is not institutional but mass mediated” (Lewkowicz, 2004). Speaking at a global level, we understand that the rules are not merely normative and knowledge, but arise in subjectivation through the rules of image and opinion, which make if possible to talk of a society of spectacle, as an impersonal education, semiotics domesticated by the reading of images, rather than the reading of letters. We experience the media by means of information and communication technologies, on which our educational system is currently based, especially when higher education is managed by two consortia of communication in our country.

Castells (2006), in The Network Society, aims to cross over this divide between noun and adjective, and suggests that, rather than virtual reality, we should speak of real virtuality. This expression is intended to highlight the contrast between a reality “lived”, not shown, and one that would become the reality of representation itself.

For this, you need to be able to differentiate between what composes and symbolizes the mediated world and that which does not. In a mediated world, what happens at any time and space is lived. In the mediated world experience is not required, and not even presence is necessary. The radio, as media tool, relates what is happening to millions of people, even if they are not paying attention. Television, like radio and film, is recordable and reproduces records in a way that is traditional for the media. Turning to the present situation, digital media attach and place materials and information (virtual platforms) to be studied by a whole population, and students are globalized and depersonalized in the distance education and training processes.

Components of the mediated subjectivity

In this sense, the media world, real virtuality or the show, are names of a compression of space and time (timeless time and the space of flows) in which the subjects and students no longer move. It is almost an inner journey, without movement, to the substance of the representation. Hence we are justified in talking about virtual universities, distance learning classes, executive bachelor degrees, processes and procedures that make it possible to digitize and globalize a commodity exchange of educational services, through remote monitoring (de-

Claudio-Rafael Vasquez-Martinez, Fátima Carrillo, Lya-Adlih Oros-Méndez, Miguel Alvarez, Maria Morfin-Otero 203

territorialization) by governments permitting them an alleged autonomy as institutions of higher education.

It is, therefore, important to summarize the components of subjectivity in relation to media in higher education. Education is confinement, discipline and surveillance, shaping development, controlling societies, shaping, training and information, space, time and body, in the control of societies and mediated subjectivity. This bringing down to earth is intended to demonstrate how social change, the product of globalizing phenomena, among which is the “education crisis” that is currently seeking to trans-nationalize education by means of new social dynamics, technology flows and their subjective effects, makes it possible to answer the question: How should we evaluate the power of higher education in the information age?

Today the demand is not only for education, but for trained personnel, which requires making changes to courses, changes to problems and skills, to talk about the information age, noting that digital technologies effectively play the role of surveillance and panoptic mechanisms, in the control of a company, only cheaper and more remote. New and future professionals are supported in a learning process based on “competence” and “virtual artifacts”, looking not so much at historical development, but at a permanent, global ordering of information and communications that empower the trans-nationalization of higher education, spreading homogenous schemes, which are distorted by a local or national community, to make way for a busy multiculturalism, supported by social relations and subjective media.

Therefore, the technologies can enhance trends, transforming them into something equal to or different from that imagined at the time of its creation, through social use. It is not enough to refer to this use to bypass concerns. The crisis in the concept of training, teaching and learning in modern times is correlated with the emergence of the information technology revolution. In turn, this revolution intensifies the scope of the show, because it leads to the possibility of infinite representation (synthesis of images and sounds, convergence of new and old). And in doing this, the crisis reaffirms the concentration on training.

From this point of view, the information is the name of a process of transformation (of Western societies into capitalism itself). Technologies are both an expression and empowerment, which pivot between the control of societies, general appearance and mediated subjectivities. As noted Berardi (2006), communication technologies have changed the context of human critical thinking in which we find paradigms of modern humanism.

Conclusion

Therefore, one can locate subjectivities in the culture of schools, including through their practices, knowledge and representations, produced and reproduced as part of the everyday life of the institution. Considering that the new subjectivities are based on media in education, following from the modelling of the set of practices, knowledge, and social representations that operate through the mass media and the new (and not so new) communication technologies.

It is increasingly clear need to understand the diversity and plurality as well as singularity in the different areas of endeavour in education, understanding that we

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are sheltered by an information age that connects to a modern higher education system, depending on state requirements and on the market, which responds to globalizing processes based on relations of power and domination, that are hidden behind the legitimating argument that relations within institutions are the result of targeting criteria of efficiency directed to groups in society that want to bring about economic modernization.

So, to fall into subjective practices in education implies practices that are not regulated or controlled, much less certified by internal or external agencies of the school culture. The client-learner does not stop being a figure-medium, individualized and standardized by the technology of the solidarity of mediation.

Previously, educational subjectivities ended with the moulding, the search for knowledge through science, memory and knowledge. Today media subjectivity replaces those traditional elements like the blackboard in a classroom, to inventory information through the image and perception, highlighting the following question: How do we link the established and learned teacher with the student-user who is globally mediated? And, therefore, Who teaches whom?

The proposal emerges in search for a social balance that allows further preservation of the traditional educational scheme, supported by information and communication technologies, which use, not merely for administrative, commercial and transnational purposes, but as a means to allow training to continue, consolidating universal individuals, through scientific knowledge.

References Berardi, F. (2006): Mediamutación. Revista Archipíelago, Núm. 71, 119-130. Castells, M. (2006): La Sociedad Red. Madrid: Editorial Alianza. Duschatzky, S. (2004): Chicos en banda: los caminos de la subjetividad en el declive de las

instituciones. Buenos Aires: Paidos. Lewkowicz, I. (2004): Pensar sin estado. La subjetividad en la era de la fluidez. Buenos

Aires: Paidós. Pérez, P. R. (1998): Nuevas tecnologías y nuevos modelos de enseñanza. Madrid: CCS. Reading, B. (1996): The university in ruins. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Rodríguez, R. (2004): La Educación Superior transnacional en México: El caso Sylvan

Universidad del valle de México. Educação & Sociedade, Campinas, vol. 25, n. 88, 1044-1068. Consultado en: http://www.cedes.unicamp.br (9 de diciembre de 2009)

Tarde, G. (2004): L´opinion et la foule. Paris: Félix Alcan. Corresponding author: Prof. Dr. Claudio-Rafael Vasquez-Martinez University of Guadalajara-UBC Mexico [email protected]



VALENTINA TSYBANEVA

THE LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LANGUAGE TEACHERS IN IN-SERVICE SYSTEM

Introduction

This article focuses on language development of teachers, specifically those whose teaching experience of English in the secondary (state) schools is more than 15 years. As it is stated by P. M. Lightbown and N. Spada, “older learners can attain high, if not “native”, level of proficiency in their second language” (Lightbown & Spada, 1999, p. 67). Surely, language teachers should have the necessary knowledge and skills to guide students towards the goals of learning English in secondary schools. According to the requirements of the language teachers’ qualification, they are supposed to demonstrate a high level of written and oral proficiency in English. Having an excellent command of the target language is one of the most important characteristics of teachers. However, the language teachers clearly understand that “without appropriate practice” their level of English can be hardly close to proficient. Especially, it is so due to the fact that they work in a non-speaking English environment.

Working for the chair of the foreign language and methodology in Volgograd State Academy of Advanced Training and Retraining of Education Workers for about 4 years, I have noticed that, on the one hand, teachers of English have the sense of fear to speak English in front of their colleagues (peers) and unwilling to have any lessons for development of their linguistic competence. On the other hand, they are isolated while back at school and have no time, no possibility to work on it. Despite the increase in number of courses aimed at the professional development of the teachers of English (which is according to the currently highly-discussed law of education in Russian Federation), there is a lack of availability of the ones designed for teachers’ language development. Not only the administration of the state schools feel that their employees will benefit more from the courses which goal is language development, but, as I see it, teachers themselves realise the advantages of such courses.

So, the main idea of this article is to focus on the specially-designed course in In-Service Teacher-Training Academy that helps language teachers to advance their proficiency in English.

Characteristics

The language teachers who are the target students of this course attend the course for the professional development in the Academy. The majority of teachers have a qualification of language teacher and the working experience in teaching language specialized state schools – gymnasiums or lyceums – for more than 15 years. They are representatives of the middle-class, monolingual females who often come from small towns or suburbs with very limited intercultural experiences. The number of male teachers is the lowest. In this group there is the only one out of 25. Many of these teachers are working under stressful conditions, made more dreadful in recent years by constant pressure to raise student scores on annual standardized

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tests – unified state exam (USE). They are non-native English teachers and usually feel unsafe using the language they have to teach.

They attend courses every day during 2 weeks in October and for a week in November and the course was specially designed for this particular group in accord with their needs and expectations. They have 2 lessons focused on language development practically every day within 3 weeks from Monday till Saturday for 60 minutes.

Language Development of Teachers Theory

Some of the principles of adult learning identified by Brundage and MacKeracher are discussed by Nunan in the frames of a learner-centered approach. They are:

• “Adults value their own experience and learn best when they are involved in developing learning objectives for themselves.

• Adults have already developed organised ways of focusing on, taking in and processing information.

• Adults learn best when the content is personally relevant to past experience or present concerns and the learning process is relevant to life experiences.

• Adults learn best when novel information is presented through a variety of sensory modes and experiences, with sufficient repetitions and variations on themes to allow distinctions in patterns to emerge” (adapted from Nunan, 1988, pp. 22-23).

Generally, adult learners are influenced by “past learning experience, present concerns and future prospects” (Nunan, 1988, p. 24). Also, these principles are referred to cognitive style of learning.

Additionally, within the bounds of communicative and competence approaches, language teachers are to have C1 level of the language according to Common European Frame Reference (CEFR). In this case as Richards mentions “a proficiency-oriented language curriculum … is organised around the particular kinds of communicative tasks the learners need to master and the skills and behaviours needed to accomplish them. The goal of a proficiency-based curriculum is … to enable learners to develop the skills needed to use language for specific purposes” (adapted from Nunan, 1988, p. 33).

All mentioned above is particularly relevant to teaching language teachers. The teacher (who works with teachers) should be able to consistently work with language teachers, adapting the lessons according to the participants’ needs. However, it also has implications for syllabus design – the teacher will need to pace the course in accordance with the language development of teachers, so the syllabus will have to be flexible to teachers’ needs.

Implications for Course Design

G. Yule says that for most people, the experience with the second language (L2) is fundamentally different from their first language (L1) experience and it is “hardly conductive to acquisition” (Yule, 2006, p. 163). They usually encounter the L2 during their teenage or adult years, in a few hours each week of school time. The main approaches to the teaching English were the grammar-translation and

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audiolingual ones. The first offered vocabulary lists and sets of grammar rules to define the target language and memorize as much as possible. Obviously, “written language was more emphasized than spoken” (Yule, 1987, p. 165). The main difference of the audiolingual approach was that the emphasis was on the spoken language and practice which involved hours spent in a language laboratory drilling aspects of the language (Stern, 2003). Consequently, background language experience has to be analyzed in order to define the teachers’ learning style.

Despite a great deal of training and teaching experience, “non-native speaker teachers may be viewed as insufficient language teachers because they often lack native speaker’ linguistic competence in the target language and culture” (Shin, 2008). However, from my own professional experience and observation, I agree that non-native speaker teachers possess some crucial “advantages over native speakers including a deeper understanding of learners’ first languages and an ability to explain second language features in ways that students can understand” (ibid). So, it is essential for non-native teachers to constantly strive to reach high levels of written and oral proficiencies in English.

The fact mentioned by S. Wallace should be taking into consideration as teachers may be at “different stages of development or improvement and have different needs and aspirations, of which a common programme of competences might meet only the most basic” (Wallace, 2007, p. 77).

Additionally, teachers of languages need special assistance with the challenging task of developing and administering proficiency tests (for example, USE which their students take while leaving the school) that teachers as well as administration of the educational department can effectively measure students’ progress. It is critical for language teachers to be aware of the USE and have practice of preparation for the exam.

Diagnostic Testing

My experience in working with language teachers for 4 years indicates that the majority of the teachers are eager to check their level of proficiency in English with the help of the test which is similar to the USE (which their students of 9th and 11th forms are to take every year). The diagnosing test consists of reading tasks to read for gist, details and specific information; grammar and vocabulary gap-filling tasks (one of them is word formation) and writing a personal letter and an essay. The main rationale behind the test which covers different teachers’ abilities in aspects and system of English was to see and check their abilities to cope with the test under stressful condition. Most of them do have fear of further discussion of their results with their colleagues. Moreover, in the lessons the teachers participated in speaking activities to prove their level of English as well as the level of their professional development as the topic for discussion connected with the system of education and its problem in Russia.

Needs Analysis

I have analyzed different areas of difficulty in the language. To find out them I organized discussion to see what the teachers themselves underline as the main difficulties for them as the language learners. First, I gave them the questionnaire to


complete and I asked them questions connected with the specific area of the language they wanted to work within the course. Though, some of the difficulties were predictable as they were practically the same as students of the 11th form usually mentioned. Here is the list of difficulties:

1) Vocabulary: many words have different meanings according to the context, idioms, synonyms, etc. Moreover, the most “mysterious” is word formation (it is also tested in the USE is extremely difficult for their students).

2) Fluency: Oral fluency requires many qualities, such as readiness to speak, speech rate, etc, in which non-native English teachers are in a disadvantage. Sometimes they are ashamed to speak English as it takes time to find the right structures at the right time and try not to translate the word from Russian. They want teaching “through dialogue and discussion” (Skinner, 2010, p. 46).

3) Pronunciation: it is marked by a slight Russian accent that can a little interfere with other people’s understanding.

4) Grammar: Unsurprisingly, grammar is the favorite field for these language teachers. They strongly believe that “it is to be more learnable than vocabulary”.

5) Listening and reading: though the teachers have ideas of how to teach perceptive skills, they do have no practice themselves and want to know how to cope with different listening and reading activities under exam condition.

Another important dimension which was obvious after analysis of the teachers’ portfolios, which can also “be used instead of a test to assess how well a learner doing” (Lindsay & Knight, 2006, p. 130), is that the teachers of this group are supposed to be experts. They have highly-developed abilities (which influence their learning style) in the following:

• “a richer and more elaborate knowledge base; • ability to integrate and use different kinds of knowledge; • ability to make reasonable judgments based on background experience; • better understanding and use of language learning strategies; • greater awareness of the learning context” (adapted from Richards & Farrell,

2005, pp. 7-8). However, they have underlined that these specific areas of the language and

professional competences suffered in the teaching practice as they have lack of practice of English at the appropriate level. Gaining this information about the language teachers is of the great use in designing the course to match their learning preferences and expectations.

Results

Diagnostic Testing – teachers’ proficiency in English is high enough. The teachers are very good at receptive skills which are aimed at getting the main idea, however, they might have some problems with getting specific information. They managed to meet the criteria for writing a personal letter, though they had some difficulties with essay, especially they highlighted the lack of knowledge of connectors and conjunctions.

Valentina Tsybaneva 209

Needs Analysis – the teachers were provided with the information of Kolb’s learning styles and work in groups of 3-4 to define their own style. Mostly, they refer to converging or accommodating learning styles. Being non-native English-speaking teachers, they also pointed out the fact that they knew less social language than their students who were growing up using different Internet resources. Since their own schooling took place in Russia, the teachers lack cultural backgrounds to interpret and participate appropriately in the discussion of the socio-cultural information.

Priorities for the course design

• The course should have enough listening and reading material (which has socio-cultural information) and activities for development of these skills and further discussion to raise language teachers’ awareness and supply them with different kinds of interaction in the lesson.

• The course should include some information and activities aimed at linking devices and difficult grammar areas to help teachers with the writing assignments and speaking.

• The course is to have the activities and tasks which can help to cope with USE (course books used in schools do not have enough of them).

References Lightbown, P. M. & Spada, N. (1999): How Language are Learned. Oxford: Oxford

University Press. Lindsay, C. & Knight, P. (2006): Learning and Teaching English. Oxford: Oxford University

Press. Nunan, D. (1988): Lerner-Centred Curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C. & Farrell, T. S. C. (2005): Professional Development of Language Teachers.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Skinner, D. (2010): Effective Teaching and Learning in Practice. London: Bloomsbury

Academic. Shin, S. J. (2008): Preparing non-native English-speaking ESL teachers. Teacher

Development, 12 (1), 57-65. http://nnest.asu.edu/articles/SarahShin.pdf. Accessed January 2014.

Stern, H. H. (1983): Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Wallace, S. (2007): Teaching, Tutoring and Training in the Lifelong Learning Sector. Exeter: Learning Matters.

Yule, G. (2006): The study of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.


Assoc. Prof. Dr. Valentina Tsybaneva Volgograd State Academy of Advanced Training and Retraining of Education Workers Volgograd, Russia [email protected]


TATJANA SIMOVIĆ, VELJKO SIMOVIĆ, LJILJANA MILOVIĆ, BILJANA BALOV

STUDENTS’ AND TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON TEACHING STYLES AND METHODS

Introduction

When imparting knowledge, teachers use several teaching methods and strategies. The selection of methods and the way they are deployed differs from teacher to teacher, causing that each teacher has his or her own teaching style. A teaching style depends on a teacher’s experiences, his or her personality, as well as the students he or she works with (their age, their command of the subject matter, their willingness to participate, etc.). Discussing teaching styles there are three important questions we must ask: What is it? How is it developed? What are good styles and what are bad ones?

In spite of the fact that there exist several definitions of a teaching style, the concept is very often understood as “a set of teaching tactics” (Galton et al, 1980, in [3]) or “the general pattern created by using a particular set of strategies” (Teaching Styles in Physical Education and Mosston's Spectrum, in [3]). To put it simply, a teaching style is a sum of teaching strategies and teaching methods teachers employ in their instruction. It is important to notice the distinction between a teaching style and a teaching method, for a teaching style is something that is specific for a certain individual while a teaching method refers to general principles and management strategies used in a classroom [5]. Thus, even if more teachers use the same set of teaching methods, they employ them in specific ways.

There are many different categorizations of teaching approaches but the most prominent is the one that differentiate between a teacher-centered and the student-centered one [1]. When teachers approach teaching according to the first model, they view students as passive learners whose role is to receive information, the teacher’s role being passing the knowledge onto the students. Teachers who center their teaching to students, view learners as equal partners in the learning process; they coach and facilitate student learning, the students actively construct their knowledge and understanding, and learn through discovery [1]. We, however, believe, that both approaches have their strengths and weaknesses, meaning that a single model of instruction will not be the best for all situations, and often not even a single method is enough for a single class, a teacher must find different ways to transfer the knowledge. He or she needs to combine models and employ different teaching methods, and even improvise in order to maintain an atmosphere of mutual respect and learning in the classroom.

Traditionally, the education of health professionals is directed towards teaching about health only through treatment, care and rehabilitation. The introduction of the concept ‘active client’ brings a new dimension to education of health professionals. The concept of active client includes a holistic perspective to health and treatment, a perspective that takes the influence of people’s lifestyle, work, social and cultural activities and a person’s interaction with various groups into consideration. In order to recognize and respond to these new challenges, innovation in education of health

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professionals is crucial. The education of health professionals is centered on acquiring knowledge and skills in the area, but also to be aware that the needs of healthcare are changing over the years, moving from the need for education about health and prevention to palliative care. It is crucial that health professionals are trained to approach clients so that their capacities are respected and supported. The clients expect the health professionals to be kind, reliable, competent for the tasks they do, honest and caring [2]. This perception points to the necessity of providing integrated health and social protection to the clients, as well as the education of health professionals in various areas: geriatrics, psychology, management, interdisciplinary teamwork.

Aim

The purpose of this study is to assess the efficiency of teaching styles and methods from students’ and teachers’ points of view.

Methods

The design of the study is an analytic cross-sectional study. Different teaching styles and methods were compared through opinions of students and teachers. Two focus groups were conducted: (1) a group of 27 students from the College of Health Studies in Ćuprija and the Faculty of Philology in Belgrade and (2) a group of 18 teaching staff from the same institutions.

Results

The two focus groups (students and teaching staff) discussed two domains of teaching style: teacher-centered (TC) and student-centered (SC), and four sub domains: teaching methods (TM), classroom milieu (CM) (the social environment in the class), use of questions (UQ), and use of assessment (UA). The majority of students (91,1%) prefers SC style, and the third-year students more than first-year students and this difference is, statistically significant (X2=4,62; df=1; p<0,05). The majority of students (89,1% of first-year and 96,4% of third and four-year students) knew the learning outcomes of the study program, although there is no statistically significant difference between students (X2=2,62; df=1; p>0,05). About 58% of the students perceive the risk of TC styles for their way of making conclusions and usefulness for everyday life and future work. About 80% of students estimated that the additional lectures about some fields are needed during the studies in order to be applicable in real life, but only 24% of teaching staff thinks the same, and this difference is statistically significant (X2=17,77; df=1; p<0,01). Approximately 40% of the teaching staff surveyed thinks that they need knowledge about new teaching methods and there is always room for improvement in teaching, but 75% of them do not know how to acquire that knowledge. Findings revealed that there was a significant difference between the group of students and group of teachers in their preferred teaching style. The group of students reported a greater preference for interactive and dynamic learning than the group of teachers.

Tatjana Simović, Veljko Simović, Ljiljana Milović, Biljana Balov 213

Discussion

Teachers develop a certain teaching style through research and experience throughout and though life experiences. Today, when lifelong learning is practiced more and more all over the world teachers get even more opportunity to develop and improve their teaching styles. A good way to do this relates to the pre-service and in-service teacher education. When having the opportunity to spend some time shadowing more experienced teachers (main characteristic of pre-service training) or trying out different (even hypothetical) pedagogical scenarios, teachers get to see first-hand what works well in the classroom and what does not and thus improve their style of teaching accordingly. Furthermore, it is important to mention that the sooner the young teachers start experiencing the atmosphere in the classroom the sooner they get to develop their specific style. Starting young, they also have much more opportunities to experiment with their teaching methods and find what works best for them.

A teaching style cannot be simply evaluated as good or bad, because its appropriateness and quality depends on the learning situation and the learners themselves. Teacher-centered practices refer to beliefs that the teacher holds the subject matter expertise and students are generally passive learners who must be told what to think [1]. Student-centered practices refer to beliefs that students must learn how to construct their own understanding [1]. Today, some teaching methods are used less than before (e.g. standing and lecturing in front of the board and passing information while students write in their notebooks), but that does not necessarily mean that they are inadequate – teaching method should be chosen considering both the subject and the students. Even though there is not a singular style or model that will work in all classrooms with all learners, interviews with students (young adults between ages of 19 and 24, from a variety of faculties) and teaching staff have shown that there are some methods of teaching that are well accepted and preferred by both learners and teachers.

The study revealed that the students preferred ‘interactive learning’, because this method engages students into thinking for themselves and trying to reach a conclusion without the teacher providing them with information from the beginning. This is a method which belongs to the ‘student-centered’ model of teaching. We believe it is appreciated by the students mainly because it deviates from what they were used to in their previous education – mainly teacher-centered learning where a teacher would give information while standing in front of the class and occasionally ask a student to answer a question [4]. Furthermore, the student-centered model provides the teacher with a more relaxed atmosphere to converse with students less formally which in turn enables the students to speak what is on their mind freely and without fear of getting the answer wrong. However, even though the method of interactive learning is the first choice of the students, for the teachers it is not completely unproblematic. The teachers fear that by deploying interactive learning they might lose some students’ attention, especially if the group of students is large. This is the main problem with all of the student-centered interactive models of teaching – it was made for smaller groups. We offer a few ways of addressing this issue. The easiest solution (and probably the best with a large class) would be to divide students into groups and give them separate but related tasks (research, reading, acquiring information related to the topic of the lecture) and organize a

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conversation in which all groups would present what they found and connect their findings to those of other groups. Not only does this demand the student’s participation, but it also encourages them to communicate and coordinate their knowledge with their peers. Another solution to the mentioned problem would be to introduce some strange and unusual behavior. It is surprising how many students had mentioned that they like a certain strangeness about their teachers. Moreover, when asked what best captures their attention, more than half of the interviewees answered that professor’s unexpected activities or behavior does it best for them. Such unusual behavior can best be introduced in ice-breaker exercises in workshop model classes. It does not have to be drastic; it might otherwise redirect students’ attention too much. When students were asked to provide examples from their experience they mentioned the following: teacher sitting on the desk while doing the ice-breaker exercises or coming in the classroom really loud and energetic were both met with the approval of the students.

Of course, not all students prefer the same methods of teaching and respond to them in different ways. Some like a more direct method, some an indirect one while others want something completely different. However, there are some issues regarding the professors’ teaching on which most of the students agree. First, no matter what the subject, all of the students interviewed want to learn something that is applicable in real life, at least through discussion. Second, interviewees said that they preferred to get the examples and to figure out the rule for themselves and not the other way around. Furthermore, demonstration is preferred to just plain lecturing since students tend to like energetic teachers more. Most of all, students like patience and cheerfulness in their teachers and said that it inspires them to learn and be engaged in the class. And if all else fails, remember that good humor can help overcome any obstacle.

There are certain things that interviewees disliked about their teachers’ behavior during class. The foremost of which is teacher’s inability to admit their own mistakes. To err is human, and there is nothing wrong with it. Another thing they disliked was teachers who did not have the patience or the will to include the shy students in the activities. Also, the problem that can sometimes occur, according to the interviewees, is that teachers do not give enough time for the information to sink in before presenting new information to the class. In addition to this, the students mentioned some of the other things that bothered them such as teachers giving them no time to write down what is important; monotonous lectures; reading from PowerPoint slides. They also dislike when teachers are too strict, when they split hairs or are unprofessional. All in all, it is the students’ general opinion that teachers should present themselves as people, to maintain an orderly and relaxed atmosphere and not be too strict.

On the other hand, the teaching staff emphasized that it is a real challenge to teach ‘multitasking generation’. They also point out that not all teachers are willing to accept new ways of teaching and develop a more open teaching style. They believe that new approach requires good preparation and focus. The teachers however find an interactive approach aimed the most suitable for meeting the students’ needs. They believe that a teacher’s feeling that the instruction was well managed and that both students and teachers were satisfied are excellent quality indicators.

Tatjana Simović, Veljko Simović, Ljiljana Milović, Biljana Balov 215

Conclusion

Every teacher develops his or her own teaching style. It is advisable that he or she stays true to it, but simultaneously to further develop and improve it. During pre- and in-service training (future) teachers are given the opportunity to experience the challenges of teaching from the very beginning of their career. Moreover, younger teachers can shadow their more experienced colleagues, and learn all aspects of the job and some tricks of the trade, thus helping to improve their teaching style and in improve the quality of their work. Finally, teachers have to develop their own style by themselves. In the process it is of course useful that (future) teachers have several opportunities to observe their colleagues in the classrooms, and to get well acquainted with their work and challenges. One however must not be afraid to experiment with his or her own ideas to find the best combination. Diversity of methods makes instruction interesting, but a teacher has to remain true to his or her style of teaching.

References 1. Behar-Horenstein, L. S., Mitchell, G. S., Notzer, N., Penfield, R., Eli, I. (2006): Teaching

style beliefs among U.S. and Israeli faculty. Journal of Dental Education, 70 (8), 851-6. 2. Churchill, J. (2011): Supporting the area between formal and informal care improving

employability in social care in the EU. Lisbon. Available at: http://www.cohehre.eu/ files/James_Churchill_Supporting_the_area_between_formal_and_informal.pdf

3. Learning and Teaching Styles. Available at: edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Teaching_style 4. Techniques & Strategies for Teaching and Learning. Available at: http://www.celt.

iastate.edu/teaching/techniques.html 5. The Difference between Teaching Methods. StudyMode.com. Retrieved 12, 2012, from

http://www.studymode.com/essays/The-Difference-Between-Teaching-Methods-1305050.html

Tatjana Simović, Ljiljana Milović, Biljana Balov

College of Health Studies in Ćuprija Serbia

Veljko Simović

Faculty of Philology of University in Belgrade Serbia Corresponding author: Dr. Tatjana Simovic College of Health Studies in Ćuprija Serbia [email protected]


FRANC CANKAR, OLGA DEČMAN DOBRNJIČ, STANKA SETNIKAR CANKAR

SOME INDICATORS WHICH SHOW THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS IN SLOVENIA

Abstract

Slovenia has three private international schools (American, British, and French), as well as the International Department at Danila Kumar public elementary school. In addition to the national elementary school program, the latter school conducts two accredited international programmes, the Primary Years Programme – PYP, and the Middle Years Programme – MYP (one international programme at two levels – IB programme), which are run under the auspices of the International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO), an international non-profit educational organisation. The private international schools offer programmes accredited in their own countries, while the International Department at Danila Kumar Primary School offers an international programme accredited by the global network of IBO schools. This paper draws comparisons in the performance of an international and a Slovenian elementary school, taking as its case-study a school in Slovenia which runs the two programmes side by side. There are statistically significant differences between the two sets of pupils’ views on the quality of lessons, the teaching staff and relations with their peers, with both groups identifying a lack of contact and cooperation with pupils from the other programme. There are also several more noticeable differences in the level of knowledge between the two groups, although these differences could not be established as statistically significant. We examine the international school programme, which was positively assessed by the parents of children attending the programme, in somewhat greater depth. Keywords: Slovenian elementary school, international elementary school, quality of

education, satisfaction with teaching, knowledge

Introduction

Slovenia has three private international schools (American, British, and French), as well as the International Department at Danila Kumar public elementary school. In addition to the national elementary school program, the latter school conducts two accredited international programmes, the Primary Years Programme – PYP, and the Middle Years Programme – MYP (one international programme at two levels – IB programme), which are run under the auspices of the International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO), an international non-profit educational organisation. The private international schools offer programmes accredited in their own countries, while the International Department at Danila Kumar Primary School offers an international programme accredited by the global network of IBO schools. The international programme is designed to encourage pupils to acquire knowledge, and to develop the approaches and skills they need to participate actively and responsibly in a changing and ever more complex world (Hill, 2002; Heckmann, 2008).

Franc Cankar, Olga Dečman Dobrnjič, Stanka Setnikar Cankar 217

The basic characteristics of the IBO are a balanced core curriculum, and proper monitoring and assessment of knowledge, which helps pupils develop (Beane, 1990; IBO, 2006; Hare, 2010):

• an ability to learn how to integrate the knowledge and skills they acquire into real life, and to use that knowledge and those skills;

• responsibility for and a positive attitude towards their own study, with an emphasis on continuing education and development, on learning how to learn, and on using different sources of information and knowledge;

• international and intercultural understanding, joint responsibility, and a sensitivity towards their fellow human beings and the environment;

• an ability to participate actively in local and world affairs. High academic achievements and a good level of knowledge are not the only

important aspects of the programme. The basic objective is for every pupil to develop in accordance with their own abilities and to become a responsible and active citizen. Teaching and all communications take place in the English language, with pupils from years one to eight learning Slovenian as the language of their host environment (Luchtenberg, 2004; Marshman, 2010; Cankar et. al, 2011).

Details of the research

Some studies (Klun et. al, 2013; Fredrickson, 2009) show that positive attitudes, language skills and common interests are the primary factors that encourage cooperation. In the text below we will compare some of the elements of the educational process of IB and Slovenian public elementary schools educational process. We collected the data for the research in the first half of 2011 from both elementary school programmes conducted at Danila Kumar Primary School: the international programme and the Slovenian elementary school programme.

Purpose and objectives of the research The purpose of the research was to become familiar with how the international

programme at Danila Kumar Primary School works, and to compare it with the Slovenian elementary school programme that runs alongside it. The goals of the research were as follows:

• to determine the opinions of pupils in the international programme on their lessons, and to compare them with the opinions of pupils in the Slovenian programme;

• to test the knowledge of pupils in the international programme and compare it with the knowledge of pupils in the Slovenian programme;

• to determine the opinions of parents of pupils in the international programme regarding the way the school programme is carried out.

Research method and description of instruments For the first objective, we sought the opinions of pupils in the international

school programme regarding their lessons, comparing these opinions with those expressed by pupils in the Slovenian elementary school programme. We used a survey method for this first objective. The questionnaire for pupils in the international programme consisted of three groups of questions. The first group related to lessons and teachers, the second to integration within the school and the

Some Indicators which show the Quality of the Schools in Slovenia 218

relationship between the primary school as a whole and the pupils in the international programme, and the third to the relationship between pupils in the international programme and those in the Slovenian programme. The pupils ranged their opinions on five-point scales, from ‘not true at all’ (1) to ‘completely true’ (5). The questionnaire for pupils in the Slovenian programme was similar in content to the questionnaire for the pupils in the international programme.

For the second objective, we tested pupils from both programmes across all three terms. We tested pupils in mathematics and environmental studies in the first term, in mathematics, society and natural sciences in the second term, and in mathematics, social sciences, natural sciences, and technical studies and technology in the third term (TIMSS, 2007; 2011). Pupils from both programmes took a written examination. The tests were in the English language for pupils in the international programme and in the Slovenian language for pupils in the Slovenian programme.

For the third objective, we canvassed the opinions of parents of pupils attending the international programme. The parents’ survey was conducted by staff at the school. The questionnaire was in English and was the same questionnaire used by the international school for self-evaluation purposes. The questionnaire focused on the level of cooperation between the school and parents, the provision of information to parents, and the opinion of parents on the programme and on the way the programme was carried out. The parents ranged their opinions on five-point scales, from ‘disagree strongly’ (1) to ‘agree strongly’ (5).

Description of the sample and the data collection procedure We tested the first objective using the data collected from a sample of 44 pupils

in the international programme (years five to eight) and a sample of 92 pupils in the Slovenian programme. The research covered all pupils in years five to eight in the international programme and one class from each year from years six to nine in the Slovenian programme. Both groups of pupils were surveyed in March 2011 using a printed questionnaire completed during class time. The response rate was very high – over 90%. We also tested a selected group of pupils from both programmes (second objective). We tested pupils from years two, five and eight of the international programme and from years three, six, eight and nine of the Slovenian programme. Between 6 and 13 pupils from the international programme and between 17 and 24 pupils from the Slovenian programme were given a series of individual tests. Although a 100% response rate could not be achieved owing to the absence of a number of pupils, the rate was nevertheless high (over 90%), giving the data a high degree of reliability. The tests were held in May 2011. In order to test the third objective, we surveyed all parents whose children were attending the international programme at the time the data was collected. Forty-nine parents were surveyed; most (58.3%) had one child at the school, 33.3% had two children at the school and 8.3% had three children at the school. Parents were surveyed using a printed questionnaire. They were surveyed in March 2011 during a parents’ meeting. Based on the number of enrolled children, we estimate that the response rate for parents was over 75%.

Data processing procedure The data obtained from the surveys of pupils and parents was processed

statistically. The averages and the associated standard deviations for individual


selected indicators (indicators from the pupils’ questionnaire in which there were statistically significant differences according to programme were selected) and for structured variables (the sum of individual indicators from a specific group of contents) are calculated and presented. In constructing the variables, the indicators were first checked using the Cronbach’s alpha measure of consistency. The results of the pupils’ tests were also statistically processed. The average marks attained in an individual test are calculated and presented, along with the associated standard deviations. The differences between the averages (for the survey responses as well as the test results) for the pupils from the two programmes were verified using an appropriate t-test).

Results

The data obtained in relation to the first objective shows that pupils attending the international programme rated their lessons and teachers considerably higher than was the case with pupils attending the Slovenian programme. We found no statistically significant differences between the pupils from the two programmes in their assessment of the school as a whole, nor in their assessment of the level of contact and cooperation between the pupils within their respective programmes. Pupils from both programmes believed that they had greater contact with peers within their own programme than with pupils from the other programme at the school.

The statistically significant differences between the pupils of the two groups regarding lessons appear chiefly in the assessment given to the help provided to pupils by teachers, cooperation with teachers in various projects, teachers’ friendliness, pupils’ ability to follow lessons without difficulty, whether lessons were interesting, whether teachers made appropriate connections between different subjects in class, and whether pupils were encouraged to solve problems themselves.

Pupils attending the international programme gave a high rating to the question regarding contact and cooperation with other pupils attending the international programme; the same did not apply to cooperation and social contact with those attending the Slovenian programme.

More detailed views and explanations were provided in the contributions of both headteachers at the school. Both were very specific in mentioning the numerous and wide-ranging forms of contact and cooperation between pupils from the two programmes at school, as well as their contact with the narrower and wider local environment. They also gave reasons why closer contact and cooperation between pupils might be hindered:

The obstacles to more thorough cooperation and contact between the pupils in the international programme and the other pupils at the school, as well as pupils from other primary schools, are exactly the same as the obstacles to cooperation between pupils in the national programme and those from other schools. First of all, high-quality lessons have to be provided within the syllabus, and the lack of funds also presents an obstacle. There are also organisational problems caused by the need to obtain the written consent of parents for every activity that is not part of normal classroom lessons. (Headteacher of the school).


I don’t agree that contact and cooperation between the pupils of the two programmes is not good. Statistics don’t always reflect the real situation. These are two organisational units in charge of conducting their own programmes. I believe that cooperation between the two departments is good, as is cooperation with other schools. We also work with schools abroad. The reasons why pupils and parents feel that contact and cooperation are not as good as they could be is that the curriculum in the international department is different and does not permit regular cooperation; the activity days at the international department are linked to that curriculum, so they don’t always coincide with activities taking place in the Slovenian department; pupils attending the international programme do not speak Slovenian and some do not speak very good English; lessons take place across several separate buildings; many pupils from the international department do not live close to the school, so they cannot socialise after school; pupils attending the international programme stay for only a short period of time and so cannot establish deeper ties with other pupils; and many teachers in the Slovenian department do not speak English, which means that they cannot take part in activities. (Head of the international programme).

One can confirm, on the basis of the interview held with the school heads, that the school does organise a fair number of different activities involving pupils from both programmes.

For the second objective, we present a comparison in the levels of knowledge of pupils from the two programmes. The results show that pupils from the international programme attained a higher grade average in mathematics, social studies, and natural sciences in the second term, and in social sciences, and technical studies and technology in the third term. Their Slovenian peers were better in mathematics and environmental studies in the first term, and in mathematics and natural sciences in the third term. Despite the differences in the grades attained in individual subject areas, the differences in the averages are not statistically significant.

For the third objective, we present the views of parents of pupils in the international programme. Parents rated all statements on cooperation between school, parents, pupils and others fairly highly, generally with an average of ‘4’ or above; the averages were also higher than ‘4’ in all structured variables. Parents believe that cooperation and communication with the school is good, and that they are provided with sufficient information; they also gave positive assessments of the programme and of the way the programme was conducted at the school.

Despite the high marks given in their responses, some parents used the open part of the questionnaire to draw attention to some of the expectations that were not being fully met; these were, in part, linked to a perceived lack of contact and cooperation between pupils in the international programme and their ‘closest environment’, i.e. pupils from the Slovenian programme at this and other elementary schools.

Conclusion

The findings show that there are characteristic differences in their views regarding lessons, teachers and cooperation with peers between pupils attending the international school and pupils attending the Slovenian elementary school. The


pupils attending the international programme are satisfied with their lessons, their teachers and the school as a whole. They were, however, fairly critical in their assessment of the level of contact and cooperation with other schools, and even with the pupils attending the Slovenian elementary school programme, socialising with them, in their free time as well, only to a small extent.

One can confirm, on the basis of the interview held with the school heads, that the school does organise a fair number of different activities involving pupils from both programmes. It is clear that certain factors or circumstances have a stronger impact on pupils and are decisive in determining their perception of contact and cooperation with their peers. Although the differences established in the average marks attained in the tests between the pupils from the two programmes are not statistically significant, it is nevertheless possible to establish slightly larger deviations with regard to certain tasks/content areas in all subjects in both programmes.

Parents are also satisfied, giving detailed analyses of certain aspects of life and work at the school in their statements and comments. They also suggest a number of measures to further improve the quality of life and work at the school.

Despite the several limitations imposed by the methodology employed in this research, it is possible to conclude that the international school is successful and, in this respect, substantially comparable with the Slovenian elementary school programme. The results do indicate a number of specific differences; however, these are not of a nature that would enable us to conclude that one programme is more successful than another.

References Beane, J. (1990): A Middle School Curriculum: From Rhetoric to Reality. Westerville:

National Middle School Association. Cankar, F., Deutsch, T., Setnikar-Cankar, S., Barle-Lakota, A. (2011): Povezanost

regionalnega razvoja in učnih dosežkov učencev. Pedagoška obzorja - Didactica Slovenica, 26/3, 115–132.

Fredrickson, B. (2009): Positivity: Groundbreaking research reveals how to embrace the hidden strength of positive emotions, overcome negativity, and thrive. New York: Crown Publishing Group.

Hare, J. (2010): Towards an Understanding of Holistic Education in the Middle Years of Education. Journal of Research in Education, 5, 301–322.

Heckmann, F. (2008): Education and Integration of Migrants. NESSE Analytical Report 1 for EU Commission DG Education and Culture. Bamberg: European forum for migration studies.

Hill, I. (2002): The History of International Education: An International Baccalaureate Perspective. In Hayden, M., Thompson, J., Walker, G. (Eds.) International Education in Practice: Dimensions for National & International Schools. London: Kogan Page, 18–29.

IBO (2006): IB Learner Profile Booklet. Cardiff: International Baccalaureate Organization. Klun, M. & Setnikar-Cankar, S. (2013): Better Regulation and Public Procurement in

Slovenian Municipalities. Transylvanian Review of Administrative Sciences, 38, 96–105. Luchtenberg, S. (2004): Migration, Education and Change. London: Routledge.


Marshman, R. (2010): Concurrency of Learning in the IB Diploma Programme and Middle Years Programme. Cardiff: International Baccalaureate Organization.

TIMSS (2007): Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. Alexandria: National Center for Education Statistics.

TIMSS (2011): Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. Alexandria: National Center for Education Statistics.

Dr. Franc Cankar The National Education Institute of Slovenia [email protected] Dr. Olga Dečman Dobrnjič The National Education Institute of Slovenia [email protected] Dr. Stanka Setnikar Cankar Faculty of Administration University of Ljubljana Slovenia [email protected]





SANDRA SARAÍ DIMAS MÁRQUEZ

CONDICIONES SOCIALES, INSTITUCIONALES Y PERSONALES DEL PROFESOR DE EDUCACIÓN SUPERIOR: UN ESTUDIO EN LA LICENCIATURA EN CIENCIAS DE LA EDUCACIÓN DE LA UAEH EN MÉXICO

Resumen

Hoy en día, la enseñanza en educación superior se ha convertido en un trabajo masificado, en donde existen diferentes tipos de docentes; los que “nacieron” para serlo, los que estudiaron para ello y los que tuvieron que elegir ser docentes porque fue una alternativa para tener un empleo.

El trabajo del profesor requiere conocimientos específicos y habilidades personales que les demandan las instituciones de educación y la misma sociedad, es por ello que en esta investigación se consideran algunas condiciones sociales, personales e institucionales que giran en torno a la labor docente.

Se recolectó información del 81.6% de los profesores de la Licenciatura en Ciencias de la Educación (LCE) a través de un cuestionario mixto que rescata aspectos socioeconómicos, culturales y escolares. Además se obtuvo información a través de entrevistas a los directivos de la licenciatura. El análisis se sustenta en la teoría sociológica de Pierre Bourdieu (2001), quien propone analizar las trayectorias y las posiciones de los agentes en el espacio social, en este caso las trayectorias de los maestros y sus posiciones al interior de la Universidad. Los resultados muestran grandes diferencias en las condiciones, actividades y disposiciones (en términos bourdianos) entre las dos grandes categorías de docentes, los profesores de tiempo completo y los profesores por asignatura.

Introducción

La conformación histórica de los campos profesionales responde a las condiciones y situaciones sociales: económicas, políticas y culturales, ya que las profesiones están ligadas a los procesos de industrialización, a los valores, conocimientos que se generan en un contexto político, económico y cultural específico (Barrón, 1996 en Fernández, et al, 2007).

Derivado de los cambios sociales que se han producido en los últimos 30 años en América Latina, el trabajo docente se ha transformado tanto en su reconocimiento personal y social como en las formas de vida y su posición en la sociedad. Anteriormente, un grado académico garantizaba una posición social casi por encima de la clase media; sin embargo, hoy en día, las condiciones sociales se convierten en un problema social ya que ahora tener un grado académico no garantiza formas de vida estables.

De esta manera, es posible reconocer que la práctica docente no está separada del entrono social, ya que responde a un contexto sociocultural que significa más de la práctica escolar donde convergen trayectorias académicas, laborales; condiciones sociales e institucionales propias del contexto y el ejercicio de la enseñanza.

Condiciones sociales, institucionales y personales del profesor de Educación Superior 224

Marco teórico

De acuerdo con Pierre Bourdieu (2001) y su teoría sociológica, un cuerpo biológico inserto en un espacio y un campo social determinado es un agente con capitales y habitus incorporados en sus prácticas sociales. Es decir, que el agente cuenta con una trayectoria social, con insumos y bienes culturales objetivados, incorporados e institucionalizados, con capitales económicos y sociales, que en conjunto con el sistema de disposiciones (habitus), impactan en las actitudes, las formas de pensar, de sentir y actuar que lo posicionan en un campo del espacio social.

Por ello, la construcción social de la realidad por parte de los agentes se da a partir de sus prácticas sociales, consideradas como modos de existencia en lo social, las cuales se construyen a partir de las trayectorias, los capitales y la posición del agente en un espacio social determinado, incorporando en éstas, por un lado, estructuras sociales externas que tienen que ver con las relaciones objetivas entre posiciones sociales, definidas por principios diferenciadores que el autor denomina capitales (conjuntos de recursos utilizables) ya sea Económico: conjunto de bienes poseídos, ingreso económico; Cultural: títulos y credenciales académicas; Simbólico: honor prestigio, reputación; y Social: red de relaciones sociales; y por el otro, estructuras sociales internas, lo que el autor llama habitus, el cual es el sistema de disposiciones incorporadas a lo largo de su trayectoria, y en donde éstas funcionan como un esquema generador y organizador de las percepciones y apreciaciones de las propias prácticas y de las de los demás.

Método

La presente investigación se enmarca en la tradición crítica, ya que esta perspectiva refiere a un producto del pensamiento y de la representación; caracterizado por el análisis y la reflexión sobre las circunstancias sociales; en donde la posición del investigador es objetiva y subjetiva; es decir, que puede reconocer el saber de los sujetos, pero reconoce también que estos pueden tener una falsa conciencia de la realidad social (Mardones y Ursua, 2005). Asimismo se recupera información cuantitativa y cualitativa que permiten analizar desde una perspectiva holística el fenómeno a investigar.

El objetivo de esta investigación es: analizar el impacto de las condiciones sociales, institucionales y personales del trabajo de los docentes de educación superior.

El supuesto: los diversos tipos de docentes de la LCE son agentes que construyen su trabajo a partir de condiciones objetivas y subjetivas que existen en un espacio social particular.

La población: De acuerdo con Bourdieu (2001, p. 105) “Explicar y predecir el mayor número

posible de diferencias observadas entre los individuos, que permita determinar los principales principios de diferenciación necesarios para explicar o predecir la totalidad de las características observadas en un determinado conjunto de individuos”.

Por ello, la importancia de identificar las dos grandes categorías de docentes: los profesores de tiempo completo (PTC) y los profesores por asignatura (PPA), sin

Sandra Saraí Dimas Márquez 225

embargo, al interior de estos grupos existen subgrupos, los cuales se constituyen con base en su estado de adscripción a la universidad, los beneficios económicos a los que son acreedores, los programas y estímulos, la producción científica y el tipo de relación laboral entre el docente y la institución.

En cuanto a la distribución por sexo, 60% son mujeres y 40% hombres; 35% son solteros y 50% están casados en sus primeras nupcias; el resto se distribuye en concubinato (12.5%) y divorciados (2.5%). En relación con la edad, el 30% tienen entre 25 y 35 años (todos PPA y la mayoría egresados de la Licenciatura en Ciencias de la Educación de la UAEH, el cual resulta un dato interesante); el 20% corresponde a docentes que tienen entre 46 y 50 años, quienes coincidentemente tienen más tiempo trabajando en la universidad (de 6 a 10 años) y más años trabajando en la LCE (de 8 a 10 años).

Recolección de datos: Se diseñó y aplicó un cuestionario mixto que tuvo como finalidad obtener

información relevante acerca de las condiciones personales y sociales que enmarcan al trabajo docente que realiza en la institución, recogiendo información sobre: datos familiares, escolares, laborales, socioeconómicos, consumos culturales, uso del tiempo libre, etc.

También se consideró la opinión de los directivos (jefes de área y coordinadores) a través de una entrevista semi estructurada, cuyo objetivo fue obtener información acerca de las condiciones administrativas y académicas de los docentes de la LCE.

El análisis de la información se realizó a través del software estadístico SPSS para localizar algunos estadísticos descriptivos, en el caso de las entrevistas se utilizó el software Atlas ti.

Resultados

Condiciones personales Son múltiples las condiciones personales que se ubicaron, algunas están

descritas en la población, sin embargo para efectos de este escrito se recuperan solo algunas: la diversidad en los niveles de escolarización de los padres de los docentes, que van desde la no instrucción hasta los estudios de posgrado, no obstante los que destacan son, por un lado, con un 22.5% aquellos padres y madres que culminaron la primaria, y por el otro, con un 18.5% los padres que cuentan con licenciatura; ahora bien, aquellos docentes que en sus familias se dediquen a la docencia, llama la atención que casi la mitad (48%) tienen a un familiar cercano ya sea padre y madre (20%), tíos (12%), hermanos (12%) y primos (4%); esta información invita a revisar a detalle las trayectorias de ambos grupos de docentes para identificar la influencia de diferentes niveles de capital cultural y las diferentes disposiciones incorporadas desde la infancia de los docentes, elementos que influyen en la elección del trabajo docente.

Respecto a la propia escolaridad de los docentes, ésta ocurrió primordialmente en instituciones públicas; el acceso a la educación está definido además de las disposiciones familiares, por los ingresos financieros, en este caso por el capital económico; ahora bien si se compara con la educación que los docentes brindan a sus hijos se identifica una tendencia inversa; ya que los que tienen hijos, poco más de la mitad asisten a instituciones privadas.


Condiciones institucionales Algunos hallazgos muestran que los diferentes tipos de beneficios internos y

externos a la universidad, colocan a los docentes en diferentes espacios y condiciones; para el caso de los primeros, el apoyo y los incentivos económicos son “accesibles para todos”; sin embargo, las condiciones institucionales no permiten que los profesores tengan acceso a ellos, tal es el caso del Estímulo Académico, el cual es un incentivo económico que otorga la universidad a los profesores que cumplen con características como: la producción científica, la asistencia a congresos nacionales e internacionales, los cursos de formación y actualización, el reconocimiento de otras instituciones, ser director de tesis, el número de horas de asesorías y tutorías destinadas a los estudiantes, entre otros. Otra condición interna refiere al número de materias de cada docente, ya que para los PPA el número está relacionado con los ingresos económicos, mientras que para los PTC un mayor número de materias en la licenciatura significa un “castigo” ya que mencionan, que tienen muchas actividades como profesores-investigadores de tiempo completo y ser docente de la LCE implica mucha inversión de tiempo.

Respecto a los beneficios externos, existen aquellos que son económicos y que al mismo tiempo otorgan un “capital simbólico” ya que son reconocimientos a nivel nacional: PROMEP (Programa de Mejoramiento del Profesorado) y el perfil SNI (Sistema Nacional de Investigadores) cabe destacar que estos beneficios van dirigidos únicamente a los PTC y para ser acreedores a ellos es necesario cumplir con ciertos requisitos de producción y difusión del conocimiento; actualización y formación académica, asesoría y dirección de tesis, etc; los cuales, al igual que los beneficios internos, no todos tienen las condiciones para obtenerlos. Es importante destacar que independiente a los beneficios o nombramientos de los docentes, ser un PTC significa ocupar un posición privilegiada en comparación con las condiciones de los PPA.

Por otra parte, las actividades relacionadas con el trabajo docente, tanto de los PTC como de los PPA son: la enseñanza de la asignatura en el horario establecido, participación en actividades extracurriculares, cumplir con los requerimientos administrativos solicitados por la coordinación, entrega de las planeaciones didácticas, calificaciones, asistir y colaborar activamente en las reuniones de academia durante el ciclo escolar (tres al semestre) con la intención de actualizar planes y programas de estudio, producir materiales didácticos, planear y diseñar proyectos, socializar problemas de aprendizaje detectados en los estudiantes y hacer un balance de logros al final de cada semestre para planificar nuevas actividades y proyectos, sin embargo, mencionan que asistir a ellas “implica una pérdida de tiempo”; también deben acreditar cursos en áreas de inglés, metodología de la investigación y el uso de las TIC´s.

Es interesante destacar que, en promedio, el PPA trabaja 25 horas a la semana, con aproximadamente 5 materias, designando de 2 a 4 horas más fuera del aula para los requisitos administrativos, las asesorías y las tutorías a estudiantes, y otras 5 horas más que destinan fuera de la escuela para revisar las tareas, planificar las clases, etc. atienden a un estimado de 150 a 200 estudiantes.

En el caso de los PTC, trabajan 40 horas a la semana, en su mayoría imparten una materia en la LCE, destinan alrededor de 10 horas fuera del salón de clases para realizar planeaciones, asesorías, tutorías y la revisión de tareas; atienden a un


estimado de 60 estudiantes (de la LCE, y de los programas de posgrado: Especialidad, Maestría y Doctorado), el resto del tiempo lo utilizan para los requisitos y funciones administrativas, (según sea el caso) para la investigación, la difusión, el trabajo con grupos colegiados, la asesoría y dirección de tesis, entre otros.

Condiciones sociales La enseñanza en la educación superior se ha convertido en un empleo masivo,

hoy en día la oferta de las instituciones públicas y privadas de este nivel educativo es cada vez mayor, lo que resulta una creciente demanda de docentes.

Para Fanfani (2011), los docentes representan a la “clase social media” ya que en cierta manera ocupan una posición intermedia en la estructura de la sociedad; definidos por una doble negación: no están es las posiciones más desfavorecidas ni en las más privilegiadas; asimismo señala que esta visión tiene un gran arraigo en la propia percepción de los docentes, los cuales en su mayoría, tienden a situarse en esa posición. Lo anterior puede ilustrarse muy bien con la percepción que tienen los docentes de la LCE acerca de la “clase social a la que pertenecen” en relación con sus ingresos económicos, sus consumos, pasatiempos, etc.

Los profesores de la LCE consideran que pertenecen a dos clases: baja media (47.5%) y media alta (40%). Si se analizan sus ingresos económicos, el 35% gana de $ 16,000 a $ 30,000 mensuales, mientras que el 25% dijo que gana entre $ 5,000 – $ 10,000 y el 30% entre $ 11,000 – 15,000 mensuales. En comparación con el ingreso promedio la Secretaria de Trabajo en México, informa que en el primer trimestre de 2013, Educación es el área con la mayor proporción de los profesionales empleados (95 de cada 100), pero es uno de los trabajos en que el ingreso está por debajo de la media de todas las demás profesiones ($ 8,623 por mes). Esta comparación permite ver que en el caso de los maestros de la LCE, sus ingresos han permitido que el 60% cuenten automóvil y casa propia. respecto a sus proyecciones económicas el 62% dice que su situación económica va a mejorar en los próximos cinco años, y que comparando su estado actual a cuando eran niños un 68% afirma que hoy su situación económica es mejor.

En cuanto a las aspiraciones laborales, luego de obtener su licenciatura, un 20% quería dedicarse a la enseñanza, el 17.5% quería trabajar en algo acorde a lo estudiando y un 30% sólo quería obtener un trabajo para “ganar dinero”, el resto se distribuye en seguir estudiando, ser investigador y mejorar las condiciones (del entonces) su trabajo actual; esta información junto con los antecedentes familiares y las formación profesional de los docentes permite identificar las “condiciones de elección respecto a la docencia”: el 47.5% de los docentes estudió en áreas relacionadas con la educación; un 15% Ciencias Sociales (sin considerar Educación); el 12.5% Ciencias de la Salud; 12.5% Ingeniería; 10% de Ciencias Administrativas y un 2.5% Ciencias Biológicas. De acuerdo con la Secretaría de Trabajo en México, las profesiones que tienen mayor relación entre los estudios y la ocupación es el área de la educación (el 90%); y en contraste, más del 50% de los profesionales que estudiaron Economía, Ingeniería y Artes, su trabajo no es acorde a su formación, muchos se emplean como docentes en educación superior (casos identificados con los LCE).


Conclusiones

De acuerdo con Bourdieu, la posición y trayectoria son los elementos que contribuyen a explicar lo que los agentes son y cuáles son sus oportunidades objetivas en relación a las configuraciones subjetivas; por lo tanto, era importante conocer algunos de los atributos de la población estudiada para entender el capital social, simbólico y cultural de los maestros a través de sus trayectorias, condiciones y posiciones.

Es interesante destacar que la trayectoria escolar es un factor determinante en la construcción del agente y su inclusión en el lugar de trabajo. En esta investigación, se detectó un gran número de “relaciones endogámicas” que la universidad mantiene con sus propios egresados en la contratación de ellos. Los maestros de la LCE son maestros en este programa debido a diferentes razones: por elección, como opción de empleo, o por decisión de los directivos.

Fanfani, (2011) señala que el profesional vive de su trabajo, pues se diferencia del amateur o del que hace algo solo por vocación; no obstante el profesional también lo hace porque le gusta, porque de alguna manera lo eligió, pero espera una remuneración, de modo que el trabajo de un profesional es la principal fuente de su subsistencia; la mayoría de los docentes de la LCE se dedican a ser docentes como única actividad remunerada, sin embargo no todos tienen la formación profesional que los “habilite” para impartir clases, por lo que conviene analizar a profundidad los motivos por los que eligieron ser docentes.

Por último, ha de considerarse que los cambios ocurridos en la sociedad y en las condiciones organizacionales del trabajo docente ha puesto en crisis las viejas identidades de esta ocupación; ya que el componente vocacional se redefine en función de las realidades contemporáneas (Tenti, 2010).

Referencias Bourdieu, P. (2001): Poder, derecho y clases sociales. España: Ed. Desclee de Brower. Fernández, J. et. al. (2007): Profesión ocupación y trabajo. México: Ediciones Pomares. Mardones, J. & Ursua, N. (2003): Filosofía de las ciencias humanas y sociales. México: Ed.

Coyoacán. Tenti, E. (2010): El oficio docente. vocación, trabajo y profesión en el siglo XXI. México:

Siglo XXI. Tenti, E. (2011): Los docentes mexicanos. datos e interpretaciones en perspectiva

comparada. México: Siglo XXI. Secretaría del Trabajo y Prevención Social. Portal del empleo. http://www.empleo.gob.mx/

es_mx/empleo/tendencias__de_empleo_de_las_carreras_profesi. Accessed February 2014. Sandra Saraí Dimas Márquez Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo México [email protected]


Part 3 Education Policy, Reforms and School Leadership

GILLIAN L. S. HILTON

ASSURING THE QUALITY OF HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEMS AND ITS LINK TO IMPROVEMENT IN LEARNING CULTURES: THE ROLE OF THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEWER

Abstract

This paper addressed the place of the use of international ‘experts’ in assuring the quality of Education programmes within Higher Education in relation to the globalisation agenda. The experiences of one such ‘expert’ are discussed and recommendations made as to the type of person suited to the role. Some issues relating to Higher Education in the Baltic States of Lithuania and Latvia are addressed, in particular the need for a change in the learning culture from a focus on teaching to one on learning, the need to embrace not resist change and the need to respond quickly to an ever changing education agenda. The paper attempts to address some of the difficulties faced by higher education institutions in the area and also the concerns of the international experts with particular reference to the lack of good data on which to base their conclusions and recommendations. Despite years of membership of the EU change is not occurring as fast as it needs to and this is where the advice of the ‘expert’ can be of use.

Key words: quality assurance, experts, teacher education, change

Introduction

We live in a world which appears to grow smaller as its population increases. We are still in many ways however, politically, culturally, economically, and linguistically far apart. We have though a commonality, as shown by interventions of bodies such as the EU and the UN; we are all striving in our own ways to improve our education systems, as this is seen as the way forward to success and improvement in lifestyles. It is not only education in schools and universities that has been under the spotlight, but also vocational education, as we strive for a better informed work force and lifelong learning, as societies accept that knowledge does not stand still and that learners need to be continually refreshed with new skills, knowledge and ideas. Education for all is the watchword, based on the belief that better education leads to better citizenship, promotes increased understanding and harmony within nations and with other countries. However, in an ever increasing competitive economic situation good education is seen as the way to raise the

Assuring the Quality of Higher Education Systems and Its Link to Improvement in Learning Cultures 230

competitiveness of a nation, its GDP and therefore its living standards. All this however, comes at a price and can result in a loss of precious local knowledge, skills and specialisms and the alienation of older generations who can feel marginalised and looked down upon. Therefore these questions need to be asked; what is the effect of the globalisation of quality assurance in education, how does it manifest itself in the provision of education and what is the role of the international reviewer?

Globalisation and teacher education

Globalisation appears to arise from the move towards a global economy, where nations are affected by decisions taken in other parts of the world e.g. the banking crisis of 2008 which, though originating in the USA resulted in banking collapses in a wide variety of nations with the subsequent loss of employment and regimes of austerity being made essential. Multi-national organisations now appear to hold more power than the governments of individual countries and this, together with the rise of the economies in Asia, which have the advantage of cheap labour and therefore dominate consumer production, presents massive challenges. Globalisation is not a new phenomenon; Bates (2002) tells us that the movement of people, ideas and commodities around the world is part of history, but that the rapidity of the process is what is now of concern. Governments appear to be losing control (Carnoy, 1999). This has been demonstrated by the fight of the UK government in 2013 to extract taxes from large companies based in tax havens such as Luxemburg, whilst earning most of their income elsewhere (Wright, 2013). This has been compounded by other groups which, whilst running highly successful companies declare little in the way of profits in countries where taxes are high, despite their sales constantly rising. As to whether this blurring of cultures and boundaries is a good thing is, as yet uncertain, but the movement appears unstoppable. However, at the same time we have seen a rise in the demands for nationhood and separation of identity from many of the world’s peoples, which appear to be in direct conflict with the world picture. So we see before us a change in production, the control of money and goods, how work is organised, cultures and even nation states. Indeed the only constant is change.

Education in our world is not able to avoid the competitive nature of globalisation. Nation states want to be those whose education is admired and copied and systems of education are now under intense scrutiny and pressure to produce ‘the best’ in terms of global competitiveness. We now have world rankings of universities, national rankings of schools and many measurements of, so called, education success as far as international comparisons are concerned. Agencies such as OECD, United Nations and the World Bank are closely involved with education reports and comparisons of performances. Added to this, for those in the EU, is the European Commission and its constant supply of suggestions and directives for the way forward in the production of better educated workers and citizens. This global interest and competition in education has led rise to the use of cross border evaluations and quality assurance.

This paper discusses the role of quality control or quality assurance (QA) and the part played in Higher Education (HE) by international experts. Controlling the quality of education and comparing standards between countries is now a major aspect of the globalisation of education. PISA, TIMSS, PIRLS etc. are always in the

Gillian L. S. Hilton 231

headlines and governments constantly compare the results of their education systems in relation to those achieved by other nations. Whether these international tests give real insight into the efficacy, or not, of national systems is questionable, but highly popular with government education departments across the world. However, Smithers (2013) suggests that over-reliance on their results should be avoided, as these results are contradictory and as Barker (2013: 12) points out, could lead to ‘teaching to the test’. In addition HE is faced with the challenges of spending cuts, higher student fees and a changing demographic. We need, in many parts of Europe, fewer, but better teachers and in the light of this programmes, departments and even universities face closure. At the 2012 World Innovation Summit for Education in Qatar, Geoff Mulgan chief executive for Science Technology and the Arts, raised the possibility of the need for a turnover of universities, with poorer ones being allowed to fail, so that newer and better ones could emerge (Matthews, 2012). Already national and global university rankings are eagerly contested by some of the leading institutions, whilst others are left to reflect on their poor placing in the lists. However, we have to question as to whether these global league tables are in fact assessing the right areas in their attempt to rank the quality of education provided. Are we looking for and measuring the right things and is everything that we need in an educated person measurable? Are our tests of quality too narrow? This latter is a constant criticism of the PISA tests and has resulted in a move to consider expanding the testing beyond subjects, to include areas such as creativity, the ability to make sound judgements and deal with ambiguity, though some academics think these factors cannot be satisfactorily tested (Stewart, 2013).

In HE and in teacher education in particular, the growing interest of the European Commission has been noted by the countries in the EU and the rise of the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA) has established standards and guidelines for how the QA process is to be carried out. The Bologna agreement also focussed countries on the move towards closer programme and award structures in the education of teachers and the time spent on initial and further degrees. The movement of countries towards this has been erratic to some extent and has in some cases been aided by the use of ‘international experts’ people from a variety of countries with wide experience of teacher education and an understanding that the ability of teachers to be mobile and work across the EU countries demands a similarity of achievement level and some way of comparing training standards. In 2006 Eurydice published a report on Quality assurance in teacher education in Europe which reported on how individual countries were coping with ensuring high quality in their teacher education (Eurydice, 2006). Hazelkorn (2013) points to the international pressures such as ageing societies, the goal of knowledge transfer and the need to provide value for money, as funding decreases, resulting in pressure on HE institutions to provide high quality programmes from less. This drive to raise standards and improve quality seems to be underpinned by the desire of governments to persuade their citizens, angry about rising taxes and governments’ inability to control costs, that value for money is important in the provision of education, particularly where students are paying ever increasing fees (Hilton, 2003). As mentioned above, rankings, national and international, are a strong feature of HE now, but there are alternatives as pointed


out by Hazelkorn (2012), such as the European Qualifications Framework (EQF), launched in 2006 and providing a clear level of qualifications across Europe for HE.

Quality assurance in teacher education

As part of this drive towards improving and equalising quality, national institutions have organised and strived to improve the way in which quality is assessed and assured. This has led, in parts of the EU, to the use of the national and also the international assessor of which the author of this paper is one. The English Quality Assurance Agency (QAA, 2011: 1) defines QA as ‘all about guaranteeing the standards and quality of educational provision’. This definition is for the benefit of students, to show them that qualifications from one university are of the same standard as those achieved at another institution. This is also the intent of the EQF in that students and employers can be assured that qualifications gained across the EU are compatible. This is of particular interest to teachers, as those trained in EU countries have a right to teach across Europe.

The bravery of countries willing to accept the scrutiny of international experts is to be applauded as by no means all EU countries have adopted this approach. In fact Cerych (2002) raises questions about the use of foreign education advisors in countries emerging from communist regimes, advising of the need for good understanding of the country visited and a working use of the language. Hilton (2009: 164) rejects this negative judgement

… it is possible there are some pan-European standards for education that can be applied and that foreign experts, with empathy towards issues of change and development, can provide a more objective viewpoint than insiders.

The language problem however is harder to overcome, as finding foreign experts with a command of eastern European languages, presents considerable difficulties.

Resistance to the quality assurance process in education has, in some areas, been strong. The feelings of English teachers and teacher educators towards Ofsted inspections is well known and Gregory (1991) claimed that a minority of academics strongly resisted the idea that academic work could be subjected to quality control and questioning, as their activities were too broad and complex to define. This idea however was expressed before the advent of the discussion of competences and then standards in teacher education which are now constantly quality assured.

In the experience of the author working with QAA, SKVC and aip (The Lithuanian and Latvian equivalents of QAA) the pitfalls of being an ‘international expert’ are many; these include the widely differing systems, the cultures, the constant changes made by governments and EU directives, the need of all concerned to be self-critical, the need for patience and understanding, language barriers and of course the need to complete the work in far too short a time. However, experience tells and, after working in this area for thirteen years, (ten in the Baltic) and getting to know colleges, universities and people the reviewer begins to know the strengths and weaknesses of a system. One academic, told me after giving feedback ‘you saw everything we hoped to keep hidden’. Therefore for international reviewers to be successful there has to be sympathy and understanding linked to a firmness of intent


and a willingness to give sometimes difficult news to hard working and committed staff. Changing the culture of learning has been the intent of the teams I have led over the years, from one which is teacher dominated, to one where student need drives the programme; a change from an emphasis on teaching to one on learning. All Europe needs good teachers if we are to succeed in the global race for excellence and using techniques rooted in the past is not acceptable. The McKinsey Report (Barber & Mourshed, 2007) on the world’s best performing school systems concluded that it is the quality of the teachers produced in a country that determines the success of its education system; teacher education therefore has to be of the highest quality. There is an accepted link between success in education and economic performance and with concerns in the EU over high unemployment rates and stagnating economies it is understandable that the move towards greater convergence of European education systems is gaining apace, as this is seen as a way of alleviating unemployment and encouraging labour mobility.

Change is ever with us and has to be embraced not resisted, even when on some occasions it is driven by some questionable ideologies which have to be overcome. Fullan (2005) acknowledges that change is difficult and challenging as it often asks us to step into the unknown, where we feel vulnerable and exposed. However, to move forward and improve quality we have to embrace not reject change. It is noticeable to the visiting ‘expert’ where change is accepted or even welcomed and where it is strongly resisted. It has been interesting to observe the difference in approaches by Baltic States and their HEIs to EU directives for areas such as learning outcomes and mentoring of students on placement. To someone who is used to very strict control from government, the somewhat lassie-faire attitude of some academics, and even government officials and some HEIs’ slow response to change agendas, has proved to be a frustrating experience. ‘We haven’t got round to it yet’, ‘the Senate has not discussed it’ are excuses given to this author and her teams for not implementing government and EU directives in place for six years. Maybe the interpretation of democracy has gone a little too far, as has a somewhat easy relationship between HEIs with those, in some countries, who are responsible for quality assurance.

At present one of the largest battles faced by Lithuania and Latvia is the decrease in student numbers and children needing to be taught. This is one area where the external reviewer, with wide experience of similar problems, can be of real help to HEIs and government departments. Burying one’s head in the sand is not acceptable, the problem has to be approached or costs will become unsustainable. Here for the visitor is a real problem, that is, the very poor data provided to us on our visits. In these difficult economic times finances drive all we try to do. Most HEIs are attempting to deliver more with less, so efficiency has to be the bye-word. In order to ascertain the place of a programme in the country’s provision some data sets are essential. Namely staff/student ratios for each programme, income for the programme, numbers of students in each year with yearly drop out and failure rates, employment rates of students in the vocation they trained for and above all national and local needs for that particular specialism. Without this specific data it is impossible to judge if there is an actual need for the programme in the country. For academics anxious to continue in employment there have been disturbing trends, including mass emigration, a drop in the need for


school places and unfortunately far too many unqualified teachers working in schools. All these, with salary cuts and reducing government funding, are threatening the lives of those in HEIs. Of the dedication of staff there is no question, but there are, in comparison to many areas of Europe, some serious concerns. To name the main concerns of reviewers does not negate the care for students and the hard work of staff, but it raises some serious questions.

So what are the problems the ‘experts’ face?

These observations come from a multitude of site visits and discussions with staff, perusal of self-evaluation documents and student work, HEI and agencies’ responses to reports and discussions with agency staff and Ministries over ten years of visits, leading numerous evaluation teams to these countries.

Staff, training students to be teachers, are still too oriented towards theory and not practice. Recent changes have brought degree programmes into line with the Bologna agreement with the three/four year cycle for Bachelor’s programmes and the idea of each year containing school practice. However, this in many cases is not real practice, but the collecting of information or conducting research. In many programmes there needs to be a mental attitude change, with much more emphasis being placed on school practice and those who are responsible for its assessment trained in how to do it. Reviewers see many instances of the letter, but not the spirit of the law being observed, in an attempt to preserve what has been the norm. Assessment in general is too lax and easy, too much, but not of a high enough standard; we need to see some students fail! If we are to produce the best teachers we need the best professors oriented towards school work and who are themselves trained to teach and who have wide experience of school teaching (not at present the case). The ideas of benchmarking for programmes and the use of learning outcomes from the original programme planning through to modules and the assessment of a student, need to be swiftly adopted; directives should not take six years to become practice. Class sizes have to be economic with minimums allowed for a programme to be run. Interviews to select those entering training programmes would be good but, if impossible, something must be put in place to assess suitability for teaching. Students should have at least spent some time in a school before applying for the programmes. The high drop-out rates in year one underline the need for better selection. There is more to being a good teacher than having a large amount of knowledge, or the wish to become one. Mentor training is not standard as ‘experience’ as a teacher is seen as sufficient preparation unless EU money is forthcoming to support mentor training. In reality there is too much reliance on EU funding rather than a do-it-yourself spirit needed to improve things, possibly a throwback to rigid Soviet control.

These points and many others have become constant themes in the general reports I have been writing for ten years. This is not to say that the international experts want everyone to be the same. The Baltic States have a great history of music and craft education for example, areas sadly lost in many EU countries, but the levels of education need to stand up when compared with other countries and also between HEIs internally. There is at present too much variation in standards between HEIs as regards equipment, permanent staff and programmes offered. To some extent this is caused by a lack of government control over HEIs, who seem


able to invent new programmes of similar natures to ones that have been recently closed and the lack of a robust external examiner system common in other countries. Here again the use of national and local data showing the needs for particular teacher specialisms should govern what programmes can be offered and a business case always presented. This is harsh, but in the present economic climate essential. In Latvia for example my team were astonished when one HEI proudly told us that few of their graduates worked in the country but had jobs in Germany, Scandinavia and the USA. Their reasoning was that students paid for their education. However, it seemed that government support for the university itself and its staff was not considered. If I were a local tax payer I would question why a public university was being sustained, by national funds, to provide teachers for other countries.

In all these areas the international expert can help, in working with academics in the HEIs to help them adjust their thinking and practices. For example, giving guidance on how to word Intended Learning Outcomes, as per the Dublin Descriptors. These need clear differentiation between the different year levels and the different qualifications, at Bachelor’s Master’s and Doctorate levels. As many of us have struggled through the same process we understand the pitfalls and difficulties faced and in many cases wish we had received guidance from ‘experts’ before our own attempts to benchmark, or produce intended learning outcomes linked through a programme to its assessment. Of course not all our suggestions are feasible but sensible ones, such as the adoption of national external examiners between HEIs, would aid a rise in quality and assure that at least minimum standards are reached nationally. However, for these kinds of recommendations to be accepted a further hurdle, that is, government determination to improve and assure quality, has to be in place. At present, to some extent, one tends to observe a lack of real determination on the part of these governments to insist on quality raising and a tendency to bow to the pressure of HEIs and their constant cries about poor funding. Better data, fewer programmes, even possibly fewer HEIs, would help to improve quality, but do the nations have the courage to do it? The external expert can advise but cannot ensure implementation, even when Ministers appear to agree with points strongly made.

What are the requirements for an international expert?

Here is a list of some but by no means all qualities needed for the role. Honesty; integrity; ability to withstand pressure; observant; a good listener; able

to note what is not said as well as what is; persistence to pursue a point to obtain clarity; ability to work very quickly for long hours; patience; empathy; be prepared to encourage as well as to blame; be able to explain things well and ensure all understand; be able to demand data which is of an acceptable standard. Above all to be willing to work for very little money for long hours at top speed!

For the team leader one needs control over the panel and an ability to take all opinions into account, to be able to resist pressure from individuals, academies and governments; to dispassionately measure against the set standards keeping an eye on what is acceptable across Europe; to be prepared to be very unpopular if the outcomes are disliked and to be aware of and alert to interference from those who have vested interests; to be ready to face the consequent questioning from the press, the EU or other funders if the results are not what are wanted.


Therefore it is a good and brave enterprise undertaken by the Baltic governments in using foreign experts to help in QA. We know that the Bologna reforms have brought serious challenges to HEIs and the academics who work in them (O’Dowd, 2009). One must not underestimate the problems faced by staff in HEIs who have for decades been dealing with shifting demands and ever changing practices. As Keeling (2006: 214) points out, these reforms have demanded a great deal from academics and ‘often painful restructuring of working practices and in many cases a loss of professional autonomy in both teaching and research’. However, having been subject to this close scrutiny and played a part in international reviews I must agree with Coles (2013: 46) who argues that accountability is

… not a necessary evil but a good thing. We are at our best when we are properly accountable for our actions, when there is proper scrutiny of the things we have done and we bear the consequences.

Coles (2013) points out that the risk in our QA is one of too narrow a focus, so that we begin to consider targets and not aims and outcomes. The more accountability measures there are in place, the more we will be aims driven. It would be good if international bodies, governments and reviewers could keep this closely in mind. All one can ask is that the reviewer is widely experienced and has empathy because we can all learn from the opinions of others.

Conclusion

So are international experts a good idea? The answer has to be yes, as in this increasingly global world we have to see some clear commonalities and a striving towards high quality and how that is assessed. However, to be effective one has to be listened to and it is true to say that the ‘experts’ can become very frustrated if after years of saying the same things the same problems arise year after year. I have been told that not only my teams but others in different subject areas have come to similar conclusions, yet some things have not been changed. To some extent this is of course one of the difficulties of democracy as opposed to autocracy; the fact that successive governments always try to go against what has happened before, plus of course ‘experts' are not always right. The answer lies really with the HEIs and their questionable determination to lead the way to change; are they more intent on keeping the old ‘safe’ Soviet system where no-one retires and no-one questions? Maybe one of the things the ‘experts’ should closely examine is the quality of the leadership of institutions, though that is the role of the institutional reviews which have been happening already. However, at present it is unclear if many HEIs and the programmes within them are as yet ready to be left to internal QA, without the help of those who can delve more deeply into individual programmes. We need to proceed with caution to get things right. To re-iterate as an international ‘expert’ one must not be afraid of being unpopular! However, it is a worthwhile and enjoyable if sometimes frustrating role. The young people in these countries want change; they are bright, hard-working and eager to improve their lives. As a result of their dissatisfaction with the status quo, the countries are losing many of their most promising young people to emigration, to countries where they see more opportunity. One Latvian met in London, told me she had started a programme at a


university in Latvia but gave up in despair as ‘the professors are so out of touch with the modern world’. She has since started a degree course in London is very happy and totally engaged.

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Dr. Gillian L. S. Hilton Middlesex University London United Kingdom [email protected] [email protected]

Part 3: Education Policy, Reforms and School Leadership 239

NICHOLAS SUN-KEUNG PANG & ZOE LAI-MEI LEUNG

PROMOTING QUALITY OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION THROUGH ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING: PREPARING FUTURE GLOBALLY COMPETENT CITIZENS

Abstract

The concept of “Assessment-of-Learning” (AoL) has long been the tradition in most school assessment practices in Hong Kong. In view of the deficiencies in the assessment mechanism, the Education Commission (2000) recommended “Assessment-for-Learning” (AfL) as one of the major areas of action in the current education reform. This paper reports the outcomes of a research study designed to investigate the practice of assessment for learning by Hong Kong teachers. The project was a collaborative one, involving the School Development and Evaluation Team (SDET) of the Chinese University of Hong Kong and teachers from 20 kindergartens. In the project, central seminars, workshops and meetings were provided to the participating schools for the purpose of enhancing teachers’ Assessment for Learning (AfL) competency in their daily teaching. A questionnaire of 60 items was administered twice to teachers from the participating kindergartens at the beginning as well as towards the end of the project in order to assess their uses of the nine AfL strategies, namely, informing teaching objectives, informing success criteria, effective questioning, quality feedback, self-assessment, peer assessment, collecting learning evidence and teacher reflections in their daily teaching. Results indicate that there is a remarkable improvement regarding teachers’ habits in utilizing AfL strategies after the intervention. This research has pioneered a quantitative study of the practice of AfL in kindergartens and has validated an instrument for assessing such a practice. The framework, the instrument, the findings and insights generated from the study may have significant contributions to the improvement of classroom teaching in kindergartens. Keywords: assessment-for-learning, early childhood education, teaching and

learning, Hong Kong

Background

Traditionally, assessment has been used in ranking students’ achievement in learning (Connell et al, 1982, p. 185) and inevitably produces academic winners and losers ever since the children first enter their elementary class. Students, who succeed early, will build on winning streaks to learn more as they grow; whereas, those who fail early, will often fall farther and farther behind (Stggins, 2007, p. 22).

According to Nisbet (1993), assessment has pervasive influence in schooling as it affects on how children learn and how teachers teach. It always impacts on the learning process through the wash back effect (Alderson & Wall, 1997), cramming and rote learning––to the extent that learning for assessment is almost as important as the genuine learning, which these assessments are originally devised to measure (Nisbet, 1993, p. 25).

Promoting Quality of Early Childhood Education through Assessment for Learning 240

Education today has shifted from its “sorter and sifter” role to a gap-bridging role for learning differences found in classrooms. Thus, the purpose of adopting assessments in the curriculum evolutes from verifying learning to supporting learning, that is, Assessment for Learning — assessment which has learning as its object and through which, our students understand where they are and what they can do next in the process of learning (Connell et al., 1982, p. 200). Black and Wiliam (1998a, 1998b) advocated that formative assessments could improve students’ learning substantially through: provision of effective feedback to students; active involvement of students in their own learning; adjustment of teaching after taking account of assessment results; recognition of the profound influence of assessment on students’ motivation

and self-esteem; and the need for students to assess themselves and understand how to improve.

Assessment for Learning

According to Black et. al (2004, p. 10), Assessment for Learning (AfL) “is any assessment serve the purpose of promoting students’ learning” through providing useful information in modifying learning and teaching. In order to promote better learning, schools are encouraged to put more emphasis on AfL as an integral part of the learning, teaching, and assessment cycle. This means that the curriculum is responsible for setting out what students should learn in terms of learning targets or objectives, while the assessment serves as a means to collect evidence of student learning by assessing both the learning products and the learning process. Most importantly, teachers should use the information collected by the assessment practice as the basis for decisions on improving learning and teaching, and informing students about their strengths and weaknesses. Hence, students’ motivation and interest of learning will be reinforced with teachers’ recognition of their achievements and provision of necessary steps for improvement (Curriculum Development Council, 2001; Curriculum Development Institute, 2002). Another important function of AfL is facilitating students’ self-evaluation so that they can become independent learners in the future.

Pang’s AfL-PDICE Model (2008)

Pang (2008) further elaborates the AfL concept and develops the AfL-PDICE model which consists of nine essential AfL strategies, namely, “informing teaching objectives”, “informing success criteria”, “effective questioning”, “quality feedback”, “self-assessment”, “peer assessment”, “observations in class”, “collecting learning evidence” and “teacher reflections” through five different stages.

In the planning stage, teachers need to identify certain learning and teaching objectives before they design their assessment tasks or activities. In designing the tasks, teachers should have a clear picture about the learning objectives of the lessons and set success criteria based on these goals.

During the implementing stage, teachers should share the learning objectives with students so that they can have a clear picture of what they are going to learn at

Nicholas Sun-keung Pang & Zoe Lai-mei Leung 241

the beginning of the lesson. Similarly, teachers should share the success criteria of the assessment tasks with students in order to assist them to understand what they need to achieve and thus facilitating self and peer assessment after the task as well as enhancing their ownership of learning. In order to enhance AfL, teachers are required to use effective questioning techniques such as high-order thinking questions to encourage students to apply, analyze, synthesize or evaluate their knowledge currently learnt. During the learning process, students are asked to reveal their thinking processes and understanding so that teachers can make use of this evidence to inform their teaching and diagnose students’ strengths and weaknesses. Then, with teachers’ quality feedback, students are able to make learning plans for further improvement.

For self and peer assessment, it is based on the belief that encouraging students to self-reflect on their own work can enhance learning. Once students understand how to assess their current knowledge and the gaps in it, they will have a clearer idea of how they can help themselves to improve their learning. Thus, teachers should provide opportunities for their students to reflect on their own work. In addition, encouraging students to comment on their fellow classmates’ work is essential in learning since they can understand both the learning objectives and the task requirement (or assessment criteria) while evaluating others’ work. Moreover, looking at different answers or responses from peers can help students to understand the alternative methods they could have used to the task.

It should be noted that the collecting stage is not necessarily detached from the implementing stage as teachers are often required to collect evidence of students’ learning by assessing both the learning product (i.e., the learning targets and content that students are expected to achieve) and the learning processes (i.e., how they learn) through their observations during lessons, rating students’ worksheets, reviewing students’ self/peer assessment forms and conferencing with students. Finally, in the evaluating stage, teachers can make use of the information collected by the assessment practice to form basis in evaluating how well the learning and teaching is being done and thus informing learning and teaching in their curriculum plan in future (Pang, 2008, pp. 1–2).

In the following section, the initiative of AfL in Hong Kong will be reviewed in more details.

Education reform in Hong Kong

Throughout the past decade, the concept of “Assessment-of-Learning” (AoL) has been adopted in most school assessment practices in Hong Kong (Pang & Leung, 2008); in which summative assessments have been used to confirm what students know, to check whether they have achieved the curriculum outcomes, and to show how they are placed in relation to their peers. However, this traditional rationale of AoL has been challenged vigorously since the expectation for education from society has shifted from ensuring our students to possess basic skills and knowledge to helping them become competent in critical thinking, problem solving, and effective communication for coping with the ever-changing society (Manitoba Education, Citizenship and Youth, 2006, p. 14).

The Education Commission (2000) recommended an education reform in Hong Kong after a comprehensive review of the education system. In view of the


deficiencies in the assessment mechanism, which are featured by the heavy emphasis on the products of learning while failing to reflect students’ “learning to learn” competence in the learning process; the Education Commission (2000) recommended AfL as one of the major areas of action in the current education reform:

As part of the curriculum, the major function of assessment is to help teachers and parents understand the learning progress and needs of their students, as well as their strengths and weaknesses. Teachers could take into account the results of assessment in planning the teaching syllabus, designing teaching methods and giving guidance to individual students to help them learn effectively and exploit their potentiality fully. This will also enable students to have a deeper understanding of themselves. (Education Commission, 2000, p. 46).

In order to promote the AfL culture at the school level, teachers are encouraged to share the learning goals or assessment criteria with students at the beginning of their lessons. This gives the learners a clearer understanding of the standards for which they should aim at, thus enabling them to evaluate their own learning afterwards. With teachers’ effective questioning techniques, quality feedback, and the comments from their fellow classmates as well as self-evaluation; students are able to recognize their strengths and weaknesses so that they will be able to improve their learning accordingly.

Although the rationale of AfL has been spelt out clearly by the Education Bureau since 2000, there is still room for improvement.

Quality Assurance Inspection Annual Reports—Kindergartens and Quality Review Summary Reports (Pre-primary Institutions)

The Quality Assurance Inspection Annual Report—Kindergartens (2004/2005) and (2005/2006) showed that the majority of kindergarten teachers lacked a full understanding of the importance of formative assessments in early childhood development and were weak in utilizing meaningful assessment data for informing learning and teaching (Education Bureau, 2006; Education Bureau, 2007). Similarly, the Quality Review Summary Reports 2010/2011 (pre-primary institutions; by regions) also indicated that: teachers generally failed to utilize the learning evidence or assessment data

collected in lessons for informing learning and teaching; teachers needed to incorporate a wide range of questioning techniques and

methods in the classrooms to tap children’s deeper thinking (Education Bureau, 2011).

Pang and Leung’s (2008) study on AfL strategies used in Hong Kong kindergartens and primary schools

Pang and Leung (2008) investigated teachers’ habit of using AfL skills and techniques in 39 primary school and kindergartens in Hong Kong. During the study, School Development Officers (SDOs) conducted class observations (N=78) and recorded the frequencies of the AfL teaching strategies (i.e., informing teaching


objectives, informing success criteria, effective questioning, quality feedback, self-assessment and peer assessment). With respect to the 78 lessons being observed, the most frequently used AfL teaching strategies was “effective questioning”, whereas “quality feedback” and “peer assessment” were sometimes and occasionally found in the lessons observed respectively. Other AfL teaching strategies, like “informing teaching objectives” and “success criteria” strategies appeared to be rarely used by both the kindergarten and primary school teachers. It is worth noting that no teachers had ever adopted “self-assessment” in the lessons observed.

Pang and Leung’s (2008) findings indicated that the majority of the teachers failed to recognize the importance of informing teaching objectives to students at the early stage of their lessons or they did not have clear teaching targets when planning the lessons beforehand. Many of them did not acknowledge the importance of sharing success criteria before the task(s) so that their students were unable to understand what they were expected to achieve. Moreover, some of them appeared to have little knowledge about peer and self-assessment and their crucial roles in developing students’ learning-to-learn competence.

Aims of study

With the findings of Pang and Leung’s (2008) study on teachers’ habits of utilizing AfL techniques in Hong Kong classrooms in mind, the present research set out to answer the following questions:

1. What are the habits of kindergarten teachers’ AfL strategies in Hong Kong? 2. Are there any differences of kindergarten teachers’ habits in utilizing AfL

strategies after their participation of the one-year EDF project?

Samples

The subjects of the study were all teachers from 20 kindergartens (N=254 in the pre-study, and N=246 in the post-study) participated in a school development project “The Quality Early Childhood Education: The Practice of Assessment for Learning and the Use of Portfolios in Kindergartens” in Hong Kong. This one-year project was sponsored by the Education Development Fund from September 2012 to August 2013, and was organized by the School Development and Evaluation Team (SDET) of The Chinese University of Hong Kong.

The EDF project

The EDF project consisted of the following components which aimed at changing the participating teachers’ assessment practice in the classrooms:

Central seminars Five central seminars were organized to assist all teachers of the project schools

to develop an understanding or knowledge of AfL strategies in the kindergarten classrooms, designing formative assessment, devising appropriate assessment tools and improving the existing student portfolio system in promoting young children’s learning.

School-based support a. Five school-based workshops


The school-based workshops aimed at helping kindergarten teachers to develop AfL competence and making effective and meaningful use of their school-based student portfolio system to inform learning and teaching.

b. Class observation Peer observations and post observation meetings were organized to facilitate the

reflection on AfL strategies and the assessment task(s) used in the lesson observed. Parent seminar As parents play a major part in their child’s development, they were invited to a

seminar to further their understanding the rationale of student portfolio system, particularly their roles in providing supports for enhancing their children’s all rounded development.

Territory-wide sharing session The participating pre-primary educators were invited to share their feelings and

comments about the project (especially the impacts on their existing student portfolio system) with frontline kindergarten teachers in Hong Kong at the end of project.

Data Collection

A 60-item-questionnaire was designed to tap teachers’ practice in using AfL strategies in their daily teaching. The questionnaire was compiled of nine components: “informing teaching objectives”, “informing success criteria”, “effective questioning”, “quality feedback”, “self-assessment”, “peer assessment”, “class observation”, “collecting learning evidence” and “teacher reflection”. A 6-point Likert scale (i.e., “1: never”, whereas “6: always”) was used to tap teachers’ habits of utilizing the above AfL strategies in their lessons. The questionnaire was administered twice in September 2012 (at the early stage of the project) and June 2013 (at the end of the project). In the pre-study, 254 kindergarten teachers responded to the questionnaire while, 246 kindergarten teachers responded to the same questionnaire in the post study.

Findings and discussion

It is interesting to note that for both pre-study and post-study, “class observation”, “effective questioning” and “quality feedback” were found to be the most frequently used AfL strategies in kindergartens. On the other hand, “peer assessment” and “self-assessment” were found to be the second least and the least AfL strategies used in the both studies.

“Questioning” and “feedback” techniques were the most frequently used AfL strategies by the kindergarten teachers, as they are considered to be the essential parts of instruction; therefore, it is not surprising to find that they were heavily used by the teachers in the study. “Observations in class” was one of the most frequently used AfL strategies in the study. It may due to the fact that continuous observations are recommended to be used by kindergarten teachers in collecting young children’s learning evidence or progress (Education Bureau, 2009); thus it is rather legitimate for the pre-primary educators to incorporate this AfL strategy in their daily practice.

“Self-assessment” and “peer assessment” were the least utilized AfL strategies respectively in this study as teachers may assume that the toddlers are unable to


make comments on their own or their classmates’ performance owing to their limited vocabulary. Furthermore, as most teachers have been brought up in the traditional education where self-assessment is almost absent in the classrooms; thus it is rather impossible for them to ask their students to engage in any “self-assessment” classroom activities (Pang & Leung, 2008).

The results also show that kindergarten teachers generally do not have a habit of sharing the teaching objectives or success criteria of the learning tasks with their students at the beginning of the lessons or tasks, thus making peer and self-assessment barely found in the lessons. This finding generally agrees with the literature that many students do not have a clear picture of what they are expected to achieve in each lesson or learning task (Black & Wiliam, 1998b). Another interpretation is that teachers themselves may not have any systematic ideas of lesson planning or overarching learning targets for their students. It seems that teachers do not have sufficient knowledge of AfL and thus failing to recognize the benefit of keeping their students informed about the teaching objectives in facilitating peer and self-assessment. They may also perceive that the young children have problems in comprehending the teaching objectives, and therefore determining not to inform the learning goals with them. It can be partially explained that kindergarten teachers generally have a deep-rooted view that it is unnecessary to inform the youngsters about the learning goals as to keep the lessons more mysterious in order to stimulate curiosity for learning. Some researchers raise the point that teachers normally give little attention in sharing the learning goals of the tasks with children (Dixon & Williams, 2003; Torrance & Pryor, 2001). As Dixon and Williams (2003, p. 106) states:

While most teachers discussed the importance of working with and alongside children; in the majority of cases their discussion did not include reference to sharing learning goals with children.

Most importantly, the present research shows that there is a general gain in all nine AfL strategies between the pre- and post-study indicating the EDF project exerted some kind of positive impacts on the respondents’ daily AfL practice. It can be interpreted that teachers’ awareness and competence of AfL strategies may have been promoted in a certain extent through the central seminars and the whole school workshops in the project. Many writers emphasize that it may take a considerable period of time to get teachers to switch their mindset from AoL to AfL as well as to take initiatives to put theories into practice (Black, 2000; Dixon & Williams, 2003), therefore, it is rather encouraging that teachers in the participating schools have showed somewhat of improvement in practicing AfL strategies in such a short period of time (i.e., one year).

It is worthy to note that there is a significant improvement (p<0.05) in terms of frequencies in incorporating “informing teaching objectives”, “informing success criteria”, “self-assessment” and “peer assessment” teaching strategies in the classrooms after the intervention. It may due to the fact that the kindergarten teachers were advised to “make more explicit what was the purpose of certain activities” (Torrance & Pryor, 2001, p. 622) with their students at the beginning of each learning activities. For promoting peer and self-assessment, teachers were encouraged to demonstrate the task(s) or showing samples of students’ work from


previous years to the toddlers so that they could have a clearer concept on their teachers’ expectations of the activities (i.e. success criteria). Furthermore, as they young children were taught the necessary vocabularies/phrases by the teachers, they were more capable to take part in self- and peer assessment in the classrooms.

Conclusion

The present research explores teachers’ use of AfL teaching strategies in in Hong Kong kindergarten settings. While the study pioneers a rather quantitative study (N>200) in 20 kindergartens, more in-depth, qualitative research are needed to consolidate the findings of this preliminary research.

A major finding of the study is that kindergarten teachers have generally demonstrated a considerable improvement in their AfL competence after the one-year project. We posit that specific components of the project may play a crucial role in promoting these teachers’ assessment practice in the classrooms:

Central seminars The five central seminars appeared to provide the participating school heads and

teachers a solid ground of concepts and theories about AfL in the kindergarten context. The pre-primary educators generally expressed a view that interactions and experience sharing with other participating schools during the central seminars was valuable for self-reflections as well as initiating changes regarding assessment practices in their kindergartens.

School based workshops From the feedback given by the participating teachers, it appeared that the

school based workshops served to provide opportunities for teachers to put the AfL skills and strategies learnt in the central seminars into practice. Additionally, through discussions and reflections based on the existing curriculum planning, teaching/learning process and assessment practice in their classrooms, the participating early childhood educators may have gained insights on how to make substantial improvement in their own school contexts.

Lesson observations and post observation meetings It was the most popular component according the feedback from the participants

of the project. For each post-observation meeting, teachers took turns to exchange their opinions about the strengths and weaknesses of the lesson observed. The most fruitful gist of the meetings was the suggestions made by the participating teachers, school heads and the SDO for improving their AfL teaching strategies and techniques in their daily teaching.

Parent Workshops The parent workshops served to educate parents about their crucial roles in

facilitating their children’s on-going development by making full use of feedback given by their teachers, peers and even the children themselves by means of the school-based student portfolio system.

The EDF project appeared to be an excellent starting point for individual project schools to review their existing assessment practice in order to make appropriate changes according to their own needs and resources. However, in enhancing the development of new assessment practices, it is extremely important for the school management to take corresponding support measures such as revising the crammed timetable so that teachers can have adequate time in practicing the AfL


teaching/learning strategies in their classrooms. Moreover, reducing kindergarten teachers’ workload may be another important issue to be considered (Black, 2000, p. 410). As almost all kindergarten teachers Hong Kong do not possess any free periods in their teaching calendar, therefore it would be feasible for the school heads to reschedule the school time table so that teachers can have more time to collaborate with their fellow teachers to reflect on their own teaching and assessment practice as well as to broaden and deepen their understanding of teaching and learning through peer dialogues in their school.

In sum, the essential role of school management to create more space for teachers is also an influential factor in facilitating pre-primary educators to “keep abreast of new developments, evaluate tried and tested ones and experiment with [their] own initiatives” (Brown, 2004, p. 88). Unless this happens, assessment will always sit outside of learning, and teachers and students will only play a passive role in the teaching/learning process (Dixon & Williams, 2003, p. 108).

References Alderson, J. C. & Wall, D. (1993): Does washback exist? Applied Linguistic, 14(2), 115–129. Black, P. (2000): Research and the development of educational assessment. Oxford Review of

Education, 26(3&4), 407–419. Black, P. & Wiliam, D. (1998a): Assessment and classroom learning. Education: Principles,

Policy and Practice, 5(1), 7–74. Black, P. & Wiliam, D. (1998b): Working inside the black box: assessment for learning in the

classroom. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139–148. Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B. & Wiliam, D. (2004): Inside the black box:

Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 86(1), 8–24. Brown, S. (2004): Assessment for learning. Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, 1,

81–89. Connell, R. W., Ashenden, D. J., Kessler, S. & Dowsett, G. W. (1982): Making the

Difference: Schools, Families and Social Division. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. Curriculum Development Council (2001): Learning to Learn—The Way Forward in

Curriculum. Hong Kong: The Government Printer. Curriculum Development Institute (2002): Basic Education Curriculum Guide—Building on

Strength. Hong Kong: The Government Printer. Dixon, H. & Williams, R. (2003): Teachers’ understanding and use of formative assessment

in literacy learning. New Zealand Annual Review of Education, 12, 95–110. Education Bureau (2006): Quality Assurance Inspection Annual Report—Kindergartens,

Primary, Secondary and Special Schools 2004/2005. Hong Kong: The Government Printer.

Education Bureau (2007): Quality Assurance Inspection Annual Report—Kindergartens 2005/2006. Hong Kong: The Government Printer.

Education Bureau (2009): List of Dos and Don'ts for Kindergartens. Hong Kong: The Government Printer.

Education Commission (2000): Reform Proposal for the Education System in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: The Government Printer.

Manitoba Education, Citizenship and Youth (2006): Rethinking classroom assessment with purpose in mind: Assessment for learning, assessment as learning and assessment of


learning. Western and Northern Canadian protocol for collaboration in education. Canada: Author.

Nisbet, J. (1993): Introduction. OECD—Curriculum Reform: Assessment in Question. Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.

Pang, N. S. K. (2008): QEF Proposal: From Assessment for Learning to Promoting Self-Regulated Learning in Early-Childhood Education (Kindergarten & Lower Primary Levels). Hong Kong: School Development and Evaluation Team, The Chinese University of Hong Kong.

Pang, N. S. K. & Leung, Z. L. M. (2008): The Practice of Assessment for Learning and Metacognitive Teaching in Hong Kong Classrooms (School Education Reform Series, No. 48). Hong Kong: Faculty of Education and Hong Kong Institute of Educational Research, The Chinese University of Hong Kong.

Pang, N. S. K. & Leung, Z. L. M. (2010): The development and reform of educational assessment in Hong Kong. In H. S. Nakamura (Ed.) Education in Asia (pp. 121–137). New York, NY: Nova Science.

Stiggins, R. (2007): Assessment through the student’s eyes. Best of Educational Leadership, 64, 22–26.

Torrance, H. & Pryor, J. (2001): Developing formative assessment in the classroom: Using action research to explore and modify theory. British Education Research Journal, 27(5), 615–631.

Prof. Dr. Nicholas Sun-keung Pang Department of Educational Administration and Policy The Chinese University of Hong Kong [email protected] Dr. Zoe Lai-mei Leung School Development and Evaluation Team Hong Kong Centre for the Development of Educational Leadership The Chinese University of Hong Kong [email protected]




CORENE DE WET

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR AND POPULAR DISCOURSES ON HAZING IN SOUTH AFRICAN SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL HOSTELS

Abstract

Despite hazing being illegal in South African education institutions since December 2002 and post 2002, newspapers and research reveal that it is still practised. It seems as if popular, rather than elitist opinion and debate or research findings perpetuate hazing practices. The aim of this article is to identify popular discourses on hazing in South Africa. This paper draws on the theories of cognitive dissonance and dominance. A content analysis of 26 letters to the editor on a specific hazing incident and its aftermath provides an empirical window into non-elite public debate on the topic. The study highlights the existence of conflicting popular discourses on hazing. These conflicting discourses centre on the individual and the newspaper which exposed the incident; the plight of hazers and their victims; the role of the school in addressing hazing; and hazing per se. It is concluded that hazing practices will continue as long as a non-elitist discourse in favour of hazing exists. Keywords: content analysis, hazing, initiation, non-elitist discourse

Introduction

An investigation by the South African Human Rights Commission (SAHRC, 2001) led to the report: Regulations to Prohibit Initiation Practices in Schools (RSA, 2002) by parliament during December 2002. These regulations stipulate that no principal, educator, or learner may be involved in hazing practices or any other actions resulting in the humiliation, degradation, harassment, assault, violation of the dignity, intimidation or maltreatment of learners. The gazetting of the notice received the support of teachers’ trade unions, educational psychologists and members of the academe (Baloyi, 2002). Yet, post 2002 newspapers and research reveal that hazing is still practised in some South African education institutions.

Studies in the USA, Germany, the Netherlands, France, Greece, Iceland, Canada, India and Belgium found that hazing is a fairly common phenomenon (Allan & Madden, 2008; Huysamer, 2013). Although little research has been done on the topic within the South African context, hazing has occurred in South African schools and school hostels for more than a century (Huysamer, 2013; Huysamer & Lemmer, 2013; Potgieter, 2012). These practices are seldom questioned by the participants, educators and alumni, as the process is generally accepted as part of school ‘tradition’ (Huysamer & Lemmer, 2013). Huysamer and Lemmer (2013) also found that parents tend to reinforce the idea that school-based rituals are acceptable as they recall similar events from their school days, which, in their view, did them no harm. It therefore seems as if popular, rather than elitist opinion and debate or research findings perpetuate hazing practices in South African schools and school hostels.

Letters to the editor and popular discourses on hazing in South African schools and school hostels 250

In my quest to understand the continuation of hazing practices in South African education institutions despite strict regulations barring them, this paper aims to answer the following research question: What are the popular discourses on hazing in South African schools and school hostels? To answer this question I turn to letters to the editor on the topic. Mikhailova (2011, p. 524) calls letters to the editor “unobtrusive measures” providing “an empirical window into non-elitist public debates”. According to Mikhailova (2011), letters have been successfully used for the study of ethnic, racial and social conflicts in various countries. Letters to the editor tend to be sent by people who may have strong feelings or more extreme views about an issue than the average reader (Hull, 2001).

Concept clarification

Allan and Madden (2008, p. 2) define hazing as “any activity accepted from anyone joining a secondary school that humiliates, degrades, abuses or endangers them regardless of their willingness to participant in the activity”. This definition makes mention of two main ideas: Firstly, the implied negative consequences, such as humiliation, degradation, abuse and any forms of endangerment; this includes psychological, physical and sexual consequences. Secondly, the definition refers to the participant participating willingly or unwillingly. The latter is an important part of the definition, as the individual being hazed is always in favour of the ultimate consequence, namely becoming an accepted member of the group, but not necessarily part of the process (Huysamer, 2013). This ambiguity is also acknowledged in the theoretical frameworks underpinning this study.

Theoretical framework

To provide a theoretical framework for the phenomenon of hazing, this paper draws on the theories of cognitive dissonance and dominance. Cognitive dissonance comes about when a person holds two opposing views concurrently. This causes tension within the individual and, as a result, the individual adapts or changes one of his/her views in an attempt to reduce the internal tension caused by the opposing views. When a victim of hazing is for example, forced into a degrading act during hazing, he/she rationalises the experience by convincing him/herself that ‘it was not so bad’, thus reducing the conflicting tension between his/her identity as an intelligent person and his/her participation in a demeaning act. He/she consequently regard the group with which he/she seeks affiliation positively (Cimino, 2011; Huysamer & Lemmer, 2013). In contrast to the cognitive dissonance theory that suggests that hazing promotes group solidarity, is the dominance theory. The idea that hazers are seeking to establish or reaffirm a dominant position with respect to the newcomers, is common (Cimino, 2011). Nuwer’s (2000, p. 20) definition elevates dominance as a characteristic of hazing. According to him, hazing involves “any activity that requires new members to show subservience to old members”.


This study is situated in an interpretivist research paradigm and focuses on individual letter writers, and not an objective understanding of hazing (Henning, Van Rensburg & Smit, 2011).

Corene de Wet 251

In order to convey an extensive picture of readers of newspapers’ views on hazing, news and in-depth opinionated articles, editorials, and letters to the editor related to hazing in South African schools and school hostels were published in South African newspapers since the publication of the regulations prohibiting hazing. This occurred during December 2001 up to 31 December 2012 and I retrieved them from the SAMedia database (http://www.samedia.uovs.ac.za/). On 1 November 2013 full-text keyword searchers (‘hazing’, ‘initiation’, ‘education’ and ‘schools’ were the keywords) yielded 78 items related to hazing within a school and/or school hostel context. Among the 78 items, 27 were letters to the editor. Twenty-six of these letters focus on a specific hazing incident and its aftermath. I therefore decided to limit my data analysis to these 26 letters. All these letters were addressed to the editors of the Star or Saturday Star.

Henning et al.’s (2011) guidelines for qualitative content analysis were used to reduce, condense and group the content of the 26 letters. To enhance the trustworthiness of the study, I described the research process in relative detail and gave rich, thick descriptions to allow transferability (Henning et al., 2011).

The hazing incident and its aftermath

On the night of 2 February 2009, 14 Grade 11 boys were allegedly pulled out of their beds at Druce hostel, at Parktown Boys’ High School, by 12 Grade 12 boys. They were beaten with cricket bats, whips and golf clubs and ordered to rub an embrocation (Deep Heat) on their genitals. These activities were apparently part of the rituals ‘welcoming’ them as senior residents of Druce hostel. After complaints by a Grade 11 boy’s father, the incident was investigated by the head of the school hostel. At a disciplinary hearing all 12 boys admitted guilt. They were sentenced to a number of sanctions, including the removal of privileges, given detentions and maintenance work, together with a final written warning. They were also instructed to undergo counselling. Ms Pene Kimber, the mother of another Grade 11 boy, was not satisfied with the way the school handled the incident. After communicating with the principal in this regard, she transferred her boy to another school. She also laid criminal charges against the Grade 12 boys and three educators. On 2 June 2009 the Grade 12 boys were arrested on the school grounds. They were charged with assault with intent to commit grievous bodily harm. Nearly two years after the charges were first levelled against the boys, the case was struck off the Johannesburg Magistrate’s Court roll. It seems as if the case was struck off the role because it has been postponed 12 times previously and the court could not keep postponing it (Clarke, 2009; Evans, 2009; Serrao, 2009a; Serrao, 2010; Staff Reporter, 2010). Initially, three educators were also due to be arrested, but at the last minute the warrants were not executed (Serrao, 2009b). Kimber not only laid charges against the 12 boys and three educators, but also reported the incident to the Department of Education. She argued that the principal and head of the school hostel did not act in loco parentis. The Department decided not to continue disciplinary hearings against the principal after his retirement. The head of the school hostel was found not guilty of neglecting his duties (Saturday Star, 2010). No evidence could be found on the results of the disciplinary hearing of the third educator.


Findings

A reading of the 26 letters to the editor reveals opposing discourses. In six of the letters the actions and traditions of the school where the hazing occurred are defended, and there is compassion for the hazers (who were arrested and were facing criminal charges at the time the letters were written). These authors condemn Kimber for laying charges against the 12 boys and slam the Star for carrying the story. Most of the letter writers (76.9%) however, have compassion for the mother and hail her and her son as persons who acted bravely. The role of the Star in exposing the events is also commended. In these letters hazing per se, the conduct of the 12 boys and the actions of the school are criticised.

Theme 1: Ms Kimber, the victim’s mother and plaintiff Kimber is a central figure in nearly all the letters to the editor. She is either

hailed as a brave person who stood for what she believes in or shunned as a vengeful person in pursuit of publicity. In a severe attack against Kimber, Murray (2009, p. 20) calls her the Star’s “heroine” and “holier-than-thou”. Stopford (2009, p. 16) is also upfront about her dislike for Kimber: “In my view there is something unsavoury about Kimber’s pursuit of publicity. The problem is Kimber wants to define and dictate the dialogue as if she is the only parent who has the answers.” Stopford (2009, p. 16) ends her letter with the following question: “Where will her vengeful campaign end?” Lopes (2009, p. 20) suggests that Kimber is an unfit mother who is pursuing her personal vendetta at the cost of her son (“Look carefully what you are doing to your own son. …Why and for whom are you doing this?”). Letters at the other end of the continuum applaud Kimber. Three examples will suffice: “Congratulations to Pene Kimber and her brave son for their gritty determination …. Every now and again such people come to the fore and make a difference” (Flint, 2009, p. 20); “Pene Kimber has my unqualified support” (Oliphant, 2009, p. 19) and “Pene Kimber, I salute you for your courage” (Pompa, 2009, p. 19).

Theme 2: The plight of the hazers At the core of the critique against Kimber is her laying criminal charges against

the 12 boys. Several of the letters to the editor consequently attack her, but also appeal to her to withdraw the charges. In these letters the plight of the alleged perpetrators forms an important theme. In a letter addressed to Kimber, Lopes (2009, p. 20) creates compassion for the hazers (“they are minors, children in the eyes of the law. They made a mistake and were disciplined”). Smit (2009, p. 10) also addresses Kimber: “You seem to condone these youngsters receiving criminal records for life. Surely you must realise the impact of such punishment”. He begs her: “Please do not push for criminal records; it is permanent, and anyone sentencing a child for life is suspect”. In response to the letters suggesting that Kimber is destroying the future of the 12 boys, Berman (2009, p. 13) argues that “Pene Kimber is not “destroying their future. They have done a very good job of that themselves by choosing to act like thugs and break the law”. Forbes (2009) and Pompa (2009) support this line of argument. Whilst Prior (2009, p. 18) is in accord with the view of the previous two authors; namely, that the perpetrators should take responsibility for their actions, he partially exonerates the hazers: “I think they are also victims of a system, brainwashed to believe that because it is a tradition, their actions are acceptable and right”. He therefore pleads with her to drop the charges.

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Theme 3: The victims of hazing The notion that hazing is character building and part of growing up is supported

by Smit (2009). He critiques those who speak out against hazing. Whereas Smit (2009) suggests that the anti-hazing lobbyists are spineless, Flint (2009, p. 20) refers to the victim who dared to break the code of silence as a “brave boy”. He condemns victims who refuse to speak up and consequently perpetuate hazing. The theory that hazing generates group solidarity (Cimino, 2011) is supported by Murray (2009, p. 20) who suggests that those who are speaking out against hazing may be banned from the privileges of being an alumnus of a prestigious school. He warns Kimber that her “son will be persona non grata forever” among the alumni of the school.

Theme 4: The role of the school in addressing the hazing incident Regulations to Prohibit Initiation Practices in Schools (RSA, 2002) places the

responsibility on the school governing body (SGB), the school management team and staff to prevent hazing from taking place. The regulation also stipulates that if hazing practices come to light, the SGB has to take action to prevent this from happening again. It is therefore understandable that the letter writers would turn to the conduct of the SGB and the principal and staff in their evaluation of the incident. With the exception of a letter by the principal of Parktown Boys’ High School in which he explained “how we dealt with the alleged initiation abuse” (Clarke, 2009, p. 18) and Stopford (2009), who wrote on behalf of the parent body of the school, all the letters that made reference to the conduct of the principal and his staff condemn the way the incident was handled (Gibson, 2009; Melloy, 2009). The principal is called “wholly unrepentant” (Flint, 2009, p. 20) and “undeserving of the job” (Jackson, 2009, p. 18). Clark’s (2009) and Stopford’s (2009) letters explain in relative detail what the school had done to address the allegations by Kimber. They thus acquit the school of any blame or neglect. The aim of this study is not to identify so-called ‘truths’. I will therefore not juxtapose the opposing explanations of how the school conducted itself.

Theme 5: Hazing per se The letter writers’ views on hazing per se can also be placed at opposite ends of

the scale. On one side there are those who, for example, describe hazing as a practice that uses “public humiliation as a tool of ‘social cohesion’ to enforce conformity” (Forbes, 2009, p. 10) and call it a “medieval practice” which is in contravention to “modern societal norms of civilised behaviour” (Flint, 2009, p. 20). Caenazzo (2009, p. 18) writes about the circle of violence perpetuated by hazing: “the victims are either mentally scarred or decide that to overcome their feelings of inferiority generated by their own torture, wait until it is their turn to inflict similar or worse horrors on their juniors (and later in life on anybody deemed weaker than themselves)”. Caenazzo’s (2009, p. 18) rejection of the notion that hazing is character building, resonates with Prior’s (2009, p. 18) view. Sewlall (2009, p. 19) is of the opinion that hazing does not have a place in a country that has a “humane constitution that places emphasis on the dignity of the individual”. He believes that the underlying motivation for hazing is to smother “individuality” and turn out young men who are unable to think “out of the box of their narrow conformity to some dubious creed or ethics”. The above critique against hazing supports the theory that dominance is a core characteristic of hazing.


On the other end of the scale, we find letter writers who justify hazing for the ‘greater good’; namely, for newcomers to be initiated into the traditions of and welcomed as members of an elitist group. Whereas the anti-hazing writers feed into the dominance theory, proponents of hazing inadvertently confirm the cognitive dissonance theory. Smit (2009, p. 10) attacks those who speak out against hazing: “To the kids attending schools that practise initiation, my advice is to ask your parents to remove you if you do not wish to be included. You have no right to change an institution. If it is such a bad practice then the school will close itself with its own actions”. Several letter writers refer to the school’s proud tradition as justification for the initiation of the Grade 11s. Lopes (2009, p. 20) writes for example: “We need to look carefully at the school’s track record, and at the members of society that it has educated and the role they play in our country”. Murray (2009, p. 20) supports this view and makes reference to the “thousands of old boys … which do this country proud”. Smit (2009, p. 10) refers to “fine schools [that] mould boys into successful young men”. In response to the view that hazing is a prerequisite for ‘moulding’ boys into successful men, Clark (2009, p. 18) writes that at his alma mater the newcomers are “welcomed with a handshake and a friendly greeting” and “we all turned out just fine”.

Theme 6: The role of the media in exposing incidence of hazing The Star was the first newspaper to report on the hazing of the Grade 11 boys.

They were contacted by Kimber. As a leading Gauteng newspaper, it is understandable that the bulk of the news reports and all the letters to the editor were published in this newspaper, and its weekend edition (Saturday Star). A few of the letters to the editor either reproached the Star for reporting on the incident – and thus bringing the school in disrepute – or praising the Star on exposing the incident. Murray (2009, p. 20) criticises the Star for carrying the story: “the Parktown story fits into your framework of a semi-gutter press”. Stopford (2009, p. 16) suggests that it is the Star’s intention, with its bad publicity, to bring the school to its knees. Oliphant (2009, p. 19) does not share the view of the previously quoted authors. According to him “the Star did not fabricate sensation; it merely reflected a sensational event”. Flint (2009, p. 20) hails the Star for “giving prominence to the sordid affair”.

Conclusion

Letters to the editor confirm the existence of conflicting popular discourses on hazing. The supporters of hazing slam those individuals who dare to speak out against it and/or expose it. They are portrayed as vindictive, of questionable character and unfit (as parents). The integrity of newspapers that carried the story is also questioned. Emphasis is, however, placed on the proud tradition of elitist schools and it is suggested that hazing traditions are one of the fundamental reasons why the alumni of these schools are leaders in their respective fields and forever loyal to one another and their alma mater. This discourse feeds into the cognitive dissonance theory: solidarity with the group revokes all humiliation and abuse. Those who cannot handle the hazing, or break the code of silence surrounding this tradition, are thus not worthy to become part of the elitist, dominant group. Those responsible for the hazing, on the other hand, are seen as children upholding a proud

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tradition. Proponents of hazing are therefore opposed to any harsh chastisement that might negatively impact on the prospect of these future leaders.

This study identified a second discourse on hazing. Letter writers who speak out against hazing emphasise the inappropriateness of this practice in modern, democratic societies. Those who break the code of silence are praised as brave individuals who are willing to fight for what is right, instead of succumbing to the pressures of and vilification by the dominant group. A duality is present in the second discourse with regard to the position of the seniors responsible for hazing. Whilst some argue that there should be a zero tolerance, judgemental approach towards them, others support a restorative approach.

Hazing is prevalent in some South African schools and school hostels despite being prohibited since 2002. Clandestine hazing practices will continue under the guise of tradition as long as popular discourse in favour of hazing exists. The uncritical acceptance and defence of dehumanising and illegal practices perpetuate violence and disrespect in a country with claims to have one of the most liberal constitutions in the world.

References Allan, E. & Madden, M. (2008): Hazing in view: College students at risk. Maine: University

of Maine. Baloyi, M. (2002): Pupil initiation rites outlawed. Daily News, 19 December, 1. Berman, S. (2009): School boys acted like thugs and broke law. Star, 12 June, 13. Caenazzo, A. M. P. (2009): Bad traditions have no place in modern world, Star, 19 June, 18. Cimino, A. (2011): The evolution of hazing: motivational mechanisms and the abuse of

newcomers. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 11, 241-267. Clark, R. C. (2009): Initiation outdated, but stop legal bid. Star, 19 June, 18. Clark, T. (2009): How we dealt with alleged initiation abuses. Star, 16 June, 18. Evans, S. (2009): Police arrest Parktown initiation boys. The Times, 3 June, 6. Flint, A. (2009): Well done to Pene Kimber and son. Star, 5 June, 20. Gibson, D. B. (2009): Facts in school debacle don’t add up. Star, 19 June, 18. Henning, E., Van Rensburg, W. & Smit, B. (2011): Finding your way in qualitative research.

Pretoria: Van Schaik. Hull, K. E. (2001): The political limits of the rights frame: the case of same-sex marriage in

Hawaii. Sociological Perspective, 44, 207-232. Huysamer, C. A. (2013): Hazing of Grade 8 boys as part of orientation programmes in South

African monastic secondary schools. Unpublished M.Ed. dissertation, University of South Africa.

Huysamer, C. & Lemmer, E. M. (2013): Hazing in orientation programmes in boys-only secondary schools. South African Journal of Education, 33(3), 1-22. Art. #809. http://www.sajournalofeducation.co.za Accessed on 30 October 2013.

Lopes, M. (2009): They made a mistake and were punished. Star, 5 June, 20. Melloy, M. (2009): Principal to blame for criticism of school. Star, 24 June, 15. Mikhailova, Y. (2011): Electronic media and popular discourse on Russian nationalism.

Nationalities Papers, 39(4), 523-546. Murray, A. (2009): Paper sensationalises story. Star, 5 June, 20.


Nuwer, H. (2000): High school hazing: When rites become wrongs. New York: E. Watts. Oliphant, N. (2009): Readers are defending the indefensible. Star, 11 June, 19. Pompa, P. (2009): Oppression begins with petty acts. Star, 11 June, 19. Potgieter, E. (2012): Ontgroeningsprakryke in sekondêre skole: ’n beleidsondersoek.

Unpublished M.Ed. script, University of the Free State. Prior, M. (2009): Thuggery the equivalent of Kamp Staaldraad. Star, 19 June, 18. RSA (Republic of South Africa) (2002): Regulations to Prohibit Initiation Practices in

Schools. Pretoria: Government Printers. SAHRC (South African Human Rights Commission) (2001): Report into initiation practices

at educational institutions and a preliminary report on cultural initiation. Pretoria: SAHRC.

Saturday Star (2010): Mom to sue over son’s alleged school abuse. 11 September, 8. Serrao, A. (2009a): Initiation arrests ‘have gone too far’. Star, 4 June, 2. Serrao, A. (2009b): Cops arrest Parktown boys. Star, 3 June, 1. Serrao, A. (2010): Initiation saga: family ‘still awaiting justice’. Star, 9 September, 6. Sewlall, H. (2009): Vicious attacks on Kimber disturbing. Star, 11 June, 19. Smit, J. (2009): A criminal record is a life sentence for these boys. Star, 15 June, 10. Staff Reporter (2010): School initiation case struck off the roll. Star, 25 November, 1. Stopford, C. (2009): Parktown parent vengeful in her pursuit of publicity. Saturday Star, 13

June, 16. Prof. Dr. Corene de Wet School of Open Learning University of the Free State Bloemfontein South Africa [email protected]


MICHAEL W. O’SULLIVAN & EWELINA K. NIEMCZYK

MENTORING FOR GLOBAL COMPETENCE: TEACHERS PREPARING THEIR PEERS FOR INTERNATIONAL SERVICE LEARNING

Abstract

This case study examines the understudied phenomenon of teacher mentoring for global competence and brings attention to the relationship between the self- identified secondary school teachers who participate in an international service-learning (ISL) project in Nicaragua and a Non-Government Organization (NGO) which facilitates these short, but intensive, ISL experiences. All of the participating schools are part of a publically-funded Catholic school district in the Canadian province of Ontario. The NGO, Canadian Youth Abroad (CYA), establishes the programmatic framework for the experience as they have staff and local partner agencies in Nicaragua. The teachers who travel with the students are mentored and accompanied on the trip by their more experienced peers – teachers who have prior experience in Nicaragua with the program. The “veteran” teachers have developed the administrative skills associated with organizing such trips and they reserve these duties to themselves. The mentoring process concentrates on imparting to the new teacher-participants the particular values of the program. These values challenge the dominant charitable “help the poor” model of north-south engagement. The teacher-mentors, following the CYA solidarity model, stress the values of reciprocity and solidarity between the Canadian and the Nicaraguan participants.

Introduction

This study reviews an International Service Learning (ISL) programme facilitated by a Canadian Non-Government Organization, Canadian Youth Abroad (henceforth CYA)1. CYA was founded in 1992 by Canadian activists, most of whom were teachers who had been deeply engaged in the movement in solidarity with Nicaragua’s Sandinista Revolution in the 1980s. Following the 1990 electoral defeat of the Sandinistas, these teacher-activists wanted to continue the solidarity work with Nicaragua. Consequently, when an order of Catholic priests decided to sell a house they owned in Managua, Nicaragua’s capital, two of these activists undertook to finance the purchase of the house to provide them with a local base of operations. They decided to establish two core programmes: one provides modest financial and technical support to small projects proposed by Nicaraguan community groups and the other one offers a unique ISL programme. The CYA ISL programme was established to facilitate working visits by Canadian students to learn about Nicaragua, to allow them to explore global north/south relations in general and to encourage them to take action on behalf of social change in Canada and globally. The particular ISL program under review in this study takes the form of collaboration between the CYA and a network of secondary school teachers who work for a publically funded Catholic District School Board (henceforth the DSB).

1 All names, both of persons or organizations, have been changed.

Mentoring for global competence: Teachers preparing their peers for international service learning 258

Teachers and students from the DSB have been involved with the CYA ISL programme since 1994.

CYA has promoted global citizenship education from the time of its founding. UNESCO (2013) defines global citizenship as creating “a sense of belonging to a global community and a common humanity, a feeling of global solidarity, identity and responsibility that generates actions based on and respect [for] universal values”. The two core initiatives – support for small community projects and the ISL programme – are inter-related. The financial contribution made by the visiting ISL participants constitutes an important percentage of the total funding of the projects and the participants engage in physical labour on those projects when they are in the host communities.

Over the years, CYA’s focus has remained largely the same although the organization has distanced itself from partisan support of the now governing Sandinistas. Today, the CYA educational programme stresses the pre 1990 revolutionary history of the Sandinista movement and the contemporary struggle of the Nicaraguan people at the local level to overcome poverty and social marginalization. Importantly, CYA also views Nicaragua as a case study of the difficulties confronting the nations of the global south to achieve sustainable socio-economic development and democracy (interview with CYA co-founder Tony Sorensen).

The trips taken by the DSB participants involve 12 to 14 day teacher-led student visits to Nicaragua. Typically the students are 16 – 17 year-old senior secondary school learners. The two weeks includes travel time, a day or two at the CYA’s Managua educational centre (i.e., the house purchased in 1992) before and after the time spent in the host community, and 6 to 8 days living with a host family and working on a project. Frequently, the groups stay in rural communities. While ISL is an increasingly common practice, the CYA model followed by these particular teachers is, we argue, unique. In the first place, as noted above, CYA arose out of the 1980s Nicaragua solidarity movement and the impact of this history is deeply infused into the organization’s approach to its ISL programme. Despite the central importance of this history to the CYA philosophy, many of the young teachers who now participate in the CYA ISL programme see the revolutionary period as ancient history; furthermore, they do not necessarily come to the programme with a critical perspective on the socio-economic and political issues of importance to CYA. Another unique feature is that the DSB, while it permits the CYA ISL programme to operate in its schools, is not officially involved with the programme. The student-participants receive no course credit and all activities related to the pre-trip departure and post-trip reflections are held after school hours or on weekends outside school property. This is to ensure the independence of the programme from outside influences including from officials of the DSB (interview with Steve O’Connor, the first teacher to lead a student group from the DSB).

Methodology

This qualitative research is based on interviews conducted by the first author in late 2012 with a total of 9 teachers including CYA co-founder Tony Sorensen. Four of the interviewees were male and 5 were female. In this article we also make a reference to an interview conducted several years before within the context of a

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previous research project (O’Sullivan & Smaller, 2013) with Steve O’Connor a solidarity activist and teacher at the same DSB. At that time O’Connor provided important background information on the history of the programme in this particular DSB where he served as the founding mentor and, for 20 years, until his recent retirement, was an active participant. This purposeful sampling aligns with our intention to gain detailed insights from the specific group to understand the central phenomenon under study (Creswell, 2011). In addition, the first author has personally observed the engagement of CYA staff in Canada and during multiple field trips to Nicaragua. Descriptions of these interactions are based on these interviews and field observations.

All of the schools in which the teachers were interviewed were in close proximity to each other; several other participating schools were overlooked because of distance and time constraints. The teachers were chosen based on the fact that they had made multiple trips, not because of their particular perspective on the programme or the number of years they had been teaching. Consequently the group represented both those younger teachers relatively new to the programme and others with considerable experience leading student groups to Nicaragua.

The interviews, which ranged from 45 minutes to well over an hour, were audio-taped and then transcribed. Each interview consisted of 13 questions which formed the basis of a wider-ranging conversation. The questions ranged from inquiring about their history with the programme and their motivation for participating in it, to their ideas on what the community and the students get out of the programme to the mentoring process that they experienced and, in many cases, directed. For the purpose of this paper we report responses pertaining to the actual mentoring practice.

Mentoring for Global Competence

The CYA model of ISL has two unique characteristics. It is explicitly based on a solidarity and not a charity model and, since none of the teachers who lead the student groups come to the experience with formal training in global education or in ISL, the new teacher-participants are mentored prior to, during, and after the trip to Nicaragua by their more experienced peers. Although the literature demonstrates the value of mentoring and the importance of mentors this mentoring is invariably associated with veteran teachers assisting new teachers in the first years of their professional lives (Gilles, Wilson & Elias, 2010). The literature has little to say about mentoring for global competence (Carano, 2013). This mentoring is designed to expose the new teacher-participants to the values and the critical perspective that underlies the CYA solidarity-based philosophy of ISL programming. The model presumes that the participating teachers practice, or are open to learning about, transformative pedagogies as found in the work of Paulo Freire (1970). This is understood to include teaching their students how to look at the world from a social justice perspective and encouraging them to think about how they might engage in activities that have social change as their objective. This model stresses the importance of establishing reciprocal relations between the visiting teachers and students and the host community that receives them. Establishing such reciprocity is far from simple proposition and requires the teachers and students to internalize the value that they are not going to the community to “help” their hosts. Rather, they are


seeking to learn about the lived reality of their Nicaraguan host families and to learn about the history and culture of their county. In addition, the teachers and the CYA hope that the students will also learn about the inequity of north/south relations as they collaborate with community members on a project chosen by the community and funded, at least partially, by the visiting students.

CYA recognizes that Freirian transformations in teacher practice will not happen overnight or even after a single trip (if at all). The success of the mentoring programme depends largely on the mentoring skills of the veteran participants and in the openness of the new teacher-participants to adopt the solidarity model upon which the programme is based. The mentoring teachers who are charged with imparting both the critical values and the organizational skills that are required of teacher-participants are not left entirely to their own devises as they prepare their colleagues for involvement in the programme. The Canadian-based CYA staff and volunteers are available to assist the mentors and support the student groups prior to their departure and to help with the all-important process of debriefing upon their return. Furthermore, the Nicaragua-based staff of CYA provide workshops to all of the participants, teachers and students alike, upon their arrival in Managua and again after they return from their placement in a host community. The CYA staff-led presentations reinforce the programme`s pedagogical orientation, seek to explain the inadequacies of the charitable model of northern engagement with southern partners and stresses the centrality of reciprocity and solidarity to the programme. It is this process of instilling these values into the programme through the mentoring programme and the involvement of the CYA staff in Canada and, above all, in Nicaragua, that we refer to as mentoring for global competence.

The Fundamental Pedagogical Basis of the Programme: Challenging the Charitable Instinct

The literature is replete with references to scholars and practitioners who are uncomfortable with ISL practices that reinforce dominant charitable notions of helping the poor (Crabtree, 2008; Dear, 2012; King, 2013). The CYA leadership fully recognizes that the distinction between solidarity and charity doesnot come easily for all of the teacher or student participants. The schools from which these participants are drawn are, after all, Catholic schools and charity is a central tenet of their faith. Asking Catholic teachers to challenge their peers with respect to problematizing charity is asking them to undertake an enormous task. Nonetheless, it is important to understand that many of the participating teachers come from the Catholic social justice tradition that arose in the post Vatican era. The CYA programme reflects their critical understanding of the social role of the church and resonates with their peers and their students even as it challenges the more conservative Catholic discourse around charity. The experience in Nicaragua serves to reinforce this critical stance. The very fact that a number of the teachers involved with the programme over the years are school chaplains or are teachers of religion underscores their level of comfort with the essential message contained in the CYA programme.

Consequently, the mentoring model, for the most part, achieves the CYA mandate to offer an ISL programme that challenges dominant modes of thinking about north/south relations. The mentoring teachers, even the younger ones, do, as a


group, constitute a reservoir of historical memory and critical understanding. Sarah, for example, who with her colleague Ian, leads the Nicaragua trips at their school, stresses the importance of making this distinction and the importance of teaching the students the value of solidarity. Sarah is a young teacher with an excellent sense of the CYA vision. She summarizes the distinction nicely. For her, charity involves going into a community to “save” the people from the conditions of poverty and marginalization in which they find themselves or to “change things according to what we think [they] should be”. The idea of solidarity, in contrast, she says, “is going in [to the community] with a sense of respect for what the people of Nicaragua have already been through, and supporting them side by side in continuing that struggle for independence, autonomy, and access to the good things in life” (interview with Sarah). Charity, CYA argues, deepens the structural dependency and reinforces the notion of northern superiority and the sense that the south can only solve its problems with the help of the north and of northerners (Crabtree, 2008; Gutentag, 2009; Gough, 2012; King, 2013). Solidarity, in contrast, assumes mutual respect and equality, the sense that all of us are in this together, and the understanding that both of the parties engaged in the ISL project have much to learn from each other. In some cases these benefits are tangible, such as the completed project, and in other cases the benefits are intangible and take the form of mutual learning and critical awareness.

Teacher-to-Teacher Mentoring

The first characteristic of this mentoring process is that new teacher-participants are eased into the experience and do not find themselves taking on major tasks for which they have not been prepared. With the exception of having supervisory responsibilities while actually in Nicaragua, the new teacher-participants are treated very much like the students on the trip. The lead teacher handles the complex details of dealing with the school board’s procedures that regulate taking students overseas, deals with parents, heads up the fundraising activities and, in consultation with CYA staff and volunteers, organizes the curricular component of the programme. As they gain experience, teachers who participate in subsequent trips take on more responsibility in collaboration with the lead teacher, although some, in fact, had full responsibility for leading a group thrust upon them rather quickly. Stan, a teacher from CYA co-founder Tony Sorensen’s school accompanied Steve O`Connor on the first DSB trip. Stan led his own group the following year and Paula, who accompanied Stan, was transferred to a new school after only her second trip with Stan. She quickly went to work to establish the programme in her new school which led her, over many years, to mentor numerous teacher participants herself.

Paula commented on how Steve played the role of mentor to Stan who, in turn, mentored her and another teacher, James. She described the mentoring process as follows:

We were all new but what [Stan] did that first year is he went with [Steve’s school] so that he could kind of shadow them for that year which was fabulous so that when we then went through it the next year ourselves, we had a guideline to help us. [Steve’s school] became our role model and we followed that and then we added our own things to it (Interview with Paula).


Ian was one of the many teachers mentored by Paula over the years. Like Paula, he was mentored at one school, participated in that school`s trips and then was transferred to a new school that did not have a Nicaragua programme. That provided him with the opportunity, like so many others, to establish a programme at his new school. He described the mentoring process that he experienced under Paula’s guidance as follows:

The first year I was predominantly a teacher supervisor. I went to all the [weekly] meetings that we ran through the entire year [which form] part of the solidarity model ... My responsibility was just to be there in attendance, to watch the students, make sure that they're following the guidelines that we developed, and [do] whatever else that was asked of me, but it wasn't much (interview with Ian).

It is noteworthy that Ian specifically mentions the weekly pre-departure meetings focused on the solidarity model. He is now a keen supporter of that model and ensures that its values are infused into the experiences that he provides the students who he accompanies to Nicaragua.

Paula saw how serious Ian was during the actual trip to Nicaragua thus she asked him to become more deeply involved and “she started showing me things behind the scenes” by which he means “dealing with the board’s travel policy, [working with] parents, and taking a much more active role in the organizational details of the trip”. Ian noted that Paula did not ask him to become more deeply involved until he had completed the full cycle as a teacher-participant. He surmised that she was evaluating his seriousness and giving him the opportunity to make a decision about his continued involvement based on having observed the entire process (interview with Ian). Such high quality mentoring has ensured that while not all teachers have participated in multiple trips – the time and energy demands are significant – a core group in 8 schools do repeat and provide mentoring to those colleagues who choose to participate.

Concluding Thoughts

This is a case of an understudied phenomenon of teacher mentoring for global competence. We illustrate a successful partnership between secondary school teachers from one DSB who participate in an ISL project in Nicaragua and the NGO, CYA which established the project and facilitates these ISL experiences. We argue that the CYA model followed by the participants of this project is unique. Firstly, it introduces the participants, teachers and students, to inequalities that exist between the global north and south. CYA views Nicaragua as a case study of the difficulties confronting the nations of the global south to achieve sustainable socio-economic development and democracy. Secondly, the programmatic framework is explicitly based on a solidarity and not charity model. Given that the participating teachers and students come from Catholic schools where charity is a deeply engrained principle of their faith we are convinced for the reasons cited above related to the influence of progressive versions of Catholic social doctrine on the participants that overall this apparent contradiction does not compromise the integrity of the CYA programme.


Two critical elements seem to contribute to the success of the now 20 year old ISL programme in the DSB. First is the quality of the partnerships that CYA has with Nicaraguan organizations both at the national and the local level. These partnerships ensure that the experience provided to the students is grounded in the host community and that all necessary measures have been taken to ensure that the visits by the young Canadians are welcomed by the community and that the experience is safe and educative. Second, the mentoring process has been perfected over the years with the more experienced teachers having developed the ability to pass on the values and the skills associated with the programme. Furthermore, the mentors can count on CYA to support in terms of the mentoring process and the preparation of the students prior to, during, and following the trip. The new teacher-participants are eased into the experience and gradually introduced to various tasks. The effectiveness of this mentoring model is evident in the fact that, over time, a number of the less experienced teachers who were mentored have established programmes at their new schools and led their own groups to Nicaragua. We are convinced that the high level of participation at this DSB is largely explained by the simple fact that these two elements are well established and the opportunity to participate is readily available and attractive to teachers who might otherwise never consider such an option.

This case study of an ISL programme that is characterized by peer mentoring and a collaboration between the teachers and an NGO demonstrates the potential of the model. As we seek ways of enhancing teacher global competence and providing opportunities for meaningful and respectful ISL experiences, further study of this, and other, collaborative models would be helpful in the promotion and the expansion of the transformative educational experience represented by the CYA ISL programme.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Dr. Geraldine Balzar of the University of Saskatchewan (Canada) who participated in the conceptualization of this paper and gave us very helpful assistance in its early stages.

References Carano, K. T. (2013): Global educators’ personal attribution of a global perspective. Journal

of international social studies, 3(1), 4–18. Creswell, J. W. (2011): Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating

quantitative and qualitative research. 4th Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/ Prentice Hall.

Dear, S. (2012): Exploring reciprocity in international service learning programs. Unpublished MA thesis, Brock University.

Gilles, C., Wilson, J. & Elias, M. (2010): Sustaining teachers’ growth and renewal through action research, induction programs, and collaboration. Teacher Education Quarterly, 37(1), 91–108.

Gough, R. (2013): Perspective transformation amongst student interns in an East African international service-learning program: A case study. Unpublished MEd thesis, Western University.


Guttentag, D. A. (2009): The possible negative impacts of volunteer tourism. International Journal of Tourism Research, (11), 537–551.

King, I. (2013): What we are about to do is highly problematic: The unpaved road from service trips to educational delegations. In K. Borland & A. E. Adams (Eds.) International volunteer tourism: Critical reflections on good works in Central America (pp. 81–92). New York: Palgrave MacMillan.

O'Sullivan, M. & Smaller, H. (2013): Challenging Problematic Dichotomies: Bridging the Gap Between Critical Pedagogy and Liberal Academic Approaches to Global Education. Canadian and International Education, 42(1), Article 4.

UNESCO (2013): Teachers for 21st century global citizenship. Education sector. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/resources/online-materials/single-view/news/teachers_for_21st_century_global_citizenship/#.Uu5WZ8uA2M8 Accessed February 2014.

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Michael O’Sullivan Brock University Canada [email protected] Dr. Ewelina Niemczyk Brock University Canada [email protected]


LAURA J. DULL

HISTORICAL THINKING IN DIFFICULT TIMES

Abstract

Efforts to privatize education, eliminate teachers’ unions, reduce spending on public education, and quantify student performance have demoralized teachers in the USA, and educators struggle to keep up with the many changes while still effectively teaching and caring for their students. Within these reforms, however, there is support for history education that prepares students to be globally competent citizens. This paper describes an innovative collaboration among teachers and historians and how it led to historical thinking promoted by common core and edTPA policies. In particular, the most marginalized students made powerful connections with the material, illustrating that education for social justice is still possible in these difficult times.

Introduction

Within a demoralizing climate of attacks on teachers and their unions, calls for privatization of education, increased standardized testing, and rising inequality in the U.S., many teachers still strive to help their students to think critically about the world around them. In this paper, I describe a project that brought the cutting-edge arguments of contemporary world historians into classrooms. Our work demonstrated that all youth, even those in lower tracked classes and the poorest schools, are capable of, and eager to, engage in historical thinking about complex questions and debates in history. In other words, despite the numerous pressures outside the schoolhouse, we found ways to teach history in ways that promote social justice and critical thinking about the world around us. In fact, I will argue that some of recent reforms can be used to justify this kind of teaching.

Context: Recent Directions in American Educational Policy-Making

Teacher education professors and prospective teachers in the US are trying to understand, and resist, numerous policies that many believe are deeply troubling and harmful to young people. First, starting with the federal law known as No Child Left Behind of 2001, and continuing with Race to the Top (2009) in the Obama era, there is a drive to quantify and measure the learning and work of students and their teachers. To obtain federal education assistance and win education grants, states have been forced to implement numerous new high stakes tests for students, particularly in literacy and math. Due to such pressures, many primary schools have reduced time spent on subjects such as social studies, physical education, and the arts.

In addition, there is a move to link teacher performance, and therefore whether or not teachers retain their jobs, to how well or poorly their students do on tests. Such “value-added” measures have been shown to be deeply flawed, since students’ socioeconomic backgrounds are the largest determinants of performance. Despite this, these performance measures have been imposed on teachers in about 30 states, where teachers now “teach to tests” in fear of losing their jobs (Strauss, 2012).

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Imagination, play, and creativity—and a generation of young people—are the losers in this game.

Attacks on teachers and their unions, fuelled in part by misuse of international data such as the PISA tests, have been used to “sell” these troubling reforms to the public. Are these attacks warranted? Is our education so bad? While there are clearly problems in American K-12 education, teachers face tremendous odds in educating youth. For example, racial and socioeconomic segregation is increasing, not decreasing. In a 2013 UNICEF Report, the US was ranked 34th out of 35 developed countries in its levels of child poverty (Fisher, 2013). Recovery from the recent economic crisis has been slow, and income inequality has increased so much that even millionaires have asked Congress to raise their taxes (Eichler, 2011).

Common Core and edTPA: Toward Reasoned Thought?

Attacking teachers, instead of the deeper socioeconomic reasons for poor learning results, will not solve our educational problems. But there is huge money to be made in education and for-profit charter schools, online learning centers, and textbook and curriculum companies like Pearson want to get their hands on that money. By attacking teachers and unions, they prepare the ground for introducing their often untested and poorly implemented ideas into schools.

Among the reforms promoted by state governors is the idea of a “common core”, a set of standards that all states would adopt and use in their schools. Another reform affecting education faculty and teacher candidates is the edTPA, educational teacher performance assessment, developed by professors at Stanford University as a measure of how novice teachers are performing. Two states, New York and Washington, now require passing this test as part of the certification process. Since these initiatives have been linked to new tests and curricula, often created and sold by for-profit corporations, educators and others are justifiably skeptical of these policies. Yet, within these reforms there is support for the kind of teaching I have been advocating as a pedagogical methods professor. Specifically, their emphasis on developing historical thinking skills and building and supporting arguments using evidence align with my efforts to train teachers to teach history as an argument about the past.

Many social studies and history educators argue that covering a broad range of content through dry lectures is not only dull but antidemocratic. Such learning fails to prepare students to be active citizens who can understand past and present issues, weigh the validity of arguments for and against changes, and advocate for policies to improve our lives. To promote active citizenship, social studies students should be asked to “do” history: ask questions about the past, gather and evaluate evidence to answer the questions, and create their own historical narratives or arguments about the past. Through this process, students become critical readers who are attentive to the biases of texts’ authors, their historical contexts, why the author might have viewed events in certain ways, and to whom they were directing their ideas (Epstein, 2012; Lesh, 2011; VanSledright, 2010).

Educators interested in this form of history pedagogy can find support for their efforts in both common core and edTPA. For example, one common core literacy standard for 9-10th grade calls on students to be able to “assess the extent to which the reasoning and evidence in a text support an author’s claim” (Common Core,

Laura J. Dull 267

2012). Another standard states that 11th and 12th students should be able to “integrate information from diverse sources, both primary and secondary, into a coherent understanding of an idea or event, noting discrepancies among sources”. The edTPA asks teachers to plan units that help students “build and support an argument” about history or social studies topics. In short, there is a strong emphasis on students being able to critically evaluate texts, compare and contrast sources, and develop arguments supported by evidence.

I have been frustrated by the resistance of some teachers to adopting this kind of teaching. So, while there are many reasons to be concerned about current reforms and how they are being enacted, common core and edTPA can be viewed as supportive of some of the very ideas some educational progressives have been advocating (see for example, Baker, 2014). Below, I will describe a project involving students, teachers, and historians that led to the kind of innovative teaching and learning implied in the ideas promoted by these reforms.

Dialogues among Historians, Teachers, and Students

In the past few years, I have been part of a team of teacher education faculty, historians, and teachers that worked together to create innovative lessons based in cutting edge arguments about recent global history. We started with the notion that young people can and should learn how historians develop arguments about the past and youth should be invited to join these debates about what has happened and why. To begin the “dialogue” with teachers and students, we interviewed historians of global history. They discussed common misconceptions about their regions of specialty, described key historical claims they had made in their research, and suggested texts and materials that would help middle and high school students learn more about the history they discussed (Turk, Dull, Cohen & Stoll, 2014). Next, education faculty members and teachers used these interviews to build world history units for their students.

We worked with a diverse group of teachers teaching in a wide range of schools, from wealthy public and private schools to very low-performing public schools. Each teacher made modifications to fit their particular settings, but remained committed to using student-centered methods, asking the same questions, and achieving the same learning goals. While students in all schools displayed deep thinking, we found that the students who are often viewed as the most difficult to reach (lower-tracked, poor, special education) raised particularly provocative questions about injustice and inequality.

The results of our project showed that all students, not just the most privileged or advanced, were capable of the analysis and historical thinking emphasized by the common core and edTPA. Our efforts to help young people interpret historians’ arguments was therefore not only worthwhile, but reflected our profound commitment to social justice: all youth, given the right materials and support, are capable of higher-order thinking and analysis.

Young People Learn Historical Arguments

In an urban classroom of immigrant, poor and working class students, lessons about the Soviet Union and why it “lost” the Cold War led to questions about social

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class in America today, and how students’ own humble kitchens revealed cracks in the American dream. This unit was based on historian Stephen Kotkin’s argument that, contrary to common perception in the US, the Soviet Union did not “lose” the Cold War due to military inferiority. In fact, Kotkin says, the USSR competed with the US as relative equals in the military sphere. Where they fell short of capitalism, however, was in the battle for “stuff”. Russians wanted designer jeans, perfumes, and other consumer goods widely available to Westerners.

To introduce the sixth grade students to Kotkin’s argument, the teachers focused on the differences between American and Soviet kitchens. In contrasting glossy images of ‘modern’ American kitchens with plainer Soviet kitchens, students could see how Soviet communism failed to provide a variety of appealing products for consumers. But students also criticized the inequality and harmful effects of competition that arise in capitalist society, noting that their family’s kitchens looked more like those from Soviet times. In these discussions, the sixth graders built on Kotkin’s argument to dig more deeply into the ongoing human problem of inequality and try to understand their position on the margins of a wealthy society.

Another unit on the Cold War, this time focused on Latin America, was taught in a school in one of the poorest neighborhoods in New York City. The teacher asked students to “penetrate the surface of the [US] government’s own explanations of its actions” (Loewen, 1995, p. 220) by re-writing a newsreel account of Vice President Nixon’s visit to Caracas, Venezuela in 1958 (Universal International News). This activity was inspired by a US government document provided by historians Greg Grandin and Alejandro Velasco. Nixon, who went to Venezuela as part of a tour of Latin America, was greeted by protestors who threw stones at his motorcade. While the newsreel declared the attack as a “communist-sparked onslaught” and blamed the “savagery of the mob” for a broken car window, the recently declassified government memo from 1958 noted that, although the crowd was “presumably” led by communists, there was actually “little evidence to support that belief” and it was “obvious” that there were more non-communists than communists among the demonstrators.

With careful instruction in how to recognize the arguments and perspectives of the newsreel and other sources from that time, students re-wrote the newsreel’s narrative so as to provide a more accurate version of the events. Their versions were a strong contrast to the highly anti-communist tone of the original audio recording that accompanied the newsreel images. In short, with the guidance of their teacher, students learned to question, and create more valid alternatives to, the government’s explanations of its actions. Our experience illustrated that even struggling students could learn to read texts as historians do, that is, to account for the historical context in which they were written, the perspective and position of the authors or creators, and the arguments being made.

History Education in Difficult Times

While I will continue, with my colleagues, to protest unfair attacks on educators and untested, damaging policies pushed by policymakers and corporate profiteers, I must also be practical as a teacher educator and try to find opportunities within the new strictures. One way is to take action such as that which impelled us to work with teachers to create rich units grounded in cutting-edge historical debates.

Laura J. Dull 269

Another way is to acknowledge that some of the new standards have some merit, and to use them to underpin and support stronger history education. The students who learned about the Soviet Union and Latin America during the Cold War engaged in thinking supported by common core and edTPA. They discussed and evaluated the complex arguments of historians, weighed competing evidence about events and ideas, and made arguments about the past based in evidence. Such activities teach them how to be globally competent citizens who develop a healthy skepticism about the claims of leaders and others in positions of authority.

References Baker, A. (2014): Common Core curriculum now has critics on the Left. New York Times,

Feb. 16. Retrieved 3/1/2014 from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/17/nyregion/new-york-early-champion-of-common-core-standards-joins-critics.html?action=click&content Collection=Opinion&module=MostEmailed&version=Full&region=Marginalia&src=me&pgtype=article&_r=0

Common Core State Standards Initiative (2012): Retrieved 2/27/2014 from http://www. corestandards.org/

Eichler, A. (2011): Most millionaires want higher taxes for millionaires: Survey. Huffington Post, Oct. 27. Retrieved 2/28/2014 from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/10/27/ millionaire-tax-warren-buffett_n_1035763.html

Epstein, T. (2012): Preparing history teachers to teach historical thinking. Perspectives on History, May.

Fisher, M. (2013): How 35 countries compare on world poverty (US is ranked 34). Washington Post, April 15. Retrieved 3/1/2014 from: http://www.washingtonpost.com/ blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/04/15/map-how-35-countries-compare-on-child-poverty-the-u-s-is-ranked-34th/

Lesh, B. A. (2011): Why won’t you just tell us the answer? Teaching historical thinking in grades 7-12. Portland: Stenhouse Publishers.

Loewen, J. (1995): Lies my teacher told me. New York: Touchstone Press. Strauss, V. (2012): The fundamental flaws of “value-added” teacher evaluation. Washington

Post, Dec. 23. Retrieved 3/2/2014 from: http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/wp/2012/12/23/the-fundamental-flaws-of-value-added-teacher-evaluation/

Turk, D., Dull, L. J., Cohen, R. & Stoll, M. (2014): Teaching recent global history: Dialogues among historians, social studies teachers, and students. New York, NY: Routledge.

Universal International News (1958): Nixon ordeal: Venezuela mob and hero’s welcome home. U.S. A. [Newsreel]. Retrieved 2/1/2014 from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= nvigX1doz2U.

VanSledright, B. (2010): The challenge of rethinking history education: On practices, theories, and policy. New York, NY: Routledge.

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Laura J. Dull State University of New York at New Paltz USA [email protected]


GRACIELA AMIRA MEDÉCIGO SHEJ

PUBLIC POLICIES ON MIGRANT MATTERS: A BALANCE IN MÉXICO

Abstract

This paper presents the way in which the subject of the under aged migrants in Mexico has been made part of the public agenda. This can be noted in three broad types of actions undertaken by the Mexican government since the 80s decade in the past century. In the first place, the legislative actions that were undertaken for this migrant population. Secondly, the assistance programmes are described that have been introduced to benefit them and finally the education policy directed to the migrant farm labourers is explained. There is disarticulation between the public policy of the State and the needs arising from poverty in migrant workers' families. The first disarticulation is found in social policy. According to government discourse, to combat extreme poverty and develop the capacities of individuals, it is suggested that families themselves can generate income to overcome their poverty, but the state takes a welfare approach because it provides resources to poor people, but without a background track to combat poverty. Another disarticulation is between the government's intention to accommodate migrants and bureaucratic obstacles that hinder the resources when they arrive.

Introduction

In Mexico child labour is not allowed. Both the Constitution and the Federal Labor Law clearly prohibit the employment of children under fourteen. However, in several states of Mexico every day these laws are violated, hundreds of children work and thereby limit their education.

The school-age child labour and early entry to farming is the main obstacle for children to having the time to go to school, study and do homework. The participation of children in agriculture originates in these children accompanying their families when they migrate to work in other states; internal migrants seeking temporary employment because their home states have no job opportunities.

Internal migration in Mexico is a complex phenomenon that involves related cultural, economic, political, business and social aspects, hence attention is required to the effects of different educational policies and academic institutions and also the dialogue between participants, consultations and institutional coordination. This article shows that we have a weak law because Mexico has failed to build and operate efficiently and legitimately. The legislation goes one way and is opposite to social reality. This in Mexico is endemic; the law is then not enforced.

The child labour problem was stated for the first time as a public policy question when repercussions from the industrial revolution were starting to be perceived. Many of the measures undertaken by the first wave of industrialized countries have turned into standard elements of the set of universally recognized interventions: public surveys such as interviews with children and their families; legislation about the age minimum; inspections of the workplace and schooling establishments, and measures to give education to children that work. Through these measures the subject of infancy started to be part of the public agenda.

Graciela Amira Medécigo Shej 271

To approach public policy in Mexico, with regard to farm laborers, we have to identify what is the agenda on public policies? When we talk about agenda we refer to the priorities that, in this case in the infancy matter, a government must address at the federal, state or municipal levels. In other words, when we speak about a policy agenda we fundamentally understand the aspects to which a government will give special attention and will dedicate a good part of its efforts. As Ozlak and O’Donnell (1976: 21) state: “A state policy is that of taking a position that tries - or more precisely says it will try - any form of resolution to the question”.

According to these authors “a question” is an issue, need or demand socially problematized, in a sense that certain groups, organizations or individuals strategically situated believe they can and should do “something” and are in condition to promote their incorporation to the agenda of the problems socially in existence (Ozlak and O’Donnell, 1976: 18).

The conforming phase of an agenda is a complex process in which a set of actors intervene thus interacting circumstantially around the problematization of an issue regarding it as a meritorious issue (CAM, 2000). The incorporation of the issues into the agenda then presents itself, as a process of concurrence between multiple actors with different priorities, visions, interests and preferences that interact amongst themselves, generating consensus. Also conflicts arise that polarize the formulation of a public problem that ends in governmental deliberation as to whether or not to place it, as an issue on its agenda; but this decision also depends on the efficacy that the social pressure acquires to persuade the government to incorporate it. From this perspective we see the importance that the government's priorities are established, not only from the vision of the public officers, but from those affected by these policies. Those who act in the society in the quest for solutions to the problems that affect this population, may only idealize without knowing the specific needs of those who require policies.

Since the end of the twentieth century, Mexico has had to adapt its local and federal legislation to those established in the Children's Rights Convention (CRC) according to which the member governments of the United Nations must procure that all minors have the same opportunities to study and get the information and orientation that is useful, regarding their educational and professional possibilities in their society. In addition, regular attendance should be supported to find that over time there is a smaller number of children without education in the country. The girls and boys (employment term that President Fox used in his term) must go to school, instead of going to work in the streets, factories, shopping centers, golf courses or markets.

According to the Children's Rights Convention (CRC) education should fully develop the capabilities and skills of all children, inviting them to live freely and in a fraternal manner. Education should serve to develop their skills and physical and mental abilities to the fullest. For human rights, freedom and dignity of others can respect and know their culture, language and country.

Education in Mexico is a state policy and a fundamental means to acquire, transmit and promote the culture, it is also an ongoing process that contributes to the development of the individual and for the transformation of society. In addition, education is a determining factor in the acquisition of knowledge and aspires to train people in order that the society has a sense of social solidarity.

Public policies on migrant matters: A balance in México 272

As mentioned, the Children's Rights Convention (CRC) should be the main instrument to inspire public policy in a country like Mexico, offering a way to see and treat children properly according to their needs and abilities.

Also, after having being ratified by the Senate of the United Mexican States in the year 1990, the Declaration of the Rights of Children has since become the supreme law of the country in accordance with Article 133 of the Constitution of the United Mexican States. Thus the government's actions in regards to their plans, programmes and projects are determined by the provisions of the international agreement. In México, in late 1999, reforms and additions to the Constitution Article Four of the Constitution of the United Mexican States, including the notion of the rights of children, were followed in April 2000, by the Law for the Protection of the Rights of Girls and Boys. Since then, there are few states nationwide that have begun to create local laws in line with the new legal framework.

Analytical considerations

The official documents, such as, the Federal Law of Education, the National Development Plan, the Programme for Educational Development foreground, set out the need to provide an education service that responds to the characteristics and needs of the migrant farming population, where the state's concern is to achieve more equity and make effective equality in the educational opportunities to the groups and regions more socially and economically disadvantaged. In latter years, actions have been directed to the design of new educational proposals that will respond in a more appropriate manner to the primordial characteristics of life and work of the child migrant sector. Amongst these is the Elementary Education Programme for Migrant Girls and Boys established since 1997.

The National Education Programme 2001-2006 (PRONAE as abbreviated in Spanish) proposes, as one of its strategic objectives, to guarantee the right to education, expressing how equality in opportunities to access, permanence and academic achievement of all the children and youngsters in basic education can be achieved. This objective establishes the promotion of forms and flexible educational proposals for the vulnerable groups of the national population, in order to make available to them educational options that adapt to their geographic, socioeconomic and cultural conditions.

To bring to girls and boys to school and guarantee their regular attendance implies the disincorporation of child labour and the establishment of a scholarship programme. Another action that reflects the interest of the state in assisting minors is to put in motion programmes directed towards the vulnerable population sectors that support those who live in extremem poverty.

The Human Development Programme designated as OPORTUNIDADES (the Spanish word for opportunities) is directed towards rural populations. Some of the benefits left by the programme are construction, repair, enlargement, equipment, acquisition and installation of drinking water plants, housing and shelters, sanitary services and water intakes, medical consultancy, medicine stocks, small clinics called Health Houses, grocery stores, day care facilities, classrooms and multiple use courts. This programme attempts to improve their condition in education, health and nutrition through the delivery of monetary support, dependent on the meeting of certain requirements and conditions.


OPORTUNIDADES is characterized for being an inter-institutional programme in which the Secretariat for Social Development, the Secretarial of Health, the Social Security Mexican Institute and the Secretarial for Public Education participate in close coordination with state and local authorities. The preceding programme to OPORTUNIDADES was called PROGRESA (which in Spanish means to prosper), created in 1997 to support families that live in extreme poverty conditions. The PROGRESA programme developed into the OPORTUNIDADES programme.

Discussion and analysis

In Mexico, the laws of the Constitution operate using a different logic than that expressed by speech; the law is displaced by a system of implicit rules and duty evasion by children. The migrant life has very serious implications for the development of a sense of identity and belonging implications, as well as self-esteem and the emotional safety of children. There are several causes that force families to migrate to other states in search of work, including the crisis in the agricultural field.

The legal component alone cannot fully explain the persistence of basic provisions and regulatory procedures to ensure compliance with each of the rights and serve as hubs for the organization of public, social and educational policy. We need to address the proposals in the federal and state levels, strengthening the comprehensive development of communities, considering their cultural specificities. Perform a joint effort between various governmental, academic, civil organizations and rural people themselves, developing strong bonds of trust and a clear role in educational processes in order to reduce the injustices by the lack of clarity in the law, omissions, anachronisms, bureaucratic loopholes and legal absences conducive operating conditions.

In the labour sector justice is limited, which places the laborers in a situation of helplessness. It is important to require the federal and local governments to exercise the institutional capacity of inspection and enforcement. We are outraged and baffled, to observe the failure of institutions, their inaction and bureaucracy to intervene and invest resources where they are needed. Not enough awareness of the problem of the migrant population exists, it is necessary to create proposals or alternative solutions where government institutions, NGOs, civil society but especially the active participation of these labourers are integrated.

The ignorance of the situation, the lack of research and of dialogue amongst the actors, including farm labourers, farm employers and public institutions have made attention to the sector’s needs more difficult.

Promoting a wider dialogue amongst citizens on this information, in order to define an agenda for basic action is required, because at present there is no responsible participation that allows us to assume that the actors involved are doing what everyone is entitled to do.

Some conclusions

In Mexico there is not yet an inclusive education policy for the care of migrant children, which should be a policy that will promote a quality education and takes

Public policies on migrant matters: A balance in México 274

into account all aspects of legal, socioeconomic and sociopolitical problems of this sector.

Legislation passed in Mexico, does not have serious commitments to public policy in respect of the expenditure allocated to the realization of the rights and the best way to impact public policy agendas that concern matters of children, There should be proposals to use researchers and public officials, who are able to contribute their vision and they should be used in the design, implementation and evaluation of public policies that affect this case of child migrant farm workers.

Despite public programmes that have been created in a specific way to improve the education of migrants, the results are poor. For that reason, a set of actions are necessary to ensure the operation of a quality educational service. These include; the development of basic curricula to suit the characteristics and needs of migrant children, with corresponding adjustments in school terms, to the time spent in their home or in the attraction, improved information systems and management, both social and institutional care and monitoring of migrant children, teacher training with an intercultural approach and adapting the evaluation and accreditation systems to ensure the permanence and continuity of students in any form of the national education system.

Child labour has been a main obstacle to making real the right of each child to an education and to the protection against violence, abuse and exploitation. We know today, that with political will, the much needed resources and adequate policies, child labour can be eradicated.

Public policies that the Mexican state has implemented to combat child labour have been insufficient to improve the social status of migrant child laborers.

References

CAM (Centro de Estudios Sociales y Culturales Antonio Montesinos) (2000): Taller de incidencia de organismos civiles en políticas públicas. Consulta realizada el 31 de enero del 2014, en http://www.derechosinfancia.org.mx/Politica/pol_pub1.htm

Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Convención Internacional de los Derechos de la Infancia en Organizaciones. Consulta

realizada el 31 de marzo del 2013, en http://www.derechosinfancia.org.mx. Oszlak, O. y O’Donnell, G. (1976): Estado y políticas estatales en América Latina: hacia una

estrategia de investigación. Buenos Aires, Argentina: CEDES/G.E.CLACSO/Número 4. SEP (Secretaría de Educación Pública) (2006): Reglas de Operación del Programa de

Educación Primaria para Niñas y Niños Migrantes. México, D.F.: SEP, 23 de febrero de 2006. Versión electrónica: http://www.ordenjuridico.gob.mx/Federal/PE/APF/APC/SEP/ Reglas/2006/23022006(3).pdf

Dr. Graciela Amira Medécigo Shej Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo México [email protected]

http://www.ordenjuridico.gob.mx/Federal/PE/APF/APC/SEP/Reglas/2006/23022006(3).pdf

http://www.ordenjuridico.gob.mx/Federal/PE/APF/APC/SEP/Reglas/2006/23022006(3).pdf


SNJEŽANA DOBROTA

THE ROLE OF MUSIC EDUCATION IN PREPARING GLOBALLY COMPETENT PUPILS

Summary

Music has very important function in the lives of most teenagers, but there is a disjunction between music at school and music at home. Adolescent’s music preferences are very heterogeneous and they can be explained by various social and individual factors. The author discusses the problem of music education in Croatian grammar schools and speaks in favour of expanding music curriculum with non-western musical idioms, primarily by inclusion of world music and popular music. In that way music education will create globally competent pupils. Key words: music education, world music, popular music

Introduction

Music plays an important role in the social and personal lives of people, especially of adolescents (Christenson & Peterson, 1998; Schwartz & Fouts, 2003). North, Hargreaves and O’Neill (2000) reported British adolescent to listen to music for an average of 2,45 hours per day. Earlier estimates indicate that, from 7th to 12th grade, American adolescents average 10500 hours of elected exposure to popular music (Zillman & Gan, 1997). The times spent listening to music approximate those spent in the classroom from kindergarten through high school. So we can conclude that music is of the central importance in the lives of most young people.

Adolescent’s music preferences are very heterogeneous and that heterogeneity can be explained by various social factors (ethnicity, social class, youth cultures) and individual factors (personality, physiological arousal, social identity). The uses and gratification approach (Rosengren, Wenner & Palmgreen, 1985) may serve as the general theoretical framework for explaining associations between personality factors and music preferences. According to the theory, people prefer particular kinds of music because they have particular personality characteristics that the music satisfies (Arnett, 1995; Larson, 1995).

According to the model of optimal stimulation (Eysenck, 1990) people tend to choose the type of music that moves toward their optimal arousal level.

The most popular theory which is focused on the role of personality traits in the determination of musical taste is the theory of Rentfrow and Gosling (2003). The authors first determined the major dimensions of music preferences by means of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, and examined the associations of these dimensions with the Big-Five personality factors. There are four music-preference dimensions: the reflective and complex dimension (blues, jazz, classical, folk music), the intense and rebellious dimension (rock, alternative, heavy metal music), the upbeat and conventional dimension (country, sound track, religious, pop music) and the energetic and rhythmic dimension (rap/hip-hop, soul/funk, electronic/dance music).

The Role of Music Education in Preparing Globally Competent Pupils 276

One of the most famous models of musical preferences is based on LeBlanc’s interactive theory of musical preferences, according to which the musical preferences are influenced by different factors and they interact at different levels of hierarchical process (LeBlanc, 1981). The model contains eight levels of variables and at the lowest level are the variables of musical environment (physical properties of the stimulus, the complexity of the stimulus, the referential meaning of the stimulus, quality of performance) that interact with the cultural environment variables (media, peers, family, teachers, incidental conditioning) thus forming the input information to the listener. Will the listener really listen to music or not, depends on three variables at the next level, such as the physiological readiness to listen, attention or affective state. If these requirements are met, musical input information are filtered by means of listener characteristics (auditory sensitivity, musical ability, musical education, personality, gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status, maturation, memory) and further processed in his brain. Information continues their way to the first level, which consists of four variables (rejection, acceptance, repetition of stimulus, heightened attention) and there are accepted or rejected.

According to the social identity theory we are all members of social groups and the categorization of the self as a member of a particular group excludes certain other individuals. This categorization instigates a sense of self – a social identity – which guides behavior (MacDonald, Hargreaves, Miell, 2002, 137). It is possible that a major appeal of music to adolescents lies in its ability to help them form positive social identities. The same authors make difference between identities in music (IIM) which “are defined by social and cultural roles within music and might be categorized in a number of different ways” and music in identities (MII) which refers on the way “we use music as a means of, or as a resource for, developing other aspects of our personal identities” (MacDonald, Hargreaves, Miell, 2002, 12, 14-15).

Music education for globally competent pupils

Over the last fifty years two philosophies of music education have dominated in music education. The first one is aesthetically based philosophy of music education, which has experienced a boom during the seventies, with Bennett Reimer as the most important representative. It defines the aesthetic education as “the development of sensitivity to the aesthetic quality of the work” (1972, 29) and believes that music is a collection of aesthetic objects whose meanings and values are within the objects themselves or within the musical works. Consequently, the important role belongs to aesthetic experience in music education.

On the other hand, trying to acknowledge and accept the cultural differences in the United States in the late eighties and early nineties, a new philosophy of music education, praxial philosophy, was developed, and it's most famous representative was David J. Elliott. It is based on the Aristotelian notion of praxis as an action rooted in practice, not in theory (Elliott, 1995). Unlike aesthetic philosophy, Alperson said that consideration of different art forms from praxial perspective has resulted in their understanding “in terms of the various meanings and values that indicates the current practice in certain cultures” (1991, 233). According to praxial philosophy of music education music is not just a collection of works, goods or

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facilities, but it is something that people make in the context of a particular time, place and specific traditions of musical creation.

In the statement of The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) it is proposed that “Music can change the way children feel, think and act… Music enables children to define themselves in relation to others, their friends, colleagues, social networks and to the cultures in which they live…The teaching of music deepens and extends everyday experiences, providing new opportunities and forging important links between the home, the school and the outside world” (1999, 162).

Music has very important function in the lives of most teenagers, but there is a disjunction between music at school and music at home. Ross (1995, 1998) provides some evidence that the music is one of the least popular subjects in the secondary school and that the attempts to modernize the music curriculum have failed.

The results of the Mills’ (1997) analysis of the difference between the quality of music education in primary and secondary schools shows that the ratings of music classes for older pupils (11-14 year-olds) where lower than those for younger age groups (5-7 and 7-11 year-olds). One of the possible reasons can be that the content of music lessons is less appropriate and engaging to secondary pupils.

North, Hargreaves and O’Neill (2000) have conducted the study which aims to determine the importance of music to adolescents in England and investigates why they listen to and perform music. A questionnaire asked participants about their degree of involvement with musical activities, to rate the importance of music relative to other activities and to rate the importance of several factors that might determine why they and other people of their age might listen to and perform pop and classical music. The results indicate that music is important to adolescents and that this is because it allows them to portray an ‘image’ to the outside world and satisfy their emotional needs.

Music education in Croatian high schools is conceived on the diachronic model, in which the “program generally follows a chronological course of development of the music and its style” (Curriculum, 1999, 77), so for the first grade of high school is planned “development of music from its origins to the Renaissance (until the end of the 16th century)”, for the second grade “Baroque, galant style and Viennese classics (the 17th and 19th centuries)”, in the third grade students learn about the period “from romanticism to impressionism (musical art during 19th century)”, and the fourth with “directions of development of musical art in the 20th century” (Ibid., 77).

The main disadvantage of that concept of teaching is that is uninteresting for the pupils, and that “... offers music that is contrary to their actual, potential and desirable musical interests, especially at the beginning of learning, which, in turn, can have a negative motivational effect on later classes” (Rojko, 2001, 6). As further disadvantages and concepts Rojko cited excessive content extensiveness at the expense of the music, and the conversion of teaching in a relatively rigid pattern (Ibid., 6-7).

In contrast to this model, in the foreground of the synchronous model is the music, not it's chronological sequence, and the result is interesting and heterogeneous teaching, as well as avoiding the verbalization of music.

Active listening to music, which involves observing of the musical expressive components of musical works, such as performers, tempo, dynamics, form, etc., and


by introducing music instruction to the synchronous model, it is created the conditions for carrying out the achievements music teaching, which Rojko conceived as follows:

• meet, learn the forms of music (in the broadest sense of the term); • meet, learn, remember certain (as much as possible) the number of musical

works; • meet, learn some basic and important informations from the history of music; • acquire musical taste (Ibid., 13). The music education which is conceived in this way would represent a truly

valuable contribution to cultivating adolescent's musical taste. Thus established would be “artistic criteria that will enable the critical reception of media-mediated music” (Rojko, 1996, 70-71).

However, the proclamation of the EAS points out that “... different musical traditions and cultural peculiarities of individual European countries and regions contribute significantly to their cultural identity. Resting on these traditions, music education can offer a very wide variety of forms, content and intensity of musical culture. Awakening of own music traditions and knowledge of regional differences among musical cultural traditions, allows the identification of the advantages of such situation, but also of any deficit that might stand in the way of one general requirement for a mature European culture” (according Peschl, Ibid, 6). Analyzing the above text, we can question does the existing conception of music teaching ensures diversity of content and allows the knowledge of regional differences among musical cultural traditions?

The curriculum is designed exclusively of musical idioms that belong to the tradition of Western art music. Since the repertoire of music teaching is directed towards Western art music, the existing concept of music teaching in a certain way creates and promotes an ideology of musical values. Apart from the West, such a model of education is evident in most non-European countries. Although the music is continuously transformed and reinterpreted, maintaining a degree of autonomy, musical education further affirms existing ideologies of musical values.

Sporadic attempts at expansion of the curriculum by introducing valuable examples of non-western and popular music still cannot stop the reproductive effects of a wider social system. However, we must persist in such attempts, and continuously enrich the program with new and unfamiliar musical idioms, which will not only represent examples of specific cultures, stereotypes and labeling that follow this approach, but primarily musical objects and sound events that have an expressive meaning.

According to Shehan “It has been the conjecture of music educators that the more one understands music the greater are the chances that one will like that music. The diversity of musical styles available for study cannot be overlooked but should be used to its best advantage in the understanding of world cultures. It may be that the arts (including music) of a region hold the very key to this understanding” (1986, 162-163).

However, we must bear in mind that art and popular music representing different entities and should not be evaluated in the same manner and on the basis of traits that owns Western art music, because they are in nonwestern music simply


does not exist. But this kind of music has a different value and quality, which can be adequately evaluated only when they recognize and understand.

There are two reasons for the inclusion of popular music in school. The first one is musical reason which refers to introduction of students into the popular musical style and it’s musical and expressive elements. The second reason is non-musical reason which includes the introduction of students into the socio-historical and cultural context in which popular music is created.

Conclusion

Teachers slowly adjust to the new sound spectrum, unknown structural standards and the specific terms of individual cultures. As Previšić outlined: “The school is already often behaves as a closed system of teaching whereby the teacher rather inclined to traditional and prescribed content, instead at least to a considerable extent to the alternative and creative programs. This is an old pedagogical dilemma oft he teaching profession; namely against the independence and creative courage most teachers still rather inclined to the loyalty and conformity” (1994, 21).

Divergence, diversity and the interests of minorities represent the three key issues relevant to the promotion of pluralism in the context of formal education systems of Western societies. The introduction of popular music, music technology and world music in the curriculum are some of the most significant innovations of modern society. Nevertheless, the dominant musical paradigm remains one of Western art music, so music and cultural voices which are located on the periphery often remain subdued and unrealized.

MENC’s National Standards for Arts Education (1994) stated that every student in grades kindergarten through eight should be exposed to music of various styles and genres. In that way we will be able to create globally competent pupils.

Literature Alperson, P. A. (1991): What Should One Expect from a Philosophy of Music Education?

Journal of Aesthetic Education, 25 (3), 215-242. Arnett, J. J. (1995): Adolescent’s uses of media for self-socialization. Journal of Youth and

Adolescence, 24 (5), 519-533. Christenson, P. G. & Peterson, J. B. (1988): Genre and gender in the structure of music

preferences. Communication Research, 15 (3), 282-301. Elliot, D. J. (1995): Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education. New York:

Oxford University Press. Eysenck, H. J. (1990): Biological dimensions of personality. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.) Handbook

of personality: Theory and research (pp. 244-276). New York: Guilford. Larson, R. (1995): Secrets in the bedroom: Adolescent’s private use of media. Journal of

Youth and Adolescence, 24 (5), 535-550. LeBlanc, A. (1981): Effects of style, tempo and performing medium on children's music

preference. Journal of Research in Music Education, 29 (2), 143-156. MacDonald, R. A. R., Hargreaves, D. J. & Miell, D. (2002): Musical Identities. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.


Mills, J. (1997): A comparison of the quality of class music teaching in primary and secondary schools in England. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 133, 72-76.

Nastavni plan i program za gimnazije. Glazbena umjetnost. (1999): Glasnik Ministarstva prosvjete i sporta Republike Hrvatske. Zagreb.

National Standards for Art Education. National Standards in Music (1994): Retrieved from: http://web.pccs.k12.mi.us/vapa/music/pdf%20files/music%20national%20standards.pdf

North, A. C., Hargreaves, D. J. & O'Neill, S. A. (2000): The importance of music to adolescents. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70 (2), 255-272.

Previšić, V. (1994): Multi- i interkulturalizam kao odgojni pluralizam. U: M. Matijević, M. Pranjić, V. Previšić (priredili) Pluralizam u odgoju i školstvu. Zagreb: Katehetski salezijanski centar, 19-22.

Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (1999): The review of the National Curriculum in England: The consultation materials. London: QCA.

Reimer, B. (1972): A Philosophy of Music Education. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Rentfrow, P. J. & Gosling, S. D. (2003): The do re mi's of everyday life: The structure and personality correlates of music preferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84 (6), 1236-1256.

Rojko, P. (1996): Metodika nastave glazbe. Osijek: Sveučilište Josipa Jurja Strossmayera. Rojko, P. (2001): Povijest glazbe/glazbena umjetnost u glazbenoj školi i gimnaziji. Tonovi.

Časopis glazbenih i plesnih pedagoga, 1/2 (37/38), 3-19. Rosengren, K. E., Wenner, L. A. & Palmgreen, P. (1985): Media gratification research.

Beverly Hills: Sage. Ross, M. (1995): What's wrong with school music? British Journal of Music Education, 12

(3), 185-201. Ross, M. (1998): Missing solemnis: Reforming music in schools. British Journal of Music

Education, 15 (3), 255-262. Shehan, P. K. (1986): Towards tolerance and taste: preferences for world musics. British

Journal of Music Education, 3 (2), 153-163. Zillman, D. & Gan, S. (1997): Musical taste in adolescence. In D. J. Hargreaves & A. North

(Eds.) The social psychology of music (pp. 161-187). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Dr. Snježana Dobrota Department of Teacher's Education Faculty of Philosophy University of Split Croatia [email protected]


HAIM HENRY GAZIEL

THE EFFECT OF THE SCHOOL ORGANIZATION ON TEACHERS’ EFFICACY AND SATISFACTION

Abstract

The present study was designed in order to look for the relationships among organizational dimensions of school teachers’ responses of work satisfaction and perceptions of efficacy at work.

For that purpose 280 secondary school teachers chosen from the six educational districts in Israel were required to complete the teacher self-efficacy and job satisfaction questionnaire on teacher self-efficacy and job satisfaction, the amount of control teachers have over classroom conditions, the school level measures such as school size, average SES and average achievement in matriculation exams and the social organization of school variables such as, sense of community, principal style and student misbehaviour. Results reveal that major sources of teachers work efficacy are intrinsic: teachers’ sense of control over their environment, students’ level of ability, school size, strong principal leadership, and climate of support. Keywords: Teacher work efficacy, Teacher work satisfaction, School organization,

Teacher classroom control, Principal leadership

Introduction

The permanent interest in the organization of schools stems mainly as a result of the research on effective schools (Cheng, 1997; Silver, 1994).

Organizational features are increasingly seen as important determinants of effective schools (Hoy & Ferguson, 1985; Chubb & Moe, 1990), with frequently cited features including the school culture (Sarason, 1996; Gaziel, 1997).

Researchers have had difficulty however in demonstrating direct empirical links between school organization or climate and student outcomes. The source of this difficulty is both methodological and substantive. Briefly, the methodological difficulty stems from school effects operationalizing mainly as aggregates. Substantively, it may be more appropriate to conceptualize the link between schools and students as indirect mediated by teachers. In this view school organization would influence how teachers view their work and how they teach. Teachers perceptions and practices would, in turn, affect students’ learning.

The second link between the practices and attitudes of teachers and student outcomes was empirically validated by Rosenholtz (1989).

In the present article I focus on the first link in this chain, namely, the features of school organization and teachers’ outcomes – while there are many ways in which schools may affect teachers and teaching, I narrowed my inquiry to the organizational dimensions of schools and to teachers expressions of satisfaction with their work and perceptions of their efficacy in doing that work.

The effect of the school organization on teachers’ efficacy and satisfaction 282

Background

Efficacy in psychological terms is a cognitive process that involves identifying a goal, assessing the necessary effort and abilities to achieve the goal and predicting the outcomes (Bandura, 1997). Satisfaction is an effective response to achieving that goal.

Efficacy for teachers is based on their perceived ability to affect student learning while satisfaction derives from the value that teachers place on this activity.

In an organizational environment efficacy and satisfaction typically do not reflect expectations of a particular occurrence or task. Rather, they address workers’ more general feelings about the daily operation of the job, based on cumulative experience and assessment of work environment. Efficacy and satisfaction operate as two parts of a whole (Maehr, 1997). For teachers teaching different groups and sometimes different subjects to different groups, efficacy and satisfaction reflect general perceptions of the classroom environment.

Social psychology has identified both intrinsic and extrinsic sources of information about performance as important determinants of professional satisfaction and efficacy. Regarding the intrinsic influences Dembo and Gibson (1985) reported that the most influential factors on teachers’ self-efficacy is the type of students in the classroom and the amount of control a teacher has in determining the classroom environment. As regarding the first factor fundamental to determining their efficacy and satisfaction is the expectations teachers hold for students. If students are seen as having low ability teachers tend to lower their expectations of their own ability to teach them. As regarding the second factor a sense of control over one's environment may contribute to perceptions of efficacy by determining how intrinsic work goals are established and the criteria by which success is measured. Furthermore self-efficacy is based also on how much flexibility teachers have in selecting materials and planning the daily agenda. Teachers that control their curriculum and materials can change the conditions of the learning environment (Rosenholtz, 1989).

As regarding extrinsic influences, in hierarchical organizations access to evaluative information about performance reflects the authority structure of the organization. Such access depends on one’s proximity to the technical core of the operation. On the basis of the type of interaction that takes place over the technical core in school organization two types of authority structures have been identified: loosely coupled and integrated. How schools are organized as workplaces strongly influences teachers’ efficacy and satisfaction (Rosenholtz, 1989).

Loosely coupled structure (Weick, 1976) refers to an organizational structure in which the activities of person A have little impact on the performance of person B and vice versa. Teachers in such organizations work in isolation not only from their peers but also from their supervisors which limits their knowledge of school activities outside their classroom. In loosely coupled organizations, which characterized public schools, close interaction among different groups or even different members of the same group are often assume to result in conflict since various agendas typically require different processes and procedures to resolve daily problems (Hoy & Ferguson, 1985). Such schools develop a bureaucratic legalistic authority structure, in which members must move through a formalized mechanism to interact with other members while collegial interaction is typically limited.

Haim Henry Gaziel 283

Consequently, the only source of information available to teachers about their own performance lies in the classroom.

Conversely, in an integrated structure schools may exhibit a strong sense of central purpose and a shared value system about education and this characterize effective schools (Rutter & Maughan, 2002). Schools with a strong central purpose work to coordinate the technical core operation with this purpose. Thus their teachers would regularly monitor operations as a larger scale rather than only in their own classroom. While such schools may operate under bureaucratic structures, such linkages among the staff facilitate communication about their activities the sharing of difficulties and solutions, and professional interaction to educate students (Townsend, 2001). Because of this collegial communication a participant in such an organization culture has access to both intrinsic and extrinsic sources of information about his or her performance. That state contributes to higher levels job satisfaction and self efficacy.

Focus of the research

Schools operate under some degree of bureaucratic linkage between management authority and the technical operations of the school (teaching). The degree of consensus about goals and the structure of the daily communications among different members may however either reinforce these bureaucratic separations or act to overcome them. In both authority structures loosely coupled or integrated most teachers’ work takes place in classroom with little supervision or evaluation. In loosely coupled structures classroom environment provides teachers with their only source of information about their performance. Thus teachers control over the environment is hypothesized to determine their efficacy and satisfaction associated wit their work.

On the other hand in the integrated structure classroom activities are supplemented by a consensus among the group on the school’s agenda and communication about teaching that occurs outside the classroom, with less reliance on classroom operation to determine one’s performance. Personal control over specific classroom domains such as the choice of materials or pacing, may be supplemented by more input into school – wide choices and possibly more consensus about classroom environments or a greater contribution to school goals. Organizational efficacy may thus contribute to the efficacy of an individual’s performance.

We hypothesized that although control over the intrinsic sources of classroom performance determines a teacher’s sense of personal efficacy this relationship is mitigated by structural features. We further hypothesized that such factors are related to the organization of school, in particular to members’ opportunities to communicate about the goals of the organization and their work within it. Group consensus reduces the uncertainty and ambiguity of role factors that make general functioning difficult. Therefore, in schools with a strong communitarian organization and a shared value system the relationship between individual classroom control and teachers’ self efficacy is attenuated. Schools with loosely coupled structures and weak cultural linkages are likely to exhibit a strong relationship between a teacher’s individual control of the classroom environment and his or her efficacy.


Method

Sample The sample included 400 full time job teachers chosen randomly from 30

secondary schools from all parts of Israel, who were asked by research assistants, after having the consent of the principals, to complete the following questionnaires, 280 answered (70%) – which is a high response in the Israeli setting.

Measures Teacher-level dependent measure. Teacher self efficacy and teacher job

satisfaction as one construct (although in the literature they are separated), because of the high correlation among teachers between both constructs. This factor includes four items measuring self-efficacy: “To what extent do you feel successful in providing the kind of education you would like to provide for most of your students?” and “I sometimes feel it is a waste of time to try to do my best as a teacher” (reversed coded) and satisfaction “I usually look forward to each working day at this school” and “Am usually satisfied with my job in this school”. The answers based on a Likert- type scale.

Teacher level independent measures. The amount of control teachers have over classroom conditions; influence over the selection of textbooks and instructional materials, instructional content, teaching techniques, the disciplining of students, the assignment of homework (1 = none control, 5 = complete control).

School level independent measures. These fall into two types: school demographics and aspects of social organization. The demographic variables considered and found as related in previous literature (Newman et al, 1999), school size, average socio-economic status – the percentage of students coming from underdeveloped areas at school (poor socio-economic status), and average achievement (in the matriculation exams during 2011 school year). As regarding the social organization of schools, the measures included: perceived sense of community (e.g. I was accepted and respected as a colleague by most staff members, or the school seems like a big family), students’ disorderly behaviour (e.g. the level of students misbehaviours which interfere in my teaching), the degree to which principals are considered leaders (e.g. the principal deals effectively with pressures from outside the school that might interfere in my teaching; the principal sets priorities, makes plans, and sees that they are carried out), the staff’s participation in school decision making (e.g. I have a great amount of influence upon school policies); staff are involved in making decisions that affect them (1 = none; 5 = a great deal), the encouragement of innovation administrators (e.g. the principal is interested in innovative and new ideas); responsiveness to the staff (e.g. the school administrator behaviour toward the staff is supportive and encouraging or the school administrator knows the problems faced by the staff). The answers to all the questions based on a Likert-type scale.

It is important to note that since these measures were created as school aggregates of teachers’ perceptions, their variances are smaller than are those of teacher-level measures from which they were aggregated. It is well-known that aggregate variables suffer from high correlations, partly because of restricted variability.


Hypotheses

It was expected that: 1. Smaller schools have positive effects upon teachers’ efficacy and

satisfaction. Teacher control (pedagogical autonomy) would have a positive effect upon teachers’ efficacy and satisfaction.

2. Principal’s leadership, sense of community and administrative responsiveness would have a positive effect upon teachers’ efficacy and satisfaction.

Results

The inter-correlations among variables are as follows: Average teacher control is negligibly related to all variables except for staff

influence on decision making (r=.532) and school size(r=-.485). Sense of community is strongly related to principal leadership (r=.495); to

encouragement of innovation (r=.552); and to administrative responsiveness (r=.455) and moderately and negatively related to disorder behaviour (r=.359).

Principal leadership is strongly related to encouragement of innovations (r=.779) and to administrative responsiveness (r=.685) and to staff influence (r=.556), suggesting that these variables tap a common construct and should not be included individually. Furthermore, staff influence, innovation and responsiveness are also significantly interrelated (p<.05).

No significant correlations were found between those variables to average SES, or knowledge of courses.

The relationship between teacher efficacy and teacher control and if that relationship affected when the types of students taught are taken into account reveal that a strong relationship was found between a sense of efficacy among teachers and their perceptions of control (r=.596; p<.01), when the ability of the students who are being taught are taken into account, the average relationship between student ability and teacher efficacy was also significant (r=.555, p<.01).

Two school demographic factors were found related to efficacy: Average SES and size.

For SES estimated effects (.0493, p<.01); for size estimated effects (.0425, p<.01). Both relationships are positive, indicating that teachers feel more efficacious in high SES and large schools. Three measures of social organizations are strongly related to mean efficacy: teacher control (estimated effects=.0397; p<.001); community (estimated effects=.0321; p<.01); principal leadership (estimated effects=.0528, p<.01). One measure has a strongly negative effect – student disorder (estimated effects=-.0521; p<.01). All those relationships support the stated hypotheses. Schools in which the teachers have greater control over their teaching with a stronger sense of community, and those in which the principal, is seen as a strong leader have more efficacious teachers. Schools with less orderly environments are much less likely to have efficacious teachers. These relationships are, with mean efficacy, adjusted for differences in perceived control and students’ ability within schools.

We found that neither the demographics of teachers’ race and salary or experience affected the variation in efficacy.


Discussion

The literature describes two sources of information, intrinsic and extrinsic, upon which teachers judge their own efficacy and, hence, base their satisfaction. If these two sources of information are defined narrowly (intrinsic sources involve the classroom and extrinsic sources come from salary and external recognition), then our results show that by far the major source of efficacy is intrinsic. Both the students’ level of ability and the degree to which teachers sense that they control classroom practices are both strongly associated with efficacy. The extrinsic factor of salary (based less on merit or competence than on experience or education) is unrelated. If on the other hand, we define extrinsic sources as teachers' perceptions of their place in the hierarchy of power in the school, then such information becomes essential. Public schools being more likely to be loosely coupled, bureaucratic organizations.

In terms of structure, the results on the effects of principal leadership (Hypothesis 3) are interesting. In a loosely coupled school organization, administrators’ activities are separated from the technical core of operations (instruction). Instead principals obtain resources and protect the core from potentially hostile and disruptive forces in the external environment. The measure of principal leadership includes these elements (“gets resources for the school”, and “deals effectively with pressures from outside the school that might interfere with teaching”) in addition to traditional measures of leadership (“sets priorities”, and “lets staff members know what expected of them”). Principal leadership was positively associated with both efficacy and control. That is, in schools in which teachers sense strong leadership, their feelings of self efficacy and control over their classroom environment are stronger.

We offer two interpretations of this finding, focusing on two functions of principals that teachers may see as characteristics of strong leadership, buffering and delegating. In loosely coupled schools, the buffering functions allow teachers autonomy in managing their classrooms. The classroom thus becomes an even more important source of information about the teachers’ performance. A further relationship between perceived principal leadership and the amount of control teachers experience over classroom decisions may be related to the “delegating” function of leadership. Strong instructional leaders try to foster leadership within the staff with the aim of generating positive student outcomes for the school. It may be that in schools in which teachers see the principal as a strong instructional leader, the organizational division of labour is more differentiated among teachers and strong teachers are more influential. That is, individual teachers may have specific leadership responsibilities and teachers with less responsibility may sense the difference more keenly. This relationship may thus reflect the more general dynamics of interaction among staff members and the delegation of leadership.

Results indicate that a school’s average amount of teacher control is unrelated to teachers’ efficacy. Nor is average control related to a principal’s leadership. This odd pattern of relationships illustrates the essential difference in meaning between the group level version and the individual level versions of the same measure. The interpretation of aggregated control is very different from the interpretation of the control each teacher perceives. It is this within a school’s control mechanism and its


association with efficacy, which is affected by a principal’s leadership, rather than the average level of control in school.

With regard to school size. Contrary to our hypothesis, larger schools are positively related to teachers’ efficacy. It support some previous studies however, it could be explained logically. Larger schools have more of the resources teachers think they need, and teachers thus feel more efficacious in their working environments.

The strongest predictor of teacher efficacy is community. Our finding are in line with previous studies. We consider the empirical validation of this link as important. Schools in which teachers feel more efficacious are likely to be environments in which human relationships are supportive (“you can count on most staff members to help”, a great deal of cooperative effort, “a big family”). Where teachers share beliefs and values about the central mission of the school and where they feel accepted and respected.

The results of these studies have shown that several elements of school organization are strongly related to teacher efficacy (Herriot & Firestone, 1984). They have also shown that teachers are more efficacious when they have more control over their own classroom practices. Furthermore, fostering cooperative environments and allowing teachers reasonable autonomy in their classroom practices are more likely to foster the efficacy of teachers.

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Organizational Effectiveness of Schools. Educational Administration Quarterly, 21, 117-134.

Maehr, M. L. (1987): Advances in Motivation and Achievement: Enhancing Motivation (Vol. 5). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Rosenholtz, S. (1989): Teachers’ Workplace: The Social Organization of Schools. New York: Longman.

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Silver, H. (1994): Good Schools, Effective Schools. London: Cassell. Townsend, T. (2001): Twenty Years of School Effectiveness: Research Critique and

Response. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 12, 3-15. Weick, K. (1976): Educational Organizations as Loosely-Coupled Systems. Administrative

Science Quarterly, 21, 1-19. Prof. Dr. Haim H. Gaziel Bar Ilan University School of Education Israel [email protected]


Part 4

Higher Education, Lifelong Learning and Social Inclusion

JAMES OGUNLEYE

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN FRANCE: A COUNTRY REPORT

Abstract

This paper presents formal interactions between vocational education and training and the labour market in France, part of a large European study commissioned by the Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop). The paper examines the nature of vocational education and training system, the feedback mechanisms and the characterisation of the feedback loops in vocational education and training system in France. The paper concludes with a highlight of the significant features of the interactions between vocational education and training and the labour market in France. Keywords: VET, Labour market, feedback mechanisms, feedback loops

Introduction

The French model of vocational education and training as related to the initial vocational education and training is centralised and embedded in the comprehensive education system (Ogunleye, 2011) in that the state has a sole responsibility for curricula contents and the examinations. The VET is operated in the context of coordinated market economy. The main elements of the coordination are the national government and the social partners – the trade unions, chambers of commerce and the employers association. The VET partners have a tradition of negotiating and signing up national agreements that underpin the implementations of VET policies. The most recent activity was the signing up of National Agreement on employees’ access to vocational training and the establishment of observatories for monitoring occupations and qualifications. The first track of vocational education is situated in the secondary school system—initial vocational education and training (IVET), where students in upper secondary schools combine classroom learning with practical workshop activities. The stakeholders in VET have continued to monitor the labour market vis-a-vis the current economic recession. To that end, and in order to minimise the impacts of the economic recession on the labour market, the social partners, with the approval of the government, have signed two National Inter-professional Agreements (or ANI) that focus on life-long vocational training,

Interactions between vocational education and training and the labour market in France 290

professionalism and on the human resources management of the effects of the recession on employment, as well as on measures to support employment (Refnet, 2011). These two agreements are in addition to a number of such framework agreements signed by VET stakeholders. For example, two national agreements dated 11 January 2008 and another one dated 14 November 2008 relate to the modernisation of the labour market and management of jobs and skills. The national government current policy priorities are to maintain existing jobs in the labour market, stimulate and create new jobs, and provide access to the labour market.

Overview of formalised feedback mechanisms

Lower and upper secondary vocational education: The responsibility for policy at this level of education – vocational training in schools through to apprenticeship – falls on the Ministry of Education (although Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is responsible for curricula in agricultural secondary schools). The curricula in upper secondary school including instruction are determined centrally by the state. At the national level, the Centre d’Analyse Strategique (CAS), located in the Office of the Prime Minister, has responsibility for monitoring trends in the economy and labour market generally. CAS produces authoritative regular reports that are used to informed policy at national and regional levels. A major way the state anticipates skills needs, future employment and training provision in the economy is through CEP (Contract for a Prospective Study). CEP is an alliance of the government and social partners through which the stakeholders ascertain skills needs of a sector and provides a diagnosis or action to bridge the skills gap.

Regionally, there are observatories for job and training. An example is OREF (Regional monitoring institute on employment and vocational training), which collects and analyses data on skills and the labour market, especially data relating to regional trades and regional qualifications. Data are collected from regional bodies as diverse as councils, departments, National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies, Ministry of Education and chambers of commerce. At the sectoral level, the CPCs (Advisory Committees on Occupations) ensure that the competencies acquired on completion of IVET programmes match the skills needs of the labour market. Each sector’s CPC is responsible for assessing the needs for a (new) qualification, prepare the qualification including a list of the subjects to be taught under the qualification, outline the structure and organisation of the examinations to be taken, etc and send off documentation to the Minister of National Education for approval. Once the new qualification is approved, it is then feed into teaching programmes in upper secondary level education.

Also at sectoral level, OPQM (the institute for monitoring future trends in occupations and qualifications) provides analyses of skills trends on the labour market; the outcome of which is then used to effect changes in the supply of skills and qualifications. National Commission for Vocational Qualification (CNCP) has a sole responsibility for identifying valid/recognised qualifications in France. However, to make qualifications more transparent, the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) has been established. The NQF has five levels comparable to the European Qualifications Framework. The NQF grid shows pathways to both further studies and employment through qualifications in a range of occupational/labour market sectors. Schools are responsible for the teaching of the curricula, but the

James Ogunleye 291

organisation and content of vocational education are centrally driven and specific (in terms of methods and means of training/instructions). For example, the timetable of vocational training often specified the total number of training time on CAP (professional skills certificate) and on vocational baccalaureate.

Characterisations of formal feedback loops

Assessing Demand The Centre d’Analyse Strategique (CAS), located in the Office of the Prime

Minister, has responsibility for monitoring trends in the economy and labour market. The centre collects data/information from a variety of sources mainly regional bodies such as CEP (contract for a prospective study), CEREQ (centre for research on education, training and employment), OPQM (institute for monitoring future trends in occupations and qualifications) and OPEF (regional monitoring institute on employment and vocational training). Centre d’Analyse Strategique is an authoritative research and monitoring government agency in France and, in the recent years, it has teamed up with government departments and other organisations to conduct studies on skills needs in many occupation and trade sectors. Recently, CAS teamed up with the Ministry of Employment and Social Cohesion’s Directorate of Research and Statistics to assess the labour market demand and supply in a number of professional disciplines. The study entitled Trades in 2015 examines the evolution of employment in a number of sectors, how many people will retire from identified trades, what is the current profile of workers in the identified trades (Cedefop, 2008). In 2012, CAS also teamed up with DARES to produce a similar report entitled Trades in 2020. However, to assess skills demand in the labour market, France adopts macroeconomic models to generate occupational and educational forecasts to arrive at recruitment demands according to type and volume of qualifications. The French forecasting models factored in different scenarios including changes in company training strategies and behaviours (Peer Review, 2006). There is no central forecasting body; as such the Ministry of Labour uses macro-models and scenarios to produce ‘occupational family forecasts at industry level’. The Ministry of Education, too, uses macro-models to produce forecast on skills needs, gaps and anticipation, according to the levels of qualification.

Occupational standards The Ministry of Education which is responsible for policy in secondary

education produces forecast on skills needs, gaps and anticipation, according to the levels of qualification. The educational forecasts are used to derive recruitment demands according to type and volume of qualifications. The CPCs (Advisory Committees on Occupations) is also a major actor in matching information on skills demand; it ensures that the competencies acquired on completion of IVET programmes match the skills needs on the labour market. The CPC assesses the need for a qualification, provides an outline of the curriculum to be taught and the examinations to be taken, get the government approval for the course/qualification and then ensure the teaching of the course in upper secondary schools. Region-based Académies are important stakeholders in ensuring occupational standards while performing their management oversight (responsibility) of school-based IVET. Académie in each region matches the demand and supply of vocational courses;


assess the demand for a qualification and the supply of that qualification; Académies also conduct assessments of the underpinning competences on IVET provision; decides whether a school should start VET courses and at what level. Académies receive input from CCREFP (regional coordination committee on employment and vocational training). CCREFP is made up of the representatives from regional authorities, the social partners, regional chambers of commerce and industry and trade representatives.

National qualification structure feedback loop The National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ) facilitates access and

provides transparency to qualifications in France. The NFQ is a system of 5 levels; the NFQ grid shows pathways to both further education and employment through qualifications in a range of occupational/labour market sectors. National Commission for Vocational Qualification (CNCP) has sole responsibility for identifying valid qualification.

• Schools are responsible for the teaching of the curricula, but the organisation and content of vocational education are centrally driven and specific (specific methods and means of training/ instructions). For example, the timetable of vocational training specified the total number of training time on CAP (professional skills Certificate) and on vocational baccalaureate.

• Representative of the social partners, regional chambers of commerce, agriculture, industry and trade input into qualifications awarded at upper secondary level (IVET courses) through CCREFP which works with Académies, which manage schools in the regions.

Curriculum development The central government through the Ministry of Education determines curricula

in secondary school. The central government also determines how much time a school devotes to each subject every week. In terms of the initial vocational education and training curricula, the state provides input into the design of the curricula although the primary responsibility lies with the CPCs (Professional Consultative Commission), which are national bodies. The CPCs are also mandated to consult with the social partners in designing all vocational curricula (vocational diplomas). Representatives of business are also involved in the IVET curriculum development as well as in the certification process; representatives of business also sit on the panel that award vocational diplomas.

Variations of feedback mechanisms on the regional level

In 2009 the two government agencies providing employment services in France – ANPE and ANAEM – merged to form Pôle-Emploi (National Employment Agency). Pôle-Emploi employs 45,000 civil servants and operates in all the 26 regions across France. The main responsibilities of Pôle-Emploi are to register job seekers, offer career guidance and assist them to find job and pay them jobseekers benefits; it also collects statistics on vacancies and on job seekers in general. Pôle-Emploi also provides services to employers – for instance, it helps companies with recruitment and re-training. In this role, therefore, Pôle-Emploi matches information on demand and supply in the labour market at occupational, local and regional levels through its recruitment service to jobseekers and employers (for example, the

James Ogunleye 293

agency helps employers in the selection of suitable candidates). Employers report vacancies as they arise to Pôle-Emploi and jobseekers are matched to reported vacancies.

Centre d’Analyse Strategique (CAS) located in the Office of the Prime Minister, monitor employment trends in sectors and occupations and in the economy as a whole. CAS recently teamed up with the Ministry of Employment and Social Cohesion’s Directorate of Research and Statistics to assess the labour market demand and supply in a number of professional disciplines with a forward-looking report entitled Trades in 2015.

The 26 French regional authorities have responded differently to the current economic recession depending on their individual circumstances. However, since the main focus of the state through its plan for the re-launch of the economy is to maintain current level of employment, support access to employment and stimulate jobs, regional authorities have focused their own policy measures on jobs and training. Regional governments offered support to companies to help them to keep employees in work, offered training incentives to companies in particularly difficult economic situation. The European Social Fund (ESF) has been very active at both regional and local levels in France. The ESF has provided financial support to local authorities which in turn incentivised companies to preserve jobs and to encourage employees training and skills upgrade.

CCREFP, the Regional Coordination Committees for Employment and Vocational Training, represents employers’ association, trade union, education providers, regional and national policy makers. CCREFP main tasks are to analyse trends on the labour market, produce policy to bridge the gap between demand and supply of labour and foster or strengthen the link/cooperation between companies and VET. There are three groups within CCREFP, each with differing working methods. The first is consultative working method, through which the CCREFP consults with the social partners by exchanging information on training activity within regional labour market observatories (OREF); the second working method is review, through which the CCREFP review and agree training activity with the stakeholders; and the third working method involved matching employment and training in the labour market. The CCREFP is also very active in planning regional training in key economic sectors.

Interaction of feedback mechanisms with institutional settings

The state, through Pôle-Emploi (the National Employment Agency), region and local authorities and the social partners has maintained interactions on a range of employment initiatives. At the height of the increase in number of job seekers relative to the general working population, the stakeholders set up funds to train and pay job seekers while in training. Pôle-Emploi, which has regional and local presence, provides short-term training to job seekers with the sole aim of matching their skills with current businesses needs. Where there is an acute skills shortage in a particular local area (or a particular sector of the economy), the Director of Pôle-Emploi may intervene by directing resources to ensure that training adequately meets skills demand.

There is a national agreement between the central government, the regions and social partners and between the social partners on a range of issues including


collective bargaining and access to vocational training; and observatories for occupations and qualifications. For example, the national agreement that provides for the observatories of occupations and qualifications sought to monitor the evolution of occupations at national and regional levels, projecting the emergence of new jobs as well as the deletion of ‘old’ jobs. Besides, there are National Inter-professional Agreements (ANIs) between employers’ association and the trade union; in the past such agreements have covered a range of issues relating to the labour including rights to training for employees and employees’ rights to attend training courses. Also, there have been national inter-professional agreements on the development of lifelong learning vocational training, professionalism, job security, management of the impact of economic recession on employment; and on the establishment of special funds for vocational training and the entitlement of priority individuals (low skilled unemployed) to access the fund. Numerous national framework agreements have been signed in the recent years, some of which are managed regionally and applied across sectors and occupations. National Inter-professional Agreements often ended in stature books after the parliament has debated the issues. There exists greater cooperation between the state, regions and the social partners – an example was a partnership between the OPCA (Approved Joint Collecting Bodies) and a regional chamber of commerce in Lozere to plan training and develop skills.

Conclusion

France faces the most serious economic recession in a generation. Part of the Government response, as set out its ‘plan for the relaunch of the economy’ (plan de relance de l’economie) is to maintain the existing the workforce, create new jobs and facilitate access to employment. To that end, the state has taken steps to: guarantee qualification to 80% of students in high schools, to discourage youngsters from leaving school early without qualifications or vocational training; reform and reorganise education at upper secondary school level – for example, Bac professionnel will henceforth be completed in 3 years and not 4 years as it was previously the case; expand secondary school-based vocational diplomas. For example, there is now available of Bac professionnel in 75 disciplines which can be obtained in both upper secondary school and in CFA-run apprentice’s centres (IVET); ensure that, at the sectoral level, the competencies acquired on completion of IVET programmes match the skills needs of the labour market; ensure clear cut path ways through the National Qualifications Framework (NQF). Additionally, France labour reforms would: ensure that the NQF five levels are comparable to European Qualifications Framework to achieve clear pathways to both further studies and employment through qualifications in a range of occupational/labour market sectors; ensure that the regional coordination committee on employment and vocational training has played an active role in matching skills demands on the regional labour market, establishing FNE (the national fund for employment) to help companies retain employees, train or upgrade skills. FNE would allow the state to intervene where a company faces very serious economic crises; ensuring that where there is an acute skills shortage in a particular local area (or a particular sector of the economy), the Director of Pôle-Emploi may intervene by directing resources to ensure that training adequately meets skills demand.

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Acknowledgements

This work reported in the paper is funded by the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) Contract No. 2011-0161/AO/ ECVL/JB-IPS/Cooperation Labour market-VET/007/11 – “Cooperation between education and training and the labour market in renewing VET”.

References Cedefop (refnet) (2011): VET in Europe – Country Report. France: Cedefop. Cedefop (2008): Systems for anticipation of skill needs in the EU Member States.

Thessaloniki, October 2008. Available: http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/Files/ WORKINGPAPER01_OCT2008.PDF.

Ogunleye, J. (2011): Preparing learners for the workplace in Europe: vocational education and training in France and Ireland. Occasional Papers in Education & Lifelong Learning: An International Journal, Volume 5, Nos. 1-2, pp. 84-93.

Peer Review (2006): Forecasting Skills and Labour Market Needs (Summary of the Peer Review), Helsinki. Available: http://www.mutual-learning-employment.net/uploads/ ModuleXtender/PeerReviews/16/Summary%20report.pdf; 21.4.2012.

Dr James Ogunleye Cedefop Project Institute for Work Based Learning Middlesex University London United Kingdom [email protected]

Part 4: Higher Education, Lifelong Learning and Social Inclusion 296

ALBERTO G. CANEN, ANA CANEN, REJANE P. COSTA

HIGHER EDUCATION AND THE PREPARATION OF MULTICULTURAL GLOBAL CITIZENS: THE CASE OF A TECHNOLOGICAL CURRICULUM

Abstract

The present paper discusses the relevance of multicultural educational research that goes beyond human sciences so as to embed technological curriculum and the preparation of professionals of areas such as engineering as competent global citizens. It argues that multiculturally preparing engineers should be part of an educational project that places Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) at the forefront of innovation and the valuing of the preparation of a new generation of professionals more attuned to a globalized perspective that also incorporates a humanitarian, multiculturally oriented perspective. The paper discusses theoretical issues involved in a multicultural engineering curriculum, and then it focuses on educational research relative both to contemporary trends in the delivery of syllabuses in three engineering HEIs. It discusses challenges and possibilities in the translation of the idea of engineering for a global and multicultural perspective of competence into curriculum thinking and practice, suggesting ways ahead in order to boost it. Key words: multiculturalism, global citizens, higher education, curriculum

Introduction

In the contemporary world, more and more education’s role in preparing globally competent citizens have been recognized in higher education agendas around the world. However, critical educational researchers still struggle with the need to create innovation that not only helps advance technological perspectives, but should also value cultural diversity, and promote inclusion of marginalized identities in an increasingly unstable and plural world. Even though education and human sciences arenas have been increasingly exposed to such an outlook, the relevance of viewing technological areas in higher education as sites for educational research aimed at probing into possibilities for educating for the preparation of globally competent citizens that are committed not only to progress but also to the challenge of prejudices and to social inclusion cannot be stressed enough.

To analyze the extent to which engineering courses prepare their students towards cultural diversity and competence in a globalized perspective, there should be a discussion of the possible dialogues between hard and social sciences in order to promote more equitable relations, so that global competence should include the competence to deal with diversity and value plural identities on the lines of race, gender, social class and other identity markers. In this direction, there are authors who highlight the importance of technological areas towards those values in the following words:

“What if everyone had fair and equitable access to the Earth’s resources, a decent quality of life, and celebrated cultural diversity? Imagine future scientists, engineers, and business people designing technology and

Alberto G. Canen, Ana Canen, Rejane P. Costa 297

economic activities that sustain rather than degrade the natural environment and enhance human health and well-being?” (Cortese, 2003, p. 15).

Such questions lead to the relevance of interdisciplinary collaboration so as to boost cooperative efforts towards valuing cultural diversity in an increasingly globalized and multicultural world.

Based on that, the objective of the present paper is to analyze the extent to which education research could potentially help take engineering curriculum syllabuses into a more multiculturally driven perspective, in order to prepare future global citizens that value cultural diversity, inclusion and social sustainability. The paper builds on a theoretical framework that discusses issues involved in a multicultural perspective, linking those to the building of a specific framework towards an engineering for a multicultural curriculum. It then focuses on educational research carried out by the authors that has been developed relative both to contemporary trends in the engineering curriculum plan in two civilian Brazilian HEIs (Canen & Canen, 2011) and in a military one. The methodology is qualitative, based on a documentary analysis of the engineering curriculum plans of the mentioned three HEIs in Brazil, as well as on semi-structured interviews carried out with their coordinators.

The paper discusses challenges and possibilities in the translation of the idea of multicultural engineering into curriculum thinking and practice, suggesting ways ahead in order to boost it. It is expected it can contribute to a research agenda that tries to go beyond human sciences in higher education, so as to open up ways ahead in order to develop educational research geared towards preparing engineers and other technological professionals for a global perspective that is multiculturally oriented in nature.

A Multicultural Curriculum for Engineering: towards a possible framework for global competence

Education research could arguably potentially help take engineering curriculum syllabuses into a more multiculturally driven perspective. As claimed by Carter (2012), such a perspective includes lessons about conflict sources, transformation and resolution. It is based on standards that include the development of knowledge, skills and dispositions related to contextual awareness and multiculturalism, chiefly stressing the recognition of values, history and needs of people in communities and of those who have different cultural norms and histories. In that sense, as claimed by Bickmore (2011), conflict resolution perspectives can be infused in any academic curriculum, inasmuch as contrasting ideologies, perspectives, and problems are embedded in any subject matter, and may be brought into light, probed and discussed in classroom pedagogy. Ogunleye (2011) makes the point that social inclusion has become wedded to the European social policy agenda, highlighting the need to promote social inclusion of people from the disadvantaged groups, as well as the role of HEIs in helping to achieve that goal.

Bringing those arguments into the technological and engineering area, Canen & Canen (1999) talk about the need for logistics, which is a central subject in Production Engineering, to go “hand in hand” with multicultural concerns. Also, Costa (2012) highlights that human terrain and its sociocultural dimensions should

Higher Education and the Preparation of Multicultural Global Citizens: the case of a technological curriculum 298

be deeply considered in military educational arena, so as to provide the development and better use of technical and technological means and their influence on the military doctrine.

In that sense, syllabuses in technological areas such as engineering could enhance the understanding of the meaning of multicultural organizations (Canen & Canen, 2005). In the same vein, Rahim et al. (2006) talk about an organizational climate in which empathy should be a central quality, so as to challenge any attempt to downcast those who think differently, therefore contributing to linking technological preparation to a multicultural perspective. Canen & Canen (2011) suggest a multicultural framework for education in technological syllabuses in Engineering courses and others. The mentioned framework includes components, such as: discussions of what it means to think multiculturally; devising practical strategies so as to develop multicultural competencies; analyzing topics of technological education in terms of understanding the role of cultural variables in problems, modeling and solutions, articulated to multicultural scenarios; developing the competency of applying research methodologies for cultural inquiry; and training in evaluating and assessing techniques that interrogate the extent of cultural sensitivity in everyday teaching practices. Such a framework could arguably promote the knowledge of cultural diversity, and help infuse a global perspective to the Engineering curriculum, inasmuch as such a process is proactive in the sense of nurturing social relationships that respect cultural diversity (Bickmore, 2011) and therefore are multiculturally oriented.

It should be noted that such a framework has been elaborated in a Brazilian specific context but it is intended to inspire technological curriculum elsewhere. In Brazil, an experience in International Logistics in the program of Production Engineering has successfully followed the mentioned framework, students becoming more aware of the interlinkages between technological preparation and multicultural and inclusion concerns.

Educational Research for Multicultural and Globally Competent Engineers Preparation: the role of HEIs

Educational research developed by the authors has been geared towards rethinking the role of HEIs in order to prepare professionals in the various areas, including engineering, to be competent global citizens attuned to the need to act in a multicultural, inclusionary way. The study to be described next referred to the extent to which syllabuses of an engineering curriculum in two civilian HEIs (Canen & Canen, 2011) and a military one (all of them were kept anonymous for the research ethical reasons) were sensitive to a globalized multicultural perspective in Brazil.

A documentary analysis of the program of Engineering in the military showed that syllabuses were generally presented in sentences that highlighted technological topics, devoid of discussions concerning multicultural issues. In fact, the core of the basic contents for the engineering course emphasized competencies such as:

Know the foundations of mathematics, physics, chemistry and computer science that are needed to the diverse engineering specialties; know the scientific writing norms used in the report elaboration, technical works, projects, thesis; apply the theoretical knowledge acquired to practical


problem resolution; communicate efficiently in written, oral and graphic languages; develop abilities and strategies to approach written texts in English language; fulfill and interpret results of practical experiments. (from the curriculum plan of the Engineering course, 2013).

As can be noted, cultural diversity has neither been mentioned nor registered in the mentioned course curricular guidelines, as opposed to what authors such as Bickmore (2011), Carter (2012), and Canen & Canen (2011) suggest. The relevance of talking of cultural diversity in the military technological courses cannot be stressed enough, inasmuch as military personnel should work in culturally disparate environments, and should be prepared to respect and understand those views, in a multicultural, peace oriented perspective. Cultural diversity should not be considered as a topic apart from the core curricular components, lest it should be viewed as marginal to the role of engineers and other professionals, including those in the military area.

However, the topics in the documentary analysis undertaken seemed to point to the presence of a dominant, hegemonic discourse to the detriment of pluralistic views, as suggested by authors such as Ottewill et al. (2005). It should be noted that the interviewed coordinator of the mentioned Engineering course stated that the current official curriculum has been changed so as to cope with new demands. However, the referred interviewee mentioned that the new curriculum plan has still to be approved, thus some updates will probably occur. The coordinator also highlighted that the core of the document will certainly not change, which emphasizes that such a curriculum tends to show very little concern with multicultural education, the emphasis being on developing technical engineering concepts, understood as enough for a global perspective.

Concerning the content of the syllabuses in the two other civilian HEIs, it should be noted that they also seemed to emphasize the classical OR/MS approach (Canen & Canen, 2011), evidencing an absence of discussions concerning power relations, cultural diversity, qualitative and emotional factors affecting decision making and other issues brought about by multicultural thinking.

It is interesting to note that even though the syllabuses did not offer any articulation to multicultural sensitivities, the interviewees seemed to point out to an indirect (rather than explicit) sensitivity to the need to link those topics to a multicultural perspective in a global competence approach, as can be illustrated in the following excerpt:

The technique I use in this course is based on interviews. That motivates the students to research, to find new ideas and solutions. I give the list of exercises, and they solve it in a group. Then, I interview each group, and each one of them defends their solutions while the others listen to them in silence… I also give them a test, because I found out that considering only that activity might be unfair… Once I gave a less than good grade to a young man, but then I realized he was shy, and that is why he could not have spoken out as well as others in that activity… In the test, he was great! (from the interview, March 2010, in Canen & Canen, 2011, p. 49).


The other interviewee from the second civilian HEI also seemed to evidence the need to take into account cultural diversity, as can be illustrated in the following vignette:

What I deliver is a methodology, and that is the same all around the world. If I give a lesson in Arabic, or in Chinese – the methodology is the same. What should be directed to the local realities are the applications of that methodology. It is there that the international problems surface… In the Logistics part of the course the examples are more multicultural… I have to do that, because all of us have to sell products in places where other cultures exist, so that is the way we have to do it. (from the interview, February 2010, in Canen & Canen, 2011, p. 50).

From the above mentioned answer, it seems to be clear that even though the interviewee tended to understand the methodology as being “universalized”, he conceded that its applications should be linked to discussions about cultural differences and dissonant voices, as suggested by authors mentioned in the last section.

We argue that linking technological syllabuses to a multiculturallly oriented perspective is possible and desirable in engineering curriculum, at all levels. It can represent a starting point for future initiatives and dialogues so as to further the aim of educating engineers (and other technological professions) for a global perspective that incorporates the valuing of diversity and the challenging of prejudices.

In fact, according to the framework presented in the first part of the present paper, we claim that subjects could be linked to a global perspective that nevertheless does not exclude a multicultural, inclusionary perspective – crucial for a world that needs more informed and transformational professionals in all areas.

At this point, it is worth stressing the western hegemony of mathematics whose origin took place in the Mediterranean. The historian Oswald Spengler had once mentioned that there is not one mathematics, one physics, but many, each different from each other (D’Ambrosio, 2002); consequently, the latter has shed light over the need to be aware of possible alternatives of mathematical approaches, depending on different cultural backgrounds.

According to D’Ambrosio (op cit) the “dominant mathematics” developed in western countries seems to have led those who domain it to present themselves with a superior profile and with the power to eliminate the daily mathematics.

In order to minimize such a kind of social construction and promote an educational work towards inclusion, this study argues for the need to articulate technological curricula to multicultural sensibilities. Therefore, multicultural competencies should be necessary in contemporary educational settings, in either civilian or military HEIs.

Such ideas should be added to technological curricula which aim at accomplishing syllabuses that develop a fair and equitable access to the Earth’s resources as well as promoting the development of technology that sustains rather than degrades the natural environment, thus furthering a better human health, well-being and cultural diversity celebration (Cortese, 2003), and, therefore, better prepare for a global multicultural citizenship.


Conclusions

The present paper discussed the relevance of HEIs in embedding their curricula in a perspective that intends to professionally prepare future generations to be competent in a globalized world, in a multicultural and social inclusion perspective. It discussed theoretical aspects related to a possible framework to develop such an approach, as well as the extent to which that perspective informed (or did not inform) syllabuses inherent to an engineering curriculum in three HEIs in Brazil. The paper highlighted topics of the syllabuses analyzed, showing some possible illustrations of how they might combine with multicultural sensitivities.

In these turbulent times, engineers should broaden their knowledge beyond the strictly mathematical foundations. This article intends to be a call for educators of engineering and other technological areas to future collaboration, so as to promote educational research that should contribute to an ever increasing valuing of diversity for a more informed and transformational globalized competence, so as to make HEIs a site for the preparation of competent global citizens that are nevertheless attuned to the multicultural nature of that global world, and are ready to make it a more inclusive one.

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classrooms. Presented at ESRG Restorative Approaches to Conflict in Schools, Seminar, Moray House, School of Education, University of Edinburgh, Scotland, February.

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Prof. Dr. Alberto G. Canen Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Brazil [email protected] Prof. Dr. Ana Canen Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Brazil [email protected] Rejane P. Costa Brazilian Army Command and General Staff College Brazil [email protected]




PAWEŁ GRYGIEL, GRZEGORZ HUMENNY, PIOTR ŚWITAJ, SŁAWOMIR RĘBISZ, MARTA ANCZEWSKA

BETWEEN ISOLATION AND LONELINESS: SOCIAL NETWORKS AND PERCEIVED INTEGRATION WITH PEERS OF CHILDREN DIAGNOSED WITH ADHD IN REGULAR CLASSROOMS

Abstract

Individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are characterized by a number of social deficits. The aim of the current study was to investigate the associations between ADHD diagnosis and social relationships among children from primary schools. Findings revealed that ADHD may contribute to both objective (social isolation) and subjective (dissatisfaction with peer relations) social problems. Children with a diagnosis of ADHD were more likely to have a “rejected” and “neglected” status and viewed their peer relations more negatively than children without this diagnosis. The effect of ADHD diagnosis on perceived integration with peers was found to be fully mediated by sociometric status. Our results underscore the relevance of social aspects of ADHD, which need to be addressed in the therapeutic programs. Interventions aiming to promote a positive image of children with ADHD among their peers should also be undertaken.

Introduction

Relationships with peers in the early school years are of central importance to a child's development (Rubin, Bukowski & Parker, 2006). Children derive significant benefits from interactions with their peers, which are a source of social and emotional support (Wentzel, Battle, Russell & Looney, 2010). At the same time, negative peer experiences may contribute to internalizing and externalizing behavior problems (Bukowski, Brendgen & Vitaro, 2007), and can also negatively influence school attitude adjustment, attendance and dropout as well as academic motivation and achievements (Wentzel, Baker & Russell, 2009).

Research results support an association between sociometric status and children’s feelings of social dissatisfaction in early adolescence (for a review, see Parker, Rubin, Erath, Wojslawowicz & Buskirk, 2006). Obviously, children who are rejected by their peer group, experience higher levels of social dissatisfaction than their better accepted peers (Nangle, Erdley, Newman, Mason & Carpenter, 2003). On the other hand, previous studies also demonstrated that perceived satisfaction with peer relations and social isolation are at least partially independent constructs (Laursen & Hartl, 2013) and that they are not conceptually equivalent (de Jong Gierveld, van Tilburg & Dykstra, 2006). Individuals with a negative perception of their own social relationships are not necessarily socially isolated in an objective sense (Heinrich & Gullone, 2006). Perceived quality of relationships depends not only on the “objective” social network characteristics, but also on personal standards and expectations regarding what an optimal social network should look like.

Earlier studies of group acceptance and rejection indicate that peer group status is relatively stable over time (Hardy, Bukowski & Sippola, 2002). Generally, this is consistent with the hypothesis that group acceptance or rejection status reflects

Between Isolation and Loneliness: Social Networks and Perceived Integration… 304

children’s social skills, rather than “whimsical or idiosyncratic aspects of the groups in which they find themselves” (Parker et al., 2006, p. 449). A subjective evaluation of relationships with others was also found to be associated with the level of social competence (Margalit, 2010).

It is well documented (Cervantes et al., 2013) that individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are characterized by a number of social deficits, including: (1) negative/aggressive interactions; (2) restless and intrusive behaviors that are inappropriate for the context; (3) inattention; (4) cognitive deficits. These deficits are associated with negative evaluations by peers and may be a risk factor for rejection by the group (Landau & Moore, 1991). In fact, researchers have noted that children with ADHD occupy a rather peripheral sociometric position as compared with non-ADHD peers (Tseng, 2012). It should be noted, though, that the association between sociometric status and perception of the quality of peer relationships among children with ADHD is not self-evident. The results of some studies reveal that ADHD children show an increased perceived dissatisfaction with peer relationships, as measured by the level of loneliness (Langher, Ricci, Reversi & Krstikj, 2009). On the other hand, there are also studies demonstrating that ADHD symptoms are related to more negative peer relations, but not to feelings of loneliness (Diamantopoulou, Henricsson & Rydell, 2005). This paradox may be due to the positive illusory bias (PIB) that protects self-confidence and self-esteem, and wards off negative affect (Wiener et al., 2012).

The main aim of the current study was to investigate the links between ADHD diagnosis and the objective and subjective dimensions of social relationships among children from primary schools. Based on the existing literature, we formulated the following three hypotheses to be tested: (a) children diagnosed with ADHD have more peer relationship problems as compared to children without a diagnosis of ADHD (H1); (b) children with ADHD perceive their peer relations more negatively than those not diagnosed with ADHD (H2); (c) the effect of ADHD diagnosis on perceived integration with peers is mediated by the sociometric variables (H3).

Methods

Sample The data for the present analyses were drawn from the School Effectiveness

Study realized by the Educational Research Institute in Warsaw. It is a longitudinal representative study of the cohort of Polish students who began the third grade of primary schools in autumn 2011. There were sampled 306 classes within 180 schools covering 6067 children. We used the data from 36 regular classrooms, with each containing at least one child with established clinical diagnosis of ADHD. Our final sample consisted of 718 students (357 boys), of which 38 (28 boys) had been diagnosed with ADHD.

Measures Children’s objective peer status was identified by using the standard sociometric

procedure developed by Coie, Dodge and Coppotelli (1982). The participants were asked to nominate schoolmates from the same classroom with whom they most and least liked to play. These nominations were counted for each child and standardized within classrooms to control for the differences in classroom size. In this way, two

Paweł Grygiel, Grzegorz Humenny, Piotr Świtaj, Sławomir Rębisz, Marta Anczewska 305

measures of sociometric position for each student were obtained: most liked position (MLP) and least liked position (LLP). Subsequently, they were used to classify children as: (a) popular, (b) rejected, (c) neglected, (d) controversial, and (e) average (Maassen & Landsheer, 1998).

To measure perceived social integration, we used a 15-item Social Integration (SI) subscale of the Fragebogen zur Erfassung von Dimensionen der Integration von Schülern (FDI 4-6) (Haeberlin, Moser, Bless & Klaghofer, 1989). This subscale contains eight positively and seven negatively worded items. Participants indicate their response on a 4-point rating scale with anchors of 1 (not true) and 4 (very much true). In this study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the SI subscale of the FDI was .92.

Data analyses Preliminary analyses Since the factor structure of the SI subscale of the FDI has not yet been

established, we began by performing an exploratory factor analysis (EFA). The EFA was conducted using the WLSMV estimator with an oblique Geomin rotation (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2012). The number of factors to retain was determined based on the Kaiser's eigenvalue-greater-than-one rule (Kaiser, 1960).

Next, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) based on the WLSMV estimator was used to verify the fit of the exploratory-based model. The CFA results were evaluated on three goodness-of-fit statistics: RMSEA, CFI and TLI. A model was considered acceptable if RMSEA was equal .08 or less, and CFI and TLI were close to .9 or greater (Geiser, 2013).

Study hypotheses testing First, descriptive statistics were calculated for each subtype of sociometric

status. Next, in order to test our first hypothesis (H1), two separate statistical models were used: (1) multinomial logistic regression model (MLRE), and (2) latent linear regression model (LLRE) (Geiser, 2013). MLRE was conducted with a qualitative classification of the students into five groups (i.e., popular, rejected, neglected, controversial, and average) as dependent variables, and ADHD diagnosis as an independent dummy variable. LLRE was performed with the unobserved latent sociometric status (LSS) with two observed indicators (i.e., most liked position – MLP and least liked position – LLP) as a dependent variable, and ADHD diagnosis as an independent observed variable. In the final step, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was employed to verify our second (H2) and third (H3) hypotheses (mediation model). According to Baron and Kenny (1986), a full mediating relationship exists if: (1) the independent variable (IV – ADHD) predicts the presumed mediator variable (MV – LSS); (2) the MV predicts the dependent variable (DV – SI), controlling for the IV (ADHD); (3) after controlling for the effects of the MV (LSS), a previously significant relationship between the IV (ADHD) and the DV (SI) becomes non-significant. In these analyses, the dependent variable was social integration (SI), construed as a latent trait based on the CFA solution.

In all analyses conducted, gender was used as a covariate. Calculations were performed using Mplus 7.11 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2012), with the cluster option.


Results

Preliminary analyses The following first three eigenvalues for sample correlation matrix were

obtained: 6.39, 1.48, .95. Such results supported the retention of two empirical factors. Although for the one-factor solution the fit statistics were acceptable (RMSEA = .07, CFI = .93, TLI = .92), they were clearly better for the two-factor model (RMSEA = .05, CFI = .97, TLI = .96). This indicates that the SI subscale is not “strictly” unidimensional and has a more complex structure than assumed by its developers (Haeberlin et al., 1989).

The analysis of the two-factor model revealed that all positively worded items loaded on the first factor and all negatively worded items loaded on the second factor. Thus, these subdimensions may be related to the difference in method (response pattern to reverse-scored items), rather than in traits. The presence of two factors and one trait suggests that a bi-factor model (Grygiel, Humenny, Rębisz, Świtaj & Sikorska-Grygiel, 2013; Reise, Scheines, Widaman & Haviland, 2013) may offer an adequate account of the factor structure of the SI. Therefore, we tested a model that assumes the presence of two (mutually orthogonal) classes of factors: a single general factor and two local sub-factors. The general factor (General Social Integration Factor – GSIF) was defined by loadings of all scale items, the first sub-factor only by positively worded items (Positive Social Integration Factor – PSIF), and the second one by negatively worded items (Negative Social Integration Factor – NSIF). This model had good fit parameters (RMSEA = .04, CFI = .98, TLI = .98). The loadings of all items on the GSIF and the NSIF were significant. A problem occurred with the PSIF. Four of eight items had non-significant loadings, so they didn’t contribute to this factor. For this reason, an incomplete bi-factor model was computed with the same structure of factors, except that the PSIF was defined only by four items. This model had good fit statistics (RMSEA = .04, CFI = .98, TLI = .97), and all item loadings on the GSIF, NSIF and PSIF were significant.

ADHD Diagnosis and Sociometric Status Out of 718 children, 14.5% were in the popular group, 12.3% in the rejected

group, 14.1% in the neglected group, 5.6% in the controversial group, and 53.6% in the average group. The MLRE model showed gender-adjusted association between ADHD diagnosis and being in the rejected and neglected groups (p < .01). No statistically significant difference between children with and without ADHD was observed in the likelihood of being in the popular and controversial groups (in relation to the average group). The relative risk ratio (RR) switching from children without ADHD diagnosis to children with ADHD diagnosis was 14.01 for being in the rejected group and 2.25 for being in the neglected group. In other words, the expected risk of being in the rejected and neglected groups was substantially higher for subjects diagnosed with ADHD. While as many as 52.6% of children diagnosed with ADHD belonged to the category “rejected”, only 7.8% of students without a diagnosis of ADHD fell into this category.

The LLRE model proved to fit the data very well: RMSEA = .03, CFI = .99, TLI = .97. Importantly, ADHD diagnosis had a significant negative standardized effect (β = -.33; p < .01) on the LSS. Subjects with ADHD had lower scores in the overall sociometric status as compared to their peers without this disorder.


ADHD Diagnosis and Perceived Integration with Peers As indicated by the RMSEA, CFI and TLI values of .03, .98 and .97,

respectively, the hypothesized model exhibited a good fit to the data. After controlling for gender, ADHD diagnosis was negatively related to the GSIF (β = -.17, p < .01). This means that children with a diagnosis of ADHD viewed their peer relations more negatively than children not diagnosed with ADHD. The regression coefficients for the impact of ADHD diagnosis on both SI sub-factors (i.e., PSIF and NSIF) were statistically non-significant.

Sociometric Status as a Mediator of the Effect of ADHD Diagnosis on Perceived Integration with Peers The SEM assuming not only the effect of the LSS on the GSIF and the effect of

ADHD on the GSIF, but also the impact of ADHD on the LSS, had good fit statistics: RMSEA = .03, CFI =.97, TLI = .97. The regression coefficient for the effect of the LSS on the GSIF turned out to be statistically significant (β = .42, p < .01). The positive value of the coefficient indicates that as the LSS increases – with all other variables in the model controlled – the GSIF score also grows. The regression coefficient for the effect of ADHD diagnosis on the LSS was also significant, but negative (β = -.35, p < .01). This indicates that children with ADHD had lower scores in the overall sociometric status compared to their peers without ADHD.

In the context of our hypotheses, it is important that the direct impact of ADHD diagnosis on the GSIF proved to be statistically non-significant (β = -.03; p = .53). When both ADHD diagnosis and the LSS were introduced to the model, the effect of the LSS remained significant, but the effect of ADHD diagnosis did not. We also calculated the indirect effect of ADHD diagnosis on the GSIF via the LSS. This indirect impact was statistically significant (β = -.15, p < .01). These findings support the view that sociometric status acts as a mediator in the relationship between ADHD diagnosis and perceived integration with peers.

Conclusions

Overall, the findings from our study confirm that ADHD may contribute to both objective (social isolation) and subjective (dissatisfaction with peer relations) social problems. Children with a diagnosis of ADHD were more likely to have a “rejected” and “neglected” status and viewed their peer relations more negatively than children without this diagnosis. These peer relationship difficulties probably result in large part from the very nature of the core symptoms of ADHD (i.e., inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity), which may disrupt social interactions (Hoza, 2007). It seems, however, that additional, underestimated factors aggravating the social problems of individuals labeled ADHD are stigma, prejudices and discrimination (Hoza, 2007; Mueller, Fuermaier, Koerts & Tucha, 2012).

It should be noticed that ADHD diagnosis was found to be a significant predictor of perceived satisfaction with peer relations only when social isolation was not controlled. However, ADHD diagnosis proved to exert an indirect effect on self-perception of peer relationships (i.e., their subjective dimension), through its impact on sociometric status (i.e., the objective dimension of social relations). Sociometric status fully mediated this association.


Our results underscore the relevance of social aspects of ADHD, which should be addressed in the therapeutic programs. The use of stimulant medications and social skills training integrated with behavioral contingency management – as the most effective treatments for peer problems of children with ADHD (Hoza, 2007) – should lead to the reduction of not only present, but also future negative outcomes. No less important is the need to implement intensive and specialized interventions focusing on promoting a positive image of children with ADHD among their peers and on reducing the social stigma attached to this diagnosis. Efforts should be undertaken to educate teachers how they can assist students diagnosed with ADHD to build positive relationships with classmates and avoid social rejection.

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Paweł Grygiel

Educational Research Institute Warsaw, Poland

Grzegorz Humenny

Educational Research Institute Warsaw, Poland

Piotr Świtaj

First Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology Warsaw, Poland

Sławomir Rębisz

Institute of Pedagogy, University of Rzeszów Rzeszów, Poland

Marta Anczewska

First Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology Warsaw, Poland Corresponding author: Dr. habil. Marta Anczewska [email protected]


MARTA ANCZEWSKA, ALICJA MULTARZYŃSKA, JOANNA KRZYŻANOWSKA-ZBUCKA, MARCIN FLAK, MAGDALENA PECCABIN, JOANNA ROSZCZYŃSKA-MICHTA, JUSTYNA WASZKIEWICZ, JUSTYNA TUCHOLSKA

LESSONS FROM THE RECOVERY TRAINING PROGRAMME FOR SERVICE USERS EMPOWERMENT

Abstract

There is no single definition for recovery. The personal recovery is driven by people’s lives, subjective experiences of psychotic crisis and challenges the notion of permanent, chronic mental illness. Several types of activities have an impact on recovery. This paper presents the preliminary results of the twelve hours training focused on the following topics: recovery – individual experiences, barriers in the process of recovery, social and internalised stigma, empowerment, personal strengths, problem solving, personal recovery plan, life narrative story. The participants found it to be a positive experience: helpful and supportive. They agreed that talking of their strengths was much useful and made them feel good. In their opinions’ the most important exercise was personal recovery plan which has given them the opportunity to establish individual, meaningful life goals, provide them with hope and self-determination. These results need replication and further work to identify what were the preconditions for making the training such a valuable experience and how this could be replicated on a wider basis.

Introduction

Persons with mental illness may suffer from self-stigma and diminished self-esteem and self-efficacy as a result (Corrigan & Watson, 2002). Illness identity, defined as the set of roles and attitudes that a person has developed in relation to his or her understanding of having a mental illness, may lead to the negative assumption that mental illness means incompetence, inadequacy and powerlessness (Yanos et al., 2010). This usually starts a process in which the persons become at risk of social exclusion.

The recovery applies to persons who live outside the mental illness. There is no single definition for this phenomenon. It is indicated that this is because recovery is a journey shaped by an individual’s own experiences and stages. It occurs through ongoing transactions between an individual and his or her world (Davidson, 2007; Onken et al., 2007), as a continuing process of change which is not illness focused. What this means is that mental health professionals should be prepared to relinquish power and control and work in meaningful hope-inspiring relationships with people who use their services (Slade, 2009).

Ongoing debate about the recovery forms two groups of definitions which are suggested to be in tension with each other: service-based recovery and user-based recovery. The medical model drives the clinical view of the process – recovery is objective and understood to be a return to a former state of health. Outcomes include reduced symptomatology, no psychiatric hospitalisation, pharmacotherapy compliance and adherence (when needed), full- or part-time involvement in work or

Lessons from the recovery training programme for service users empowerment 312

school (increases a person's self-worth, stabilizes living circumstances and facilitates integration with the community), life independent of supervision, not fully dependent on financial support from disability insurance, relations with friends. The personal view of recovery is driven by people’s lived, subjective experiences of psychotic crisis and challenges the notion of permanent, chronic mental illness (Leamy et al., 2011). Outcomes include empowerment, hope, choice, self-defined goals, meaningful life, hopefulness and self-determination, healing, wellbeing and control of symptoms (Andresen et al., 2011; Adame & Knudson, 2008; Schrank & Slade, 2007). This dynamic process may involve great suffering and unpleasant flash-backs, but it can also lead to self-discovery, self-renewal, and transformation.

The following personal accounts of coping, healing and consideration, however published many years ago, still form stirring examples of users’ recovery and social inclusion perspective:

Recovery is a process, a way of life, an attitude, and a way of approaching the day’s challenges. It is not a perfectly linear process. At times our course is erratic and we falter, slide back, regroup and start again. The need is to meet the challenge of the disability and to re-establish a new and valued sense of integrity and purpose within and beyond the limits of the disability; the aspiration is to live, work, and love in a community in which one makes a significant contribution.

Deegan, 1988, p. 15.

Having some hope is crucial to recovery; none of us would strive if we believed it a futile effort. I believe that if we confront our illnesses with courage and struggle with our symptoms persistently, we can overcome our handicaps to live independently, learn skills, and contribute to society, the society that has traditionally abandoned us.

Leete, 1988, p. 52.

When we are first diagnosed, we must come to terms with the prevailing ideologies regarding people with mental illness. These ideologies segregate people with mental illness from the rest of the population through the enforcement of an ‘us-them’ mentality. Consequently, our identity is challenged as we are placed in the ‘them’ category by virtue of diagnosis.

Schiff, 2004, p. 217.

At a 2004 National Consensus Conference on Mental Health Recovery and Mental Health Systems Transformation organized by SAMHSA (The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration), patients, health care professionals and researchers agreed on ten core principles of recovery orientation: self-direction, individualised and person-centered, empowerment, holistic, nonlinear, strengths-based, peer support, respect, responsibility, hope (http://www.apa.org/monitor/2012/01/recovery-principles.aspx).

Types of recovery activities

Several types of activities have an impact on recovery (Ralph, 2000). There is writing of personal accounts – courageous narratives about the struggle with and overcoming of mental illness and accompanying social challenges, writing

Anczewska, Multarzyńska, Krzyżanowska-Zbucka, Flak, Peccabin, Roszczyńska-Michta, Waszkiewicz, Tucholska 313

describing an evolving sense of self. They often include information about how to recover and how to continue to be well. These may be presented at conferences and workshops, exchanged on the internet, printed in service users’ newsletters or included in peer-reviewed journals.

There are workshops and training in how to recover, run by service providers or / and service users (Anczewska & Ryan, 2009) or the implementation of self management training, based on psychological theory of self-determination (Ryan & Deci, 2000), in a lifelong learning strategy (Cook et al., 2009; Cook et al., 2012; Lucksted et al., 2009). In this framework, lasting health behavior change occurs through autonomous motivation in which actors experience a sense of volition, self-initiation, and endorsement of their behavior.

Allott (et al., 2002) suggests that service users should be supported in their own personal development by helping them to build their self-esteem, to discover identity and to become active participants – as opposed to passive recipients – of their mental health care and regain their role in society.

Other recovery activity is research focusing on recovery. These include a wide variety of methods including consumer surveys, qualitative studies, outcome studies, development and testing of specific interventions, both quantitative and qualitative instrument development, and model development and testing.

The aim of this paper is to share with educators and mental health providers some ideas on life long learning approach which helps service users achieve social stability and inclusion in their everyday lives. The authors present the preliminary results of training program for service users in recovery.

The training process and structure

The learning element of the training is based on learner-centred, team work on issues of common concerns to find solutions for diverse contexts. The workshops prioritise a “three-fold concept” of competence development: developing sensitivity and awareness, knowledge and understanding, individual practice.

Theoretical background of the training is based on empowerment (Linhorst & Eckert, 2003; Zimmerman, 1995) to learn how to gain control over one’s own life; on personal recovery (Adame & Knudson, 2008; Andresen et al., 2011; Cohen, 2005) how to acquire hopefulness and self-determination, rebuilt self-esteem and challenge the notion of permanent, chronic mental illness, on cognitive behavioural theory (Alford & Beck, 1997) how to fight self-stigma, on narrative theories (Pennebaker & Seagal, 1999; Thornhillet al., 2004; Wisdom et al., 2008) how to encouragingly analyse life experiences to establish new meaningful life goals, on illness identity (Yanos et al., 2010) how to overcome the notion that mental illness means incompetence and powerlessness.

The authors of the training follow the concept that if recovery is a journey then the role of trainers is to provide some guidance and sign posts on that journey – moving from alienation to a sense of meaning and purpose it is not to accomplished alone – the journey involves support, empowerment and learning.

The twelve hours training is designed to be delivered by two psychologists and one psychiatrist in maximum ten persons groups. The length of it arrived as a result of evaluation made after the former experience – in 2007 and 2008 the ten hours training “Empowering people in recovery” was run in the Institute.


The content of the training consists of the following topics: recovery – individual experience, internalised stigma, empowerment, personal strengths, problem solving, personal recovery plan, life narrative story (Roszczyńska-Michta et al., 2009), with exercises: working out recovery definition, individual stop over recovery journey, barriers in recovery, personal values and strengths in opposition to stereotypes, identity and social roles, situation-thought-emotion, what makes you feel strong?, being controlled and control others, individual recovery plan, how to manage the problem in regard psychotic crisis, my life is like “a book”.

Each teaching session lasts two hours with short breaks, taught over six weeks, organised in the afternoon in order to not interfere with participants daily duties. People are provided with educational materials to make homework which are discussed during the subsequent sessions. After the module is concluded the participants evaluate the program in regards its usefulness, strengths and weaknesses, peoples needs and expectations, opinions on recovery and ways to accomplish it.

Participants

The service users were contacted through clinical services in the Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology. The announcement titled “Recovery Workshops” was put on the Institute official web side with general training information, a contact person and a telephone number. Service users were invited for an evaluation session during the week after the first contact was made. The decision to participate in the training was strictly voluntary. Inclusion criteria were as follows: aged 18 and over, suffering from schizophrenia or delusional disorders. Patients with active drug or alcohol dependence and severe cognitive deficits were excluded. We decided to train schizophrenia or delusional disorders sufferers since these illnesses are ranked among the leading causes of disability worldwide (Prince et al., 2007).

The recruitment process proved some difficulties namely how to motivate people with psychotic crisis experience to participate in the training. The trainers used some elements of motivational interviewing (Barkhof et al., 2006): a non-judgemental and empathetic attitude and directed conversation about people recovery problems.

The subsequent workshops were run within 24 months (from October 2011 till October 2013). The trainers noticed that the participants usually dropped out from the last training session. In their opinion it might be explained as a form of “overstimulation” and should be taken into consideration when planning the next intervention structure.

70 service users concluded the training. Participants age varied from 20 to 50 years, the women were in majority (67%), as well as people with higher education (61%), unemployed (71%), using mental health services not longer than five years (56%).

Participants’ opinions on recovery In general the service users’ opinions on recovery represent four dimensions:

satisfaction of life – e.g. recovery means better living, accomplish life goals, coping with life challenges; well-being – e.g. recovery it is soma and psyche balance; recovery means accept myself – my failures; social support – e.g. recovery means


having close friends; to recover is to have friendly people around and supportive family; personhood – e.g. recovery means to be a person not a case, to acknowledge that mental illness has no relation to me as a person. These opinions support the notion of personal recovery rather than medical one. Among all the participants there was no single opinion on illness symptoms reduction, medication use or employment in terms of recovery.

Participants’ recommendation on concluding recovery journey In general the trainees’ recommendations were in accordance with Personal

Assistance in Community Existence A recovery guide (Ahern & Fisher, 1999): recovery beliefs – e.g. it is useful to think of the future instead of the past unpleasant experiences; recovery relationships – e.g. a person should have supportive friends and trust in God, it is helpful to talk with people with the same experience; recovery skills – e.g. a person should found new goals, it is helpful to know that everyone may fail and should forgive himself; recovery identity – e.g. think of you as a husband not a psychiatric patient. In their recommendations the participants didn’t refer to recovery community, namely work or helping others.

Participants’ reactions to the training All of the participants, who took part in the sessions showed full engagement

with the training, however not all of them did homework completely and carefully. They underlined that talking of their strengths was much helpful and made them feel good. In their opinions’ the most useful exercise was personal recovery plan which has given them the opportunity to establish individual, meaningful life goals, provide them with hope and self-determination. During the following sessions the group shared: friendliness and gratitude to each other and facilitators.

The current study supports the ongoing debate about the two groups of recovery definitions: service-based recovery and user-based recovery. Among all the participants of the training there was no single opinion on service-based recovery namely illness symptoms reduction, medication use or employment. They focused on dimensions of personal recovery: life satisfaction, well-being, social support, personhood. The participants didn’t also refer to recovery community, this can be explained by organizational factors – there are hardly any recovery-promoting initiatives in Polish mental health system.

Conclusions

There is no single definition for the recovery. It is suggested that this is because recovery is a journey shaped by an individual’s own experiences and stages. The twelve hours training focused on the principles of recovery orientation was positively judged by service users suffering from schizophrenia – they found it helpful and supportive. The participants highly rated the session on personal strengths and on personal recovery plan which have given them the opportunity to establish individual, meaningful life goals, provide them with hope and self-determination. These results need replication and further work to identify what were the preconditions for making the training such a valuable experience and how this could be replicated on a wider basis.


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Marta Anczewska Alicja Multarzyńska Joanna Krzyżanowska-Zbucka Marcin Flak Magdalena Peccabin Joanna Roszczyńska-Michta Justyna Waszkiewicz Justyna Tucholska First Psychiatric Department, Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology Warsaw, Poland Corresponding author: Dr. habil. Marta Anczewska [email protected]


IZABELA NOWAK, PIOTR ŚWITAJ, KATARZYNA CHARZYŃSKA, MARTA ANCZEWSKA

SOCIAL INCLUSION THROUGH INTERVENTIONS TARGETING PSYCHOSOCIAL DIFFICULTIES IN SCHIZOPHRENIA

Abstract

Personal recovery has three main dimensions: hope, agency and opportunity. The opportunity links it with social inclusion and thus peoples’ participation in a wider society. Schizophrenia as a complex mental health disorder is ranked among the leading causes of disability worldwide. It influences all major areas of life: emotional and cognitive functions, relationships with others, employment and social activities participation. This paper addresses some of the crucial social challenges faced by schizophrenia sufferers and provides examples of interventions aiming to counteract their social exclusion.

Introduction

Social inclusion is defined as a consequence of a complex interactions between personal and environmental characteristics, which enhances a person’s opportunities in gaining access to community-based resources and activities, performing valued and expected social roles relevant to age, gender and culture; being appreciated as a competent individual who is trusted as to social roles performance and belonging to a social networks which are the source of mutual support (Cobigo et al., 2012).

Traditional measures of social inclusion used to be related to financial well-being, consumption and income acquisition which consequently lead to solutions focused on addressing employment issues (Cobigo et al., 2012). Although, the relevance of these factors is unquestionable, the psychological well-being and social connectedness should be taken into consideration (Craig et al., 2007; Sherwin, 2010). Personal change, empowerment, social reengagement and creation of accepting social environments are important aspects of recovery from schizophrenia (Tew et al., 2011; Warner, 2009).

Contemporary psychosocial approach focuses on psychological and contextual factors guiding progression beyond the psychological effects of schizophrenia towards an illness acceptance, service users’ strengths, shared decision-making and social inclusion (Bevan et al., 2013; Slade, 2009). It may also refer to the societal perspective of psychosocial difficulties such as formal and informal organizations which provide services related to community activities, work environment, government agencies, communication, legislation or attitudes and ideologies (WHO, 2001b).

In recent years there has been growing interest in the idea of recovery from mental illness, not in the sense of clinical cure but rather in terms of being able to lead a meaningful and satisfying life, despite symptoms and problems (Bevan et al., 2013). Personal recovery has three main dimensions: hope, agency and opportunity. The opportunity links recovery with social inclusion and thus peoples’ participation in a wider society.

Izabela Nowak, Piotr Świtaj, Katarzyna Charzyńska, Marta Anczewska 319

Schizophrenia is a complex mental health disorder which is ranked among the leading causes of disability worldwide (Prince et al., 2007). Although various degrees of recovery from schizophrenia are possible (Harrow et al, 2005), many of those affected suffer from a substantial decline in their functioning and ability to reach their full potential. An international study using data from 37 countries found that over three quarters of patients with schizophrenia did not achieve functional remission and less than a quarter were in paid employment (Haro et al., 2011). Important challenges on the way to recovery from schizophrenia are stigma and discrimination (Brohan et. al., 2010; Thornicroft et al., 2009) as well as lack of social policies addressing the needs of service users in the workplace and in the society (WHO, 2001b).

The aim of this article is to share with academics and mental health providers some ideas regarding major environmental barriers to social inclusion of people diagnosed with schizophrenia and psychosocial interventions targeting these barriers.

Psychosocial difficulties in schizophrenia and their conceptualization

The WHO’s International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), based on a biopsychosocial approach, indicates that a person’s functioning depends on the interaction between health conditions and contextual factors (personal and environmental) and is not necessarily a direct consequence of health problems (WHO, 2001a). Living with schizophrenia goes beyond the presence of psychopathological symptoms and involves difficulties related to biological, psychological and environmental factors (Broome et al., 2005). The most frequent psychosocial difficulties in schizophrenia are related to the areas of psychopathology, overall disability and functioning, relationships with others, cognitive functions, emotional functions, quality of life and wellbeing, employment, and energy and drive (Świtaj et al., 2012).

Community-based services provision

Modern mental health policies promote community-based services, which foster person-centred, recovery-focused care, thus contributing to social inclusion of people with schizophrenia (Cobigo & Stuart, 2010). Services user-run, self-help or mutual support activities are based on a more democratic and less hierarchical approach than traditional services (Brown et al., 2008). Drop-in centres, residential programs, outreach services or vocational programmes run by paid stuff with mental health disorders provide an opportunity for helping oneself and others through recognizing one’s own potential to help others or through gaining inspiration from role models (Linhorst, 2006). Good practices of mobilizing the power in relationships with others are implemented in the Hearing Voices Network, where voice-hearers support each other by sharing ideas for understanding and managing of their voices (Tew et al., 2011). Rethink (www.rethink.org) is the largest severe mental illness charity for users, carers and professionals or volunteers working in the mental health field. It provides a wide range of community services including employment projects, supported housing, day services, help lines, residential care, and respite centres. Social enterprise model recognizing the importance of

Social inclusion through interventions targeting psychosocial difficulties in schizophrenia 320

sustainable supportive communities construction which develop their own businesses and infrastructure is an alternative approach (Mandiberg, 2012).

Stigma and discrimination

People with mental health problems experience discrimination in terms of initiating and maintaining friendships, intimate relationships, employment or housing possibilities (Thornicroft et al., 2009). The internalization of stigma negatively affects hope and self-esteem (Yanos et al., 2008), self-efficacy (Kleim et al., 2008), social adjustment (Perlick et al., 2001) and psychological and subjective well-being (Magallares et al., 2013).

The GAMIAN-Europe study run among service users with a diagnosis of schizophrenia or other psychotic disorder across 14 European countries (Brohan et al., 2010) points out that 41.7% of respondents reported moderate or high levels of self-stigma, while 69.4% – moderate or high perceived discrimination. Negative attitudes towards persons with mental illnesses which are held not only by the general public, but also by employers and healthcare professionals may undermine people’s sense of competence (Cobigo & Stuart, 2010; Hughes et al., 2009; Marwaha et al., 2007).

It has been suggested that mass anti-stigma interventions targeting the general public may disrupt the vicious cycle of negative feedback caused by public stigma, consequently reducing self-stigma among people with mental health problems (Evans-Lacko et al., 2012).

“Open the Doors” program uses social marketing techniques to raise awareness about mental health problems (Warner, 2005), aims to decrease the need within the social mainstream to keep social distance from people with mental health problems (Tew et al., 2011).

“Like Minds, Like Mine” (http://www.likeminds.govt.nz/) develops its anti-stigma messages by working with consumers and family members and listening to their views.

“StigmaBusters” fights the inaccurate, hurtful representations of mental illness, breaks down the barriers of ignorance, prejudice, or unfair discrimination by promoting education, understanding and respect.

“In Our Own Voice: Living with Mental Illness” (www.nami.org/template.cfm? section=In_Our_Own_Voice) offers video and presentation materials which can be used by trained consumers and families to present on mental illness in their communities.

Housing

Safe and reasonably priced housing is crucial for people with mental health problems (Linhorst, 2006). It may improve their level of social functioning, care satisfaction (Fakhoury et al., 2002) and quality of life (Nelson et al., 2006). The unavailability of low-cost accommodation and landlords’ unwillingness to rent it to people with mental health problems is the main barrier to independent living, which is more socially including than living in residential settings (Linhorst, 2006; De Heer-Wunderink et al., 2012).


Supported housing – a stable accommodation with mental health professionals’ assistance is an empowering intervention where people have influence over their place of residence and have a control over the way of living in this place. Living with family members or psychiatric group homes have been rated as least empowering, probably due to perceived control (Chilvers et al., 2006; Linhorst, 2006).

Employment and work environment

Work plays an important role in the process of recovery (Shepherd et al., 2008), improves clinical condition and diminishes emotional discomfort (Bell et al., 1996), mitigates sense of purposelessness and feeling of alienation. Employment promotes financial independence, subjective sense of empowerment and integration into the community (Linhorst, 2006). People diagnosed with schizophrenia are much less likely to be employed compared to the general population (Haro et al., 2011). Self-employment, social enterprises, sheltered workshops or volunteer work are the on-hand labour market solutions.

Supported-employment programs are interventions useful in finding competitive employment and working more hours (Bond et al., 2012), however long-term outcomes suggest that in many cases it does not result in full employment and financial independence (Dixon et al., 2010) due to: clinical problems, disability policies, local economy, governmental and labour law regulations or stigma and discrimination (Bond & Drake, 2008; Rosenheck et al., 2006). Frequently supported-employment programs require health insurance coverage (Harvey et al., 2012).

The governments of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development member countries have implemented a variety of labour market initiatives to diminish unemployment rate among people with disabilities: changes in legislation, benefits for employees and return-to-work planning. The impact of these initiatives is not noticed due to the low awareness and low take-up (Clayton et al., 2011).

Welfare system and legislation

An inadequate benefit and welfare system may create significant barriers to employment and social inclusion (Bevan et al., 2013). Various policy and legislation initiatives are undertaken in order to remove these barriers.

The Universal Credit (UC) will enable people with disabilities to work part time and not to lose the majority of their benefits (Department for Work and Pensions, 2013). It is hoped that people with schizophrenia who start receiving social security disability benefits will remain on them permanently (Goldman, 2010), despite being employed. The Affordable Care Act passed in 2010 in the United Stated gives people with schizophrenia access to health insurance either through work or by qualifying for a range of public and private plans, which were not available before (Goldman et al., 2013).


Conclusions

The protection and treatment of people with mental disorders became a fundamental human right (UN, 1991) recognizing the need of life free from prejudges, protection from social exclusion and the right to receive best available treatments. The WHO Global Mental Health Action Plan (2013) goes even further, highlighting the need of applying evidence-based therapies and empowerment paradigm.

This paper illustrates the environmental factors that limit social inclusion of people with schizophrenia and provides examples of interventions aiming to counteract social exclusion. Societal barriers: inconsistent mental health policy practice, lack of access to mental health services, shortage of well trained professionals (Becker et al., 2013), lack of coordinated care programs, together with an inappropriate welfare benefits system proved to contribute enormously to the presence of psychosocial difficulties. Interventions targeting these difficulties revolve around increasing access to services, skills acquisition and integration enhancement.

Acknowledgements

The paper is worked out within the scope of the EU funded project MARATONE – Mental Health Training through Research Network in Europe. The project has received funding from the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement nº 316795.

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Yanos, P. T., Roe, D., Markus, K., Lysaker, P. H. (2008): Pathways between internalized stigma and outcomes related to recovery in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Psychiatric Services, 59(12), 1437-1442.

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Izabela Nowak Piotr Świtaj Marta Anczewska

First Psychiatric Department, Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology Warsaw, Poland

Katarzyna Charzyńska

Rehabilitation Clinic, Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology Warsaw, Poland

Corresponding author: Izabela Nowak, MA [email protected]


GERTRUDE SHOTTE

INTERNATIONALISATION, REGIONALISATION AND LOCALISATION: REFLECTIONS ON CO-HABITATION IN ‘THE THIRD SPACE’ IN TERTIARY EDUCATION

Abstract

Globalisation, with all its varying facets, has forced education systems around the world to look for ways and means whereby they can operate productively and progressively within a global education agenda. This paper espouses a Caribbean perspective. It takes two themes that intercept on global levels – Henry’s (2012) ‘internationalisation spirit’ and George and Lewis’ (2011) ‘creation of a third space’ – and analyses them against the backdrop of tertiary educational activities in global, regional and local contexts. A review of related literature is used for this purpose. The main aim of the paper is to explore the likelihood of tertiary education at the University of the West Indies (UWI) making educational gains in ‘a third space’ where the principles of internationalisation, regionalisation and localisation cohabit. Initial impressions from the analysis shows that different types of relationships exists between the interacting elements and that the resulting dialectics are just as useful for tertiary education advancement, as the mutual alliances. Key Words: localisation, regionalisation, cultural hybridity, indigenous knowledge,

UWI, internationalisation, globalisation, ‘third space in education’

... Internationalism also recognizes, by its very name that nations do exist. It simply limits their scope more than one-sided nationalism does.

Christian Lous Lange

Regionalism presented some obstacles in the past,… But the boundaries are beginning to disappear and we have this wonderful, intellectual synergism.

William Jenkins

... When applied to economics, connectedness seems to take the form of chain stores, multinational corporations, and international trade treaties which wipe out local enterprise and indigenous culture...

Malcolm Margolin

Introduction

No country, developed, developing or underdeveloped, can escape the clutches of globalisation. Its very nature – its varying facets and far-reaching activities – has rendered it ubiquitous. Little wonder that education systems around the world are looking for ways and means whereby they can operate productively and progressively within a global education agenda. This paper attempts to explore issues relating to internationalisation, regionalisation and localisation, concepts that are inextricably linked to globalisation. The space afforded for this paper is insufficient to have a full-scale discussion on these three big concepts, which have

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far-reaching implications for societal institutions, and by extension, individual nation communities. In fact, it is a compressed version of a piece of writing that is being written for another academic target. The paper will therefore take a peek at how the concepts in question impact on tertiary education. It espouses a Caribbean perspective. The discussion is framed within two themes that intercept on global levels – Henry’s (2012) ‘internationalisation spirit’ and George and Lewis’ (2011) ‘creation of a third space’.

The main aim of the paper is to explore the likelihood of tertiary education, at the tertiary level educational institutions in the Caribbean, including University of the West Indies (UWI), making educational gains in ‘a third space’ where the principles of internationalisation, regionalisation and localisation cohabit. To do this, the following overarching question was used to guide the process: What are the possibilities for tertiary education in the Caribbean to make educational gains in ‘a third space’ where the principles of internationalisation, regionalisation and localisation cohabit? To strengthen the discussion, the paper identifies and briefly explains the global ‘scapes’ that inspire and sustain intellectual capacity. It next presents an overview of tertiary education in the Caribbean. It then introduces Henry’s (2012) ‘internationalisation spirit’ and George and Lewis’ (2011) ‘creation of a third space’ to the discussion before turning its attention to the interconnectedness of the concepts under scrutiny with regard to ‘cohabiting and making educational progress in ‘a third space’’. This entails demonstrating how tertiary educational activities are played out in global, regional and local contexts.

The paper acknowledges the intricate relationship that exists between internationalisation, regionalisation and localisation; so following the ‘Methodology’ section, it gives some details about how these are conceptualised within given contexts.

The Methodology

The paper utilises a literature-based methodological approach. This approach should not be viewed as using the literature as a process of empirical research, but rather as an approach “where existing literature is the population” (Comerasamy, 2012). It is from this ‘population’ that the researcher gets the all information he/she needs for data-collection and analysis. Unlike the meta-analysis approach that focuses “on data, as reflected by the operationalization of variables, the magnitude of effect sizes, and the sample sizes”, this ‘narrative review’ method is of a qualitative nature (King & He, 2005, p. 670). The area of concern is on the conclusions that are reached from the various studies that researchers have conducted and from other narrative reviews. Still, this literature-based approach can be used “to build a scientific knowledge base” (Rumrill & Fitzgerald, 2001, pp. 165-170). Employing Rumrill & Fitzgerald’s general guidelines on how this type of research should be conducted, for this paper, having identified the area for research and decided on what should be included, I next selected studies that relate to this area and identified themes that have emerged from the selected studies. I then analysed the selected studies and other narrative reviews and made inferences from them.

Like all other data-collection methods, the literature-based approach has its limitations. Because it is characterised by qualitative design principles, the issue of

Internationalisation, Regionalisation and Localisation: Reflections on Co-habitation in ‘the Third Space’ 328

subjectivity surfaces with regard to determining which studies to select, how they are analysed and how conclusions are drawn. There is also the question of researcher bias because of personal experiences and/or the area of expertise. This can lead to the possibility of making incorrect assertions, or even making erroneous inferences. Rumrill & Fitzgerald note another problem that can surface – determining and integrating possible complex interactions when a large set of studies is involved (ibid). In carrying out research for this paper, I was mindful of the demerits of the literature-based approach used, and therefore took care to keep them at as low a level as possible.

Conceptual Notions

Internationalisation, regionalisation and localisation are the key concepts that feature in this paper. Because of their special relationship with globalisation, this concept will also be in focus.

Internationalisation: Over the past decade or so, internationalisation has been linked to, and explained from a Higher Education (HE) perspective (Wang, 2002; Qiang, 2003; Jones & Brown, 2007; Fielden, 2008). A popular conceptualisation comes from Knight (2004, p. 7) who advances that when universities make a deliberate effort to “integrate an international dimension” into their teaching learning and research activities and service functions, this gives then an international stance. This suggests that universities remain nationalised or localised if they do not integrate international dimensions. But generally, research activities at universities, which include knowledge expansion, do give them an international outlook, however ‘small’. It seems then, that it is the extent to which they embrace integration that gives them an internationalised status. Kishun (2007, p. 463) asserts that national or local polices are quite useful “in providing a broad framework within which a higher education sector can strategically develop to take advantage of opportunities to internationalise”. Bringing UWI in the frame, as a regional institution, it becomes an imperative for it to be fully regionalised while taking advantage of opportunities to internationalise.

Regionalisation: To take the ‘sting’ from the task of defining a very complex concept, I begin with explaining what region means in its simplest sense. Geographically, it is a group of countries in the same area, as in the Caribbean Region. Much more involved is regionalisation which Hurrell (2007, p. 4) explains as: the “societal integration and the often undirected process of social and economic interaction”. The economic link is instructive as this seems to have given rise to regionalism which is markedly different to regionalisation. Regionalism is “the formal process of intergovernmental collaboration between two or more states” (Ravenhill, 2008, p. 174). The main difference here appears to be in the ‘official’ and ‘unofficial’ nature of the interactions. Beeson (2007, p. 5) share a similar view by emphasizing that the latter is the set of conscious activities carried out by states within a region to cooperate while the former is a less conscious process which is the outcome of these states policies.

To return to the economic link mentioned in the previous paragraph, the 1980s economic downturn caused Caribbean regional economies to slide into deep recession (Miller, 1992, p. 28). Educational progress was retarded. It was by means of ‘Regionalism’ that new educational policies and programmes were endorsed and

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subsequently implemented across the entire Caribbean region (CARICOM Secretariat, 1993, p. 69). Regionalism is defined as:

… A way of doing, thinking, feeling, which seeks to identify, give meaning to, acknowledge the integrity of common and unique Caribbean Communities, and also to pool these various experiences obtained from institutions and from persons in order to compel an action (CARICOM Secretariat, 1993, p. 5).

Regionalisation too played a significant part in effecting social and economic interaction throughout the region. The ‘new wave of regionalism’ that is dominating nation’s agenda is tightly knotted to the “current transformation of the world, especially globalisation” (Söderbaum & Sbragia, 2010, p. 9). This can greatly compromise national and local values and traditions.

Localisation: Explained in layman’s terms, to localise is to be converted into local with reference to one’s outlook and actions within a specific area. Used in this context, localisation is tied to traditions and culture; so phrases such as ‘local food’, ‘local church’ and ‘local music’ are common expressions in Caribbean societies. ‘Native’, ‘indigenous’ and ‘national’ also represent ‘local’ where ‘local’ is a subset of ‘national’. It is probably in this sense that ‘local’ has gained a meaning of its own, outside of academic circles (Jean-Sebastien, 2009; Waters, 1995). And, as George and Lewis (2011, p. 722) point out, “local knowledge” does not get the attention it deserves in on national, regional and international education agendas. The irony here is that particular local activities are often seen as reflections of the overall national purpose. Still, internationalisation, regionalisation and localisation are linked on global levels.

Globalisation: For this paper, to explain globalisation, I borrow a conceptualisation from Maringe, Foskett and Woodfield (2013) who see globalisation as: “a term describing world-scale transformations taking place in the political and ideological, the technical and economic, and the social and cultural aspects of life” (p. 12). Globalisation has positive and negative consequences (Chirico, 2014; Steger, 2003), but either way no nation is immune to its impact because of the power of its ‘flows’.

Global ‘Scapes’

Appadurai (1996) identified five ‘scapes’ – ethnoscape, technoscape, finanscape, mediascape and ideoscape. These are factors that contribute to the global flow of ideas and information. They are not static but continue to evolve to fit the various situations in which they operate. There is an inextricable relationship between the scapes. Ethnoscape has to do with global migratory patterns; technoscapes employ technology to link people of all cultures together; this second scape is closely tied to the economy that goes up and down at will, hence the finanscapes; mediascapes bring about information flows via media outlets such as television, radio and newspaper; and ideoscapes “centre on the ideologies of a government and those that oppose it and is highly dependent on the context of the spectator” (Hogan, 2010). The interaction between the different scapes and the perceptions formed about peoples and global cultures all have serious implications for education activities around the world.


Tertiary Education

The focus here is on the Caribbean. Professor Andrew Downes, UWI, explains tertiary education this way: “all post secondary education consisting of a mix of private and public universities, colleges, technical and vocational institutes / colleges / polytechnics and professional schools offering certificates, diplomas and degrees” (Downes, 2013). UWI is the Regional University with four campuses – Mona, Jamaica; Cave Hill, Barbados; St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago; and the Open Campus that operates in sixteen countries in the English-speaking Caribbean. This position gives UWI much responsibility in sustaining tertiary education programmes in the Region. An objective of UWI Tertiary Level Institutions Unit (TLIU) is: “to design, procure funds for and manage special projects to address identified tertiary education development needs” (UWI, 2014). Enhancing the capacity of regional TLIUs and managing the processes between them will assist in cultivating an ‘internationalisation spirit’.

An ‘Internationalisation Spirit’

The ‘internationalisation spirit’ is more than establishing international links and partnerships. The goal should be to go beyond what is expected, that is, to meet, and exceed international standards. When this is done then UWI would be in a position to establish an international reputation that is based on quality. But having this reputation is insufficient if UWI should maintain a very high status with regard to international engagement with other universities. What is needed is to saturate the institution with high quality educational activities that have robust international dimensions. This is what having and ‘internationalisation spirit’ entails (Henry, 2012). Mr. Sharan Chandradath Singh Director, Office of Institutional Advancement and Internationalisation, UWI, St. Augustine, adopts a similar stance by noting:

Our regional character will be the basis for our international engagement. The UWI is unique in the global setting (its regional reach, its areas of focus, its history, its dominant role in Caribbean society)... We understand and have embraced this uniqueness and it is on this basis that we will engage the rest of the world to collaborate and compete (cited in Henry, 2012).

To underline its commitment to cultivating ‘an internationalisation spirit’, UWI established the Office of Regionalisation and Internationalisation (ORI) to oversee international affairs. Dr Fisher, Director of the International Office, sees ORI as “an advocate for the things we need to do to become further internationalised” (cited in Henry, 2012). But how can this attitude facilitate operating within ‘a third space’?

The ‘Third Space’

The international, the regional and the local each has special features but each shares a complex interrelationship that is framed by ‘cultural hybridity’. Herein lies the ‘third space’. George and Lewis (2011, p. 725) assert: “it is in this third space that there are possibilities for the transformation of different strands of knowledge into new hybrid understandings”. With reference to education, it is in this ‘third space’ that indigenous knowledge can gain prominence in institutions’ curricula. To

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cite an example, the primary school Social Studies syllabus has as one of its theme, ‘Interdependence of World Peoples’. This can be developed from local, regional and international perspectives, thus providing a ‘global’ foundation for understanding similar themes at secondary and tertiary levels. The situation provides many educational opportunities for internationalisation, regionalisation and localisation to cohabit in ‘a third space’.

Concluding Remarks

The paper considered this question: What are the possibilities for tertiary education in the Caribbean to make educational gains in ‘a third space’ where the principles of internationalisation, regionalisation and localisation cohabit? Initial impressions from the analysis shows that different types of relationships exists between the interacting elements and that the resulting dialectics are just as useful for tertiary education advancement, as the mutual alliances.

The Caribbean is in a unique position where ‘small’, as far as land mass is concerned, can be used as an advantage. The Caribbean’s history with its European colonisers, particularly England, France, Spain and Holland has always kept islanders linked, visibly or invisibly, by an ‘international thread’ to these countries. Another ‘international thread’ is attached from the English-speaking Caribbean to the Commonwealth. A similar thread links the Caribbean to North America where funding agencies have played a significant role in its education expansion programmes. Moreover, there are strong ties with Latin America; not in the way that the literature often groups Latin America and the Caribbean together as if they were literally one and the same thing, but historically and geographically (where the common denominator is the shores of the Caribbean Sea). The countries also experience various types of connections made via educational institutions and other regional organisations. Besides, each country has its unique ‘local’ story.

The introduction of indigenous knowledge into the formal education systems, and aligning it to regional educational activities can only serve to strengthen the case for cultivating an ‘internationalisation spirit’. This very framework clearly demonstrates that internationalisation, regionalisation and localisation cohabit in ‘a third space’ with strong possibilities of making educational advancement.

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University of the West Indies. http://www.caribank.org/uploads/2013/05/The-Case-Study-of-UWI.pdf. Accessed February 2014.


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ELIZABETH ACHINEWHU-NWORGU & QUEEN CHIOMA NWORGU

MITIGATING CIRCUMSTANCES IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Abstract

This paper explores the extenuating circumstances that have a direct impact on Higher Education students’ academic progress. It looks at the rules and regulations of two Higher Education Institutions in the UK to determine whether they are in line with basic human rights policies. It also seeks to find out how students’ educational progress has been affected by mitigating circumstances. The paper utilises case studies of students who have experienced difficult circumstances over which they had no control, and have therefore had extended interruptive periods in their education, which adversely affected their education progress. The paper also reviews the rules and regulations of the two institutions concerned. The findings from the analysis of the case studies and the two institutions’ rules and regulations show that mitigating circumstances do have some negative impact on students’ academic progress. The findings also show that educational institutions need to pay closer attention to basic human rights principles in helping students to progress.

Introduction

This paper looks at mitigating circumstanced in Higher Education (HE). It explores the extenuating circumstances that have a direct impact on Higher Education students’ academic progress. Students from three London Universities were used for this purpose. The rules and regulations of these two Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) were examined to determine whether they are in line with basic human rights policies. The paper also seeks to find out how the educational progress of selected students from these two HEIs has been affected by mitigating circumstances. To support the discussion, the paper utilises case studies of students who have experienced difficult circumstances over which they had no control, and have therefore had extended interruptive periods in their education.

What are Mitigating Circumstances?

Generally, to mitigate something is to decrease its harmful effects. From an educational point of view, it has a similar in that HEIs make an effort to lessen the harmful situations that can have an adverse effect on students’ achievement and aspirations. But why is there a need for mitigation at HEIs? The way of life in the twenty first century is fast-going in many respects and there are many situations that impact students’ personal and academic life in one way or another. Some of the circumstances are beyond students’ control. When this happens and students are unable to produce the best work possible on given assignments and coursework, HEIs employ mitigation.

One of the universities that the participants for this research attend defines mitigating circumstances as: “unforeseen, unpreventable circumstances that significantly disrupt student performance in assessment” (Birkbeck, 2013). For this definition, Birkbeck explains: “‘assessment’ relates to any form of assessment including coursework, reports, essays, examinations, laboratory work, in-class tests,

Mitigating Circumstances in Higher Education 334

projects, dissertations etc”. The second HEI that participants attend used the following definition: “Mitigating circumstances are defined by the University as circumstances that are acute, severe, unforeseen and outside a student’s control that occur immediately before or during the assessment period in question” (London Metropolitan University, 2013).

Another university explains that there are times when circumstances or events beyond students’ control may adversely affect their ability to perform in an assessment to their full potential or to complete an assignment by the set deadline (University of Manchester, 2012). In explaining what mitigating circumstances entails, the University of Nottingham (2013) describes the condition by noting that during the course of students’ study, they “may encounter significant personal difficulties that are outside their control and impact on their ability to study and/or complete assessments”. The University also point out that it refers to these difficulties as Extenuating Circumstances. One university defines extenuating circumstances as:

…circumstances beyond the student’s control which either prevent the student from submitting a piece of course work or sitting an examination, or cause the student to perform less well in his or her course work or examinations than he or she might otherwise have been expected to do [on the basis of other work] (Queen Margaret University, 2011).

Other accounts have also used the expression ‘extenuating circumstances’ in the context and sense that the term ‘mitigating circumstances’ is used (Grove, 2014; Koletsi-Kounari, Polychronopoulou, Reppa & Teplitsky, 2011). The third HEI that participants attend employs that same term. London South Bank University (LSBU, 2013) explains:

Extenuating circumstances (ECs) should satisfy all of the following criteria, namely they should be circumstances that are: “non-academic; unexpected; significantly disruptive; arising from matters beyond a student’s control; likely to have affected the student’s academic (including clinical) performance (or ability to attend in whole or part) to an extent that is material.” (Academic Regulations for Taught Programmes (ARTP) 2010-2011, 12.86) (Cited in LSBU, 2013).

In light of the above, this paper will use both terms – extenuating or mitigating circumstances. It should be noted that some conditions are not normally accepted as mitigating circumstances:

• failure to read the examination timetable or coursework deadline properly • pressure of work • failure to save work properly • minor illnesses or self-induced conditions (colds, hangovers etc.) • religious festivals • domestic or personal disruptions which may have been anticipated (e.g.

moving house, holidays etc.) • sporting fixtures (University of Leicester, 2013).

Elizabeth Achinewhu-Nworgu & Queen Chioma Nworgu 335

Considering definitions above, it can be seen that assessment is at the heart of HEIs’ mitigation policies and procedures. The next section will look at how HEIs deal with mitigating circumstances.

How Mitigating Circumstances Impact on Students’ Performance

The remarks made in this section are based on personal experiences and informal conversations that I have had with some colleagues.

Mitigating circumstances affect students’ ability to make educational progress in various ways. Unforeseen events such as having a learning difficulty, becoming physically disabled, contracting an unbearable disease, being struck with a severe illness, the sudden or anticipated death of a loved one or dealing with a family crisis can hinder students from meeting assessment deadlines. As a result, it may be necessary to ask for an extension. Additionally, some students cannot cope with examinations in times like these, because they only serve to add more stress to an already stressful state of affairs. Some situations may get so serious that they create financial hardship for students. These circumstances can also make students lose their academic focus because they are unable to concentrate on anything other than their present adverse situation. Sometimes the situation is such that the students are forced to take away from their studies. The situations described here are quite similar to the uncontrolled events that universities speak of (University of Nottingham, 2013; University of Manchester, 2012).

Some mitigating circumstances are more serious than others. Therefore, when possible, students should play their part in their own learning as this is his/her responsibility. It might be a case of time management – being able to structure one’s work in time-periods that are manageable. It is also beneficial to talk to those students who have had difficult times and were still able to cope with their studies. Discussing one’s situation with the lecturers can also be a source of encouragement and support. In life, positive and negative situations will always arise, so it is important to develop coping skills. However, all of the extenuating circumstances mentioned above do impact negatively on students’ progress; hence the need for universities to do what is possible to help students to succeed.

How HEIs Deal with Mitigating Circumstances

Universities across the United Kingdom (UK) try to ensure that all their students are in a position to make educational progress. This involves helping the students to deal with any drawbacks or inconvenience in a way that will not prevent them from being successful. Of course, all universities would want to have and maintain a high standard of education. This means that they will do their best to make sure that their standards do not drop because of students’ inability to complete assessment and examination exercises. So in dealing with extenuating circumstances, HEIs have formulated policies and regulations that will help students to cope with any circumstances over which they have little or no control. Students are allowed to submit claims for mitigating circumstances within a given period. Four weeks from the published submission date of the component concerned or the date of the examination is the period given for one of the universities used for this paper has the following procedure in place. It states:


All claims must be submitted to an Undergraduate or Postgraduate Office. Students are however encouraged to submit a claim as soon as practicable. A claim for Mitigating Circumstances may be submitted in relation to:

• non-attendance at an examination; • non-submission of coursework; • impaired academic performance in an examination (London Metropolitan

University, 2013). The second and third universities that the participants attend also have

procedures in place to deal with claims but the time period is different as shown below:

• Students are encouraged to submit their claim for mitigating circumstances in advance and at the earliest opportunity. The final deadline for submission of a claim is normally 1 week after the final assessment for a module unless otherwise stated by the appropriate School.

• Students should adhere where possible to the standard required in Birkbeck Mitigating Circumstances claim form, which should be submitted in accordance with the procedure for submission published by the appropriate School (Birkbeck, 2013).

• The procedures for extenuating circumstances claims represent the University’s concern that a student should not be disadvantaged in their studies by a situation that is beyond their control. If a claim is rejected, it is rejected against criteria. Rejection of an EC claim does not mean that Panel members failed to acknowledge the difficulties of a student’s situation (LSBU, 2013).

Other HEIs across the UK operate a similar policy and procedure system in dealing with extenuating circumstances.

Methodology

This paper made use of a small-scale research. The sample consisted of 30 students who attend three HEIs – Birkbeck (10), London Metropolitan University (12) and London South Bank University (8). The sample was chosen because of convenience. All the participants consented to taking part in the research exercise. Information was collected from the participants by using semi-structured interviews.

Findings and Discussion

Below are some of the responses given to selected questions by selected respondents from the three HEIs that they attend. The responses selected represent a majority view of the participants.

Q1. What is your understanding of mitigating circumstances? Yes, it means students with problems handing in work or left school due to

family issues etc. I had a friend with mitigating circumstances. She lost her dad and went back to Bulgaria for couple of months. She was devastated and did not really want to continue with her programme. However her mum wants her back to the university to finish the course. She came back to the Uni to ask for an extension to submit her missed work; she was told that she had left the matter too late and


therefore no longer fall within the category to be exonerated. Her case was dismissed and she was asked to repeat the year (S1).

Q2. Have you had any mitigating circumstances that affected your studies? Explain what these mitigating circumstances are.

I had a problem with my course. I was studying a law degree that I was enjoying. My best friend had a serious car accident and was in coma in the hospital. All the friends had big shock including me. I was very ill and at the same time visiting him in the hospital for several weeks. I could not attend my lessons then. Unfortunately my friend passed away. I did not see any struggle for career aspirations as anything again. I later regained my confident and decided to go back to finish my law degree. When I met my course tutor to explain my situation, he told me that I did not contact him nor has he got any record of reporting this to the university. He asked me to complete a mitigating circumstances form which I did, my case was dismissed on the ground that this does not fall within extenuating circumstances. I was very upset and I left that institution and changed my course because I could not see my colleagues in year 2 while I am still doing year 1. My case should have gained sympathy but did not (S13).

Q3. Briefly describe the steps used your University in dealing with students with mitigating circumstances.

I have submitted mitigating circumstances a few times, I didn’t ask for the support that I needed in the past and I couldn’t do the exam so I had to submit a request for mitigating circumstances. My mitigating circumstances are always accepted as I have genuine reasons. They asked me if I needed support and this time I said ‘yes, I need it’. I still believe students should be given more support, although they may not want to share personal reasons, this may put people off from appealing (S18).

Q4. How effective would you describe the policy of extenuating circumstances in your university?

The university do have good policy to support people with mitigating circumstances, but very rigid and difficult to convince anyone particularly when you lose a friend so close and important as part of your life. Cases of this nature do not comply with my Uni policy; hence I find it somehow ineffective, not because it was not explained fully to us, but the handling of it by the people involved. Sometimes you look like a fool or seen as telling lies if you do not have an evidence and cases based on loss of friend can make you fail or dropout from Uni and can wreck your career plans as you cannot win based on loss of friend. It can be fairly applied to all, although people should not use it as an excuse not to meet up deadlines and complete set work or not attend lessons (S22).

I had to submit mitigating circumstances due to someone we know passed away. I feel the University could improve the mitigating circumstances by not always assuming that students need a doctor’s note when they submit work late. It could be for other reasons not just to do with sickness or doctors and you can’t get a death certificate to prove why you are off from University, so they need to take this into consideration (S29).


Q5. If you have been a victim of this, how was your case handled by the institution?

Yes, I have been a victim which is the reason why I came back on this course. I was studying a BA Hons in humanities which my case was badly handled. My wife gave birth and I had a lot of duties and responsibilities to support her being our first baby. This affected my attendance and submission of course work. I thought paternity leave was to be granted as a father, my appeal based on extenuating circumstances was refused on the ground that the institution has no provisions on their policy to grant a student paternity leave based on child birth. This is why I think the policy needs revisiting to support students with similar case (S25).

Q6. What would be your suggestions for improvement? Universities to be more rigid and firm with the policy to ensure that students

take their programmes serious, but need to be fair and consistent (S27). Maintain confidentiality considering the sensitivity of some cases which the

student may not wish any other person to know (S24).

All the respondents knew what is meant by mitigating circumstances. This is because the universities made sure that students were given handbooks that contained this information. The respondents also are aware of the policies and procedures that their individual universities had in place to deal with extenuating circumstances. The respondents’ knowledge of mitigating circumstances matched the information stated by their universities (Birkbeck, 2013; London Metropolitan University, 2013). However, based on the responses, it is evident that the respondents are not satisfied with how some cases are handled, as noted in this comment: ‘I find it very ineffective as you can still fail and cannot apply for it based on loss of friend’. One case was dismissed ‘on the ground that this does not fall within extenuating circumstances’ although it seemed that the case, which was the death of someone, falls into the category for mitigating circumstances (University of Nottingham, 2013; University of Manchester, 2012).

The dissatisfaction that was expressed by all the students was not as a result of the universities’ lack of proper guidelines on mitigating circumstances. They have all noted that information relating to the procedures and policies that the universities have in place are very well circulated among students. The problems noted come from the manner in which individual cases are dealt with. The issue of fairness was even mentioned by one student; and this is the issue that universities are trying very hard to address. No university wants to be seen as treating students unfairly.

Conclusion

The paper explores the extenuating circumstances that have had a direct impact on Higher Education students’ academic progress. To do this, it examines some of the policies and procedures used by selected universities in the UK. It also analyses the interview responses given by students who attended three universities – Birkbeck University of London, London South Bank University and London Metropolitan University. These students experienced mitigating circumstances that affected their educational progress. There is need for follow-up research to address issues such as deferrals, appeals, medical certificates, self-certification, confidentiality and how and when to submit claims.


Generally, the findings from an analysis of the HEIs’ rules and regulations show that HEIs in the UK are committed to recognising mitigating circumstances and dealing with them in a manner that will not make students miss out on their education by becoming drop outs. The findings from the analysis of the students’ responses have shown that mitigating circumstances are real and that they should be addressed in a way that benefits students’ educational progress. They also show that HEIs should pay closer attention to basic human rights principles in helping students to progress.

Bibliography Birkbeck (2013): College Policy on Mitigating Circumstances. http://www.bbk.ac.uk/

mybirkbeck/services/rules/mitcircspol.pdf. Accessed 25 February 2014. Grove, A. (2014): Should You Explain a Bad Grade When Applying to College?

http://collegeapps.about.com/od/theartofgettingaccepted/f/explaining-a-bad-grade.htm. Accessed 25 February 2014.

Koletsi-Kounari, H., Polychronopoulou, A., Reppa, C. & Teplitsky, P. (2011): Penalties for Academic Dishonesty in a Greek Dental School Environment. Journal of Dental Education, 75(10), pp. 1383-1389.

London Metropolitan University (2013): Procedures for the submission of Mitigating Circumstances. https://metranet.londonmet.ac.uk/fms/MRSite/psd/AR/Academic%20Regs/ 10_3.pdf. Accessed 25 February 2014.

LSBU (2013): Additional Guidance for Students on Submitting Extenuating Circumstances Claims. http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/esbe/downloads/Additional_guidance_for_students_on_ submitting_EC_claims_FV.pdf. Accessed 25 February 2014.

Queen Margaret University (2011): Extenuating Circumstances - Guidelines for Students and Staff. www.qmu.ac.uk/.../Guidelines%20on%20Ext%20%20Circumstances%2. Accessed 25 February 2014.

University of Leicester (2013): Illness and other Mitigating Circumstances. http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/sas2/regulations/mitigation. Accessed 25 February 2014.

University of Nottingham (2013): Extenuating Circumstances Policy and Procedures. http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/academicservices/qualitymanual/assessment/extenuating-circumstances-policy-and-procedures.aspx. Accessed 25 February 2014.

University of Manchester (2012): Mitigating Circumstances: Guidance for students. http://www.tlso.manchester.ac.uk/map/teachinglearningassessment/assessment/.

Dr Elizabeth Achinewhu-Nworgu Birkbeck University of London & Focus Learning Support UK Ltd United Kingdom [email protected] Queen Chioma Nworgu, MA London Metropolitan University & Focus Learning Support UK Ltd United Kingdom [email protected]


ELIZABETH ACHINEWHU-NWORGU, HELEN NWORGU, JULIE NWORGU

CHILD PROTECTION: A LOOK AT SOME INTERNET REGULATIONS

Abstract As a result of the rapid increase in technological development and the

widespread use of computer-based communication and information sharing via the internet, regulation relating to child protection has become a serious issue of concern. This concern is shared across many countries around the world, including those in Africa. But the issue of child protection seems to have gained more attention in the Western countries than in other parts of the world. Despite its many benefits, however, evidence from research suggests that the internet has become the ‘new medium’ through which some commonly recognised forms of child abuse such as maltreatment, sexual and emotional abuse occur. This has impacted negatively on children’s education. This paper examines the internet regulation for child protection. It discusses the role of educational institutions, regulatory measures and legislation relating to child protection with particular reference to internet-mediated communication. The paper draws on the perceptions of teachers and parents and legislative measures introduced by the European Commission in preventing children from the internet abuse. The paper employs a small-scale research to explore parents’ and teachers’ views about children’s use of the Internet in classrooms and at home. The paper concludes with a set of recommendations and measures aimed at tackling the incidence of internet abuse.

Key words: Internet, globalisation, technology, child protection, legislation and

Human Rights

Introduction

This paper examines internet regulation for child protection in relation to use, misuse and abuse. As a result of the rapid increase in technological development and the widespread use of computer-based communication and information sharing via internet, regulation with regard to child protection has become an issue of serious concern. This issue affects many countries around the world, including African nations, but it seems that it is in the Western World that the issue of child protection is given more attention. In spite of the many benefits that are derived from the use of internet, the evidence from research findings suggests that the internet has become the ‘new medium’ through which some commonly recognised forms of child abuse such as maltreatment, sexual and emotional abuse occur. Such abuse has impacted negatively on children’s education.

Regulatory measures and legislation relating to child protection, with special reference to communicating via the Internet together with the role educational institutions play in this regard are the main areas that this paper will discuss. Attention will be given to the school as well as the home environment. It will draw on legislative measures introduced by the United Nations (UN), the European Commission and national policies and legislations that address child protection from internet abuse. The paper employs a small-scale research to explore parents and

Elizabeth Achinewhu-Nworgu, Helen Nworgu, Julie Nworgu 341

teachers’ views on children use of Internet in classrooms and at home. The sample (teachers, parents and students) used in the study are from two inner London city schools. The perceptions of teachers and parents form part of the discussion. The paper concludes by making some recommendations that may be useful in tacking internet child abuse.

Context

The global advancement of technology and the widespread use of the Internet have meant well for youths as well as adults. The Internet has provided access to a large volume of information that is useful for educational and research activities. From a survey conducted by Internet Society, with reference to attitudes towards the Internet, it was found that 98% of users agreed or strongly agreed that the Internet is essential for their access to knowledge and education; 80% agreed or agreed strongly that the Internet plays a positive role for their individual lives as well as society at large; and approximately 75% of users strongly agreed that access to the Internet allows them to seek any information that interests them (Internet Society, 2013). Interestingly, when the same survey asked about Human Rights in relation to the Internet, 83% of respondents agreed or agreed strongly that access to the Internet should be considered a basic human right; and 89% agreed or agreed strongly that Internet access allows freedom of expression on all subjects, and 86% agreed or agreed strongly that freedom of expression should be guaranteed. Such strong views and widespread use has no doubt put the Internet in very highflying position as far as mass media is concerned.

The popularity that the Internet has gained seemed to have led many parents and adults to believe that it is safe but the evidence shows otherwise. Many children are exploited via the Internet and cyber-bullying is also very prevalent. The issue of online predators has become a very serious concern. Davis (2014) reports on a study by Cox Communications and the Center for Missing and Exploited Children: 51% of parents do not have safety software on their computers, 57% did not know common instant messaging abbreviations, but 61% allow their children to participate in online chats within chat rooms and Internet messaging. The children are just as exposed for Davis (2014) notes from a study carried out by George Washington University found that 54% of the children ages 9 to 12 either thought it was safe to meet someone online, or were unsure about it; 25% revealed their real names online, and 25 per cent thought it was safe to post their address. The Office of Communication (Ofcom) is responsible for regulating communication affairs in the United Kingdom (UK). Ofcom’s 2008 survey reveals: “99% of children across the UK have access to the internet, while 86% have access at home. Concerns associated with children using the internet can be summarised as: accessing inappropriate content, forming online relationships which may be exploitative, identity theft and cyberbullying” (Ofcom, 2009).

The high level of exposure noted from the evidence above has led to much abuse and governments around the world were forced to turn their attention to Internet Regulation – the using laws, rules, policies or procedures to protect the general public from being exploited.

Child Protection: A Look at Some Internet Regulations 342

Policies and Regulations

The public and private sectors make much use of the Internet so there is need for governments to make clear distinctions when formulating policies and laws. This paper is concerned with child protection so any policy makers must have the rights of children as the foundation principle in all the activities that they undertake to regulate the Internet. The Convention on the Rights of the Child in Article 1, defines a ‘child’ as a person below the age of 18 (The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2013). Article 17 of the same Convention states that children have the right to get information from the mass media, including the Internet. As noted earlier, the Internet has been used by predators to exploit vulnerable children, but the issue of exploitation is also addressed by the Convention. Article 36 (Other forms of exploitation) notes: children should be protected from any activity that takes advantage of them or could harm their welfare and development. In terms of protection of children’s rights, Article 4 of the Convention states: Governments have a responsibility to take all available measures to make sure children’s rights are respected, protected and fulfilled (UNICEF, 2013). All the countries that ratify the Convention, in principle, agreed to review their laws that relate to children. This means that these countries are under obligation to protect children from the harm that is done to them via the Internet.

Acts and Legislation

One of the Acts that is in place to deal with grooming is Section 15 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003. It clearly explains the issue of communication with children (under age 16, England but under 17 Northern Ireland) with a view to meeting them to engage in a sexual act. (Northern Island Assembly Research (NIAR), 2010). Internet protection in the UK, as noted in the Byron Review, needs more than legislation to deal with all the harm that children are exposed to while using the Internet. The following is what was proposed:

…a shared culture of responsibility with families, industry, government and others in the public and third sectors all playing their part to reduce the availability of potentially harmful material, restrict access to it by children and to increase children’s resilience (in NIAR, 2010).

The above proposal was accepted and as a result; The UK Council for Child Internet Safety (UKCCIS) was set up (Family Online Safety Institute (FOSI), 2013). It comprises over 200 organisations from different sectors and government institutions in the UK.

Challenges and Problems

Parents and teachers face many challenges in dealing with child protection and Internet safety. This is a serious problem for the entire society and should be addressed in the best way possible. A recent Sky News item reported this from a member of the National Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC), said: “Young people tell us they are experiencing all sorts of new forms of abuse on a scale never before seen. It's now clear that we are facing an e-safety timebomb, with this being one of the biggest child protection issues of our time” (SKY News,


2014). The same report also noted that over 41% of the 11 to 19 age group, and 27% of the 7 to 11 age group “have seen something online in the past 12 months that they found hurtful or unpleasant”.

We live in an age where some children know much more about the surfing the Internet than their parents do. Sometimes, those parents who are very familiar with the Internet believe that because they know how to block certain websites, their children are safe. Also, generally, schools are going to great lengths to make sure that children are safe when they are online. In spite of this, schools and homes are not able to monitor what children get up to when they are on their own. This demonstrates that child protection issues still exist because Facebook, Twitter and Instagram, although useful, can be easily abused.

The Role of Schools/Colleges in Tackling Child Protection

Schools and colleges have a massive role to play in trying to deal with child protection issues. Online sexual abuse is becoming more prevalent. NSPCC (2013) contend that teachers are often in the best position to notice concerns about children who are at risk of abuse. NSPCC also note that the Education Act 2002 gives teachers a statutory responsibility for looking after the welfare of the children. This means that child protection should be on the agenda of schools’ training programmes. Where schools are unable to deal with certain sensitive issues, they should get assistance from government departments that deal specifically with such issues. Schools/colleges can go a long way in tacking children protection issues if they work in close partnership with government bodies that deal with vulnerable children.

Methodology

A small-scale research that used a qualitative design was conducted to get participants’ views on child protection. The main aim of the research was to hear what students has to say about Internet use and to hear teachers and parents’ views about child protection issues. A semi-structured interview and a focus group discussion were used to collect the data. The sample comprised of 30 students aged 17 to 18, 10 parents and 10 teachers from two inner cities London universities – Business and Management departments. Permission was sought from the participants before the research was conducted.

Findings

The findings produced much data and a number of issues were revealed. However, because of space, this paper reports on a small section of the findings. Below are some participants’ comments:

Students There is nothing wrong in using computer to communicate and socialise with

friends and families because we hardly see face to face, but limit what you do with the people you know. It becomes a problem when you start chatting to strangers on the internet, skip or Facebook. (Student 7)


Everybody should take the responsibility of protecting children and every one using computer as there is a lot happening to people on the internet. Watching dangerous films and acts can influence a child to start practicing what they have watched. Government should impose strict laws both at schools, universities and at home usage in particular to help vulnerable children from internet abuse. (Student 19)

Parents Internet access for a child is very worrying particularly when one is at work and

child is at home alone browsing. When at home one can monitor, but it becomes difficult when Mum or Dad is away or sleeping. What is more important is educating them constantly on what they should watch and retrieve and whom to talk to on the web skip. (Parent 1)

I worry much about how my daughter can concentrate completing her assignments as she is always on the skip especially when I am not there to surpervise her work. However, we have a block on her to prevent her access from watching rubbish. That is working for us but she is still hooked on the screen. Shame you cannot block them entirely as computer is needed for her work especially when they are asked by the teacher to use it for information seeking or complete set home work. (Parent 8)

Teachers I should say that embracing new technological development is good for young

people, unlike our days. My worries are that kids of these days get addicted to computer, sometimes doing nothing with than chart, skip and doing irrelevant things with it than their school work. The good thing is that the university has a strict policy of blocking under age sites, but adult can also be abused if not well educated on what is good and bad on the net. It is bad for everybody not just the kids if addicted and hence can affect their academic studies. (Teacher 2)

Admittedly, internet can have both negative and positive impact on a child education. It all depends on how the community and individual perception about it. For me, there is great need for children to access information for academic purposes; however, where it poses a threat on a child is when they digress from the main usage to something that is not acceptable and relevant to their work. Luckily, our institution has a strict policy to block access to certain sites while using the university computers meant to support their studies. However, teachers and institutions can only prevent access to pornographic on-site, but could not extent this power while at home. (Teacher 4)

Discussion

Generally, the findings revealed a number of concerns that children, teachers and parents have as a result of widespread use of the Internet and the number of social networking sites that are available for children to access. All the participants saw the good in the Internet. They spoke much about how the Internet is able to help child to find information that can help them to do their research assignments. They were all anxious to point out that it is not the Internet that is bad, but it is those who use it for wrong purposes. One student saw the danger in ‘chatting to strangers’. Another saw the downside of the Internet as ‘watching dangerous films and acts’.


The fear was that this practice can greatly influence a young person’s way of thinking; and this can be dangerous since it can lead to acting out what was seen. This is perhaps what the teacher meant when she expressed her fears about ‘addiction to the Internet’.

All the participants agreed that the responsibility of dealing with child protection rests with everyone, children as well as adults. The consensus was that the development of successful preventive measures requires the cooperation and involvement of all – government institutions, schools and colleges, community organisations and youth groups that children are members of. These thoughts are in line with the proposal made NIAR (2010) and the principles held by UKCCIS.

The respondents also expressed appreciation for the policies and legislations that the UK government has in place to deal with Internet child protection. A similar thought was expressed for the efforts that the educational institutions are making to formulate policies relating to blocking all harmful Internet sites. NSPCC expresses thoughts in their paper ‘Safeguarding in Education Service’. Generally, the results of the research show that internet regulation is necessary for child protection.

Conclusion and Implications

The main theme of this paper is child protection, in relation to internet regulation. This is necessary because of the rapid increase in technology that has made a number of social networking sites available over the years. It shows that although the Internet is beneficial in many ways, there are some serious problems that arise from its abuse; therefore child protection has become a major issue for countries around the world.

From a small-scale research, the findings from a semi-structured interview and a focus group discussion show that participants have similar concerns to those identified by organisations such as NSPCC and UKCCIS. The common themes are benefits of the Internet, the misuse of social networking and the need for policies and regulation to protect children from harm. Schools and colleges are recognised as having an important role to play in child protection. This has implications for education officials, teachers, parents and children. Education officials should play their part in making policies for regulation for schools and colleges. Teachers should be willing to work alongside government organisations who deal specifically with vulnerable children. They should be alert to any sign of abuse among the children in their care and be willing to act on any problems that they identify. Parents need to monitor children’s activities as closely as possible and be willing to cooperate with the schools in any action that they take to protect children. These measures will only have success if the children themselves are prepared to obey and follow the directions that they are given by parents and teachers. Child protection is a very big issue and should get the full attention of all concerned.


Bibliography Davis, J. (2014): Facts & Figures on Child Internet Safety. http://www.ehow.co.uk/list_

6975665_statistics-internet-safety.html. Accessed 20 February 2014. FOSI (2013): UK Council for Child Internet Safety (UKCCIS). http://www.fosi.org/filings/

66-europe-middle-east-and-africa/804-uk-council-for-child-internet-safety-ukccis.html. Accessed 22 February 2014.

Internet Society (2013): Global Internet User Survey 2012. http://www.internetsociety.org/ surveyexplorer/key_findings. Accessed 20 February 2014.

NIAR (2010): Internet Safety for Children and Young People: Concerns and Policies. http://www.niassembly.gov.uk/researchandlibrary/2010/13210.pdf. Accessed 20 February 2014.

NSPCC (2013): Safeguarding in Education in Service. http://www.nspcc.org.uk/Inform/ resourcesforteachers/good-practice/protecting-children-from-sexual-abuse_wdf96842.pdf. Accessed 20 February 2014.

Ofcom (2009): Protecting Your Children in a Digital World. http://consumers.ofcom.org.uk/ 2011/04/managing-your-media-protecting-your-children-in-a-digital-world/. Accessed 20 February 2014.

Sky News (2014): Internet Safety A ‘Major Child Protection Issue’. http://news.sky.com/ story/1047699/internet-safety-a-major-child-protection-issue. Accessed 20 February 2014.

UNICEF (2013): Fact Sheet: A Summary of the Rights under the Convention on the Rights of the Child. http://www.unicef.org/crc/files/Rights_overview.pdf. Accessed 20 February 2014.

Dr Elizabeth Achinewhu-Nworgu Birkbeck University of London & Focus Learning Support UK Ltd United Kingdom [email protected] Helen Nworgu, MA City University London & Focus Learning Support UK Ltd United Kingdom [email protected] Julie Nworgu, BA Middlesex University London United Kingdom [email protected]


ELIZABETH ACHINEWHU-NWORGU, STEVE AZAIKI, QUEEN CHIOMA NWORGU, HELEN NWORGU

AN INCREASE IN HIGHER EDUCATION FEES AND HUMAN RIGHTS LEGISLATION

Abstract

The issue of rising tuition fee in higher education in the UK and other western countries has been debated by researchers and educators alike. The discussions have shown that the increases have had a negative impact on access, retention and career development. This paper examines the impact of rising tuition fees on access, retention and students’ career development in Higher Education in the UK. It explores the policies and legislation that gave rise to the recent increases and examines whether these rises are in breach of International Human Rights, in particular the right to education. The paper analyses the findings of a small-scale research carried out to get affected students’ and their parents’ views on the HE fee increases and to determine whether the educational institutions’ policies are operating against the human rights laws. Based on the findings of the small scale research, the paper concludes that students’ general education progress and their career development have been negatively affected by the increases in fees, and that institutional policies are in breach of the UK 1998 Human Rights Act.

Introduction

The main focus of this paper is Higher Education (HE) fees increase. Over the past few decades tuition fees have been rising on an annual basis and this has resulted in many debates by educators and researchers in the UK and other western countries, including Africa who rely on British education, hence sponsor students from overseas to study in the UK education institutions. The discussions have shown that the increases have had a negative impact on access, retention and career development. This paper examines the impact of rising tuition fees on access, retention and students’ career development in Higher Education in the UK by carrying out a small-scale research with a selected number of students from three universities. It explores what gave rise to the increase in fees in the UK and looks at some of the consequences of fee increase.

Some colleagues, students and members of the general public, from informal discussions, the fees increase issue has linked it to a violation of human rights. The paper has therefore briefly discussed the UK 1998 Human Rights Act in order to bring an additional perspective to the discussion. Based on the findings of the small scale research, the paper concludes that students’ general education progress and their career development have been negatively affected by the increases in fees.

Some Background Information

The rising cost in tuition fees is not only a concern in the United Kingdom (UK) but also in other parts of the world such as in Nigeria as it affects also the international students who come to the UK to acquire British education. The issue of

An Increase in Higher Education Fees and Human Rights Legislation 348

increase in tuition fees is also a concern in the United States of America (USA) and Canada, among others.

In the UK, the concerns about fees increase came to light when the government stated that it will cease funding the cost of university education. This meant that university students would be responsible for paying their tuition fees. For all students who attend universities in England and Wales, and who began their degree courses in the 2012/2013 academic year, a new procedure for university costs was put in place. There are certain circumstances that govern what fees certain students have to pay. For example, total fees paid depend on where students are from – the European Union/European Economic Area, England, Scotland, Northern Ireland or Wales. Total fees paid also depend on the level that students are studying at – undergraduate or postgraduate level. The following are the tuition fees for undergraduate students from the EU/EEA:

• England and Wales – up to £9,000 per year; • Northern Ireland – up to £3,575 per year; • Scotland – free (British Council, 2013). The British Council also noted that the tuition fees for students who are not

from any of the countries or areas mentioned above vary depending on the course provider.

Belkin (2013) reports on a discussion on the rising fees issue, as debated by three USA professors. Belkin identifies three reasons for the rising costs: (1) the decline in state support for higher education; (2) critics of higher education often blame faculty salaries for rising costs; and (3) the growth in entertainment spending and spending on amenities. The third reason given has to do with competition among universities, therefore many universities “have borrowed millions to build luxury dorms, new dining halls and rock-climbing walls. They also spend millions subsidizing intercollegiate athletics”.

From research work conducted by a policy think-tank in Canada, Habb (2013) notes: “The cost of a university degree in Canada is getting steeper, with tuition and other compulsory fees expected to have about tripled from 1990 to 2017, and students in Ontario are paying most…”.

Generally, for the three countries spoken of in this paper, the raising of tuition fees had much negative impact on students’ career developments. The paper will however focus on the UK because of space.

Some Consequences of Fees Increase

The rise in tuition fees brought about many negative results. This has even caused students to protest. Vasagar (2012) reports:

The raising of fees prompted violent protests on the streets of London and inflicted deep damage on the reputation of the Liberal Democrats, who went into the election pledging to vote against a fee rise. Published a week before A-level results came out; the report says that the number of university applicants in England dropped by 8.8% this year compared with the tally for 2010.

Elizabeth Achinewhu-Nworgu, Steve Azaiki, Queen Chioma Nworgu, Helen Nworgu 349

And there was a 7.2% fall in numbers of 18- and 19-year-old applicants in England between this year and 2010, the last year of applications before the cap on tuition fees was raised.

From the above report, it is evident that the news of tuition fees increase was not accepted in a favorable way. It should be noted that with regard to fall in numbers, this was not the same in the rest of the UK “where fees have not been raised” (Vasagar, 2012). Perhaps, this is because the students who attend universities in Scotland have free access, as noted earlier. Also, the fees for Welsh students who attend universities in the UK, as well as the Northern Ireland students have a limit of £3,465. According to the Independent Commission on Fees, Will Hutton, the Chair of the Fees Commission, said: “Although it is too early to draw any firm conclusions, this study provides initial evidence that increased fees have an impact on application behavior. There's a clear drop in application numbers from English students when compared to their counterparts in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland…” (Cited in Vasagar, 2012).

The Chair of the Commission notes some positive elements in spite of the drop in numbers. The Chair was pleased to report that to date there had been “no relative drop-off in applicants from less advantaged neighborhoods”. He saw the need to continue “to monitor a range of indicators as the fee increases work their way through the system”.

It seems that what David Willetts, The Universities Minister, had to say about the overall increase in fees is also a positive note. The Minister pointed to the fact that students would only start to repay their fees “after they had graduated and were earning £21,000 a year or more…” (Cited in Vasagar, 2012). This paper cannot say for certain what all students feel about repaying after graduating, but based on the research conducted, it asserts that some students still have many financial setbacks, which prevent them from completing their studies. Some people view this as a violation of their human rights, perhaps because of what the UK 1998 Human Right Act states.

UK 1998 Human Right Act

In order to understand how the UK 1998 Human Rights Act works, it is necessary to know about the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). The Department for Constitutional Affairs (DCA) (2006) explains:

The 1950 European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is a binding international agreement that the UK helped to draft and has sought to comply with for over half a century. The Convention enshrines fundamental civil and political rights, but for many years it was not a full part of our own law.

The UK 1998 Human Rights Act was enforced in October 2000. From that time onwards, it became possible to have the Rights from ECHR implemented in UK courts. DCA (2006) also explains that the 1998 Human Rights Act as a legal document that gives “further effect to rights in the ECHR”. It is all about respecting people’s rights and making sure that each one respects another’s rights. The right to education is addressed in Protocol 1, Article 2: Right to Education:


No person shall be denied a right to an education. In the exercise of any functions which it assumes in relation to education and to teaching, the State shall respect the right of parents to ensure such education and teaching in conformity with their own religious and philosophical convictions.

In summarising what the UK 1998 Human Rights Act entails, DCA notes three points:

• Convention rights and responsibilities form a common set of binding values for public authorities right across the UK.

• Public authorities must have human rights principles in mind when they make decisions about people’s rights.

• Human rights must be part of all policy making. The above seems to suggest that all policy-making institutions, including

educational institutions, should respect the UK 1998 Human Rights Act. However, there are some restrictions with regard to education.

The Educational Institute of Scotland (EIS) (2011) points out that Protocol 1, Article 2: Right to Education is a qualified right and that is subject to a reservation, which is: “The right is compatible with provision of efficient instruction and training and the avoidance of unreasonable public expenditure”. EIS goes on to explain what the right to education means. Three points are made: (1) access to educational institutions existing at a given time; (2) an effective education; and (3) official recognition of the studies a student has completed. However, it should be noted that when this Protocol is linked to other issues such as gender discrimination or racism, it can be applied with less restrictions. DCA (2006) also notes:

The general right to education is not an absolute right to learn whatever you want, wherever you want. The Government has made a special reservation to the ECHR in this area so that education provided by the state is limited to the extent that this is necessary to provide an efficient education and within public spending limits. You might not have a right to the most expensive form of education if there are cheaper alternatives available, but the Government or local education authority must balance the right not to be deprived of an education against the spending limits it imposes. The Government has stressed that the cost of providing education is a relevant factor in making these decisions.

Additionally, the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) (2008) also explains that the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) has stated that the right to education in Article 2, Protocol 1 “is concerned primarily with elementary education and not advanced studies”.

The above limitations suggest that if the government does not give to people a specific type of teaching, it is not necessarily a violation of one’s right to education; and that certain levels of education is not directly the responsibility of the government.

Methodology

A small-scale research was conducted to find out how some students and their parents feel about the increase in tuition fees. A total number of 30 students from


three UK universities participated in the research exercise. Semi-structured interviews were used for data collection because of the qualitative nature of the research. All the participants gave consent for the interviews to be conducted.

Findings

Below are some comments that students made about tuition fee increase. All the responses were grouped under the following main themes: retention, access, cost and career development. Selected responses are shown below:

I almost stopped attending university when the news came about the huge top up fees inspire that it is borrowing. Who pays for it, students after their course? This obviously means that you have to live in poverty forever as you struggle to pay the loan back. However, perceived to come for a degree because of the value of getting a good degree attached to my CV. But it is unfair to subject people like us to these large debts. (Student 16)

Please do not ask me about how I feel not even qualifying for a student loan which I was denied because of my parents’ income. Why should my parents alone be responsible for my fees? Unfair isn’t it? I am actually thinking of taking a year gap. I find it difficult to see my parents struggling with money to pay for my fees. I want to go and work, save the money and start a year later. Unfortunately, I am not growing young but older, how much can I save for a three year degree course. God help the young generation. (Student 23)

The huge increase in fees from £3,000 to £9,000 means a choice to think twice on where to go for cheaper fees. This in effect means that you cannot choose to attend a university of your choice where you can get good quality education coupled with worries of big debts to face after studying keeps one hopeless. I feel sorry for the young generation which I belong in that category. (Student 28)

It is okay for the universities to top up fees to sustain their financial burden, but who bears the pain-students like me who has to inherit debt after studies. Very unfair decision, we need to riot to put our concerns across to the government to make immediate changes. (Student 30)

Top up fees is all about political agenda with no attention for young generation. It feels like no one cares any more about quality education as you can be educated even in a market place as long as you can afford lower fees. What a deteriorating generation? Who suffers, the young generation? My father, not even my older brother did not worry about debts to pay when he finished school. I will not even think of getting married with the big debt to face after studies. (Student 34)

Discussion

The findings of this research clearly indicate that there are some concerns from all the participants with regard to the increase in tuition fees for higher education. The effects noted were mainly about access, retention, cost and career development.


Although students are aware of the UK 1998 Human Rights Act that gives the right to education, none of them were concerned about this right. It could be a case where they realized that the increase in fees is not a violation of their human rights. Or perhaps they were too concerned about access and retention to give ‘right to education’ any serious consideration during the interview process.

The students’ fears about access seem to have some merit because some reporters and researchers have spoken about the drop in university applications. Vasagar (2012) refers to a clear drop in application numbers with regard to the English students, but notes that a similar situation does not exist for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. This is probably because there is a cap on fees for Welsh and Irish students and Scottish students have no fees to pay.

Cost will always be a big issue, especially because of the global economic crisis that has affected educational institutions and funding agencies as much as it has affected the parents who pay for their children’s education. One of the respondents talked about the pain of inheriting debt after studies. Another spoke of not being able to qualify for a student loan because of her parents’ income. This seems even harder to understand because of what is reported about the rise in salaries for some faculty members and the unnecessary amounts that are spent on entertainment (Belkin, 2013).

Issues of access and cost will have a negative impact on students’ career development. In order for students to make educational progress at high education levels, along with having access to a university, they would have to consider how their course of studies would be paid for. So it is reasonable to conclude that the findings of this study have identified issues that are real and will continue to affect the educational progress of those students who are, or whose parents are, unable to fund their higher education studies.

Conclusions

The increase in tuition fees for higher education the UK has been a topic of discussion among members of educational and other institutions in the UK society. The paper looks at the effect that the increase in fees has on some students in three universities. It gives some background information on the UK government’s stance on the issue and shows how this same issue affects students in other parts of the world. It highlights the situation in the USA and Canada.

The findings from the small-scale research have shown that the great concerns are about access, retention and career development. There were no discussions about violations of human rights. Generally, this is an issue that is always under discussion, so there is no doubt that it will be addressed in the future. It is important to give such a topical issue more space in a paper that allows the report from a full-scale research. However, what this paper has shown is that some students’ educational progress is very much affected by the rise in tuition fees and that there is a need to carry out further research on the impact of the fee rise on educational progress.


Bibliography Belkin, D. (2013): How to Get College Tuition under Control.

http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887324549004579068992834736138. Accessed March 2014.

British Council (2013): Higher Education – Costs and Scholarships. http://www.educationuk.org/global/articles/higher-education-costs-scholarships/. Accessed March 2014.

DPC (2006): A Guide to the Human Rights Act 1998: Third Edition. http://www.justice.gov.uk/downloads/human-rights/act-studyguide.pdf. Accessed March 2014.

EIS (2011): Implications for Education - Leaflet 1. http://www.eis.org.uk/public.asp?id=675. Accessed March 2014.

Habb, M. (2013): University Tuition Rising to Record Levels in Canada. http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/university-tuition-rising-to-record-levels-in-canada-1.1699103. Accessed March 2014.

JISC (2008): Human Rights – Overview. http://www.jisclegal.ac.uk/LegalAreas/HumanRights/HumanRightsOverview.aspx#Right_to_Education. Accessed March 2014.

Vasagar, J. (2012): Tuition Fees Increase Led to 15,000 Fewer Applicants. http://www.theguardian.com/education/2012/aug/09/tuition-fees-increase-15000-less-applicants. Accessed March 2014.

Dr Elizabeth Achinewhu-Nworgu Birkbeck University of London & Focus Learning Support UK Ltd United Kingdom [email protected] Prof. Dr. Steve Azaiki Fed University of Technology Akure, Nigeria [email protected] Queen Chioma Nworgu, MA London Metropolitan University & Focus Learning Support UK Ltd United Kingdom [email protected] Helen Nworgu, MA City University London & Focus Learning Support UK Ltd United Kingdom [email protected]


ELIZABETH ACHINEWHU-NWORGU, QUEEN CHIOMA NWORGU, SHADE BABALOLA, CHINURU CHITURU ACHINEWHU, CHARLES NNA DIKEH

EXPLORING LAND OWNERSHIP AND INHERITANCE IN NIGERIA

Abstract

This paper will aim to investigate into women's rights pertaining to land in Africa particularly as the case may be envisaged in the Nigerian cultural and legal system. Research has shown that many African women such as in Nigeria are left impoverished once their husbands die or they divorce in West Africa as the land automatically becomes the property of the dead husband family. The case applies also to a polygamist family where a man may be married to four women with many children and if the man dies in many cases, the first son takes over all the wealth of the father according to the native law and custom. It also applies to women born outside marriage and brought up by grandparents, when the granddad or grandmother becomes late, the women does not inherit any land from the family. This obviously has implications for the women and child education, hence may be in breach of human rights Protocol to which Nigeria is a signatory in regards to equality and right to education.

The paper will seek to explore the legal framework for equality in Nigeria from the Human Right Protocol in relation to the legal rights of women involved in land disputes. It will look at the implications of this problem to the women and their children education. From the analysis of the key issues, it will aim to make suggestions and strategies to overcome the barriers that many women face in relation to unfair distribution of land or wealth in the absence of their spouse or family member. The paper will draw on relevant case-laws and their compliance to the Human Rights protocol (right to education and equality) as well as recommending strategies for the Nigerian women victims to fight for justice. Key words: Human Rights, Law, Land, Culture, Custom, Equality, Education,

Women, Children, Family, Poverty and Denial

Introduction

This paper explores the issue of land ownership in Nigeria. In order to do this, the paper will look at the issues within a legal framework that is based on equality. For the past decades, according to the African traditions and customs as noted in Africa, men have been seen as the primary land owners. However, the women do not share the same right. For instance, on the death of husband or father, the wives and female children do not automatically inherit the land. Women denial of the right to acquire land or inherit land at the death of a husband is a big issue in Africa as well as other countries in the world as women are continuously suppressed by the men, husband families or immediate family hence leading to denial of the right to inherit land in husband place or own family. The impact of this has led to many of these women becoming very poor and what more cannot afford to be educated which also affects their children education. The question to ask is: what is the role of

E. Achinewhu-Nworgu, Q. C. Nworgu, S. Babalola, C. C. Achinewhu, C. N. Dikeh 355

the International and Human Rights law to protect the right and access to land for the women that are deprived of inheriting land in the absence of husband?

This paper will therefore, look at this issue by providing some background information, land ownership as seen in Nigerian context, legal framework and, the general consequences.

Background Information

The inequality in distribution of land in Nigeria has become an issue of concern for Nigerian women particularly since after the case of Okocha versus Okocha 2011, from the Rivers State Nigeria. Writers and researchers have argued and debated about the role of customary land rights in legal empowerment of women in Africa of which Nigeria is one of them. Many women’s organizations, gender activists and scholars argue that customary law provides limited access to land for women (Whitehead & Tsikata, 2003; Tripp, 2004). Based on the international and regional human rights instruments, they call for legislation that replaces customary law and enables women to inherit, purchase and own land in their own name land for women and more so at the death of their husbands.

Land Ownership in Nigerian Context

Land is a crucial economic resource and source of livelihood in the world particularly as the case maybe in Nigeria as people depend on land for a living. A Traditional Nigerian has always viewed land as the fundamental element of their economic well-being as well as part of social and cultural identity. There are some common characteristics identified in African land-holding systems: a) collective ownership of land by the tribe, the community or the lineage; b) inalienability of land; c) flexible access mechanisms to land and land-related resources; and d) community-based land administered and managed by the Chiefs who are in charge of the village disputes.

According to Emery (2005), speaking about property in Nigeria which is closely linked with speaking about land, the systems of land tenancy have a major impact on the sets of rights to property that can be inherited in Nigeria. She further suggests that Land is divided into three major types: communal land, individual (or private) land, and public (or state) land. Customary land is held as “corporate aggregate”, through groups such as towns, patrilineal or matrilineal groups, and family systems. Such land can be used jointly, by any member, or divided amongst families for use. This land may be distant farmland, forest, or spaces like the market square. Alienation of such land is not possible without consent of the community. In contrast, private tenure in customary systems tend to be on the basis of the family unit; with the family head distributing rights to land that are inheritable to children, but non-alienable without consent of the family head. It may be stated that the head of the family in most Nigerian contexts are predominately male and have the right to land inheritance.

Emery (2005) also presented an argument that the requirement of family consultation is a rule of law, and not a matter of convenience. While all individuals who are members of the community or family have a right to a portion of the land, this does not hold true for women as they are viewed as temporary members.

Exploring land ownership and Inheritance in Nigeria 356

Therefore, they do not have permanent and inheritable rights to the land, but rights to use and enjoyment of land while physically in the family. Individuals may also hold land in their own right for example, through clearing vacant land. However, most land is acquired through inheritance within customary systems. Finally, in considering inheritance rights to land, it is also important to recognise that land has a spiritual value for many Nigerians as home to ancestors.

As Gender Across Borders (GAB) (2012) presents, in most parts of sub Saharan Africa, women play vital role in food industries, nutrition and security which cannot be over looked. Women are the producers of food in most African countries in the areas of farming in the communities. Women are also play the role of house wives and cater for food for families. Yet women in many African countries do not have access to and control over land, and this limits the types of food crops they can grow as well as their economic security.

GAB further argues that women’s access to land in Nigeria is especially limited in the Southeast and south where cultural norms and traditions forbid a woman to own land. In spite of the increased awareness about gender equality issues in the past three decades, these cultural dictates have been largely unchallenged at the local level where it matters most. Globally, there has been an increased focus on land rights as they are so pertinent to various aspects of development. According to Wickeri and Kalhan (2010), land ownership can be a critical source of capital, financial security, food, water, shelter and resources.

The Global Land Tool Network (GLTN) (2011), a United Nations (UN) organisation has found that rural landlessness is a strong predictor of poverty and hunger, and negatively impacts Empowerment and the realisation of human rights.

Several scholars argue that women’s lack of sufficient land rights negatively affect their immediate families, education and the larger community as well, with land ownership, women can develop an income more fairly within the household. Hanstad (2010) suggests that providing sufficient land rights for women is beneficial because:

• Women are less likely to contract and spread HIV/AIDS as they do not have to resort to prostitution.

• Women are less likely to be victims of Domestic violence. • Children are more likely to stay in school longer. • Women have better access to Microcredit.

Legal Framework in African Context

According to Women’s Land Link (2010) in many parts of the world, Africa being good example women have access to land in order to cultivate the land; however, there are traditions and cultural norms which bar women from inheriting or purchasing land; thus putting women in a place of dependence on their husbands, brothers, or fathers for their livelihood and shelter. Should there be an illness, domestic violence, or death in the family, women would be left landless and unable to either grow crops for food, or rent land for profit. Land ownership for women is a crucial form of security and income, increasing empowerment and decreasing poverty.


Women’s Land Link Africa has been making great strides in their efforts to secure women’s access to land and housing through community mapping, local dialogues, watchdog groups, peer exchanges and community paralegal training.

Marriage According to Emery (2005) the major means through which individuals are

differentiated and placed into a system of inheritance is through the form of marriage that they chose to adopt, be it a civil marriage, or under a customary or sharia system. In Nigeria there are four forms of law being Sharia law, customary law, common law and statutory law.

Sharia Law Under Islamic law, both men and women have equal rights to hold property and

typically do so individually. Land tenure is divided into three categories: occupied land, which is land in use; unoccupied land, which can be obtained either by grant from the Emir or Village Chief if located in town, or clearing if it is land outside town; and common land, known as waaf, which is used for public activities (Sait & Hilary, 2009).

The sharia system is clear and simple as is specified in the Qur’an. The basic principle under the Maliki system is that if a Muslim dies intestate his estate must be shared between his heirs entitled to share under Islamic law, and that his male children must have equal shares and his female children half share each of a male child. Only children who are non-muslim or commit patricide to inherit loose these rights.

The general division is that if there are children, widows are entitled to one eight of the property, including realty, and they are entitled to one quarter of the property if there are no children. Daughters take half the share of their brothers, and if they are the sole survivor, will take half of the rest. It is also apparent that even in the Islamic custom, the women right in terms of access to land or property is still limited (Sait & Hilary, 2009).

Customary Law According to the BBC Africa debate (BBC, 2011) on ‘Should Women have

equal Inheritance Rights?’ under customary law across many African countries, when a man dies, it is his adult sons who are entitled to his property, at the expense of his daughters. The international Human Rights Law group highlighted that, in Nigeria, customary law has been used to settle at least 80% of land disputes to the disadvantage of women.

Legal Framework from the Human Rights Perspectives

English Common Law The English common law, as well as statutory law, remains an integral part of

the Nigerian legal landscape, defining the default position in the absence of domestically enacted law or adherence to customary law. English law entered Nigeria through the Doctrine of Reception. Generally, reception is dated as of January 1st 1900, concomitant with the British government gaining control over the territory of the Royal Niger Company.


Widows Rights According to Kasunmu and Salacuse (1966), the spouses have no right in each

other’s property either during marriage or on the death of one of them. The husband may during his lifetime allocate a house or land to the separate use of his wife. Unless an outright gift is proved, the property allocated to the wife will on the death of the husband still pass as family property. Rather, the widow’s right in the land is to mere possession of a parcel of family property subject to her good behaviour. Therefore, the widow lacks any rights to control the property, and is vulnerable should an absentee son or a family member fail to ensure she has access to the land.

Emery (2005) argues further that women’s inheritance rights are an excellent place to begin a critical re-examination of Nigeria’s legal framework. Widows are beginning to come to public attention as a set of individuals who are particularly vulnerable in the face of HIV. As many AIDS widows have limited rights to inheritance, their ability to subsist in a land-based economy is placed in jeopardy. At the same time, widows may play a pivotal role in provision for AIDS orphans and sick relatives as HIV incident rates continue to grow in Nigeria.

General Consequences

Getting girls into school According to the article battling for equality on all fronts a consequence of

gender inequality with regards to draconian laws that have prevented women from gaining inheritance rights to land has meant that many young girls have been denied an education they deserve. For many young women in Nigeria education is a way out of poverty.

Disparities between girls and boys start in primary school and the differences widen through the entire educational system. Although Africa, of all regions, registered the highest relative increase in primary school enrolment during the last decade, it is still far from attaining parity. The good news is that by 2011, sub-Sahara Africa had significant girl’s enrolment. Together with South Asia, primary education level enrolment in sub-Saharan Africa rose to 23 million, up from 20 million a decade earlier (Mwabu & Ackerman, 2013).

Sources Policies specifically targeting girls were responsible for notable improvement in

countries such as Benin, Botswana, the Gambia, Guinea, Lesotho, Mauritania, Namibia and Liberia. In Benin for instance the gender gap has narrowed, thanks to policies such as sensitizing parents through the media and reducing school fees for girls in public primary schools in rural areas which has helped reduce some of the problems faced in educating children.

However, according to UNESCO’s most recent report on Teaching and Learning, Nigeria has an alarming proportion of about 10.5 million out of school children, the highest number across the world, education is not evidently anywhere at its best in Nigeria (UNESCO, 2013). In Nigeria as in many countries in Africa when a situation arises and a choice has to be made whether to send a male or female child to school the majority of parents opt to send the male child to school rendering the female child to a life of poverty and lack. Secondly, Nigeria is one of


the top ten countries with the highest population of illiterate adults-many of these being women.

In most instances parents are faced with difficult choices as access to a good education is not free although this varies from state to state. In Lagos for instance, an area that is highly populated private school fees in the middle income sector begin in the region of over £2,000 per term many parents have limited options on whether or not to send their children to a private school as the public schools (state) are under-funded and class sizes are huge, in the worst-case scenario there may be up to 80 students per class.

As a result of poor education in Nigeria in some cases, wealthy parents opt to send their children abroad as private fees in some schools in Lagos are comparable to fees in the United Kingdom. This is an option beyond the limits of many Nigerian families particularly the widows and those born outside the family.

Methodology

This is a mini survey that focused on women who have experienced problems with access to land as a result of loss of husbands, those born outside marriage and those from polygamist families. The small-scale research was conducted to find out how Nigerian women perceive their rights of land in relation to loss of husbands, born outside marriage and being a women and if this denial of right to inherit land has a consequence on their children education. A sample number of 15 women residing in the UK and Nigeria participated in the survey exercise. Telephone interviews were used to gather key issues as highlighted which is sufficient for this mini survey. All the participants are mature adults and gave consent to be interviewed.

Participants Comments

A lady lost her husband the UK who was a Nigerian heritage. The extended family back in Nigeria insisted that she should sell the entire dead husband’s property in London so that the extended family the inheritance of the man’s property as well as his land in Nigeria. (Participant 2)

Although, the women refused to accept their demand, in African customary law, the husband’s family is right.

I come from an extended family. My father was a Chief and he married 4 wives with sixteen children, ten girls and six boys. Unfortunately, our father suddenly passed away without writing a will. There was big problem amongst the children as the first son demanded his right of taking over the father’s property including all the assets. This involved the elders of the village to intervene. The king of our village dismissed the case on the ground that the first son has automatic right to all the land and wealth of the father, although sharing will be at his discretion. For us our mother did not have a boy. We are four girls, three are married. I am not married, although have two boys outside marriage and still live in my mother’s compound but no right to my natural father’s assets, nor my children with any right for land. Women in Africa are not seen to inherit wealth, because you have to respect the tradition. Very sad. This means a big struggle to feed and educate my children on


my little income. My first son cannot go to university as I cannot afford his school fees. It is not easy. (Participant 5)

Husband died and left me with five children. On the day he died, brother in-law asked me to declare all the assists of my husband including his bank account details. I could not believe this, I refused him. To my greatest surprised, he moved in to one of my husband’s property. Eventually, he took over everything claiming that he is next to my husband and therefore should take over his role. My children were very young, I took the matter to the elders, nobody was willing to support my case because, they saw it as his right. I was divested; I managed to sell his cars, took all the money in his bank account and came to London to educate my children. Thank God I did that. (Participant 10)

Land cases for women are a big issue because no one wants to know. My case is a good example. My mother did not marry. I lived with my grandmother who passed away in 2009. I continued to live in her house alone until my uncle returned back from Lagos. He asked me to pack out of the house for him to rent to tenants. I refused and decided to summon him to the village chief. My case was dismissed on the ground that my mother was not married and therefore I could not inherit land or my ground mother’s property. It was then it daunted on me that I had no Right of Land or Property in my mother’s compound as well as in my father’s land. Who suffers, me and my children? I have to work extremely hard to educate my children single handedly. Thank God that they have all done very well. (Participant 12)

Conclusion

This paper has raised an issue that needs much attention – land ownership for women. This paper does not allow the space to discuss this issue in much depth. It has just raised awareness of the issue. The issue of inequality in Land distribution to Nigerian women obviously has implications for the women and child education and might be in breach of human rights Protocol to which Nigeria is a signatory as regards to equality and right to education (Article 2).

Based on the responses from the participants, the paper recommends more advocacy and knowledge on gender equality, a change in the status of women in local communities many of whom are suffering needlessly as a result of ignorance and discrimination and more consultation on women’s access to land by government authorities and policy makers.

References BBC (2011): Should Women have Equal Inheritance Rights? http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/

legacy/africahaveyoursay/2011/04/should-women-have-equal-inheri.shtml. Accessed April 2014.

Emery, V. (2005): Women’s inheritance rights in Nigeria: Transformative practices. Toronto: University of Toronto, Faculty of Law.

Gender Across Borders (2012): A Look at Literature in Sub-Saharan Africa. http://www.genderacrossborders.com/. Accessed April 2014.

Global Land Tool Network (2011): Gendering Land Tools. http://landportal.info/resource/ global/gendering-land-tools. Accessed April 2014.

Hanstad, T. (2010): Secure Land Rights. Rural Development Institute.


Kasunmu, A. & Salacuse, J. (1966): Nigerian Family Law. London: Butterworths. Mwabu, G. & Ackerman, X. (2013): Focusing on Quality Education in sub-Saharan Africa.

http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/education-plus-development/posts/2013/05/28-quality-education-sub-saharan-africa-mwabu-ackerman. Accessed April2014.

Sait, S. & Hilary, L. (2009): Land, Law and Islam: Property and Human Rights in the Muslim World. http://islamic-e-books.com/mh/pdf/LandLawIslam.pdf. Accessed April 2014.

Tripp, A. (2004): Women’s Movements, Customary Law, and Land Rights in Africa: The Case of Uganda. African Studies Quarterly, 7(4), 1-19.

UNECSO (2013): Teaching and Learning: Achieving Quality for All. http://unesco.nl/sites/ default/files/dossier/gmr_2013-4.pdf?download=1. Accessed April 2014.

Whitehead, A. & Tsikata, D. (2003): Policy Discourses on Women’s Land Rights in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Agrarian Change, 3, 1-2.

Wickeri, E. & Kalhan, A. (2010): Land Rights Issues in International Human Rights Law. Malaysian Journal on Human Rights, 4(10), 16-25.

Women’s Land Link Africa (2010): The Impact of National Land Policy and Land Reform on Women in Uganda. WLLA, 1-8.

Dr Elizabeth Achinewhu-Nworgu Birkbeck University of London & Focus Learning Support UK Ltd United Kingdom [email protected] Queen Chioma Nworgu, MA London Metropolitan University & Focus Learning Support UK Ltd United Kingdom [email protected] Shade Babalola, MSc Leyton Sixth Form College United Kingdom [email protected] Chinuru Chituru Achinewhu – LLB, BL Nigeria-Coventry University United Kingdom [email protected] Charles Nna Dikeh – PGD, BSC Hons Rivers State University of Science & Technology Port Harcourt Nigeria [email protected]


DONG ZHAO

BUDDHIST ECHOES IN UNIVERSITY EDUCATION: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CHINA AND CANADA1

Abstract

Postmodern university education should provide students with, among other things, a third eye of wisdom to see the world and themselves. The enculturation of Buddhism in university education serves to realize this grand aim. This paper first examines the historical development and practical significance of the Buddhist components in both Chinese and Canadian contexts. Based on the cases of representative universities in the two countries, it then analyzes the permeation of Buddhism in the two countries’ university education, comparing the implications of Buddhist education in their respective higher-learning contexts. The findings indicate how, in their own ways, Chinese and Canadian universities employ Buddhist concepts in shaping students’ morality, enriching the humanistic and / or liberal education and assisting students in adapting to the changing world.

Buddhism and Society in Postmodern Contexts: The Case of China

Buddhism in China is more than 2,000 years old. Its greatest popularity and climactic development was in the Tang Dynasty (AD 618-907). As New China walked on the road of socialism, religion was undergoing a revival. As life gets more materialistically oriented, and urban pressures increase, spiritual needs are becoming more of a necessity than other modern conveniences. Buddhism is showing signs of vigorous life in the cities and countryside of China as a result of its vitality to adjust itself to modern conditions. This strong resurgence of Buddhism in contemporary China, such as the renovation of monasteries, the various Buddhist ceremonies and cultural festivals may be explained by the softening or flexibility of the Communist Party’s policy towards religions after the Reform and Open policies in the early 80s of the 20th century.2 Buddhism helps the present-day Chinese to find meaning and value in a rapidly changing society.

The Chinese culture has always emphasized the importance of combining moral education and skills training. This point was stressed by the Confucian tradition that employees tools to help students to cultivate “the core of values fostering a spirit of self-discipline, family solidarity, public morality and social responsibility” (Yao, 2003, p. 283). Chinese philosophy and Buddhist wisdom have helped in the overall development of Chinese students and intelligentsia. Humanistic Buddhism advocated by Master Taixu and others focuses on personal development in the mundane world for the benefit of oneself and others dwelling in the secular society as well as the equality and love of all living creatures and the environment. Its goals of personal refinement, the improvement of individual and social life, success in this

1 This paper is supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities,

No. 2009JJ075. 2 For an insightful critique of Chinese religious policy, refer to Leung, B. (2005).

Dong Zhao 363

world and the hereafter, and elevating ethical development all contribute to all-round development of an individual in the postmodern society.

Generally speaking, Buddhist education aims at training humans to deliver themselves out of suffering. The greatest treasure or asset of Buddhist philosophy is education in wisdom and the resultant virtue from the product of Buddhist enlightenment. The Chinese government has realized that it is unwise to discard Chinese ancient civilization or wisdom; rather, it should be rekindled to compete with the prevalent westernization of the Chinese youth. The natural result of this orientation is the resurgence and the popularity of Chan Buddhism, Pure Land Buddhism and other sects of Buddhism in China today.

The positive and soul-reaching influence of Buddhist education upon human society is evident during the course of its development in China. Since Confucianism, for all its systematic doctrines of an ideal social structure, emphasizes too much on people’s abiding attachment to individual and social achievements, Buddhism offers the much needed morality based on altruism in order to achieve the healthy development of the nation. As I argue, the Buddhist enculturation in education is to infuse moral and spiritual values into the present materialistic and technical education practice, for the modern education cannot solve crises and conflicts incurred by current world developments. Buddhism can show or remind the modern people what they should do to preserve the world, nature and all sentient beings in it.

Buddhism and Society in Postmodern Contexts: The Case of Canada

There are two major means by which Canadians have contacted and benefited from Buddhism, the transformative teaching from Asia: through immigrants from Asian countries and through universities and colleges that teach and research Buddhism. Chinese and Japanese workers who came to Canada to work on the railroads first brought Buddhism to Canada. In 1905, the first Buddhist temple was set up in British Columbia, and was moved to Vancouver the next year. The largest Buddhist organization in Canada was created by the Japanese Jodo Shinshu sect of Buddhism, with temples set up in British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec. A substantial expansion of Buddhism in Canada began in the last half of the 20th century. During and after World War II, with a large number of Japanese-Canadians moving to Alberta, this province became the most important place for Buddhism in Canada. As Terry Watada comments, “The revival of Jodo Shinshu Buddhism from near eradication is attributable to the exile of Japanese Canadians from the West Coast to Southern Alberta” (Watada, 1996). Alberta thus became the cradle of the academic study of Buddhism in North America.

This monastic orientation in the spread of Buddhism in Canada was later replaced by Zen Buddhism, which believed in the potential Buddha-hood for all. The monumental event for this epoch-making transition was marked by the establishment of The Zen Lotus Society in 1967 by Venerable Samu Sunim. The name of the Society was changed to Buddhist Society for Compassionate Wisdom, a North American Buddhist Order with five mission operations: in Ann Arbor, Chicago, New York City, Toronto, and Mexico City. The significance of this change is that Buddhism in Canada, after more than two decades of Asian styles of monasticism, is now open to all people who wish to seek enlightenment and

Buddhist Echoes in University Education: A Comparative Study of China and Canada 364

liberation from the anxieties and sufferings in the postmodern complexities of the world.

Zen emphasizes the attainment of enlightenment and the personal direct insight in the Buddhist teachings, playing down on the importance of sutras and doctrines and favoring direct understanding through zazen and interaction with a master. The Zen Buddhist mission centers in Canada aim to propagate the meditation movement to initiate a culture of enlightenment and green spirituality. The Universal Buddhist Temple, as a traditional Chinese Buddhist temple in Vancouver, practices Pure Land and Chan (Zen) Buddhism with Confucian and Taoist spirituality tendencies. The temple focuses on meditation and parapsychology to help maintain the psychological and spiritual well-being of the Canadians. Moreover, the international Buddhist movements from Taiwan—the Amitabha Buddhist Societies, the Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Association, Dharma Drum Mountain, Foguangshan, True Buddha school—all have multiples centers in various parts of Canada (Irons, 2008).

In sum, a variety of factors have combined to greatly increase the Buddhist presence in Canada. As Kenneth Tanaka (Prebish & Tanaka, 1998, p. 294) has pointed out,

The plurality of religions also characterizes the Buddhist groups as well, for virtually every school of Buddhism has now found a foothold on American soil. These schools now exist side by side, often in the same community – a situation unthinkable in Asia, where they often had no knowledge of each other.

With Buddhism becoming a major religion in Canada over the last half-century, it is no longer ‘ethnic’ associated only with immigrant Asian people; there is also a growing constituency of Euro-Canadian Buddhists conscientiously dedicated to the faith. At present, close to 500 Buddhist organizations (including temples, centers, associations, retreats, charities, businesses, etc.) are prospering in Canada, manifesting the doctrines and practices of the entire spectrum of Buddhist schools in Asia and guiding an estimated number of 250,000 adherents.3 According to the 2001 census, the number of Buddhists increased 84% to about 300,300, or about 1% of the Canadian population.4 For all these factors and others, it could be said that Buddhism has had a fascinating history in Canada.

Buddhism in Chinese Universities

Throughout the history of China, Buddhism and the traditional Chinese education had always been hand in hand in their common pursuit of wisdom. Chinese universities often undertake the responsibility of providing Buddhist courses, since Buddhist education is proved constructive in cultivating eligible citizens with healthy personalities during the higher-learning phase. After the serious disruption of all religions in China during the Great Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), both Buddhism and higher education have experienced a revival and resurgence. For the students in the socialist China, the nature of education should 3 For a listing of Canadian Buddhist centers, please access http://buddhismcanada.com/. 4 Refer to “2001 Census: analysis series Religions in Canada”, at Statistics Canada's website

(www.statcan.ca).

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always be altruistic and for the well-being of the country. Buddhism is thus naturally noticed by the government to be a kindred spirit with the socialist ideals of education.

The significance and implications of incorporating Buddhism courses into Chinese university curriculum can be multifaceted, for Buddhism plays so indispensable a part in the cultural identity of the nation. To be specific, popularizing Buddhism within the context of university education can serve the purposes of both modernizing this time-honored religion in current society, cultivating students’ healthy personality and cultural awareness, and promoting both religious and secular education. Nowadays, Buddhism is undergoing a modernizing process to better adapt to the technologically and scientifically developing society. Buddhism needs to cope with the drastic changes on both ideological and practical levels, and to be able to explain the changing realities of a more pluralistic world and reconcile with the mainstream world outlook. Besides, Buddhist concepts should find its way into the major educational institutes so as to be promoted effectively and developed academically. The integration of Buddhism courses into university curriculum not only expands the scope of target audiences who are most often highly educated and civilized, it also enriches the field of Buddhist researches as an academic subject. For instance, to cope with a more pluralistic world, Buddhist research themes are more globalized, and research methods are more interdisciplinary and comprehensive (Yao, 2009, pp. 347-351). Therefore, to revive this time-honored religion socially and academically in an age when knowledge, science and information are highly valued, fully utilizing the educational resources of Chinese universities should be considered a top priority.

Classes on the history of Buddhism, Buddhist culture of China, Buddhist classics as literature, Buddhist art and Buddhist philosophy are offered in most of the key universities in China. Most of such classes are run under the department of philosophy, Chinese language, literature, history, foreign languages, and archaeology. Some of these classes take the form of selective courses open to all students in the university. At Beijing Foreign Studies University, the general course “Buddhism in Chinese Culture”5 run by the School of English and International Studies is among one of the most popular general classes in the university, with enrollment often over 100 students. In addition, public lectures by eminent Buddhist masters are organized by the universities, such as Taiwanese Buddhist master Venerable Sheng-yen’s lecture at Peking University and Tsinghua University in 2005, Master Hsing Yun’s lecture at Zhongshan university in 2006 and Master Yancan’s lecture on happy living at Beijing Foreign Studies University in 2012.

Besides on-campus courses on Buddhism, various off-campus activities also sprout in China, such as Chan summer camps, Chan Study Societies, etc. Ven Ming Hai (Ming, 1993), a graduate from the philosophy department of Peking University and now abbot of Bo Lin Chan Monastery in Hebei Province, has been organizing annual summer camps for university students and others since the 1990s. Such activities have contributed to the comprehensive development of Chinese college students with admirable and wholesome personalities. As for the cultivation of

5 I have been teaching this course since 2010, with students’ rating score ranging between 97-

99.


healthy personalities, Buddhist teachings have long been proven constructive in this respect. For example, the concept of “Nirvana” teaches human beings to form a peaceful and detached mind and to accept the transformation between life and death as a natural process. The law of “Five Percepts” establishes the baseline of Buddhist morality, imposing its regulating power via individual’s self-discipline. The wisdom of “Emptiness” or “Non-volition” inspires the earthlings to get rid of their worldly desires to end the sufferings. All the teachings above will exert positive influences on students’ self-improvement during the most crucial period of their character formation and ultimately contribute to their future development as social beings.

With regard to the cultivation of “cultural awareness”, Buddhist education is even deemed indispensable in the Chinese cultural context. More than 3000 year’s Buddhist influence fundamentally changes the developmental path of Chinese society and reshapes the Chinese cultural identity. To be specific, the permeation of Buddhism can be identified in Chinese literature, visual arts, prevalent cultural practices and even people’s way of thinking. In the case of Chinese literature, Buddhism exerts its influence on almost all aspects of literary creation, including themes, forms, the use of symbols and metaphors, etc. Hence, without adequate Buddhist knowledge, a university student cannot fully understand his own cultural background and identity. Moreover, learning Buddhism in college is also conducive to the cultivation of an all-embracing mindset. In the increasingly globalized and culturally-diversified world, students should develop be flexible with different perspectives from specific historical and cultural backgrounds. By learning to interpret the Buddhist canons and practices in its cultural context, students’ ethnocentric mentality will be deconstructed, being replaced by an open and tolerant mindset which could benefit their future development as world citizens.

Beijing University has a program especially designed to train Chinese students in Sanskrit, aiming to set up a team of specialists to help translate the large number of manuscripts discovered in traditional Chinese Buddhist centers like Tibet. The history of the Sanskrit program at Beijing University can trace its origin to 1960s. It was later on expanded and strengthened by the nationally renowned scholar Ji Xianlin, who translated many Sanskrit works into Chinese and is deemed by many Chinese as the greatest Chinese scholar of Sanskrit, who introduced classical Indian culture to the Chinese people. This program was established to resume and carry on the legacy of Ji, who passed away in 2009. The Research Institute of Sanskrit Manuscripts and Buddhist Literature at Peking University is working with regional governments and hoping to create an archive for lost manuscripts and palm-leaves.

Renmin University of China, second in importance and fame only to Beijing University and Qinghua University in China, founded the program of Buddhism and the Religious Studies in the 1950s, and in the 1960s when professor Fang Litian joined in this program, the teaching and research activities have been greatly consolidated. In 2000, this center became the primary research base granted by China’s Ministry of Education, and from then on it has become the only state research center in the field of Buddhism and Religious Studies in colleges and universities in China. The Institute for Studies of Buddhism and religious theory (ISBRT) in RUC has undergraduate courses, master degree teaching courses in Religion, doctor degree teaching courses in Religion, and related postdoctoral

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research programs, thus formulating a complete course system from masters and doctors to post-doctors.

Buddhism in Canadian Universities

The late 19 and early 20 century witnessed the expansion of Buddhist influence in North America. Major universities started to deem Buddhism courses as an integral part of “liberal art education” and incorporated them into the regular curriculum (Reynolds, 2001, p. 12). Since Buddhism does not enjoy dominant status among mainstream populations in the western world, scholars and educators are inclined to perceive Buddhist education as the cultivation of students’ “critical and evaluating ability” (Reynolds, 2001, p. 9) or the accumulation of “cross-cultural experiences” (Tsai, 2008, p. 161) rather than the teaching of spiritual ideals to enhance students’ mental and cultural wellbeing, as the Chinese universities have done. To them, courses on Buddhism provide undergraduate students with a new perspective and various critical skills to “meaningfully navigate a pluralistic world” (Tsai, 2008, p. 161). Hence, most of their researches provide insights on the pedagogical rather than religious level, serving more as the exploration of the means than the ends.

Education of Buddhism in Canada adopts the pedagogical approach, which focuses on effective teaching objectives and curriculum design; unlike its Chinese counterpart, it attaches great importance to the cultivation of critical and analytical abilities, aiming to prepare students for the possible cross-cultural encounters in the culturally-diversified modern world. In other words, they define the Buddhist curriculum as a critical way of seeing the world rather than a content-based interpretive course. The cultivation of critical and evaluative abilities is one of the core objectives of Buddhist education in Canada and more or less the western world. Since Buddhism is a highly mind-probing religion with a very special outlook on the world, learning to interpret Buddhist canons and practices from different even contrasting perspectives can help western learners develop analytical and evaluative ability, the very quality that defines individualism, instead of the Chinese concepts of collectivism and harmony, and empowers them to make critical judgments while exploring the pluralistic world.

Though the two countries share the basic understanding of the core concepts of Buddhism, they differ in the actual focuses and specific approaches. Reynolds examines the role of the North American undergraduate Buddhist courses as “liberal art education” from a postmodern point of view. That is, he addresses the “postmodern interests and concerns” in his definition of the course, identifying the cultivation of “critical analysis” as one of the major objectives of Buddhism courses (Reynolds, 2001, p. 13). Moreover, he believes that by discussing “how canons and practices are received in Buddhist traditions” in college classrooms, students are equipped with “well-disciplined interpretive skills” which are highly applicable to other religious contexts or different “humanly articulated worlds” (Reynolds, 2001, p. 12).

Julius Tsai, more concerned about how Buddhist education balances between the cultivation of students’ “self-awakening” and their “intellectual abilities”, discusses the pedagogical implications of the “three aspects of Buddhist thought and practice” in Buddhist education, namely how the Buddhist notions of “No-self”,


“Skillful means” and “Awakening” (Tsai, 2008) contribute to the cultivation of “intellectual awareness” which “sustains them through life”. Through Buddhist education in the Canadian way, two kinds of intellectual sensibility are aimed at: 1) the rudimentary historical consciousness, meaning to perceive Buddhism and all other religions as “dynamic historically conditioned” existences; 2) the persistence of cross-cultural encounters, suggesting that one should learn to “reconcile one’s own cultural background and inherited world views with the relative strangeness of other cultures” (Tsai, 2008, p. 159).

Canadian universities have granted professorships to several international scholars including Leon Hurvitz at the University of British Columbia, Herbert V. Guenther and Julian Pas at the University of Saskatchewan, A. K. Warder at the University of Toronto and Jan Yün-Hua at McMaster among others in the latter half of the 20th century. Because most universities and colleges, large or small, offer courses in Buddhism, education has become the most important means by which Canadians come into contact with this Asian religious tradition. Each year thousands of students are introduced to the basic doctrines and history of Buddhism. Presently, every major university in Canada offers courses on Buddhism with several offering advanced degrees in Buddhist Studies or Religious Studies with Buddhism as an emphasis.

With the University of British Columbia (UBC) as a case in point, Buddhism is studied with a variety of disciplinary approaches and in historical periods spanning the ancient to the contemporary. The Department of Asian Studies constitutes the center of this teaching and research on Buddhism. The Buddhism and Contemporary Society Program sponsors undergraduate and graduate teaching about Buddhism at UBC, brings in a variety of visiting speakers as part of the TLKY lecture series, holds workshops and conferences on issues of contemporary relevance, and supports student research on the contemporary state of Buddhism in Asia and abroad. Many undergraduate courses that focus on Buddhism may be taken as part of an undergraduate major or minor in Asian Studies, including Introduction to Buddhism; Buddhism in China; and Special Topics in Buddhist Studies. The Department plans to increase the number of Buddhism-related courses and courses on Asian Religions in coming years. Other courses cover Theravāda Buddhist narratives, Mahāyana Buddhist philosophy, etc. Undergraduate courses that include Buddhism are Religions of the World, Cultural Foundations of East Asia, Cultural Foundations of South Asia, Cultural Foundations of Southeast Asia and many others.

UBC’s Asian Studies offers Master of Arts and Ph.D. degrees in Korean, East Asian Buddhism, South East Asian and South Asian culture, including literature, linguistics, pre-modern history, religion and philosophy. Advanced language training in Sanskrit, Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi, Indonesian, Chinese, Korean, and Japanese is available, as well as courses on source materials and research methods in Classical Chinese Studies, Japanese Studies, and Korean Studies. It is also possible to take a one-year Master’s degree (Master’s of Asia Pacific Policy Studies) in Asia and policy studies for students who prefer the contemporary aspects of Buddhism.

To recapitulate, Buddhism in Chinese universities tend to let students cultivate the heart, making them more humane, more harmonious and more contributive to the peace and stability of the society. On the part of Buddhism in Canadian universities, though the Chinese concerns are also taken into consideration, yet the

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focus is on the use of Buddhist concepts and practices to enhance students’ analytical and critical abilities to better understand the world so as to make it serve the human race better, as the deep-rooted Western idea of dualism would show.

Concluding Remarks

Since the core tenet of Buddhism is education, Buddhists are articulating their spirituality in terms of education, in locales like temples, centers, institutes, pagodas, gompas, wats and viharas designed purely for teaching and learning. Some scholars, whom I totally agree with, even argue that Buddhism is not a religion, but a kind of teaching or education and the Buddha a teacher. In this vein, university students have had much significant contribution to make to the development of Buddhism. With the central place of Buddhism in the cultural context of China, the students, scholars and monastics often hold the common aspirations of getting spiritual enlightenment and enhancement for the purpose of a truly harmonious society. With the Buddhist concepts of Non-duality and others, people can expect to be world citizens, without discriminations against the “other” or the different; the ideal world would be like that of Amitahba’s pure land where only happiness and absolute equality abound. On the part of the Canadian side of the Buddhist education in universities, the common aim of achieving wisdom has another dimension, which is the cultivation of critical judgments, evaluations and the analytical skills. The essential concern is to help students to develop the skills of critical analysis, the rhetorical skills of argumentation that contribute to an independent and individualistic entity. All textbooks, courses, and classroom teaching methods are oriented toward this goal.

From the different cultural contexts of the academic analyses of Buddhism in China and Canada, we are faced with both common and differing perspectives of evaluating the Buddhist education in different cultural contexts, with Asian / Chinese educators focusing more on its historical development and cultural significance while the North American / Canadian counterpart stressing the its pedagogical function as a liberal art curriculum. Such differences might to some extent be explained by the fact that in Buddhism (as the pillar of the oriental culture) is not to be found many beliefs and principles that belong to the Western mainstream religions like Christianity. Buddhism in Asian countries, however, enjoys greater popularity and its permeation in mainstream cultures is more salient. Therefore, Buddhist teaching in universities not only aims to cultivate eligible individuals, but also shoulders the responsibility of promoting the development of Buddhism academically and socially. In this sense, China, given its rich Buddhist culture legacies, should consider Buddhism both as a means of education and as a way of achieving the ultimate goal of world unity.

Finally, if we adopt a global view of Buddhism and its benefits to all sentient beings under the sun, promoting Buddhism as a religion and an academic subject should be attached equal importance as the cultivation of learners’ personality, critical thinking ability and global harmony in university education. To achieve this goal, course objectives, curriculum design and research methods of Buddhism education should all be modernized to keep up with the development of the world which is already on its way of becoming a global village. That should be the greatest significance of Buddhism for the post-modern human race.


References Irons, E. A. (2008): Buddhism in Canada. Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Encyclopedia of World

Religions. New York: Facts On File, Inc., Modern World History Online. Facts On File, Inc. http://www.fofweb.com/activelink2.asp (accessed February 26, 2014).

Leung, B. (2005): China's Religious Freedom Policy: The Art of Managing Religious Activity. The China Quarterly, 184, pp. 894-913, doi:10.1017/S030574100500055X.

Ming, H. (1993): The Co-dependent Arising of Living Chan Summer Camp. Fayin (9). Prebish, C. S. & Tanaka, K. (Eds.) (1998): The Faces of Buddhism in America. Berkeley, Los

Angeles, and London: University of California Press. Reynolds, F. E. (2001): Teaching Buddhism in the Post-modern University: Understanding,

Critique and Evaluation. Teaching Theology and Religion (1), pp. 9-14. Tsai, J. N. (2008): Learning About Teaching from the Traditions We Teach: Reflections on an

Undergraduate Buddhism Course. Teaching Theology and Religion (3), pp. 159-164. Watada, T. (1996): Bukkyo Tozen: A History of Jodo Shinshu Buddhism in Canada 1905 –

1995. Toronto: Terry Watada and the Toronto Buddhist Church. Yao, W. (2009): Academic Studies of Buddhism and University Education. The Thought and

Culture of Buddhism. Beijing: Peking University Press. Yao, Z. (2000): An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dong Zhao School of English and International Studies Beijing Foreign Studies University China [email protected]


CHANGJUN YUE

GENDER AND MIGRATION: EVIDENCE FROM COLLEGE GRADUATES IN CHINA

Abstract

Based on a national scale survey data of 2013 and methods of statistical descriptive and econometric analysis, this paper has given an empirical analysis on the frequency, flowing direction, return and influential factors of college graduates’ migration. Meanwhile gender comparison in migration has been analyzed. The empirical results are concluded as follows: Firstly, the percentage of migration for female graduates is much lower than male graduates. 50.8 percent of male graduates migrate but only 39.1 percent of female graduates migrate. Secondly, inter-provincial migration may increase incomes significantly for both male graduates and female graduates. Thirdly, the economy development level is one of the key factors for inter-provincial migration. Fourthly, individual personal characteristics, individual human capital variables and family social and economic background are main factors influencing migration. Key words: Graduates, Migration, Return

Introduction

Since the implementation of the reform and opening up policy in 1978, China has enjoyed an economic boom. In 2010, China’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) amounted to 5.88 trillion United States dollars (USD) and China overtook Japan (5.46 trillion USD) to become the second largest economy in the world, ranked only behind the United States. In 2013, China’s GDP rose to 9.40 trillion USD and China will be most likely to overtake the US and become the world’s largest economy in 2025.

The fast economy growth owes much to China’s opening up policy in an economy globalization era. China’s taking parting the economy globalization lies in three main aspects: international trade, foreign direct investment (FDI), and Multinational Corporation. International trade is crucial for China’s economy. China’s economy is regarded as being export-led and the degree of dependence on exports has increased rapidly since China entered World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001. In 2013, China’s foreign trade volume rose to $4.16 trillion and overtook the US to become the world’s largest trading nation.

Reform measures and improved policies make China more attractive to global investors. Foreign direct investment in China showed robust growth in 2013, reflecting global investor confidence in the world's second-largest economy. Foreign direct investment in China rose to $117.6 billion in 2013.

The number of registered Foreign-funded Enterprises rose to 446 thousand in 2013. The city of Beijing has a total of 48 Fortune Global 500 companies' headquarters in 2013, replacing Tokyo at the top of the ranking for the first time.

The strong FDI and Multinational Corporations inflow gained support from the nation's reform initiative, an improved investment environment and the opening-up

Gender and Migration: Evidence from College Graduates in China 372

of the service sector. Moreover, China’s abundant labor force with higher education and lower wage has become comparative advantage in global competition.

With the fast development of economic globalization, international flows of commodities and capitals increased rapidly while large-scale flows of labor force have also become notable in labor market. There are frequent flows of labor force among different countries as well as among different cities, regions, industries, sectors and positions within a country. As China entered WTO and improved its urbanization level continuously, hundreds of millions of surplus rural laborers have flowed into the eastern coastal areas and into big or medium cities. In recent years, the number of college graduates increased gradually, which rose to 6.99 million in 2013. The employment of college graduates has become a key problem faced by Chinese government. College graduates are precious human resources and are the sources of scientific and technological inventions, technique innovations and economic development. Therefore, reasonable allocation and migration of graduates are very important for the efficient utilization of China’s human resources and for the coordinate development among different regions.

Hereby, it is worthwhile to focus on and study the migration status of Chinese college graduates. What’s the characteristics of Chinese graduates’ migration? What are the influential factors? And what’s the return to migration? Especially, what is gender difference of migration? Relative researches are still limited. Lai & Ji (2003) shows that the driving force for graduates’ migration is the economic disparities between the costal and interior areas as well as between the urban and rural. The empirical results based on the data of Chinese graduates’ employment status by Yue & Zhou (2005) reveal that inter-provincial or within-provincial job seeking cost nearly the same, while inter-provincial employment enjoys significantly higher starting salary than within-provincial employment with other factors controlled. Ma (2010) studies the migration behaviors of Chinese graduates and shows that individual personal characteristics, family background, regional economy and the scale of education are important factors influencing graduates’ enrollment and employment migration.

Based on national scale survey data of graduates’ employment status in 2013, the paper will classify graduates into five types according to their migration characteristics, and analyze the influence of various factors on their migration, which include individual personal characteristics, individual human capital status, family social and economic background, and regional situation of economy and higher education. And this paper pays more attention on the gender difference of migration.

Relative Theoretical Analysis

Migration or flow is one of the core issues in labor economics and demography which has been studied for a long time. There are a number of relative theories. As for the causes, abilities and returns of graduates’ employment migration, the related theories can be concluded as follows.

Push and Pull Theory of Migration “Push and Pull Theory” is the most important demographic theory in explaining

the causes of migration, which was first advanced systematically by Bagne (1969). Bagne indicates that labor force migration can be resulted from the pull factors of

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favorable economic development as well as the push factors of unfavorable economic development. In the outflow regions, push factors are the dominant power for residents to emigrate, which include exhaustion of natural resources, increase of production cost, unemployment brought by laborer surplus, low income level and etc. In the inflow regions, pull factors are the dominant power for outlanders to immigrate, which include more employment opportunities, higher wages, better living conditions, better educational opportunities, more perfect culture and traffic conditions, better climate and etc. However, in rural areas there exist not only push factors for outmigration but also favorable pull factors including familiar community environment, social network shaped in a long time and unity with family members. While in inflow regions, there also exist push factors unfavorable for immigration, such as possible separation from families, fierce competition and strange environment. Nevertheless, push factors exceed pull factors as the dominant power in outflow regions, while it is the opposite in inflow regions.

The “Push and Pull Theory” is highly interpretable in explaining the causes and returns of college graduates’ migration. Due to the large scale of Chinese college graduates, supply exceeds demand in the short term, so seeking for employment opportunities is a significant reason for graduates to migrate. There are relatively more employment opportunities with relatively higher wages in eastern coastal areas and big or medium cities, thereby the main orientation of graduates’ migration is from the central and western areas to the coastal areas, and from rural areas to big or medium cities.

Human Capital Theory Human capital is the overall condition or level of laborers’ skills, knowledge

and health accumulated through education, training, healthcare and migration. Similar to education, migration is also a kind of human capital investment, which is a necessary cost to obtain expected future revenue. What’s more, migration and education are complementary for each other, since investment in one aspect will increase the return to investment in the other aspect. The mental cost and benefit of migration varies among groups with different education levels. Those who are better educated are more willing to migrate to gain economic return.

The human capital theory is highly interpretable in explaining college graduates’ abilities to migrate. Compared to students graduated from four-year universities, two-year colleges and vocational colleges, graduate students have better migration abilities. People choose to receive higher education because it can improve individual productivities so as to improve the income level. Besides the direct return to education, higher education can also improve people’s migration abilities so as to obtain the extra benefit through inter-regional and inter-professional migration.

Data and Methodology

Data To understand the employment status of college graduates and provide rich and

effective information for educational decision-making and graduates’ employment, Peking University carried out the sixth large-scale questionnaire survey on graduates nationwide in June 2013, following the former five surveys in June of 2003, 2005, 2007, 2009 and 2011.


The 2013 survey includes 30 colleges in 21 provinces of the eastern, central and western areas. The sample size is 15,060. In the sample, 22.4 percent students graduate from two-year colleges or higher vocational schools, 68.0 percent are undergraduates, 9.2 percent are graduates with master degree, and 0.4 percent is graduates with doctor degree. And there are 52.7 percent male graduates and 47.3 percent female graduates.

Methodology Faggian et al (2006) classify graduate migrants into five types according to

possible combinations of the places where their home, college and employer locate. (1) Repeat Migrant, who migrates for two times. The first is to migrate from original area to where the college locates for learning, and the second is to migrate to other regions (besides original area and where the college locates) for employment. (2) Return Migrant, who migrates from original area to where the college locates for learning, and return to original area for employment after graduation. (3) Sticker, who migrates from original area to where the college locates for learning, and stays where the college locates for employment. (4) Late Mover, who enters college in original area but migrates to other regions for employment. (5) Stayer, who learns and gets employed in original area without any migration.

Based on this classification, this paper will give statistical comparison and regression analysis on the frequency, flowing direction, influential factors and return of the migration of college graduates.

Descriptive Analysis on Migration of College Graduates

Migration Proportion In the sample, 8,006 graduates have already decided where to work. Within all

of them, 1,008 are Repeat Migrants (accounting for 12.6 percent), 885 are Return Migrants (accounting for 11.1 percent), 727 are Stickers (accounting for 9.1 percent), 1,042 are Late Movers (accounting for 13.0 percent), and 4,344 are Stayers (accounting for 54.3 percent).

Within graduates who have already decided where to work, Stayers account for the biggest proportion of 54.3 percent, indicating that most students study and obtain employment in their original areas without migration. Students who migrate for employment (get employed in non-original areas) account for 34.7 percent, including Repeat Migrants, Stickers and Late Movers. Students who migrate for learning (enter colleges in non-original areas) account for 32.8 percent, including Repeat Migrants, Return Migrants and Stickers.

The gender difference on migration is significant. The percentage of migration for female graduates is much lower than male graduates. The percentage of migration for female graduates is only 39.1 percent while it is 50.8 percent for male graduates. Furthermore, for each kind of migration of Repeat Migrants, Return Migrants, Stickers and Late Movers, male graduate has bigger percentage than the female.

Return of Migration It shows that there are significant gaps among the incomes of all kinds of

migrants and Stayer. Stayer has the lowest monthly starting salary averaging 2,676 Yuan, which is notably lower than migrants. In all kinds of migrants, Repeat Migrant enjoys the highest salary averaging 4,572 Yuan. Sticker ranks the second

Changjun Yue 375

highest salary averaging 4,521 Yuan. Return Migrant ranks the third highest salary averaging 3,630 Yuan. Late Mover has a salary on average of 3,352 Yuan.

When gender factor is taken into accounted, the above conclusion is still correct. Both the male Migrants and female Migrants have significant higher salaries than Stayers. For male graduates, the Sticker enjoys highest monthly starting salary, which averages 4,890 Yuan. While for female graduates, the Repeat Migrant enjoys highest monthly starting salary, which averages 4,518 Yuan. Generally speaking, graduates who migrate for employment enjoy higher average monthly starting salary than those who get employed in original areas. The relatively big income gap is one of the important causes for migration.

Return to Migration by Migration Direction In China, the regional income gap between eastern region and central and

western region is so large that graduates prefer to work in eastern region. The phenomenon of people in central and western region migrate into eastern region has existed for many years and will continue in the future. Therefore, college graduates from central and western region have strong motivation to migrate.

The statistics shows the comparison on monthly starting salary of central and western region graduates by migration direction. Two conclusions could be drawn: first, starting salaries of migrants are much higher than Stayer. Second, starting salaries of migration from central and western region to eastern region are much higher than migration within central and western region.

Influential Factors on Migration of College Graduates

Regression Model The paper analyzes the influential factors on college graduates’ migration using

regression model. The dependent variable represents different types of migration, so it is a categorical dependent variable, with the value equals to 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, respectively. Therefore, Multinomial Logit model will be used, with one type as the base category. This paper sets the group of Stayers as base category, and the other four types are compared to it.

Based on “push and pull theory”, “human capital theory”, and the individual personal characteristics of graduates, influential factors on college graduates’ migration can be reduced to four aspects:

The first group is graduates’ individual personal characteristics, including: gender, minority, one child family.

The second group is graduates’ human capital variables, including: (1) academic qualification, classified into college, undergraduate and postgraduate; (2) college’s prestige, classified into key university, ordinary four-year university, other university; (3) academic grades, classified into top 25 percent group and last 75 percent group; (4) English certificate.

The third group is graduates’ family background variables, including: (1) family economic status; (2) family social relationships; (3) parents’ schooling year; (4) home area; (5) parents’ occupation.

The fourth group is regional economic variable, which is GDP per capita in the employment province.

Regression Result The regression results indicate:


Individual personal characteristics have significant influence on employment migration. The male, minority and non-only-one child show higher migration rate. Compared to female graduates, male graduates are more competent to be migrants.

Human capital variables have significant influence on employment migration too. (1) Postgraduates and undergraduates are more likely to migrate than those from two-year colleges. (2) Graduates from key universities are more likely to be Stickers. This means that students are likely to migrate if they can go to key universities, but after graduation they will stay the same places as their universities to work. (3) Graduates who have obtained English certificates have advantage to migrate in that the regression coefficients of English certificate for repeat migrants, return migrants, stickers and late movers are all significantly positive.

Social capital variables also have significant influence on employment migration. (1) Graduates with broader family social relationships prefer local employment. (2) Graduates whose parents have more schooling years are more likely to migrate. (3) Graduates from rural area families are more likely to migrate.

All the regression coefficients of GDP per capita in employment province are positive significantly, indicating the pull effect of “Push and Pull Theory”. The bigger GDP per capita in destination is, the more migration probability graduates have.

Return to Migration of College Graduates

Regression Model Income is an important index reflecting migration status. Both the push and pull

theory and human capital theory consider higher income as one of the primary purposes of migration. To estimate the return to migration more exactly, this part will study the net return to migration with other variables controlled using multivariate linear regression model.

The dependent variable is graduate’s monthly starting salary. The explanatory variables include all influential factors on starting salary involved in previous part. In addition, the migration variable is also included, with the Stayer as base category and other types included in regression model as dummy variables.

Regression Result The regression results indicate: Migration can enhance income, the return of migration to income is between

10.7 percent and 21.1 percent. The regression coefficients of the four dummy variables for migration are all significantly positive. Within the four types, Repeat Migrant enjoy the highest starting salary (the coefficient is 0.211), Stickers enjoy the second highest salary (the coefficient is 0.156), Return Migrant enjoy the third highest starting salary (the coefficient is 0.125), with Late Movers the fourth (the coefficient is 0.107), which indicates that graduates employed in non-original areas enjoy higher income.

There is significant gender income gap. Male’s average salary is 9.0 percent more than female’s.

Human capital variables have significant influence on income. (1) The regression coefficients of academic qualification are highly significant, which makes clear that postgraduates and undergraduates have more income than those from two-year colleges. (2) The regression coefficients of academic grades and English

Changjun Yue 377

certificate are significantly positive. It makes clear that graduates with better academic performance enjoy higher salary too.

Social capital variables also have significant influence on income. The regression coefficients of family income and parents’ schooling year are significantly positive, indicating that graduates from high and medium income families or with better educational background enjoy higher salary than those from low income families.

The regression coefficient of GDP per capita in employment province is significantly positive, indicating the pull effect of “Push and Pull Theory”.

Conclusions and Suggestions

Based on a national scale survey data of 2013 and methods of statistical descriptive and econometric analysis, this paper has given an empirical analysis on the frequency, flowing direction, return and influential factors of college graduates’ migration. Meanwhile gender comparison in migration has been analyzed. The empirical results are concluded as follows:

Firstly, the percentage of migration for female graduates is much lower than male graduates. 50.8 percent of male graduates migrate but only 39.1 percent of female graduates migrate. Secondly, inter-provincial migration may increase incomes significantly for both male graduates and female graduates. Thirdly, the economy development level is one of the key factors for inter-provincial migration. Fourthly, individual personal characteristics, individual human capital variables and family social and economic background are main factors influencing migration.

There are some policy suggestions for colleges, graduates and the government based on the results above.

Firstly, for regional distribution of graduates’ employment, the allocation effect of market is remarkable. The push and pull theory explains why graduates mainly migrate from central and western interior provinces to eastern coastal provinces, and from less developed provinces to better developed ones. The human capital theory shows graduates with higher academic qualifications are more likely and capable to migrate. Both the push and pull theory and the human capital theory explain why graduates who obtain employment after inter-provincial migration enjoy higher salaries. In future, the function of employment markets should be further perfected to utilize the allocation effect of market sufficiently. It will not only promote college graduates’ employment, but also improve graduates’ satisfaction degree of their employment. Universities should consider the demands of labor market adequately in the aspects of subject design, curriculum construction, practice and internship arrangement, and etc, so as to improve graduates’ abilities to obtain employment.

Secondly, governmental macro regulation should be implemented when and where the market fails to play well. The paper does not include policy variables in analyzing inter-provincial migration due to data limitation. So the influence of policies of central and local government on graduates’ migration cannot be explored. In fact, Chinese government put forward a series of policies to encourage and induce graduates to work in organizations of grass-root level, central and western areas, small and medium enterprises. The effects of those policies need further evaluation. However, the results of the paper provide some instructions for the allocation of higher education resources. The Stayers amount to a proportion of 54.3 percent,


which indicates that graduates prefer to work in home areas because of the familiar social and cultural environment. The government should insist the local recruitment as the main recruitment policy, and meanwhile, provide more supports of investment and teacher resources for colleges in central and western areas to improve the quality of higher education in those areas.

Thirdly, student groups with difficulties to obtain employment should receive more assistance. The paper shows graduates from rural areas or families with fewer social relationships are more likely to migrate. To a certain extent, they are forced to migrate under the push effect of the push and pull theory.

Lastly, since the empirical results shows that female graduate is disadvantaged in migration capacity and income level, therefore, special policy support should given to help female graduates find better jobs.

References Lai, D. & Ji, L. (2003): Institutional Analysis of Graduates’ Employment Selection. Macro-

economics, (7), 34-38. Yue, C. & Zhou, J. (2005): Why Do the College Graduates Choose Inter-province

Employment? Tsinghua Journal of Education, (2), 34-41. Ma, L. (2010): Stay or Migrate? – Research on Chinese Graduates’ Regional Migration

Behavior. Doctoral Dissertation, Peking University. Bagne, D. J. (1969): Principles of demography. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Faggian, A., McCann, P. & Sheppard, S. (2006): An Analysis of Ethnic Difference in UK

Graduate Migration Behavior. Journal of Regional Science, (40), 461-471. Prof. Dr. Changjun Yue Department of Economics of Education Graduate School of Education Peking University Beijing, China [email protected]


XIAOHAO DING

AN ANALYSIS OF THE EMPLOYMENT OF SECONDARY VOCATIONAL EDUCATION GRADUATES IN URBAN CHINA

Abstract

Using the data from the Chinese Urban Household Education and Employment Survey – 2004, this article studies the performances of graduates of secondary vocational education compared with the graduates of secondary general education in urban China from the perspectives of social stratification, job-searching spell and the quality of employment. The analysis reveals that students from lower socio-economic background are more likely to self-select into vocational secondary education compared to those enrolled in general secondary education. This difference disappears when they are compared to the secondary general graduates who do not make it to the tertiary education and enter the labor market instead. Furthermore, we do not find statistically significant difference between the two groups of graduates in terms of their income and occupational stratified level. However, the secondary vocational school graduates have a shorter job-searching spell. We suspect it is due to their better preparedness for the labor market. This study intends to respond to the debate in China surrounding the relative merits of general and vocational secondary education. Key words: secondary vocational education, social stratification, job searching,

quality of employment, China

Introduction

Following the change in economic policy direction after 1985, secondary vocational education became, albeit gradually, a strategic focus of educational development in China. The Chinese government proposed that China would meet the target that the proportion of enrolled students in secondary vocational education and in the general high school would be approximately the same. However, although the Chinese government made secondary vocational education a focus since the 1990s, the development of strategic of secondary vocational education has been controversial (Wang & Zhou, 2010). In the course of development of secondary vocational education, disputes about its value and economic return compared with that of general high school education have continued.

Using data obtained from the Chinese Urban Household Education and Employment Survey – 2004, this article studies secondary vocational education in urban China from the perspectives of social stratification, the time spent in job-search and the quality of eventual employment. Also the study tries to respond to the controversies and challenges that secondary vocational education has faced.

The author argues that the role that secondary vocational education has played in social stratification in two stages. The first is that of “first streaming”, that is, through comparing enrolled students of secondary vocational school with those of the general high school, it is able to identify who chooses secondary vocational education. The second stage is that of “second streaming”. Here, the author sampled

An Analysis of the Employment of Secondary Vocational Education Graduates in Urban China 380

graduates in the labour market who have completed secondary education rather than enrolled students. This enables to compare the household socio-economic background of graduates from secondary vocational schools with those of the general high school. Through the comparison and analysis of the two “streams”, a more comprehensive and objective understanding of the participants in the two types of secondary education may be obtained. The paper next analyzes the different lengths of job-searching spell for the two types of graduates when they leave school for work. Finally, the paper compares the employment status of graduates from secondary vocational school with those from the general high school from the point of view of quality of employment. This part of the paper is in two sections of which compare income and levels of employment. Finally, the paper will attempt to deepen the awareness of China’s secondary vocational education sector from the above perspectives, and provide evidence for the reform of policy.

Introduction of Vocational Education in China

The system of vocational education in China consists of vocational schools education and non-formal vocational training. China’s vocational education system is provided at three levels: junior secondary, senior secondary and post secondary. Junior vocational schools refer to the vocational education in junior high school stage. The students in junior vocational school should be primary school graduates or the youth with equivalent cultural knowledge and its schooling lasts 3 to 4 years. The secondary level mainly refers to the vocational education in senior high school stage. As the mainstay of vocational education in China, institutions providing secondary vocational education are divided into three categories. The first is the specialized secondary school, the basic tasks of which are to train secondary-level specialized technical skills. The second is the technical school which aims are to train secondary-level generally skilled workers. The third is the vocational high school with the emphasis on training secondary-level practice-oriented or skilled workers at the forefront of production. The three types of vocational schools enroll mainly junior high school graduates for a period of three years (Ou, et al, 2008). With China’s reform of vocational education and the development of social economy, the difference among the three types of second vocational schools has gradually become smaller. At present, to foster students to be the skilled workers in the forefront of labor market is their common tasks. With the schooling lasting two to three years, post secondary education mainly enrolls graduates from general high schools and secondary vocational schools. The tasks of this level of vocational education are to train secondary and high-level specialized technical and management labors needed for China’s economic development. Non-formal vocational training institutions are almost always located outside the formal education system. Although the output of such institutions generally enters the labor market on terms similar to those of graduates of secondary vocational schools, such training institutions do not provide diplomas.

At present, vocational education is mainly conducted and managed by the Ministries of Education and Labor, but enterprises are also encouraged to provide vocational training for its own employees. During the thirty years since economic reform and opening to the outside world, much attention has been paid to the quality and level of vocation education as well as to the efficiency of schooling.

Xiaohao Ding 381

Composed of specialized secondary schools, skill workers schools and vocational high schools, and as the mainstay of vocational education in China, secondary vocational education plays a guiding role in training manpower with practical skills at primary and secondary levels of various types. Developing on the basis of the structural reform of secondary education after China adopted the policy of reform and opening to the outside world and directly coming from the reorganization of regular high schools, vocational high school enrolls junior high school graduates and its schooling lasts 3 years. Its main task is to train secondary-1evel practice-oriented talents with comprehensive professional abilities and all-round qualities directly engaged in the forefront of production, service, technology and management. Take the year of 2012 as an example, there were altogether 12,663 secondary vocational schools (including vocational high schools, specialized secondary schools and skill workers school), with the enrollment of 21,136,900 students and the recruitment of 7,541,300 students1.

Vocation education is an important component of the Chinese education system that has been given more attention in the past years due to the scale and crucial impact it has on enhancing national employment and on training a qualified labor force that necessary to boost the Chinese economy.

Research Questions

Enrollment characteristics and outcomes of graduates in secondary vocational education have been a concern of researchers and policy makers in recent years. Over the past decade years, varying projects and investigations have sought to ensure that adolescents who are economically disadvantaged are provided opportunities to participate in secondary vocational programs in China. Students experiencing social and economic disadvantage have been targeted for special assistance in vocational education because they constitute a large part of the Chinese school population. There is a growing consensus that disadvantages in SES can have a tremendous impact on the opportunities of education as well as of labor markets.

A number of benefits can result from involvement in secondary vocational education including increased participation rates of education, enhanced attitudes toward and about work, and less unemployment and better paying jobs for adults who successfully complete secondary vocational programs. However, few empirical investigations have been completed in China to focus on the impact of vocational education programs on the lives of participants after the completion of school.

More empirical studies are needed about the involvement of adolescents in vocational programs in China. This study tries to explore the questions as followings: Does participation in secondary vocational education have an impact on adolescents' work experiences? Comparing their peers involved in general education programs, do adolescents involved in vocational programs have some competitive strengths in labor market after graduation? Answers to these questions would provide policy makers and educational practitioners guidance as they shape the relevant policies and reforms in education of China.

1 2012 National Educational Development Statistics Bulletin.


In this study, the secondary vocational school refers to the senior secondary level of vocational education system, which includes specialized secondary schools, technical schools and vocational high schools.

Data

In the study, the survey data, Chinese Urban Household Education and Employment Survey – 2004 has been used. On April 2005, the Institute of Economic education of Peking University cooperated with the National Bureau of Statistics to carry out an investigation (IEE, 2005). The survey selected 10,000 urban residents from China’s twelve provinces including Beijing, Shanxi, Liaoning, Heilongjiang, Zhejiang, Anhui, Hubei, Guangdong, Sichuan, Guizhou, Shaanxi and Gansu, to gather the information about education and employment.

Although each part of the study according to its specific target has its separate sample, the total samples’ choices show a common characteristic. That is we selected from senior high school graduates only those who first entered the labor market since the 1990s. China is a transition economy and its market environment was formed formally and stabilized in the 1990s. The purpose of taking the period after the 1990s as the context is to allow us to analyze China's current policy towards vocational secondary education in a more targeted and timely way.

Method

The methods which have been used in different parts of this study are as follows: the social stratification study used the socio-economic status index (SEI), as well as a logistic regression method; the analysis of the period of job search used survival analysis methods; the analysis of income difference and of quality of employment used a Mincer income equation; and the analysis of the level of the quality of employment used a socio-economic status index and correlation analysis.

(In view of the length, this paper omits all models, formulas and charts.)

Empirical Results

1. Types of Secondary Education and Social Stratification The study considered first enrolled students. Who opts for secondary vocational

education in China? Do secondary vocational students come from disadvantaged families? And then, the study explores: Who ended their education at the secondary level? Do graduates in the labour market coming from different types of secondary school have different family backgrounds?

The empirical findings show that in the first “streaming” from junior high school to senior high school, vocational school students mainly come from disadvantaged family. That is family background has an important impact on whether the children enter vocational secondary education. This means that in the first “streaming”, such vocational secondary school students have disadvantaged family backgrounds.

And, the data show that after the second “streaming” of college entrance examination, in the labor market graduates with different types of secondary education have no significant differences of family backgrounds. That is, secondary vocational education itself plays an important role in the social stratification, but it is

Xiaohao Ding 383

not the same pattern when the whole graduates entering the labor market is considered. It seems that the type of secondary vocational education didn’t play the role as people had expected in the social stratification.

2. A Survival Analysis of the Period Spent in Job-Search Survival analysis is a branch of statistics, which deals with analysis of time

duration to until one or more events happen. With the Survival analysis, this study attempts to answer the question: what is the duration of the different types of education population that will find a job after graduation a certain time?

The data shows that the median time spent by general high school graduates is two and half years, while it is only one and a half years for vocational education graduates. That means the job searching time of vocational education graduates was significantly shorter than that of general education graduates.

3. Analysis of the quality of employment The study used an earning equation set based on traditional Mincer function.

And the data shows that the meaning of the coefficients of years of schooling, experience and experience square are similar to that of the traditional Mincer function, however, the type of education affects graduates’ income slightly. And graduates from different types of secondary education have no statistically significant difference in the occupational stratified level. In summary, the above analysis for the quality of employment reveals that in the labour market the income and occupational stratified level for graduates with different types of secondary education have no significant difference.

Conclusion

This study considered secondary vocational education in urban China from the perspectives of social stratification, period of job-search and the quality of employment. First, the study finds that students in vocational education school are mainly from relatively lower socio-economic status families, while graduates who entering the labor market with secondary education level have a similar family background. In other words, students from lower socio-economic background are more likely to self-select into vocational secondary education compared to those enrolled in general secondary education. This difference disappears when they are compared to the secondary general graduates who do not make it to the tertiary education and enter the labor market instead.

Secondly, the data revealed that secondary vocational education graduates experienced a shorter job-searching spell. And the type of education is an important factor affecting job-searching spell.

Thirdly, the study found that in the labor market the income and occupational stratified level for different types of secondary education graduates have no significant difference. That is the study does not find statistically significant difference between the two groups of graduates in terms of their income and occupational stratified level.

From the above conclusions the paper argues that although secondary vocational education students come mainly from relatively disadvantaged families, when considering the whole labour market, the role of type of secondary vocational education plays in social stratification is not as significant as people believed in


China. Therefore, we suspect that it could be the level of education rather than the type of secondary education which plays a more important role in social stratification. Secondly, vocational school graduates experienced a shorter gap between school and work. This may illustrate that vocational education graduates have a more realistic psychological preparation and skills adapted for the needs of labour market. Thirdly, the type of education, including income and occupational stratified level, affects the quality of employment slightly; that is, secondary vocational education does not significantly affect the quality of employment.

References Ou, Y., Jiang, L. & Zhang, Y. (2008): Development of Vocational Education System in

China. Journal of Forum of Vocational Education, (10), 59-64. The Institute of Economic education of Peking University (IEE) (2005): Chinese Urban

Household Education and Employment Survey – 2004. Wang, M. & Zhou, J. (2010): Research on Strategy of Vocational Education. Educational

Research, (7), 20-25. Prof. Dr. Xiaohao Ding Institute of Economics of Education Graduate School of Education Peking University Beijing China [email protected]


REYNA DEL CARMEN MARTÍNEZ RODRÍGUEZ & LILIA BENÍTEZ CORONA

FACTORS THAT ENHANCE DIDACTIC IMPLEMENTATION OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT COURSES IN POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITIES ENGINEERING STUDENTS

Abstract

This paper presents partial results of the analysis of the didactic implementation of transverse subjects focused on the human development into the Competency-Based Education Model (CBEM) of the Polytechnic Universities’ subsystem. A descriptive study was designed through a questionnaire to identify strengths and weaknesses in the teaching of these subjects from the perception of engineering students.

It was detected, as an area of opportunity, the need to enrich intrapersonal and interpersonal skills in students through the development of activities that they reflect on different cultures and the importance of relating theoretical content with real situations and the use of technologies. The contributions of Delors (1996), Blanco (2006) and Ornelas (1995) were picked in order to show the need to enrich the comprehensive educational training through enriching educational process implementation into Polytechnics Universities’ subsystem. Key words: didactic implementation, human development and engineering students

Introduction

The arrival of new technologies at the beginning of the 21st Century, set new challenges in the social, technological, cultural, economic and educational contexts. New policies around improving the educational quality of higher education have been established in Mexico. Increased coverage, facilities, equipment and educational models focused on Competency-Based Education were established to support the needs of both students and different business and service sectors.

The National Polytechnic Institute has addressed the technological higher education in Mexico since the 1930s. It has been transformed its curricula in the management and the financial issues. As an example, we can observe the National System of Technological Higher Education integrated by the federal and decentralized Technological Institutes, Technological Universities and Polytechnic Universities.

Since 2001, within the Polytechnic Universities’ subsystem there are careers on Competency-Based Education Model (CBEM). In all curricula that are offered there are six subjects focused on human development in order to strengthen the comprehensive educational training of engineering student.

These subjects include: thinking skills, ethics, values, harmonious and productive coexistence, emotional intelligence, leadership skills and collaborative work among others. However, the complexity of the content involves not only last in teaching a subject, but must permeate all contents in the form of values, principles

Factors that enhance didactic implementation of human development courses… 386

and attitudes that are part of the institutional learning environment in which they grow daily.

The presence of subjects in the humanities area in the careers offered by Polytechnic Universities is justified by the need to provide comprehensive educational training. Nevertheless, there is not an official document to substantiate precisely what the generic and transferable skills are that these subjects contribute to develop. Existing documents provide only specific competencies by training course for students of every career should develop (CUP, 2005).

Moreover, subject manuals are guide tools hat guide the teacher in the learning activities to be carried out at each stage of the program, identifying learning outcomes but not generic competencies. Furthermore, the vague connection between the generic competencies to be developed in each humanities subject, learning activities and assessment of learning outcomes, creates insecurity among professors and students about what is necessary to include such content (Blanco, 2009).

For this reason, some students and professors down play the importance of these subjects and do not articulate their potential with other ones. Although through the reasoning and objectives of these manuals we can detect their presence, this lack of clarity creates the need to identify and found what the powers are in order to strengthen human development courses for the comprehensive educational training in engineering students.

Therefore, the question arises: What are the aspects in the didactic implementation on the human development

subjects that enhance the comprehensive educational training of engineering students?

Didactic implementation and the comprehensive educational training in college students

The Underministry of Technological Higher Education (2009) points out that it is possible to think on didactic implementation as the construction of a road that both professors and students will follow in order to develop professional competencies established in the curricula of a particular career, considering that the meaning of implement leads to build, do something, build a platform, establish and organize a series of activities in time and space.

From the above we underline that didactic implementation is organizing a set of ideas and activities that allow developing an educational process with meaning, significance and continuity. This can build a model or pattern, with different variants, can address different situations and problems that teachers face in their teaching, in a coherent and orderly manner (SEP, 2009).

This process implies an analysis and an organisation of the educational contents. It also involves determining purposes, intentions and educational goals to achieve, establish and sequence activities that enable the achievement of the objectives established. Coordinating these activities in time and space. That means establishing a comprehensive action plan and having clear educational plan that will guide the entire process.

The main aspects to consider are: analysis and organisation of contents, a clear concept of learning, organization of teaching and learning activities and the establishment of evaluation criteria.

Reyna del Carmen Martínez Rodríguez & Lilia Benítez Corona 387

For a student to build learning is necessary in the design of teaching strategies that the teacher fosters the student perform activities, search and analysis of information. For expression skills: speak, write, create ideas, and relate ideas orally and in writing. For communication skills: discuss, argue, explain, and support a certain point of view.

Collaborating through collective participation activities. Creating in order to produce original texts, develop projects, design and make various operations to solve problems.

The educational intervention has a before and after which are essential parts in any educational practice, the planning and evaluation of educational processes are an inseparable part of the teaching performance in the classroom, which are closely linked planning, didactic implementation and evaluation (Zabala Vidiella, 1995, p. 12).

In the first stage of the research we focus on the moment in which the teacher interacts with the students in order to know their perceptions. In this sense, the learning activities are selected, organised and structured on a basis of three stages:

• Opening activities: in which the professor promotes a climate of interest on the topic, establishes a link between previous experiences and the new situation from concrete experiences, gives the opportunity to observe and analyse a phenomenon; invites to explore unfamiliar situations and make and take questions.

• Development activities: here is intended that the professor mediates the content with the capabilities of students through the development of different strategies, promotes management theoretical elements, develops charts, graphs, diagrams, maps, etc. In order to analyse and infer rules or principles and obtain results.

• Closing activities: Analysing results by linking what the students learn to futures issues. Articulating what they learn to aspects of their daily life. Applying what they learn to solve problems in different situations.

Identifying general aspects indicated by the SEP realizes the complexity of a process that aims to promote comprehensive educational training for students. In this regard, the Delors Report (1996) provides learning to live together and work on common projects as one of the axes in comprehensive educational training.

It is framed as one of the most important challenges of the 21st century due to the destructive power that is lived such as insecurity, natural disasters, wars and diseases. This is seen on a smaller scale in the school and family context. This results in mistrust of self and others in students. So it is important to encourage students to learn to discover the other gradually. Identifying that there are differences with the others, but these can become interdependencies, because ones and the others share common spaces

Mexico is facing a big problem of educational quality according to Ornelas (1995, p. 372), who notes that it is revealed in poor school results, the irrelevance of the content and practice of improper teaching methods for obtaining knowledge. Sometimes poor quality does not question the purpose of the content or purpose of the career. This is exacerbated for the future since Mexico is currently facing international challenges that require the country to accelerate its development, which means more pressure to the education system.


In this context of pressures and uncertainty De Miguel (2006, p. 13) notes that the scenarios and methodologies of university education must undergo a deep renewal. From the classic didactic approaches focused on the classroom and in the activity of the professor, now it important advocates for a learning concentrated in the autonomous activity of student, however this transition is complicated.

Santos (2003) analyses the knowledge of professors. It occurs through a process of internalization of experiences from the reflection in and on the practice, so in addition to being full-time professors it is needed researching and reflecting with respect to the practice itself, allowing the student improve from the contextual conditions in which they are.

For this reason, research is not limited only to deepen as a specialized scientific knowledge, it also allows and leads to reflection on practice directly linked to the professor function allowing building a commitment to teaching action itself.

Given this complexity come new challenges and needs in technological higher education focused mainly on developing a comprehensive educational training, which not only provides knowledge but also develops skills, attitudes and values.

One of the main objectives in higher education is to awaken the student’s interest that in becoming a better person through the implementation of teaching strategies that motivates them to reach their goals.

Methodology

It was designed exploratory methodology – transversal descriptive in order to know perceptions in a group integrated by 105 students from different careers who took human development courses from September to December 2013. Babbie (2000) mentions that exploratory studies are in order to: a) Acquiring more information about the object of study; b) Testing the feasibility of a larger project, in this sense the presented results are the first part of a research project. The sample selection was made through probability sampling, which provides useful descriptions of the total population. A questionnaire to the categories recommended by the SEP on the process of didactic implementation in technological higher education with a Likert scale of four items was applied: 1) Little importance, 2) moderately important, 3) important, 4) essential for the comprehensive educational training, finally we also integrated two open questions.

Results

On one hand, students’ perceptions reflected those factors that stimulate their comprehensive educational training. On the other hand, there are aspects that should be strengthened into didactic implementation process. In order to validate the questionnaire we obtained an Alpha Cronbach of .83.

With respect to the factors that facilitate education’s students on the assessments conducted by professors it is necessary: Taking into account all the activities during the course and publicize their rates on time – 89%. Presenting organised classes – 87%. Showing commitment – 87.8%. Being accessible to provide help – 86.6%. Explaining clearly – 85.4%. Solving doubts – 85.4%. Fulfilling agreements generated at the begging of courses – 85.4%.

Reyna del Carmen Martínez Rodríguez & Lilia Benítez Corona 389

Lower percentages indicated the aspects that need to be strengthened to improve learning environments: Using technology creatively – 52.4%. Linking theoretical contents to real life – 55%. Presenting well-prepared classes – 55.6%. Getting involved in activities – 56%. Using different strategies to promote knowledge about several cultures – 52%.

Discussion

The student perceptions of the learning environment are an important factor to evaluate the quality of educational interventions. In Polytechnic Universities, the teacher-centred didactic approach is still predominant in most engineering, in this sense the results revel the importance for students to interact with their teachers and peers in a supportive environment to foster their comprehensive development

Consequently, is necessary to be aware of the strengths that detect students during our performance as teachers. It is the case of the evaluation process as the indicator in the development of their learning. Students noted the need to address them individually and provide them opportunities for self-awareness, personal growth and decision.

The central objective of education is to produce students with initiative and determination, who can work jointly with their peers without ceasing to develop their individuality. For this reason education should integrate the intellectual, affective and interpersonal skills, in order to move to a student-centered education that requires use of non-traditional, diverse resources close to the reality of students issues that were identified as weaknesses in results.

Conclusions

In this first stage of research, students’ opinions helped identify factors that promote comprehensive education training: They admitted the need to have committed professors, willing to prepare engaging lessons and provide support and recognition to both students as people rather than just focusing to comply with content paying no attention on needs of the whole group.

The results show the need for transforming the role of the professor as a mediator. It requires that professor performance is more focused on learning than teaching, so its attention is directed to the design of learning environments rather than to only cover content, further monitoring and constant support to students. Complex issue that exists in the polytechnic universities, since the change from traditional teaching to a competency-based education has generated strengths and insecurities to break the paradigms in which professors were trained.

Therefore, it is necessary to realise that the organisation of teaching in university implies favouring the development of the construction of student learning to make it possible to relate it to the logic of the several disciplines into the employment context in which students will be inserted as well as into their day-to-day context.

The idea above implies that the professor should incorporate different methodological choices designed to promote higher-level cognitive processes and creative thinking processes, including those cultural contents through different activities in which can innovate by using new technologies. Only in this way


university teaching can be formative to have a significant impact on the comprehensive educational training of the student.

The development of didactic and human capabilities of the professor are necessary for change within the classroom is real and not only be reflected in educational discourses, consequently the importance that professors are able to plan and create active learning environments with the use of technologies of information, encourage students to acquire and build content and knowledge through study and bonding with students’ experience.

It is advisable while a professor is in front of a group: understanding that he is working with people; changing the linear thinking for flexible thinking because all individuals are different and complex; facilitating the identification of obstacles or problems that arise in the implementation of projects or other instrumented activities in the didactic implementation in order to promote learning beyond a professional sphere. These should be useful to improve the quality of life at the same time they should have and positive impact on the comprehensive educational training of students.

References Babbie, E. (2000): Fundamentos de la Investigación Social. Thompson, México: Paraninfo. Blanco, A. (2009): Desarrollo y evaluación de competencias en educación superior. Madrid:

Narcea. CUP (2005): Modelo Educativo del Subsistema de Universidades Politécnicas. http://www.

upgm.edu.mx/pdf/meducativo/Modelo_educativo_081105.pdf. Accessed June 2011. Delors, J. (1996): La educación encierra un tesoro. Informe de la UNESCO de la comisión

internacional sobre la educación para el siglo XXI. USA: Ediciones UNESCO. De Miguel Díaz, M. (Coord.) (2006): Metodologías de enseñanza y aprendizaje para el

desarrollo de competencias. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. Ornelas, C. (Coord.) (2001): Investigación y Política Educativas: Ensayos en Honor de Pablo

Latapí. México: Santillana, Aula XXI. Santos Guerra, M .A. (1998): Evaluar es comprender. Buenos Aires: Ed Magisterio del Rio

de la Plata. Santos Guerra, M. A. (1993): Hacer visible lo cotidiano. Teoría y práctica de la evaluación

cualitativa en centros escolares. Madrid: Akal. SEP (2009): Guía para la instrumentación didáctica de los programas de estudio para la

formación y desarrollo de competencias profesionales. Documento de trabajo. México: Subsecretaría de Educación Superior, Dirección General de Educación Superior Tecnológica, Coordinación Sectorial Académica, Dirección de Docencias.

Zabala Vidiella, A. (1995): La práctica educativa: Cómo enseñar. España: Editorial Graó. Dra. Reyna del Carmen Martínez Rodríguez Full- time research teacher Polytechnic University of Pachuca México [email protected]

Dra. Lilia Benítez Corona Full- time research teacher Polytechnic University of Pachuca México [email protected]




LILIA BENÍTEZ CORONA & REYNA DEL CARMEN MARTÍNEZ RODRÍGUEZ

RESILIENT COMPETENCIES IN THE COMPREHENSIVE EDUCATIONAL TRAINING FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS

Abstract

This paper presents part of the research results: “The development of resilient competencies through protective factors and risk in engineering students”. Resilience is considered as a process, a becoming human that inscribes its development in an environment and writes its story in a culture (Jaramillo, 2004: 231). So Vanistendael (2006) identifies resilience as the competence to facing problems and to emerge stronger. The methodology used in the study was of mixed cut, significant results were rescued to find elements such as: Recognition, sense of life and positive interaction that impact on the comprehensive educational training of engineering student facing continuous changes caused by globalization.

Development

The Education in the XXI Century demands tasks that are not only to provide knowledge to individuals but also to give them a comprehensive education that prepare them for life, learning skills, attitudes and values that allow them to adapt to any context where they are.

In this sense the educational reform most important that permeates to the technological higher education in Mexico is a model based on competencies. This is observed in the curricula, because each subject has a specific objective that it has the purpose to develop a particular skill that responds to the needs of different sectors. This model emerged in Europe through the “Turning” project and, later, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) as an international promoter to improve educational services has promoted researches that demonstrate the need for comprehensive training in the development of knowledge, skills and attitudes.

The origin of the word “competency” comes from the Greek words agon and agonistes, which mean in the Greek theatre “The protagonist”, the main character around which the story goes. This reference is considered to identify and strengthen the concept of education focused on construction and reconstruction skills, and gives the feeling of training protagonist in knowledge community (Gallego, 1999).

Different perspectives have emerged about competencies; Chomsky (1954), who attributes the origin of them to cognitive activity, and defines it as the ability and willingness to realize the activities requested, as these also have an attitudinal character, that´s why at the same time they are cognitive, affective, conative, intentional and behavioural.

By the above idea, it is assumed that competency, although it is generated from the learning , this does not develop it by itself, needs others, so a very important element arises: interaction, such as it is mentioned by Ausubel et al. (1983: 56), quoting: “Whoever learns, builds actively with others its own concepts, categories and notions”.

Resilient competencies in the comprehensive educational training for engineering students 392

In this regard, the contributions of Perrenound (2011) mention that in education field competency is considered as the ability to acting effectively, as it relies on knowledge but it is not limited to them, because they take into account attitudes, skills and values in the integral formation of the individual.

In engineering is being looking for incorporate concepts from different disciplines to student thinking, get the appropriation by the students and thereby achieve significant learning that help them in their decision-making throughout their lives and obtain that the learning is not momentary, only to “pass” a subject.

An efficient engineer, in addition to knowledge and skills acititudes that has applied and reflected in the results (Lopez & Valenti, 2005, p. 56).They are present values in technology education that should not be neglected. In the current world, where the technology has acquired an extraordinary relevance, there are other values that should also be present in education of engineers in order to make them adapted to their professional time. The idea is educate to innovate and educate to participate.

Consequently, comprehensive educational training in engineering is directed to prepare professionals involved in the technological innovation, the synergistic work and critical, autonomous and reflexive thinking, necessary to apply it in different contexts.

Due to the above in the sociocultural paradigm of Vigotsky (1986) argues that the relationship between subject and object of knowledge is not a bipolar relationship as in other paradigms, it becomes an open triangle of three vertices: subject and object of knowledge and the sociocultural instruments. Thus the influence of cultural context plays an essential roll in the development of the subject, who is influenced not passively but actively reconstructed. Within the resilience approach, sociocultural part mentioned by Vygotsky is part of the importance of interpersonal relations of the subject and also that resilience is an interaction process where the family interferes, in this case the environment in the university experienced by the individual.

In this sense, the conscious esteem, considered as a protective factor, not only depends on the acceptance of others, but also of personal achievements (Vanistendael & Lecomte, 2006). This gives guideline to open a wider domain of competencies and skills; they are perhaps the most visible part of resilience to the point that causes confusion.

In resilience, the competency term is underlined in a very broad sense as human, social and professional skills. Vanistendael (2006) argues that in order to facilitate acquisition of skills to the individual the following conditions are needed: climate of trust, participation in different activities that allow him to learn, provide the tools to do his job, offer encouragement, avoiding the idea of failure and turning it into a new opportunity for learning.

Therefore, the resilient competencies depend on several factors related not only to the individual but also their environment, past, present and social interaction. Also, do not forget that resilience is not a characteristic of the individual in a strict sense, but the person in the interaction with the surrounding human environment. In the university environment there are elements involved in the comprehensive education training and they are strengthened by certain skills such as recognition, the meaning of life and positive interaction.

Lilia Benítez Corona & Reyna del Carmen Martínez Rodríguez 393

Methodology

In the first stage a questionnaire was applied to identify resilient characteristics in 105 students of which 14 were selected. That is why the sample has 2 women and 12 men aged between 19 and 21 years. In the second part the qualitative method was used for the hermeneutic analysis of their life histories. The hermeneutics approach allows a broader perspective towards individual in a holistic way, because emerge a comparison between the simultaneous crosslinking of various temporalities in a given situation from the text and context (Velez & Galeano, 2000).

Consequently, in the educational field life story as research’s modality is considered as a conceptual support of methods of work, technics and tools of analysis (Bolivar, Domingo & Fernandez, 2001).

People build their story through their culture, customs, sex, class and ethnicity, among others, observed thus a complex social reality in motion, making it necessary to identify their transformation processes (Cifuentes, 2011).

From the perspective of hermeneutics approach and contributions of resilience identified by Vanistendael (2006), the life stories of students were analysed because they elaborated their experiences in childhood, adolescence and youth.

This allows us infer how they founded their resilience through protective and risk factors, at the same time we identified who accompanied them in their development. This is how it weaves resilience: not to be found only in the interiority of the person nor in their environment, but between both, because there is an intimate process to the social environment (Cyrulnik, 2006).

The research was conducted in three stages: The first was the meeting where the main points were explained to make life stories. The second rescued those items that corroborated that students are resilient, it is considered in four points: problem identification, facing and solving problem, resilient tutor and reflexion. Finally, it was analysed by matrix elements that demonstrated resilience as a competency that impacts the comprehensive education training of engineering students, based on inputs on recognition of Cyrulnik (2006) as well as sense of life of Vanistendael (2006).

Results

Problem identification For purposes of this research the problems are conceptualized as adversities,,

these could be seen as the exposing of a person to a set of different types of risks. It is clear that the human being is facing different adversities during its life, which are not necessarily traumatic (Lemaitre & Puig, 2004).

Cyrulnik (2008) pointed out that he could not speak of resilience process without an occurrence of a trauma. The difference between trauma and testing is that in this latter there are fight, suffering, depression or anger, the individual is still just he and overcoming it. However, in the case of trauma, people remain trapped in the past and often recall images of experienced horror.

Therefore, trauma is something unpredictable to survive and causes the loss of a part of itself. However, in the test the person remains intact, distressed, unhappy, but defined by what it is, so it works well for it (Puig & Rubio, 2011).


The experienced tragedy helps transformation trauma into creative energy and enriches the person life. Acceptance and overcoming trauma are positive thus to contribute to the comprehensive education training. 50% of the subject in the sample showed dysfunctional families.

In some rescued memories of student showed risk factors such as screaming, hitting, crying, sadness, helplessness, humiliation, that somehow remained in their traumatic memory, which is not a normal memory, but it transforms, amplifies or minimizes lived and faced adversities (Cyrulnik, 2010).

Obviously, they are scenarios that generate traumas. However, it is important to note that after a trauma, resilient people generate a common sense: increased confidence in their abilities to face any adversity that may occur in the future (Vera et al, 2006). Therefore memory save images only by listening to a word or aspire a smell that memory uses as mechanisms for identifying adversity, act on lessons learned and address the situation in which the subject constructs part of its resilient competencies.

Facing and solving problem Find meaning in life even in adversity occurs through positive thoughts. Ask

What for? Instead Why? Opens the door to proactivity as Covey (1989) points out, the answer is to think, not to react the answer. This implies the possibility to develop a life project, a possible dream of reaching (Munist et al, 2007).

Engineering students identified adversities in which applied the question What for? They found the solution in their answers. These adversities were: dysfunctional family, diseases, mishaps, addictions, tagging and loss of a loved one, which were faced and solved through internal strategies that demonstrate the self-conscious, critical thinking, morality, initiative, humour sense and independence. These latter elements are considered protective resilience factors.

Therefore it follows that the ability to manage their own limits in relation to problematic or adverse situation, while maintaining a physical and emotional distance from the detected adversity, allow developing resilient competencies in the comprehensive education training of the subject.

Resilient tutor Resilient individuals develop a way of thinking that sees each adverse situation

as something that worthwhile facing and thus placing a value to the effort to achieve goals, objectives and dealing with conflicts.

In this regard, the protective factors are identified as influences, it follows that they are based on the interaction with other or others. These factors give meaning to the individual life to accompany him, advise him, love him and accept him. Cyrulnik points that resilient tutor is the person who accompanies the individual unconditionally, becoming a support and providing confidence and independence during the resilience process.

The resilient tutor can also be represented by an activity, interest and even something as ephemeral a character, a song or a movie (Puig & Rubio, 2011). That is, depending on the world view that the individual has, is its interpretation about the problem because human life is woven with that of others, without the other can not live (Cyrulnik, 2008).


By analysing this element in the life stories shows that engineering students had a resilient tutor who is still impacting on their integral training. These tutors can be represented in the grandparents, mother, professors and friends.

The social relations into the family and into the school strengthened the integral formation of the human being. Empathy allows identifying the moods of others and achieving the understanding of the attitudes and behaviours of others to improve relationships. In resilience, interaction with others allows building on the individual strengths that overcome different adversities. The presence of the other becomes fundamental.

Reflection Critical thought is a resilience competency because it develops the ability to

analyse causes and responsibilities of the adversity (Melillo, Ruboo & Morato, 2004). It also allows reflect on gains to emerge stronger. Some of these reflections are showed in the following example:

Subject 6 Each passing day new things excite to me, appear new dreams, new goals, new people, new challenges. That is why we always try to have a “winning” attitude, for whatever comes does not matter so hard as it is do not cost me adapt myself.

This was considered to identify the meaning of life as a product to analyse adverse situations and be able to dominate personal existence, how to plan in order to give orientation to life, because although the individual is accompanied by another, but he is the only one who take the decision to continue. Others give meaning to his life through recognizing. This encourages positive self-esteem and allows the development of resilience (Werner & Smith, 1992) and thus his comprehensive education training.

It is expected that the implementation of model competency-based education strengthens the overall education of college students so it is necessary that the knowledge, skills and attitudes are developed not only in the classroom but in the context of the university as a whole.

The identification and resolution of problems, tutor support and reflective thinking are evidence of the formation of the student as it faces the problem and solves it, is transformed and becomes a better person.

Conclusions

In this stage of the study we confirm that the subjectivity of the individual is part of the resilience. What for someone something is a problem for others it is not. In this sense, some people have personal characteristics that help them facing high levels of stress, protecting them for not lose control, and becoming tools that impact their comprehensive education training.

Past plays an important roll in life’s people. Often it becomes a burden that does not allow go forward, makes weighing and load their anger, helplessness, sadness, despair and ignorance of themselves. All this becomes an insurmountable barrier limiting development of resilience and comprehensive training.

In the case of the students we observed that, despite the storms in their lives, they kept their direction, looked after themselves and looked for support from


people close them. In this sense, we observed that a transcendental factor is present in resilience: the accompaniment.

Consequently, protective factors as critical thought, independence, interpersonal intelligence, interaction, recognition and meaning of life are considered as resilient competencies developed in the individual comprehensive education training because when a person achieves its own worth that person allows flow its honesty and responsibility therefore gets a balance between being, doing and knowing.

References Ausubel, D., Novak, J. & Hanesian, H. (1983): Educational Psychology: A cognitive point of

view. Mexico: Trillas. Bolivar, A., Domingo, J. & Fernandez, M. (2001): Biographical-narrative research in

education. Approach and methodology. Madrid: La Muralla. Cifuentes, R. (2011): Designing qualitative research projects. Buenos Aires: Noveduc. Covey, S. (1989): Seven habits of highly effective people. Mexico: Paidos. Cyrulnik, B. (2003): The enchantment of the world. Barcelona: Gedisa. Cyrulnik, B. (2006): Ugly little ducks. Resilience: an unhappy childhood does not determine

life. Argentina: Gedisa. Cyrulnik, B. (2008): Under the sign of the link. A natural history of addiction. Barcelona:

Gedisa. Cyrulnik, B. (2010): I remember. The exile of the children. Barcelona: Gedisa. Chomsky, N. (1954): Logical Syntax and Semanlics: Their linguistic Relevance. Language,

31, 36-45. Gallego, R. (1999): Cognitive skills: epistemological, pedagogical and didactic approach.

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E. Resilience and subjectivity. The cycles of life. (pp. 63-91). Argentina: Paidós. Lemaitre, E. & Puig, G. (2004): Wheel Program: strengthening resilience: a strategy for

developing self-esteem. Website consulted on September 18th, 2010: www.addima.org/ Documentos/recursos/programa%20rueda.pdf.

Lopez, J. & Valenti, P. (2005): Technology Education for the XXI Century: Skills Development in Science and Engineering: Towards a teaching problematized. Bogota: Didactics Magisterio.

Melillo, A., Rubbo, O. & Morato, F. (2004): Resilience notes. http://www.ugr.es/~javera/ pdf/2-3-AA%20. Accessed 13 February 2011.

Munist, M., Suárez, N., Krauskopf, D. & Silver, T. (2007): Adolescence and resilience. Argentina: Paidos.

Perrenoud, P. (2011): Building skills from school. Mexico: JC SAENZ. Puig, G. & Rubio, J. (2011): Resilience used manual. Barcelona: Gedisa. Vanistendael, S. & Lecomte, J. (2006): Happiness is possible. Awakening in maltreated

children confidence in them, building resilience. Barcelona: Gedisa. Velez, O. & Galeano, E. (2000): Qualitative research. State of the Art. University of

Antioquia. Vigotsky, L. (1986): Thought and language. Spain: Paidos.


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Dra. Lilia Benítez Corona Universidad Polítecnica de Pachuca México [email protected] Dra. Reyna del Carmen Martínez Rodríguez Universidad Politécnica de Pachuca Hidalgo México [email protected]


EMMA LETICIA CANALES RODRÍGUEZ & GABRIELA ABAUNZA CANALES

TEACHING AND LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN MEXICO: NEW PROPOSALS TO IMPROVE OLD PRACTICES

Abstract

This paper presents the outcome of an online workshop in Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo with professors of seven contrasting Mexican institutions of higher education and two European institutions in England and Latvia respectively. The overall aim was to generate a debate on the proposals and recommendations that international organizations suggest to carry out the teaching likewise learning practices in each country. The debate was focused on the identification from the same of the selected readings and the socialization of what is happening in five Mexican universities and the participating universities.

Introduction

At the beginning of the 21st century, were outlining at worldwide level different suggestions for higher education as a result of both technological changes and globalization. Because of this, it was necessary to deal with issues about relevance, quality, management, financing and internationalization in accordance with the demands of the working world, the sustainable human development, teacher training, the development of new technologies of information and communication, the research and its relation to the responsibilities that would have to take higher education (Tünnermann, 2010).

International institutions such as UNESCO, the World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development, have identified contemporary problems facing higher education globally.

They indicate that the immobility of academic positions is being attacked and disciplines have to prove their value through their contribution to the economy. The fiscal crisis of the State and its resulting budget cuts has generated great confidence in savings or cost reduction strategies and private income sources. This has caused, among other things, deregulation of working conditions, restrictions on enrollment and the growth of private institutions.

UNESCO recommends that responses of higher education to the continuous changes nowadays must be guided by three guiding principles: relevance, quality, and internationalization.

Relevance refers to the role and the place occupied by higher education in society. In terms of quality, it is considered that its strengthening and evaluation require active participation of the teaching staff and research.

About the quality of students, the concern relates to the rapid increase of enrollment, the diversification of curricula and the current funding levels. Finally, the principle of internationalization is very important; it is considered the increase in exchanges among universities in different countries must lead to a wider understanding among cultures and also a widespread of knowledge.

Emma Leticia Canales Rodríguez & Gabriela Abaunza Canales 399

One of the priority tools to achieve quality according to the proposals of UNESCO refers to have quality professors, so it is a priority to address effectively the factors that contribute to teacher training (Irigoyen y col, 2011).

Being a teacher in Higher Education in Mexico

Up to 1970, a higher education Professor was required to have a mastery of the subject they taught. Having a professional degree that backed up the contents was enough to aspire to the position. Currently, teachers are hired per hours, who are the majority, entering to many colleges in the same way, but the new educational trends are demanding them to form from a new approach of knowledge. It requires the integration of external sources of knowledge to perform the review of the curricula as well as the reflection about the widespread dissemination of knowledge and availability. Most of the public universities in the country have innovated their educational model with the proposed of competency-based education, considering the assumptions that underlie it. Zabala and Arnau (2007: 40) indicate that competences consist of “effective interventions in different fields of life through actions in which are simultaneously mobilized at the same time and in interrelated way, attitudinal, procedural and conceptual components”. These authors comment that the definition implies the execution of effective actions to situations and different problems which demand the use of the available resources. The problem consists in which most teachers (part time) do not participate in research managements or technological application of their knowledge so they have few opportunities to convey these experiences of learning in their students. Although the tendency of institutions is to have training courses for teachers, find it difficult to transfer what they have learned in different areas of knowledge in their classrooms with their students. Hence, the increased risk in relation to the competency-based approach has been to assume that describing with new teaching interactions terms, these will be implemented in a relevant way.

Moreover, full time teachers who carry out research activities are faced with diversified demands among organizations that evaluate them and are regularly assigned additional remunerations to reflect their teaching and research activities and/ or management responsibilities. Each organization has important budgets and gives priority to different aspects of educational work. The program of Improvement of the Faculty promotes the collegial work of teachers who have formed academic corps by the line of developing research. For the National System of Researchers individual work has a higher evaluation system and the encouragement of the teacher performance is a resource of the Federal Government oriented to academics whose main activity is teaching in a classroom when they accomplish the requirements of institutional regulation.

Methodology

It was organized a workshop called “Teaching and Learning around the world” online with a length of 45 hours. Five sessions were organized online for 5 weeks in order to perform a comparative exercise on the formation of higher education professor of the participating institutions in the workshop. These tasks were done in

Teaching and learning in higher education in Mexico: New proposals to improve old practices 400

order to enrich the debate on the proposals and recommendations about teaching practices and learning that suggest the international organizations.

Eleven Mexican higher education teachers participated in the workshop. Those universities function through three different modalities: eight teachers participated from 3 public universities on an autonomous basis, two teachers who work in a Technological University and a teacher of a private university. Two colleagues from European institutions formed part of the Group: an institution in England and one in Latvia.

For each working session specific readings by UNESCO, International Academy of Education and OECD were suggested. The topics focused on international recommendations for the recruitment and training of teachers in higher education. The program was accompanied by a broad suggestion of documents to support the written participations in 5 forums and verbal interaction in 5 online meetings. Practical exercises were also carried out they involved the application of two instruments one for teachers and another for students in order to explore the teaching strategies used by them.

Results of the workshop debate

Analysis of the workshop participants’ approaches suggest that comments were focused on the lack of clarity that exists in Mexican teachers about the type of man who needs to be trained for what is happening in today's society. On the other hand teachers are required to perform activities that are linked with national organisms that provide supplementary funding to their salaries. This situation suggest a gap between what is proposed in international and national policies as it happens every day in the academic life scenes of students and teachers in public and private, autonomous, federal and/or technological universities.

Implications and highlight aspects

It was clear from the discussion that Higher Education Institutions around the world face similar problems, although operating from various economic and financial points of reference. Implement changes in teachers with traditional teaching practices is a difficult task that is increased by the lack of clarity about the changes occurring in the economic model in which we are embedded.

One emergent pertinent issue relate to the students’ perspectives, clearly demonstrated that there is a mismatch between what some lectures claim and what they practice, commented the English colleague.

Teachers require a strong background in different areas such as: pedagogical training, evaluation; knowledge of individual differences in their students and their learning styles, because they are insufficient.

Universities have taken up the issues that are found on the educational policies diary since the 21st century started such as coverage, equity, quality, drop out rate, internationalization even national and international certifications. Moreover, the different disciplinary approaches related to teaching and learning have opted for competency-based approach. They face major theoretical limitations and in the practice you can observe deep-rooted traditional attitudes and beliefs that focus learning programs and are unrelated to the technological and scientific changes that


occur in the social, economic and political context. The experts mentioned that, defining competences without reference to the linguistic context (functional scope of performance) implies the exercise of routine skills that have nothing to do with professional performance and much less are organized according to the criteria of relevance and effectiveness that defines taught-learning discipline (Padilla, 2008).

Another aspect in which the debate was focused on relate to the tour in the timeline between yesterday and today. It was mentioned that the times where teaching focused on the transmission of knowledge are left behind. Now it is about, as stated Freire (1996) to “create the possibilities of production and construction”, while teaching involves and requires from teachers skills for research, development of reflective and critical thinking as well as respect for others who have different approaches to ours.

Conclusions

Considering the globalization challenges, it could be warn during the workshop that the challenges today take place in institutions of higher education somehow obey similar processes to those that occur in other developing countries. The recommendations that were found in the revised documents and what is happening in seven Mexican and two foreign institutions agree on the approach to restructure this section of the higher education in a direction that seems to be in tone with the growing needs of the market and the State (Alcántara, 2000). The difference would be the concept that in Mexican institutions lives to bureaucratic and administrative level, whereas the real demands for the hiring of part time teachers.

There was an agreement on the importance in the academic experiences of teachers’ professional life as a significant part of their students and colleagues’ formation regret that this is neither considered in the working programs nor in updating programs for teachers that are offered by different institutions. While teachers ignore what is happening in working environment, university courses in which they work are limited, decreasing the possibility of improving the levels of academic performance and quality that are currently required. Education reforms are on one side and the teaching activities on the other. The evaluation concept which underlies the reforms has more implications of work order than pedagogical. Mexico has received statements by the OECD for being one of the countries belonging to this group who invest the higher education budget to pay salaries to their teachers, even though reality shows they are poorly distributed.

Another aspect that requires greater care in the future Mexican professional training refers to the research and application of new proposals to promote autonomous learning in the students.

Being a teacher means recognizing that the demands that the system inquire us it is found in a wide range of requirements such as: teaching in a classroom setting, individualized teaching, cultural diffusion, professional disciplinary training, generation and application of knowledge, academic management and mentoring to students.

Our university teachers in Mexico are formed on the daily practice. Their initial practice focuses on the discipline area in which they were formed as chemistry, engineering, mathematics, geography, psychology or educational sciences. Teacher preparation is reduced to the model in which they were formed at different stages as

Teaching and learning in higher education in Mexico: New proposals to improve old practices 402

a student, but it is far removed from the principles of critical pedagogy and teaching models that are posed in the curricular redesign of 21st century.

Currently it is required of teachers with pedagogical, educational, social and emotional skills, connoisseurs of psychological and pedagogical approaches that underlie the teaching and learning process. The clash of a large group of Mexican teachers between experience throughout their preparation, their poor links to sources of work of their discipline and their precarious knowledge of what is happening in today's society is reflected on a daily basis in the classroom. This translates into daily inevitable tensions among the teacher, student, curricula and authorities. Institutional times and social demands are going in different directions. An important group of teachers goes every day to a different reality to the one required in the educational environment. The teacher ventures into the contradictions posed by institutions in their ongoing attempt to implement “innovative policies” that operate in other countries which is different to our life and development contexts different from ours.

The university teacher forgets to be present in the classroom is completely different from being a teacher in the classroom. As stated Diaz Barriga and Inclan (2001) teaching lost its original mystic spirit, highlighted in the Mexican Revolution, and today many teachers live longer as employees, ignoring the responsibility and commitment that the profession involves. Others are drawn by the instruments of educational policies that are related to the programs linked to the granting of financial incentives such as the encouragement of the teaching performance (1990), the admission to the National Research System (1984) and the program of improvement of teachers (1996) among others.

The richness of the meeting hold in the workshop reveals the already known need to generate particular strategies focused on the specific characteristics of each institution, in order to enrich the permanent training of the teacher. With this, the importance of considering the various educational actors to bring about changes from inside the institutions and thereby involve teachers in making-decision, in designing and implementation of articulated teaching strategies with the contextual reality.

It results invaluable the shared concern by the prevailing need to make a difference in reducing the diversity of educational problems which are shared both at national and international level. Two immediate objectives are carried to reflect: 1) to improve the practice and professional development by teachers; and 2) to optimize the learning process of the students to have an impact on their personal development. Similarly, foreign teachers agree on the importance of the research at the University level, as well as the need to generate inquiries about what is meant nowadays by quality and the central importance that teachers have to encourage students to achieve their academic achievements. It is important to recruit new teachers and retention of those who are operating in a responsible and committed way.

Finally, the developed debate in the workshop generated a number of unanswered questions: How to attract and recruit the right teachers? What should be done to ensure their retention? What are the priority areas for training teachers? How to ensure that the ideas and concerns about teacher training were socialized in the workshop have an impact in short, medium and long term?


Although we do not have answers for everything, we could finish with the comment of the English teacher: “…The last session left me with mixed feelings. On one hand, it was heartwarming to know that I was not alone in my thoughts about how to improve the teacher’s pedagogical practices with a view to catering for the needs of students in the twenty-first century. On the other hand, it saddens me to hear that teachers in different parts of the world are experiencing similar teaching-learning problems. This suggests that there is still so much more to be done in order to make a positive difference for teachers and students alike for teachers, their practice and professional growth and for students, their academic progress and overall development…”

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Zabala, A. & Arnau, L. (2007): La enseñanza de las competencies. Revista Aula de Innovación Educativa, núm. 161, 40-46. Disponible en http://upvv.clavijero.edu.mx/ cursos/ObservacionPracticaIII/vector2/tarea6/documentos/Zabala_Arnua.pdf.

Prof. Dr. Emma Leticia Canales Rodríguez Gabriela Abaunza Canales Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo México [email protected]


DAINA VASILEVSKA

DISTANCE EDUCATION AS A FACTOR OF DEVELOPMENT OF VIRTUAL ACADEMIC MOBILITY

Abstract

Nowadays, academic mobility is the subject of the extensive scientific discussion. International mobility of students and lecturers today is already world standard. In recent decades, academic mobility both in Europe and in the world is recognized as one of the most effective tools for improving the quality of education. The modernization of the higher education in Latvia can be considered as an element of some global international project wherein the academic mobility arises as the priority of synchronization of higher education in Latvia, Europe and in the world.

Introduction

Globalization processes in the world economy has led to the fact that in the educational world appears the tendency for internationalization. Today the process of internationalization of the higher education includes student and lecturer mobility, reform of programs of curriculum, cooperation in the scientific and research field, open and distance learning, regional and foreign cooperation of universities, the international division of labor and other types of activities. In the present period the single world educational space is expressed, first of all, in the development of the common educational standards, approaches, curricula, specialties across the world.

Mobility

“Mobility is one of the primary objectives of policy of education and staff training of the European Union, stipulated in the articles 149 and 150 of an agreement. This is not only aid development of the European citizenship and European identity by increasing the understanding of the cultural and linguistic diversity, but also favor an idea of creating the European space of education and professional training in accordance with the strategic goal of the European Council in Lisbon in March 2000” (COM, 2005).

According to this principle, the European Union has been working for more than three decades in the cooperation of mobility of students within the frameworks of different programs, such as Erasmus, the level of the basic education and Erasmus-Mundus, at the level of postgraduate education. Both programs have a positive effect on the development of mobility for the personal development of individual, using different programs for education and aid development of cooperation between the universities of Europe.

The European universities have a successful experience in implementing programs of academic mobility, especially at the postgraduate education. But even at this level become apparent the issues that require special attention for the purpose of improving the management of the integration process between universities. For example, solution to a problem of difference in credit points, maximum satisfaction

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achievement in needs of students in the process of mobility, as well as, solution to the problems of the language and cultural differences (Aguado & Álvarez, 2003).

The international mobility is increasing from year to year. By 2025 the total number of students in the world will increase from today’s 97 million of people to 260 million of people. But the number of the foreign students will increase over this period up to 7 million (BFUG, 2009).

Only the direct economic effect from study of one foreign student (tuition fee and living expenses) for the host country is estimated within the range from 5 to 50 thousand dollars. According to the expert’s estimates of UNESCO the provision of the educational services to the foreign citizens is becoming one of the most profitable types of export (NAFSA, 2012).

The main goal of mobility is to give the student an opportunity to get a versatile “European” education on the chosen direction of training, to provide him with the access in popularly accepted knowledge centers, where traditionally have formed the leading scientific schools, to expand knowledge of the student in all areas of the European culture, to instill him a sense of citizen of Europe. Prague communique of Education Ministers (2001) points out that mobility will allow its participants to take advantage of the wealth of the European Higher Education Area, including democratic values, diversity of cultures and languages, diversity of systems of higher education (Ministers Communiqué, Prague, 2001).

Held in 2008, a forum of experts of the European countries on problems of mobility, dealt with the analysis of situation and the development of recommendations on the extension of mobility of students and youth from the states, included in the European Union. The experts have concluded that the European Union confronts with the task to prepare a new generation of Europeans, ready for the new global challenges, who have a deep sense of European identity, openness and cooperation. As the long-term goal was offered to make an academic mobility in the EU as a rule, but not an exception, as it is today. As strategic goals: in 2015 the possibilities of the international mobility should use at least 30% of the representatives of the young generation, in 2020 – at least 50% (Report of Expert Forum on Mobility, 2008).

It will mean the extension of the existing programs of mobility, wherein at the moment involves up to the 300 thousand of people per year. In 2015 this figure should comprise 1.8 million of people, but in should grow to 2.9 million of people (Report of Higher Education, 2012). The physical international mobility in all the areas must be supplemented by the virtual mobility – getting in contacts with and the creation of networks between schools, institutions and groups.

Mobility in the field of education is an obligatory experience of European as “mobility has a positive impact on the quality of higher education and higher educational institutions as well as the society as a whole” (Report of Higher Education, 2012).

As for the types of academic mobility, it should be noted that the international academic mobility prevails over the mobility within the country. The development of academic mobility within Latvia related to the necessity of development by the universities the joint educational programs which has been currently hindered by the high level of the market competition of the educational services, as in Latvia by the beginning of 2013 were registered 61 higher educational institutions (IZM, 2013).

Distance Education as a Factor of Development of Virtual Academic Mobility 406

Mobility in Latvia is characterized primarily by the fact that the graduates of the previous levels enter another university to study in the full course of the program of the next level.

Despite the fact that the academic mobility of students and lecturers is becoming an important component of the educational and research activity of the Latvian universities, there are many obstacles for the development of the academic mobility. These include:

1) The lack of the government program of academic mobility; 2) Uncertainty of the development goals of mobility both at the level of the

country as a whole and at the level of the individual university (the statute, development strategy, mission);

3) The lack of the sufficient financing, both the trips itselves and investments in the infrastructure, training and retraining of lecturers, advertising and information companies.

One of the main tools of development of academic mobility is the recognition of qualifications and education certificates. In this regard, there is a definite legislative framework which helps to confirm both at the national and international level the comparison of diplomas of various universities.

Academic mobility can be implemented in three main areas: • The inter-city mobility which provides an opportunity for choosing different

education courses at different universities within the frameworks of one city; • The interstate mobility; • The International mobility. Currently, Latvia is taking practical steps to implement the effective academic

mobility in all three directions. Guided by the experience of foreign countries, taking into the consideration the specificity of the Latvian education the joint education programs and projects are developing, having as its ultimate goal the training of highly qualified specialists in various fields.

Virtual academic mobility

Currently, students use mobility as an opportunity for studies at another university or at another university in another country. Students can study there during the different periods of time (time, course or subject is expressed in the form of credit hours). Until now, this mobility is always understood as the physical. However, with the introduction and development of information and communication technologies (ICT) in the field of education for the equality of all citizens occurs a virtual mobility. Universities offer the different network models of the virtual higher education all over the world so that everyone can choose for himself/herself a suitable model because of being not able to join the program of physical mobility in family situation, professional or personal reasons. Pays special attention to the exchange and shared use of mobility programs, based on the already – existing cooperation of universities and provision of the virtual opportunities for the tools of necessity of mobility (recognition of the credit hours, quality assurance processes and etc.). Nevertheless, the virtual mobility and physical mobility are two different forms in one scheme of mobility, they are both designed as the different educational concepts and they both have their own future. However, none of them is less important than the other. Each of them has its own peculiarity. Besides that, they are


both in different ways supplement and strengthen each other. Nevertheless, the virtual mobility very often is the easiest and sometimes the only way to achieve the international mobility and it can be used as the tool for the promotion of the European higher education in the third countries.

In the given context, the distance learning is one of the key factors of development of virtual academic mobility both of students and lecturers. Virtual academic mobility has a number of advantages in comparison with the mobility (stay in the country of study). The main advantages: no need to change your usual lifestyle; minimal financial investments (registration and access to the Internet); gaining of the international learning experience (for lecturers, respectively – teaching, using different styles and methods, development of education courses in accordance with the requirements of the partner university and etc.); the availability of education at any stage of life that today is particularly topical within the framework of Lifelong learning program. The distance learning essentially modifies the learning process as the information technologies are presented in every area of the human life and therefore, it is necessary to become familiar with these technologies, gaining additional skills which considerably increase the general education and technical level of person.

If the student mobility is understood as a possibility to perform the part of your own education to some extent, during the term or academic year at another university of your country or abroad, it can be done virtually, getting the necessary material remotely, by the means of ICT.

This opportunity adds the value to the virtual mobility as it is characterized by the following criterion:

• Individual accessibility, regardless of the geographical location, financial status, personal circumstances and, etc;

• More personalized educational offers, depending on the possibilities of each particular individual;

• Increased flexibility, concerning an access to the training; • Study, during which are used an interactive materials; • Training in the virtual environment which is conductive to the development

of skills to work in a team. Logically, that the goal pursued by the virtual mobility the same as in the

physical mobility – the development of knowledge sharing and intercultural understanding by the means of access to the programs and courses of other universities.

In order to choose an optimal model of getting education on the program of academic mobility, each student should consider all pros and cons of each model. Some universities also offer the mixed models of mobility. A student can physically attend lectures in his/her university and virtually attends courses or modules of foreign university and vice versa. The main condition is the existence of an agreement between two universities and technical capabilities.

In spite of the fact that the virtual mobility is more flexible and adaptable to all kinds of circumstances, it is possible to find out the advantages and disadvantages of this model. Some of these advantages are:

• The offer of mobility to students, which are not able to attend because of work, family reasons, reasons of disability and etc;


• Lack of the additional financial expanses, (for example, procurement of visas, insurances, residence permit and etc.);

• The absence of the time limits; • Acquisition of educational, intercultural and technical skills that are in

demand in the modern society; • The possibility of using the virtual mobility for training, supplement or

completing the full-time education at another university; • Virtual mobility as a preparatory stage for the physical mobility; • Virtual mobility to maintain the status of active student during the stay at the

university of another country; • The possibility of access to the education at any stage of life; • Provides an access to a large number of students simultaneously in – demand

course. Virtual education has its disadvantages or limitations: • Virtual mobility is not as popular as physical mobility and therefore, is not

always admitted by employers and universities, using only traditional methods of education;

• The limitation of information about the possibilities of distance education; • The incomplete knowledge of students of foreign language; • A limited cross-cultural experience; • The high rate of incomplete education that is connected to the lack of

motivation among students and poor control on the part of university professors.

It is impossible to say which model is better than another one because each of them contributes significantly to the education of each student. Nevertheless, there are no doubts that the virtual mobility offer opportunities that are not available until now, to a large number of students. It also improves the adaptation to the public needs of the XXI century.

Distance learning and academic mobility of lecturers

Virtual mobility of pedagogue of university on the one hand represents the set of qualities and abilities of pedagogue, but on the other hand acts as the means of development of pedagogue of university.

The analysis of processes of development of academic mobility of lecturers in Latvia shows that the use of distance educational technologies could be useful for solving the following problems:

• The problems of training of lecturers to the programs of mobility (the lecturer, who takes part in the programs of academic exchange, using the distance learning courses can offer at the first stage to the host university the experimental distance course, to test his/her skills and in advance get acquainted with the academic environment of the host university);

• The problems of “brain drain” during the European mobility of lecturers; • The correspondence problems of education programs of the base and host

university;


• The problems of comparability of educational processes of the base and host university;

• Organizational challenges of becoming of academic mobility in the universities of Latvia;

• The problems of creation of joint education program. Higher educational institution, attracting remote lecturers will be able to solve

the following objectives: • To begin through the exchange programs, the implementation of its

“expansion” in the regions of interest; • To design and develop the joint education programs with the other

universities; • Optimally solve the problems of the lacking courses, disciplines, for its

education programs; • To attract the most qualified lecturers and researchers for the formation of

education programs of high quality (Major – Specific Disciplines of the top scientists and abroad);

• To expand the range of educational services for their students and listeners, to expand the range of facultative and elective disciplines;

• To increase the flexibility and adaptability of the educational process of their university;

• To expand the range of programs of the supplementary education, including the lecturer’s professional development.

Conclusion

Under the conditions of development of the united European educational space, the goal of which is the establishment of the partnership relations between the universities of Europe and the accumulation of the advanced experience of the partner countries, arises the question of increasing of mobility of students and professors of universities. To the question of development of physical form of academic mobility which means the time- constrained period of study, teaching or research in the another country is paid much attention, as opposed to the virtual from of mobility which means the opportunity to study, teach or be engaged in scientific research at another university by the means of the distance and telecommunications technologies.

Despite the fact that the modern ITC with their rapidly growing potential and rapidly decreasing costs open broad options for expansion of the virtual form of academic mobility, currently, the potential of distance education or e-learning is not used to the full extent. This is due to the number of problems and the main problem of willingness and abilities of the lecturer of university to the implementation of the virtual form of mobility that is associated with the low level of competences needed for its implementation. But the development of this complex of competences is hindered because there are the lack of developed for this purpose methods and forms of education in the process of skills improvement of lecturer.


References Aguado Odina, M. T. & Álvarez González, B. (2003): Entornos virtuales de aprendizaje

desde una perspectiva intercultural. In Barajas Frutos, M. (coord) y Álvarez González, B. (ed.) La tecnología educativa en la enseñanza superior. Entornos virtuales de aprendizaje. Madrid: Ed. McGraw-Hill.

Commission of the European Communities (2005): Recomendación del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo relativa a la movilidad transnacional en la Comunidad a efectos de educación y formación: Carta de calidad de la movilidad europea. Bruselas: COM.

Communiqué of the meeting of European Ministers in charge of Higher Education (2001): Towards the European Higher Education Area. Prague, 18-19 May.

Economy Report of NAFSA: http://www.nafsa.org/_/File/_/eis2012/USA.pdf Accessed 02 January 2014.

Guide for Virtual Mobility in Higher Education (2010): Academic Wayfarers. Asian-European Initiatives in Virtual Mobility. http://activeasia.uned.es/ Accessed 05 December 2013.

Izglītības un zinātnes ministrija: Pārskats par Latvijas augstāko izglītību 2013.gadā (galvenie statistikas dati). http://izm.izm.gov.lv/registri-statistika/statistika-augstaka/ 10756.html Accessed 11 December 2013.

Report of Higher Education. A Statistical Overview of the ERASMUS Programme in 2011-12. http://ec.europa.eu/education/doc/2012/mobilityreport_erasmus1112_en.pdf Accessed 17 December 2013.

Report on overall developments at the European, national and institutional levels (2009): The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) in a global context. Approved by BFUG at its meeting in Prague, 12-13 February 2009.

Dr. Daina Vasilevska Riga Technical University Latvia [email protected]

http://activeasia.uned.es/


OLGA NESSIPBAYEVA

KAZAKHSTAN IN THE EUROPEAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

Abstract

Significant qualitative changes in academic mobility development, introduction of a three-tier system of student training (Bachelor’s – Master’s – PhD), and also the creation of conditions for providing autonomy to Kazakhstani universities has ensued in Kazakhstan, after the nation’s entry into the European zone of higher education. But, as in any large-scale programme there are achievements and difficulties of implementation of the basic principles of the European educational system. In this paper, the author's objective is to analyze the changes and challenges associated with joining the Bologna process, and to consider the perspectives of higher education development in the EHEA as a whole. Particular attention is paid to the ECTS (European Credit Transfer System): the problems of transfer credits of Kazakhstan, which is part of the process on the unification of different educational systems in introducing the Bologna process in Kazakhstan. The introduction of the credit system provides recognition of qualifications from the European educational space, and promotes the expansion and intensification of the processes of European academic mobility of students and teachers. Key words: European educational system, academic mobility, credit transfer

Introduction

On March 11, 2010 Kazakhstan joined the European Higher Education Area (Bologna Process) and became the first Central Asian state which became a full member of the European educational space. Sixty Kazakh universities have signed the “Magna Charter for universities”. This Charter was adopted in 1988 in Bologna. By signing this document, universities take responsibility to develop autonomy, democratic principles of management, academic freedom of students, freedom of scientific research, etc. In higher education, there have been significant qualitative changes in the development of academic mobility, including the introduction of a three-stage model of student training (Bachelor’s – Master’s – PhD), as well new conditions for granting autonomy to the country's higher education institutions (60 universities of Kazakhstan, 2011). “We must ensure the provision of qualitative educational services across the country on a level with global standards”, said President Nursultan Nazarbayev in his Message to the people of Kazakhstan (2007).

Analysis of current situation and development of higher education

In the State Programme for the Development of Education by 2020, the Government – on behalf of the Head of State – laid down mandatory, recommended parameters of the Bologna process. The Centre of Bologna process and academic mobility will be established in Kazakhstan according to the Ministry of Education and Science. In addition, as of in April 2011, new rules for the organization of the educational process provide the scale of credit technology evaluation in the Republic of Kazakhstan; organization of academic mobility within the Kazakh model of credit

Kazakhstan in the European educational system 412

transfer by ECTS type; use of the European system of accumulation and transfer credits in the educational process; and modular design of educational programmes (Official website of the Prime Minister of Kazakhstan, 2011).

Thus, the legal framework for the development of academic mobility has been created, which is one of the most effective ways to improve the quality of training. First steps have already been made in promoting academic mobility. In 2011, student scholarships for education in a leading foreign university in Europe, Southeast Asia and the CIS were offered for the first time by state. Likewise, a mechanism of internal academic mobility was also developed, allowing students from regional universities to receive training in the leading universities of the republic (Ibid.).

Along with this, the restructuring of higher education continues: a three-tier model of student training (Bachelor, Master and Doctorate PhD) has been introduced. In addition, new principles of higher education financing were established which aligned to market conditions. In 38 institutions of the republic two-diplomas education is realized, in 42, Distance Learning is provided (Ibid.).

However, one unique educational project in Kazakhstan is the development of a world-class university “Nazarbayev University”. The university works in partnership with the top 30 universities in the world. The first students already started their undergraduate training in three schools – engineering, science and technology, and social sciences. New standards of conducting research, approved within “Nazarbayev University”, will later to be promulgated in all the country's universities.

In the Programme of Education Development until 2020 it is indicated that public universities may become autonomous non-profit organizations. By 2015 the autonomy will be presented to national research universities, by 2016 – the national higher education institutions, by 2018 – the rest of the higher education institutions. The implementation of Bologna process parameters in higher education will allow Kazakhstan to provide qualitative services at international-standards level in the light of integration into the European Higher Education Area (Official website of the Prime Minister of Kazakhstan, 2011).

Opportunities and challenges of the Bologna process

Expanded access to higher education, a further improvement in the quality and attractiveness of European higher education, and improved mobility of students and teachers, as well as an ensuring the employment of college graduates through career-based professional education are aspirations for Kazakhstan. Kazakhstan's accession to the Bologna process gives a new impetus to the modernization of higher education, opens up new opportunities for the participation of Kazakhstani universities in projects, funded by the European Commission, and creates opportunities for the students and teachers to participate in academic exchanges with universities in the European countries. The Kazakh treasury subsidizes international ventures through a system of free education.

According to Kazakhstani experts in the field of education, Kazakhstan’s accession to the Bologna process may cause “temporary confusion within educational programmes”. It is necessary to inform employers who studied in the Soviet era that all the modern higher education degrees are complete, but some

Olga Nessipbayeva 413

degrees are intended for research and teaching at university, for example a master's degree and Ph.D. (European Higher Education). The specialist degree in the EU and most countries participating in the Bologna process is absent. One of the serious problems of integration of Kazakhstani education system into the Bologna process is that the officials do not have full awareness of as the current situation in Kazakhstan and its parallels in European education.

Thus, Kazakhstan's participation in the Bologna process means widening access to the European education, improving further the quality and increasing the mobility of students and academic staff through the adoption of comparable levels of higher education system, the use of a system of credits, and issuing European Diploma Supplement to graduates of Kazakhstani universities.

Kazakhstan's accession to the Bologna process will ensure the recognition of Kazakhstani educational programmes, curricula, the convertibility of national diplomas in the European region and the employability of graduates.

In the next decade up to 2020 we will need to achieve a level of quality in higher education that meets the needs of the labor market, the objectives of industrial-innovative development of the country, and the best international practices in the field of education. Kazakhstan can succeed in this effort only if it will use maximally the skills and abilities of its citizens, and increase participation in higher education. The result-oriented training and academic mobility will help students develop professional competence, adapt to the changing labour market, and enable them to become active and responsible citizens.

Conditions for the development of academic mobility

We can say that in Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan the basic principles of the Bologna Declaration have realized. The credit education technology has implemented in all universities. Higher educational institutions are actively implementing joint educational programs with foreign universities. Full transition to the three-tier model of training: Bachelor – Master – Ph.D. carried out.

The undergraduate educational programmes consist of three cycles, each of which includes a compulsory (i.e. state) component – CC and the component of choice (i.e., HEIs and elective component) – EC. The average ratio between CC and EC is 60(50):40(50). This allows to form the joint educational programs by institutions of higher education, students – individual educational trajectory. Students can learn courses and master credits from other universities – local and foreign within EC.

The limitations of academic freedom of higher education institutions will be widened in accordance with the State Programme of Education Development of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2011-2020. As a result of these trends, the ratio of CC and EC will be adjusted to 30:70.

The first experience of Ph.D. Programme showed as the positive as the negative aspects of this experiment.

The positive sides: • Expansion of international cooperation. • Approximation of Kazakhstani educational programmes to the world level. • Involvement of foreign professors, expert-practitioners of major national and

foreign companies to realization of the doctoral educational programmes.


• Use of innovative foreign methods of education and their adaptation to the Kazakh postgraduate standards.

Also, there are such problems in the preparation of the scientific-pedagogical staff, in the system of master’s and doctoral studies despite the drastic changes as:

• The weak organization of the educational process, often all educational material is given for independent study.

• The majority of graduate and doctoral students do not speak foreign languages at the appropriate level, which complicates their access to advanced scientific sources and reduces their mobility at the international level.

• The quality of defended master's and doctoral theses remains low because of low level of orientation on specific scientific result.

• The universities do not comply with all requirements for the level of training of doctoral students.

• The received independence in awarding the highest academic degree is not always accompanied by proper responsibility for their empowerment.

• The requirements to the procedure of doctoral theses’ defense were reduced. The analysis also shows a lack of institutional ensuring compliance with

interscientific-teaching staff: specialist, candidate of science and doctor of science and masters degree and Dr. of Ph.D. engenders confusion in the qualification requirements. The scientific organizations have been on the sidelines, their enormous scientific potential (human, resource, laboratory, research) was not involved in this form of research training.

In general, the implementation of the basic postulates of the Bologna Declaration in the educational activities of universities is not up to standard:

• The academic mobility of students and academic staff is not developed. • The opportunities of students in the choice of courses, programmes and

teaching staff are limited. • The use of traditional methods of planning and the educational process

organization continues to be the case. • The comparability of educational programmes is missed. As world practice shows, one of the tools for improving the quality of education

is academic mobility. Berlin Communiqué (2003) calls “the mobility of students, academic and administrative staff as the basis for the creation of the European Higher Education Area”.

In addition, the Leuven Communiqué (2009) mobility characterizes as the hallmark of the European Higher Education Area. “The mobility of students, early stage researchers and staff of HEIs enhances the quality of programmes and scientific research. It strengthens the academic and cultural internationalization of European higher education. The mobility is important for personal development and employability, generates respect for diversity and the ability to understand other cultures. It motivates the linguistic pluralism, thus paving the way for multi-lingual tradition of European Higher Education Area, and enhances cooperation and competition between higher education institutions” (Official Site of KazNPU).


ECTS: the problem of transfer Kazakhstani credits

The satisfaction of basic formal requirements of the Bologna process is impossible without the introduction of a credit system, which makes the system of training transparent and comparable. The introduction of the credit system provides recognition of qualifications at European educational space, promotes the expansion and intensification of the processes of European academic mobility of students and academic staff.

As mentioned above, the credit transfer on ECTS type of Kazakh universities’ students in foreign universities and vice versa is required in relation to academic mobility within the Kazakh model. It is necessary to make the transfer of Kazakhstani credits to European credits since higher professional education of leading countries of the world based on the use of credit systems of development assessment of educational programmes in terms of complexity. This is the ensuring of undergraduate and postgraduate graduates by supplement to common European model diploma.

Different content of Kazakh credits by volume of hours in undergraduate, master's and doctoral education determines the total amount of educational programmes of Kazakhstan in the credits, which differs significantly from the European and American programmes.

KZCS 1 – 45 hours (undergraduate); KZCS 2 – 60 hours (profile MSc); KZCS 3 – 75 hours (research-teaching master); KZCS 4 – 105 hours (doctorate). The issue of recognition of Kazakhstan documents about education is solved by

introducing a conversion KZCS credits to European ECTS or American USCS credits.

For example, for scientific-pedagogical magistracy K=120=2.25

47+6 where: 120 – total number of credits generated in the European Union at the

biennial educational master's program with practice; 47 – total number of credits of the master's program in Kazakhstan without credits allocated to the practice; 6 – the number of credits in the master's program of Kazakhstan allocated for practice.

By itself, the complexity of conversion from one system to another – it is a simple technical problem. And she would not deserve so much attention if it is not be a part of the process of the unification of different educational systems in the framework of the Bologna process in Kazakhstan. And it is possible to decide if in different institutions will not be only similar programmes and curricula, but also training schemes.

The proposed package of measures for a mutual transfer of educational credits must be solved at the state level:

1. The ensuring legal framework for the free transfer of credits both the American and European systems;

2. In the state standards of education focus on learning outcomes – competence of graduates – regardless of the time spent by students in the audience.


In clarifying competencies of graduates focus on employers requests, forming a “flexible” curricula and programmes at the expense of freedom of choice of elective courses.

In what way is proposed to transfer Kazakh credits to ECTS for the difference in educational systems at the university level? In planning and organizing academic mobility in Kazakh universities use the following regulations:

1. Information package; 2. Statement of students going on mobility programmes; 3. Learning Agreement for mobility programmes; 4. Transcript of learning (ECTS: problems of transfer of Kazakhstan credits). What are the challenges of Kazakhstan credits’ transfer to ECTS? 1. The unification of curricula of similar specialties at the partner universities

with accurate fixation of compulsory and elective courses and their complexity in the credits is necessary. It is important the recognition of content of curriculum and programmes of Kazakh partner and student learning outcomes by the European university. The proposed algorithm by MES RK for forming modular educational programmes will contribute to this to some extent;

2. An accurate translation of the title and content of the modules into English is necessary to provide;

3. Quite a long and complicated approval procedure with the coordinators of the Kazakh University and the host university is necessary to pass.

Recommendations

1. Kazakh university must be prepared the full information package in English with modules of educational programmes to activate the academic mobility of students; it is desirable to count the complexity in ECTS credits in the preparation of the module to transfer completely to the European accounting in the future.

2. A coordinator of academic mobility of Kazakh university should form a database of European partner universities ready to enter into agreements on academic mobility.

3. Prepare a simple step by step algorithm preparing documents on academic mobility.

4. The site of Kazakh University’s complete information package on academic mobility programmes is required to put.

5. The application with the rules of transfer of Kazakhstani ratings to the European system of ratings of assessment is required to include.

6. The application with the structure of profiles for students on the calculation of time spent on the learning of the module is required to include.

Conclusions

• The introduction of ECTS will give the opportunity to make transparent the educational systems of different countries for each other.


• ECTS guarantees academic recognition studying abroad to students, with the assistance of it a student gets full access to training courses and academic life at another university.

• The accession to the Bologna Declaration and the development of Kazakhstan’s system of credits transfer (credit transfer received in foreign universities) provide recognition Kazakhstan diplomas at the international labor market, which in turn will ensure the mobility of students, master’s students, doctoral students by building their individual path of selection of educational programmes.

References Anonymous (2011): 60 Kazakhstani universities joined Magna universities. http://news.mail.

ru/inworld/kazakhstan/society/7165491/. Accessed January 2014. Bologna process. Official site KazNPU. http://www.kaznpu.kz/ru/950/page/. Accessed

January 2014. European Higher Education. http://www.ehea.info/. Accessed December 2013. MES RK (2011): The concept of academic mobility of students of higher educational

institutions of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Astana. Nazarbayev, N. (2007): Message of President Nursultan Nazarbayev to the people of

Kazakhstan “New Kazakhstan in the new world”. Official website of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. http://www.akorda.kz/ru/page/page_poslanie-prezidenta-respubliki-kazakhstan-n-nazarbaeva-narodu-kazakhstana-28-fevralya-2007-g_1343986887. Accessed January 2014.

The Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2011): Kazakhstan continues to integrate into the world educational space. Official website of the Prime Minister of Kazakhstan. http://www.primeminister.kz/program/event/view/884. Accessed January 2014.

The Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2011): The educational system of Kazakhstan to implement the principles of the Bologna process. Official website of the Prime Minister of Kazakhstan. http://www.primeminister.kz/program/event/view/1031. Accessed January 2014.

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Olga Nessipbayeva Kazakh-British Technical University Kazakhstan [email protected]


AMANDA S POTGIETER

STUDENT THRESHOLDING INTO ACADEMIA: TEACHING WRITING TO THE BUDDING ACADEMICS’ SOCIETY

Abstract

Lecturers are challenged when creating safe, dialogic-educative spaces for first-year students (freshman1), where optimal teaching-learning of academic writing can be accomplished. This paper reports on a project aimed at creating a safe, dialogic-educative space in which first-year students may attain and practice academic writing skills providing students a threshold into Academia by fostering scholarliness. The significance of the mentor-teacher within this dialogic-educative space, employing process writing and scaffolding as teaching-learning techniques, is emphasized. Methodologically the study employed a hybrid epistemology namely constructivist hermeneutic phenomenology. As participant-observer, I documented this qualitative case study involving education students by making extensive notes, analyzing participants’ written texts and through focus group interviews. The study suggests that creating a safe dialogic-educative space contributes towards academic scholarliness and generates a threshold for students into Academia. The results indicate that as participants’ contributions were valued, they felt proficient and motivated in the academic literacy class. The process of producing a worthwhile academic text implored students to excel and envisage themselves as budding academics.

Background and rationale

No matter what anybody tells you, words and ideas can change the world. (John Keating in the film Dead Poets’ Society (DPS))2

One of the problems I face as a teacher of academic literacy at the North-West University (Potchefstroom) is to create safe dialogic-educative spaces for the optimal teaching-learning of academic writing of first-year students. This paper reports on a project aimed at creating such safe spaces in which first-year students might not only attain and practice writing skills, but in which a liminal portal towards their future scholarliness may also be created; one in which the paideia3 (full-blown completeness) of their souls is allowed to emerge and permeate all in-

1 A freshman, colloquially called freshers, is a term used for first year students in American

universities. 2 The extended metaphor used in this article is taken from the epic movie Dead Poets’ Society

and reflects poignant quotes from the English teacher John Keating to his students. 3 The term paideia (Greek: παιδεία) refers to the education of the ideal member of the polis.

Originally, it incorporated both practical, subject-based schooling and a focus upon the socialization of individuals within the aristocratic order of the polis. The practical aspects of this education included subjects subsumed under the modern designation of the liberal arts (rhetoric, grammar and philosophy are examples), as well as scientific disciplines like arithmetic and medicine. An ideal and successful member of the polis would possess intellectual, moral and physical refinement.

Amanda S Potgieter 419

class proceedings as overarching pedagogical purpose. I will refer to the teaching-learning strategies used as part of process writing to highlight the added value of the teaching of writing to these students (to whom I refer as the Budding Academic’ Society). Upon reflection they seem to learn more than merely how to coin a phrase in academic voice. Some of them indeed prefer to incorporate into their various student activities what they have learnt to become the new generation of scholars and life-long learners (Potgieter, 2012: 89, Relles & Tierney, 2013: 494). The participants in this study seem to display an academic rigor due to at least three inter-related factors, namely:

• the inculcating of life skills such as self-regulation and self-actualisation; • the re-affirmation of these life skills in the academic literacy classroom; and • the embodiment of these life skills in a module that has deliberately been

designated to assist them with their thresholding into Academia.

Demarcation of the problem

When you read, don't just consider what the author thinks, consider what you think. (John Keating in DPS)

The terms teach and educate both suggest more than simply producing first year students who can read academic texts and yield a written text that is academically sound. It suggests an intentional and complex interaction between a teacher and students within an environment that represents, essentially, a safe, dialogic-educative space. Ideally, the knowledge and skills taught and learnt should result in comprehensive products of reading and writing. It is, however, the acquisition of a critical and evaluative approach towards the content and intent of the module that increases the student’s paideia of the soul. This refers in a broad sense to the shaping of a person’s character, a well-rounded, educated individual who emulates the ideal of humanitas (Potgieter, 2013). Paideia in the context of this paper refers to the process of educating students into their true and genuine human nature as developing (budding) scholars, through the medium of academic literacy. A society (Academia) where skills and knowledge become the sole pursuit of lecturers and students disregards the critical development of the Paideia of the soul (Kazamias, 2013).

In reference to teaching academic writing to the Budding Academic’ Society I will reflect on the following three interrelated problems:

• Does the writing programme of academic literacy proclaim to accomplish more than merely to teach knowledge and skills (more than a mere “sitting by Nelly-approach”)?

• Should students be educated in academic literacy towards the goal of humanitas or should the techné (the skills and knowledge) of their writing activities remain the be all and end all of their training?

• What is the role of the mentor-teacher in the process of teaching-learning of the budding academics?

It is my contention that the mentor-teacher holds the key to unlocking the paideia of their students’ souls. My approach in this paper is, therefore, to offer a reflection on a case study of first-year students as empirical basis for understanding the influence and life-long learning that safe dialogic-educative spaces provide

Student Thresholding into Academia: Teaching Writing to The Budding Academics’ Society 420

towards the transfer of life skills to adult life and their eventual inculcation into the world of work – a pedagogic and learning process that I wish to refer to as thresholding (Gourlay, 2009: 181).

Methodology and teaching-learning approach

Constantly look at life from a different perspective. (John Keating in DPS)

I taught the Budding Academics’ Society academic literacy during their first year of study. My teaching-learning methodology was based on the creation of safe yet inviting dialogical-educative spaces where students who find themselves on the threshold of Academia could acquire the knowledge and skills to become proficient readers and writers and where they are also allowed the opportunity to develop their “moral/ethical character” towards their full-blown completeness as paideia of the soul. From the entire group interviewed in their first year I report on three representative participants to provide the findings for this particular case study.

Dialogue is a tool that is used extensively in education as a means of pedagogical intervention. According to Rule (2004: 1) dialogic space can be defined as a cognitive and socio-conventional space where role-players are able to mediate within a non-threatening environment. My paper seeks to address the fundamental realities of educative dialogue as they are usually operationalized in the academic literacy classroom.

Within this dialogical-educative safe classroom environment I specifically employed scaffolding and process writing as teaching methods for introducing, instilling and practicing thinking, listening, reading and particularly writing skills. I started by providing the students with discursive experiences first and then following these experiences with structure and format. Many educators (Schlechty, 2002; Armstrong, 1998; Wolfe, 2007) acknowledge the fact that students should rather be engaged on an instinctive, intuitive level with ideas than merely absorbing facts and skills. The educator has to connect assignments to the real, lived world and experiences of the students in a meaningful and practical way. The safe dialogic-educative space inspires learning that is exciting, experiential and active while relevant, authentic and academically sound (Wolfe, 2007).

Jerome Bruner, one of Vygotsky’s followers, defines scaffolding (as referred to previously) as the fostering of higher levels of development by deepening the student’s skills and understanding at the particular intellectual niveau where you as an educator meets him or her (Bruner, 2006; Harris & Hodges, 1996). This process of scaffolding writing and rewriting implies the gradual withdrawal of lecturer support during the course of a semester, thus transferring autonomy to the student as academic writer. As integral part of scaffolding is reflection of the student on his own writing and that of other students as critical readers. This creates a store of meta-language as students discuss their topics, academic language, writing skills and writing conventions with the lecturer and fellow students. The content of these discussions essentially represents the content for reflecting on the past, promulgating intellectual enquiry and following a pedagogy of curiosity that, in turn, provides rich opportunities for experiencing authentic work, including experiences concerning the mystery about life. As such, it does not merely pertain to subject matter, per se (Potgieter, 2013).


To be able to afford the students the space to transcend their academic boundaries the teacher should become a mentor to them in order to guide them across the threshold or liminal position of their academic careers (Gourlay, 2009: 183). To achieve this goal the mentor creates a dialogical-educative safe space where students will want to venture into the unknown territory of Academia. Here they should feel free to participate in activities, take part in dialogue and ask for assistance, without fear of being ridiculed by their peers and/or lecturers.

It should be the aim of education (and therefore academic literacy) to break the traditional mould of monologuing (i.e. the traditional “sage on the stage” model) where the educator speaks and where the learner sits quietly absorbing his / her wisdom (Alexander, 2005: 3-4). The nature of the module academic literacy is essentially geared towards breaking monologism and to promote academic and subsequent scientific dialogue by cultivating a secure atmosphere where budding academics and their mentoring lecturer may meet.

First and subsequent meetings of the Budding Academics’ Society (BAS)

Now we all have a great need for acceptance, but you must trust that your beliefs are unique, your own, even though others may think them odd or unpopular. (John Keating in DPS)

I provided a safe dialogic-educative space based on three guidelines: Firstly, I made sure that students were well-informed as far as my expectations of them were concerned. Secondly I clarified to students what they could expect from me. Thirdly I used scaffolding as overall teaching approach.

The writing was initialised with an open discussion and brainstorming by the students. I introduced the subject-specific discussion pertaining to the Faculty of Education Sciences and soon most students were taking part. The environment was non-threatening and students openly voiced their opinions even when they happened to disagree with the point of view of their fellow students. To structure the activity they formed discussion groups and organised the arguments most pertinent to the topic and feedback was given. These arguments provided the initial outline for an academic essay. This process would be used throughout the semester when they had to do written assignments. Constructing the reflective personal narratives

If you listen real close, you can hear them whisper their legacy to you. Go on, lean in. Listen, you hear it? - Carpe - hear it? – Carpe, Carpe Diem! Seize the day, Boys! Make your lives extraordinary! (John Keating in DPS)

I report on three representative personal narratives from the 52 students interviewed initially during the first phase of the research as part of a pilot study to reflect on the three questions set at the beginning of this paper.

Mr T4 is an English first language speaker with Hindi as alternative home language. Ms N comes from a single parent family with English as home language, while Mr F is an IsiXhosa home language speaker who has been educated in

4 I used pseudonyms to refer to the students.


English. I saw them occasionally on campus after their stint in the academic literacy class and sometimes they would come to ask for assistance or would reflect on a particular academic event during their second and third year studies. All of them fared well academically had achieved leadership positions in their respective residences or in faculty and displayed a particular sense of social justice.

During a focus group interview in their third year of study (2013) I asked them to reflect on the nature and content of the academic literacy module. I particularly wanted to know whether they were still using some of the knowledge and skills they had acquired during their studies. Their answers to the questions were insightful as it pertained more to their growth as students and human beings, than to the mere acquisition of skills. As participant-observer I was able to interpret hermeneutically the construction of their lived experiences (Merriam, 2009: 213).

Ms N remembered clearly the first time they met me in class. She recalled that I had shown them an excerpt of the film DPS where the teacher reflected on his students’ writing but also on their approach to life:

Boys, you must strive to find your own voice. Because the longer you wait to begin, the less likely you are to find it at all. Don't be resigned to that. Break out! (John Keating in DPS)

She believed that this quote she had written down in her diary on that particular day in August had “inspired me (her) to find my own voice in my academic writing.”

I don’t want to write like a paint-by-numbers colouring book. I want to use my own academic language... (Ms N)

In the academic literacy classroom students discussed themes such as professionalism, mentoring and social bias. Ms N remembered that sometimes heated discussions ensued but they always felt secure in expressing their opinions (no matter how radically different than that of other students) as long as they were academically sound. She now wanted to inspire the learners she taught with her attitude regarding education. Learners were, therefore, allowed to express themselves. This enhanced the English and Life Studies lessons she taught. Ms N narrated that she always found insight regarding the themes that were discussed during the contact sessions by listening carefully to the views expressed by other students even though they very often differed from her perspective.

Mr T commented that he had become more socially aware after the thematic discussions and assignments as he “heard the stories behind the opinions” made by his fellow-students. He stated that he often continued discussions in the residence about themes that we had discussed in class or searched the internet to see what had been written about them. A pertinent comment by Mr T underscores this sentiment:

I know that students sometimes shy away from “deep” discussions but we should speak about important things. We are teachers and you said we were “budding scholars”! That we had to think and make a difference, like Mr Keating in DPS. We have to think. Soon we will be teachers and we have to teach the younger children to think...we have to do it first.


He found the teaching-learning environment of the academic literacy class to be an environment that was non-threatening, yet challenging; it built students’ confidence and encouraged discussion. He also remembered that I, as the mentor-teacher, always expected and applauded self-discipline and self-confidence. As a result, he wanted to be a mentor to other students and he subsequently became actively involved in the governance structures of his residence.

The mentor should allow students to express criticism about academic authors’ work and in a dialogical-educative safe space, this becomes possible. As long as a relevant, logical and academically sound point of view is stated and supported with sources substantiating the argument, a student should be encouraged to question the existing status quo. He stated that in some other modules he felt that he had to suppress his own ideas and views as the lecturers did not allow comments contrary to their views and often labelled him as rebellious.

Mr F responded with the following statement:

… I didn’t think you could not agree with a professor! But now I know how to disagree. I must just prove it. I like that!

Conclusion

From these personal student-narratives it can be deduced that the teaching-learning strategies used in academic literacy and especially academic writing are geared towards more than a mere skills and knowledge acquisition. It becomes a thresholding opportunity for students to successfully move beyond the liminal position of the budding academics towards the goal of humanitas and padeia of the soul of the scholars-in-the-making. The mentor-teacher creates a safe dialogic-educative space where students may engage in the process of writing without fear of ridicule and where their efforts can be turned into texts.

The process of writing leads the student towards finding his / her own academic voice. Students should be inspired and encouraged to broaden their own paideia of the soul and to communicate their reflections on life in academic narratives.

The final act of the mentor is to move into the peripheral haziness on the horizon of Academia. As the student moves forward, the teacher-mentor moves into the background always ready to assist but acknowledging the voices of the Budding Academics’ Society.

Bibliography Alexander, R. (2005): Culture, dialogue and learning: notes on an emerging pedagogy. Paper

presented at the International Association for Cognitive Education and Psychology (IACEP): 10th International Conference. Date of access: 7 Jul. 2011.

Armstrong, T. (1998): Awakening genius in the classroom. Alexandria: Association for supervision and curriculum development.

Bruner, J. (1990): Acts of meaning. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Gourlay, L. (2009): Threshold practices; becoming a student through academic literacies.

London review of education, 7(2), 181-192. Kazamias, A. M. (2013): Not for techné but for paideia: Not the Teacher-technocrat, but the

Teacher-Pedagogue in the new Knowledge Cosmopolis. Paper read at the 1st


International Symposium on education and Teacher Education Worldwide: Current reforms, problems and challenges. Rethymno, Crete, Greece. May 28-30.

Merriam, S. B. (2009): Qualitative research a guide to design and implementation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Potgieter, A. S. (2012): Exploring the Life Orientation potential of Secondary school musical productions: The Case of The Green Crystal. Potchefstroom: NWU. (Dissertation-Med).

Potgieter, F. J. (2013): Towards a spirituality of Teaching and Learning. Keynote address read at the Biennial teaching-learning colloquium, Gouda, Netherlands. 25 Sept. 2013.

Relles, S. R. & Tierney, W. G. (2013): Understanding the writing habits of tomorrow’s students: technology and college readiness. The Journal of Higher Education, 84(4), 477-506.

Rule, P. (2004): Dialogic spaces: adult education projects and social engagement. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 23(4), 319-334. http://www.tandf.co.uk/ journals. Date of access: 8 Apr. 2011.

Schlechty, P. (2002): Working at the work: an action plan for teacher, principals and superintendents. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Van Loon, J., Thüss, A., Schmidt, N. & Haines, K. (2011): Academic writing in English: A process-based approach. Bussum: Coutinho.

Wolfe, P. (2007): The role of meaning and emotion in learning. New directions for adult and continuing education, 110, 35-41.

Amanda S Potgieter North-West University Potchefstroom campus South Africa [email protected]



SHADE BABALOLA

A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE UNDER-ACHIEVEMENT OF AFRO-CARIBBEAN BOYS WITHIN A 16-19 EDUCATION SETTING

Abstract

This paper aims to carry out a mini case-study within an inner city sixth form college to critically examine why Afro-Caribbean males under-achieve. It will aim to investigate the reasons for under-achievement and suggest strategies for improving the retention, achievement, attainment and progression of Afro-Caribbean boys in an inner city 16-19 sixth form college.

It seeks to highlight some of the current issues faced by Afro-Caribbean males and the reasons why they often fail to reach their full potential within the sixth form college under investigation. The study aims to examine a combination of factors in terms of parental support and guidance, poor motivation, low expectations, the impact of teaching and learning, socio-economic status, father figures, peer-pressure, marginalisation, discriminatory practices, a comparison of grades achieved compared with other minority groups.

It will also seek to explore the role of education policy on equal opportunities and whether there is a legal right for the victims undermined in education achievement.

The paper also intends to discuss trends with regards to the progression of Afro-Caribbean males in relation to work-placements, apprenticeship and university offers. The paper will also examine the number of Afro-Caribbean males who are accepted at leading universities. It will touch on the exclusion and suspension of Afro-Caribbean males in the 16-19 education sector under investigation.

The papers will seek to highlight strategies that may be implemented to improve the retention, achievement, attainment and the progression of Afro-Caribbean males in relation to mentoring, coaching, shadowing, effective pastoral support, teaching and learning, parental guidance, access, widening participation, a re-emphasis of the awareness of the process of social mobility, equality and diversity, opportunities for enrichment, sport and engagement.

Recommendation will be made on best practice to positively support the victims of underachievement in education in an inner London City sixth Form College.

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the under achievement of Afro-Caribbean boys within a 16-19 education setting. This paper aims to highlight some of the reasons as to why Afro-Caribbean boys are prone to often under-achieve within the 16-19 educational setting under investigation and to make suggestions with regards to how to turn the achievement and attainment of Afro-Caribbean boys around.

This paper aims to make clear recommendations with regards to how to improve the experience and attainment of Afro-Caribbean boys with the 16-19 education setting.

A critical analysis of the under-achievement of Afro-Caribbean boys within a 16-19 education setting 426

The college under investigation is located in East London; it has around 2,000 full-time students aged between16-19; the prior attainment of students is lower than in many sixth form colleges. The ethnic origin of its students is extremely diverse, the predominant groups being of African, Pakistani and Bangladeshi heritage. Over recent years there has been a gradual intake of Eastern European and Turkish students. The largest subject areas are science, mathematics, languages, art, and business.

The Literature Review examines the following

Social Mobility and Child Poverty The most recent report on social mobility and child poverty (2013) suggests that

“Britain is a society of persistent inequality, the life-chances of children in Britain today remains heavily dependent on the circumstances of their birth, children born to poorer families have less favourable outcomes across every sphere of life, and inequality creates barriers to upward mobility”. The report further argues that “these barriers impede progress at all stages: from before birth into the early years, through primary and secondary school and into the adult labour market, they are revealed in measurable gaps in educational attainment, in differential employment opportunities and in health inequalities”.

Segregation and the issue of disadvantage The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2012) suggests

that “schools in the UK are amongst the most socially segregated in the developed world”. The report warns “that disadvantaged children are too often concentrated together in schools; this applies both to the children of poorly educated parents and those of immigrant families”.

The latest figures which are from 2010, reveal the UK “has unusually high levels of segregation in terms of the poorest and migrants being clustered in the same schools, the significance of this is that the social background of a schools intake exerts a strong influence on the likely outcomes for pupils”.

Raising Aspirations Recent research has shown that there is a need for more young people from

ethnic minority backgrounds to aim higher and to apply to Russell Group Universities. Research has indicated that those who attend a Russell Group University are more likely to earn significantly more than those who do not. In addition to this they are able to target better job opportunities after graduation.

Teaching and Learning The quality of teaching can invariably improve the outcome of students from

disadvantaged backgrounds, there have been recent initiatives devised to tackle the issue of improving the quality of teaching. One example of this is the Teach First Training Programme. Teach First is an organisation that has recognised the inequality and lack of equal opportunities that often exist amongst students from low socio-economic status backgrounds, the purpose of this organisation is to strive to narrow the education gap between disadvantaged groups and ensure that equality of opportunity is open to all students. One of their initiatives is to ensure minority students including those from disadvantaged backgrounds are able to gain access to

Shade Babalola 427

some of the top leading universities in the United Kingdom, with the hope of improving their long term life chances.

According to the importance of Teaching White Paper (2010) in the 1990’s, a series of in-depth studies conducted by American academics revealed a remarkably consistent pattern they suggest “that the quality of an individual teacher is the single most important determinant in the school system of a child’s educational progress, those pupils taught by the most effective teachers make three times as much progress at those taught by the least effective”. Analysis of data from England has shown that “a pupil taking eight GCSE’S taught by “good” teachers will score 3.4 more GCSE points than the same pupil in the same school taught by eight poor teachers”. There is evidence to suggest that “pupils from deprived backgrounds may be less likely to experience the good quality teaching they need and deserve”.

Facilitating Subjects Platt (2013) has identified a number of subjects that can give students better

opportunities when choosing a leading university. She suggests “that studying at a Russell Group University may greatly improve future career prospects”. Furthermore, studies have shown that those who go on to study at Russell Group Universities are likely to earn 10% more than their Modern University counterparts. Platt (2013) suggests “that students choose at least two facilitating subjects when choosing their A levels”. The following subjects have been identified as facilitating.

1. Maths 2. Further Maths 3. English Literature 4. Physics 5. Biology 6. Chemistry 7. Geography 8. History 9. Languages (Classical and Modern)

Mentoring Miller (2002, p. 87) suggests “mentoring schemes that target students from

minority ethnic communities therefore frequently aim to raise self-esteem and aspirations through the use of role models from the wider minority community”. He further suggests that “one of the key purposes of these schemes is to demonstrate to young people that barriers can be overcome through determination and particular strategies. Role model mentors have had the experience of succeeding in over-coming barriers of racism and discrimination under difficult circumstances. Through mentoring they can pass on to the young valuable insights in terms of coping strategies and practical support, some ethnicity mentorships can also cut through problems of cultural understanding allowing underlying issues to be addressed more rapidly”.

The Absent Father

In my opinion the modern day dilemma for many Afro-Caribbean children is growing up in homes with absent fathers. In some instances this has greatly impacted on their ability to achieve in educational settings and work to the best of


their ability, issues pertaining to a lack of discipline at home or instances where mothers find themselves isolated having to work long shifts to fend for their families alone. Furthermore, there is a case to consider where many of these mothers are isolated and are at times unable to meet the emotional and psychological needs of their children, in the worst case scenario this may lead to external influences as some Afro-Caribbean boys are prone to join gangs, others struggle with issues of identity especially in cases where there is limited or no contact with fathers.

Some parents know very little about the British education system, there is an emphasis for young Afro-Caribbean males to do well, but the knowhow is often non -existent, the sharp elbow tactic often demonstrated in white middle class communities is often lacking. There has been a growing trend where young Afro-Caribbean teenage girls have given birth to and mothered young black males “baby mothers” this has not helped the current situation.

Black children don’t fail due to racism

Sewell (2010) suggests that “Afro-Caribbean children fail at school because they do not concentrate, not because they are victims of “institutional racism”. He further attacks the view that “black pupils are held back by teachers who see them as miniature gangster rappers he instead blames poor parenting and the youngster’s own lax attitude”. Sewell further argues that “although it was once true that black pupils were held back by racism, times have changed”. He suggests “that the following reasons must be taken into consideration as to why black youngsters are held back, these include poor parenting, peer-group pressure and an inability to be responsible for their own behaviour”. He further states “they are not subject to institutional racism”. He further argues “that he believes black underachievement is due to low expectations of school leaders, who do not want to seem racist and who position black boys as victims”. He further states that “African-Caribbean boys are also the group most likely to be excluded from school”.

Equality of Opportunity

The Equality Act (2010) stated that “schools should be prohibited from harassing and discriminating on the basis of disability, race and sex”. The Act also contains provisions which enable schools to take action to tackle particular disadvantage, different needs or proportionately low participation of a particular group provided certain conditions are met. It further states that “there is a duty to assess and monitor the impact of policies on pupils, staff and parents, in particular the attainment levels of pupils from different racial groups”.

Methodology

A combination of research methods were used for the purpose of this paper such as quantitative and qualitative data. Participants completed two questionnaires; the total amount of participants involved in this inquiry was 25, secondly, statistical data was gathered from the college under investigation. Informal discussions were also held with teachers and leaders. Observations were also conducted. A summary of the data is below.

Shade Babalola 429

Findings and Analysis

College Data Statistical data was gathered from current A ‘level Afro-Caribbean male

students to find out how well they performed during their first year exams. The reason for the analysis of data was to find out how many students had achieved a high grade in their chosen subjects. For the purpose of this specific research a high grade means whether or not a student had achieved either an A or B grade in their chosen A ‘level subject. Data was analysed from a range of facilitating and non-facilitating subjects English Literature, Maths, History, English Language, Economics, Chemistry, Biology, French, Geography and Physics. The figures below show the number of Afro-Caribbean males who are currently enrolled on the subjects and how many achieved a high grade in their first year exam.

English Literature, 3 Afro-Caribbean students enrolled, none achieved an A or B grades in the subject. English Language, 7 Afro-Caribbean males enrolled, 1 achieved a high grade in the subject. Maths, 13 Afro-Caribbean males enrolled, 4 achieved a high grade in the subject. History, 2 Afro-Caribbean males enrolled none achieved an A or B grade in the subject. Economics, 3 Afro-Caribbean males enrolled, none achieved a high grade in the subject. Chemistry, 10 Afro-Caribbean males enrolled, 3 achieved high grades in the subject. In Biology, 4 Afro-Caribbean boys were enrolled, 2 achieved a high grade in the subject. French, 1 Afro-Caribbean male enrolled, they did not achieve a high grade. Geography, 3 Afro-Caribbean males enrolled none achieved a high grade. Physics, 7 Afro-Caribbean males enrolled, 3 achieved a high grade in the subject.

Overall Success Rate for Afro-Caribbean Males Data was gathered to show the overall success rate for Afro-Caribbean males

from 2010-2013. Figures show there has been a steady increase in success rates from 75% in 2010/11, 79% in 2011/12 and 86% in 2012/13.

Overall Success Rate for White British Males Similarly figures show the overall success rate for White British Males has

grown 2010/2011 at 87%, 2011/12 at 84% and 2012/13 at 93%.

Questionnaire 1 Question 19 from questionnaire 1 asked 10 Afro-Caribbean Science students

‘are you currently being mentored within or outside of college?’ 9 students responded they are not being mentored whilst 1 stated they were being mentored.

Questionnaire 2 15 Afro-Caribbean male students from the business and computing department

completed questionnaire 2. Question 6 asked the respondents if they were currently living with their father’s. 8 indicated they lived with their father’s whilst 7 said they did not.

8 Afro-Caribbean male Science students also responded to question 6. 5 indicated they lived without their father’s and 3 said they lived with their father’s.

9 Afro-Caribbean male student’s from computing and business responded to the question, what is a Russell Group University? 7 students were unaware of the terminology while 2 from computing had knowledge of a Russell Group University.


8 Afro-Caribbean students from the science department answered the same question, 4 had knowledge of Russell group Universities whilst 4 did not.

Questionnaire 2, question 2, asked 17 Afro-Caribbean male students ‘are you working at your full potential?’ 5 stated they were working at their full potential whilst 12 said they were not.

Questionnaire 2, question 3 asked 17 Afro-Caribbean males to state their reasons for failing to meet their full potential. 6 said it was due to distractions within and outside of the classroom, 2 indicated financial problems, 1 stated there were problems at home and 3 stated other reasons.

Conclusion

The data shows that White British Males significantly outperform Afro-Caribbean males. Afro-Caribbean males do not achieve high grades for example in English Literature, History, Economics, French and Geography. The overall success rate of Afro-Caribbean males has continued to grow between 2011-2013. However, the total amount of Afro-Caribbean males enrolled at the college is in steady decline; in 2010/2011 there were 202 enrolled, in 2011/2012 there were 142 enrolled, and in 2012/13 there were 124 Afro-Caribbean males enrolled. In some curriculum areas there appears to be low expectations of Afro-Caribbean males, Afro-Caribbean males studying business related subjects have no knowledge of Russell Group Universities this may have long term effects on performance and social mobility. The college currently does not hold data on students who have gained entry to leading universities.

Teaching and learning is a significant factor in raising the achievement and attainment of many Afro-Caribbean boys and this has been evidenced by the data, some curriculum areas outperform others in this respect subject areas such as Maths and science have significant rates of achievement in terms of higher grades for Afro-Caribbean boys in comparison to other areas. The data shows that a significant number of Afro-Caribbean boys do not live with their fathers; however, few receive the college bursary. Some students highlighted financial problems as a reason they were not working at their full potential. Furthermore, the majority of Science students indicated they were not currently being mentored even those who are working towards competitive courses.

There are varying perspectives of under-achievement, although current data indicates significant improvement there remains a lot to be done to improve performance in real terms amongst Afro-Caribbean boys.

Recommendations

• A thorough enrolment process where students are guided carefully to choose at least two facilitating subjects at advanced level where possible.

• A mentoring scheme geared towards facilitating the achievement of Afro-Caribbean boys.

• A commitment from the Senior Leadership Team to improve the outcomes of Afro-Caribbean boys in terms of high grades achieved.

• A commitment from Afro-Caribbean boys to take responsibility for their own learning.

Shade Babalola 431

• A robust tutorial system to ensure that Afro-Caribbean boys are working at their full potential.

• Data that shows by ethnicity the number of Afro-Caribbean boys that go on to leading universities.

• Strategy to help Afro-Caribbean boys achieve higher grades.

References Department for Education (2010): The importance of teaching: the school white paper.

London: Department for Education. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-importance-of-teaching-the-schools-white-paper-2010

Equality Act (2010): Chapter 15. HMSO. www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15/contents Miller, A. (2002): Mentoring Students and Young People. London: Kogan Page Publishers. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2012): UK schools socially

segregated. BBC News Education and Family, Newspaper online, 11th September 2012. www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-19548597

Platt, W. (2013): Facilitating Subjects, Enriching Education. 27th September 2013. www.russellgroup.ac.uk/russell-group-latest-news/154-2013/5530-facilitating-subjects/

Sewell, T. (2010): Our children don’t fail due to racism. Mail on Line, Newspaper, 23rd September 2010. www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1314433/Our-children-dont-fail-racism-says -black-academic.html

Social Mobility and Child Poverty Commission (20013): State of the Nation 2013: Social Mobility and Child Poverty in Great Britain. London: Department for Education. https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/social-mobility-and-child-poverty-commission

www.teachfirst.org.uk/about Shade Babalola, MSc Leyton Sixth Form College United Kingdom [email protected]


FRIDAY OWHORNUGWU OBODO

IS NIGERIAN HIGHER EDUCATION ADMISSION POLICY IN BREACH OF HUMAN RIGHTS LAW?

Abstract

Education plays a vital role in human development. Human experiences overtime as well as evidence from literature has made this assertion a common knowledge. Despite the important role of education in human development, however, across the globe, many people are facing barrier to access education, especially higher education. This paper explores the process of access to higher education in Nigeria. It examines, in particular, current admission policy to higher education in Nigeria and compares this to the UK system. The paper asks whether the current admission policy in Nigeria constitutes a breach to human rights of individuals to access education as well as offers some suggestions on how the current admission policy in Nigeria might be improved.

Introduction

Education is very important to national economies. Whether education is seen as a recognised sector or as a source of trained and educated personnel to enrich the rest industries or sectors of any economy1, its importance cannot be overstated. The benefit of international interpreters in peace talks and diplomatic circles is a good indication of the helpful role education plays worldwide2. In lifestyle, trade, negotiation, entertainment as well as but not limited to scientific inventions, learning and professional development are highly profitable.

Education is more important than mere economic gain. It elevates thoughtful examination of association and responsibility. As Paulo Freire, an influential educator and thinker of the late 20th century3 said: “Education either functions as an instrument which is used to facilitate integration of the younger generation into the logic of the present system and bring about conformity or it becomes the practice of freedom, the means by which men and women deal critically and creatively with reality and discover how to participate in the transformation of their world”. From our immediate environment, stepping beyond the rudiments of a non verbal communication to effective application of the hemispheres of the brain to process verbal message, we can testify how education has enhanced our confidence and comfort. We feel superior and dominate our world; we can travel on holidays and feel part of any society just by the mere spread of a single language which we practically acquired through learning. Since learning broadens the psyche of humans, the echelon of the animal kingdom, it is a matter of human right to be awareness of our own ability to think and exercise our cognitive skills.

Education and Rights

For the purpose of simplification, dictionary.com4 defines the term ‘rights’ as that which is due to anyone by just claim, legal guarantees, moral principles etc. In good context, the significance of this definition will require highlighting ‘anyone’.

Friday Owhornugwu Obodo 433

Agreeing with Paulo that education is an instrument of integration and conformity to a social system, one can argue that in order to achieve a global citizenship the right to access education ought to be a warranty for all. An international non-governmental organisation, Save the Children, echoes this argument. Save the Children’s official page says: “Children’s right to a decent education is as basic as their right to food and water”5.

The right of access to higher education is mentioned in a number of international human right instruments6. Prior to the UN International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966, all parties signatory to the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights were required, as contained in Article 2 of the convention and adopted in 1950, to guarantee the right to education. Similar rights are contained and reaffirmed as an entitlement in the 1960 UNESCO Convention against Discrimination, excerpt below.

Article 13

1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to education. They agree that education shall be directed to the full de of the human personality and the sense of its dignity, and shall strengthen the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. They further that education shall enable all persons to participate effectively in a free society, promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations and all racial, ethnic or religious groups, and further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace7.

2. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize that, with a view to achieving the full realization of this right:

(a) Primary education shall be compulsory and available free to all; (b) Secondary education in its different forms, including technical and

vocational secondary education, shall be made generally available and accessible to all by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education;

(c) Higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education;

(d) Fundamental education shall be encouraged or intensified as far as possible for those persons who have not received or completed the whole period of their primary education.

Interestingly, the advocacy for the right to access education in order to advance the evisceration of poverty of the mind and wealth in our world is not only a matter for the international organisations or community. Local units such as Institute of Education University of London8, Asia South Pacific Association for Basic and Adult Education9, European Access Network10, Action Aid Nigeria11 among other non-governmental organisations work hard to promote access to education. Virtually all over the world the discussion is ongoing on how to guide young people to attain a better life through learning, in particular those from disadvantage background or groups as was the fate of young girls in the northern part of Nigeria in West Africa before the intervention of Action Aid Nigeria.

Looking at the work done by the Action Aid Nigeria in 2011, the international non-governmental organisation alongside some local NGOs in Sokoto, Kebbi and

Is Nigerian higher education admission policy in breach of Human Rights law? 434

Zamfara States launched a project called Enhancing Girl Child Basic Education in Northern Nigeria (EGBEN) to boost girls’ education. This exercise involved adopting measures to ensure increase in enrolment, retention, transition and completion of girl child education at least, at the primary level.

The Current Reality of Nigerian Educational Attainment

In spite of the enormous effort to realise the world’s goal ‘education for all’, challenges still thrive12. Human beings have always learned to develop themselves and achieve great success in different endeavours. Yet, educationally, we are faced with all the signs and symptoms of a growing world. Individuals still ‘suffer’ slavery due to poor basic skills and competence; a situation that limits the productivity of individuals and institutions concerned.

Along with common knowledge, a number of familiar documents articulate concerns of global literacy. From a UNICEF report13, it is inspiring that more children enter school in recent time. However, the report also shows that the challenges to educating our world have not disappeared. While efforts are on the rise in getting children to school, drop out from school remains intractable. In 2011 the number of young people out of school, according to the report, accounted for 57 million. This implies that early school leaving rate remains far above the ground.

In September 7th 2001 International Literacy Day, similar unsavoury facts emerged from UNESCO statistics of the world literacy. According to UNESCO, approximately 26 percent of the world's adult population are analphabetic14. Globally, this is an unaccepted status of literacy in the new millennium of the twenty first century.

While the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, an official source of data for the monitoring of education and literacy targets for education for all and millennium development goals, predicts15 optimistically a target value higher than the current realities for 2015 non of its projections managed to hit one hundred percent (100%). This suggestion is a worrying hint, one that goes on to imply that the inability to read and write may not go away anytime soon.

World literacy: acquisition of this important commodity, education, by global citizens comes with a cost. Although the UN document suggests the provision of education is free, available and accessible, going from country to country tuition fees are charged. Creating a heavy load for students and serving as limiting factors to academic progression. It is a fact that the burden of tuition fees are mitigated in some instances through government and nongovernmental scholarship programmes, internship opportunities and grants as applicable in some countries. However, these opportunities are not universal and where they are found, they are limited in fashions.

A UNICEF report indicates a link between price tag (fee) and educational achievement “Children from poor households are three times more likely to be out of school than children from rich households”16. When we take this in conjunction with the fact that it’s a common knowledge, due to all sorts of reasons, that poor households raise more children compared to their rich counterpart, you will see a deceptive system that would draw us back from reaching the world goal except there is an intervention. I wish to therefore call attention to a free education where world citizens irrespective of financial or family background can acquire a useful tool of


global change and integration. Talking of this tool, one is reminded of the famous quote of Nelson Mandela, “Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world”.

It should be a general concern that the world agenda to depurate the society of ills has good option that has been ignored. An option that simply requires the use of a good weapon such as education is neglected and substituted by another option which also uses weapon but of no match at all. I am speaking here practically of the use of military to purify the world of dangers. This is a great effort but we have not won. Governments all over the world invest huge capitals into the acquisition of military weapons where the personnel pay nothing to use them, except of course that the prize is all together heavy; it involves life and injury among other unspeakable horrors. Our world is quick to go on rampage with weapons of intimidation but we spend less to embark on Erasmus educational programmes, which in my view have the capacity to subdue restiveness in our world.

Admission policies: a major setback from reaching the goal that the nation desires may not necessarily be all about policy making. In fact, we are good at policy making but not good enough in implementation. However, admission policies could not be trivialised in my treatise. The problem of access to education as we see is a global phenomenon, no country is isolated. Admission opportunities, shuttling from Nigeria (JAMB) to Britain (UCAS), vary massively. The criteria may be the same, for instance at the very basic the strap lines are fantastic: JAMB says “enhancing academic excellence” while UCAS says “Helping You Into University & College In the UK”, but the approaches differ. Judging from some shared experiences of the interview I conducted it is possible to conclude that students feel more supported by the level of information available to them from the admission processes in UK compared to Nigeria. While policy may not entirely be the problem of access, policy cannot be exonerated from the problem.

Future policies need to be made bearing in mind an emphasis to implementation, how much the old policy has performed and whether it has been successful. Access to education has been quite clearly highlighted and if things are not addressed, it is a major performance risk and huge threat to human right.

Admission policy should focus on open access to accommodate people including those with health care needs. Currently the ability to get a place remains a challenge. In a world where strength is relative, where we or some of our peers live with disability, it is a problem for fitness to make one available for education and not the availability of education making one fit. Improving communication through effective use of the technological advancement of the world, sending emails to students and prospective students could be captured in the policy making on access to education. No one has any doubt that education is not a standalone sector of any economy. Hence beyond education as a matter of human right to Nigerians and foreign students, a good education policy easily fits into improving the entire economy by benefiting the immigration system, creating job and improving security.

Solutions

In fairness to the philosophies of world education and the sacrificial effort to arrive at education for all, great gains have been made. It is true there remains a ‘residual volume’, but we must win the war.

Is Nigerian higher education admission policy in breach of Human Rights law? 436

What is more? Where do we start from? 1) Communication: proper opportunity to speak and listen to the students and

those in need of education is crucial. In other word, disseminating the business of ‘learning to live’ to potential learners would upgrade the effort leading to a positive collaboration, association and full integration.

2) Provision of education and Site of educational institution: We ought to rethink our strategies; learning opportunities could be moved closer to the periphery or outskirt of the cities and capitals. Institutions in the remote areas are likely to have greater catchment of those who are unable to move to the city.

3) Students’ Union Involvement: student bodies need to be engaged in debates about the way forward for global education. The campaign will succeed better when students contribute their zeal into the task.

4) Funding: Proper investment in education may cost as much but it will yield good. “Investments in quality education lead to more rapid and sustainable economic growth and development. Educated individuals are more employable, able to earn higher wages, cope better with economic shocks, and raise healthier children”17. It is like ‘stooping to conquer’.

5) Say No to War: to attain the kind of education we want, the world must change its strategy toward conflict resolution. As Save the children’ official website indicates, “Children growing up in war-torn countries are most at risk of missing out on school”18.

Conclusion

When Aristotle said “The roots of education are bitter, but the fruit is sweet,” some curriculum designers thought this was a good moral lesson for the innocent learners. Indeed these are notes of moral excellence, but the intelligent citation of Aristotle must now be used to make our world better. A world where investment in education must be made at all cost, whatever the cost, in other to realise the type of civil society which we all crave and pray. Friday Owhornugwu Obodo University of East London & Focus Learning Support Ltd UK United Kingdom [email protected] 1 http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=6&ved=

0CEoQFjAF&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.creativeskillset.org%2Fuploads%2Fpdf%2Fasset_16295.pdf%3F4&ei=m1YLU6z5JJCV7AadmoGQBA&usg=AFQjCNHJSMLAbp3jyekGkQfa93Eq9kFT0Q&bvm=bv.61725948,d.ZGU&cad=rja [24/02/2014]

2 http://www.iti.org.uk/ [24/02/2014]


3 http://www.paulofreireinstitute.org [24/02/2014] 4 http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/rights?s=t [24/02/2014] 5 http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/about-us/what-we-do/education [24/02/2014] 6 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education [13/02/2014] 7 UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 16

December 1966, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 993, p. 3, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36c0.html [13/02/2014]

8 http://www.ioe.ac.uk/study/PMM9_HOS9IM.html [03/03/2014] 9 http://www.aspbae.org/node/44 [03/03/2014] 10 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0379772990240302?journalCode=chee

20#.UxQuGq6NN8E [03/03/2014] 11 http://allafrica.com/stories/201306171465.html [03/03/2014] 12 http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/resources/i/internationalliteracyday.asp [03/03/2014] 13 http://www.unicef.org/education/bege_61659.html [25/02/2014] 14 http://www-01.sil.org/literacy/LitFacts.htm [03/03/2014] 15 http://www.uis.unesco.org/literacy/Documents/fs26-2013-literacy-en.pdf [03/03/2014] 16 www.unicef.org/education/bege_61659.html [25/02/2014] 17 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/ESSU/Education_Strategy_

4_12_2011.pdf [03/03/2014] 18 http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/about-us/what-we-do/education [25/02/2014]


GORDANA STANKOVSKA & MYQEREME RUSI

COGNITIVE, EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GIFTED STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITY

Abstract

Intellectually gifted students are defined as those who demonstrate outstanding ability to grapple with competition or superior academic potential. But intellectually gifted individual with specific learning disabilities are the most misunderstood and neglected segment of the student population at the community.

Students who are gifted and have learning disabilities are those who possess an outstanding gift or talent and capable of high performance, but who also have a learning disability that makes some aspects of academic achievement difficult. There are variable degrees of severity of learning and learning disabilities can exist in students of all ability levels. So learning disabilities may differentially affect all areas of knowledge acquisition.

These students are more vulnerable to social and emotional problems. Learning disability may cause frustration, anxiety, depression, peer relations, introversion. Gifted students with disabilities tend to evaluate themselves more on what they are unable to do than on their substantial abilities.

So in this review we examine some of the theoretical arguments, regulations and educational practices that affect students with learning disabilities who are gifted. Key words: gifted student, learning disability, emotions, cognitive characteristic

Introduction

Traditionally, education of the gifted students has focused on their cognitive abilities and ignored their social and emotional needs. Also it is an area that is receiving increasing attention, with more research being undertaken in this field.

Intellectually gifted students are defined as those who demonstrate outstanding ability to grapple with competition or superior academic potential. They exhibit high capability in intellectual, creative and/or artistic areas, possess an unusual leadership capacity or excel in specific academic fields. Outstanding talents are present in students from all cultural groups, across all economics starts and in all areas of human life. However intellectually gifted individual with specific learning disabilities are the most misunderstood and neglected segment of the student population at the community.

It is clear that we are dealing with a very heterogeneous group of students who represents all types of intellectual giftedness and academic talents, in combination with various dorms of learning disabilities.

The literature is replete with references to individuals with extremely high abilities and talents who also have a specific learning disability (Sattler, 2002; Bow & Owen, 2004). Some psychologists have even suggested that, at least for some individuals, the learning disability may be fundamentally associated with giftedness. To most of them who work with individuals with disabilities, being gifted and also

Gordana Stankovska & Myqereme Rusi 439

having learning disabilities does not to be unfamiliar or especially problematic condition (Gunderson, Mahesh & Rees, 1987).

Definition of learning disability

The United States Office of education (USOE, 1977) defined a specific learning disability as

”… a disorder in one or more of the basis psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, speak, read, write, spell or do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia and developmental aphasia…”

Children with learning disability cannot try harder, pay closer attention or ignore their motivation for success; they need help to learn how to do those things. A learning disability is not a problem with intelligence, because they have high intellectual capability. An individual with a learning disability exhibits a significant discrepancy between his or her level of performance in a particular academic area and his or her general intellectual ability. Learning disabilities may differentially affect all areas of knowledge acquisition.

Learning disabilities are caused by a difference in the brain that affects how information is received, processed or communicated. Persons with learning disabilities have trouble processing sensory information, because they see, hear and understand things differently.

Definition of gifted/learning disability

Students who are gifted and have learning disabilities are those who have an outstanding gift or talent and are capable of high performance, but who also have a learning disability that makes some aspect of academic achievement difficult. Their academic performance is substantially below what would be accepted based in their general intellectual ability.

The literature in this are suggests that there are different types of gifted/learning disabled students (Bow, Owen & Dixon, 1991). The first group includes students who have been identified as gifted, have some learning problems and exhibit above average achievement in elementary school. The second group includes students who have severe learning disabilities, but they may also have superior attitude in one or more academic or intellectual areas. The third type of gifted/learning disabled student remains unidentified as either learning disabled or gifted. These students have disabilities that conceal their gifts and gifts that camouflage their disabilities. The psychological theory says that the gift masks disability and disability mask gift (Winner, 2000). The discrepancy between their intellectual capacity and academic performance is not noted. Motivation level, interest, self-efficacy, skills and other cognitive factors contribute to their academic success.

Now it is very clear that trying to find one defining pattern or set of scores to identify all gifted students with learning disabilities is most difficult. On the other

Cognitive, Emotional and Social Characteristics of Gifted Students with Learning Disability 440

hand, there are some defining markers that should be considered in identifying these students:

• Poor memory for isolated facts, but excellent comprehension; • Difficulty reading, writing or spelling, but excellent language skills; • Skill in manipulating people and situations, but poor interpersonal skills; • Poor performance on simple facts such as addition and subtraction, but

capable of complex, conceptual manipulations such as algebraic concepts; • Ability to concentrate for unusually long periods of time when the topic is of

interest, but inability to control his or her action and attention when the topic is not of interest;

• Lacking self-regulation and goal-setting strategies.

Psychological characteristics of gifted/learning disabled students

Students who are both gifted and have learning disabilities exhibit remarkable talents in some areas and disability weaknesses than others. These students display high verbal expressive ability and goal conceptual understanding concurrent with significant academic underachievement and frustration or a lack of motivation. Also they may be inattentive in class, struggle with basic spelling or reading skills, have poor peer relationships and low self-esteem. At the same time they may have excellent vocabularies, exceptional analytic and comprehension skills, show extraordinary interest or talent in particular area.

These students are more sensitive and appear to be acutely aware of their difficulties with learning. They tend to generalize their feelings of academic failure to an overall sense of inadequacy. They are often easily frustrated and may use their creative abilities to avoid tasks. Academic challenges may lead to low self-esteem, withdrawal and behavior problems.

The literature suggests that to be socially accepted, students should be cooperative, share, offer pleasant greetings, have positive interactions with peers, ask for and give information, make conversation. Students with learning disabilities have difficulties in their social and emotional life (Siegel, 2000).

Although not all students with learning disabilities have social-emotional problems, they do run a greater risk than their nondisabled peers of having these types of problems. In the early years they are often rejected by their peers and have poor self-concepts. As adults, the scars from years of rejection can be painful and not easily forgotten. A possible reason for these social-emotional problems is that gifted students with learning disabilities have deficits in their social cognitions, so they are more sensitive to interpersonal conflicts, experience greater degrees of alienation and stress (Cross, Coleman & Stewart, 1995). Further research suggests that social interaction problems to gifted students with learning disabilities seem to be more evident in those who have problems in math, visual-spatial tasks, tactual tasks, self-regulation and organization.

Psychologists found that the frustrating nature of learning disability can lead to feeling anxiety, anger, low self-esteem and depression in gifted students. Depression and academic underachievement may be increased.

It is important to note that this social and emotional problem is strongly related to the gifted student's personal characteristics. For example, Dauber (1990) found

Gordana Stankovska & Myqereme Rusi 441

that extremely gifted students viewed themselves as more introverted, inhibited and with a negative self-image. He also reported that his peers saw them as much less popular, less socially active and less active in leading the crowd. So all this psychological characteristics are powerful arguments for their early identification and intervention.

On the other hand some empirical studies suggest that gifted students with some kind of learning disabilities are better adjusted than their non-gifted disabled peers. Supporters of this view believe that giftedness protects them from maladjustment: that the gifted are capable of greater understanding of self and others due to their cognitive capacities and therefore cope better with stress, conflicts and developmental capabilities (Margolis & McCabe, 2006).

How should gifted students with learning disability be identified?

Early identification of students who are gifted with learning disability is crucial (Dole, 2000). Many students who are gifted/learning disabled are not identified until high school and college when academic work increases in difficulty. In early years, these students may appear to be normally, but are usually functioning well below their potential.

The identification of a learning disability requires documenting the difference between ability and achievement. Student with superior cognitive abilities who exhibit learning disability may be performing only slightly below grade level in their area of disability. Because of their qualitative differences gifted student with learning disability may require different assessment battery to identify and plan interventions from other student with learning disability. This assessment should consist of behavioral observations, an individual intelligence test and measures of cognitive processing, psychological scale for depression, anxiety and social isolation. We need to recognize that a learning disability can depressed the test performance of students who are academically talented.

Early identification and appropriate intervention are recommended to help prevent the development of the accompanying social and emotional problems that often arise when the needs of a gifted student with learning disabilities are overlooked (Kay, 2000). In addition, the identification of talents and learning problems should continue as an ongoing process throughout the life.

Hence, many gifted students with learning disabilities would be best served by separate programs developed especially for them. Also these students who present cognitive, social and emotional problems should receive careful attention and appropriate interventions which specifically address their relevant academic, emotional and social needs.

Conclusion

The lack of a clear description of gifted students with learning disabilities has resulted in only few of these students being identified. Evidence suggests that these students are a separate subgroup, represent different types of gifts/talents and disabilities, and more vulnerable to social and emotional problems. Ability grouping and acceleration have led to positive effects on gifted student's self-esteem. Many researchers claims that there are a number of strategies that are beneficial in

Cognitive, Emotional and Social Characteristics of Gifted Students with Learning Disability 442

programming for the cognitive, emotional and social needs of gifted students, such as providing affective and cognitive components in programs, goal setting and problems solving. Also, many gifted students with learning disabilities may be best served by receiving extra, different support within the regular education setting.

Gifted students with learning disabilities may exhibit unique social and emotional needs that require differentiated counseling and support services.

References Bow, S. M., Owen, S. V. & Dixon, J. (1991): To be gifted and learning disabled. Mansfield,

CT: Creative learning Press. Bow, S. M. & Owen, S. V. (2004): To be gifted and learning disabled. Mansfield, CT:

Creative learning Press. Brody, L. E. & Mills, C. J. (1997): Gifted children with learning disabilities. Journal of

Learning Disabilities, 30, 282-296. Cross, T. L., Coleman, L. J. & Stewart, R. A. (1995): Psychosocial diversity around gifted

adolescents: An exploratory study of two groups. Exceptional Children, 17(3), 181-185. Dauber, S. L. (1990): Aspects of personality and peer relations of extremely talented

adolescents. Professional School Journal, 34(8), 10-14. Dole, S. (2000): The implications and resilience literature for gifted students and learning

disabilities. Journal of Learning Disability, 23(4), 91-95. Gunderson, C. W., Mahesh, C. & Rees, J. W. (1987): The gifted learning disabled students.

Gifted Child Quarterly, 31, 158-167. Kay, K. (2000): Uniquely gifted: Identifying and meeting the needs of gifted students.

Mansfield, CT: Creative learning Press. Margolis, H. & McCabe, P. P. (2006): Improving self-efficacy and motivation: What to do,

what to say. Intervention in school and Clinic, 41(4), 218-227. Sattler, J. M. (2002): Assessment of children. San Diego: Author. Siegel, D. (2000): Parenting achievement oriented children. Parenting for High Educational,

29(30), 6-17. United States Office of Education (1977): Assistance to states for education for handicapped

children: Procedures for evaluating specific learning disabilities. Federal Register, 42, 2082-2085.

Winner, E. (2000): Giftedness: Current theory and research. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 153-156.

Prof. Dr. Gordana Stankovska State University of Tetovo Faculty of Philosophy Institute of Psychology Tetovo Republic of Macedonia [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Myqereme Rusi State University of Tetovo Faculty of Philosophy Institute of Psychology Tetovo Republic of Macedonia [email protected]


КУРАЛАЙ МУХАМАДИ / KURALAY MUKHAMADI

ИННОВАЦИОННЫЕ ТЕХНОЛОГИИ ОБУЧЕНИЯ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОМУ ЯЗЫКУ В КАЗАХСТАНЕ: СОВРЕМЕННОЕ СОСТОЯНИЕ И ПЕРСПЕКТИВЫ

INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES OF THE STATE LANGUAGE TEACHING IN KAZAKHSTAN: CURRENT CONDITION AND FUTURE

Abstract

The article discusses research and new ideas in the field of the state language teaching in Kazakhstan, introduction and application of these into practice, their current condition and future objectives. Because the state language teaching development and application in Kazakhstan are closely related to development of international communication, these are also connected to the wide application of the new trends in education and cognitive mastery of subject matter.

Thus, innovative technologies of the state language teaching in Kazakhstan are a compilation of quality teaching methods targeted at systematized education structure based on promotion of students’ creativity development, improvement of their speaking abilities, as well as the ability to express themselves freely; also realization of conceptual unity of subject materials, language learners’ individual peculiarities and motivation development. Ключевые слова: государственный язык, инновационная технология,

побуждение мотивации

В «Концепции развития образования в Республике Казахстан до 2015 года» были определены конкретные цели и задачи, принципы по подготовке педагогических кадров и качеству образования. В этом документе говорится: «Перед современным педагогическим сообществом стоит огромная задача по созданию, апробации и внедрению новой модели образования. Основная цель современного образования заключается не только в получении знаний, овладении умениями и навыками, но на их основе овладеть индивидуальными, социальными и профессиональными навыками – уметь самостоятельно находить нужную информацию, анализировать и эффективно использовать ее, работать и жить в соответствии с требованиями современного быстро изменяющегося общества».

Развитие государственного языка в Казахстане начинается с начальных школ и продолжается в средних и высших учебных заведениях, а также находит свое развитие в речи спеицалистов-предпринимателей, работающих в различных учреждениях и организациях, производствах. Поэтому изучение языка в учебных заведениях и учреждениях взаимосвязано в определенной степени. В любом случае совершенное овладение государственным языком всегда упирается в качество системы обучения, потребность в учебных материалах. А это, в свою очередь, связано с умением эффективно использовать технологиии обучения.

Инновационные технологии обучения государственному языку в Казахстане 444

Инновационные технологии обучения казахскому языку – это совокупность методов качественного обучения, реализующего познавательное единство личных качеств человека и изучаемого материала, направленного на развитие творческих способностей и интересов обучающихся, также на системное образование. Технологии обучения казахскому языку подразделяются на несколько видов. Это: проблемное обучение, модульное обучение, компьютерное обучение, развивающее обучение, гуманизация образования, укрупнение дидактических единиц, педагогика сотрудничества, опорные сигналы, дифференцированное обучение посредством уровневых заданий и т.д. В обучении каждый из перечисленных методов занимает особое место. Используя данные технологии в тесной взаимосвязи друг с другом, можно будет достичь высоких результатов. При изучении языка «некоторые технологии преобладают больше, некоторые играют главную роль, а третьи занимают наиболее значительное место. Это определяется темой и целью урока. Любая из технологий обучения казахскому языку, оказывая влияние на глубокое, разностороннее изучение языка, повышает интерес обучающихся. Процесс обучения казахскому языку посредством инновационных технологий охватывает несколько главных проблем. Это: 1) цель обучения; 2) содержание обучения; 3) средства обучения; 4) методы и приемы обучения; 5) формы обучения. ...Качество учебного процесса напрямую зависит от трех факторов: а) требований и интересов обучающихся; б) педагогической и методической практики преподавателя; в) пользы и эффективности изучаемого материала. А технологии обучения, с одной стороны, опираются на эти три основы, с другой стороны, способствуют тому, что три основы в единстве служат одним общим интересам. Поскольку любая технология, стимулируя ученика к обучению, предусматривает овладение языком» (Оразбаева, 2009, с. 101). Перечисленные выше три фактора являются основой качественного проведения занятия, а качество занятий напрямую зависит от методичесого мастерства преподавателя, потребности учебного материала.

В обучении казахскому языку двусторонние действия ученика и преподавателя осуществляются в равной степени. То есть, это в первую очередь связано с целями и задачами обучения языку, а во-вторых – зависит от личностных способностей, интересов обучающегося.

Основная цель в использовании инновационных технологий – воспитание личности с собственной точкой зрения и мнением, способного взаимосвязать знания с практикой в соответствии со своими потребностями. А это, как мы уже говорили ранее, напрямую зависит от качества учебного материала и его потребностей. Если при изучении казахского языка у ученика/обучающегося нет стремления и желания к учебе/изучению, то невозможно будет достичь какого-либо результата.

Известный писатель М. Ауэзов считал: «Для выполнения любого дела необходимы три условия. Во-первых, необходимо желание, во-вторых, нужно приложить усилия, в-третьих, необходима дисциплина». Мотивация к учебе – это желание, стремление, усердие, интерес, энтузиазм обучающегося/ученика. Для того, чтобы узнать каким способом полученные знания наиболее лучше сохраняются в памяти обучающегося/ученика, обратим внимание на представленную ниже таблицу (таблица подготовлена по материалам

Куралай Мухамади / Kuralay Mukhamadi 445

интернета, взята из книги А. Алимова «Использование интерактивных методов в высших учебных заведениях»).

Запоминание информации в течение 24 часов при использовании некоторых

методов обучения (таблица Н. Сандерса по идеям А. Маслоу)

Методы Объем запоминания Лекция 5% Чтение (текста, книги) 10% Применение аудио- и видеосредств 15% Наглядность (проекты, таблицы и другие наглядные пособия)

30%

Дискуссия 50% Практические действия 75% Применение полученных знаний сразу же и обучение других

90%

Не заставляют ли нас количественные показатели таблицы задуматься о

качестве? Из таблицы видно, что в овладении языком решающую роль играют такие методы, как применение полученных знаний на практике, обучение других, практические действия обучающихся. Таким образом, если мы разъясним ученикам/обучающимся насколько важен для них изучаемый материал, то только в этом случае мы сможем доказать им, что имеются возможности в практическом их применении. Иными словами, для этого необходимо помочь обучающимся/ученикам осознать для чего им нужны знания, их необходимость. В этом случае мы сможем утверждать, что пробудили в них заинтересованность, мотивацию к занятию.

Великий педагог Ибрай Алтынсарин, который всегды изыскивал возможности в исполнении любого порученного ему задания, и который никогда не забывал о необходимости открытия школы с поддержкой русских товарищей, в тот день, когда была исполнена его мечта, и он открыл первую казахскую начальную школу, в письме своему русскому другу Н. И. Ильминскому в 1864 году писал: «8 января текущего года наконец исполнилась моя давняя мечта, открылась новая школа, в нее поступили 14 казахских детей; все они очень способные, смышленные дети. Я приступил к их образованию, словно голодный волк, накинувшийся на овцу. Я также получил полное удовольствие от их успехов, всего за каких-то три месяца они научились читать, писать по-русски и по-татарски». «Какое бы из писем Ибрая Алтынсарина, адресованных своим русским друзьям, мы ни рассматривали, все они говорят о заветной мечте педагога открыть в казахских степях школы, научить детей грамотности, привить им интерес к науке, знаниям, какие чувства при этом одолевали Ибрая. Он, во-первых трудился, чтобы открыть школы, во-вторых – написать учебник, методическое пособие, в-третьих, искал учителей» (Бозжанова, 2012, с. 34). Таким образом, великий педагог изыскивал различные методы, чтобы улучшить качество обучения, пробудить интерес у учеников к знаниям. К примеру, его стихотворение «Кел, балалар


оқылық» призывает детей к учебе, рассказывает о необходимости и пользе образования, тем самым пробуждает в них мотивацию.

Учитывая цели и задачи современного образования, необходимо обращать внимание на любые детали при изучении основных проблем обучения и образования. Например, решение таких вопросов, каково отношение каждого ученика/обучающегося к учебе? Каковы их (ученика/обучающегося) действия в учебном процессе? играют важную роль в процессе составления плана учебного процесса, определении методики обучения, даже при проведении занятия.

Прежде чем говорить о побуждении мотивации, необходимо остановиться на ее видах. На вопрос какие виды мотивации существуют в обучении? у исследователей и методистов имеются конкретные мнения и ответы. В данных мениях найдется больше совпадений, нежели противоречий. В указанной выше книге ученого А. Алимова «Использование интерактивных методов в высших учебных заведениях», вышедшей в свет в 2009 году, представлены два основных вида мотивации. Это: познавательные интересы и социальные интересы. К познавательным интересам ученый относит: 1) глобальные мотивы (получение образования, получение профессии, стать специалистом); 2) учебно-познавательные мотивы (овладение средствами освоения знаниями, овладение определенной темой). К социальным интересам относятся: 1) долг и ответственность перед обществом (человечество, Родина, семья, коллектив и т.п.), ответственность за понимание социальной значимости получения образования; 2) занять свое место в обществе (достижение определенной цели, занять определенную позицию среди других людей, стремиться к авторитету в обществе, материальным ценностям, званию, должности, престижу, славе, восхвалению и наградам); 3) социальные взаимоотношения (установление взаиомотношений с другими людьми, овладение эффективными средствами взаимоотношений) (Алимов, 2009, с. 98).

В целом, побуждение мотивации должно быть направлено на то, какую пользу несет для жизни, будущего личности (ученика/обучающегося) изучаемый учебный материал.

Соответствует ли изучение данной лисциплины, данной темы, данной информации интересам ученика/обучающегося? Через соответствие интересам личности можно будет сформировать стремление к учебе/знаниям. Тогда ученик, студент лучше будет осознавать насколько полезны получаемые знания, и посредством познавательного процесса он сможет показать свою активность. Таким образом, только в том случае, когда ученик/обучающийся познает насколько необходимы ему изучаемые знания, у него пробуждаются желания и интерес к обучению.

Теперь перед нами, несомненно, встанет вопрос о том, что необходимо учитывать при пробуждении мотивации. На него можно ответить следующим образом.

Во-первых, необходимо провести беседу («Что дает мне изучение данного предмета?», «Несут ли эти знания пользу для меня?») с учениками (студентами) о пользе получаемых знаний (то есть знания не в широком понимании, а относительно определенной дисциплины, конкретной темы).

Куралай Мухамади / Kuralay Mukhamadi 447

Во-вторых, необходимо убедить их в практической необходимости знаний, полученных на занятии.

В-третьих, преподаватель должен показывать свое воодушевление, приподнятое настроение ученикам.

В-четвертых, пробуждая интерес у учеников/обучающихся, постоянно их поддерживать, поощрять.

В-пятых, преподаватель должен стремиться определить личные интересы каждого ученика/обучающегося. Для этого необходимо заставлять учеников задумываться над тем «Какова польза полученных знаний сегодня?», «Почему эта тема интересна?», «Почему я с особенной активностью участвую на этом занятии?».

А вопрос о том, какие средства и приемы существуют для пробуждения интереса у учеников, можно проанализировать следующим образом.

1. В начале урока необходимо задать вопрос, который был бы одновременно и интересным, и вызвал бы дискуссию.

2. Привести сведения, отличающиеся от обычных. 3. Предложить свою точку зрения относительно определенной ситуации,

которая бы вызвала противоречивые мнения других. 4. Привести интересные примеры из личной жизни. 5. Рассказать интересную историю. 6. Рассказать смешную историю и т.п. Каких результатов достигнут ученики/обучающиеся через пробуждение

интереса? Это тоже основная проблема, которую нельзя оставить в стороне. І. Ученики/обучающиеся проявляют свои полученные раннее знания. Эти

действия позволяют ученикам/обучающимся вспомнить то, что они уже знают, затем проявляют интерес к тому, что они еще могут узнать нового, чему могут научиться. Таким образом, посредством этого у них проявляется желание овладеть новыми знаниями.

ІІ. Новая тема должна изучаться более развернуто. Наиболее эффективно изучение темы с общественной, социальной, экономической, политической позиций либо с точки зрения мнений различных ученых. Если организовать занятие таким образом, чтобы студенты/ученики самостоятельно раскрыли тему урока, то это не только повысит их интерес к занятию, но и будет способствовать эффективному освоению данной темы. Поскольку такие занятия сопровождаются активными действиями со стороны ученика/ обучающегося.

ІІІ. Ученики/обучающиеся выполняют творческие работы по теме занятия. Преподаватель может предложить пути повышения уровня знаний учеников/обучающихся до творческого уровня. Поскольку проведение работ, позволяющих проявить студентам/ученикам свои творческие способности, несет большую пользу. Проводятся различные творческие работы такие, как письменные работы, беседы тет-а-тет, мыслительные беседы, проекты, таблицы и т.д. Все это вместе позволяет утверждать, что осуществлены конкретные приемы по представлению эффективных путей овладения знаниями, по созданию условий для учеников/обучающихся к получению знаний своими усилиями.


ІV. Проявляются потребности ученика/обучающегося. («Что я хочу узнать?»), ставя знак инсерт (Ү знаю, + новые сведения, - противоречит моему мнению, ? хочу знать), ученик/обучающийся становится таким образом не только наблюдателем, но и активным участником на занятии.

Подводя итоги, можно сказать, что на сегодняшний день весьма огромное значение имеет развитие личности в соответствии с потребностями современности, который не останется равнодушным к проблемам системы образования, начиная от цели обучения, являющейся основным фактором в развитии личности, заканчивая конечным его результатом, будет идти по верному курсу, способного обсепечить будущее нашей страны. В этой связи побуждение мотивации является одной из актуальных проблем в реализации инновационных технологий в различных сферах образования.

Список использованной литературы Алимов, А. (2009): Использование интерактивных методов в высших учебных

заведениях. Алматы. Бозжанова, К. (2012): Взаимоотношения между учителем и учеником. Алматы: Жибек

жолы. Оразбаева, Ф. (2009): Мир языка. Статьи, исследования. Алматы: Анарыс. Куралай Мухамади Кандидат филологических наук, доцент Университета имении Сулеймана Демиреля Алматы, Казахстан Kuralay Mukhamadi Assoc. Prof. Dr. Suleyman Demirel University Almaty, Kazakhstan [email protected]


Part 5 Educational development strategies in different countries and regions of the world: national, regional and global levels

OKSANA CHIGISHEVA

VET/TVET TERMINOLOGICAL AMBIGUITY FROM CROSS-NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

Abstract

The paper provides a cross-national analysis of the term ‘vocational education and training’ in relation to the progressivist economic, social and political approaches to its definition. A wide spectrum of opinions brightly illustrates existing disparity in its understanding within international scientific community. Special attention is given to the instrumental characteristic of the studied VET/TVET terminological agenda. Keywords: vocational education and training, technical and vocational education and

training, lifelong learning, international integration

The contemporary world is dynamically developing under the influence of globalization and revolutionary inventions in the information and communication technologies. On the one hand these processes stimulate a rapid progress of the knowledge economy, free-market system, and commercialization of all life loci; on the other hand they strongly challenge the world labor market demanding a new type of skillful specialist not only with high vocational potential but also with strong employability skills (i.e. entrepreneurship, problem solving, team work, information, technology, communication etc.) helping find and secure a job in an increasingly competitive world. Nevertheless, developing these soft skills does not lessen the importance of basic technical and vocational ones obtained within various traditional vocational education and training (VET) programs incorporated into the national systems of vocational education perceived as a guarantee of the future countries’ technological and socio-economic progress and leadership.

The term ‘vocational education’ also known as ‘vocational education and training’ (VET) or ‘technical and vocational education and training’ (TVET) is rather ambiguous and multi-valued having many representation forms and various terminological content within different nations that maybe easily found in educational and pedagogical literature. However, the background does not change

VET/TVET terminological ambiguity from cross-national perspective 450

greatly since it is usually associated with formal, informal and non-formal vocational education programs and courses aiming at preparation of the learning for the future vocational career, gaining professional recognition and getting better chances for employment. VET today is undoubtedly a priority for any state seeking stable socio-economic status and progressive development. The definition of VET as ‘any formal, post-compulsory education that develops knowledge, skills and attributes linked to particular forms of employment’ offered by Harvey (2004) in the online continuously complemented Internet option as a core one may be easily enriched and contextually specified due to a number of reputable sources.

Rather conventionally all analyzed concepts may be associated with one of the further indicated approaches where economic, social or political component respectively predominates. Thus, progressivist economic approach to VET definition is foremost connected with the ideas of the American theorist Venn (1964) who sees the inner etymological sense of the described phenomena firstly in its ‘calling’ and then ‘change’ effects that are identified with a strong necessity for the stable and secure career and profession powerfully differentiated by the surrounding reality. The Australian National Training Authority (2004) also supports the idea of VET being a mechanism of providing skills for work, enhancing employability and assisting learning throughout life. The British Council (2011) explaining the meaning of vocational education and training and using the UK as an example concludes that it implies not only training for commercial, technical and professional development but also for transferable personal skills that are constantly renewable in line with global challenges and economic and technological breakthroughs; they allow to respond immediately to the changes due to the existence of quality framework with high vocational standards. Nevertheless, many contemporary researchers sharing similar views when defining VET stress their attention on the drawbacks of its present national systems pointing at the almost ever-present bottom position in the hierarchy of the knowledge and value, seeming simplicity and highly utilitarian and industrial character (Stevenson, 2005, pp. 335-336), highly economistic character (Morgan-Klein & Osborne, 2007, p. 24) at the same time indicating its ‘focus on quantity rather than quality, voluntary approach to skills investment by employees’ (Patel, 2012, p. 227) and associating it in a broader sense with ‘any form of activity and experience leading to understandings or skills relevant to work’ (Stasz, Hayward, Oh & Wright, 2004). An indicated negative description criterion prioritizes VET theoretical and practical re-development due to the widening of its limits in social and political dimensions.

UNESCO terminological vocational education definition is differentiated into technical and vocational education and training (TVET) or simply technical and vocational education (TVE) as nowadays technical component predominates and stands somewhere closer to the social approach to VET definition being of more comprehensive character. ‘All forms and aspects of education that are technical and vocational in nature, provided either in educational institutions or under their authority, by public authorities, the private sector or through other forms of organized education, formal or non-formal, aiming to ensure that all members of the community have access to the pathways of lifelong learning’ are referred by UNESCO to technical and vocational education (UNESCO Recommendations, 2001, p. 7). Comprehensive character is provided here with a wide area of TVE

Oksana Chigisheva 451

application starting from general education where special technologies and relevant subjects are taught to the work-based learning in a number of social and economic sectors of life. It is argued that TVE is ‘an aspect of lifelong learning and a preparation for responsible citizenship, an instrument for promoting environmentally sound sustainable development and a method of facilitating poverty alleviation’ (UNESCO Recommendations, 2001, p. 7).

One more widely discussed question is that vocational education perceived as an integral part of education and a peculiar bridge between education and labor market may serve as discrimination and poverty damper and a guarantee for social balance. Here thematically close is the political approach to VET definition and consideration since socio-economic sustainability indisputably should be supported by multi-level legal argumentation. Thus a vivid illustration of the complexity of such debate is provided in the sector of vocationalisation of education and overcoming gender inequalities in different regions and countries of the world. Referring to the data offered by the UNESCO Institute of Statistics it becomes clear that for instance girls representation in education differs from country to country and may be either over-estimated or under-estimated that is also connected with the inner policy and role of the state. When discussing the case of Africa according to Oketch (2007) the situation stays complex due to the existing gender barriers and even in cases of certain gender alleviations in TVET girls stay in unfavorable position as this sector of education in Africa is very small and associated with low educational level. State policy in labor market is crucial for VET understanding and development; it makes VET an exclusively political phenomenon defining in Lasswell interpretation ‘who gets what, when and how’ (Education International, 2009, p. 7).

There is no unity among theorists worldwide both about VET definition or its types, yet it is possible to single out three of them. The first two types of VET – initial vocational education and training (IVET) and continuing vocational education and training (CVET) or IVT and CVT in Descy and Westphalen version (Descy & Westphalen, 1998) – coincide in Communication (2010) and Cedefop paper (2009). Although the interpretation focus is different; in the first case more emphasis is given to the description of the educational environment and financing options and in the second one competence based explanation is a priority. Thus, IVET is provided for 15-16 year old teenagers having obtained compulsory education and ready to enter the labor market. As a rule young learners attend school-based or different apprenticeship programs and are equipped with crucial labor market e-skills and digital and media literacy competences. These programs are usually financed through public funds, enterprises or individuals themselves; the amount of funding is decreasing in the defined order. The necessity of mid-life changes in vocational routs of adults highly actualized CVET i.e. flexible (part-time and rarely leisure time) education and training for adults offered at labor market and financed by social partners, enterprises or individuals; funding depends on the type of training program, policies at different levels (state, region, company) and individual needs and aims at obtaining new skills for new jobs. Descy and Westphalen identify one more VET type – vocational education and training for unemployed (UVT) aimed at training persons without work, currently available for work or seeking work within governmentally funded educational programs. Financing is also possible through

VET/TVET terminological ambiguity from cross-national perspective 452

relevant organizations, but rarely through certain individuals. Thus, vocational education prepares people for specific trades, crafts and careers in various trade and craft fields usually non-academic and practically based or professional positions in engineering, accountancy, nursing, medicine, architecture, pharmacy, law etc. that require longer academic study not within secondary, post-secondary or further education levels or apprenticeship systems but at a higher level of tertiary education and each level at that having an extensive and rich history of establishment and development.

VET today is a significant tool in overcoming multiple global issues as well as an easily adaptive, flexible and attractive mechanism of social inclusion and international integration for the individuals worldwide. It is also closely connected with internationally accepted concept of lifelong learning and continuous self-development based on the idea of ‘learning biography’ introduced by du Bois Reymond and Chisholm perceived as a contrary to the 3-cycle standard biography implicating training-work-retirement (Brooks, 2009) and providing the youth and adults with an opportunity to create their own biographical projects and turn from disengaged into productive learners, choose the character of transitions from education to work which nowadays more often than not go from linear to non-linear or reversible ones with multiple available pathways not excluding the opportunity of coming in and out of education, labor market etc. It is obvious that ‘VET is important as it enriches a person for life and it provides the competences which are necessary in a democratic society. Societal and economic development depends on the strength of VET as it provides access to skills and entry routes into the labour market. For under-privileged and marginalised groups in particular, it can be an important route towards a better life’ (Education International, 2009, p. 3).

At present VET is also seen as a strategic means of 2008 world financial crisis recovery and reducing its social impact – a field actively changing and dynamically developing under the influence of global trends and easily responding to the flagship initiatives connected with the new skills and jobs agenda, increasing job mobility and new youth employment framework (Communication, 2010). Such serious expectations implied to the indicated system urge for restructuring and reexamining the whole spectrum of VET methodologies, policies and practices that may be crucial for understanding and managing the mechanisms of better skills development in the current world competitive vocational environment reinforced by the emerging and actively developing Chinese, Brazilian and Indian economies and job markets.

References Australian National Training Authority (ANTA) (2004): VET – What is it? Retrieved from

http://anta.gov.au/vetWhat.asp. British Council (2011): What do we mean by vocational education and training? Retrieved

from http://www.britishcouncil.org/china-education-vocational-vetinuk-definition.htm. Brooks, R. (Ed.) (2009): Transitions from education to work: new perspectives from Europe

and beyond. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European

Economic and social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. A new impetus for European cooperation in Vocational Education and Training to support the Europe 2020

Oksana Chigisheva 453

strategy (9.6.2010): General format. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/education/ vocational-education/doc/com296_en.pdf.

Cedefop (2009): Continuity, consolidation and change. Towards a European era of vocational education and training. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Retrieved from http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/Files/3055_ EN.PDF.

Descy, P. & Westphalen, S.-Å. (1998): Measuring the effectiveness of training. Cedefop working paper.

Education International (2009, October 12): Literature Review. Vocational Education and Training. Retrieved from http://download.ei-ie.org/Docs/WebDepot/091213_VET_ Literature_EDITED%20AA.pdf.

Harvey, L. (2004-2012): Analytic Quality Glossary. Quality Research International. Retrieved from http://www.qualityresearchinternational.com/glossary/vet.htm.

Morgan-Klein, B. & Osborne, M. (2007): The concepts and practices of Lifelong Learning. USA and Canada: Routledge.

Oketch, M. O. (2007): To Vocationalise or Not To Vocationalise? Perspectives on Current Trends and Issues in Technical and Vocational Education and Training in Africa. International Journal of Educational Development, 27, pp. 220-234.

Patel, M. (2012): Are we there yet? Vocational education at crossroads. Local Economy, 27(3), pp. 227-237.

Stasz, C., Hayward, G., Oh, S. & Wright, S. (2004): Outcomes and Processes in Vocational Learning: A Review of the Literature. London: LSRC.

Stevenson, J. (2005): The Centrality of Vocational Education and Training. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 57(3), pp. 335-354.

UNESCO Recommendations (2001): Technical and Vocational Education and Training for the Twenty-first Century. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001260/ 126050e.pdf.

Venn, G. (1964): Man, Education and Work: Postsecondary Vocational and Technical Education. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

Oksana Chigisheva PhD in Pedagogy (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor Southern Federal University Director-General International Research Centre ‘Scientific Cooperation’ Rostov-on-Don, Russia [email protected]


Part 5: Educational development strategies in different countries and regions of the world 454

ANDREY BLINOV, OLGA NIKOLAEVSKAYA

INTELLECTUALIZATION OF EDUCATION AS A PRIORITY OF THE STATE DEVELOPMENT

Abstract

The paper considers particulars of intellectualization of education as one of the state’s important tasks. Basic features of the given process at the current stage of the development are highlighted. Ways of enhancing the participants’ interest in education are proposed and the relating conclusions are made. Recommendations for carrying out an effective state policy in the development of education are given. Keywords: education, educational system, intellectualization, academic initiative,

state policy

Introduction

An educational system is an intellectual basis for the development of any state. It not only makes us strive for the acquisition of knowledge needed at this or that stage, but also forms competencies necessary for further improvement of the existing professional experience and its adaptation to the demands of science and technology progress. Intellectualization of education today means both the increase of an individual’s activity and the creation of conditions for raising the educational level of the society as a whole on the basis of interest of each of us in the process of learning and assimilation of the new as well as the increase of academic initiative. Currently a growing gap between the market needs and professional skills is clearly distinct; knowledge grows old quickly which leads to the rapid aging of knowledge. It is also important to take into consideration the fact that during the past decades the system of generating and transferring knowledge has greatly changed, and the volume of the knowledge has multiplied. According to the estimates 5% of theoretical and 20% of professional knowledge are updated annually. Under these conditions updating of knowledge and skills, training and retraining become the main factors that increase the competitiveness of an individual, organization, and nation.

Strategies of the Society’s Intellectualization

As the experience shows, the strategy of the intellectualization of activities in economically developed countries is an element of the state policy and is carried out in three ways:

- creative work is stated as the content of activity of the highest professional level employees;

- in occupations that on the whole are characterized by a semi-model activity type, elements of creativity are established (25%-35% of all the employed);

- among workers of average and low skills, unskilled, physically not hard repetition work is minimized (in industrially developed countries this group makes from 20% to 30% of the total number of the employed).

Andrey Blinov, Olga Nikolaevskaya 455

UNESCO experts distinguish three significant components in the world processes of the development of higher education: the number of students grew in the last forty years of the 20th century; education has become open and variable through the development of telecommunication facilities; the state expenses on higher education have essentially grown in all the countries in the past twenty years.

Factors of Intellectualization of Education

The need for intellectualization of education is determined by the following factors:

- the role of education in the development of the Russian society; - conformity of the Russian education with the world market trends; - new social demands to the system of Russian education. First, this is a need to create another quality of economy and society.

Intellectualization of education aims to harmonize it with the world economy demands. The individual possessing diverse knowledge solves complicated problems better.

Second, this is a number of measures aimed at overcoming the actual lagging of Russia behind the world’s trends in economic and social development:

• increase of the significance of the human capital (in the developed countries it is 70-80% of the national wealth); this cannot be done without an intensive anticipatory development of education;

• reduction of the low-skilled labour; • constant demand for advanced training and retraining of employees, for

increasing their professional mobility due to deep structural changes in the employment sector;

• greater possibilities for a political and social choice, which require that individuals have higher level of readiness for this choice; a wider scope of intercultural interaction;

• transition to an information society makes tolerance and sociability very important;

• the number of global problems that can be solved only by the cooperation of the entire world community has increased; this demands that the young generation have new, modern thinking.

Third, the task is to form educated, noble, well-informed, creative, enterprising people able to take responsible decisions in the situations of choice, predicting possible consequences, who are also capable of cooperation, being mobile, dynamic, constructive, possessing a developed feeling of responsibility for the destiny of the country.

Economic development requires that the quality of professional training should be improved. Education has a strategic priority over all spheres of the state’s activity. Educational system literally forms a personality, a way of life; it plays a decisive part in the formation of a new generation of professionals. The economic crisis has shown a low level of competence of a big part of Russian companies’ personnel.

The problem is not that there is lack of some skills, but that the intellectual and psychological preparation of employees is weak in general. For rather a long time

Intellectualization of Education as a Priority of the State Development 456

erudition was not welcomed, the preference was given to narrowly focused specialists who were free from ‘outside’ knowledge, the propensity of employees to widen their horizon was not approved. The poor and unsystematic training of personnel led to the decrease of their ability to think creatively. Under the new economic conditions the decline of the intellectual level of employees may give rise to serious problems both for enterprises and for the state.

Fundamentals of the Development of a Learning Society

It is impossible to arouse interest in cognitive activity without diverse methods and techniques of teaching. Motivated attitude to learning and adaptation of the acquired knowledge and skills to practical habits and the needed professional competencies can be achieved mainly in two ways / approaches:

1. the information-developing one which implies that the learning participants’ activity is increased by their involvement in creative activity during learning;

2. the problem-searching one which implies that the learners’ self-orientation is increased in the process of learning by encouraging them to search information and to try to find a non-standard solution of quite definite problems.

At the current stage of its development intellectualization of education, as the priority in the development of the state, has three main features: continuing character of education as a constant process of perfection of the accumulated knowledge, skills and habits; individualization of education as the increase of the individual’s orientation in seeking to raise the level of education of themselves and of the society as a whole and technological basis of education in the light of great demands made on professionals’ development level in the conditions of highly dynamic environment. This approach implies harmonization both of the needs and interests in defining goals and tasks of teaching and of responsibility for the educational process itself.

Lifelong learning widely used in the West has not become common among Russian professionals. This is due to a number of reasons: they are not ready for constant learning; because they are indefinite in the choice of a learning situation: they are uncertain as to what to learn, how to learn and where to learn; because the standards of practical application of knowledge, skills and habits developed on the basis of one’s own and other people’s experience, and the competencies developed on this ground are dual; because the main teaching strategies are diverse, each of them being a rational, well thought-out approach focused on priority teaching goals.

A way out of this situation is to increase innovation in the learning process which is the aim of the third generation national educational standards. These are raising the level of students' creative abilities and elimination of blind and passive acceptance of the existing knowledge, along with the increased use of the full potential of the individual (Blinov, Rudakova, 2013).

According to the current model of education each individual is given an opportunity at any time to update their knowledge, improve their skills or be retrained. University graduates, apart from the knowledge gained in their narrow specialization, should develop their learning abilities from their student days throughout their professional lives, they should also develop their communicative


skills, adaptation abilities, skills of self-perfection, of interpersonal interaction, organizational and group efficiency and other qualities.

In order to improve the quality of training of the workforce it is necessary to improve the quality of basic and additional training. Unfortunately, additional education, even the best one, cannot replace the educational base.

The current model also implies that innovative behaviour and competencies demanded today are developed already in basic education with an accent on a mass scale of creative competencies and mass readiness for retraining. In order to create a competitive professional it is required that the contents and technologies of training at all levels of basic education are renovated. This involves implementation of flexible individual educational programs.

Innovative educational programs must imply application of new educational technologies, introduction of progressive forms of organizing the educational process and of active teaching methods.

Modern business relies on creativity and on the improvement of the workforce/human resources. Thus from the experience of the U.S. firms it follows that every 35 thousand dollars invested in education make a profit of 1 million dollars.

The ultimate goal of using new technologies in the educational process is to create conditions for the establishment and development of the individual who has necessary professional skills, ability for cultural and business communication, is able to think critically of problems, make decisions from a number of alternatives on the basis of creative research, develop creative thinking. The so-called learning-by-doing (case studies, role play, project assignments, situational problems) allows students to take an internship in a business environment, and employees – to improve their skills.

Activation of learning and cognitive activity of students is understood as the teacher’s purposeful activity aimed at the development and use of such techniques, forms, content and learning tools that increase independence, creative activity and interest of students in the assimilation of knowledge and development of abilities, skills, their practical application; as well as the development of the ability to predict a situation and take independent decisions.

Cognitive interest is the leading factor in activating students. Professional interest implies the use of methods or forms of classes that simulate or reproduce professional activities of learners.

Active learning is characterized by a sufficiently long involvement in the learning process, independent creative development of solutions, high degree of motivation and emotionality, constant interaction of learners and teachers through direct and feedback connections. It should be emphasized that such learning is characterized by forced activation of thinking – the student must be active regardless of whether he/she wants it or not.

A self-oriented student must have complete control over the process of acquiring knowledge under the guidance of a teacher.

Along with the changing role of the student the teacher’s role is changing too – today he/she is no longer a translator but a manager of the learning process. There is a sharp expansion of his/her professional capacity to act as a consultant, direct and evaluate independent activities of students. A new image of a teacher is being


formed: he/she is a researcher, educator, consultant, project manager. The teacher’s ability to facilitate the student’s search begins to be appreciated. Those who will be teaching must themselves learn a lot.

This generates the need for a new model of teacher-student relationship – a partnership model in mastering and using the knowledge gained.

The ability of teachers to communicate and motivate students to learn, using new educational technologies is becoming the most demanded. Now the problem of teaching modern methods to teachers is most acute. It is often a psychological problem. The fact is that unlike young teachers, not all professors and doctors have mastered the advanced technologies. There is a psychological barrier: ‘young boys’ teach ‘the old’.

In order to train students to a lifelong knowledge acquisition (if they want to achieve professional heights), those involved in the training of professionals, must think about how to make students more responsible for their own learning. But one should not insist that students take full responsibility.

Partnership in education is rather a philosophical category, than a set of specific teaching methods. Neither a set of instructions, nor a guide for the teacher, nor a student workbook will be of any help. Instead, both teachers and students will have to reconsider their roles.

To make learning more self-oriented, students should develop the following skills: goal setting, planning, analysing, the ability for adequate assessment. In addition, a set of qualities is needed so that the planned things will not be useless for learning, such as capacity for reflection, ability to establish cause and effect relationships between events and ideas that once seemed unrelated and independent of one another.

Building a model of partnership in training leads to the conclusion that, in practice, it is partnership in learning that the self-oriented learning comes down to. An ability to learn together with others and by the experience of others – by observation and by gaining experience (both of which can be preplanned or not) within the traditional teaching and outside of it – is extremely necessary in today’s rapidly changing world. Teachers should not only strive to be effective partners of students in the learning process, but also help them to develop the ability to cooperate, and carry the desire to be a partner in learning through their life.

Graduates should be given precisely the knowledge and skills which will be in the highest demand at each stage of economic development. Only in this case it will be possible to increase the efficiency of investment into education. The content of education and professional retraining should meet the ever changing demands of the labor market. Such is the strategic importance of education for the Russian state.

Insufficiently considered policies in the field of education can cause an irreparable blow to the country’s development. Thus, a lot of experts believe that the test character of USE (a Unified State Examination) will finally refocus the educational system from providing knowledge and skills of independent learning to memorization of ‘correct answers’. Computer-based testing introduced in higher educational institutions leads to the same result. However, it should be noted that it is impossible to abolish completely the traditional teaching methods. The student-oriented approach to training must complement the existing approaches, but not replace them.


A significant part of the cost of education in Russia is paid by the state budget through which programs for specialist training are mainly implemented in accordance with the state educational standards.

Within the limits of the state standard, professionals should have the same amount of knowledge. On the one hand, this unifies training of professionals and creates a unified field for the competition of universities. But on the other hand, training professionals under uniform standards does not allow taking full account of the demands of a particular business. Despite the fact that within the standards there is a regional and higher education institution component, for which a certain number of hours is set aside (about 20% of the time), and which are at the discretion of an educational institution, this is not enough to accommodate the needs of industries and regions.

Now there is a need to create an effective mechanism of partnership between the state, science and business in the field of education. New approaches to funding higher education should be based on the diversification of sources, which is understood as a process of joint investment into education by private business and the state in accordance with the benefits they receive from these investments; and also on the development of new financing instruments, i.e. ways to transfer funds from investors to higher education institutions.

Investing into education is not only an important way to enhance the country’s human capital and improve economic growth prospects. It also has its own value since education broadens the mind of people, giving them an opportunity for self-realization and promotes their material well-being and healthy lifestyles. Therefore, data on the level of literacy and education are among the most important indicators of the quality of life in the country. The purpose of education is the acquisition and assimilation of information that provides additional resources for improving the living potential. It can be argued that public spending on education is not a fiscal burden, but the investment in people who are the basis for the formation of a new economy.

If we fail to make an educational breakthrough, we may experience a new kind of unemployment – impossibility to provide jobs for uneducated, untrained, unskilled, and therefore not capable of creative work Human Resources because they will be displaced by cheaper automation means.

Continuing education is one of the characteristics of a new model of education. An opportunity must be provided to learn and relearn lifelong, to master educational modules that are needed at a particular stage of professional career.

In the ever-changing conditions of life, no one can know absolutely everything; it is necessary to form a learning society that will ensure the existence of the ‘knowledge’ economy. Knowledge enables its holders to organize both their lives and that of the society in the best way, taking responsibility for every step of their activity. Education in this regard is a necessary, essence characteristic of a person since an uneducated individual becomes just socially dangerous. Systematic averaging and neglecting competence leads to irresponsibility, wrong decision making, and as a result, to the loss of competitiveness and to the threat to state security.


Conclusion

Under modern conditions it is very important to develop an ability to recognize in any experience gained a potential for growth. After all, learning is a fascinating process, which forms a set of competencies: to analyze facts and details in identifying various options for possible solutions and assess the prospects of these possibilities; to objectively weigh the consequences of each option; as well as to analyze the degree to which these options influence the process of achieving the learning goal and the capacity for adequate activity.

Thus, today, in a rapidly changing world the major challenge for the entire national education system is the realization of the ability to learn with others and from others’ experience by analyzing observations and gaining one’s own experience on the basis of the ability to cooperate, supported by an unquenchable aspiration to carry the desire to learn through life.

References Blinov, A. O., Rudakova, O. S. Modernizatsiya obrazovaniya i bezopasnost’ gosudarstva //

Economist. – 2013. - № 1. - S. 70-75. Andrey Blinov PhD in Economics (Doctor of Science), Professor Chair of General and Project Management Department Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation Moscow, Russia Olga Nikolaevskaya PhD in Economics (Candidate of Science), Senior lecturer Deputy Chair of Economy and Innovative Development of Business Department South Ural State University Chelyabinsk, Russia [email protected]


SANJA TATALOVIĆ VORKAPIĆ1, RENATA ČEPIĆ, MATINA MULC

THE COMPARISON OF PROFESSIONAL SELF-PERCEPTIONS BETWEEN PRESCHOOL AND PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN CROATIA

Abstract

Starting from the point of view of how the articulation and examination of personal values, beliefs and attitudes can stimulate the process of better understanding and the development of professionalism as well as the development of professional identity of preschool and primary school teachers, the main aim of this study was to explore the self-perceptions of primary school and preschool teachers about three characteristics that characterize the most quality teacher. The study included 140 teachers and 67 preschool teachers from the Istria and Primorsko-goranska County and 73 primary school teachers from the Primorsko-goranska County. Preschool teachers emphasize creativity, empathy and flexibility as the three most important characteristics of quality teachers, while primary school teachers mention knowledge and competencies for working with children, creativity and fairness. The study showed the most significant self-perceived desirable professional and personal characteristics of these two samples, and can serve as a solid ground for creating new university study programs or lifelong learning programs. Keywords: teacher characteristics, self-perceptions, professional identity,

professional competences, preschool teacher, primary school teacher

Introduction

Lately there has been a qualitative turn in the study of necessary knowledge and competencies that preschool and primary school teachers2 are required to have in order to successfully act in a professional manner now and in the future in the educational practice. Efforts which lead to redefining of the traditional educational perspectives on the roles of professional preschool and primary school teachers are apparent (Mulc, 2013).

1 This research was run within the project: “Professional Development of Teachers:

Reputation, Identity and Transversal Competencies”, project’s number: 13.10.2.2.02., which is supported as an initial scientific project for young researchers (2013-2015) by University of Rijeka, Croatia.

2 Although in the scientific literature, the term “teacher” is used for all persons responsible for the education of students by the end of secondary education, regardless if it refers to preschool, primary or secondary education, the Croatian tradition deviates from this definition. The term “preschool teacher” serves as a guideline for those who work in the early and preschool education (ISCED, level 0). The term teacher usually serves as a guideline for those who work in the first four grades of primary school (primary school teacher) (ISCED, level 1), and in the legislative regulations for those who work in primary school (ISCED, levels 1 and 2).

The Comparison of Professional Self-Perceptions between Preschool and Primary School Teachers in Croatia 462

In many papers dealing with the development of their competencies, challenges and requirements to which they must respond today, the starting point is the notion that in order to successfully pursue the professional activity merely the acquired competences are not sufficient, but also the reflection of their professional mission and identity, self-examination of their own experiences, beliefs, values and practices (Tatalović Vorkapić, Vujičić & Čepić, 2014). The professional identity of teachers (slightly less of preschool teachers) has in the last decade been the subject of many studies (Dalli, 2008; Urban, 2008; Miller & Cable, 2008; Thomas & Beauchamp, 2011).

With the Croatian accession to the EU, new possibilities for the modernization of the system of the continuing professional training of educational personnel are opening up in accordance with the recommendations of key documents and initiatives of the EU. Some of the changes in the Croatian educational system are the National Curriculum Framework for pre-school education, general compulsory and secondary education (2010), amendments to the Primary and secondary school education Act (2012), and the adoption of the Croatian Qualifications Framework Act (2013). Agency for Education, responsible for the professional development of educational workers at all levels of general education, outlined the long-term development of their development with the Strategy for Professional Education of the Agency for Education 2014-2020. With the Strategy guidelines for the development and establish a framework of activities have been established aimed at improving the quality of the vocational training in order to develop competence of the educational staff and improve the learning outcomes3.

The preschool teacher studies have experienced a transformation from three-year vocational studies into university undergraduate studies followed by a possible continuation of the initial education at the graduate university studies of early and pre-school education (EPE). The first generation of students was enrolled at the Faculty of Teacher Education in the university graduate studies of the Early and Pre-school Education. In this way, the University of Rijeka was the first university in Croatia to enable university education for preschool teachers (3 +2), according to the projection of the development of educational programs for preschool teachers distributed in all three cycles of higher education so as to ensure their place in the European higher education, and to increase opportunities for advancement and mobility within the profession.

3 The Strategy is a developing document which was created on the basis of the Strategy for

professional training of the educational staff (2009-2013) and the Analysis of the existing system for the professional training of the educational AE staff and the assessment of the need for professional development of educational workers within the framework of the project “Improving the quality of professional development of educational workers”, which is performed within the framework of the Instrument for Pre-Accession assistance (IPA) component IV - Human Resources Development, and funded by the European Union from 2012 to 2014, as part of the broader efforts to strengthen and develop the educational system in Croatia.

Sanja Tatalović Vorkapić, Renata Čepić, Matina Mulc 463

Aim, Problems and Hypothesis of the Study

The main aim of this study was to explore self-perceptions of preschool teachers and primary school teachers about three characteristics that present the most quality teacher. Within this aim, three basic problems were defined: a) to determine three most important characteristics that make a good primary school teacher and preschool teachers in Croatia; b) to analyse their relationship with subjects’ age and work experience; and c) to compare self-perception between primary school teachers and preschool teachers. Based on previous research studies, it was expected to find rather similar self-perceptions between those two samples with the exception considering the evaluations tasks.

Methods Subjects

Overall, one hundred and forty teachers participated in this study, all females, average age M=37.41 (SD=10.57, ranged from 21-64 years) with average work experience M=12.91 years (SD=11.23, ranged from six months to 42 years). Sixty-seven of them were preschool teachers, all females, with average age M=30.82 (SD=6.71) within the range from 21 to 49 years. They reported about their average work experience M=6.57 (SD=7.09) within the range from six months to thirty years of working with preschool children. They were all employed and working in various kindergartens from Istarska and Primorsko-goranska county. Besides, this sample included seventy-three teachers. They were all females, working in different primary schools in Primorsko-goranska County. Their average age was M=43.46 years (SD=9.85) within the range from 26 to 64 years. In addition, they reported about their average work experience M=18.73 (SD=11.21) ranged from six months to forty-two years of working with schoolchildren.

Measuring instrument

To determine three main characteristics of the most quality preschool teacher, a measuring instrument that was created for the purposes of this study was applied. It consisted of general questions about their age and work experience, and one specific question: “Please, could you be so kind and write down three most important characteristics of the most quality primary school/preschool teacher, in your own opinion. Also, range these three characteristics by their importance level with 1 as the most important characteristic.”

Procedure

The subsample of preschool teachers was asked to participate in this study during their engagement within the Life-long course at the Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Rijeka. They all agreed to participate voluntarily in this study. In addition, their participation in this study was completely anonymous and collected data privacy was guaranteed. The subsample of primary school teachers consisted of teachers who have been working in randomly selected primary schools in the Primorsko-goranska County. Same as preschool teachers, they voluntarily and anonymously participated in this research. In each case, administering the questionnaire took approximately five minutes and after that, all participants were


promised they would be informed about the results. SPSS 18.0 was used to perform necessary statistical analysis.


According to the first problem of this research, three most significant professional properties of preschool and primary school teachers have been determined. Preschool teachers pointed out that the three most important characteristics of a good and quality preschool teacher are:

• creativity (M=1.46, SD=1.31); • empathy (M=1.16, SD=1.20); • and flexibility (M=1.01, SD=0.96). These three characteristics are followed by: a) openness to novel and different situations (M=0.52, SD=0.98); b) ability of being a partner with preschoolers (M=0.51, SD=0.96); c) having a special sensibility to work with preschool children (M=0.42,

SD=0.86); d) reflectiveness (M=0.34, SD=0.86); e) consequent (M=0.33, SD=0.91); f) communicative (M=0.31, SD=0.84); and g) cheerful (M=0.31, SD=0.86). Very small number of them also emphasized characteristics such as: being

observer (M=0.12, SD=0.48), to have knowledge and competencies for working with preschool children (M=0.12, SD=0.51), being an preschool teacher to children means being a learner too (M=0.10, SD=0.39), to be a role model for children (M=0.09, SD=0.51), being a patient person (M=0.09, SD=0.45), being curious (M=0.06, SD=0.38), being motivated and being able to motivate children (M=0.03, SD=0.17) and being reliable (M=0.03, SD=0.24). As for the second research problem, nonparametric correlation analysis showed a significant relationship between empathy and age (rho=-.42, p=.001) and working experience (rho=-.43, p=.001), same as between flexibility and age (rho=-.32, p=.01) and working experience (rho=-.27, p=.03). In other words, the importance of empathy and flexibility as professional characteristics were evaluated as the more important professional characteristic significantly decreases with preschool teachers’ age and working experience. Younger and less experienced preschool teachers find empathy and flexibility more important than older and more experienced colleagues. No significant correlation has been determined between age and working experience and the importance of creativity. The results implied that it is crucial to create subjects and workshops within existing university study programs that develop and promote empathy in preschool teachers, not only because of the results in this study. Latest study on significant empathy decline, especially fantasy dimension among future preschool teachers showed that existing study programs failed not only in increasing the fantasy abilities in students, but in maintaining their baselines, what should be modified (Tatalović Vorkapić & Ružić, 2013).

In difference to preschool teachers, teachers reported that the three most important characteristics of quality teacher are: to have knowledge and competencies for working with preschool children (M=0.74, SD=0.97), creativity (M=0.68, SD=1.08) and fairness (M=0.51, SD=0.97). Furthermore, teachers


emphasized the importance of some other properties such as: empathy (M=0.33, SD=0.80), consequent (M=0.26, SD=0.71), being a patient person (M=0.26, SD=0.78), communicative (M=0.21, SD=0.64), love toward children (M=0.16, SD=0.47), skilful (M=0.15, SD=0.61), love toward a job (M=0.14, SD=0.54), planning classroom activities and tasks (M=0.14, SD=0.61), headiness (M=0.14, SD=0.59), flexibility (M=0.14, SD=0.56), being a teacher to children means being a learner too (M=0.14, SD=0.59), eloquent (M=0.12, SD=0.60), openness to novel and different situations (M=0.11, SD=0.54), to have warmth (M=0.11, SD=0.39), and humour (M=0.11, SD=0.54). Very small number of teachers mentioned that following characteristics are important as well: objectivity (M=0.10, SD=0.48), diligence (M=0.10, SD=0.50), organizer (M=0.08, SD=0.43), sincerity (M=0.08, SD=0.43), being motivated and being able to motivate children (M=0.07, SD=0.42), optimism (M=0.07, SD=0.42), cheerful (M=0.05, SD=0.33), exactness (M=0.05, SD=0.37), to be able to centralize (M=0.04, SD=0.35), having a special sensibility to work with primary school children (M=0.04, SD=0.35), to have authority (M=0.04, SD=0.35), agreeableness (M=0.04, SD=0.35), sociability (M=0.04, SD=0.26), curiosity (M=0.03, SD=0.23). The ability of being a partner with children, reflectiveness, to be a role model for children, being observer and being reliable are not reported by teachers as the important characteristics, what was not the case with preschool teachers. This is very interesting, since being reflective presents a characteristic that is very important during the work analysis. In addition, no teachers perceived their individuality as an important role model for primary school children during their work with them. On the other hand, characteristics such as ability for planning, headiness, skilfulness, diligence and other, were not present within self-perception of preschool teachers, which is interesting too. Finally, no significant correlations were determined between age, working experience and the three most important characteristics evaluated by teachers.

Considering the main similarities of determined findings, both samples emphasized the creativity as one of the three most important characteristics among preschool teachers. Nevertheless, with the aim of answering the third study problem about possible significant differences between the frequencies of three the most chosen characteristics by preschool and primary school teachers, the Chi-square test was used. Preschool teachers pointed out significantly higher importance of creativity (χ2=19.47, p=.001), empathy (χ2=24.65, df=1,3, p=.001) and flexibility (χ2=51.78, df=1,3, p=.001) than teachers. Furthermore, these two samples showed significantly different perception of the other two main characteristics: to be fair (χ2=26.51, p=.001) and to have knowledge (χ2=18.96, p=.001). In other words, teachers emphasized significantly higher importance of being fair and having knowledge than preschool teachers, as it was expected.

The main contribution of this study is pointing out the fact that self-perception of the existing and professionally expected and needed personal characteristics are very important, and could be dominant within the quality of preschool and primary school teachers’ work. Therefore, they should be examined, so the determined findings could serve as a solid ground for creating programs (within university study programs or lifelong learning programs) that could help preschool teachers develop exactly those characteristics that are crucial in their work. Study limitation


considering the small number of participants and short measuring instrument are do not permit the drawing of some more general conclusions.

Conclusion

Given the main focus of this study, both in primary school teachers and preschool teachers creativity was established as being one of three most important characteristics. This finding can be explained by the fact that creativity in the preschool environment is important due to the creation of space and encouragement of the overall development of the child, while in the school environment creativity is important because of innovations in the didactic-methodological approaches to the educational process (Čepić, Tatalović Vorkapić & Svetić, 2014). Preschool teachers emphasize creativity, empathy and flexibility as the three most important characteristics of quality teachers, while primary school teachers mention knowledge and competencies for working with children, creativity and fairness. Openness to novel and different situations and ability of being a partner with preschoolers are immediately in the fourth and fifth place among preschool teachers, and empathy, consequent being a patient person are in fourth and fifth place among primary school teachers. Furthermore, a statistically significant correlation between age and working experience has been detected among preschool teachers and with empathy and flexibility. Younger and less experienced preschool teachers find empathy and flexibility more important than older and more experienced colleagues. It is possible that younger preschool teachers due to less working experience feel more uncertain and pressured, and therefore attach greater importance to empathy and flexibility than the older and more experienced colleagues.

Comparing self-perception between preschool teachers and primary school teachers about possible significant differences between the frequencies of the three most chosen characteristics, it was found that preschool teachers attach significantly more importance to creativity, empathy and flexibility than primary school teachers. Furthermore, these two samples showed significantly different perception of the two other main characteristics: to be fair and to have knowledge. Primary school teachers emphasized significantly more the importance of being fair and having knowledge than preschool teachers. It could be said that the results of this study support the assumption that among teachers there still exists the belief that their fundamental role is in the transmission of knowledge rather than encouraging learning. These very beliefs are in the base of the two approaches to teaching - that aimed at the teachers and content as opposed to the modern approach aimed at the students. In the contemporary educational culture it is expected of the teachers to change the roles, from the role of an authority that transmits information and knowledge to the facilitator who allows learners to discover and construct knowledge, but it is not an easy process. It can also be assumed that teachers emphasize fairness as an important characteristic of a quality teacher because fairness is often associated with evaluating and assessing students as an integral and important part of the teacher's work.

All these issues require further research of the professional identity of preschool and primary school teachers. The conducted research is a good starting point for thinking about a more comprehensive approach to these issues perhaps in combination with qualitative research methods. Answers to these questions have


significant practical implications because the quality of education, as pointed out by Hoyle (2008), is fundamentally in the hands of teachers and therefore the professionalization and professional development of teachers is central to improving education. Focusing on reflective capabilities of ourselves, the environment and the outcomes of educational processes, the process of better understanding and development of professionalism as well as the development of the professional identity can be stimulated. It is therefore of utmost importance to create conditions for raising awareness and challenging the perception of preschool and primary school teachers on how they see themselves professionally, on competencies that they believe should be improved, and all the factors that assist them, i.e. that do not assist them.

References Agencija za odgoj i obrazovanje (Nacrt, ožujak 2013): Strategija stručnog usavršavanja za

profesionalni razvoj odgojno-obrazovnih radnika (2014-2020) [Strategy for professional training of the educational staff (2014-2020)]. Zagreb, Hrvatska: AZOO.

Agencija za odgoj i obrazovanje AZOO (2009): Strategija stručnog usavršavanja odgojno-obrazovnih radnika (2009-2013) [Strategy for professional training of the educational staff (2009-2013)]. Zagreb, Hrvatska: AZOO.

Čepić, R., Tatalović Vorkapić, S., Svetić, A. (2014): Kontinuirani profesionalni razvoj učitelja kao nužni preduvjet za inoviranje odgojno-obrazovnoga rada (Conference paper to be appeared). Izobraževanje za 21. stoletje - Ustvarjalnost v vzgoji in izobraževanju. Koper, Slovenia: Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška Fakulteta, Učiteljski fakultet, Užice.

Dalli, C. (2008): Pedagogy, knowledge and collaboration: Towards a ground-up perspective on professionalism. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 16(2), 171-185.

Hoyle, E. (2008): Changing Conceptions of Teaching as a Profession: Personal Reflections, In D. Jonhonson & R. Maclean (Eds.) Teaching: Professionalization, Development and Leadership (pp. 285-304). Springer Science + Business media B.V.

Miller, L. & Cable, C. (Eds.) (2008): Professionalism in the early years. London: Hodder/ Arnold.

Ministarstvo znanosti, obrazovanja i športa RH (2010): Nacionalni okvirni kurikulum za predškolski odgoj i obrazovanje te opće obvezno i srednjoškolsko obrazovanje [National Curriculum Framework for pre-school education, general compulsory and secondary education]. Zagreb, Hrvatska: MZOŠ.

Ministarstvo znanosti, obrazovanja i športa RH (2013): Hrvatski kvalifikacijski okvir [Croatian Qualifications Framework]. Zagreb, Hrvatska: MZOŠ.

Ministarstvo znanosti, obrazovanja i športa RH (2013): Zakon o Hrvatskom kvalifikacijskom okviru [Croatian Qualifications Framework Act]. Zagreb, Hrvatska: MZOŠ.

Mulc, M. (2013): Kvaliteta i (samo)vrednovanje u odgoju i obrazovanju [Quality and (self)evaluation in education]. Unpublished MA thesis. University of Rijeka, Faculty of Teacher Education.

Tatalović Vorkapić, S. & Ružić, N. (2013): Measuring empathy in future preschool teachers: Implications for study programme modification. International journal of psychology and behavioral sciences, 3(6), 188-195.


Tatalović Vorkapić, S., Vujičić, L. & Čepić, R. (2014): Preschool Teacher Identity. Book Chapter to be Appeared In P. Breen (Ed.) Cases on Teacher Identity, Diversity, and Cognition in Higher Education. IGI-Global.

Thomas, L. & Beauchamp, C. (2011): Understanding new teachers’ professional identities through metaphor. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(4), 762-769.

Urban, M. (2008): Dealing with uncertainty: challenges and possibilities for the early childhood profession. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 16(2), 135-152.

Assist. Prof. Dr. Sanja Tatalović Vorkapić Faculty of Teacher Education in Rijeka University of Rijeka Croatia [email protected] Assist. Prof. Dr. Renata Čepić Faculty of Teacher Education in Rijeka University of Rijeka Croatia [email protected] Matina Mulc, mag. prim. Primary School Skrad Croatia [email protected]





OKSANA CHUGAI

LEGISLATIVE HISTORY OF ADULT EDUCATION IN THE USA

Abstract

In the article the involvement of Federal government into adult education is analyzed; the nature and extent of legislative measures taken in order to improve the quality of adult education in the USA is investigated. Keywords: adult education, educational policy, adult learners, vocational skills,

federal funding, one-stop delivery system, accountability requirement

Introduction

The combined impact of demographic, social, and technological change on society is enormous, and it encourages the spreading of education to people regardless of their age which means the growth of the knowledge society (Cross, 1982). In a contemporary world where education matters more than ever before, the social and economic demands for education grow, connecting success in education with employment and participation in society (Darling-Hammond, 2006). The goal is to establish, encourage, and expand effective programs to assist adults in productive and responsible participation in the life of society.

Progress in any social field, and especially in education, is possible only with a clear understanding of the factors that have influenced the present situation. That implies that the forces must be analyzed in order to construct a new philosophy or a new body of principles. Historical analysis contributes to resolving contemporary problems (Kandel, 1930). Therefore, investigation of the nature and extent of legislative measures taken in order to improve the quality of adult education leads to a deeper understanding of future perspectives in US educational policy.

Legislative History and Discussion

The earliest nation’s founding document, the Declaration of Independence (1776), contains the following statement as its first article: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” This is a truly remarkable statement and Barnes (1984) starts investigating its meaning with the phrase “all men”. It is not quite clear whom Thomas Jefferson, the author, was referring to considering the American Indians, black slaves or women. Yet the spirit of the statement has always been interpreted by Americans liberally. Therefore, “all men” means, morally and legally, multiracial men, women, and children. The phrase “created equal” does not mean “born equal” or “are equal”. With the words “created equal” Thomas Jefferson established a political philosophy that influenced educational policy in the future. The implication for education is that as far as schooling was established, everyone has access to it. Implicit in the statement “the pursuit of Happiness” is the notion that education was not to be limited to people of a certain age and to a certain time and place. Adults as well as children could continue their education if further education increased their

Legislative History of Adult Education in the USA 470

“happiness”. Finally, Barnes comes to the conclusion that in spite of saying nothing directly about education, the Declaration of Independence, as earliest nation’s founding document, is an important educational statement (Barnes, 1984).

There has been a rich history of educational reforms throughout the history of the USA. President Thomas Jefferson was the first American leader to suggest the establishment of an educational system that was controlled by the government, free from religious biases, and available to all people regardless of their status in society. Horace Mann and Henry Barnard were early education reformers who believed that education is the great equalizer of the people (Williams, 2006).

State histories give evidence of organized adult education in the USA as early as the 18th century. Evening schools for adults, part-time education, citizenship or Americanization classes for immigrants were forerunners of the State and Federal adult education movement. Particularly important forces which influenced American adult education are the notion of self-improvement, liberal and progressive education. The notion of self-improvement is connected with Benjamin Franklin – inventor, statesman, signer of the Declaration of Independence, founder of the Janto, a voluntary association for self-improvement. Liberal adult education for middle class seeking for mental refinement, as well as programs for the retired, are also concerned with quality of life issues. The core of progressive education movement is that governments exist to help people with resolving social and economic problems, thus society can improve and renew itself through education. The most visible manifestation of this connection was “Wisconsin Idea” combining research, teaching and real world problem solving, ground for which was established by the Morrill Act (Edelson, 2000).

The Morrill Act is often referred to as Bill of Educational Rights which granted public lands to colleges offering agriculture and mechanical arts. The Morrill, or Land Grand College Act of 1862, embraced the principle of colleges as “popular” institutions. Their failure to attract sufficient numbers of undergraduate students caused them to turn to the adult market. This continues to be true for the vast majority of traditionally focused colleges serving adults (Pulliam, 1994).

Among the earlier efforts of the Congress to aid education were acts designed to fill the need for industrial and vocational education. Farmers Institutes started in 1854 and led to an interest in agricultural education on the high school and college levels. The Hatch Act of 1887 provided federal funds for agricultural experiments, and the Smith-Lever Act of 1914 created agricultural extension programs for farmers. The vocational school movement received its greatest boost when the federal Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 was passed. This law provided federal aid for the states by paying vocational teachers’ salaries in the high schools and aiding teacher training institutions. New interest in psychology led to the beginning of professional guidance which developed into counselling services (Pulliam, 1994). The Congress promoted vocational education also through the George-Reed Act (1929), and the George-Dean Act (1937). During the First World War, the government found it necessary to train many technicians, but industrial inactivity during the depression resulted in a great shortage of trained technicians and engineers. The National Defense Training Program of 1940 provided courses for more than seven million workers during World War II. Vocational training also benefited from the National

Oksana Chugai 471

Defense Educational Act of 1958; the Vocational Educational Act extended previous legislation to cover any skilled, technical, or semiskilled occupation.

Attempts to improve the national welfare and increase equality of opportunity were made through the New Deal legislation passed during the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt. It made possible subsidizing teachers’ salaries for programs in the training of adults and providing loans for building schools and libraries. This trend has been continued in legislation such as the Economic Opportunity Act (EOA) of 1964 Title II of which authorized aid to adult education (Pulliam, 1994). With the passage of EOA the first Adult Basic Education program was created as a state grant. The 1964 Federal legislation established a state and Federal partnership to focus on the most basic educational skills for adults who had not completed secondary education allowing them to enroll in what is known as ABE (Adult Basic Education) (Tate, 2011).

Another important measure was taken in an effort to meet the needs of veterans. The Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944 (G.I. Bill) provided subsistence and school cost allowances for those veterans who wanted to continue their education, and it resulted in the expansion of colleges to accommodate them (Pulliam, 1994). According to Drucker (1994), the G.I. Bill “signalled the shift to the knowledge society… the most important event of the twentieth century” (Drucker, 1994). In Edelson’s view, the G.I. Bill had more to do with fears that the returning American servicemen would cause a large scale domestic instability. At the same time there was resistance to a governmental presence in American education which led to the belief that government control should be avoided. For this reason, in the case of the G.I. Bill the aid was directed to veterans. Thus, the adult education community came to see the success of the G.I. Bill as a vindication of adults as learners (Edelson, 2000). Veterans flocked to colleges in large numbers after the war. Consequently, by 1947, nearly half of the people attending college were veterans (Appleby, 2008). The importance of the G.I. Bill is proved by the fact, that it was revived for veterans of the Korean War and the benefits were increased for Vietnam veterans in 1972.

A new period of federal activity in education started with the cold war and the Soviet success in launching Sputnik satellite (Pulliam, 1994). Many Americans felt that the nation had fallen behind and explained that by a lack of technical education. In the wave of the Sputnik launches, efforts began to improve math and science education (Appleby, 2008). Emphasis shifted from life adjustment to excellence which led to the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) of 1958. This Act was designed giving aid to education as a means of strengthening the nation (Pulliam, 1994).

Another development in American education began when in January 1964 President Lyndon Johnson announced his War on Poverty. He envisioned a society without poverty or discrimination in which all Americans enjoyed equal job and educational opportunities. Consequently, reforms were enacted including the Higher Educational Act of 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA), and the Educational Opportunity Act of 1968. The passage of these acts represented an unprecedented commitment on the part of the federal government to ensure that all Americans had an equal opportunity to quality public education (Present, 2010). Since 1965, the Higher Education Act, which includes the Education Professions Development Act of 1967, has provided large sums of money


for the acquisition of library materials in colleges, for improving and extending teacher education programs, for strengthening programs related to community problems (Pulliam, 1994). The Elementary and Secondary Education Act targeted aid to students and also funded related activities such as adult education and education counselling.

One notable measure changed the composition of the American population: the Immigration Act of 1965. This Act eliminated the national origins system established in the 1920s and opened the door to newcomers from all parts of Europe, Asia and Africa. In addition to those arriving through traditional immigration channels, some newcomers arrived in the United States as refugees (Appleby, 2008). As a result of increased awareness and valuing of the rights of racial and ethnic minorities to have an adequate education, the 1964 Civil Rights Act (Title VI) was passed. The Bilingual and Education Act (BEA) of 1968 was the beginning of grant funding that was designated to help the poor and those with limited English proficiency (Present, 2010).

Obvious physical and mental disabilities were understood and dealt with in education before. The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 boosted building new facilities for the disabled. Moreover, the Americans with Disabilities Act (IDEA) of 1990 mandated full availability to special telecommunications systems. The Older Workers Protection Act of 1990 barred age discrimination in employee benefits coverage as well as employment. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 provides regulations for compelling companies to accommodate the disabled. It also includes a section dealing with Civil Rights and Women’s Equity in Employment and The Glass Ceiling Act or Women’s Equal Opportunity Act, which encourage businesses to create opportunities for women and minorities (Pulliam, 1994).

In 1983 the National Commission on Excellence in Education released the report “A Nation at Risk”. The report created a movement to improve education throughout the United States with many states passing laws in order to prepare students for the competitive global economy (Present, 2010). The Educate America Act of 1994 (The Goals 2000) approved a framework to establish national accreditation standards and assessments, and to provide the support to meet these standards. The Act codified in law the key education goals, one of them targeted adults – every American will be literate and will possess the knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a global economy and exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship. President Clinton acknowledged the plight that illiterate adults experienced when they could not assist their children nor advance themselves in the workplace. Consequently, the Educate America Act addressed universal adult literacy by encouraging businesses, schools and libraries to support quality literacy programs through trainings and lifelong learning opportunities (Present, 2010).

The mid-1990s are characterised by a policy approach called the New Federalism which includes passing policy responsibilities from the federal government to state and local governments. The assumption is that state and local governments can be more responsive and effective at meeting the needs of their constituencies than the federal government. Several federal legislative acts that embody New Federalism established new requirements for welfare receipt, placed restrictions on recipients’ educational participation affecting the funding,

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coordination, and evaluation of federally funded adult literacy programs. In particular, the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of 1998 includes Title II the Adult Education and Family Literacy Act as a basis for federal funding and oversight of adult literacy programs. A significant element of Title II is the specification of three core performance indicators used to evaluate state and local programs: demonstrated improvements in literacy skill levels; placement in, retention in, or completion of postsecondary education, training, career advancement; receipt of a secondary school diploma or its equivalent. The overall Workforce Investment Act promotes the collaboration of literacy providers with other educational agencies and employment services through the creation of one-stop delivery systems that give participants access to a wide range of programs (Hayes, 1999). The services are accessed through a nationwide network of one-stop centers administered by state and local Workforce Investment Boards. This Act provides funding to the states for adult literacy programs such as the basic adult education programs of local educational agencies, community-based organizations, volunteer literacy organizations, higher education institutions, libraries, public housing authorities, and correctional institutions (Tate, 2011).

An era of accountability that was designed to improve student achievement was ushered by amending ESEA and reauthorizing it as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2002. The focal point of the law was to close student achievement gaps by providing a fair, equal and significant opportunity to obtain a high-quality education. NCLB requires each state to establish state academic standards and a state testing system that meet federal requirements (Jones-Clinton, 2011). On the one hand, the NCLB act violates conservative principles by federalizing education and setting a precedent for further erosion of state and local control. On the other hand, with the passing of the NCLB the overall awareness of education and outcomes has increased dramatically. Closing the achievement gap is essential to the USA economy, social stability, and the overall moral health of the nation (Present, 2010).

Conclusion

This investigation of the US legislative history allows allocating the factors that influenced American adult education. From the early beliefs that education is the great equalizer of people, the notion of self-improvement, liberal and progressive education, the need for industrial and vocational education, popularization of colleges, the New Deal legislation and the G.I. Bill, Sputnik era and War on Poverty, to establishing national standards, the New Federalism policy and an era of accountability the federal government built up a society without discrimination in which all Americans could have equal job and educational opportunities.

One of the major issues in the USA determined by its historical roots and cultural values concerns the location of authority and the source of financial support in education. The role of the central government becomes larger when it provides federal aid. However, the dominant pattern is decentralization when state and local governments can be more effective than the federal government. On the whole, federal efforts sometimes were disjointed; sometimes they overlapped with other programs focused on adult education. The USA continues its focus on education


reforms because education is the major force which will help the United States to retain the position as a world leader.

Subsequent research work may include the comparative analysis of legislative history of adult education in the USA and other countries and its impact on establishing, encouraging, and expanding effective programs for adults.

References Adult Education and Family Literacy Act of 1998. https://www2.ed.gov/policy/adulted/leg/

legis.html. Accessed 07 February 2014. Appleby, J., Brinkley, A., Broussard, A., McPherson, J., Richie, D. (Eds.) (2008): The

American Vision. Columbus: McGraw-Hill. Barnes, G. (1984): The American University: A World Guide. The USA: ISI Press. Cross, K. P. (1982): Adults as learners. San-Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Darling-Hammond, L. (2006): Powerful teacher education: lessons from exemplary

programs. San-Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Drucker, P. (1994): Post - Capitalist Society. New York: Harper-Business. Edelson, P. (2000): Adult education in the USA. Issues and trends. www.stonybrook.edu/spd/

dean_papers/edelson_monograph.pdf. Accessed January 2014. Hayes, E. (1999): Policy Issues That Drive the Transformation of Adult Literacy. New

Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 83, 3-7. Jones-Clinton, T. J. (2011): Principals as facilitators of professional development with

teachers as adult learners. University of Missouri: St. Louis. Kandel, I. L. (1930): History of Secondary Education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Pulliam, J. (1994): History of education in America. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Present, W. (2010): Education Reform in the United States and the Impact of the No Child

Left Behind Act. State University of New York: ProQuest. Tate, P., Klein-Collins, R., Steinberg, K. (2011): Lifelong learning in the USA: A focus on

innovation and efficiency for the 21st century learner. International Journal of Continuing Education and Lifelong Learning, 4 (1), 5.

Williams, A. (2006): No Child Left Behind Policy: is reform still necessary? Carlisle Barracks: U.S. Army War College.

Oksana Chugai PhD student Department of Comparative Vocational Training Institute for Education Studies & Adult Education National Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of Ukraine Kiev, Ukraine [email protected]



OLENA GONCHARENKO

THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING PUPILS FROM NATIONAL MINORITIES OF UKRAINE AND THE UNITED STATES

Abstract

The paper considers directions of the formation of a competence approach. The emphasis is placed on the nature of the socio-cultural content line that is interrelated with the speech line and is necessary for successful socialization in the development and training of students from national minorities of the Ukraine and the United States, improving the quality of modern education. Keywords: communicative competence, competence approach, socio-cultural

content line, information and communication technologies, the State Standard of General Secondary Education (Ukraine)

Introduction

The development of the communicative competence of schoolchildren, first of all those from national minorities, by assimilating the available and necessary volume of knowledge in languages taught, mastering of all kinds of speech activity and acquisition of certain social experience is the key and most important means of training and development of their personality in the process of learning all other subjects from pre-school and primary education.

There are numerous comparative publications (N. Lavrichenko, E. Lokshina, O. Miljutina, O. Ovcharuk), didactic works (N. Bibik, A. Savchenko), psychological surveys (A. Asmolov, I. Beh, A. Kononenko, M. Zabrodskij, V. Rybalko, etc.) describing the peculiarities of applying the concept of competence in various educational spheres. However, it is the interpretation of the direction of the content of the competence category to various fields of education that gains a wider meaning, but borrowings from the international experience and the introduction of this experience into domestic education for the socialization of children from national minorities have not been elaborated to perfection.

The Analysis of the Latest Research and Publications in Which the Solution of This Problem is Outlined

The problems of modernization of education are very important and timely. They are studied by the American scientists: Ph. Altbach, H. Bennet, A. Bestor, E. Boyyer, G. Weiner, J. Goodland, H. Kelli, A. Lewy, R. Tyler; by the Russian scientists: V. Veselova, A. Vladimirov, B. Vul'fson, Z. Mal'kova, V. Pilipovskij, V. Razumovskij, T. Sajpulaeva; by the leading Ukrainian scientists-educators: I. Zvarych, A. Kovjazina, T. Koshmanova, N. Pacevko, L. Puhovskaja, O. Romanovskij, M. Shutova. Some aspects of the above problem got fragmentary coverage in the Ukrainian teachers’ works on the ways of reforming education and improving the quality of education for children from national minorities. There are

The Importance of Communicative Competence in Teaching Pupils from National Minorities… 476

pedagogical investigations on the issues related to the quality and determination of a rational volume, on updating the contents of the curriculum. Availability of such a program is studied by domestic scientists: V. G. Bevz, L. D. Berezovskaja, N. M. Bibik, M. I. Burda, N. M. Burins'kaja, A. N. Girnjak, V. O. Grishhenko, I. P. Gudzik, L. I. Denisenko, Ju. I. Zavalevskij, S. P. Kogutenko, Ju. B. Kuznecov, O. I. Ljashenko, I. V. Malafiik, O. Petruk, O. Ja. Savchenko, Ju. I. Tereshhenko, O. M. Topuzov, O. L. Haritonova, O. Horoshkovskaja etc. In their scientific and pedagogical research they emphasize the need to improve the programs and textbooks, to improve the level of their assessment and to determine the role of a teacher under today's conditions. At the present stage there are no fundamental scientific results concerning the pedagogical technologies developed through the use of active and interactive methods of studying the Ukrainian language, independent creative activity of pupils, especially for children of immigrants from national minorities.

The Updated State Standard for the Study of the Ukrainian Language in Providing Key and Subject Competencies

It is worth noting that one of the important prerequisites for teachers’ high quality work in modern conditions and for effective teaching of the Ukrainian language to pupils is the availability of textbooks, including electronic and teaching kits. It should be noted that today the sign of modern education is the introduction of information-communication technologies (ICT). In studying the impact of ICT and their application in the educational process to ensure high quality level of pupils such mechanism as monitoring the quality of education, in particular, educational achievements of pupils may be used (Gricenchuk, 2013; Lokshina, 2004). When using ICT, the components of the teacher’s work change, which is especially important for the successful formation of competence in training and development of all schoolchildren without exception.

The aim of the paper is to determine the specificity and importance level of communicative competence in the implementation of the linguistic, socio-cultural and activity content line to provide the speech line in teaching pupils from ethnic minorities in Ukraine and the USA.

At the present stage education abroad is being developed using the competence approach. So, taking into account the specificity of the subject ‘The Ukrainian language’, this approach can provide the formation and development of key competencies of students, such as communicative, social, and general cultural, as well as an ability to learn. The main thing to do for the implementation of the profile training at the lessons of the Ukrainian language is to shift from the passive forms of learning to active creative work. The basic characteristic of active learning is its correspondence to the nature of human perception, its focus on opening the personal ‘I’ both of the student and of the teacher through their creative interaction (Metodicheskie rekomendacii po izucheniju ukrainskogo jazyka v obshheobrazovatel'nyh uchebnyh zavedenijah). In this context a new state standard has been elaborated. It stimulates learners not to assimilate a certain amount of knowledge and skills, but to develop an ability to use them in various life situations, that is to form the key and subject competencies (Derzhavnij standart nachal'nogo obshhego obrazovanija; Ob osnovah gosudarstvennoj jazykovoj politiki;

Olena Goncharenko 477

Ponomareva). However, the essence of this concept is associated with final education outcomes that are usually accurately recorded and measured. The standard specifies that the main purpose of primary learning, first of all, of the Ukrainian language is the development of communicative competence, which is both a key and a subject competence, taking into account the possibilities and interests of students, as well as the acquisition of a certain range of knowledge about the realities of material and spiritual culture of the Ukrainian people. In our opinion, there should be an appropriate rating level of knowledge about the condition and development of the material and spiritual culture of the Ukrainian people. Different interpretations of adjacent concepts in scientific-pedagogical papers in the field of education can be distinguished as follows:

• competence is interpreted as a socially determined level of knowledge, skills and relations in a particular area of human activity, that is, it is the demand, the norm set from the outside;

• competence is an integrated capability of a personality that is composed of knowledge, experience, values, and relations that can be realized as a whole in practice, that is it implies individual experience of using competencies developed in the process of learning. In other words, competence is knowledge in action;

• communicative competence is an ability of the individual to apply in a particular communication situation knowledge of the language, ways of interaction with people and events nearby and at a distance, group work skills, knowledge of different social roles (Derzhavnij standart nachal'nogo obshhego obrazovanija).

Curricula with the Ukrainian Language at Stage I Schools for the Successful Socialization of Pupils from National Minorities

A new generation of educational programs in the Ukrainian language for stage I schools with Russian, Hungarian, Romanian/Moldovan, Polish languages of learning have been recently developed at the Institute of Pedagogy NAPS of Ukraine and adopted as the basic ones. These programs are built in accordance with the content lines that were highlighted in the State standard: speech, language and socio-cultural lines which are interconnected and aim at developing key and subject competencies (Derzhavnij standart nachal'nogo obshhego obrazovanija; Ob osnovah gosudarstvennoj jazykovoj politiki; Petruk). In the programs, language knowledge is regarded not as a goal in itself, but as a means of developing and improving verbal skills, particularly, communicative. Speech is the most universal means of communication. The programs identify the content of the socio-cultural line. It has close relationship with the speech line. In our view, it is particularly important that the socio-cultural line of the programs’ content orients Ukrainian pupils of the secondary school to studying the languages of national minorities. At the same time familiarization with and assimilation of social norms of verbal behavior implies assimilation of certain communication areas defined by the program; this is necessary for the successful socialization of children from national minorities and their integration into the Ukrainian social medium. An important direction of socio-cultural content line is the upbringing of a citizen of Ukraine who respects the state, national symbols, languages and cultures of other peoples living in the Ukraine, and

The Importance of Communicative Competence in Teaching Pupils from National Minorities… 478

treats them with tolerance (Derzhavnij standart nachal'nogo obshhego obrazovanija; Ob osnovah gosudarstvennoj jazykovoj politiki; Zajceva, 2013; Marchuk, 2009).

Conclusion

Thus, education for pupils from national minorities is based on principles of equality and non-discrimination in the acquisition of the systematized knowledge and skills, in the comprehensive development of the individual; it is also on the state creating conditions for the preservation and development of national languages and cultures. The efforts should be directed to:

• instilling in citizens of our country human and national dignity; • teaching the state language in its entirety at the level of state standards

incorporated into the school curriculum; • attracting the pupils to national spiritual values of the Ukrainian people and

national minorities; • inculcating values of the European and world culture, making the pupils

aware of their relationship and interaction in the Ukrainian context; • developing, primarily, such moral qualities as kindness, honesty, respect for

others regardless of their national origin; • creating conditions for unity, organizing social medium. The higher the

development level of the social medium, the more consolidated the society is. Bilingual education is quite common in the world, particularly in the U.S. where

there are more than ten kinds of bilingual programs, the choice of which is made by the local bodies and state government, depending on the needs of the region. The basis for assessing the performance of schoolchildren for each state is a standard that is developed at a certain level and that allows assessing students’ knowledge levels by marginal scores. The content of standards include requirements of what the pupil must know and be able to do; they are outlined in the curriculum and supported through textbooks, lesson plans, etc. (Linn, 2006).

It should be noted that the main components of the educational standards of the American high school are based on:

• improving the quality of education; • humanization of education, and succession; • predictive, critical and evaluative, organizational and managerial functions

(Cizek, Bunch, Koons, 2004). In our opinion this approach to the development of school education in the U.S.,

and the ways of its realization create conditions for the leading position of the state in the world. Thus the U.S. science occupies the leading position, although by some of the indicators of economic and technological development, it lags behind Japan and other developed countries (especially in the field of robotics and electronics).

Our further interest is the development of methodology for comparing and evaluating the quality of education of children from national minorities in order to select the most rational standards for their training.

References Derzhavnij standart nachal'nogo obshhego obrazovanija [Jelektronnyj resurs] //

Zakonodatel'stvo Ukrainy [Jelektronnyj resurs]. – Rezhim dostupa: http://www.mon.gov.


ua/images/files/doshkilna-cerednya/serednya/derzh-standart/derj_standart_pochatk_ new.doc (data obrashhenija: 20.02.2014).

Cizek, G. J., Bunch, M. B., Koons, H. (2004): Setting performance standards: Contemporary methods. An NCME instructional module. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice [Jelektronnyj resurs]. – Rezhim dostupa: http://www.uiowa.edu/~counspsy/faculty/7p331_ 05/March7_ExpertRaters/GJCizek_W2004_pp31_50.pdf (data obrashhenija: 23.12.2013).

Gricenchuk, A. A. (2013): IK kompetentnost' dlja obuchenija v techenii zhizni (opyt mezhdunarodnoj programmy ocenki znanij PISA) // Annotirovannye rezul'taty nauchno-issledovatel'skoj raboty Instituta informacionnyh tehnologij i sredstv obuchenija NAPN Ukrainy za 2012 god: nauchnoe izdanie. – K.: IITSO. – S. 14-16.

Linn, R. L. (2006): Performance standards: Utility for different uses of assessments // Education Policy Analysis Archives. – 2006. – № 11(31) [Jelektronnyj resurs]. – Rezhim dostupa: http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v11n31/ (data obrashhenija: 14.12.2013).

Lokshina, E. (2004): Stanovlenie i razvitie monitoringa kachestva obrazovanija: mirovoe izmerenie / Elena Lokshina // Monitoring kachestva obrazovanija: mirovye dostizhenija i ukrainskie perspektivy / za obshh. red. E. I. Lokshinoj – K.: ‘K.I.S.’. – S. 133-145.

Marchuk, N. (2009): Mezhjetnicheskoe vzaimodejstvie kak neobhodimaja sostavljajushhaja konsolidacii ukrainskogo obshhestva [Jelektronnyj resurs] // Nauchnaja periodika Ukrainy [Jelektronnyj resurs]. – Rezhim dostupa: http://nato.pu.if.ua/journal/2009-2/2009-2-26.pdf (data obrashhenija: 01.02.2014).

Metodicheskie rekomendacii po izucheniju ukrainskogo jazyka v obshheobrazovatel'nyh uchebnyh zavedenijah [Jelektronnyj resurs] // Zakonodatel'stvo Ukrainy [Jelektronnyj resurs]. – Rezhim dostupa: http://guonkh.gov.ua/content/documents/14/1397/Attaches/ ukr_lit.doc (data obrashhenija: 30.01.2014).

Petruk, A. Ukrainskij jazyk kak gosudarstvennyj (dlja nachal'nyh klassov OUZ s nacional'nymi jazykami obuchenija) [Jelektronnyj resurs] // Nauchnaja periodika Ukrainy [Jelektronnyj resurs]. – Rezhim dostupa: http://zaochna-shkola.at.ua/osoblivosti _zmistu_novikh_navchalnikh_program.doc (data obrashhenija: 25.01.2014).

Ponomareva, K. Osobennosti soderzhanija novyh uchebnyh programm Ukrainskij jazyk 1-4-j klassy [Jelektronnyj resurs] // Nauchnaja periodika Ukrainy [Jelektronnyj resurs]. – Rezhim dostupa: http://zaochna-hkola.at.ua/osoblivosti_zmistu_novikh_navchalnikh_ program.doc (data obrashhenija: 01.02.2014).

Ob osnovah gosudarstvennoj jazykovoj politiki // Zakonodatel'stvo Ukrainy [Jelektronnyj resurs]. – Rezhim dostupa: http://ukurier.gov.ua/uk/articles/pro-zakon-ukrayini-pro-zasadi-derzhavnoyi-movnoyi (data obrashhenija: 10.02.2014).

Zajceva, N. G. (2013): Osobennosti vnedrenija dvujazychnogo obuchenija v srednih uchebnyh zavedenijah Ukrainy s obucheniem na jazykah nacmen'shinstv // Pedagogicheskaja komparativistika – 2013: transformacii v obrazovanii zarubezh'ja i ukrainskij kontekst: materialy nauk. – prakt seminara / In-t pedagogiki NAPN Ukrainy / Pod obshh. red. E. I. Lokshinoj. – K.: Pedagogicheskaja mysl'. – S. 68-69.

Olena Goncharenko Assistant Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv Kyiv, Ukraine [email protected]


ANNA POLENOVA

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF TEACHING ENGLISH TO UNDERGRADUATES MAJORING IN ECONOMICS IN CONTEMPORARY UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

Abstract

The article considers the key aspects of undergraduate students language training specializing in economics, there is the need to form their ability to function as subjects of international educational space, carrying out active cross-cultural communication as part of their professional and scientific activities. Today a Master student must be integrated into a new global post-industrial economy that has no any virtual or real boundaries. The need to work with great amount of information both on their first language, and foreign language for analyzing the situation, forecasting, and responsible choice to solve this problem, requires proficiency in a foreign language. Keywords: language training, master studies in economics, cross-cultural

communication, scientific discourse, English for academic purposes

Nowadays in the process of modernization of the educational system and integration of Russia into a common educational space special emphasis is given to graduate students’ language training. In modern conditions foreign language is required with graduates mainly for deeper exploration of their specialty and for practical use in professional work and in everyday business and personal communication. Therefore, one of the most pressing challenges of teaching English at economic faculties of higher education is the formation of undergraduates use the foreign language skills for practical work on a specialty, for improvement of their skills, achieve career goals and effective business and interpersonal communication.

In the structure of modern higher education master’s degree reflects primarily the educational level of high school graduates and certifies that he has skills relevant to a scientist. A specialist with a master's degree must know the methodology of scientific research, modern information technologies, methods of processing and recording of scientific information. In addition, he must possess foreign language skills of intercultural communication since the development of science currently involves active cooperation and interaction between representatives of different countries and cultures. Modern relationships in the scientific community are characterized by extensive international cooperation and active information exchange (Polenova, 2009).

Thus, today foreign language training of highly qualified graduates has a particular significance in MA course system. It aims at forming the student’s ability to function as subjects of international educational space, carrying out active intercultural communication within their professional and scientific activities.

The complexity of language training of masters in economy lies in the fact that at the present in our society there is a need in the training of such a specialist who

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would be able to make unconventional decisions, acquire knowledge independently and solve various problems. Future masters must not only have basic knowledge, but also be able to use a variety of techniques based on the experience gained while training. One should also consider that the linguistic competence of a Master can hardly be limited by a certain vocabulary, ability to understand the special text or the ability to keep the conversation on general and professional topics. Successful professional activity is impossible without foreign research analysis, exchange of information and experiences, as well as foreign language knowledge while it concerns non-specific requirements, but in general, confirms the need for high quality language training.

It would be right to say that knowledge of a foreign language is treated as one of the key competencies for a graduate in various training areas and reflected in the Federal State Educational Standards of Higher Education. For example, a component of the competence for students specializing in “Finance and Credit” is the ability to be fluent in a foreign language as means of professional communication.

Learning objectives concerning foreign language for graduate students specializing in economics depend primarily on the requirements of modern society to the level of education of the specialist. Also, it should be noted that new interpretation of the goals of foreign language teaching is associated with the main tenets of the modern paradigm of education. They are the following:

• focus on continuity of education, • the priority of independent work, • self-control and self-esteem, • willingness to work with modern sources of information will help students to

master communication skills. The official documents of the Council of Europe represent modern

understanding of the purpose of learning a foreign language that is the development of communication skills for everyday issues, exchange information in a foreign language, the ability to deliver thoughts and feelings in the process of communication, to understand culture and way of life of other peoples.

In the process of teaching a foreign language the goal in a certain way affects the content, methods and forms of education. As a rule, in the process of learning the foreign language implements the following interrelated goals: practical, educational and developmental. While teaching undergraduates their practical goals are focused primarily on language acquisition in the context of professional communication, educational objectives are aimed at improving the general culture, gaining interdisciplinary knowledge, mastering various skills and abilities. Also, educational goals are aimed at the development of intellectual, emotional and motivational sphere of a person, the formation of self-awareness and personal reflection; the formation of scientific outlook, responsibility and tolerance of the future specialist.

In the process of teaching a foreign language practical educational purposes are defined by the social order of society that is the achieving a level of communicative competence that would allow to carry out professional activities in international environment effectively.

Principles and Practices of Teaching English to Undergraduates Majoring in Economics… 482

Let’s look at what should be the essence of language training in the Master Course in detail. On the one hand, language component involves further development and improvement of students’ language skills pledged by the Bachelor training course. On the other hand, Master Course should form the ability allowing the graduate to perform the functions described by the qualification characteristics. Therefore, defining the objectives and content of foreign language teaching in the master’s economic profile, it must be remembered that foreign language course should foster skills in analytical (informational and forecasting) processing of information on the implementation of communication exchanges. This is hardly possible without competence in the field of cross-cultural communication.

Both the term “intercultural communication” and the concept, its revealing, have become the most popular in the modern system of scientific knowledge of the last decade and in the arsenal of many scientific disciplines (Marinicheva, 2003). This has brought the idea of intercultural communication on extralinguistic level, and the concepts of intercultural communication have become some of the most common in science of the late XX – early XXI centuries. We agree with Pshegusova (2003, 2007) and Safonova (1996), who state that the aim of language education is that not only to teach communication skills in a foreign language, but also to form a multilingual person, ready for intercultural communication with representatives of other cultures, which is characterized by openness, tolerance, freedom from prejudice, so the characteristics that possibly make mutual understanding more successful.

An important feature of modern society is the existence of social order for the study of foreign languages as the basis for cross-cultural communication. This fact highlights the need for integration of students into the world language and cultural environment maintaining their national identity. Referring to the importance of communicative competence it’s worth mentioning undergraduates’ culture of speech and its development since it has great significance in terms of creating an academically mobile person, easily adaptable to changing labor market conditions, and the formation of linguistic competence MA in Economics in particular.

According to Zimnaya (2000), culture of human verbal behavior is a significant social characteristic. It is determined by the degree of compliance of actual behavior of the individual speech accepted in the linguistic community with standards of verbal communication, behavior, speech etiquette rules at a particular stage of social development. It is very important today, when a master must be integrated into a new global post-industrial economy that knows no virtual or real boundaries. The necessity to work with great amount of information using both native and foreign languages for situation analysis, forecasting and decision-making of the problem requires fluency in a foreign language. At the same time, future masters should not only have the fundamental knowledge, but also be able to use a variety of techniques based on the experience gained during the training.

It therefore seems necessary to provide master student with an opportunity for self-selection of learning paths not only in the choice of professionally oriented elective courses but also within the course itself. Curricula and programs must take greater account of the individual capabilities of each student. It is necessary to develop divergent tasks that will help a student to reveal his potential. This requires the university to develop not only a large number of alternative courses but also to

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have various forms of work in the compulsory and elective courses, allowing future masters to meet their needs in the a science.

While special subject areas form the basis of the scientific disciplines, considering the key scientific problems of this area, the humanities including a foreign language must include the methodology of science and social aspects of the selected area, the establishment of competitive qualities of undergraduates, the ability to position himself in the professional environment successfully. In addition to professional skills organizational skills of personal and cooperative research activity should be formed in undergraduates.

Master students training program should include the development of scientific ethics and business communication, attention to other staff members, understanding their personal qualities and scientific views and ideas.

As a result, undergraduates should master the techniques and procedure of entering into independent work with their own vision of professional challenges and personal view on the most appropriate methods for their solution (Polenova, Chernukhina, 2012).

Formation of foreign language competence is impossible without a reasonable combination of group classes and university specialized courses with a flexible system of individual lessons, which can realize almost any need of a student in the chosen direction.

Programs on the formation of foreign language competence should certainly take into account the wide range of promising undergraduates’ activities and include appropriate training. Undergraduate training programs in general and language training in particular should be focused primarily on the development of creativity, as innovation processes are always creative and require the use of methods of creative management.

Organizing foreign language training for the masters specializing in economics, you must bear in mind that after the break in learning a foreign language in the bachelor course, undergraduates must have to restore the previously acquired skills. In this regard, all the opportunities for improvement in the master course offered below must be implemented on the background communicative oriented training and interdisciplinary approach.

An important part of learning a foreign language can be abstracting and reviewing of scientific discourse on the specialty and translation. It is extremely important to use and develop skills of summarizing in a foreign language in the course of language training of undergraduates. This work fully implements the opportunities of interdisciplinary approach in teaching foreign languages. Everyday practice of many professionals often requires writing in native language a summary of foreign-language materials that contain valuable information. There is also a widespread practice to publish scientific articles in journals and thematic magazines in their native language with the abstract outlining their core content in another language. So, one of the problems of teaching English in the master course is shaping the skills to work with the original English specialized literature and, in particular, development the skills of summarizing and making written reviews.

The purpose of the abstract is a brief description of some scientific information that several books, articles, publications, web sites may contain for the acquisition by student in training and development of professional skills relevant to his


scientific research. While working on the abstract and improving foreign language skills, an undergraduate, at the same time, comprehend the issues of the subject deeper being since he analyzes different perspective, phenomena, facts and events. At the present stage of science development all skills of processing scientific information include the ability to work with literature in various languages.

Interdisciplinary training of abstracting is displayed in the fact that mastering the skills of making up an abstract based on English special literature will help every undergraduate when writing a literature review of his thesis. Work with any information on a foreign language on the specialty will also contribute to a deeper knowledge of a young scientist in the chosen field of scientific knowledge. Drafting an abstract in English on the basis of Russian-language literature will prepare a student for both presentations at scientific conferences in other countries and communication with foreign colleagues and participation in an interview in English in the search for a future job. So, writing a summary of undergraduate’s thesis in a foreign language seems the most appropriate task.

Reviewing of professionally-oriented articles to prepare undergraduates to write their dissertations is also relevant to this level of training. Reviewing is an abridged content of texts, built on semantic compression of the material presented. Proper compression of factual information while preserving the most significant aspects – is the main goal of this activity, which has now become very common. Translation, as less time-consuming, but equally useful for students, seems the most appropriate practice in groups of undergraduates. Writing abstracts on professionally-oriented discourses is one of the most required activities in the field of science.

Undergraduates are offered to prepare a short summary of a thesis on a foreign language and design it in a format of the Power Point presentation to submit their professional skills, academic and career achievements.

For more effective mastering skills of reading and translating ESP texts undergraduates also need to acquire basic theoretical and practical knowledge in the field of terminology. This may help them understand professionally-oriented texts as well as prepare them for their future professional activity, that requires skills of understanding ESP texts.

When working with undergraduates flexible approach is used to choose texts and other materials. We believe that the analysis of the training needs of graduate students in the context of modern requirements of educational and scientific environment is an effective means of ensuring flexibility in the organization of training.

The main content of technological trend is to fulfil the tasks on compiling a glossary covering specialty topics using computer programs. All proposed tasks differ substantially from usual linguistic exercises because to performance them the student must apply previously acquired knowledge on the use of computer software resources and present the results in a particular format that is to create a “product” of his educational activity. The usage of the PC in the study of a foreign language is strategically important because it can be claimed by the graduates in the future, self-study foreign language throughout their lives.

Organization of learning a foreign language also implies the needs, interests, and personality characteristics of each student along with the development of

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student autonomy, his creative activity and personal responsibility for the effectiveness of training.

Interdisciplinary approach combining linguistic, vocational, computer and cultural orientation training of undergraduates as a single unit, allows us to distribute content courses for undergraduates between classroom and independent types of work equally.

Introduction of a two-staged structure in the educational process requires to review existing teaching materials in a foreign language, aimed at training professionals, clear differentiation of the language training stages, determining the content of foreign language training courses for each target group (Bachelor, Master).

Summarizing all mentioned above, we emphasize once again that an important component of a student training is his research activity in a particular subject area, so the focus on a language training at the undergraduate stage is made on the acquisition of scientific specialty language.

Undergraduates’ language training and subsequently graduate students leads to: • strengthening of interdisciplinary component of scientific knowledge, • changes in the teacher degree of participation within the classroom forms of

work, • increase of student independent work, providing greater freedom in the

choice of topics and types of work, • priority is given to the development of skills in the field of various types of

reading and compiling summaries, abstracts, theses speeches, research papers and other kinds of texts in the field of written communication,

• emphasis on the formation of learning and cognitive competence related with the organization of cognitive activity, the development of skills of planning, analysis, synthesis, structuring, assessment, reporting the results of the scientific activities in a foreign language.

Organization of foreign language teaching in the Master Course involves development of student autonomy, his creative skills and personal responsibility for the effectiveness of training. So, the course provides a significant amount of independent work, including various tasks using a personal computer, as well as creative group and individual projects.

References Marinicheva, A. V. (2003): Mezhkulturnaya kommunikatsiya i formirovanie tolerantnoy

yazyikovoy lichnosti // Integratsiya obrazovaniya. – Saransk. - № 3. Polenova, A. Yu. (2009): Zarubezhnyiy opyit kak element modernizatsii professionalno-

pedagogicheskogo obrazovaniya // Vestnik nepreryivnogo obrazovaniya. - №1 (5). – S. 51-59.

Polenova, A. Yu., Chernuhina, T. B. (2012): Kvalimetricheskiy instrumentariy otsenki urovnya sformirovannosti inoyazyichnoy kommunikativnoy kompetentsii // Obrazovanie. Nauka. Innovatsii: Yuzhnoe izmerenie. - Rostov n/D: IPO PI YuFU. - №1 (21). – S. 80-87.

Pshegusova, G. S., Yatsenko, T. S. (2007): Innovatsionnyie tehnologii v sfere upravleniya kachestvom obrazovaniya v rossiyskih i amerikanskih vuzah: sravnitelnyiy analiz // Upravlenie kachestvom. - №4. - S. 8.


Pshegusova, G. S. (2003): Kommunikatsiya: sotsialnoe i virtualnoe izmereniya. - Rostov n/D. Safonova, V. V. (1996): Izuchenie yazyikov mezhdunarodnogo obscheniya v kontekste

dialoga kultur i tsivilizatsiy. - Voronezh. Zimnyaya, I. A. (2000): Tsennostno-motivatsionnyie orientatsii studentov - kompleksnyiy

ob'ekt monitoringovogo issledovaniya // Tsennostno-motivatsionnyie orientatsii studentov vuzov v sovremennoy Rossii (K probleme monitoringa kachestva obrazovaniya) / Sb. statey pod nauchnoy redaktsiey prof. I. A. Zimney. - M.: Issledovatelskiy tsentr problem kachestva podgotovki spetsialistov.

Anna Polenova PhD in Pedagogy (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor Southern Federal University Russia [email protected]



ЛЮДМИЛА СЕМЕНОВНА СИЛЬЧЕНКОВА / LUDMILA SILCHENKOVA

КОМПЕТЕНТНОСТНЫЙ ПОДХОД В ПРАКТИКЕ ОВЛАДЕНИЯ МЛАДШИМИ ШКОЛЬНИКАМИ ПИСЬМЕННЫМИ ВИДАМИ РЕЧИ

COMPETENCE-BASED APPROACH IN THE PRACTICE OF WRITTEN SPEECH TYPES MASTERING BY PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS

Аннотация / Abstract

В статье предпринята попытка оценить эффективность современной системы формирования у младших школьников механизма чтения, составляющего начальную стадию формирования общеучебного навыка чтения. Поднимается проблема оценки эффективности применения звуковых методов при обучении механизму чтения, правомерность использования одних и тех же приемов при формировании разных видов речевой деятельности – чтения и письма.

The paper attempts to evaluate the effectiveness of the modern system of forming the reading mechanism by primary school pupils that constitutes the initial stage of general educational reading skill formation. The problem of evaluating the effectiveness of using sound methods for teaching the reading mechanism and the validity of using the same techniques in the formation of different types of speech activity, i.e. reading and writing is raised. Ключевые слова: механизм чтения, метод обучения грамоте, звуковые приемы

обучения чтению и письму Keywords: reading mechanism, method of teaching literacy, sound methods of

teaching reading and writing ХХI век характеризуется внедрением инновационных методов обучения и

образования на основе компетентностного подхода. В российском образовании, например, вводятся новые стандарты общего (ФГОС ОО) и высшего профессионального (ФГОС ВПО) с учетом и на основе компетентностной парадигмы, в частности, основополагающая для общего образования концепция универсальных учебных действий учитывает опыт компетентностного подхода. Насколько возможным является компетентностный подход в самом начале школьного образования, например, при овладении учащимися письменными формами речи? Рассмотрим это на примере овладения первоклассниками начальными навыками чтения – механизмом чтения.

Освоение младшими школьниками механизма чтения на начальном этапе обучения имеет большое значение для формирования важной метапредметной компетенции – полноценного навыка чтения.

Механизм чтения формируется во время обучения грамоте, при работе учащихся с первой учебной книгой – букварем. В это же время у младших школьников начинает складываться и другой речевой навык – навык письма.

Компетентностный подход в практике овладения младшими школьниками письменными видами речи 488

Традиционно формирование этих двух видов речевой деятельности осуществляется параллельно, в тесной временной связке: после знакомства с буквой на уроке чтения на следующем уроке письма дети учатся ее писать. Считается, что именно в этом и состоят интеграционные связи письма и чтения.

Безусловно, между этими видами речевой деятельности много общего, например, объединяющей базой в этом процессе выступает тип русского письма. Так, метод обучения чтению как письменному виду речевой деятельности по определению должен соответствовать типу письма того или иного языка. Современный метод обучения русской грамоте определен как звуковой, и это верно по сути: тип русского письма – звуковой, буквы как основные графические знаки обозначают звуки (звукотипы, фонемы). В методической науке метод обучения русской грамоте определяется как звуковой аналитико-синтетический. Однако в теории и практике обучения грамоте данное терминологическое сочетание традиционно толкуется слишком буквально: обучение чтению и письму строится на довольно большом объеме разнообразной звуковой работы, а звуковые (фонетические) умения и навыки считаются необходимым условием овладения механизмами чтения и письма.

Звуковая работа при формировании письменных видов речевой деятельности имеет давнюю традицию, которую создавали В. А. Золотов, К. Д. Ушинский, Н. А. Корф, Д. И. Тихомиров, В. П. Вахтеров и многие другие методисты прошлого.

В данной статье мы хотели бы проанализировать звуковую работу, оценить ее практическую значимость, а также целенаправленность ее использования в практике для формирования навыков чтения и письма, эффективность звуковой работы в целом. Компетентностный подход к образованию предлагает функционально оценивать языковые единицы, с которыми дети знакомятся на уроках родного языка [3]. Всегда ли звуковая работа в период обучения грамоте имеет функциональную нагрузку?

В теории и практике обучения грамоте звуковая работа считается краеугольным камнем. Все современные буквари составлены с прицелом на проведение звуковой работы. Так, первые страницы в любом современном букваре предназначены для организации подготовительной звуковой работы, в процессе которой из устной речи последовательно выделяются фонетические единицы: звуки, слоги, слова как единицы устной речи, т. е. фонетические слова, ударение. Заметим, что в современных букварях подготовительный период (устная фонетическая работа) увеличен: теперь на него предполагается тратить не менее одного месяца учебного времени, тогда как раньше он занимал всего две недели. В последней редакции самого распространенного в нашей начальной школе учебника для обучения детей грамоте под ред. В. Г. Горецкого (2011) на подготовительный период обучения грамоте отведены первые 40 страниц учебника, тогда как в прежней редакции этого букваря на него отводилось 22 страницы, т. е. почти в два раза меньше [1]. Заметим, что в букварях, составленных выдающимися методистами прошлого, например, Д. И. Тихомировым, В. П. Вахтеровым, подготовительные звуковые упражнения были вынесены за пределы учебника. К работе по букварям дети приступали

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после того, как научались выделять из речи несколько звуков, как гласных, так и согласных.

Сегодня ситуация развития младшего школьника складывается таким образом, что дети порой самостоятельно овладевают механизмом чтения еще до школы. Этому способствует современная образовательная среда: ребенка с самого рождения окружает разнообразная печатная продукция в виде книг, газет, журналов, афиш, рекламы; его родители имеют хорошее образование. Все это способствует тому, что ребенок рано овладевает механизмом чтения, причем самостоятельно или с минимальной помощью посторонних – родителей, старших братьев и сестер, которые и не подозревают об обязательном объеме звуковой работы, а просто показывают ребенку, как читаются буквы русского алфавита в конкретных словах.

Однако на современных уроках обучения грамоте звуковая работа занимает основную часть учебного времени. Более того, современные методические комплексы для обучения грамоте активно пропагандируют так называемые «бинарные» уроки, уроки «чтения – письма», или уроки «письма – чтения» – своего рода интегрированные уроки, на которых работа по формированию навыка чтения перемежается работой по формированию фонематического слуха, звуковым анализом в разных вариантах. Такой подход определяет большой блок звуковой работы на уроках обучения грамоте, поэтому можно сказать, что современный метод обучения русской грамоте имеет вид «письма – чтения», если подходить к определению метода обучения грамоте с точки зрения удельного веса той или иной работы. Именно такой путь обучения детей чтению предлагал К. Д. Ушинский: дети под руководством учителя выделяли звуки из речи, сразу же обозначали их буквами, а потом читали написанное. Правда, упускалось весьма существенное обстоятельство: пока ребенок не написал слово, он не мог его прочитать. Такой путь овладения навыком чтения – через письмо как промежуточный этап – требовал, безусловно, звукового анализа записываемого слова.

Традиции звукового анализа и синтеза сохранились и в современной практике обучения грамоте. Звуки выделяют в словах, предназначенных для выделения «нужного звука», который обозначают соответствующей буквой, потом находят эти звуки в разных позициях (начале, середине, конце) звучащих слов. Составляют схемы слов, озвучивают эти схемы, находят те или иные звуки в словах, например, твердые и мягкие, звонкие и глухие согласные звуки, сопоставляют их, проводят звуко-буквенный анализ слов, делят слово на слоги. Сюда же можно отнести работу над артикуляцией: дети произносят скороговорки, наблюдают артикуляцию отдельных звуков, учатся оценивать работу собственного артикуляционного аппарата («при произношении гласных звуков воздух не встречает преграды»).

Наблюдения за практикой позволяют сделать следующий вывод: звуковая работа на уроках чтения в период обучения грамоте занимает много времени, она любима учителями: часто звуковая работа проводится в игровой форме, с использованием схем-моделей, наглядного материала – предметных и сюжетных картинок. Эта игра захватывает и детей: они активны, им нравится анализировать свою и чужую речь; ошибки здесь не столь часты, а если и


имеют место, то носят мимолетный характер (звук неуловим!), отдельные неудачи легко переносятся детьми. Однако насколько это продвигает ребенка в овладении письменной речью?

Даже простое перечисление видов звуковой и сопутствующей звуковой работы на современном уроке чтения в период обучения грамоте занимает немало места. Удивляет отсутствие целенаправленности и системы в проведении такой работы. Получается, что звуковая работа на уроках обучения грамоте существует ради самой звуковой работы, она имеет замкнутый характер, часто «повисает» на уроке как самодостаточный элемент, хотя и вклинивается в любые другие виды работ – в чтение слов в столбиках, в работу по развитию устной речи, сопровождает чтение текста в букваре. Более того, даже тогда, когда она оказывается нужной, учитель не видит ее лингвометодической ценности, не связывает ее с письменной речью. Приведем один пример из современной практики обучения грамоте. На уроке знакомства с буквой «д» в «Букваре» [2, с. 92] дети, как и советуют методические рекомендации к этому букварю, читают и сравнивают слоги, в которых согласные звуки, обозначенные буквой, произносится мягко и твердо: «да», «до», «ду», «ди», «ды»; «та», «то», «ту», «ти», «ты». Тут же отмечают, как твердость-мягкость обозначается на письме: с помощью последующей гласной буквы. Безусловно, это полезное упражнение на уроке чтения: оно способствует формированию механизма позиционного чтения. Такое упражнение лингвистически оправдано: оппозиция согласных фонем по твердости/мягкости и способы ее обозначения на письме – главная составляющая механизма чтения.

Обратим внимание на структурирование дидактического материла на этой странице букваря: сравнивается чтение букв «д» и «т», которые сопоставляют обозначаемые ими согласные звуки по признаку глухости/звонкости. Данная оппозиция согласных фонем и способы ее обозначения на письме для формирования механизма чтения не имеют решающей роли; они важна для формирования навыков первоначального письма. Такая группировка учебного материала вызывает вопросы и порождает в практике уроков чтения немалые трудности. С обратными слогами «ад», «од», «уд», «ид», «ыд» и «ат», «от», «ут», «ит», «ыт» учитель организует с детьми работу в таком порядке: «Прочтите слоги, которые оканчиваются на звонкий согласный звук», а потом «Прочтите слоги, которые оканчиваются на глухой согласный звук». Как известно, звонкий согласный звук нельзя произнести на конце участков звуковой цепи, для этого требуется сделать известное усилие над своими произносительными привычками, кроме того, читаются буквосочетания, которые не имеют лексического значения, что еще более затрудняет детей.

Какова лингвометодическая ценность данного упражнения? Считаем, что оппозиция согласных фонем по глухости/звонкости в формировании навыка чтения не имеет функциональной нагрузки: этот дифференциальный признак согласных фонем обозначен самой согласной буквой, которую ребенок видит при чтении. Никакой другой задачи, кроме восприятия буквы, ребенок здесь не решает. Сопоставление по глухости/звонкости было бы полезно на уроке письма, вернее, в том месте урока (если уроки имеют интегрированный характер), где идет работа над формированием навыка письма. Да и


сопоставлять фонемы целесообразнее в составе значимой единицы языка, например, слова [прут] – пруд и [пруд] – прут.

Получается, что второе упражнение в чтении обратных слогов не подкреплено надежным лингвометодическим комментарием, а сами учителя ценность такого упражнения не видят, что демонстрирует последующая работа на этом уроке. Она состоит в чтении столбиков слов с изучаемыми буквами. Кроме чтения, дети находят в них слово с «опасным местом», т. е. с фонемой в слабой позиции. Это слово «дышит», как подсказывает учителю методическое пособие к урокам обучения грамоте. Не указано, правда, какая именно слабая позиция в слове должна быть обнаружена: буквосочетание «ши», которое недавно изучили, или написание конечной согласной буквы в этом глаголе.

Не однажды приходилось видеть недоумение и растерянность учителя, когда дети обнаруживают именно эту – вторую слабую позицию в слове «дышит». А ведь в имплицитном виде дети вроде бы были подготовлены к такому открытию предыдущим упражнением (сопоставлением слогов «ад» – «ат», «уд» – «ут», «ид» – «ит», которые читались ранее). Налицо рассогласованность приемов обучения разным видам письменной речи. Безусловно, данное упражнение больше предназначено для формирования навыка письма. Логично было бы тут же попробовать написать это слово, ведь понятие «слабая позиция» применимо для орфографического навыка, а не для навыка чтения.

Еще один пример. Самым распространенным приемом звуковой работы на уроках обучения грамоте является прием деления слова на слоги. Это мы выяснили при анкетировании учителей начальных классов, которое проводилось нами в течение нескольких лет. Кажется, трудно представить, в какой мере такой прием устной звуковой аналитической работы, как деление в устной речи слова на слоги, способствует выработке навыка первоначального чтения. Читая методические указания к урокам обучения грамоте, не всегда бывает понятно, какое именно слово надо поделить на слоги – произнесенное, услышанное или напечатанное.

Деление звучащего слова на слоги слабо связано и с пропедевтической орфографической работой. Оно имеет отношение лишь к одному из самых спорных в современной орфографии разделов – переносу слов с одной строки на другую, что еще раз доказывает, что эта аналитическая звуковая работа должна проводиться на уроке письма, а не чтения. Снова получается, что звуковая работа приобретает замкнутый характер, проводится как бы ради самой звуковой работы.

Напомним, что навык чтения формируется намного быстрее, чем навык письма: правил чтения во много раз меньше, чем правил письма. На этом настаивает современная грамматология, да и многочисленные случат практики самообучения детей чтению свидетельствуют об этом. Однако обучение чтению в нашей начальной школе по традиции привязано к формированию навыка письма. Вот почему уроки обучения грамоте (не только письма, но и чтения) насыщаются огромным количеством звуковых упражнений: с их помощью пытаются искусственно сдерживать скорость формирования навыка чтения, всеми силами стараются несколько замедлить этот процесс. Все


делается для того, чтобы процессы формирования таких разных по трудоемкости навыков – чтения и письма – проходили более или менее одновременно. Возникает закономерный вопрос: «Насколько это целесообразно?».

Мы изучали вопросы организации звуковой работы в процессе обучения грамоте. Анализируя ответы учителей на вопрос нашей анкеты «В какое время учащиеся охотнее занимаются звуковой работой: а) до того, как овладели навыком чтения; б) после овладения навыком чтения?», мы получили следующие данные. Более половины опрошенных учителей (58%) указали, что охотнее дети занимаются звуковой работой после того, как научились читать. Были даже приписки некоторых учителей (правда, их было немного): «Звуковая работа в виде подробного звукового анализа и схем-моделей трудна и непонятна детям, не умеющим читать», «Читающие дети охотнее занимаются звуковым анализом». Кстати, на вопрос анкеты «Для чего проводятся звуковые упражнения на уроках обучения грамоте?» все учителя отвечают честно и профессионально: для формирования фонематического слуха, для овладения навыком письма. Фонетическую работу они считают пропедевтикой орфографического навыка, который по большей части формируется и должен именно формироваться на уроках письма, но отнюдь не на уроках чтения.

Звуковая работа неуловима, ее трудно фиксировать, чтобы потом обсуждать. В связи с этим в процессе фонетической работы по всем современным УМК для обучения грамоте рекомендуется использовать схемы-модели. Насколько неоправданно применение схем-моделей в обучении собственно чтению? Напечатанное слово представляет собой код, который ребенок должен расшифровать. Ничем не оправданно такое положение, когда между этим кодом и ребенком возводится еще один барьер в виде схемы-модели, которая и без того отягощает непростой путь расшифровки буквенной модели. Однако схемы-модели достаточно распространены в современных букварях, хотя функциональность их в данном случае ничтожна.

Звуковой работе порой приписывается совершенно другая роль. Пример этому мы находим в статье кандидата педагогических наук Л. В. Козловой «Обучение звуковому анализу как речевому действию в период обучения грамоте» [4]. Уже из названия статьи становится понятно, какую роль в обучении грамоте первоклассников отводит автор данному приему: как научить ребенка «произносить сложные речевые конструкции, несвойственные его речи». Звуковая работа на современных уроках обучения грамоте предполагает сообщение учащимся многих сугубо научных фонетических сведений: звук, гласный звук, согласный звук, артикуляционные отличия гласных и согласных звуков, слог, слово, ударение, слогообразующая роль гласного звука. Данные знания довольно абстрактны, трудно осознаются детьми, например, понятие такой суперсегментной фонетической единицы «ударение», которая в «чистом» виде не встречается в речи, а всегда привязана к определенному слогу слова. Характеристики ударного слога (количественная, качественная, силовая) и должна быть осознана детьми. Это требует известного уровня развития абстрактного мышления, которое развито отнюдь не у большинства учащихся этого возраста.


В современной начальной школе подготовительные звуковые упражнения оторваны от процессов чтения и письма, предельно абстрагированы, замкнуты на себе, поэтому они и относятся к «нелюбимым» упражнениям, что и отметила Л. В. Козлова в указанной статье [4]. Детям не понятна цель этих упражнений, особенно при обучении чтению, которое не сильно нуждается в звуковом анализе по сравнению с письмом. В данной статье автор описывает не только методику применения схем-моделей на уроках чтения в подготовительный период обучения грамоте, но и советует при звуковом анализе развивать устную монологическую речь первоклассников, насыщенную лингвистическими терминами. Мы можем сделать вывод о том, что звуковому анализу отводится несвойственная ему функция формирования устной монологической речи детей.

Получается, что современная теория и практика обучения грамоте старается сохранить традиционный прием работы в его прежнем виде, не стараясь по достоинству оценить его истинное назначение, определить его место в современной методике обучения детей русской грамоте, оценить целесообразность применения звуковых приемов на уроках чтения и письма.

Все приведенное выше заставляет несколько переосмыслить привычную звуковую работу на уроках обучения грамоте. Безусловно, нельзя ее отрицать полностью, потому что обучение грамоте – это обучение не только чтению, но и письму. Однако мы вынуждены констатировать, что сегодня звуковая работа проводится бессистемно, нецеленаправленно, без должной функциональной нагрузки, поэтому имеет низкую эффективность.

Провозглашенная сегодня компетентностная парадигма в отечественном образовании заставляет искать другие пути и в практике обучения. Заметим, что компетентностная модель во многом строится на функциональном подходе к языковым единицам, что предполагает знакомство с ними в тот момент обучения, когда данные языковые единицы востребованы в практике формирования компетенций – речевых умений и навыков.

В целом можно сказать, что звуковая работа необходима для формирования навыка письма – при переводе единиц устной речи в письменную форму. В этом случае фонетический разбор имеет большую функциональную нагрузку. При таком – функциональном – подходе большая часть звуковой работы неизбежно должна быть перенесена на уроки письма и в учебники и рабочие тетради для этих уроков. Получается, что компетентностную модель обучения грамоте можно построить на основе автономного, раздельного обучения первоклассников письменным видам речевой деятельности.

Литература / References 1. Азбука. 1 класс: учеб. для общеобразоват. учреждений в 2 ч. / В. Г. Горецкий, В. А.

Кирюшкин, В. А. Виноградская, М. В. Бойкина. – М. : «Просвещение», ОАО «Московские учебники», по лицензии ОАО «Издательство «Просвещение», 2011 – Ч. 1.

2. Бунеев, Р. Н., Бунеева, Е. В., Пронина, О. В. Букварь: учебник по обучению грамоте и чтению. – 4-е изд., перераб. – М.: Баласс; Школьный дом, 2012.


3. Зимняя, И. А. Компетентностный подход. Каково его место в системе современных подходов к проблемам образования (теоретико-методологический аспект) // Высшее образование сегодня. – 2006. – № 8. – С. 20-27.

4. Козлова, Л. В. Обучение звуковому анализу как речевому действию в период обучения грамоте // Начальная школа. – 2004. – № 8. – С. 28-34.

Людмила Семеновна Сильченкова доктор педагогических наук, профессор Московский городской педагогический университет Москва, Россия [email protected] Ludmila Silchenkova PhD in Pedagogy (Doctor of Science), Professor Moscow City Pedagogical University Moscow, Russia [email protected]




ОЛЬГА АЛЕКСАНДРОВНА МОИСЕЕВА / OLGA MOISEEVA

ПРОБЛЕМА ОРГАНИЗАЦИИ ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ СОВРЕМЕННОЙ МОЛОДЕЖИ: СОВРЕМЕННЫЕ ТЕНДЕНЦИИ

THE PROBLEM OF THE ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION OF CONTEMPORARY YOUTH: CURRENT TRENDS


Современные эпохальные эволюционные изменения, происходящие в конституциональном строении человека, сопровождаются изменениями адаптационного механизма и психологических и интеллектуальных характеристик молодого поколения. Все это должно быть взято на вооружение современными педагогами для поиска новых методик обучения.

Contemporary epochal evolutionary changes occurring in the constitutional structure of the human are accompanied by the changes of the adaptive mechanism as well as psychological and intellectual characteristics of the younger generation. All these things should be taken into account by the modern teacher to find new teaching methods. Ключевые слова: качество образование, тенденции эволюционного развития,

эволюционные изменения, смена технологической парадигмы, конвергенция

Keywords: quality of education, tendencies of evolutionary development, evolutionary changes, technological paradigm shift, convergence

Сегодня ведущая тема российской национальной образовательной политики – проблема качества образования. По определению академика А. М. Новикова, «под качеством образования понимается характеристика системы образования, отражающая степень соответствия реальных достигаемых образовательных результатов нормативным требованиям, социальным и личностным ожиданиям» [8, с. 2-6]. Очевидно, что на характеристику системы существенное влияние будут оказывать все структурные элементы.

Стремительные изменения, свидетелями которых мы являемся на протяжении ряда последних лет, заставляют искать новые подходы к образованию. Особенно актуальной сегодня стала коммуникация в молодежной среде, которая является, как показали последние политические события в ряде стран, не только наиболее социально активной, но и агрессивно настроенной. Сегодня битва за молодые умы происходит на передовой мировой арены.

В данный момент развития общества есть некоторые факторы, которые, на наш взгляд, невозможно обойти в разговоре о современных образовательных технологиях.

Проблема организации образования современной молодежи: современные тенденции 496

К основным тенденциям в современном обществе как факторам, оказывающим существенное влияние на выработку новых подходов к образовательным технологиям, на наш взгляд целесообразно отнести:

- смену технологической парадигмы; - и, как следствие, смену площадки коммуникации; - эволюционные изменения в человеческой популяции, определяющие

психолого-поведенческие характеристики современной молодежи; - цейтнот, обусловленный быстрыми темпами развития общества и всех

процессов, происходящих в современном обществе.

Смена технологической парадигмы

Мы с вами сегодня становимся свидетелями смены технологической парадигмы. Те изменения в нашей жизни, которые мы наблюдаем последние двадцать лет, появление в ней компьютеров и мобильных телефонов, – это, по мнению экспертов в области инноваций, только предвестники того, что ждет нас в ближайшие пятьдесят лет. Если в XX веке лидерами являлись такие отрасли индустрии, как ракетостроение, атомная промышленность, машиностроение, то сейчас предвестниками новой технологической волны стали информационные технологии, и это лишь начало глубоких изменений не только в индустриальных областях, но и в обществе и природе человека.

Сегодня очень популярен термин «конвергенция» (то, что находится на стыке). Перспективы дальнейшего углубления конвергенции в инфокоммуникациях многие исследователи связывают с созданием универсальной сети, где осуществлена конвергенция всех возможных видов инфокоммуникационных услуг: «совокупность сетей, оборудования конечных пользователей, информации и людских ресурсов, которая может быть использована для доступа к полезной информации, связи пользователей друг с другом, работы, получения развлечений в любое время и из любого места по доступной цене» [3, с. 2]. Создание данной универсальной сети, по мнению тех же исследователей, будет осуществляться эволюционно путем непрерывной конвергенции как существующих технологий, так и существующих и вновь возникающих технологий. Следующим ожидаемым этапом, по мнению ряда экспертов, станет конвергенция нано-, био- и информационных технологий [3].

Все это заставляет нас, педагогов, как можно полнее использовать достижения современных информационных технологий в образовательном пространстве.

Смена площадки коммуникации

«Цифровая революция изменяет все традиционные отрасли. В том числе и наши представления об объеме и качестве передачи информации. Проекты, созданные «на коленке», конкурируют с целой дорогостоящей индустрией телевидения. Это, в свою очередь, меняет и процессы формирования общественного мнения. Если раньше его можно было навязать сверху, то теперь мнения рождаются в диалоге, завоевывая аудиторию благодаря своей интересности. В результате государства и крупные корпорации потеряли

Ольга Александровна Моисеева / Olga Moiseeva 497

контроль над общественным мнением» [1, с. 1]. Появился новый термин «модемократия». Сегодня интернет-пользователи не привязаны к конкретному месту, они могут высказать свое мнение из любой точки земного шара.

Поэтому нельзя не отметить, что современные коммуникации переходят с традиционных площадок СМИ в Интернет. По данным Фонда «Общественное мнение», наметились следующие тенденции в использовании интернетом населения:

- стремительный рост аудитории интернета в России; - люди, уже имеющие доступ к сети, увеличивают интенсивность

пользования Интернетом, тогда как привлечение новых пользователей идет не так активно;

- активное проникновение Интернета в низкоресурсные группы. Среди населения с низким уровнем дохода доля пользующихся Интернетом увеличилась на 61%. Тем не менее степень проникновения Интернета в эту группу все еще относительно невысока – сетью пользуются 19% группы.

По данным того же ФОМ, в Москве Интернетом пользуются порядка 60% взрослого населения, а в регионах этот показатель продолжает оставаться почти вдвое ниже.

Доля активной аудитории – это выходящие в сеть хотя бы раз за сутки – сейчас составляет 45% (52,2 млн человек). Годовой прирост интернет-пользователей, выходящих в сеть хотя бы раз за месяц, составил 11%, а для суточной аудитории данный показатель равен 15% [2].

Отдельно надо сказать и о том, что имеются возрастные предпочтения получения информации из разных источников. Так, взрослое поколение предпочитает телевидение, радио и газеты, молодое – Интернет, радио и журналы.

За последние полгода стремительно растет число пользователей мобильным интернетом. Так, 21 млн человек пользуются Интернетом с мобильного устройства. Причем среди населения от 12 до 24 лет мобильным интернетом пользуется каждый второй, когда среди 55-летних таких практически нет.

Причем и здесь есть изменения. Обмен информацией происходит сегодня в основном через обмен ссылками в социальных сетях. Люди делятся через социальные сети интересными фото, видео, новостями и ссылками на контент, не обращаясь к поисковикам [5].

Глобальные технологические сдвиги XXI века подталкивают нас к использованию в своей деятельности тех возможностей, которые они открывают. И, соответственно, отказ от использования современных тенденций в средствах коммуникации (Интернета, социальных сетей) отбрасывает на 50 лет назад технологического развития.

Таким образом, как мы видим, данная тенденция призывает нас как можно быстрее осваивать социальные сети не только для выстраивания конструктивного диалога с молодежью, но и для использования данной площадки в образовательных целях.

Несмотря на различное отношение к самим социальным сетям, это явление сегодня является данностью современного мира. И судя по динамике роста его


популярности, оно в нашей жизни надолго. Тем более процесс роста количества сетей уже также необратим.

Надо понимать, что надо активнее осваивать методы работы в социальных сетях, не отбрасывая традиционных площадок, таких как телевидение, радио, газеты. Это только дело времени, когда в социальные сети войдут и более широким пластом как низкоресурсные группы, так и поколение старшего и пожилого возрастов.

Смена психолого-поведенческой характеристики современной молодежи

Рассмотрим характеристику важного элемента системы образования – обучающегося.

По данным многих современных палеонтологических исследований, преобразования вида Homo sapiens (человека разумного) продолжают эволюционировать и изменяться и на современном этапе. То, что из поколения в поколение меняются конституциональные и психические параметры человека, должно бесспорно учитываться при выстраивании образовательной коммуникации с представителями современной молодежи.

Конечно, проблема «отцов и детей» вечна, но мы хотим обратить внимание на то, что сегодня она вызвана изменениями не просто во взглядах на мир, но и, прежде всего, эволюционными изменениями, эпохальными, физиологическими. И учет происходящих изменений в свою очередь позволит изменить тактику коммуникационных взаимодействий между старшим поколением и молодым.

Как отмечает в своей статье известный социолог Е. Омельченко, «субкультуры, поколения, солидарности? К вопросу о концептуализации новых форм коммуникации в молодежной среде»: «Молодежь, как объект анализа, воспитания и контроля волнует всех взрослых агентов общества. Обычно она попадает в центр внимания политиков, журналистов и исследователей, когда речь заходит о серьезных социальных катаклизмах, переменах, спонтанных молодежных волнениях. Интенсивность интереса к молодежной теме зависит от событий, которые вызывают панику, ставят под сомнение возможность прогноза будущего и сохранения достигнутого статуса-кво политическими группами, находящимися у власти. Подобные события поднимают вопрос возможной мобилизации молодежи в целях контроля над ситуацией и предотвращения массовых протестов и революционных инноваций» [9, с. 478-488].

Для педагогического анализа важны следующие тенденции, которые не могут быть не замечены современными педагогами, так или иначе занимающимися образованием представителей современной молодежи. Отметим, что в психофизиологии уже не однократно пытались привлечь внимание общественности к тому, что сама эволюция заставляет приступить к поискам новых инновационных подходов и к обучению, и воспитанию современной молодежи [6]. А мы, в свою очередь, говорим о том, что все это необходимо учитывать в процессе выбора технологий образования и обучения.


К эволюционным тенденциям, которые сегодня обнаружены антропологами в популяции современного человека, относятся:

- астенизация (увеличение в популяции людей астенического или астеноидного типа телосложения). Для астеников характерна повышенная нервно-психическая истощенность, снижение эмоциональной устойчивости и работоспособности, слабая мускулатура;

- деселерация или ретардация развития (деселерации/ретардации – замедление психофизиологического развития – процесс, обратный акселерации). В то же время необходимо отметить, что интеллектуальное развитие деселератов выше, чем у акселератов. Что, видимо, и вводит в заблуждение родителей, которые стремятся отдать своего ребенка в школу как можно раньше. Ребенок уже читает, но по своему физиологическому развитию еще не готов выносить школьные нагрузки;

- увеличение в популяции числа лиц с доминирующим правым полушарием и амбидекстров (люди, у которых доминирование одного из полушарий переднего мозга выражено нечетко).

Так, соотношение правшей, левшей и амбидекстров в разных возрастных категориях различно.

Среди взрослых правши составляют около 85%, левши – 6%, амбидекстры – около 10%, тогда как среди детей и подростков правши составляют 50%, число левшей возрастает до 11% , а амбидекстров уже около 35-40%.

Отметим особо, что у леворуких успеваемость ниже, но интеллект выше. К психологическим особенностям надо отнести то, что левши/правополушарные и амбидекстры склонны к риску, более тревожны:

- ювенилизация (процесс формирования скелета черепа и головы человека). Одновременно современные исследователи явления ювенилизации определяют его и как омоложение моделей поведения в обществе [4];

- грацилизация (явление утончения скелета и общее ослабление опорно-двигательного аппарата – костей и поперечно-полосатых мышц, а также уменьшение силы мышц);

- андрогиния (частичное сглаживание половых различий или полового диморфизма). Диморфизм – половое биологическое различие. Гендер – социальное половое различие. Сегодня эти различия сглаживаются. Происходит деформация диморфизма. По данным дипломного исследования, проведенного в двух вузах Хабаровска, 68% студентов – андрогеники. Все это приводит к смене эстетических приоритетов. Пышные женские формы XIX века сменились модой на унисекс, главной чертой которого стало полное отсутствие признаков, указывающих на половую принадлежность их владельца. И современные девушки предпочитают узкие, облегающие бедра брюки, свободные блузоны, скрывающие плоскую грудь. Очевидно, что узкие бедра влекут за собой изменения и в детородных возможностях;

- эйджизм (негативное восприятие представителей другого возраста) [10]. Это вызвало к жизни такой культуральный феномен, как анти-эйджизм

(отрицание старения), который направлен не просто на поддержание своего организма в хорошем физическом состоянии, а на омоложение в целом. Старость просто становится не престижной, и следы старения уничтожаются


любыми средствами современных медицинских и биотехнологий. Появились даже целые направления, например, антивозрастная медицина или психология омоложения [10].

Конечно, эйджизм является результатом не конституциональных изменений облика человека, а социальных. Но мы считаем, что необходимо выделить это явление как тенденцию в современной молодежной среде, так как оно существенно влияет на взаимодействие между поколениями, между преподавателем и студентом, между учителем и учеником.

Психологические изменения как следствие изменений конституциональных

Представления о возрасте меняются прямо на глазах. По новой классификации ВОЗ общество или трудоспособное население условно делится на возрастные группы:

• молодой возраст (25-44 года); • средний возраст (45-59 лет); • пожилой возраст (60-73 года); • старческий возраст (74-89 лет); • долгожители (старше 90-100 лет). Мы привыкли считать подростками 14-летних. А теперь психологи

говорят: подростковый возраст длится до 25 лет. Социологи бьют тревогу: нарушен процесс социализации, освоения

культурных норм. Сломан механизм социального наследования. Опыт предыдущего поколения отрицается. Если семья ориентирует молодого человека на идеал высокообразованного человека, то общество через СМИ – на идеал успешного потребителя.

То же происходит с молодыми специалистами. Уже в бизнесе работодатели все чаще сталкиваются с проблемой мотивации работников. Классические приемы перестают быть эффективными. Таков результат изменений, происходящих сегодня в психофизиологии человека.

По мнению известного психофизиолога Л. Рудкевича, более эволюционированная молодежь обладает и другими психологическими характеристиками [11]. В ней проявляются слабая нервная система, более высокий интеллект (в особенности невербальный), большие креативные способности, больший нейротизм, меньшая степень экстравертированности, большая критичность, самодостаточность и независимость мышления, агрессивность и меньший авторитаризм. Для всех перечисленных выше категорий: астеников, деселератов, андрогинов и др. – одновременно характерен сдвиг динамики суточной активности в сторону «совы».

По мнению тех же физиологов, сегодня целесообразно процесс адаптации студентов-первокурсников к новым учебным условиям в вузе увеличился с 2 месяцев в начале 70-х годов до 6 месяцев в наше время. Отметим, что во многом инфантилизм современного студента вполне можно связать с тем, что и его биологическое развитие запаздывает по сравнению с его сверстниками в конце прошлого столетия.


Таким образом, современные эпохальные эволюционные изменения, происходящие в конституциональном строении человека, сопровождаются изменениями адаптационного механизма и психологических и интеллектуальных характеристик молодого поколения.

У поколения, которое в скором времени станет управлять государством, длиннее стала вся жизнь. И в такой же пропорции растянулся каждый ее этап: детство, молодость, зрелость, старость.

Цейтнот

Как уже отмечалось выше, цейтнот обусловлен быстрыми темпами развития общества и всех процессов, происходящих в современном обществе. С одной стороны, мы видим одновременные колоссально быстрые эволюционные изменения в биологии человека и современных технологиях. Но с другой стороны, все это накладывается на растущую продолжительность жизни человека с измененными психолого-поведенческими характеристиками. Добавим к этому инертность человеческой психики, которая отстает в восприятии наступающих перемен, по мнению психологов, на 3 года.

Изменения необходимы и в собственном восприятии происходящего, и подходах к использованию современных технологий в образовании и обучении, и в обучении самих педагогов конвергенции современных технологий в образование, и в актуализации перед педагогами тех современных тенденций, которые стали предметом анализа данной статьи. Компетентностный подход акцентирует умение адаптировать интеллектуальный багаж к реальным условиям жизни [7]. Все вышесказанное быть взято на вооружение современными педагогами для поиска новых методик обучения.

Литература / References 1. Инновации помогут России соответствовать мировым трендам [Электронный

ресурс]: РИА Новости. – Электрон. дан. – М., 2013. – Режим доступа: http://ria.ru/Tech_news/20131129/980637424.html# ixzz2mswTDe6b, свободный (дата обращения: 20.01.2014).

2. Интернет в России: динамика проникновения: Лето 2013 [Электронный ресурс]: Фонд общественного мнения. – Электрон. дан. – Москва [2003-2014]. – Режим доступа: http://runet.fom.ru/Proniknovenie-interneta/11067, свободный (дата обращения: 19.01.2014).

3. Конвергенция в телекоммуникациях [Электронный ресурс]: Астериск. – Электрон. дан. – Москва [2003-2014]. – Режим доступа: http://www.asterisk.by/node/811, свободный (дата обращения: 17.01.2014).

4. Манокин, М. А. Ювенилизация современного общества: культурологические аспекты // Общество. Среда. Развитие. – 2012. – № 3. – С. 77-81.

5. Модемократия [Электронный ресурс] // Фонд общественного мнения. – Электрон. дан. – Москва [2003-2014]. – Режим доступа: http://runet.fom.ru/posts/10219, свободный (дата обращения: 15.01.2014).

6. Моисеева, О. А. Актуальные проблемы организации образования современной молодежи // Проблемы современной организации и содержания

http://www.asterisk.by/node/811


профессионального образования: мониторинг качества методика : материалы Международной научно-практической конференции. – М., 2013. – С. 135-142.

7. Моисеева, О. А., Скляднева, В. В. Актуальные аспекты использования деловых игр в формировании профессиональных компетенций // Актуальные научные вопросы: реальность и перспективы: сборник научных трудов по материалам Международной заочной научно-практической конференции 26 декабря 2011 г., часть 7. – Тамбов, 2012. – C. 90-92.

8. Новиков, А. М. Как оценивать качество базового профессионального образования? // Специалист. – 2007. – № 9, 10. – С. 2-6.

9. Омельченко, Е. Субкультуры, поколения, солидарности? К вопросу о концептуализации новых форм коммуникации в молодежной среде // XII Международная научная конференция по проблемам развития экономики и общества. Кн. 4. – М.: НИУ ВШЭ, 2012. – С. 478-488.

10. Психология омоложения [Электронный ресурс] // Международное научное общество психологической помощи населению и профилактики старения. – Электрон. дан. – Москва [2011]. – Режим доступа: http://zamolodost.ru/psychology-omolojeniya, свободный (дата обращения: 15.01.2014).

11. Рудкевич, Л. А. Эпохальные изменения человека на современном этапе и педагогические инновации // Вестник практической психологии образования. – № 4 (5), октябрь-декабрь 2005. – С. 28-38.

Ольга Александровна Моисеева кандидат педагогических наук, доцент Московский государственный университет технологий и управления им. К. Г. Разумовского Москва, Россия [email protected] Olga Moiseeva PhD in Pedagogy (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor Moscow State University of Technologies and Management named after K. G. Razumovskiy Moscow, Russia [email protected]

http://psy.su/interview/1972

http://psy.su/interview/1972




НАТАЛЬЯ АНАТОЛЬЕВНА САВОТИНА, ЕЛЕНА МИХАЙЛОВНА КЛЕМЯШОВА, ВЛАДИМИР АЛЕКСАНДРОВИЧ СКОВОРОДКИН / NATALIA SAVOTINA, ELENA KLEMYASHOVA, VLADIMIR SKOVORODKIN

ТЕХНОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ ПОДХОД В ВОСПИТАТЕЛЬНОЙ ПРАКТИКЕ СОВРЕМЕННОЙ РОССИИ

TECHNOLOGICAL APPROACH IN THE EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE OF MODERN RUSSIA


В статье раскрывается сущность технологического подхода в воспитательном процессе, представлена специфика технологий воспитания, показан инновационный опыт реализации воспитательных технологий в образовательных учреждениях России.

In the article the essence of technological approach in the educational process is revealed, the specificity of educational technologies is represented, innovative experience of educational technologies’ realization in the educational establishments of Russia is declared. Ключевые слова: технологический подход, педагогическая технология,

технология воспитания Keywords: technological approach, pedagogical technology, educational technology

Сближение народов Европейского континента и их интеграция на основе поиска общих основ культуры – объективный исторический процесс. Идея общеевропейской интеграции не ставит целью подчинение или унификацию культур, системы образования (Декларация ЮНЕСКО), а является стремлением к определению общих путей развития, вытекающих из общей стратегии преодоления противоречий и возможных катаклизмов. Общеевропейский компонент современного образования должен формироваться на основе базовых ценностей и лучших достижений цивилизации: демократии, уважения прав человека, гуманизма, терпимости и солидарности в отношении к другим народам, к их национальным, культурным и религиозным особенностям. «Европейское измерение» в образовании – это, в первую очередь, «качество состояния духа и отношений, основанных на осознании взаимных влияний, открытого подхода, разнообразия, плюралистичности, толерантности и конструктивной критики» [2, c. 10].

Педагогическая практика России накопила множество форм, средств и методов воспитания. Сегодня путь оптимизации педагогического процесса мы связываем с развитием технологий воспитания, поскольку отбор из множества методов и средств требует совмещения с отработкой системы контроля результативности воспитательного процесса, чему и призван помочь

Технологический подход в воспитательной практике современной России 504

технологический подход в воспитании. Ряд объективных причин определяет сегодня перспективность развития технологий воспитания:

- формирование новых механизмов решения проблем социальной и воспитательной практики (суицида, наркомании, жестокости, национальной нетерпимости и т. п.);

- ситуация выбора и вариативности новых средств и организационных форм требует технологических решений типичных воспитательных проблем;

- смена традиционной парадигмы воспитания: от идеи авторитарного воздействия (императивной и манипулятивной стратегии) к гуманистической идее сотрудничества, предопределяющей изменение функций учителя: он становится консультантом-координатором, расширяющим возможности дифференциации и индивидуализации воспитательной деятельности;

- опытно-экспериментальная работа школ, создание авторских концепций и авторских школ, коллективный характер педагогических инноваций требуют перехода с отдельных методик на педагогические технологии.

Воспитательная теория и практика России сегодня уже признает статус таких воспитательных технологий, как технология коллективного воспитания А. С. Макаренко, технология коллективной творческой деятельности И. П. Иванова, технология гуманного коллективного воспитания В. А. Сухомлинского, технология воспитания на основе системного подхода (В. А. Караковский, Л. И. Новикова, Н. Л. Селиванова), модель (технология) педагогической поддержки (О. С. Газман), технология тьюторского сопровождения индивидуальных образовательных программ (Т. М. Ковалева), технология организации самовоспитания по А. И. Кочетову, Л. И. Рувинскому и др.

Качественное обновление технологий воспитания и создание новых в ближайшей перспективе могут дать необходимый позитивный социальный эффект. Это требует развития разноуровневых социально-педагогических технологий воспитания согласно единой стратегии: формирования нравственных качеств, развития позитивных задатков и опыта социальной деятельности, создания условий для самоактуализации личности и творческой деятельности, проявления индивидуального заинтересованного отношения к общественным процессам, позитивному изменению и защите природной и социальной среды [1].

Создавая или используя ту или иную воспитательную технологию, необходимо учитывать ее специфику. Воспитательная технология не так жестко детерминирована по сравнению с обучающей, она предусматривает вариативность условий, обладает способностью к корректировке отдельных методик, которые она включает.

Большую роль в воспитательной технологии играет обратная связь, возможность повторения отдельных частей процесса, доработки с отдельными участниками процесса.

При определении алгоритма необходимо учитывать многофакторность влияния внешних условий; предугадать эффект влияния и гарантии достижения поставленных целей в воспитании трудно, поэтому необходимо

Н. А. Савотина, Е. М. Клемяшова, В. А. Сковородкин / N. Savotina, E. Klemyashova, V. Skovorodkin 505

ставить реально достижимые в данных условиях цели и тщательно продумывать критерии результативности и диагностические процедуры.

Воспитательная технология алгоритмизирует процесс, при котором происходит качественное влияние на воспитуемого, но нельзя абсолютизировать инструментальную функцию воспитательной технологии: степень влияния на воспитуемого с помощью воспитательной технологии необходимо оценивать не через набор определенных качеств личности, подвергаемых сравнению с другими детьми, а через отслеживание динамики личностного роста по отношению к самому воспитуемому.

Владение отдельной воспитательной технологией не гарантирует обязательного успеха в развитии личности конкретного ученика, поскольку отдельная технология («уединенное средство», по А. С. Макаренко) не обеспечивает многогранного влияния на воспитанника, таким свойством обладает только воспитательная система.

В воспитательной технологии содержательный компонент так же значим для ее успешности, как и диагностируемая цель, и от него зависит, будет ли технология информационной или развивающей, традиционной или личностно ориентированной, продуктивной или малоэффективной. Эффективность технологии воспитания зависит от того, насколько концептуально увязаны между собой цели и содержание деятельности.

Не бесспорны сегодня различия между методикой и технологией. Несомненно, что технология связана с методикой, но их зависимость может определяться по-разному. На наш взгляд, чем совершеннее методика воспитания, тем отчетливее в ней проявляется опора на научную концепцию, парадигму воспитания. Чем совершеннее технология, тем полноценнее в ней представлена совокупность методических находок, способствующих решению воспитательной проблемы. Можно предположить, что это является отчасти причиной (а не данью моде) того, что многие известные методики сегодня приобретают статус технологии (технологии Макаренко, Сухомлинского, Шацкого). Чем дальше во времени методика удаляется от своего создателя, тем больше у нее шансов стать технологией в силу «обрастания» дополнительной точкой зрения на ее ценность и качество решения воспитательной проблемы.

Мы приходим к выводу о допустимости толкования понятия «воспитательная технология» (на формально-описательном уровне) как продуманной во всех деталях модели совместной деятельности, содержащей приемы и методики, способствующие установлению таких отношений между воспитателем и воспитанниками, при которых оптимально достигаются конкретные воспитательные цели. Технология воспитания (на процессуально-действенном уровне), на наш взгляд, представляет организационно-процессуальный комплекс (проект), обеспечивающий эмоциональную, ценностно-деятельностную организацию воспитательного процесса, включающий совокупность методико-организационных действий, условий и средств (личностные, инструментально-диагностические и методические) в процессе пошагового (алгоритмичного) решения актуальной воспитательной проблемы. Данные определения проясняют картину соотношения рядоположенных с технологией понятий (модель, проект),


связывают понимание воспитательной технологии с решением фундаментальной задачи – достижением большей эффективности воспитания через комплекс средств, подчеркивают специфическое отличие воспитательной технологии – наличие эмоциональной и ценностно-деятельностной составляющей.

Успешность процесса развития технологий воспитания в практике современного воспитания, на наш взгляд, связана с выполнением важных требований:

- перспективность любой воспитательной технологии определяется качеством результатов, работающих на решение актуальных проблем воспитания, приобретающих характер тенденции (детский суицид, жестокость, национальная нетерпимость, общественная пассивность и др.);

- нельзя использовать технологии, взаимоисключающие друг друга, нельзя наполнять содержательное поле воспитательной технологии противоречивыми установками и требованиями;

- как нет универсальных технологий обучения, так и любая технология воспитания может эффективно функционировать и развиваться только в позитивной образовательной среде, в которой организуется воспитательный процесс и функционирует образовательное учреждение;

- при оценке эффективности воспитательных технологий необходимо тщательно продумывать набор оценочных критериев и показателей результативности воспитательной технологии, характеризующихся не уровнем соответствия стандарту, а только по отношению к воспитаннику (вчерашнему, сегодняшнему, завтрашнему), его собственным усилиям, уровню этических знаний и их проявлению в поведении.

Педагогическая технология становится сегодня одной из важных организационных форм педагогического процесса, его новой оболочкой, которая позволяет в значительной степени усилить воспитательную деятель-ность образовательного учреждения, органично включая в сферу ее влияния практически всех воспитанников. Реализовать стратегию воспитания в современной школе позволяет наличие грамотно выстроенной педагогической технологии деятельности образовательного учреждения, отвечающей конкретным условиям жизни детей, гуманистическим принципам педагогического мировоззрения коллектива учителей, учащихся и родителей – субъектов воспитания.

Рассмотрим модель реализации воспитательной технологии в условиях школы на примере экологического воспитания – одного из актуальных и перспективных направлений организации образовательного процесса в современной школе. Такая модель включает два основных компонента: содержательный и организационный. Содержательный компонент представляет собой инновационную деятельность школы по реализации технологии экологического воспитания в условиях школы. Организационный компонент включает условия и механизмы ее реализации.

Основными компонентами содержательной части технологии экологического воспитания в условиях школы являются: отражение основополагающих положений теории экологического воспитания в


содержании основных, элективных и факультативных курсов; организация взаимодействия в системах «школа – учреждения дополнительного образования», «школа – семья», «школа – образовательные, научно-исследовательские, производственные и иные учреждения» (социальное партнерство), а также организация сетевого взаимодействия между участниками образовательного процесса школы и между различными школами и учреждениями, основанного на использовании современных информационно-коммуникативных технологий.

К основным механизмам реализации технологии экологического воспитания относятся: экологизация основной образовательной программы школы; разработка и внедрение программы экологического воспитания по ступеням образования; применение современных педагогических форм, методов и инновационных технологий для реализации экологического воспитания.

Реализация технологии экологического воспитания будет успешной, если в школе созданы определенные условия. Так, в ГОУ СОШ № 1161 г. Москвы (научный руководитель – О. Н. Ридигер) действуют научно-экологическое общество, клубы экологической направленности, осуществляющие взаимодействие с экологическими природоохранными организациями города и региона, вузами, музеями, библиотеками. В школе функционирует экологическая газета «Экомир», развиты фестивальное движение, семейный экотуризм, осуществляется проектная экологическая деятельность, создаются семейные аквариумы, домашние аэрофитомодули. Организуется сезонная природоохранная деятельность, проходят экологические занятия в рамках университета для родителей, действуют экологический лекторий для учащихся и их родителей, экологический семейный театр, фольклорная семейная студия. Проводится школьно-семейный мониторинг экологического состояния микрорайона, школьно-семейное зонирование ближайшего леса или парка, составляются семейные фотоальбомы с видами природы в разные сезоны года.

Эффективной реализации экологического воспитания в современной школе способствуют внедрение инновационных педагогических форм, методов и технологий, разработанных учеными института семьи и воспитания РАО. Это технологии социально-экологического проектирования («Шаг в 21 век», «Голубая планета», «Шаг за шагом», «Экологический баланс», «Янтарная галактика»); экологические сюжетно-ролевые игры («Как построить Экоград», «Мир семи «Я», «Путешествие «за три моря», «Звездная сказка, или Большое космическое путешествие»); арт-технологии воспитания экологической культуры [3].

В настоящее время широкое распространение в экологическом воспитании получает модель «кейс-study». Подобная модель состоит из нескольких разделов: кейс № 1. «Экологический бумеранг, или Поиски трех аргументов»; кейс № 2. «На пути к устойчивому развитию»; кейс № 3. «За чистоту родного края, или что могут несколько человек».

Действенным средством развития экологической культуры детей является реализация арт-технологий в экологическом воспитании школьников. Арт-технология рассматривается нами как творческое конструирование средствами искусства эмоционально значимых для школьников творческих действий,


реализация которых способствует активному формированию личности, развитию духовно-нравственной культуры и потребности в самосовершенствовании. Логика построения этой деятельности – поэтапная реализация игровых технологий с использованием языка искусства – музыки, поэзии, живописи и «погружением» в мир природы.

Новые педагогические технологии в современном образовании, в том числе и в экологическом воспитании, немыслимы без широкого применения информационных, в первую очередь компьютерных, технологий, в которых заложен высокий инновационный потенциал. Использование компьютерных телекоммуникаций в образовании позволяет реализовать одну из наиболее ярко проявляемых тенденций к интеграции в области образования и обеспечивает выход в единое мировое образовательное пространство.

Следует отметить, что в настоящее время начинают интенсивно формироваться новые потребности в образовательной информации экологической направленности и новые формы сотрудничества в Интернете. В сети Интернет размещаются материалы для самостоятельной работы учащихся, которые позволяют организовать поиск конкретной учебной информации по различным экологическим проблемам (библиотечные базы информации, справочные и методические материалы, электронные учебники, результаты дистанционных олимпиад и проектов); предлагаются разветвленные пути как своего изучения, так и изучения заложенной в них информации (образовательные веб-квесты, тематические веб-сайты и т. д.).

Глобальная сеть Интернет открывает доступ к информации в научных центрах мира, библиотеках, что значительно расширяет возможности для самообразования, создает реальные условия для свободы выбора индивидуального пути образования, делая, таким образом, систему образования открытой и достаточно устойчивой.

Сегодня одним из наиболее актуальных является вопрос о наличии и качестве мультимедийных учебников и иных учебных пособий по различным предметам, в том числе и по экологии. Следует отметить, что мультимедийность создает целый ряд серьезных педагогических преимуществ в работе с изучаемым учебным материалом:

- звуковое сопровождение текста (не только голос диктора, но и весь спектр мира звуков). Это важно именно для целей экологического воспитания, когда ребенок может не только увидеть и прочитать, но и услышать звуки живой природы, что особенно актуально для жителей городов и мегаполисов. К «озвучиванию» текста можно привлечь и специально созданную в школе «фонотеку экологической музыки», включающую музыкальные произведения русских и зарубежных композиторов, воссоздающих картины природы и целую гамму человеческих чувств, возникающих от соприкосновения с ней;

- динамический ряд, который позволяет привести в движение смысловые блоки изучаемой информации – еще раз обратить внимание детей на сложность взаимоотношений объектов живой природы;

- видеоматериалы, которые с дидактической точки зрения не имеют конкурентов, поскольку потенциал учебного видеофильма или даже небольшого фрагмента очень велик.


Широкое распространение получило сетевое взаимодействие участников образовательного процесса по разработке и реализации различных экологических проектов. К преимуществам такого взаимодействия относятся: возможность сотрудничества с различными группами не только ровесников, но и профессионалов; реальная помощь и поддержка создаваемого и реализуемого проекта другим пользователям сети; широкие возможности для интеллектуальной и творческой самореализации, причем в различным формах с использованием всей палитры мультимедиа; активный поиск единомышленников, в том числе и для поддержки идеи своего проекта; стремление найти свой круг общения и закрепиться в нем как в тематическом сообществе.

Одна из наиболее перспективных и интересных форм сетевого взаимодействия – реализация инновационного проекта «Детская экологическая карта России», основанного на сетевом взаимодействии в интернет-пространстве школьников из различных регионов России. На электронную карту учащиеся из разных городов наносят сведения экологического характера. Это могут быть сведения об экологической обстановке региона, «тревожные сигналы» о неблагополучном состоянии определенной местности. На такой карте могут быть также отмечены и наиболее чистые, экологически безопасные зоны, благоприятные для обитания живых существ. Естественно, такая карта – плод серьезной научно-исследовательской деятельности ее составителей – участников сетевого взаимодействия. Сетевое взаимодействие в экологическом воспитании может быть организовано на различном уровне: городском, региональном, межгосударственном. Примером последнего может служить проект Финско-Российского сетевого взаимодействия в области экологического образования.

В целом интернет-технологии как эффективный инструмент воспитания и социализации создают мощный дополнительный образовательный ресурс и новое поле для изобретения современных средств экологического воспитания, обеспечивающих индивидуальный режим образования и, значит, больший эффект развития растущей личности ребенка.

По мнению ученых и практиков, технологизация учебно-воспитательного процесса позволяет повысить его продуктивность, но это происходит не всегда. Одна из причин – неумение моделировать педагогическую ситуацию, в которой будет применена та или иная технология, формировать модельные представления о промежуточных и конечных результатах осуществления технологических операций. Большие затруднения возникают, если используемая технология предназначена для изменения не каких-то отдельных направлений, а педагогической системы в целом.

Нами осуществлен сопоставительный анализ практических результатов образовательных учреждений по материалам, представленным на региональных сайтах: «Лучшие школы России», отчетной документации образовательных учреждений за последние годы. Анализ материалов позволил выявить механизмы развития и реализации эффективных технологий воспитания. Так, традиционно высокий процент школ (90-95%) использует технологии развития интеллекта и креативности, включая проектно-исследовательские методы, дающие позитивную динамику развития


образовательных учреждений, формирующие духовно-нравственную и интеллектуальную сферы личности.

В рейтинге лучших школ России московские школы занимают лидирующие позиции на 75%. Так, в ГБОУ СОШ № 700 основная цель деятельности – создание условий для самостоятельного осознанного выбора каждой личностью своей стратегии поведения, способа существования, направленного на самореализацию и самосовершенствование. Одной из современных социально-педагогических технологий, реализуемых в этом проекте, выступает волонтерство: это и забота о ветеранах ВОВ, труда, учителях-пенсионерах, и организация шефства над младшей школой. Ведущая идея сложившейся воспитательной системы школы – развитие личности школьника, его интересов и способностей, подготовка к творческому труду в различных сферах научной и практической деятельности. Связующим звеном в системе воспитательной работы являются традиционные «ключевые» дела: декады знаний, День открытых дверей, новогодние праздники, школьные научные конференции, семейные спортивные праздники. Внутреннее воспитательное пространство организуется через основные сферы деятельности ребенка. Внешнее пространство помогает ребенку овладеть разнообразным социальным опытом и самоопределиться в этой жизни.

Школой с устоявшимися традициями является лицей № 239 г. Санкт-Петербурга, в котором эффективным средством реализации лицейской образовательной программы являются современные педагогические технологии, широко использующие научно-культурный потенциал Санкт-Петербурга. Образовательная среда лицея органично объединяет основное и дополнительное образование, характеризуется открытостью, направлена на развитие ученика, становление его индивидуальности, удовлетворение образовательных потребностей, интересов, творческих возможностей. В лицее существует годовой круг традиций, проводятся литературно-музыкальные композиции «Литературный вторник», ежегодные вечера авторской песни, встречи с интересными людьми, выставки творческих работ учащихся (рисунки, фотографии), походы, автобусные экскурсии, летние палаточные лагеря по программе «Помощь монастырям и заповедникам России». Ежемесячно выходит школьная газета «Формула», проводятся чемпионаты школы по волейболу, баскетболу и футболу, осуществляется помощь Летнему и Таврическому садам в весенний и осенний периоды, проводятся летние предметные школы.

Другой признанной школой г. Санкт-Петербурга является школа № 41, гимназия им. Эриха Кестнера с углубленным изучением немецкого языка. В воспитательной деятельности задействованы здоровьесберегающие технологии, технологии школьно-семейного проектирования, социально-педагогические технологии работы с семьей, участие в городских программах, например «Семья в большом городе» [4].

На экспериментальной площадке школы МОУ СОШ № 2 г. Вельска (Архангельская обл.) системообразующей составляющей воспитательного процесса является программа «Школа – центр здоровья». Реализация данной воспитательной программы осуществляется на основе четырех воспитательных подпрограмм: «В здоровом теле – здоровый дух», «Здоровый


гражданин – здоровое общество», «Здоровый ребенок – успешный ученик», «Здоровая семья – здоровое поколение».

В Вельском сельскохозяйственном техникуме (Архангельская область) основу технологии организации воспитательной работы составляет деятельность научного экологического студенческого общества (НЭСО), объединяющего творческий актив преподавателей и студентов. Воспитательные технологии данного учебного учреждения входят в систему воспитательной работы, нацеленной на формирование экологической культуры человека будущего. Ведущий компонент воспитательной системы колледжа – самоуправление студенческого коллектива, где органом управления является студенческий Совет, курирующий деятельность учебных групп и групп совместного проживания в общежитии. В процессе воспитания у студентов формируются такие качества личности, как трудолюбие, любовь к окружающей природе, экономическая рациональность, профессиональная этика, способность принимать ответственные решения.

Мы приходим к выводу, что каждое учебное заведение вправе определять стратегическое направление в процессе воспитания. Основными средствами педагогического влияния выступают технологии создания воспитывающих ситуаций с использованием разнообразной творческой деятельности. Это предполагает создание доверительных отношений обучаемых и педагогов, создание комфортного психологического климата, позволяющего объединить обучаемых и профессионалов в рамках данного конкретного учебного заведения.

Основными показателями, отражающими результаты реализации воспитательных технологий, являются личный позитивный социокультурный опыт обучающихся, их поведенческая позиция.

Таким образом, обобщение современного опыта применения воспитательных технологий в образовательной практике России показывает:

1. Процесс развития технологий воспитания превращается в важнейшее направление научно-педагогической деятельности, задачей которого в новых условиях становится развитие у человека качеств и способностей, позволяющих ему не просто адаптироваться к меняющейся жизни, но и создавать самому качественно новое социальное пространство.

2. Среди технологий, имеющих место в современной воспитательной практике России, наиболее перспективны модели гражданского воспитания, добровольческой деятельности, воспитания социально активной молодежи, социального проектирования и досуговой деятельности, экологического воспитания и здоровьесбережения школьников.

3. Востребованы педагогическими коллективами технологии эффективной педагогической коммуникации, технологии педагогических мастерских и мастер-классов, технологии проектной деятельности, технологии оценки качества профессиональной деятельности, технологии личной эффективности. У молодежи приобретают популярность кейс-технологии, веб-квесты (технология


работы с информационными интернет-ресурсами или проект с использованием интернет-ресурсов), геокешинг, флешмоб и др.

4. Целесообразное применение технологий воспитания позволяет повысить уровень воспитанности, общей культуры молодого человека в работе над собой, с информацией, людьми, делая воспитанника успешным и толерантным в жизни и профессии.

Мы приходим к выводу, что жизнеспособность технологического подхода в воспитательной практике определяется качеством удовлетворения запросов всех участников процесса (обучающихся, администрации, преподавателей, родителей), созданием возможностей для воспитанников позитивно проявить себя, выступить в роли «генераторов» новых идей, понять образовательную ценность опыта и самостоятельной работы в перспективе на будущее.

Литература / References 1. Воспитательная деятельность педагога / под общ. ред. В. А. Сластенина. – М.:

Академия, 2005. 2. Гаязов, А. С. Этнообразовательное пространство и развитие современного

образования. – М.: Дрофа, 2012. 3. Технологии экологического воспитания детей и молодежи : методическое пособие

/ Е. М. Клемяшова, А. С. Прутченков, В. А. Сковородкин, Д. Л. Теплов / под ред. Клемяшовой, Е. М. – Ярославль: «Аппарель-Полиграфия», 2007.

4. В Петербурге стартует проект для молодых семей «Семья в большом городе»: статья [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://www.rddfm.ru/v-peterburge-startuet-proekt-dlya-molodikh-semey-semya-v-bolshom-gorode.html (дата обращения: 11.09.2013).

Наталья Анатольевна Савотина доктор педагогических наук заведующий лабораторией Лаборатория социально-педагогических технологий воспитания «Институт семьи и воспитания» Российская академия образования Москва, Россия [email protected] Natalia Savotina PhD in Pedagogy (Doctor of Science) Laboratory Head Laboratory of Social and Pedagogical Technologies in Education «Institute of Family and Education» Russian Academy of Education Moscow, Russia [email protected]




Елена Михайловна Клемяшова кандидат педагогических наук ведущий научный сотрудник «Институт семьи и воспитания» Российская академия образования Москва, Россия Elena Klemyashova PhD in Pedagogy (Candidate of Science) Leading Researcher «Institute of Family and Education» Russian Academy of Education Moscow, Russia Владимир Александрович Сковородкин кандидат педагогических наук старший научный сотрудник «Институт семьи и воспитания» Российская академия образования Москва, Россия Vladimir Skovorodkin PhD in Pedagogy (Candidate of Science) Senior Researcher «Institute of Family and Education» Russian Academy of Education Moscow, Russia


ВИКТОРИЯ ВИКТОРОВНА СКЛЯДНЕВА / VICTORIA SKLYADNEVA

СПЕЦИФИКА ВОСПИТАНИЯ И ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ КАЗАЧЕСТВА В УСЛОВИЯХ ВУЗОВ (НА ПРИМЕРЕ МГУТУ ИМ. К. Г. РАЗУМОВСКОГО)

TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL SPECIFICITY OF COSSACKS AT HIGHER EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENTS (A CASE OF MOSCOW STATE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGIES AND MANAGEMENT NAMED AFTER K. G. RAZUMOVSKIY)


Рассматриваются актуальные вопросы специальной адаптации программ университетского образования для важной части современного российского общества – казаков с целью возрождения и развития их исторических и культурных традиций, а также их плодотворного вовлечения в экономические, политические и общественные процессы на всероссийском уровне. Вслед за кратким обзором существующих сегодня мероприятий этого типа на начальном и среднем образовательных уровнях в различных казацких сообществах Российской Федерации представлены различные актуальные программы для университетского уровня в МГУТУ им. К. Г. Разумовского как первый практический пример для университетов в других российских регионах.

Acute problems of specific adaptation of university educational programs for the important category of modern Russian society – the Cossacks – are considered. It is done with the purpose of revival and development of their historical and cultural traditions as well as their fruitful engagement into economic, political and social processes at the all-Russian level. Following a brief overview of existing measures of this type today at primary and secondary levels of education in various Cossack communities of the Russian Federation the representation of various relevant programs for university level at MSUTM named after K. G. Razumovsky as the first practical example for universities in other Russian regions is given. Ключевые слова: Казаки, традиции, патриотизм, духовность, университетское

образование, адаптация Keywords: Cossacks, traditions, patriotism, spirituality, university education,

adaptation

Казачество в сегодняшней России

Модернизация современного российского общества привела к необходимости пересмотра как самой структуры образования, так и тематики изучаемых проблем. Одной из таких проблем является история и процесс возрождения российского казачества. Значительную актуальность приобретают вопросы современного положения казачества и перспектив его развития. На сегодняшний день нельзя отрицать присутствие казачества практически во всех сферах жизнедеятельности российского общества.

Виктория Викторовна Скляднева / Victoria Sklyadneva 515

Казачество становится реальной силой, способной решать общественно значимые вопросы. Данное обстоятельство учитывается государственными, властно-управленческими структурами федерального, регионального и местного уровней. Государственная политика в отношении казачества стала более активной и определенной.

На своей пресс-конференции Президент Российской Федерации В. В. Путин, в частности, сказал: «Казачество – это часть нашей культуры, российской культуры, причем не просто часть культуры, а самая яркая ее часть. Традиционный патриотизм казачества очень важен для продвижения идей государственности в сознании русского народа вообще. В этом смысле казаки играют уникальную и весьма позитивную роль. В последние годы государством задан тренд на развитие патриотизма: начиная от появления патриотизма в качестве одной из центральных тем президентского послания и заканчивая возникновением целого направления в современном молодежном движении. Поэтому внимание к казачеству со стороны государства особое, в основе казачьих ценностей лежит патриотизм, любовь к Родине» [8, с. 12].

Деятельность Совета при Президенте РФ по делам казачества, окружных комиссий и рабочих групп позволила определить направления развития казачества в среднесрочной перспективе. Нужно отметить, что Государство и Церковь в этом вопросе объединились. Судьбоносным было решение Святейшего Патриарха Московского и всея Руси Кирилла о создании первого в России и в Русской Православной Церкви Синодального комитета по взаимодействию с казачеством [1, с. 10].

Фундаментом казачьего образа жизни, как отметил Святейший Патриарх, является православная вера. Только в ее русле казаки смогут сохраниться в условиях колоссального многообразия взглядов, убеждений, конфронтации в современном мире [4, с. 5].

Реалии казачьего быта в различных регионах России

Своеобразие реального жизненного уклада казачества в зависимости от конкретных условий данного региона России на текущий момент, но и в соответствии с возрождаемыми традициями и структурами исторических казачьих Войск можно увидеть из нескольких примеров.

Особенности нынешней хозяйственной жизни казаков показывает станица Генераловка в Омской области. Она располагается вблизи границы с Казахстаном. Казачьи общества создают объекты общего пользования, станичную собственность. В качестве общинной собственности у казаков Генераловки – общее трудовое хозяйство по выращиванию и продаже рыбы. Большие территории виноградников. В современных условиях в России это характерно только для казачества. Фермер – частник, который борется за свою личную землю, частенько не заботится о том, что творится за ее пределами. А казачье общество смотрит, в каком состоянии и школа, и направляет туда деньги потому, что туда идут дети казачьих семей, и им предстоит продолжать казачьи традиции. Такая связь экономических задач с будущим детей, станицы и казачества в целом прослеживается очень ярко, как ни в одной другой социальной категории людей, населяющих Российскую Федерацию.

Специфика воспитания и образования казачества в условиях вузов 516

С другой стороны, экономические проблемы не заслоняют и духовной составляющей как основы всего жизнепостроения казачества. Это видно из недавней информации по Кубанскому казачьему войску [5, с. 1]. Так, в День памяти Святого Благоверного Великого князя Александра Невского – одного из самых почитаемых в России православных святых – 6 декабря 2013 года в городе Лабинске Краснодарского края состоялся чин малого освящения храма, построенного в честь его имени. Символично, что строительство храма завершилось в год празднования 300-летия Свято-Троицкой Александро-Невской Лавры. Свой вклад в строительство внесли не только руководители предприятий, учреждений, организаций, предприниматели, но и обычные люди, которые во время проведения акции «Вложи свой кирпич в храм» за символическую плату могли приобрести кирпичи, на которых писали свои имена или имена своих родственников. Таким образом, уже во время возведения храм стал местом духовного объединения и примирения.

И, наконец, неотъемлемым элементом возрождения казачьего общества и залогом его интеграции в многообразную общественную структуру современной России является развитие системы казачьего образования, начиная с его базисного уровня вплоть до наиболее продвинутых форм. Примером здесь служит Новосибирской области казачья кадетская школа-интернат «Казачий кадетский корпус имени Героя Российской Федерации Олега Куянова». Его программа включает такие основные направления по развитию самобытной казачьей культуры [3, с. 2]:

- разработка и реализация программ (планов) развития казачьей культуры;

- культурно-образовательная, научно-исследовательская, музейная работа;

- сохранение традиционной культуры казачества; - популяризация историко-культурного наследия казаков; - развитие самодеятельного художественного творчества казачества,

создание условий для занятия творческой деятельностью на непрофессиональной (любительской) основе в государственных учреждениях культуры;

- поддержка казачьих общественных организаций, деятельность которых направлена на патриотическое воспитание молодежи, сохранение традиционной культуры.

В казачьей кадетской школе-интернате имени Героя Российской Федерации Олега Куянова ведется работа по следующим направлениям:

1. Разработка профилированных, авторских программ предметов теоретического курса и дополнительного образования, включающих краеугольные камни основ казачьей культуры, направленных на ознакомление кадет с историей казачества, самобытностью культуры казаков, духовной и патриотической направленностью.

2. Проведение мероприятий (спортивных и патриотических) для поднятия приоритета казачьего уклада, развития обучающихся как физически, так и духовно.

3. Участие в значимых мероприятиях, направленных на то, чтобы расширить кругозор кадет, знакомство их с традициями и историей не


только казачества России, но и Новосибирской области и Бердска. 4. Создание социально значимых проектов, которые призваны

способствовать формированию здорового образа жизни, подготовке к службе в Вооруженных Силах Российской Федерации, патриотическому воспитанию кадет, возрождению самобытности казачества.

Программа реализуется в системе военно-патриотического воспитания и казачьего образования, включает комплекс мероприятий, направленных на поддержку в учебно-воспитательном процессе культурно-исторических традиций, являющихся основой образования и военно-патриотического воспитания казачьей молодежи, проведение разнообразных мероприятий (спортивных, этнографических, культурных и т. д.), учитывающих наиболее полно потребности современной казачьей молодежи.

Из приведенных выше характеристик современной жизни казачества логически вытекают и принципы формирования соответствующих программ высшего образования.

Роль вузов для обустройства казачества в современном российском обществе

Как мы видим, основными моментами социального заказа являются: создание экономической основы за счет участия казаков в государственной и иной службе, ведение традиционных форм хозяйствования, а также духовное совершенствование казачества и формирование системы казачьего образования и воспитания.

Этот социальный заказ и стал во главу угла деятельности МГУТУ им. К. Г. Разумовского, который первый начал подготовку высококвалифицированных кадров с высшим образованием для казачества.

Миссия казачества на современном этапе практически та же, что и в ранний период появления казачества в России, – освоение земель, охрана территорий, патриотическое воспитание молодежи, сохранение православия на всей территории России. Казачье общество и казаки как его члены создают объекты социальной культуры по зову совести, по зову предков, а не по тому, что это предписано кем-то [7, с. 135].

Казачьи войсковые общества поэтому и заинтересованы в подготовке специалистов, которые обязательно вернутся для работы в этих обществах. Нужны многие специалисты: и юристы, и экономисты, и технологи в сфере переработки сельхозпродукции, в производстве хлеба и хлебобулочных изделий, специалисты элеваторного хозяйства, кондиционирования, холодильных установок и т. д.

В университете представлен широкий спектр всех этих специальностей, так востребованных казачеством. Подготовка ведется по 28 специальностям, поэтому МГУТУ и попал в поле зрения атаманов казачества. На сегодняшний день заключаются договоры с казачьими обществами на подготовку специалистов, приема казаков на целевые бюджетные места.

Сегодня в народное хозяйство приходят новые технологии, знать которые казакам необходимо, чтобы не уступить в конкуренции другим производителям. Требуются знания современного производства: выпечки


вкусного хлеба, сохранения зерна в современных элеваторных хозяйствах, современной мельницы, управление которой осуществляется дистанционно на основе инновационных технологий и с соответствующим энергосберегающим оборудованием и т. д., и т. п. Современному производству нужны современные специалисты. Таких специалистов ХХI века и готовит университет [2, с. 5].

У МГУТУ им. К. Г. Разумовского есть еще один большой плюс: у университета 19 филиалов, которые расположены на территориях практически всех казачьих войск. Некоторые из самых сильных наших филиалов давно и успешно работают в Ростове-на-Дону, Краснодарском крае (г. Темрюк), Омской области (станица Генераловка), в традиционных местах компактного проживания казачества. Казакам это очень удобно, т. к. студентам не обязательно ехать в Москву. Они могут обучаться, не отрываясь от дома, от казачьего общества.

Под казачьим образованием мы понимаем вертикаль обучения: казачьи классы в школах – казачий кадетский корпус – казачье профессионально-техническое училище – казачий университет. Таким образом осуществляется последовательный переход по уровням существующей системы образования. На каждом уровне обязательно формируется определенный казачий компонент в предметах, в дисциплинах, изучаемых в образовательных учреждениях, в том числе и в МГУТУ. Именно в нашем университете разработан специальный казачий компонент в качестве обязательных дополнительных вопросов для каждой дисциплины или предмета, входящих в то или иное направление подготовки специалиста. На эту разработку у нас ушло практически полтора года, и сейчас можно говорить о том, что в методическом плане разработан казачий компонент для средней школы, для казачьего кадетского корпуса, для профтехобразования и высшего образования, имея в виду и наш университет.

Введение казачьего компонента в учебные планы позволило реализовать в практической деятельности принципы государственной политики и общие требования к содержанию образования, сформулированные в Законе об образовании:

- воспитание гражданственности и любви к Родине; - защита системой образования национальных культур и региональных

культурных традиций в условиях многонационального государства; - формирование мировоззренческой нравственной культуры; - гуманизация и гуманитаризация процесса образования. Также оно позволяет использовать культурно-исторические традиции

казачества в духовно-нравственном и патриотическом воспитании молодежи. Следующими этапами модернизации учебного процесса в направлении

развития казачьего образования в нашем университете являются: Разработка учебно-методических комплексов по специальным и

элективным курсам казачьей тематики по направлениям подготовки бакалавров, в том числе более глубокое изучение казачьих технологий переработки сельскохозяйственной продукции.

Разработка в рамках направления «Технология продукции и организация общественного питания» профиля подготовки


«Технология и организация казачьего производства кулинарной продукции и кондитерских изделий» или других профилей, связанных с традиционными казачьими пищевыми технологиями.

Комплектование библиотеки, включающей в себя специальную, научную и учебную литературу, в которой представлены традиционные казачьи пищевые технологии, а также казачьи издания, газеты, журналы, создание электронной библиотеки. Издание университетом своего журнала.

Разработка методических рекомендаций по популяризации в воспитательной деятельности традиций исторически сложившейся казачьей системы духовно-нравственного и патриотического воспитания молодежи на примере беззаветного служения Родине российского казачества, его государственного патриотизма.

Создание системы профессиональной переподготовки и повышения квалификации преподавателей казачьих учебных заведений и служащих казачьих войсковых структур.

Поскольку МГУТУ позиционирует себя как вуз, взаимодействующий с казачьими войсками, мы используем казачий компонент в обучении всех студентов, а не только представителей казачьих обществ. То есть все студенты, а их у нас почти 50 тысяч, изучают казачий компонент в каждой дисциплине, в каждом предмете.

Вводить казачий компонент мы начали с истории. Вот где раскрываются все положительные моменты развития казачества! История – благоприятное поле для того, чтобы лучше понять, какой это удивительный феномен – казачество.

Ряд дисциплин у нас связан с хлебопечением. Здесь мы раскрываем особенности казачьих технологий изготовления хлебобулочных изделий, казачьего каравая. На кафедре виноделия раскрываются секреты изготовления казачьих вин. Студенты изучают казачью кухню, технологию общественного питания, технологию кондитерского производства. Разыскивают интереснейшие рецепты казачьей кухни, которые потом включаются в программу обучения.

Так работают и другие кафедры. Есть особенности казачьего спорта. На занятиях кафедры физического

воспитания эти особенности изучаются всеми – и казаками, и обычными студентами.

Разве станет кто-нибудь возражать против освоения навыков управления лошадью, выездки, джигитовки? Ребятам это действительно интересно. Удаль казачья, смелость, выносливость – воспитание таких черт характера приветствуется каждым, кто хочет быть крепким, здоровым, выносливым.

Казачий компонент, методику преподавания казачьих дисциплин, казачьих видов спорта университет согласовывает с руководителями наших казачьих войск – атаманами, генералами, утвержденными указами Президента РФ. Некоторые из них работают у нас в университете. Например, заведующий кафедрой «История казачества и регионоведение» атаман Всевеликого войска Донского, депутат Государственной думы РФ, доктор социологических наук, профессор Виктор Петрович Водолацкий. Работает в МГУТУ и атаман


Центрального казачьего войска Валерий Иванович Налимов. Эти атаманы весьма уважаемы в казачьей среде.

Актуальной становится разработка соответствующей воспитательной теории в университетах, базирующейся на культурологическом подходе, в основе которой лежат ценности, смыслы и идеалы казачьей культуры.

Анализируя педагогические процессы казачьей культуры, важно использовать не только ее традиции, но и те инновации, которые рождаются в современных реалиях.

Поэтому все чаще используется воспитательный потенциал культуры казачества. Говоря о традициях в педагогических идеях казачества, мы понимаем три составляющие: сохранение, преемственность и развитие [6, с. 11].

И это является отправной точкой для возникновения педагогической инновационной теории воспитания и образования в университете. В процессе возрождения казачества открылся педагогический, воспитательный потенциал культуры казачества.

К ним относятся: казачья идея, основанная на традициях славяно-русского народовластия; воспитательный идеал – совершенный личностный образ, высшая цель личностных и общественных устремлений казачества; воспитательные ценности казачьей культуры – осознанные и принятые смыслы казачьего существования.

И опыт показывает, что роль и место образовательных учреждений в процессе возрождения казачества не огранивается образовательной деятельностью, а формируется целый комплекс, который обеспечивает устойчивый положительный результат.

За последние 4 года вуз целенаправленно формирует инфраструктуру взаимодействия с казачьими обществами на всех уровнях. Основная деятельность идет по следующим направлениям:

1. формирование системы непрерывного казачьего образования; 2. методическая и инновационная поддержка становления экономических

основ деятельности казачьих обществ; 3. развитие казачьего самоуправления; 4. воспитательная работа с казачьей молодежью. Подобный опыт сотрудничества казачества и государственного вуза был

первым, потому МГУТУ называет себя первым казачьим вузом – и в России, и в мире. В современных условиях созрела настоятельная необходимость создания и развития системы высшего казачьего образования. Во многих регионах войсковые казачьи общества выступают за создание на своих территориях высших казачьих учебных заведений.

Подводя итог вышесказанному, хочется подчеркнуть, что в настоящее время развитие казачьего образования, несомненно, представляется востребованным и значимым для современного российского общества.


Литература / References 1. Беглов, А. Д. Приветствие // «Православие – духовно-нравственная основа казачьего

мировоззрения»: материалы к IV международной научно-практической конференции «Церковь и казачество: соработничество на благо Отечества». – М.: Синодальный комитет по взаимодействию с казачеством; УКИНО «Духовное преображение», 2014. – С. 10-14.

2. Иванова, В. Н. Исконно русский уклад жизни казачества // Унив. жизнь. – 2013. – № 8 (92). – С. 5-6.

3. Кирдячкин, В. С. Пояснительная записка. Актуальность программы военно-патриотического воспитания и казачьего образования средствами самобытной казачьей культуры. Бердск, 2011. – 2011. – С. 2-5. [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://kaz.docdat.com/docs/index-111095.html (дата обращения: 19.11.2013).

4. Кирилл, Святейший Патриарх Московский и всея Руси. Приветствие // «Православие – духовно-нравственная основа казачьего мировоззрения»: материалы к IV международной научно-практической конференции «Церковь и казачество: соработничество на благо Отечества». – М.: Синодальный комитет по взаимодействию с казачеством; УКИНО «Духовное преображение», 2014. – С. 5-10.

5. Козлов, В. А. В Лабинске освящен новый храм // Кубанское казачье войско. – 2013. – С. 1 [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://www.slavakubani.ru/content/detail.php?ID= 24983 (дата обращения: 05.11.2013).

6. Лукаш, С. Н. Воспитание подрастающих поколений в традициях и инновациях культуры казачества юга России: автореф. дис. … канд. пед. наук. – Ростов-на-Дону, 2010. – С. 11-12.

7. Моисеева, О. А. Актуальные проблемы организации образования современной молодежи // Проблемы современной организации и содержания профессионального образования: мониторинг качества методика: материалы Международной научно-практической конференции. – М., 2013. – С. 135.

8. Путин, В. В. Пресс-конференция от 19 декабря 2013 г. [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://www.kremlin.ru/news/19859 (дата обращения: 25.12.2013).

Виктория Викторовна Скляднева кандидат педагогических наук, доцент заместитель заведующего кафедрой «Организация сервиса» Московский государственный университет технологий и управления имени К. Г. Разумовского Москва, Россия [email protected] Victoria Sklyadneva PhD in Education (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor Deputy Chair of Service Organization Department Moscow State University of Technologies and Management named after K.G. Razumovskiy Moscow, Russia [email protected]




ТАТЬЯНА АЛЕКСЕЕВНА СПИРИДОНОВА / TATYANA SPIRIDONOVA

СОВРЕМЕННЫЕ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ И ГОСУДАРСТВЕННАЯ ПОЛИТИКА В ОБЛАСТИ РАЗВИТИЯ ОДАРЕННЫХ ДЕТЕЙ

CURRENT RESEARCH AND THE STATE POLICY ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF GIFTED CHILDREN


Одаренные дети – это творческий, экономический и политический потенциал любого развитого государства, которое заботится о своем будущем. Однако в научной литературе нет полноценного анализа политики, проводимой нашей страной в области развития детской одаренности. В данной статье отражены исследования понятия одаренности, проведена классификация теорий одаренности, представлены в хронологическом порядке и проанализированы правительственные нормативные документы, касающиеся поддержки детской одаренности.

Gifted children are the creative, economical and political potential of any developed country if it cares about its future. However, the present-day literature doesn’t have a detailed analysis of the policy carried out by our country towards the development of gifted children. The work deals with the study of the concept of talent; current theories of talent are classified and the government regulations related to the support of children’s talents are presented in the chronological order and analyzed. Ключевые слова: одаренность, одаренный ребенок, классификация

одаренности, государственная политика в области развития одаренности

Keywords: talent, gifted child, classification of giftedness, state policy on the development of talent

Детская одаренность и детское творчество стали предметом изучения

педагогики и психологии сравнительно недавно – только в конце XIX века, хотя проблема селекции одаренности существует с древних времен. Тем не менее до сих пор в современной науке существует множество теорий одаренности, ни одна из которых не является общепринятой. Эти теории отражают разное понимание истоков одаренности, движущих сил ее развития, культурно-исторических и социальных условий ее проявлений и т. п.

Первые фундаментальные эмпирические исследования одаренности мы находим у английского психолога Ф. Гальтона в работе «Наследственность таланта: законы и последствия» (1875). Он изучал наследственность таланта, умственных особенности различных рас. Являясь сторонником теории наследственного таланта, первым пытался ввести статистические измерения таланта, рассматривая родство 400 знаменитых людей. Ведущее значение Ф. Гальтон придавал наследственности, не отрицая влияния социальной среды, уделяя внимание воспитанию и влиянию различных общественных факторов

Татьяна Алексеевна Спиридонова / Tatyana Spiridonova 523

на развитие. Он считал, что существует некая граница, через которую никакое воспитание и никакие упражнения не помогут переступить. Ф. Гальтон отмечает особенности проявления одаренности: причудливость, непостоянство, страстная увлеченность своим делом. Он выдвигает три условия, имеющие наследственную природу: «сочетание даровитости, энергии и способности к тяжелому труду» [15, с. 332].

Термин «одаренность» появился в психологии в начале XX века благодаря американскому психологу Г. Уипплу, который обозначил им учащихся со сверхнормальными способностями. Поскольку для этого чаще использовалось слово «талант», возникла необходимость выяснения тождества или различия этих двух терминов.

По поводу соотношения этих понятий существуют разные точки зрения. Талант одними психологами отождествляется с одаренностью, другими рассматривается как высокий уровень развития способностей, прежде всего специальных. У некоторых авторов талант отождествляется с гениальностью, а не с одаренностью. Так, например, Е. П. Ильин понимает талант как реализованную одаренность, которая проявляется лишь как природная предпосылка таланта [6, с. 140]. А. М. Матюшкин считает, что в отличие от родственного понятия «способности» талант характеризуется в большинстве случаев сочетанием ряда способностей, которые обеспечивают достижение высоких результатов оригинального и качественного выполнения [15, с. 116].

Рассмотрим несколько подходов к определению понятий «одаренный ребенок», «одаренность», сформулированных учеными.

Психотерапевт В. П. Кащенко под дарованием подразумевает некоторые свойства интеллекта, а также другие стороны душевного склада, в силу которых данный индивид производит эффект в той или иной области с минимальной затратой труда и энергии. Субъект, который при той же затрате энергии сделает больше, чем средний по способностям [7].

Ю. В. Василькова считает, что одаренность – это высокий уровень развития каких-либо способностей человека [2, с. 409]. По мнению Б. М. Теплова, одаренность – это сочетание нескольких способностей у одного человека. Исследователь определяет одаренность как качественное своеобразие, сочетание способностей, обеспечивающее человеку успешное выполнение какой-либо деятельности [13].

Т. Н. Джумагулова идентифицирует одаренность прежде всего с яркой индивидуальностью в самых разных ее проявлениях. Одаренный человек отличается от других людей выдающимися чертами: он эмоционален, необычен, без видимых усилий быстро справляется с различными задачами, выбирает оригинальные способы действий, получает интересные результаты [4, с. 9].

Общим основанием в этих подходах является указание на проявляющуюся в данный момент исключительность. Другая группа исследователей предлагает при определении одаренности ориентироваться не столько на успехи, уже реально демонстрируемые ребенком, сколько на его потенциальные возможности достичь высоких результатов в будущем, т. к. достижения не могут служить абсолютно верным и тем более единственным критерием детской одаренности.

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В этой связи в рабочей концепции одаренности, разработанной Д. Б. Богоявленской, В. Д. Шадриковым и др., дается такое определение одаренности: «Одаренный ребенок – это ребенок, который выделяется яркими, очевидными, иногда выдающимися достижениями (или имеет внутренние предпосылки для таких достижений) в том или ином виде деятельности» [10, с. 5].

А. А. Бодалев понимает одаренность как потенциал человека, определяющий его готовность к осуществлению разных видов деятельности, а также возможный уровень их продуктивности [1].

Н. Ю. Синягина и В. И. Панов подходят к одаренности как системному, развивающемуся в течение жизни качеству психики, которое определяет возможность достижения человеком более высоких (необычных, незаурядных) результатов в одном или нескольких видах деятельности по сравнению с другими людьми [3, с. 5; 11]. С их точки зрения, одаренность – сложное психическое образование, в котором неразрывно переплетены познавательные, эмоциональные, волевые, мотивационные, психофизиологические и другие сферы психики. Ее признаки (проявления) могут быть постоянными, но могут иметь и временный (преходящий) характер, могут быть явными, но могут быть представлены и в скрытой, потенциальной форме.

Третья группа исследователей считает, что одаренность – это качество, присущее каждому человеческому индивиду, а основополагающую роль в ее проявлении они отводят социальной среде.

Б. Т. Лихачев пишет, что «одаренность, талант, гениальность проявляются в личности как яркие индивидуально-неповторимые творческие, интеллектуальные, эмоциональные, физические способности в той или иной области человеческой деятельности. Различие в степени, качестве и направленности одаренности человека предопределены природой, генетическим фондом. Каждый нормальный ребенок одарен всеми человеческими сущностными силами и возможностью в необходимых и достаточных социальных условиях развивать их в себе» [8, с. 74].

Б. Г. Ананьев также обосновывает принцип присутствия высоких возможностей у всех людей. Это особенные способности, отличающие его от других людей и дающие преимущество во многих жизненных ситуациях. По образному выражению М. А. Холодной, последовательницы Б. Г. Ананьева, существует «презумпция одаренности», т. е. все люди одарены. Главное, чтобы эту одаренность развить и применить в жизни [4, с. 48].

Таким образом, несмотря на разницу в подходах к определению одаренности, факт существования различных видов одаренности не оспаривается представителями различных концепций. Основанием для классификации выступают:

• виды, т. е. своеобразие проявления способностей (математические, лингвистические, музыкальные и т. д.);

• возрастная динамика – ускоренное, соответствующее норме или замедленное развитие;

• уровень проявления одаренности – одаренные или высокоодаренные, особо одаренные, имеющие признаки одаренности;

• вид проявления – явная и скрытая;


• широта проявления – общая или специальная; • тип предпочитаемой деятельности – интеллектуальная, академическая,

творческая, художественная, психомоторная спортивная, конструкторская, лидерская [5].

В последние годы, по мнению Д. И. Фельдштейна, в связи с исторически значимыми изменениями в обществе четко проявляются и реальные изменения современного ребенка: увеличивается категория одаренных детей, среди них и дети с особо развитым мышлением, и дети, способные влиять на других людей, и дети-лидеры, и дети – «золотые руки», и дети, представляющие мир в образах, художественно одаренные, и дети, обладающие двигательным талантом. В силу этих причин появляется необходимость изучения современными исследователями условий развития творческих способностей [14].

На сегодняшний день не вызывает сомнения актуальность решения для педагогической теории и практики следующих проблем: какие существуют методы и формы развития одаренного ребенка; каким образом можно управлять процессом воспитания одаренного ребенка; какие методы исследования этих феноменов существуют; что обеспечивает успешную реализацию этих методов на благо другим и себе? Решение этих проблем даст научное обоснование движению, целью которого является систематическое культивирование и развитие интеллектуального потенциала нации.

Акцент на важности такого подхода делает венгерский психолог Г. Ревеш в своей статье «Раннее проявление одаренности и ее узнавание» (1924 г.), пытаясь обратить внимание общественности на создание условий для одаренных детей. «Какая польза для нации, – пишет он, – предоставить свои самые ценные элементы, после их развития, слепому случаю и конкуренции… Неспособные многочисленны и помогают друг другу. Мы должны, поэтому, охранять одаренных, отдающих всю свою энергию углублению своей духовной и моральной жизни, от того, чтобы они растрачивали свою энергию в борьбе с окружающими их невеждами. Пока общество и государство не заботятся и не охраняют одаренных, наша работа не имеет практического значения и остается только красивой идеей…» [15, с. 39].

Одаренные дети – это творческий, экономический и политический потенциал любого развитого государства, которое заботится не только о настоящем, но и о будущем развитии страны. Без участия одаренных людей во всех жизненных сферах конкурентно способное государство в принципе не возможно. В настоящее время Россией потерян целый возрастной пласт выдающихся ученых, которые покинули страну в перестроечные и постперестроечные годы. Поэтому проблема всесторонней поддержки современной одаренной молодежи не раз поднималась Д. А. Медведевым на заседании президиумов Государственного совета, Совета по культуре и искусству и Совета по науке, технологиям. Выискивать таланты, работать с ними и стараться создать для них такие условия, которые сохранят для нас эти таланты, а не позволят им раствориться на каких-то заграничных просторах – важнейшая задача педагогической общественности [12].

Согласно данным фонда «Открытая экономика» отъезд российских ученых за рубеж не только не уменьшается, но существенно возрос за


последние годы, при этом расширяется география оттока. Анализ, проведенный на основе базы Scopus, показал, что более 50% публикаций российской научной диаспоры идут из США. При этом наиболее цитируемые российские ученые также работают в США – на их долю приходится 44% всех ссылок (период после 2003 года). Лидируют по индексу цитируемости выпускники МГУ, вторые – выпускники МФТИ. На долю русских ученых, работающих в России, приходится всего 10% ссылок [16].

Понимание необходимости поддержки государством одаренных детей существовало еще в советские времена, но работа эта ограничивалась созданием при научных центрах и в крупных городах небольшого числа специализированных школ и школ олимпийского резерва. В постперестроечное время с конца 90-х годов стали появляться специальные федеральные программы. Постановлением Правительства Российской Федерации от 19 сентября 1997 г. № 1207 утверждена Федеральная целевая программа «Одаренные дети» на 1998-2000 гг. Целью этой программы было создание благоприятных условий для развития одаренных детей в интересах личности, общества и государства. Данная программа предусматривала разработку концепций психолого-педагогических основ одаренности, расширение изданий творческих работ победителей различных конкурсов, участие детей в международных исследовательских проектах, присуждение государственных стипендий. Предусматривалось проведение фестивалей детского художественного творчества, слетов юных техников, всероссийских спортивных игр, всероссийских и международных олимпиад, конкурсов, стажировок одаренных детей за рубежом и их финансовая поддержка.

Постановлением Правительства Российской Федерации от 3 октября 2002 г. № 732 была введена Федеральная целевая программа «Дети России» на 2003-2006 гг. с подпрограммой «Одаренные дети». Целью подпрограммы является создание условий для выявления, поддержки и развития одаренных детей в России. Подпрограмма предусматривала совершенствование системы работы с одаренными детьми, создание системы широкого освещения проблем и направлений работы с одаренными детьми в СМИ, улучшение материально-технической базы специализированных учреждений по работе с одаренными детьми, выплачивание 120 стипендий одаренным детям, обеспечение поддержки 10 всероссийских и 4 международных предметных олимпиад, летних творческих школ и тематических смен [9].

Следующая программа – «Дети России» с подпрограммой «Одаренные дети» была введена Постановлением Правительства от 21 марта 2007 г. № 172 и рассчитана на 2007-2010 годы. Цель подпрограммы – обеспечение благоприятных условий для создания единой государственной системы выявления, развития и адресной поддержки одаренных детей в различных областях интеллектуальной и творческой деятельности.

В 2008 году Центром по работе с одаренными детьми в Центральном федеральном округе, созданным на базе государственного учреждения Ярославской области «Центр телекоммуникаций и информационных систем в образовании», был проведен предварительный анализ мероприятий подпрограммы «Одаренные дети» в Центральном федеральном округе за 2008, 2009 гг. В данный округ входят 17 областей Российской Федерации. Данные


мониторинга позволяют увидеть приоритетные направления деятельности по развитию и выявлению одаренности:

• развитие и поддержка организаций по работе с одаренными детьми; • создание условий для выявления, поддержки и развития одаренных

детей в образовательном учреждении и регионе; • адресная материальная и психологическая помощь, поддержка и

социальная защита одаренных детей. Мы видим, что основные направления работы с одаренными детьми

требуют педагогической поддержки в целенаправленной воспитательной работе. Основная работа по развитию различных видов детской одаренности сегодня ведется в специальных образовательных учреждениях повышенного уровня (лицеях, гимназиях, школах с углубленным изучением отдельных предметов или предметных областей) и в учреждениях дополнительного образования детей. В некоторых территориальных субъектах ЦФО работают региональные центры по работе с одаренными детьми (Костромская, Курская, Смоленская, Тамбовская, Орловская, Тульская области).

В ряде областей функционируют экспериментальные площадки по работе с одаренными детьми (Белгородская, Костромская, Воронежская, Тамбовская, Ярославская области). Курирование осуществляют научные работники региональных вузов.

На региональном уровне наиболее часто используются следующие формы поддержки одаренных детей:

• поддержка участия школьников во всероссийских и региональных предметных олимпиадах;

• проведение в рамках системы дополнительного образования детей мероприятий для выявления одаренных детей в различных областях интеллектуальной и творческой деятельности;

• организация и проведение профильных смен, учебно-тренировочных сборов, очно-заочных школ и лагерей для одаренных детей;

• поддержка работы научно-исследовательских конференций школьников;

• целевая поддержка развития образовательных учреждений, работающих с одаренными детьми;

• выплата областных и муниципальных стипендий (премий) одаренным детям и поощрение их наставников.

В России выпускается периодический журнал «Одаренный ребенок» (шеф-редактор – Т. Н. Ерегина), который широко используется для распространения знаний о специфике обучения одаренных детей; поиска и выявления одаренных детей; в психологической и методической консультационной помощи семьям с одаренными детьми.

Для этих же целей широко используются интернет-ресурсы. В России главный сайт http:www.odardeti.ru находится в ведении Всероссийского центра по работе с одаренными детьми (руководитель – Н. Зайцева).

В результате анализа мероприятий подпрограммы «Одаренные дети» в Центральном федеральном округе нами был изучен спектр используемых форм работы с одаренными детьми. Выявлено, что большинство форм работы нацелено на поддержание уже проявившейся одаренности (69%), а выявлению


воспитательных возможностей в развитии одаренности уделяется недостаточно внимания (31%). На этот недостаток пристальное внимание обращает Правительство РФ: «У нас нет <…> общенациональной системы поиска и развития талантливых детей и молодежи. Специальная подпрограмма «Одаренные дети» в рамках программы «Дети России» – это хорошо, но этого мало» [12, с. 2].

Обновленную программу «Одаренные дети» решено продлить до 2015 года с целью включения механизмов поиска и выявления одаренных детей в разных регионах России.

3 апреля 2012 года президентом РФ утверждена «Концепция общенациональной системы выявления и развития молодых талантов», которая определяет базовые принципы построения и основные задачи общенациональной системы выявления и развития молодых талантов, а также основные направления ее функционирования.

По сравнению с ранее принятыми нормативными документами новым является акцент на необходимости создания определенной среды развития одаренных детей (независимо от места жительства, социального положения и финансовых возможностей семьи), в том числе детей-инвалидов, помощи одаренной молодежи при вступлении во взрослую жизнь – обеспечении «социального лифта».

В Указе Президента РФ от 7 мая 2012 г. № 599 предписывалось к июню 2012 г. разработать комплекс мер, направленных на выявление и поддержку одаренных детей и молодежи. 26 мая 2012 г. заместителем Председателя Правительства РФ О. Ю. Голодец утвержден «Комплекс мер по реализации Концепции общенациональной системы выявления и развития молодых талантов», предусматривающий:

• нормативно-правовое регулирование и научно-методическое сопровождение работы с одаренными детьми и молодежью;

• конкурсную поддержку организаций, педагогических работников, одаренных детей и молодежи;

• развитие инфраструктуры по работе с одаренными детьми и молодежью.

В поручении Президента России от 11 февраля 2013 года № Пр-240 (подпункт «в» пункта 3) предписана организация мониторинга комплекса мер, направленных на выявление и поддержку одаренных детей и молодежи [12]. Доклад о реализации комплекса мер размещен на официальном сайте Минобрнауки России: http://минобрнауки.рф.

Таким образом, современная наука имеет в наличии множество теорий одаренности, ни одна из которых не является общепринятой. Существующие точки зрения можно свести к трем основным позициям:

1) одаренные – это избранные люди со сверхнормальными способностями;

2) одаренность – это потенциал человека; 3) все люди одарены, нужно только создать условия для их развития. Общность мнений выражается в признании того, одаренные люди – это

необходимый потенциал цивилизованного общества, и крайне необходимо создавать условия для развития их таланта.


Государство, претендуя на звание развитого, должно стимулировать это развитие и оказывать поддержку одаренной молодежи во время профессионального становления в целях «взращивания» обученных одаренных кадров, создания «социального лифта» для их успешной научной и творческой карьеры в собственном государстве.

Литература / References 1. Бодалев, А. А. О направлениях и задачах научной разработки проблемы

способностей // Вопросы психологии. – 1984. – № 1. – С. 119-124. 2. Василькова, Ю. В. Работа социального педагога с одаренными детьми: лекции по

социальной педагогике (на материалах отечественного образования). – Москва: ГФ «Полиграфресурсы», 1998 г.

3. Глава IV «Принципы интеграции основного и дополнительного образования, способствующие развитию креативности и потенциальной одаренности школьников» в монографию «Психодидактические основы развития креативных способностей и потенциальной одаренности школьников» / под ред. Панова, В. И. – Черноголовка: ИНИМ РАО, 2011. – 3 п. л. [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://www.ushinskiy.ru/jspui/handle/123456789/1145?mode=full (дата обращения: 22.02.2014).

4. Джумагулова, Т. Н., Соловьева, И. В. Одаренный ребенок: дар или наказание. Книга для педагогов и родителей. – СПб.: Речь; М.: Сфера, 2009.

5. Звездина, Г. П. К вопросу о психологическом портрете одаренных учащихся // Одаренный ребенок. – 2008. – № 3. – С. 47-52.

6. Ильин, Е. П. Психология творчества, креативности, одаренности. – СПб.: Питер, 2009.

7. Кащенко, В. П. Нужно ли выделять даровитых детей из общей массы школьников // Антолог. пед. мысли России втор. пол. XIX – нач. XX в. – М., 1990. – С. 467-480.

8. Лихачев, Б. Т. Педагогика. Курс лекций: учебное пособие для студентов пед. учебн. заведений и слушателей ИПК и ФПК. – М.: Прометей, 1992.

9. Постановление Правительства Российской Федерации от 3 октября 2002 г. № 732 «О Федеральной целевой программе «Дети России» на 2003-2006 годы» [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://www.rg.ru/oficial/doc/postan_rf/732_02.shtm (дата обращения: 28.01.2014).

10. Рабочая концепция одаренности. – М.: ИЧП «Издательство Магистр», 1998. 11. Синягина, Н. Ю. Современные взгляды и подходы в решении проблемы развития

одаренности в России // Одаренный ребенок. – 2009. – № 4. – C. 6-14. 12. Стенографический отчет о заседании президиумов Государственного совета,

Совета по культуре и искусству и Совета по науке, технологиям и образованию [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://www.kremlin.ru/transcripts/7530 (дата обращения: 28.01.2014).

13. Теплов, Б. М. Способности и одаренность // Ученые записки ГОСНИИ психологии, 1941. – Т. 2.

14. Фельдштейн, Д. И. Приоритетные направления психолого-педагогических исследований в условиях значимых изменений ребенка и ситуации его развития // Педагогика. Научно-теоретический журнал российской академии образования. – № 7. – 2010. – С. 3-11.


15. Что такое одаренность: выявление и развитие одаренных детей. Классические тексты / под ред. М. А. Матюшкина, А. А. Матюшкиной. – М.: ЧеРо, издательство «Омега-Л», МПСИ, 2008.

16. Утечка мозгов [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Утечка_ мозгов (дата обращения: 15.02.2014).

Татьяна Алексеевна Спиридонова Учитель Негосударственное образовательное учреждение «Средняя общеобразовательная школа «Интеграция» с углубленным изучением английского языка» Москва, Россия [email protected] Tatyana Spiridonova Teacher Non-State Educational Institution Secondary Comprehensive School ‘Integration’ with profound teaching of English Moscow, Russia [email protected]




АЛЕКСАНДРА ВЯЧЕСЛАВОВНА БОЙКОВА, НУРИЯ МИНИЯРОВНА АХМЕРОВА / ALEKSANDRA BOYKOVA, NURIYA AHMEROVA

ПРИМЕНЕНИЕ НЕКОТОРЫХ СОВРЕМЕННЫХ ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНЫХ ТЕХНОЛОГИЙ В КОНТЕКСТЕ СОВРЕМЕННЫХ ГЛОБАЛЬНЫХ ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНЫХ ТЕНДЕНЦИЙ

APPLICATION OF SOME MODERN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGIES IN THE CONTEXT OF CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL EDUCATIONAL TRENDS


Одними из основных тенденций развития современного образования являются создание условий для самореализации каждого человека, свободное развитие его способностей, индивидуализация обучения. Оптимальной средой для развития ребенка в России можно назвать учреждения дополнительного образования, которые позволяют учесть способности и склонности каждого ребенка, выстроить для него наилучший образовательный маршрут, имеют возможности и квалифицированный персонал для внедрения и/или апробации как классических, так и современных педагогических технологий. В данной статье автор рассматривает разные способы применения игровой педагогической технологии при построении индивидуального образовательного маршрута. В 21 веке основной парадигмой образования стало формирование не знаний, умений и навыков, а компетенций. В статье показано, каким образом игровая технология может помочь развить некоторые из них (коммуникативную, познавательную и др.).

One of the main trends in the development of modern education is the creation of conditions for self-realisation of each person, free development of his/her abilities, individualization of educational process. Institutions of additional education can be called the optimal environment for child`s development in Russia; they allow to take into account the abilities and inclinations of each child, build the best educational route for him/her, provide the possibilities and qualified personnel for the implementation and/or probation of both classical and modern teaching technologies. In this article the author examines different ways of using game based educational technology in the construction of individual educational path. In the 21st century the formation of competences instead of knowledge, abilities and skills has become the main educational paradigm. The article shows how game based technology can help in developing some of them (communicative, cognitive, etc.). Ключевые слова: глобальные тенденции развития образования,

индивидуальный образовательный маршрут, дополнительное образование, коммуникативная компетенция, социальная компетенция, познавательная компетенция, информационная компетенция

Keywords: global tendencies of educational development, individual educational route, additional education, communicative competence, social competence, cognitive competence, information competence

Применение некоторых современных образовательных технологий… 532

Тенденции развития образования как в отдельно взятой стране, так и в мире всегда связаны с экономической и политической ситуацией в стране и в мире. «Продукт образования», ребенок, его знания, умения, навыки или, выражаясь современным языком, компетенции должны четко соответствовать требованиям современного ему общества. Так, если в 19-20 веке, в эпоху бурного развития промышленности, массово требовались работники, способные четко выполнять поставленную задачу, работать со все усложняющимися механизмами, то в 21 веке требуются личности, способные жить и работать в быстро меняющемся мире, оперативно принимать решения.

В мировой системе образования к началу ХХI века сложились и отчетливо проявляются следующие глобальные тенденции:

• заметными становятся отход школы от ориентации на «среднего» ученика и повышенный ее интерес к одаренным детям и молодым людям, к особенностям раскрытия и развития их способностей и творческого потенциала в процессе обучения именно средствами образования;

• наблюдается постепенное разрастание рынка образовательных услуг и расширение их спектра;

• постоянно расширяется спектр учебно-организационных мероприятий, направленных как на удовлетворение разносторонних интересов, так и на развитие способностей обучаемых;

• значительное распространение получают нововведения при сохранении сложившихся национальных традиций и национальной идентичности стран и регионов. В силу этого образовательное пространство становится поликультурным и ориентированным на развитие человека и цивилизации в целом, более открытым для формирования международной образовательной среды, национальным по характеру культуры и наднациональным по характеру знаний, приобщению человека к мировым жизненным ценностям, к сокровищнице мировых достижений;

• происходит постепенное увеличение общей длительности и повышение качества дошкольного обучения и воспитания детей. Как свидетельствует опыт образовательных систем франкоязычных стран Европы и советской системы воспитания, дошкольные учреждения значительно облегчают успешную работу всех последующих уровней образования;

• имеет место заметное повышение эффективности работы начальной школы посредством пересмотра ее программы и содержания образования, привлечение к педагогической работе в ней преимущественно выпускников университетов, а не педагогических училищ.

Разумеется, выше перечислены не все тенденции развития образования, а только имеющие отношение к тематике данной статьи.

В действующем законе РФ об образовании выделяются следующие задачи (гл. 1 ст. 3.1) [4]:

• признание приоритетности образования;

Александра В. Бойкова, Нурия М. Ахмерова / Aleksandra Boykova, Nuriya Ahmerova 533

• обеспечение права каждого человека на образование, недопустимость дискриминации в сфере образования;

• гуманистический характер образования, приоритет жизни и здоровья человека, прав и свобод личности, свободного развития личности, воспитание взаимоуважения, трудолюбия, гражданственности, патриотизма, ответственности, правовой культуры, бережного отношения к природе и окружающей среде, рационального природопользования;

• единство образовательного пространства на территории Российской Федерации, защита и развитие этнокультурных особенностей и традиций народов Российской Федерации в условиях многонационального государства;

• создание благоприятных условий для интеграции системы образования Российской Федерации с системами образования других государств на равноправной и взаимовыгодной основе;

• свобода выбора получения образования согласно склонностям и потребностям человека, создание условий для самореализации каждого человека, свободное развитие его способностей, включая предоставление права выбора форм получения образования, форм обучения, организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность, направленности образования в пределах, предоставленных системой образования, а также предоставление педагогическим работникам свободы в выборе форм обучения, методов обучения и воспитания;

• обеспечение права на образование в течение всей жизни в соответствии с потребностями личности, адаптивность системы образования к уровню подготовки, особенностям развития, способностям и интересам человека.

В свете вышесказанного особенно значимыми становятся методы индивидуализации обучения, такие как построение индивидуального образовательного маршрута или обучение в малых группах.

Коллинз, разрабатывая концепцию развивающего обучения, отмечает (в плане тактики реформирования образования) тенденции к повороту от обучения в условиях класса к обучению в малых группах. Учащиеся работают индивидуально, в парах или группах по 3-4 человека. Они используют различного рода упражнения, задания, базы данных, обсуждают, исследуют проблему, организуют мозговые атаки, пишут сочинения, другие письменные работы, разрабатывают проекты.

На первый план в образовании выходит использование как классических, так и современных образовательных технологий: личностно ориентированных, информационно-коммуникативных, игровых.

В данной статье автору хотелось бы осветить использование игровых образовательных технологий при построении индивидуального образовательного маршрута.

Индивидуальный образовательный маршрут – это целенаправленно проектируемая дифференцированная образовательная программа, обеспечивающая учащемуся позиции субъекта выбора, разработки и


реализации образовательной программы при осуществлении преподавателями педагогической поддержки его самоопределения и самореализации. Ценность индивидуального образовательного маршрута состоит в том, что он позволяет каждому на основе оперативно регулируемой самооценки, активного стремления к совершенствованию обеспечить выявление и формирование творческой индивидуальности, формирование и развитие ценностных ориентаций, собственных взглядов и убеждений, неповторимой технологии деятельности.

Индивидуальный образовательный маршрут включает в себя сочетание учебной и внеурочной деятельности в целях социальной самореализации личности и формирования обучающимися опыта предпрофессиональной подготовки.

Существует 3 этапа (или уровня) построения индивидуального образовательного маршрута. Первый выстраивают в общем виде родители ребенка, определяя его жизненные приоритеты. На втором уровне выстраивается образовательный маршрут внутри учреждения общего или дополнительного образования. На третьем выстраивается программа работы ребенка по каждой изучаемой дисциплине с учетом его склонностей и способностей.

И на всех этапах построения индивидуального образовательного маршрута могут и должны использоваться игровые образовательные технологии.

Игра как одно из древнейших педагогических средств обучения и воспитания переживает в настоящее время период своеобразного расцвета. Чем же вызвано возрастание интереса к игре в настоящее время? С одной стороны, оно вызвано развитием педагогической теории и практики, распространением проблемного обучения, с другой стороны, обусловлено социальными и экономическими потребностями формирования разносторонне активной личности.

Игровые технологии в обучении выполняют следующие важные функции: • Социокультурная функция. Игра – сильнейшее средство социализации

ребенка, включающее в себя как контролируемые процессы целенаправленного воздействия их на становление личности, усвоение знаний, духовных ценностей и норм, присущих обществу или группе сверстников, так и спонтанные процессы, влияющие на формирование человека.

• Функция межнациональной коммуникации. И. Кант считал человечество самой коммуникабельностью. Игры национальны и в то же время интернациональны, присущи любой нации и культуре.

• Функция самореализации человека в игре. Это одна из основных функций игры. Для человека игра важна как сфера реализации себя как личности. Именно в этом плане ему важен сам процесс игры, а не ее результат, достижение какой-либо цели.

• Коммуникативная игра. Игра – деятельность коммуникативная, хотя по чисто игровым правилам и конкретная. Она вводит учащегося в реальный контекст сложнейших человеческих отношений.

• Диагностическая функция игры. Диагностика – способность распознавать, процесс постановки диагноза. Игра является более совершенным инструментом диагностики, чем любая другая деятельность


человека, поскольку индивид ведет себя в игре на максимуме проявлений (интеллект, творчество).

• Терапевтическая функция игры. Игра может и должна быть использована для преодоления различных трудностей, возникающих у человека в поведении, в общении с окружающими, в учении. Оценивая терапевтическое значение игровых приемов, Д. Б. Эльконин писал, что эффект игровой терапии определяется практикой новых социальных отношений, которые получает ребенок в ролевой игре.

• Функция коррекции в игре. Психологическая коррекции в игре происходит естественно, если все учащиеся усвоили правила и сюжет игры, если каждый участник игры хорошо знает не только свою роль, но и роли своих партнеров, если процесс и цель игры их объединяют.

• Развлекательная функция игры. Развлекательная функция игры связана с созданием определенного комфорта, благоприятной атмосферы, душевной радости как защитных механизмов, т. е. стабилизации личности, реализации уровней ее притязаний. Развлечение в играх – поиск. Игра обладает магией, способной давать пищу фантазии, выводящей на развлекательность.

Российская система дополнительного образования (дома детского творчества, школы искусств, центры развития творчества детей), которая развивалась в течение практически целого столетия начиная с 1918 г., создает оптимальные условия для индивидуализации обучения и внедрения игровых методик.

Рассмотрим как игровая технология применяется в учреждениях дополнительного образования детей на примере одного конкретного учреждения (МБОУ ДОД «Детская школа искусств» г. Ступино).

Игровая технология является базовой в дополнительном образовании. Применяется на всех отделениях школы. Является основной на подготовительном отделении. Применяется активно на художественном и социально-педагогическом отделениях.

Реализация игровых приемов и ситуаций при урочной форме занятий происходит по основным направлениям:

• дидактическая цель ставится перед учащимися в форме игровой задачи; • учебная деятельность подчиняется правилам игры; • учебный материал используется в качестве ее средства, в учебную

деятельность вводится элемент соревнования, который переводит дидактическую задачу в игровую;

• успешное выполнение дидактического задания связывается с игровым результатом.

При использовании игровых технологий нами соблюдаются следующие условия:

1) соответствие игры учебно-воспитательным целям урока; 2) доступность для учащихся данного возраста; 3) умеренность в использовании игр на уроках [5, с. 8]. При реализации образовательных программ используются следующие

виды игр: 1. Интеллектуальные – образовательная программа «Интеллектуальные

игры», составитель – А. В. Бойкова. Творческое объединение является


аналогом клуба «Что? Где? Когда?». В процессе реализации данной программы применяются все виды игр: обучающие, тренировочные, контролирующие, познавательные, воспитательные, развивающие, творческие, коммуникативные, диагностические и т. д. Применяется как элемент индивидуального образовательного маршрута на всех отделениях школы [1, с. 4].

Рассмотрим как интеллектуальные игры способствуют развитию некоторых компетенций воспитанников:

1) Игры на развитие коммуникативной и социальной компетенции Коммуникативная компетенция включает в себя умение: • сотрудничать; • оказывать помощь другим; • участвовать в работе команды; • обмениваться информацией. Социальная компетенция способствует личностному

самосовершенствованию школьника, а именно умению: • анализировать свои достижения и ошибки; • обнаруживать проблемы и затруднения в сообщениях одноклассников; • осуществлять взаимную помощь и поддержку в затруднительных

ситуациях. В первую очередь – игра «Что? Где? Когда?». В процессе игры для ответа

на поставленный вопрос задействуются знания, логика, интуиция всех игроков команды. Существует традиционное (хотя никогда жестко не фиксируемое) распределение ролей в команде: капитан (диспетчер обсуждения), «знайка», логик, интуит. В процессе игры детям становится ясно, что зачастую самых глубоких знаний недостаточно без понимания того, как их использовать (с помощью логики или интуиции), а для построения логической цепочки необходима отправная точка. Кроме того, в процессе игры выявляется правило «1+1 не равно двум» – ссора «убивает» результат, а умение услышать друг друга позволяет из двух отдельных кусочков сложить целостную картинку-ответ.

Еще одним способом развития коммуникативной компетенции являются настольные игры на командообразование («Запретный остров», «Фейерверк», «Диксит»).

2) Игры на развитие познавательной и информационной компетенции учащихся

Учебно-познавательная компетенция включает в себя умения: • определять цели и порядок работы; • самостоятельно планировать свою учебную деятельность и

самостоятельно учиться; • устанавливать связи между отдельными объектами; • применять освоенные способы в новых ситуациях; • осуществлять самоконтроль. Информационная компетенция включает в себя умение: • самостоятельно искать, анализировать и отбирать информацию; • упорядочить, преобразовать, сохранять и передавать ее.


В среде знатоков есть такая поговорка: «Познавательную функцию ЧГК никто не отменял». И на развитие этой функции направлены следующие достаточно традиционные игры:

• «Своя игра»; • «Интернет-покер»; • «Эрудит-лото»; • «Верю – не верю»; • Настольные игры викторинного или словарного типа («Эрудит»). 2. Дидактические игры – применяются при реализации практически

всех программ школы (авторская образовательная программа «Основы изобразительной грамоты», методическая разработка «Развивающие игры на уроках ИЗО» (автор – О. Л. Галкина), авторская образовательная программа «Основы художественного изображения» (автор – О. А. Пацукова). Их применение в учебном процессе достаточно очевидно и не требует специальных комментариев [2, с. 16; 3, с. 21].

3. Третий вид игр, используемых в разработке индивидуальных образовательных маршрутов, – терапевтические, которые применяются, например, при реализации авторской образовательной программы по изобразительному творчеству «Развитие», раздел «Игры для души» (автор – В. Ю. Шевченко). Подобные игры не требуют специальной психо-терапевтической подготовки, могут применяться любым педагогом. [3, с. 64].

У Конфуция есть замечательные слова: «Путь в тысячу ли начинается с одного шага». Воспитание «человека мира», глобально компетентного гражданина начинается с малого – с семьи, со школы. Оптимальной средой для развития ребенка можно назвать учреждения дополнительного образования, которые позволяют учесть способности и склонности каждого ребенка, выстроить для него наилучший образовательный маршрут, имеют возможности и квалифицированный персонал для внедрения и/или апробации как классических, так и современных педагогических технологий.

Литература / References

1. Бойкова, А. В. Модифицированная дополнительная образовательная программа «Интеллектуальные игры», утверждена методическим советом МБОУ ДОД «ДШИ г. Ступино». – 2012. – С. 4.

2. Галкина, О. Л. Авторская образовательная программа «Основы изобразительной грамоты», утверждена методическим советом МБОУ ДОД «ДШИ г. Ступино». – 2010. С. 16.

3. Пацукова, О. А. Авторская образовательная программа «Основы художественного изображения», утверждена методическим советом МБОУ ДОД «ДШИ г. Ступино». – 2010. – С. 21.

4. Федеральный закон от 29 декабря 2012 г. N 273-ФЗ «Об образовании в Российской Федерации» (с изменениями и дополнениями) [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://base.consultant.ru/cons/cgi/online.cgi?req=doc;base=LAW;n=158429 (дата обращения: 08.11.2010).

5. Шевченко, В. Ю. Авторская образовательная программа «Развитие», утверждена методическим советом МБОУ ДОД «ДШИ г. Ступино». – 2012. – С. 8.


Александра Вячеславовна Бойкова Магистрант Московский государственный университет технологий и управления имени К. Г. Разумовского Москва, Россия педагог дополнительного образования МБОУ ДОД «Детская школа искусств» Ступино, Россия [email protected] Aleksandra Boykova Master Student Moscow State University of Technologies and Management named after K.G. Razumovskiy Moscow, Russia Teacher of additional education Municipal budget educational institution of additional education ‘Art School for Children’ Stupino, Russia [email protected] Нурия Минияровна Ахмерова доктор педагогических наук, профессор Московский государственный университет технологий и управления имени К. Г. Разумовского Москва, Россия Nuriya Ahmerova PhD in Pedagogy (Doctor of Science), Professor Moscow State University of Technologies and Management named after K.G. Razumovskiy Moscow, Russia




НАДЕЖДА БОРИСОВНА КАЧАЙНОВА / NАDEZHDA KACHAINOVA

МОДЕРНИЗАЦИЯ РОССИЙСКОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ В КОНТЕКСТЕ ГЛОБАЛИЗАЦИИ

MODERNIZATION OF RUSSIAN EDUCATION IN THE CONTEXT OF GLOBALIZATION


В статье рассматриваются экономические, социальные и политические аспекты модернизации российской системы образования, проблемы становления ее новой парадигмы. Делается вывод о позитивном значении международного сотрудничества в этой сфере. В статье также отмечается, что недооценка властью значения негативных последствий, проводимых в стране частичных реформ, приводит к повышению социальной напряженности, углублению неравенства, снижению качества образования, миграции специалистов и научных кадров. С целью стимулирования развития и удовлетворения познавательных потребностей различных групп населения в сфере их повседневной жизни предлагается создание системы общекультурного, доступного (некоммерческого) образования, инициируемой общественными организациями.

The article examines economic, social and political aspects of modernization of Russian educational system, the problems of establishing its new paradigm. The conclusion about the positive value of international cooperation in this field is made. In the article it is also noted that underestimation by the power of the negative consequences of partial reforms held in the country leads to the increase of social tension, intensification of inequality, lowering of educational quality, migration of specialists and scientists. To stimulate the development and satisfaction of the cognitive needs of different population groups in the sphere of their daily life it is offered to create a common cultural system of available (non-profit) education initiated by civil society organizations. Ключевые слова: Болонский процесс, глобализация, качество образования,

модернизация образования, парадигма образования, производство и потребление знаний, социальное неравенство, ценность образования

Keywords: Bologna process, globalization, quality of education, modernization of education, educational paradigm, knowledge production and consumption, social inequality, value of education

Глобализация представляет собой социальный процесс, направленный на формирование мирового единства, что приводит к изменению пространственно-временных характеристик социального бытия. Философско-методологические обоснования ее противоречивы, как противоречив сам процесс. Они располагаются в широком континууме от апологетических до критических, давая основания как для оптимистических, так и алармистских

Модернизация российского образования в контексте глобализации 540

прогнозов последствий глобализации. Исследования показывают, что каждая из теорий имеет достаточное обоснование. Несомненно, это связано с масштабом и сложностью изучаемого феномена, но следует учитывать также факт незрелости глобализационного процесса, находящегося на том этапе становления его сущности, когда стороны противоречия, разрешение которого и является источником развития процесса, неявны, а, следовательно, спектр его последствий достаточно широк, и степени вероятности реализации каждого из них невысоки и близки по своему значению. Исследования закономерностей функционирования отдельных социальных институтов в рамках целостного глобализационного процесса дают возможность получить более детальную информацию, раскрывающую глубинные его механизмы.

Находясь еще в начальной стадии своего развертывания, глобализация вовлекает в процесс модернизации все стороны жизни, в том числе и образование [11]. Механизм глобализационного процесса приводится в действие внешними и внутренними силами и реализуется в непрерывном возникновении и разрешении внутреннего противоречия между стремлением системы образования к устойчивости и необходимостью ее постоянного обновления.

В древнейшие времена оно формировалось на Руси в противоборстве устного образования, поддерживающего традиции пращуров, и книжного – церковного. Так уже во времена апостола Андрея, побывавшего с учениками на Руси, сложился маршрут взаимных перемещений с целью обогащения знаний между Римом и Русью. Книги писались с использованием греческой, латинской и армянской азбук. В последующие эпохи форма противоречия менялась, но не менялось главное – столкновение традиции и стремление выйти за ее пределы [8].

Сегодня, когда ценности западного мира неуклонно распространяются за его пределы, возникает маргинальная ситуация, имеющая те же корни: столкновение традиционных, привычных социальных, жизненных ориентиров (которые теперь воспринимаются как устаревшие) и привлекательных (референтных) норм и ценностей, пришедших извне.

Механизмы глобализации связаны с преодолением пространственных барьеров и усилением влияния западных образовательных моделей. В частности, Болонский процесс явился значительным шагом в формировании единого Европейского образовательного пространства. Однако глобализация образования ведет не только к усилению взаимного влияния и проникновения западных его моделей в российское образовательное пространство. Его открытость – один из ответов на требования к образованию со стороны общества. Устоявшаяся система не отвечает этим требованиям. Модернизация российского образования реализуется в сложном противоречии: быть эффективной (приносить выгоду сегодня) и создавать задел, строить основание будущего [10, с. 202].

Если определить суть функций системы профессионального образования как производство знаний, то, как и всякое другое производство, оно нуждается в потребителе. Образование производит особые предмет, способ и влечение к потреблению [3, с. 29]. Но отношение между производителем и продуктом опосредовано распределением, включающим совокупность общественных

Надежда Борисовна Качайнова / Nаdezhda Kachainova 541

законов, которые определяют долю личности/социальной группы в мире знаний. В частности, сложности в реализации программы ЮНЕСКО по обеспечению доступности начального образования в развивающихся странах отчасти связаны с отсутствием потребности у населения в такого рода знаниях, поскольку нет возможности их использования в традиционной повседневной практике. Пока не будет соответствующих рабочих мест, просветительские программы малоэффективны, они должны быть подкреплены программами экономического развития территорий. Социальное и экономическое неравенство имеет место не только в масштабах мировой системы, но и внутри отдельных стран: это неравенство между регионами, общинами, образовательными учреждениями [12]. Оно не просто ограничивает доступность образования, а делает нереальными шансы отдельных групп населения на достойную жизнь.

Современное, быстро меняющееся, наукоемкое производство требует подготовки профессионалов качественно нового уровня. И если в технологическом плане многие проблемы, связанные с решением этих инновационных задач, активно исследуются и успешно решаются, то политические и социально-культурные аспекты развития российского образования исследованы недостаточно.

Сегодня делается попытка реформирования российского образования на основе его трактовки как системы услуг. Специфика услуги проявляется в том, что она неосязаема, результат ее явен лишь после завершения процесса предоставления; она неотделима от субъекта, ее предоставляющего; качество ее непостоянно и определяется наряду с условиями времени и места, профессионализмом этого субъекта, а также ожиданиями клиента, ее получающего; услуга несохранна – образовательная услуга требует обязательного присутствия потребителя, невостребованная услуга виртуальна, она не существует [2, с. 638-640]. Экономически это означает, что все затраты на ее ресурсное обеспечение, в том числе и подготовку профессионалов, списываются в убытки.

Низкое качество профессионального образования в России и перепроизводство специалистов по отдельным профессиям делает их неконкурентоспособными на рынке труда. При высоком спросе на работников разного уровня квалификации наличие диплома является формальным требованием. Это приводит к тому, что его получают «на всякий случай» и по тому профилю обучения, который более доступен и менее трудоемок. Исследования российских социологов показывают, что сегодня в молодежной среде формируются новые стратегии профессионального поведения, в которых профессиональные планы часто не связаны с полученной специальностью [5, с. 16-17]. Несмотря на то, что работодатели испытывают потребность в кадрах, масса выпускников с дипломами юристов, менеджеров, специалистов государственного и муниципального управления занимаются чем угодно: работают охранниками, мерчендайзерами, продавцами и пр. Одни из них реально оценивают свою профессиональную некомпетентность, другие – не могут или не хотят заниматься сложными, требующими самоотдачи, постоянного профессионального роста видами деятельности, не дающими


гарантий материального достатка, устойчивой занятости и социального статуса.

Ценностное отношение к образованию возникает в процессе соотнесения его престижа в данном обществе и его пользы с точки зрения конкретного человека. При этом не имеет значения, основываются ли эти оценки на истинном или ложном знании, на богатом жизненном опыте или на его отсутствии [5, с. 43-45]. Известно, что престиж профессионального образования неодинаков в разных социальных группах населения, поэтому те, кто не удовлетворен своим социальным статусом и стремится его повысить, как правило, более высоко оценивают практическую пользу образования для себя, чем те, кто «принимает свою жизнь такой, как она есть» (здесь имеет значение и то, как оценивается доступность желаемого профессионального образования данной личностью).

Немаловажным моментом, определяющим успешность реализации функций образования в современном мире, является отбор из тех, кто ориентирован на его получение, наиболее способных к данному уровню и направлению профессиональной подготовки. Любая организация уделяет серьезное внимание вопросам кадровой политики. Большинство российских университетов поставлены сегодня в такие экономические и организационные условия, при которых они способны выжить, только имея достаточно большой контингент контрактных студентов. В такой ситуации, а также при снижении качества общего среднего образования и значимости профессионального обучения для студентов все мероприятия по реализации политики по формированию состава студентов приобретают формальный, поверхностный характер и не ведут к повышению ценности образования в жизненных стратегиях молодежи. Специалисты с высшим образованием во всем мире составляют интеллектуальную элиту общества. Это приобретаемый социальный статус, обусловленный как объективными условиями и факторами, так и личными качествами специалиста [6].

Первым реальным шагом модернизации высшего образования является формирование иной его парадигмы, в основе которой – отказ от механической передачи максимально доступного объема знаний и переход к освоению необходимых технологий деятельности [6]. Она опирается на компетентностный подход, ориентирующий процесс обучения на конечный результат: овладение молодым специалистом навыками и умениями, необходимыми для решения профессиональных задач как сегодня, так и в будущем.

В любом обществе образование неразрывно связано не только с институтами экономической, но также и политической сфер общественной жизни. Государство выступает заказчиком и потребителем образовательного продукта на всех его уровнях. Власть формулирует требования к его объему, структуре и качеству и соответственно этому выделяет необходимые с ее точки зрения ресурсы. При этом она исходит из своих политических целей, поддерживая и преобразуя социальную структуру общества, обеспечивая или ограничивая доступ к наиболее престижным уровням и видам образования представителям определенных социальных групп, слоев населения. Если государство в силу своих политических установок не заинтересовано в


расширении образовательного пространства для своих граждан, возникает противоречие между уровнем объективных потребностей развития производства, науки, субъективным спросом конкретных личностей и реальными шансами на получение востребованного на рынке труда уровня и качества образования. Это серьезная проблема не только для России. В докладе ЮНЕСКО по проблемам образования отмечается, что государства, неся ответственность за обеспечение равных возможностей и справедливости, должны принимать соответствующие политические решения: рост инвестиций в социальную сферу, поддержка маргинальных групп, повышение качества образования и др. [4; 7].

Однако часто политика по модернизации ограничивается призывами к «внедрению инноваций», к «модернизации в условиях глобализации», а на деле оборачивается организационно управленческими реформами бюрократического характера. Вот одна из причин того, что определенные категории молодежи в условиях расширения образовательного пространства в современном мире стремятся получить профессиональную подготовку за рубежами своих стран. В условиях преобладания традиционных моделей обучения, основанных на прямом контакте: «учитель – ученик», «наставник – подопечный», это приводит не только к размыванию границ национальных, исторически сложившихся образовательных систем, их в определенных границах унификации (примером может служить Болонское соглашение), но и к вхождению в иную социальную среду. Последствия данного процесса двойственны. Одни молодые специалисты находят хорошую работу в своей стране и приносят в повседневную жизнь инновационные элементы культуры труда и трудовых отношений. Однако они не всегда находят поддержку у руководства и коллег по работе, поэтому одни смиряются с ситуацией, теряя инициативу (по сути, дисквалифицируясь), а другие – переезжают за границу, где востребованы как специалисты. Государство также теряет и тех профессионалов, которые находят место работы за рубежом сразу, получив диплом. Миграция в определенной мере способствует взаимопроникновению культур, однако не стимулирует модернизационные процессы в границах Отечества.

Доступность высшего образования ограничивается государством и по другой причине: хорошее образование порождает более высокие амбиции. Такой работник профессионально компетентен, ответственен, креативен, но он требователен к условиям труда, уровню заработной платы, имеет свое мнение и способен его отстаивать. Государство как работодатель не всегда готово к реализации этих ожиданий, особенно в ситуациях, когда сохраняется большое количество рабочих мест, не требующих высокого уровня подготовки.

Массовая доступность высшего образования – явление социокультурного порядка. Оно создает условия для более успешной самореализации личности, активизации ее участия в жизни общества. Беда в том, что позволить себе это могут лишь страны с высокоразвитой экономикой, обеспечивающие высокое качество жизни населения. Все другие с необходимостью вынуждены исходить из принципа: «Лучше меньше, да лучше!».

В истории СССР дважды предпринимались попытки преодолеть это противоречие. В первые десятилетия советской власти были решены такие


сложные задачи, как ликвидация неграмотности и подготовка специалистов для народного хозяйства. Значимое участие в этом процессе принимали иностранные специалисты. Сыграло свою роль и обучение, стажировки, работа советских инженеров и ученых за рубежом. Но доля кадров с высшим образованием в общей численности населения была тогда невелика.

В послевоенное время сложившаяся система образования постепенно стала отставать от уровня потребностей населения. Хотя значительная его часть была занята неквалифицированным, физическим трудом, в народе явно проявилась тяга к знаниям, любознательность. Сыграло свою роль и приоткрытие «железного занавеса». Не ограничиваясь обучением профессиональным знаниям и навыкам, представители разных социальных групп проявляли интерес к отечественной и мировой истории, литературе и юриспруденции, к вопросам здорового образа жизни и пр. Тогда, в 60-е годы, была сделана попытка удовлетворить растущие познавательные потребности населения за счет активизации деятельности Общества «Знание» России (The All-Russia «Znanie» Society) и «Народных университетов» (общественных учебных организаций, способствующих самообразованию и культурному развитию трудящихся, которые возникли после 1917 г.) [9]. Идея перспективна – выделить в системе образования в качестве самостоятельного направления общекультурное образование, доступное всем. В условиях, когда государство экономит на социальной сфере, его развитие возможно на основе привлечения частного сектора, активизации общественной, благотворительной деятельности, базирующейся на понимании интеллигенцией своей социально-гуманистической миссии. Это открытое поле для широкого международного сотрудничества и культурного обмена при условии доминирования некоммерческого характера таких организаций.

В ходе информационной революции возможности самообразования, профессиональной подготовки и расширения культурного кругозора становятся безграничными. Проблема в том, что во «всемирной паутине», как на заброшенном пустыре, скопилась масса «мусора», пробиться через который обычному пользователю довольно трудно, а отделить научную информацию от ненаучной, ложной часто и вовсе не представляется возможным. Сегодня не достаточно сайтов научного содержания, рассчитанных на различные уровни образования потребителей, за качество информации на которых учредители берут на себя ответственность.

Глобализационные процессы в образовании неразрывно связаны с развитием информационных технологий. Формируется новая агломерация педагогов, специализирующихся на их использовании в дистанционном обучении. Это открывает безграничные возможности для получения любых знаний на любом языке за любой период времени и в любой точке мира. Это новая, «индустриальная» модель образования, рассчитанная на массового потребителя, обладающая своими преимуществами и ограничениями. Значения университетского очного образования она не умаляет, поскольку в прямом общении преподаватель имеет перед собой целостную личность: будущего просвещенного человека и специалиста.

Безусловно, традиционные модели обучения сегодня модифицируются: включают активные, клинические методы, современные образовательные


информационные технологии. Их элитарность обусловлена сохранением непосредственной связи не просто с отдельными преподавателями, профессорами и учеными, но с предыдущим поколением профессионалов, которые передают по эстафете всю систему профессиональной культуры, корпоративные традиции, правила, моральные принципы, нормы и ценности. Насколько это важно, мы в России начинаем всерьез понимать сегодня, когда произошло радикальное изменение системы ценностных ориентаций большинства социальных групп населения в сторону превалирования прагматических, корыстных, властных мотивов образовательной и трудовой деятельности.

Подводя итог, следует отметить, что важным позитивным последствием глобализации в образовании является стремление субъектов образовательного процесса к взаимному сотрудничеству на основе сближения профессиональных, этических, мировоззренческих ценностей («Образование без границ»). Современное мировое сообщество не только осознает необходимость, но реально планирует и осуществляет мероприятия по формированию единого образовательного пространства, ориентированного не только на сегодняшний, но и на завтрашний день. Модернизационные процессы в российской системе образования опираются на европейский, демократический вариант развития глобализации, в котором важная роль отводится усилению роли государства в предупреждении ее негативных последствий.

Однако процесс модернизации российского образования находится в стадии неопределенности, что приводит к «массовой имитации и фальсификации образования» [1, с. 19]. Объективными барьерами модернизации выступают не столько социокультурные, сколько политические и экономические факторы. Пока российское государство не готово решать насущные проблемы развития образования, ограничиваясь усилением контроля за расходованием бюджетных средств, структурными изменениями и бюрократизацией управления. Концептуальные вопросы, связанные с созданием новой парадигмы общего и профессионального образования, разработкой его методологии и методики, программного обеспечения, формированием корпуса преподавателей, исследователей и сотрудников учебных заведений, а также контингента учащихся и студентов, не решаются. Это ведет к отсутствию поддержки проводимых реформ, нарастанию социальной напряженности в образовательной среде. Нельзя не согласиться с Э. Тоффлером, что «нам нужны не случайные попытки модернизации. Нам нужен системный подход к проблеме в целом» [10, с. 445].

При сохранении оценки образования как затратной сферы, утилитарного отношения к образованию модель его будущего можно охарактеризовать как стагнационную, опирающуюся на централизацию управления, жесткий финансовый контроль со стороны государства. Формирование нескольких образовательно-исследовательских центров не приведет к реальному повышению качества обучения, поскольку это будет сопровождаться слабым уровнем деятельности учреждений на территориях, падению престижа гуманитарного образования. Снижение уровня доступности качественного


образования приведет к усилению ориентации на обучение и последующую профессиональную деятельность за рубежом.

Модернизационная модель развития образования связана с переходом России на новый цивилизационный уровень. Тогда образование без барьеров будет работать на будущее, ориентироваться на личность и ее активность. Цель новой образовательной системы – развитие интеллектуального потенциала страны как основы ее социальной стабильности, национальной безопасности, прогресса ее экономики и культуры. В контексте деятельностной педагогики, опирающейся на научные исследования и неразрывно связанной с реальной жизненной практикой, произойдет формирование нового типа отношений между преподавателем и учеником, в сфере образования появятся внеинституциональные сообщества, научно-образовательные комплексы и культурно-образовательные учреждения. Будут преодолены территориальные различия в качестве образования, оно станет равноправным участником мирового образовательного процесса.

Важная роль, инициатива в преодолении негативных последствий глобализации, снятии социальных, политических и экономических барьеров на пути модернизации отводится субъектам образовательного процесса. Речь идет о создании современной концепции доступного общего и современного профессионального образования, создающей условия для реализации интеллектуального, творческого потенциала молодежи, вступающей в жизнь. Существующая сегодня научная база для такого уровня разработок не достаточна.

На сегодняшнем этапе глобализации образования в России представляется актуальным разделение двух направлений образования: профессионального и общекультурного. Если первое формируется под конкретный заказ государства, то второе является ответом на запрос различных категорий граждан. Его цель в удовлетворении познавательных потребностей в сфере повседневной жизни, что неизбежно способствует развитию личностного потенциала населения. По мере решения государством экономических и политических проблем, осознания значимости второй линии образования как необходимого фактора обеспечения повышения качества жизни населения и национальной безопасности, неизбежно происходит слияние обоих направлений.

Литература / References 1. Будущее высшей школы в России: экспертный взгляд. Форсайт-исследование –

2030: аналитический доклад. – Красноярск: Сибирский федеральный университет, 2012.

2. Котлер, Ф. Основы маркетинга / пер. с англ. – М.: Прогресс, 1991. 3. Маркс, К., Энгельс, Ф. Соч. – Т. 46, ч. 1. 4. Молодежь и навыки. Образование должно работать. Краткий доклад. – М.:

Издательство ЮНЕСКО, 2012 [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://www.intelros.ru/ reports/17618-vsemirnyy-doklad-po-monitoringu-obrazovaniya-dlya-vseh-za-2012-god-opublikovan-na-russkom-yazyke.html (дата обращения: 21.02.2014).

5. Повседневная культура студенчества: социологические модели повседневности / под ред. Вишневского, Ю. Р., Банниковой, Л. Н. – Екатеринбург: УрФУ, 2012.


6. Пономарев, А. В., Пономарева, О. Я. Формирование модели социально-личностных компетенций выпускника вуза. – Екатеринбург: ООО Изд. УМЦ УПМ, 2008.

7. Преодоление неравенства: важная роль управления. Седьмой всемирный доклад ЮНЕСКО по мониторингу образования для всех на 2009 год [Электронный ресурс]: Центр гуманитарных технологий. – URL: http://gtmarket.ru/news/state/ 2008/11/28/1874 (дата обращения: 21.02.2014).

8. Российско-итальянские общественные и культурные связи, 15-20 вв.: материалы международной научной конференции, Москва, 1-2 ноября 2011 г. – М.: ИНИОН РАН, 2011.

9. Сборник документов о развитии народных университетов в СССР. – М.: Знание, 1971.

10. Тоффлер, Э. Шок будущего. – М.: АСТ, 2002. 11. Altbach, P. G. Globalization and University. Lecture at the Harvard Seminar on Strategic

management for Russian Rectors. Harvard University, January 2003. 12. Education for All by 2015 – Will we make it? EFA, 2008. Надежда Борисовна Качайнова кандидат философских наук, доцент Уральский федеральный университет Екатеринбург, Россия [email protected] Nаdezhda Kachainova PhD in Philosophy (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor Ural Federal University Yekaterinburg, Russia [email protected]




ТАТЬЯНА ИГОРЕВНА ЛАПТЕВА / TATYANA LAPTEVA

РОЛЬ СИСТЕМНОГО И ИНТЕГРАЛЬНОГО ПОДХОДОВ В РАЗВИТИИ ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ В РОССИИ

THE ROLE OF SYSTEMIC AND INTEGRATED APPROACHES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN RUSSIA


В статье раскрываются современные подходы и их роль в развитии образования в России, обосновывается актуальность применения инновационных подходов в сфере образования. Задача данной статьи состоит в выявлении суждения и взглядов специалистов в области системного и интегральных подходов к профессиональному воспитанию личности будущего специалиста в условиях образовательного процесса. Предложен системно-интегральный подход, учитывающий системность и интеграцию подходов в высшем образовании в России.

The article describes modern approaches and their role in the development of education in Russia, the urgency of the application of innovative approaches in education is grounded. The purpose of this article is to identify the views and opinions of experts in the field of system and integral approaches to vocational education of the future specialist’s personality within educational process. System-integral approach is proposed, it represents system and integration approaches in higher education in Russia. Ключевые слова: система, образование, системный подход, интегральный

подход, профессиональный потенциал, культура личности, воспитание

Keywords: system, education, system approach, integral approach, professional potential, personality’s culture, education

Введение

Когда людей начнут учить не тому, что они должны думать, а тому,

как они должны думать, тогда исчезнут всякие недоразумения.

Георг Лихтенберг

Люди современности ощущают себя центром мира. Наше влияние распространяется, как колебания воды от камня, брошенного в пруд. Нам неведом тот дальний берег, у которого они стихнут. Нам известно только о возвращающихся к нам волнах обратной связи, хотя мы не всегда понимаем, как создали их. Чем полнее мы осознаем последствия своих действий, тем насыщеннее и активнее живем. Это и есть самообучение – изменять себя с помощью обратной связи, активируемой нашими действиями.

Татьяна Игоревна Лаптева / Tatyana Lapteva 549

Возможно, кого-то при слове «обучение» посещают унылые воспоминания. Но ведь оно не сводится к пассивному усвоению фактов за классной партой или к набиванию шишек в процессе приобретения жизненного опыта. Концепция обучения глубже, чем идея формального ученичества, потому что мы всегда сами себе учителя. Нас учит все, что мы делаем. Обучение приносит плоды, ведь это единственная возможность измениться, постепенно становясь тем, кем мы хотели бы быть. Обучение создает и воссоздает наши ментальные модели. Мы можем изучать что-то, рассказывающее нам о жизни, или учиться у самой жизни, и если первый тип обучения полезен и оказывает нам помощь в процессе жизни, то только второй позволяет ее изменить [4, с. 130].

Современная образовательная система характеризуется серьезными изменениями на всех ее стадиях, направленными на достижение нового качества образования. Приведенные ниже инновационные подходы помогут осмыслить образовательную деятельность и дополнить ее некоторыми теоретическими компонентами для совершенствования и развития профессионального образования в России.

В настоящее время окружающий мир познается в основном индуктивно, по его отдельным фрагментам. Большое количество специализированных научных дисциплин раскрывает глубину познания мира, но многие из них не могут полностью вписаться в системный его образ. Поэтому разрозненные науки не всегда находят точки взаимодействия, имея при этом низкую достоверность результатов. Разве не странно, что люди, живя в современном мире, пользуясь его ресурсами, развиваясь в едином с ним временном и пространственном объеме, наверняка имеющие одинаковые с ним ценности, изучают деятельность этого мира с помощью отдельных наук, зачастую упуская их взаимосвязи.

Например, естественный мир познается естественными науками, а на изучение поведения человека и общества претендуют общественные науки, объясняя это наличием каких-то особенностей. Можно сказать, что только философия не покидала своих позиций в познании единства деятельности мира.

Но нельзя сказать, что фрагментарность в познании совсем не дает положительных эффектов. Например, глубина познания мира отдельными науками обеспечивает прорыв по определенным направлениям. Но одновременно такое положение разобщает единство выводов. Каждая из 150 наук имеет свои методы, критерии и зачастую несовместимые результаты, а в политической и экономической, образовательной деятельности требуется системный подход [5, с. 44-45].

Системный подход к образованию

Говоря о системном подходе, можно сказать о некотором способе организации наших действий, таком, который охватывает любой род деятельности, выявляя закономерности и взаимосвязи с целью их более эффективного использования. При этом системный подход является не столько методом решения задач, сколько методом постановки задач. Как

Роль системного и интегрального подходов в развитии образования в России 550

говорится, «правильно заданный вопрос – половина ответа». Это качественно более высокий, нежели просто предметный, способ познания [8].

Способом существования системного знания является его модель (материальная, материализованная, идеальная) – системное отображение оригинала. Модели имеют целевой характер; модель, с помощью которой успешно достигается поставленная цель, называют адекватной этой цели; в то же время степень истинности модели проявляется лишь в ее практическом соотнесении с отображаемой ею натурой. Информация, которую несет такая модель, называется нормативной.

Моделирование как метод научного познания применяется в педагогических исследованиях при проектировании моделей исследуемых объектов, дающих возможность решать проблемы построения эффективного процесса обучения и управления им с позиций не только качественных, но и количественных характеристик. В этом случае модель выступает как средство соединения новых знаний с имеющимися, желаемого состояния или деятельности, которую еще предстоит реализовать, с теми, где цель, как и алгоритм деятельности по ее достижению, уже есть. Такие модели в теории моделирования называют познавательными; они служат средством управления и организации практических действий, способом представления образцов действий или их результата [1, c. 5-6].

Таким образом, системный подход обучения – это процесс, который означает действие и предполагает изменение. Приобретенный опыт меняет нас. Как бы мы узнали о том, что научились чему-то? Мы больше знаем о мире и других людях и способны делать нечто такое, чего прежде не могли. У нас, возможно, появились новые навыки и умения. Мы можем даже переосмыслить свои убеждения и ценности и в результате изменить себя как личность. Хотя порой кажется, что такой подход к обучению – это особый вид деятельности, который должен проходить в специально выделенном месте под чьим-то наблюдением, в действительности оно происходит постоянно. Чем бы мы ни занимались, мы можем при этом учиться, потому что системное обучение – это один из основных типов обратной связи в процессе жизни. У каждого человека есть свой, наиболее подходящий для него способ учиться: читая, слушая, беседуя или действуя. В основе своей системное обучение – это петля обратной связи.

Мы действуем, усваиваем реакцию на свои действия и принимаем решения, инициирующие новые действия. Это механизм, усиливающий обратные связи: чем больше действий, тем сильнее реакция на них, что, в свою очередь, увеличивает количество новых решений. Это крайне упрощенное описание, потому что здесь решения ни к чему не привязаны, они случайны и бесцельны. В действительности же они направлены на достижение какой-то цели [3, c. 131-132].

В основе системного обучения лежит системное мышление, которое имеет одну общую методологическую основу – системный анализ. Учитывая его исключительную важность, целесообразно перестроить всю структуру существующей образовательной системы. Системное мышление – это не только процесс, но и навык, которому, как на езде на велосипеде, можно и нужно учиться самому. Пока человечество не овладеет системным методом


для описания совместной экологической, техногенной, социальной, политической, экономической и образовательной деятельности естественного мира, включая в него человека и общество в виде элементов, нельзя ожидать удачи в достижении устойчивости в их совместном развитии [5, с. 46-47]. Человек, овладевший системным мышлением, начинает жить в другом, более гармоничном мире, обнаруживая объекты окружающей среды в совершенно другом свете, другой реальности, более адекватной окружающему миру. Он становится обладателем непреходящей духовной ценности и существенной составляющей мудрости. Понимание законов природы и общества невозможно без методов системного анализа, позволяющих формировать актуальное мировоззрение [9].

Употребление терминов «мировоззрение, духовная ценность, существенная составляющая мудрости» подталкивает нас к рассмотрению следующего современного подхода к образовательному процессу – интегрированному подходу.

Интегральный подход к образованию

Термин «интегральная психология» полностью монополизирован Кеном Уилбером, теория, описанная им, является синтетической теорией, обобщающей результаты многих научных исследований и религиозных изысканий.

В современной ситуации в России при разрозненности социальных структур и групп интегральный образовательный подход может стать комплексной социальной терапией, «глотком свежего воздуха», основой которого будет представление о нелинейном развитии знаний, мироощущений, представлений.

В процессе обучения в школе жизни формируется активная память и берет из пассивной памяти то, что в настоящий момент необходимо для саморазвития сознания. Человека по жизни ведет душа, все остальное – среда, которая имеет свою качественную характеристику. Среда зависит от развития нашего сознания и общества, правильно организованное образование распространяется на все остальные аспекты человека: физический, жизненный, ментальный, психический и духовный. Такое образование приводит к интегральному развитию человека, а сама система образования может быть названа интегральной [2, с. 5].

Принципы, на которых сейчас строится интегральное образование: одновременное развитие основных компонентов целостной личности человека (в индийской традиции их выделяют пять: физический, энергетический, ментальный, психический и духовный), комплексное изучение любой дисциплины, в котором задействованы все чувства человека и все способы восприятия, развитие осознанности, умственных способностей, эстетического восприятия, воспитание веротерпимости (и, в принципе, принятия существования огромных различий между всеми людьми), создание благоприятного и поддерживающего окружения, которое во всем соответствует остальным принципам интегрального образования, воспитание внутреннего осознанного подхода к себе как к исходному материалу, который можно и должно развивать и улучшать, то есть проактивный подход не только


к миру, но и к собственной личности, подход к личности педагога как к главному инструменту воспитания и образования, то есть воспитание педагогом в первую очередь самого себя.

Преимущественное развитие эстетического восприятия и восприятия искусства как одного из самых комплексных способов восприятия необходимо использовать при внедрении интегрального обучения. В защиту этого тезиса можно упомянуть концепцию Болдуина об опыте глубокого единства, высшего эстетического переживания, подобное созерцанию прекрасного произведения искусства, в котором также сходятся и наука, и мораль. При одновременном изучении истории, культуры и философии в комплексном историко-социально-психологическом процессе с последующим разделением на разные дисциплины позволит иметь более полное представление о жизненных и духовных аспектах человека [10].

Предоставление ученикам возможности оставаться в полном одиночестве некоторое время исключает тоталитарность любого рода, а также развивает осознанность и зрелость личности. Воспитание прочных морально-нравственных установок и навыков критического мышления позволит лучше усвоить принцип релятивности любой морали и системы мышления. Поощрение создания малых групп, где дети и подростки будут учиться взаимодействовать друг с другом на основе взаимного уважения, приведет к достижению групповых целей. Применение игровых методик обучения не только более эффективно, но и в большинстве случаев соответствует нынешней стадии развития человеческого сознания, на которую изрядно повлиял Интернет и большая проницаемость мира в целом, по сравнению с миром ХХ века [6, с. 56].

В процессе интегрального обучения воспитание интуиции как самостоятельного навыка комплексного анализа информации, который не привязан к конкретным концепциям и не ограничен необходимостью рационального доказательства, развивает ментальные, психические аспекты человека. Взаимное обучение старшими детьми младших, которое поможет более глубоко понимать и более осознанно подходить к учебе и жизни в целом (как всякое принятие ответственности).

Ценность интегрального подхода к образованию прежде всего в объединении различных «туннелей реальности» [7, с. 110] с целью создания панорамного видения реальности и синергии различных подходов к ней, как теоретических, так и отраженных в практиках. Современной нейрофизиологией доказано, что умножение количества межнейронных связей приводит не только к повышению осознанности и качества жизни, но и к повышению ощущаемого «количества счастья».

Поэтому я рискну предположить, что интегральный подход, будучи практически реализованным в любой сфере, принесет человеку (коллективу, стране, миру) не только глубокие и разносторонние материальные результаты, но и чисто субъективное физиологическое удовлетворение и ту подлинно глубокую радость, которая всегда сопровождает духовное развитие человеческой сущности [10].


Заключение

Добиваться успеха в мире сложных систем означает не только раздвигать временные горизонты и расширять профессиональный кругозор, это значит, что надо расширять границы того, о чем мы должны позаботиться [3, с. 295].

Для реализации принципа системности в высшем образовании Россия должна начать подготовку системологов. От них требуется умение диалектически мыслить, владеть прочными знаниями фундаментальных законов разных наук, природы и общества, понимать место своего предметного знания в научной картине мира, производить новое знание с учетом духовно-нравственных ориентиров, обладать чувством собственного достоинства и быть культурными в широком смысле этого слова.

Однако жизнь берет свое. Резко возросшие требования к качеству выпускаемых высшей школой специалистов, необходимость междисциплинарного подхода к решению сложных вопросов, нарастание глубины и масштабности проблем при ограничении сроков и ресурсов, отводимых на их решение, создание целостной, а не суммативной системы образования, ориентированной на всестороннее раскрытие творческих способностей школьников, студентов и слушателей, – необходимость, продиктованная временем.

Кроме глубоких профессиональных (предметных) знаний, умений и навыков, современный специалист должен владеть основами системных наук, видеть место своей предметной области в мире универсальных, системных закономерностей природы и общества, знать и понимать международные стандарты и при необходимости внедрять их в свою деятельность. Все это должно ускорить возможности России выйти на международный рынок с вытекающими для нее положительными последствиями в социально-экономической сфере.

Более положительных результатов возможно добиться, объединив применение системного и интегрального подходов для будущего развития образования в России. Методологический подход к интегрированию и объединению проекций социо- и естествоцентризма позволит получить единый образ всеобщей деятельности живого и неживого на Земле.

Ответы можно получить, если мы поймем всеобщую деятельность мироздания. За отправную точку целесообразно принимать современные естествознания и фундаментальные законы, описывающие всеобщую системную деятельность природы [5, с. 46-47].

Джордж Бернард Шоу как-то высказал такую мысль: «Не многие думают чаще, чем два или три раза год. Я добился мировой известности благодаря тому, что думаю один или два раза в неделю». Давайте, вслед за великими, думать чаще, системнее, не упуская из поля нашего внимания панораму целого и множество факторов, интегральнее, обращая внимание на полноту явлений, определяющих реалии окружающего мира.

Литература / References 1. Епишева, О. Б., Трушников, Д. Ю. Инновационные процессы в образовании: учеб.

пособие для слушателей ин-тов и фак. повышения квалификации, преподавателей, аспирантов и др. проф.-пед. работников. – Тюмень: ТюмГНГУ, 2010.


2. Корнеенков, С. С. Основные принципы образования и интегральное обучение // Вестник Тихоокеанского государственного экономического университета. – 2006. – № 4.

3. Медоуз, Д. Азбука системного мышления. – М.: БИНОМ. Лаборатория знаний. – 2011.

4. О’Коннор, Дж., Макдермотт, И. Искусство системного мышления. Необходимые знания о системах и творческом подходе к решению проблем. – 7-е изд. – М.: Альпина Паблишер, 2013.

5. Прыкин, Б. В. Глобалистика. – М.: ЮНИТИ, 2007. 6. Сотникова, Э. Психология интегрального сообщества (Методика интегрального

воспитания). – М., 2011. 7. Уилсон, Р.А. Новая инквизиция. – М.: Пересвет, Янус, 2001. 8. Системный подход: статья [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://ru.wikipedia.org/

wiki/Системный_подход (дата обращения: 15.06.2012). 9. Спицнадель, В. Н. Системное мышление и современное высшее образование. –

ГлавСправ, 2012 [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://edu.glavsprav.ru/spb/vpo/ journal/ (дата обращения: 21.03.2012).

10. Притворова, А. Интегральное образование [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://aapritvorova.ru/category/articles/ (дата обращения: 30.09.2013).

Татьяна Игоревна Лаптева Аспирант Московский государственный строительный университет Национальный исследовательский университет преподаватель специальных дисциплин ГБОУ СПО «Строительный колледж № 12» Москва, Россия [email protected] Tatyana Lapteva PhD Student National Research University Moscow State University of Civil Engineering Teacher of Special Disciplines State Budgetary Educational Institution for Secondary Vocational education ‘Moscow City Construction College № 12’ Moscow, Russia [email protected]




ИГОРЬ ЛЕОНТЬЕВИЧ НАБОК / IGOR NABOK

ОБ ЭТНОЛОГИЧЕСКОЙ «НЕДОСТАТОЧНОСТИ» ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ

ABOUT ETHNOLOGICAL «INSUFFICIENCY» OF PEDAGOGICAL EDUCATION


Статья посвящена рассмотрению роли этнологического знания в современном образовании. Исследуется взаимодействие этнологии и образования как на теоретико-методологическом, так и на культурно-практическом уровне. Анализируется современная культурно-национальная политика и ее роль в развитии образования коренных малочисленных народов Севера. Дается описание концепции этнокультурного образования, реализуемой в Институте народов Севера Герценовского университета в Санкт-Петербурге.

The article examines the role of ethnological knowledge in contemporary education. The interaction of ethnology and education is observed both at the theoretical and methodological and cultural and practical levels. The article also deals with the present cultural and national policy and its role in the educational development of indigenous small peoples of the North. The concept of ethnic and cultural education delivered at the Institute of the Peoples of the North at Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia in St. Petersburg is described. Ключевые слова: этнология, этнокультурологическое образование,

национальная политика, межнациональные отношения, этническая идентичность

Keywords: ethnology, ethnic and cultural education, national policy, interethnic relations, ethnic identity

Сегодня как никогда остро стоит проблема смысла и назначения образования. Именно ее понимание в значительной мере определяет характер происходящих перемен в российской системе образования – ее перманентного реформирования, перестройки, модернизации, оптимизации. Темп смены инновационных установок настолько высок, что становится практически невозможным на практике проверить их адекватность требованиям современного общества, их эффективность и обоснованность. Хотя в этой смене, выражающейся в появлении все новых «поколений» государственных образовательных стандартов, есть область удивительного постоянства, «неприкасаемости» – строго фиксируемый объем преподавания иностранного языка и физической культуры. В чем же состоит смысл и назначение образования: в формировании «грамотного потребителя» (с соответствующими физическими «кондициями» и коммуникационными возможностями) или духовно суверенной и одновременно социально,

Об этнологической «недостаточности» педагогического образования 556

нравственно ответственной личности? Увы, сам характер и направленность современной культурной жизни, современной культурно-образовательной политики ставит эти, казалось бы, взаимодополняющие и в равной степени необходимые стороны направленности образования в позицию альтернативности. И особенно остро это проявляется в отношении педагогического образования – решающего звена всей образовательной системы.

Трудно, на наш взгляд, найти более острую, злободневную проблематику общественной жизни, чем ту, которая связана с формированием толерантности, развитием культуры межнациональных, межконфессиональных отношений, с профилактикой и преодолением межэтнической и межконфессиональной напряженности, конфликтности. Педагогическому образованию, на наш взгляд, в решении этих проблем принадлежит значительная роль. Между тем его этнологическая, этнокультурологическая составляющая давно и «успешно» вытеснена из образовательной системы и содержательно, и методически.

Это, разумеется, в значительной мере связано и с тем, что этнологическое (этнографическое) знание до сих пор остается в основном узко профессиональным, цеховым, уделом специализированных университетских кафедр и музейных этнографических учреждений. Как и периодически вспыхивающие, но быстро затухающие методологические споры о предмете этнологии, о ее месте в системе наук об обществе, о статусе этничности, о конструктивизме и примордиализме. В то же время проведение с 1999 г. по настоящее время в Российском государственном педагогическом университете им. А. И. Герцена в Санкт-Петербурге ежегодной международной научно-практической конференции «Реальность этноса», в которой участвуют представители практически всех российских регионов, наглядно демонстрирует стремительное развитие того, что можно условно назвать педагогической «этнологической активностью» [2]. На всех уровнях образования – от дошкольного до вузовского и послевузовского – сегодня практиками образования остро ощущается потребность целенаправленного формирования адекватного отношения к национальному духовному наследию, к истории своего Отечества, к родному языку, к духовному наследию, истории и языку других народов, живущих рядом, объединяемых одним государством, имеющих общее культурное пространство. И к соответствующей направленности подготовки учителей. Для полиэтничной и поликультурной России эта проблема стоит особенно остро, как и необходимость понимания (для создания и развития этого полиэтничного единства) исторической роли русского языка и русской культуры. Но всегда ли эта активность опирается на прочную профессиональную базу? Вопрос вполне риторический в силу отсутствия традиции массового этнологического образования, отсутствия педагогической специальности «этнология», отсутствия многоуровневого взаимодействия академической этнологической/этнографической науки с системой образования. Это подтверждает и неоднократно проводимое автором данной статьи анкетирование студентов – будущих учителей. Слабое представление о понятиях «этнос», «нация» сочетается с незнанием имен многих российских народов (так появляются «неизвестные» северные этносы

Игорь Леонтьевич Набок / Igor Nabok 557

– «манты», «комяки», «ямальцы», «чученцы», «сибиряне» и т. д.). Сегодня было бы вполне уместно, на наш взгляд, затевать общероссийскую кампанию по ликвидации «всеобщей этнографической безграмотности» населения.

Особую остроту ситуации придает еще и то, что сфера этнического была и остается сферой политических спекуляций и манипуляций. В то же время «неспрогнозированный» футурологами «этнический Ренессанс» рубежа XX-XXI веков, нарастание этнической мобилизации наглядно демонстрируют потребность современного общества в противостоянии нарастающей глобализации, которая оборачивается нивелированием многообразия, многокрасочности культурной жизни и, в конечном счете, ее гомогенизацией, ориентированной на однотипное, безальтернативное, манипулируемое потребление. Сохранение указанного культурного многообразия – это не просто одна из гуманитарных задач общества, оно оказывается необходимым условием физического, биологического выживания человечества как рода, реализации его жизненно необходимых адаптационных способностей. Это убедительно показал выдающийся отечественный этнолог С. А. Арутюнов в своей известной монографии «Народы и культуры»: «Локальное разнообразие культуры человечества, рассмотренное как его поливариантность, есть не что иное, как одно из выражений его избыточности. А эта избыточность потенциально имеет огромное адаптивно-эволюционное значение. Для эффективного выполнения своих адаптивных функций культура во всех своих формах проявления не в меньшей степени, чем способы биологического существования, должна в значительной степени носить избыточный характер и тем самым быть способной нести в себе необходимые потенции для достижения адаптивного эффекта в новых, порой резко изменяющихся условиях. Отсутствие у человека процессов биологической видовой дивергенции как раз и делает необходимым его локальное разнообразие, проявляемое прежде всего в выработке различных этнических культур. С этой точки зрения этнические культуры, рассмотренные в проекции на общее развитие человечества, и биологические виды, взятые в их соотношениях к общему полю биологической эволюции представляют собой во многом изоморфные и изофункциональные образования. Принципиально отличаясь по генезису и механизмам развития, эти образования тем не менее в ряде своих черт подобны в силу действия фундаментальных законов самоорганизации» [1, c. 153].

Необходимо учитывать то, что в отличие солидарности социально-классовой – солидарности по «горизонтали» солидарность этническая является солидарностью по исторической «вертикали», т. е. солидарностью со своими предками, сохраняющей духовную культурную преемственность и непрерывность. Признание этничности как особого типа связи между людьми, как выражения органичности выработанных в процессе формирования этнической общности взаимоотношений человека с природой (вне и внутри себя), как особого качества культуры, сохраняющего свою актуальность, на наш взгляд, является необходимым условием эффективности современного образования. Между тем реальная культурная жизнь, реальная культурная информационная среда, содержание которой сегодня формируется в значительной степени коммерчески ориентированной массовой культурой, по


своим ценностным установкам, по своему «потребительскому пафосу», по своему упрощенному «прогрессизму», отрицающему традицию как нечто устаревшее, «нетехнологичное», совершенно очевидно разрушает эту непрерывность и преемственность. Результатом этого разрушения оказывается новый тип культурного сознания, отличающийся дискретностью и фрагментарностью, преобладанием ситуативности, адаптационности. Разрыв между образованием и культурой усугубляется несогласованностью в самой системе управления этими сферами, первая из которых призвана формировать личность, развивать и возвышать ее потребности, решать проблемы ее социализации, а вторая все больше ориентирована на извлечение коммерческой прибыли, прежде всего на удовлетворение сегодняшних, ею же и сформированных потребностей. Сегодня трудно говорить о реальном существовании некой единой культурно-образовательной политики государства – сферы культуры и образования разделены ведомственно, финансово, управленчески и идеологически. Вполне в духе потребительской идеологии сфера культуры все более ориентируется на «самоокупаемость», на совершенно самостоятельную, в стороне от духовных, нравственных ценностей общества, жизнь. Сегодняшнее торжество массовой коммерческой культуры, преодолевающей все разумные рамки человеческой морали, этики, совести, чувства меры и, пожалуй, наиболее полно воплощенное во всепобеждающем и циничном шествии т. н. «гламура», оказывается, несомненно, куда более действенным фактором формирования ценностного сознания новых поколений россиян, чем ее «бедный родственник» – образование. В значительной степени этому способствует реально происходящая глобальная смена доминирующего типа культуры – приход на смену культуре письменной культуры экранной, к которому общество оказалось совершенно не готово.

Тенденция новейшей образовательной политики, направленная на постепенное превращение образования в «образовательные услуги», на развитие его коммерческой рентабельности, оказывается вполне в духе идеологии потребления. Удовлетворение сегодняшних сформированных коммерческой культурой и потребительской идеологией потребностей здесь становится главным приоритетом. Тем самым образование лишается своего главного смысла и предназначения – формирования, развития потребностей. Действительно, на профессиональном экономическом языке образование может рассматриваться как «сфера услуг». Но оно не является таковым по самому своему существу, содержанию, функциям в обществе, статусу учителя, педагога, который не может и не должен выступать в качестве «оказателя услуг», но призван быть духовным наставником, нравственным авторитетом, наконец, «властителем дум», выражаясь языком отечественной педагогической традиции. И здесь дело не в словах, а в происходящей на наших глазах деформации образования как одного из важнейших социальных институтов, отвечающих за будущее общества, за его нравственное здоровье, за сохранение его духовных традиций и принципов.

Своеобразным подтверждением «живучести» и универсальности этничности, на наш взгляд, может служить молодежная контркультура второй половины ХХ века, точнее, ее своеобразный «неотрадиционализм».


Бунтующая молодежь, требующая возврата общества, культуры к «естественности», неосознанно обратилась к проверенным временем этническим механизмам культуры – их «контркультура» обрела «этнические краски», но не в смысле обращения к какому-то конкретному народу (хотя рок-культура тяготела именно к аборигенным, экзотическим, во многом сохранившим свою культурную самобытность, народам), а, прежде всего, в смысле использования универсальных механизмов этнической самоорганизации. Молодежная контркультура, в частности, самое яркое ее выражение – рок-культура, может быть рассмотрена как своеобразная «превращенная самоинициация молодежи». «Инициационный голод» современной культуры, в частности, возник как следствие отказа от некоторых ритуально-обрядовых принципов культуры, обеспечивающих более органичное и гармоничное протекание процесса социализации – введения молодежи в мир взрослой культуры, обретение ею иного этносоциального статуса, связанного с ответственностью за жизнь общества, за его состояние, нравственное и духовное здоровье.

В этом смысле аналогии между традиционной культурой и рок-культурой носят отнюдь не внешний характер: речь, на наш взгляд, идет о своеобразном проявлении этничности. Так, рок-концерт (как главная форма бытования молодежной контркультуры) имел мало общего с традиционной концертной формой, становился обрядом, где нет разделения на музыкантов и слушательскую аудиторию, где осуществляется «совместное радение», а рок-лидер играет роль главного инициатора. Громкостная динамика и метроритмическая однообразность выполняет примерно ту же функцию, что и в шаманских камланиях, приводя участников в «измененное состояние сознания» (только натуральный шаманский бубен заменен более функциональной электронно-ударной техникой, хотя, например, в якутском «саха-роке» на сцене появлялся и шаман с традиционным бубном). Одновременно образовывалось замкнутое звуковое пространство, аналогичное «волшебному лесу», куда уводили инициируемых юношей их старшие наставники у славян и балтов, и куда взрослым доступ был ограничен хотя бы уровнем децибелов. Добавим к этому молодежный сленг (свой язык), особую манеру поведения-общения, свою одежду, для которой характерна сплошная «символизация» (в этом смысле знаменитые хипстерские «фенечки» вполне аналогичны элементам традиционной одежды аборигенных народов, выполняя ту же функцию), наконец, самосознание своей общности, единства и отличия от «других» – взрослых. В этом плане знаменитая песня – символ отечественной контркультуры «Мы вместе» одного из «рок-идолов» К. Кинчева может служить ярким примером своеобразного молодежного «этноцентризма» как естественного элемента «этногенеза». Мы берем в кавычки эти два понятия именно потому, что речь в данном случае идет о формировании самосознания не этнической общности, а возрастной, но аналогичной «по механизмам», по своей технологии. Это дает основание совместить совершенно разные стороны человеческой общности – возрастную и этническую и увидеть в контркультурной молодежи своеобразный «квазиэтнос». Позволим себе высказать предположение, что этничность можно рассматривать как одну из форм современного существования и


самовыражения этноса, что вполне созвучно основным идеям «информационной теории» этноса С. А. Арутюнова.1

Одной из наиболее острых проблем культурной и образовательной политики государства, имеющих остро актуальный смысл, оказывается проблема соотношения этнической и гражданской, общероссийской идентичности. Сегодня, несмотря на декларируемую в ряде политических документов поддержку этнической идентичности, позицию защиты и сохранения языков и культур всех народов России, реальная культурная и образовательная политика зачастую приводит к противоположным результатам, к усилению ассимиляционных процессов. Альтернатива здесь такова: либо общероссийскую идентичность можно построить, не развивая, не укрепляя идентичность этническую, так как последнее, якобы, неизбежно ведет к противопоставлению, к «этническому сепаратизму» и, в конечном счете, к разрушению целостности России; либо общероссийскую, общенациональную идентичность можно сформировать только на основе идентичности этнической, так как этот тип идентичности связан с опорой на историческую «вертикаль» духовной преемственности со своими предками, с сохранением выработанных веками духовных ценностей, принципов мироотношения. И чем больше доверия и внимания государства к этим ценностям, к этой преемственности, тем крепче идентичность общероссийская. Разумеется, можно говорить и о духовной преемственности, о межэтнической солидарности и в рамках национальной, общероссийской идентичности. Но необходимо иметь в виду более высокую степень «укорененности» этнической идентичности, связанной с формированием этноса, его языка, культуры, традиции, с тем, что Г. Гачев, соединяя в одном понятии природу и этносоциум, назвал «природиной». В этом смысле национальная (общероссийская) идентичность – феномен политический, более «конструируемый», целенаправленно формируемый.

Но именно здесь мы вторгаемся в область теоретико-методологическую, связанную с уже отмеченными выше различиями двух методологических ориентаций в современной этнологической науке – «примордиалисткой» и «конструктивисткой», спор между которыми до сих пор не привел к отчетливым результатам. Если первая связана с системой представлений о разноуровневой укорененности этничности, то вторая, сегодня явно преобладающая в западной науке, – с идеями «свободной» социальной конструируемости этносов и этничности (в соответствии с теми или иными политическими или экономическими интересами отдельных групп и слоев общества), с фактическим исчезновением этносов в качестве биосоциальных общностей.2 Увы, но современное традиционное научное знание, стратифицированное таким образом, что оказывается не способным к комплексному, системному, междисциплинарному анализу такого сложного феномена, как этничность, не дает достаточных и убедительных оснований

1 См. об этом подробнее: Набок, И. Л. Педагогика межнационального общения: уч.

пособие для студентов вузов. – М.: Издат. центр «Академия», 2010. 2 Обоснование конструктивизма. См. подробнее в монографии: Тишков, В. А. Реквием

по этносу. Исследования по социально-культурной антропологии. – М.: Наука, 2003.


для понимания уровня, характера, принципов указанной «укорененности» этничности. «Конструктивистское» понимание оказывается в этой ситуации наиболее простым выходом. Более того, оно действительно помогает понять существующие модели политического манипулирования этничностью. С другой стороны, существует и социально-практический, методический аспект указанной проблемы. Так, в Канаде, еще недавно гордившейся своей «политикой многокультурности» и, казалось бы, построившей наиболее оптимальную модель соотношения этнической и гражданской идентичности, в которой «этническое происхождение» не противоречит национальной гордости за принадлежность к гражданам страны, сегодня раздаются голоса о «чрезмерной увлеченности» этничностью, якобы мешающей формированию гражданской, общенациональной идентичности. И это вопрос уже методического характера, который не может быть решен вне сферы образования. Но вот здесь следует подчеркнуть, что никакая методика не может быть эффективной без опоры на фундаментальное научное знание. Главный вопрос, на который сегодня должны дать ответ отечественные этнологическая, культурологическая, историческая, социологическая науки, остается открытым: может ли гражданская идентичность как необходимое условие гражданского мира и согласия в обществе, как условие сохранения целостности России, единства ее культурно-образовательного пространства быть построена без опоры на идентичность этническую, связанную с этническим происхождением, с преемственностью по отношению к предкам, их духовным традициям, ценностям? Т. е. является ли приоритетной для России та модель соотношения этнической и гражданской идентичности, в которой гражданский статус личности отнюдь не противоречит ее этническому происхождению? Или мы вновь будем строить унифицированную модель политической, идеологической солидарности, лишенную корней, духовных, этнокультурных оснований, аналогичную концепту «новая историческая общность – советский народ», обнаружившему свою явную непрочность в период развала Советского Союза.

Отмеченную выше противоречивость политических деклараций и реальной практики в современной этнонациональной политике можно проиллюстрировать на примере коренных малочисленных народов Севера, Сибири и Дальнего Востока. С одной стороны, целый ряд документов, в частности, опубликованная и утвержденная в 2009 г. «Концепция устойчивого развития коренных малочисленных народов Севера, Сибири и Дальнего Востока», подтверждают, что Россия сделала свой выбор в решении проблем коренных малочисленных народов, и этот выбор – не в пользу политики ассимиляции этнических меньшинств, «растворения» их в большинстве населения страны, а в пользу сохранения языкового и этнокультурного многообразия как условия сохранения единства страны, гражданского мира и согласия в обществе.

С другой стороны, в явном противоречии с вышеуказанным, на наш взгляд, находятся три «модернизационных» акта, осуществленных Министерством образования и науки РФ и наиболее болезненно «ударивших» именно по коренным малочисленным народам Севера, Сибири и Дальнего Востока: а) изъятие из Закона об образовании понятия «национальная школа»;


б) изъятие из Федерального образовательного стандарта т. н. «национально-регионального компонента»; в) перевод школ на «подушевое финансирование». Не имея возможности в рамках данной статьи подробно рассматривать этот вопрос, укажем на некоторые общие результаты данной реформы. Во-первых, изучение родного языка и культуры своего народа стало «необязательным», факультативным и, что чрезвычайно важно, в значительной степени зависящим от «возможностей образовательного учреждения» и «заказа» родителей, не всегда задумывающихся о смысле этнической идентификации. Выяснилось, что уровень мотивации в обучении родным языкам и культуре в общественном сознании, в сознании родителей достаточно низок и не ориентируется на сохранение и развитие этнокультурной идентичности детей. Во-вторых, переход на нормативно подушевое финансирование образовательных учреждений наиболее болезненно сказался прежде всего на малокомплектных школах, преобладающих в местах компактного проживания коренных малочисленных народов. Это привело к значительному сокращению числа указанных школ. Таким образом, можно утверждать, что указанные реформы, возможно, вполне оптимизирующие (прежде всего в материально-финансовом отношении) образовательную систему в регионах европейской части Российской Федерации, при этом нанесли существенный урон образованию коренных малочисленных народов Севера, Сибири и Дальнего Востока, стимулировали ассимиляционные процессы, очевидно, рассматриваемые авторами реформ как меры по укреплению образовательного пространства Российской Федерации и формированию общероссийской идентичности.

В качестве примера подготовки учителей, ориентированных на сохранение этнической идентичности и ее интеграцию с идентичностью национальной, общероссийской, можно привести образовательную концепцию, реализуемую кафедрой этнокультурологии в Институте народов Севера Российского государственного педагогического университета им. А. И. Герцена в Санкт-Петербурге. Институт народов Севера – одно из старейших учебных подразделений Герценовского университета – готовит учителей из числа представителей более 20 коренных малочисленных народов Севера, Сибири и Дальнего Востока. Принципиальные особенности указанной выше образовательной концепции связаны с этнокультурологической направленностью профессиональной подготовки, строящейся на интеграции культурологического и этнологического знания; на двунаправленности образовательного процесса, сочетающего подготовку учителя к собственно образовательной деятельности с подготовкой к деятельности «культуртрегерской», точнее, «культуро-экологической», связанной с защитой и сохранением языков и традиционных этнических культур коренных малочисленных народов. Именно поэтому в рамках государственного образовательного стандарта по специальности «Культурология» образовательная программа включала в себя этнологический (этнографический) предметный компонент, североведческий компонент, этнофилологический компонент (родной язык и литература), исторический компонент (от Всемирной истории и истории России до истории и этнографии народов Севера, Сибири и Дальнего Востока, дающий дополнительную


квалификацию «учителя истории»), наконец, художественную специализацию (освоение по выбору студента либо музыкального фольклора, либо декоративно-прикладного искусства и художественных промыслов народов Севера, Сибири и Дальнего Востока). Такая подготовка, основанная на междисциплинарной интеграции и комплексности, доказала свою эффективность на практике. В то же время переход на многоуровневую подготовку с соответствующими требованиями бакалавриата по перераспределению учебных часов в пользу самостоятельной работы студента и сокращению сроков обучения до четырех лет хотя и не ликвидировал указанную концепцию многопрофильной подготовки, но существенно ограничил возможности ее реализации.

Реализация этнологической парадигмы образования требует, на наш взгляд, особого внимания, разработки новых образовательных концепций, учитывающих поликультурность и поликонфессиональность российского общества, его этнорегиональную специфику, особенности межэтнических отношений, острую потребность формирования этнокоммуникативной и этноэкологической компетентности современного педагога.

Литература / References 1. Арутюнов, С. А. Народы и культуры: развитие и взаимодействие. – М.: Наука, 1989. 2. Реальность этноса. Образование и развитие межнациональных отношений в

современной России: сборник статей по материалам XV Международной научно-практической конференции / под научн. ред. И. Л. Набока. – СПб.: Издательство РГПУ им. А. И. Герцена, 2013.

Игорь Леонтьевич Набок доктор философских наук, профессор заведующий кафедрой этнокультурологии Российский государственный педагогический университет им. А. И. Герцена Санкт-Петербург, Россия [email protected] Igor Nabok PhD in Philosophy (Doctor of Science), Professor Нead of the Department of ethnic culture studies Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia Saint-Petersburg, Russia [email protected]




ЛАРИСА АЛЕКСАНДРОВНА ДАНЧЕНОК, ЛЮДМИЛА НИКОЛАЕВНА ИВАНОВА-ШВЕЦ / LARISA DANCHENOK, LIUDMILA IVANOVA-SHVETS

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STRATEGIC DIRECTIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPETENCE-BASED APPROACH WITHIN TRAINING OF COMPETITIVE SPECIALISTS


В статье рассматриваются вопросы развития качества подготовки выпускников вузов на основе компетентностного подхода и участия в этом процессе работодателей. Основное внимание уделено необходимости использования профессиональных стандартов, которые сейчас активно разрабатываются во всех сферах и отраслях экономики, для формулирования набора компетенция при подготовке специалистов в высших учебных заведениях.

The article examines the development of the training quality of university graduates using competence-based approach and considering participation of employers in this process. The main attention is paid to the necessity of using professional standards which are now being actively developed in all spheres and sectors of the economy in order to formulate a set of competences while training specialists at higher education institutions. Ключевые слова: конкурентоспособность выпускников, компетентностный

подход, профессиональные стандарты, ключевые компетенции Keywords: competitiveness of the graduates, competence-based approach,

professional standards, key competencies C 2003 года Россия постепенно начала переход на двухуровневую систему

получения высшего образования, присоединившись к странам – участницам Болонского процесса. В целях ускорения перехода в 2007 г. был принят Федеральный закон № 232-ФЗ «О внесении изменений в отдельные законодательные акты Российской Федерации». Согласно принятому закону был утвержден переход на двухуровневую систему по большинству образовательных программ высшего профессионального образования, и в то же время достаточно ограничен прием на программы специалитета с 1 сентября 2009 г.

На протяжении всего периода перехода шли оживленные дискуссии о целесообразности изменения системы высшего образования в России. Сегодня все дискуссии по поводу возможности перехода уже в прошлом. Это свершившийся факт. Поэтому основная задача на будущее – разработать реальные стратегические направления совершенствования программ

Лариса А. Данченок, Людмила Н. Иванова-Швец / Larisa Danchenok, Liudmila Ivanova-Shvets 565

получения высшего образования и повышения конкурентоспособности выпускников, то, ради чего, собственно, и была осуществлена данная реформа.

Под конкурентоспособностью выпускника мы понимаем комплекс его качественных характеристик, определяющий возможность претендовать на качественные рабочие места и выдерживать конкуренцию на рынке труда.

Как cчитает директор Центра международного образования Филип Альтбах, высшая школа дает уникальную «продукцию», а именно знания, а также дипломы, свидетельствующие о возможности применения приобретенных знаний в современном обществе. Таким образом, она наделяет человека навыками, используя которые, он может увеличить свои доходы и сделать успешную карьеру. В то же время высшее образование повышает уровень подготовки специалистов, необходимых для обеспечения общественного развития и эффективной работы экономики [1].

Обеспечение высокого качества образования является центральной проблемой конкурентоспособности выпускников учебных заведений.

В сфере содержания и качества образования основным средством, с помощью которого государственные органы осуществляют свои управленческие функции, являются государственные образовательные стандарты.

Федеральным законом от 1 декабря 2007 года N 309-ФЗ была утверждена новая структура государственного образовательного стандарта (ФГОС). Теперь ФГОС включают 3 вида требований [8]:

1) требования к структуре основных образовательных программ, в том числе требования к соотношению частей основной образовательной программы и их объему, а также к соотношению обязательной части основной образовательной программы и части, формируемой участниками образовательного процесса;

2) требования к условиям реализации основных образовательных программ, в том числе кадровым, финансовым, материально-техническим и иным условиям;

3) требования к результатам освоения основных образовательных программ.

Но основное отличие ФГОС третьего поколения – компетентностный подход к определению знаний и навыков выпускников. Многие эксперты сходятся во мнении, что в нем заключено основное преимущество новых стандартов. Так, по мнению заведующего кафедрой управления персоналом Государственного университета управления (ГУУ), председателя секции «Управление персоналом» Учебно-методического объединения (УМО) вузов по образованию в области менеджмента А. Я. Кибанова, «теперь мы, не распыляясь, сосредотачиваемся на формировании компетенций – мы знаем, чему мы учим» [5, с. 2]. По его мнению, это возможно за счет того, что «в новых стандартах велика доля вариативных дисциплин, и вузы сами могут выбирать дисциплины, формирующие необходимые компетенции с учетом потребностей работодателей и особенностей регионов» [5, с. 2]. Вместе с тем многие эксперты и разработчики стандартов считают, что именно компетентностный подход вызывает больше всего сложностей, так как до конца не разработаны новые критерии измерения уровня компетентности [5].

Стратегические направления развития компетентностного подхода в подготовке конкурентоспособных специалистов 566

Формирование профиля ключевых компетенций является одной из задач стратегического планирования и управления современной организацией [4]. Поэтому и переход на получение высшего образования по принципу формирования компетенций выпускника должен давать возможность формировать такие профили и для молодых специалистов.

Ключевые компетенции, разработанные на уровне организации, применяются для характеристики и оценки ее сотрудников, в частности для кандидатов на вакантные должности.

Количество ключевых компетенций для разных компаний может варьироваться (50-100 компетенций) [7]. Каждая разработанная компетенция должна быть максимально конкретно сформулирована, т. к. одни и те же слова, фразы, термины могут по-разному трактоваться в разных условиях.

Компетенции обеспечивают: • стандарты поведения, необходимые для эффективного исполнения

функций на занимаемой должности; • овладение словесной информацией, которую можно использовать в

объявлениях при отборе кандидатов на вакантные должности; • критерии отбора и выбор методов оценки сотрудников; • эталонные варианты принятия решений; • обеспечение нормальной функции контроля за выполнением

поставленных задач и демонстрации результатов работы [2]. Кто же должен измерять уровень компетентности выпускников? С одной

стороны, все понятно – тот, кто обучает, а с другой стороны – тот, кто будет использовать эти компетенции. Но преподаватели ориентированы на оценку знаний, а компетентностный подход предполагает оценку способностей. Не углубляясь в изменение методики оценки способностей, а не знаний, необходимо констатировать, что участвовать в оценке должны учебные заведения и работодатели. Следовательно, и вузы, и работодатели заинтересованы в формировании тех компетенций, которые будут использоваться в практической работе.

Формирование компетенций конкурентоспособного выпускника происходит в вузе, где формируются общекультурные и профессиональные компетенции. Работодатели же на основе корпоративных компетенций и профессиональных стандартов (квалификационных требований) предъявляют требования к специалистам.

И вот здесь возникает две серьезные проблемы: разработка новых стандартов и их содержание.

По материалам федерального образовательного портала «Экономика, социология, менеджмент» авторами проанализировано количество компетенций стандартов квалификации «бакалавр» по направлениям, связанным с тематикой портала [6]. Стандарт «Экономика» содержит 16 общекультурных компетенций, 15 профессиональных, стандарт «Менеджмент» – 22 общекультурные, 50 профессиональных, стандарт «Бизнес-информатика» – 19 общекультурных, 29 профессиональных, «Государственное и муниципальное управление» – 17 общекультурных и 51 профессиональную, стандарт «Управление персоналом» – 24 общекультурные


и 78 профессиональных, «Социология» – 17 общекультурных и 12 профессиональных.

Можно отметить, что по количеству общекультурных и профессиональных компетенций стандарты значительно отличаются. Так, по общекультурным компетенциям от 16 по «Экономике» до 24 по «Управлению персоналом» и по профессиональным компетенциям – от 12 по «Социологии» до 78 по «Управлению персоналом». Понятно, что профессиональные компетенции могут значительно отличаться в стандартах, так как они представляют разные направления профессиональной деятельности.

А вот особенность общекультурных компетенций в том, что они дают возможность выпускникам вуза быть более востребованными на рынке труда, успешно реализовать себя в разных сферах деятельности, в том числе не связанных с полученной в вузе квалификацией. Общекультурные компетенции имеют двойственную природу:

• они не являются профессионально обусловленными, ими должны обладать все специалисты независимо от сферы их деятельности;

• они образуют базу для профессиональных компетенций и позволяют им более полно реализовываться.

Много неясностей по общекультурным компетенциям: есть те общекультурные компетенции, которые во многих стандартах сформулированы одинаково, а в некоторых случаях формулировки могут трактоваться по-разному.

Например, в стандарте «Менеджмент» ОК-6 и в стандарте «Бизнес-информатика» ОК-6 определена так: умение логически верно, аргументировано и ясно строить устную и письменную речь.

ОК-7 для стандарта «Бизнес-информатика» – готов к ответственному и целеустремленному решению поставленных задач во взаимодействии с обществом, коллективом, партнерами, а ОК-7 для стандарта «Менеджмент» – готовность к кооперации с коллегами, работе в коллективе. С одной стороны, можно считать, что в обоих случаях – это взаимодействие, кооперация. Но при оценке данной компетенции в первом случае будут оценивать еще и готовность к ответственному и целеустремленному решению поставленных задач.

В целом, анализируя стандарты, можно сделать следующие выводы: • компетенции могут быть сформулированы и поняты неоднозначно; • нет универсальных инструментов оценки компетенций. Стандарты по всем приведенным выше квалификациям разрабатывали

УМО вузов, или консорциумы. А что же работодатели? По высказываниям разработчиков, они только сообщали свое мнение, а разработчики учитывали его.

Как было сказано выше, каждая компания может формулировать свои корпоративные компетенции в зависимости от стратегии, положения на рынке, корпоративной культуры и т. д.

Можно рассмотреть, например, такой навык, как коммуникабельность. Однако этот термин имеет много параметров: умение быстро устанавливать контакт с незнакомыми людьми, вежливое, располагающее общение, умение убеждать, постоянное желание общаться с людьми и т. д.


Итак, составляющие понятия «коммуникабельность» весьма разные и зачастую не пересекаются друг с другом, поэтому эти требования могут оказаться необходимыми, безразличными или желательными для различных компаний и специалистов [3]. Так, например, для торгового представителя такая составляющая компетенции «коммуникабельность», как «умение быстро устанавливать контакт с незнакомыми людьми» необходима, а для делопроизводителя – безразлична.

Получается, что для работодателя нет никаких стандартов. Но это далеко не так. В России на данный момент действует Единый квалификационный справочник должностей руководителей, специалистов и служащих (ЕКС). Квалификационная характеристика каждой должности имеет три раздела: «Должностные обязанности», «Должен знать», «Требования к квалификации». В разделе «Должностные обязанности» установлены основные трудовые функции, которые полностью или частично поручают работнику определенной должности с учетом специфики его организации. В разделе «Должен знать» содержатся основные требования к работнику в отношении специальных знаний, а также знаний законодательных и нормативно-правовых актов, положений, инструкций и других руководящих документов, которые работник обязан применять при выполнении своих должностных обязанностей. В разделе «Требования к квалификации» определены требования к уровню профессиональной подготовки и стажу работника. Квалификационный справочник рекомендовано применять в организациях различных отраслей экономики независимо от форм собственности и организационно-правовых форм. Предполагается, что справочник поможет обеспечить правильный подбор, расстановку и использование персонала в любой компании. Справочник не является обязательным нормативным документом, носит только рекомендательный характер.

Поэтому в последнее время квалификационные справочники стремительно теряют свою актуальность. Объясняется это тем, что глобальные перемены в сфере экономики изменили содержание труда, требования к профессиональным навыкам и образованию работников.

Поэтому сейчас создается единая форма – профессиональный стандарт, и на его основе разрабатываются квалификационные требования к должности с учетом специфики различных отраслей экономики. Согласно ст. 195.1 ТК РФ «Профессиональный стандарт – характеристика квалификации, необходимой работнику для осуществления определенного вида профессиональной деятельности»1.

Профессиональный стандарт – документ, определяющий требования к содержанию и условиям труда, компетенциям работников по различным квалификационным уровням и видам экономической деятельности [6].

Для работодателей это, прежде всего, инструмент решения задач в области управления персоналом. В частности, он может быть применен при разработке должностных инструкций, тарификации должностей, подборе и аттестации персонала, планировании карьеры. Для работников – возможность сформировать навыки, необходимые для решения поставленных задач, быть

1 Введена Федеральным законом от 03.12.2012 N 236-ФЗ.


адекватным требованиям работодателя. Сейчас на государственном уровне заключено соглашение между Российским союзом промышленников и предпринимателей и Министерством образования и науки РФ, предусматривающее, что при разработке образовательных программ профессионального обучения должны приниматься во внимание стандарты должности. Предполагается, что разработанные профессиональные стандарты станут частью государственной программы «Образование».

На сегодняшний день «работают» около 55 профессиональных стандартов деятельности, которые разрабатываются Национальным агентством развития квалификаций [9]. Получается, что при разработке стандартов в вузах работодатели практически не участвовали.

Таким образом, можно сделать вывод, что в идеале ориентиром для разработки образовательных стандартов при компетентностном подходе должны быть профессиональные стандарты, в которых определены компетенции работников. И на основе профессиональных стандартов могут разрабатываться образовательные стандарты.

При тесном взаимодействии учебных заведений и работодателей образовательные стандарты корректируются с учетом региональной и отраслевой специфик. Каждый вуз имеет право на разработку вариативных дисциплин образовательной программы, которые будут отражать такую специфику.

В целом такой комплексный подход в стратегическом плане должен повысить качество подготовки специалистов и их конкурентоспособность на рынке труда, даст возможность более четко работать над учебными программами и планами, снизит возможность подготовки специалистов по устаревшим программам.

Литература / References 1. Альтбах, Ф. Частное высшее образование, его характерные черты и различия.

Сравнение перспектив развития // Перспективы. – 2000. – Том 29. – № 3. 2. Армстронг, М. Практика управления человеческими ресурсами. – Питер, 2009. – С.

174. 3. Иванова, С. Искусство подбора персонала. – М.: Альпина Бизнес Букс, 2004. – С. 15. 4. Иванова-Швец, Л. Н., Корсакова, А. А. Управление персоналом: учебное пособие. –

М.: ЕАОИ, 2011. – С. 78. 5. Кибанов, А. Я. Профиль «Управление человеческими ресурсами» в направлении

«Менеджмент» нас не устраивал [Электронный ресурс]: Федеральный образовательный портал «Экономика, социология, менеджмент». – URL: http://ecsocman.hse.ru/text/33532490.html (дата обращения: 28.07.2013).

6. Литвинова, Н. Перезагрузка ЕКТС: что придет на смену квалификационным справочникам [Электронный ресурс]: Официальный сайт Института проблем предпринимательства. – URL: http://www.ippnou.ru (дата обращения: 01.08.2013).

7. Спенсер, Л. М., Спенсер, С. М. Компетенции на работе. – М.: HIPPO, 2005. – С. 384. 8. Федеральные государственные образовательные стандарты [Электронный ресурс]:

Сайт Министерства образования и науки Российской федерации. – URL: http://mon.gov.ru (дата обращения: 12.08.2013).


9. Сайт Национального агентства развития квалификаций [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://www.nark-rspp.ru (дата обращения: 15.08.2013).

Лариса Александровна Данченок доктор экономических наук, профессор директор Института Менеджмента заведующая кафедрой маркетинга и коммерции Московский государственный университет экономики, статистики и информатики (МЭСИ) Москва, Россия Людмила Николаевна Иванова-Швец кандидат экономических наук, доцент заведующая кафедрой Управления человеческими ресурсами Института Менеджмента Московский государственный университет экономики, статистики и информатики (МЭСИ) Москва, Россия [email protected] Larisa Danchenok PhD in Economics (Doctor of Science), Professor Director of the Management Institute Head of Marketing and Commerce Department Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics, and Informatics (MESI) Moscow, Russia Liudmila Ivanova-Shvets PhD in Economics (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor Head of Human Resources Department Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics, and Informatics (MESI) Moscow, Russia [email protected]




СВЕТЛАНА СЕРГЕЕВНА ЗОЛОТАРЕВА / SVETLANA ZOLOTAREVA

ОСОБЕННОСТИ КОМПЕТЕНТНОСТНОЙ МОДЕЛИ ПОДГОТОВКИ БАКАЛАВРА ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ ДЕТЕЙ В ВУЗАХ РОССИИ

PECULIARITIES OF COMPETENCE-BASED TRAINING MODEL OF THE BACHELOR OF ADDITIONAL EDUCATION OF CHILDREN IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS OF RUSSIA


В статье актуализирована проблема подготовки кадров для сферы дополнительного образования детей. Описаны варианты подготовки кадров уровня бакалавра дополнительного образования. Представлена компетентностная модель подготовки бакалавра на основе согласованного анализа ФГОС ВПО по направлению «Педагогическое образование», проектов профессиональных стандартов педагогических кадров сферы дополнительного образования детей (педагог дополнительного образования, педагог-организатор) и требований рынка труда к специалистам данной сферы. Раскрыто содержание кластеров общих, общепрофессиональных и профессиональных компетенций бакалавра дополнительного образования.

In the article the problem of training staff for the sphere of additional education of children is actualized. Options of staff training at the bachelor of additional education level are described. The competence-based training model of the bachelor on the basis of the coordinated analysis of Federal State Educational Standards of Higher Vocational Education in ‘Pedagogical education’, the drafts of professional standards of pedagogical staff in the sphere of additional education of children (teacher of additional education, teacher-organizer) and requirements of the labor market to the experts in this sphere are represented. The main idea of the clusters of general, general professional and professional competences of the bachelor of additional education is revealed. Ключевые слова: дополнительное образование детей, бакалавр

дополнительного образования, компетентность, компетентностная модель, общие компетентности, общепрофессиональные компетентности, профессиональные компетентности

Keywords: additional education of children, bachelor of additional education, competence, competence-based model, general competences, general professional competences, professional competences

Сегодня потребность в педагогических кадрах сферы дополнительного

образования детей в России значительно возросла. Она проникла практически во все типы образования и реализуется не только в образовательных учреждениях дополнительного образования детей, но и в школе, дошкольном учреждении, учреждениях начального профессионального образования,

Особенности компетентностной модели подготовки бакалавра дополнительного образования детей в вузах России 572

специальных образовательных учреждениях. Системе образования нужны как собственно педагоги дополнительного образования разных направленностей (художественно-эстетической, научно-технической, эколого-краеведческой, научно-технической, спортивно-физкультурной и др.), так и педагоги-организаторы, методисты, социальные педагоги, педагоги-психологи.

Проблему подготовки специалистов для сферы дополнительного образования детей сегодня активно исследуют ученые России (В. А Березина, Р. У. Богданова, Е. Б. Евладова, А. В. Золотарева, О. Е. Лебедев, Н. А. Соколова, А. И. Щетинская и др.), они пытаются выстроить разные модели их подготовки. Определенный интерес представляет некоторый зарубежный опыт в области подготовки специалистов внешкольной сферы или неформального образования Европы. Вместе с тем нами не было встречено ни одного целостного исследования данной проблемы, имеющего определенный практический выход на создание системы профессиональной подготовки кадров для внешкольного (дополнительного) образования, ни в России, ни на мировом уровне [2].

Проведенный нами анализ показывает, что до настоящего времени в России практически отсутствовала система подготовки кадров с высшим образованием для сферы дополнительного образования детей, что осложняло развитие кадровой инфраструктуры внешкольной, внеурочной и досуговой деятельности детей и подростков, затрудняло обеспечение качества образовательных услуг. Вместе с тем психолого-педагогическая характеристика педагога дополнительного образования является довольно сложной, т. к. по сути дела означает подготовку педагога-универсала. Он должен владеть специальными педагогическими технологиями, технологиями специального творчества, технологиями социально-психологического сопровождения детей разного возраста и особенностей развития (одаренных детей или детей с ограниченными возможностями) и др. Поэтому профессиональная деятельность педагога дополнительного образования требует подготовки, соответствующей высшему педагогическому и профессиональному образованию [4].

В настоящее время в России идут процессы, направленные на совершенствование кадрового обеспечения системы образования, в том числе внедрение Федерального государственного образовательного стандарта высшего профессионального образования (ФГОС ВПО), подготовка проектов профессиональных стандартов педагогических кадров. Возрастает понимание значения рынка труда для подготовки кадров сферы образования.

В рамках ФГОС ВПО появились новые возможности для подготовки кадров системы образования России. Объединение возможностей и потенциалов заказа рынка труда, профессиональных стандартов кадров образования и ФГОС ВПО позволяет выстроить инновационную вариативную систему подготовки педагогов для сферы дополнительного образования (ДОД). В рамках направления ФГОС ВПО «Педагогическое образование» могут быть рассмотрены несколько вариантов моделей подготовки кадров уровней бакалавра для сферы дополнительного образования.

Первый вариант – четырехлетний, традиционный бакалавриат, в рамках которого бакалавр дополнительного образования может готовиться к

Светлана Сергеевна Золотарева / Svetlana Zolotareva 573

деятельности в сфере культурно-просветительской или социально-педагогической деятельности. Данный специалист может работать педагогом-организатором или социальным педагогом в сфере дополнительного образования детей.

Второй вариант – пятилетний, 2-профильный бакалавриат, в рамках которого учитель-бакалавр разных предметов может освоить второй профиль – дополнительное образование (биология с дополнительным образованием, история с дополнительным образованием, технология с дополнительным образованием). Или наоборот, бакалавр дополнительного образования может освоить второй профиль – предмет (дополнительное образование с биологией, дополнительное образование с историей и т. д.) Такой подход расширяет варианты будущего трудоустройства, социально защищает выпускника, позволяет осуществить выбор будущей профессиональной деятельности, соответствующий его потребностям и интересам.

Развитие высшего профессионального образования в рамках развертывания в России «болонских» реформ предполагает применение компетентностного подхода к подготовке специалистов. В системе высшего профессионального образования качество выпускника определяется, как минимум, в соответствии с двумя показателями: реализацией перечня компетенций подготовки специалиста (бакалавра, магистра) по определенной профессии и конкурентоспособностью (востребованностью работодателями, фактом трудоустройством) выпускника на рынке труда.

Модель специалиста в российской науке рассматривают многие ученые (В. Г. Пищулин, С. Д. Смирнов, А. А. Андреев, В. И. Байденко и др.). В современных исследованиях она отражает социальный заказ общества, имеет исторически обусловленный характер, служит отправной точкой для построения системы подготовки кадров в России. В соответствии с исследованиями ведущих в этой области ученых (И. А. Зимней, В. Д. Шадрикова, И. Г. Галамина и др.) выпускник вуза должен обладать определенным набором компетенций, характеризующих его как человека и специалиста [3]. Компетентностный подход акцентирует внимание на результате образования, причем не как суммы усвоенной информации, а как готовности и способности человека действовать в различных проблемных ситуациях (Д. А. Иванов, К. Г. Митрофанов, А. В. Соколова). Понятие «компетентность» включает не только когнитивную и операциональную – технологическую составляющие, но и мотивационную, этическую, социальную и поведенческую составляющие (И. А. Зимняя) [1].

Исходя из этих позиций, нами был проведен согласованный анализ ФГОС ВПО по направлению «Педагогическое образование», проектов профессиональных стандартов педагогических кадров сферы дополнительного образования детей (педагог дополнительного образования, педагог-организатор) и требований рынка труда к специалистам данной сферы [5; 6]. По результатам анализа нами разработана компетентностная модель бакалавра дополнительного образования детей.

Модель бакалавра дополнительного образования включает представленные ниже кластеры общих, общепрофессиональных и профессиональных компетенций.


В кластер общих компетенций бакалавра могут входить: • способность использовать основы философских и социогуманитарных

знаний для формирования научного мировоззрения: знать основные философские и социогуманитарные категории и проблемы человеческого бытия; уметь анализировать мировоззренческие, социально и личностно значимые философские проблемы и прогнозировать возможное их развитие в будущем; владеть культурой мышления, способностью к обобщению, анализу, восприятию информации, постановке цели и выбору путей ее достижения;

• способность анализировать основные этапы и закономерности исторического развития для формирования патриотизма и гражданской позиции: знать основные этапы, закономерности, место и роль исторического развития России и зарубежных стран; уметь выражать и обосновывать свою позицию по вопросам ценностного отношения к историческому прошлому, ориентироваться в источниках, анализировать и обобщать информацию о государственной и региональной политике в области образования, необходимую для определения требований к качеству дополнительного образования детей и (или) взрослых, ориентации в тенденциях его развития; владеть культурой мышления, способностью к обобщению исторических фактов на основе принятых моральных норм, демонстрируя уважение к историческому прошлому, к культурным традициям, толерантность к другой культуре;

• способность использовать естественнонаучные и математические знания для ориентирования в современном информационном пространстве: знать основы развития системы базовых знаний по специальности, современные информационные технологии, а также источники надежной и достоверной информации, отражающие государственную и региональную политику в области образования; уметь применять естественнонаучные и математические знания в профессиональной деятельности, использовать современные информационно-коммуникационные технологии в процессе профессиональной деятельности; владеть навыками использования математических методов сбора, хранения, обработки и анализа информации;

• способность к коммуникации в устной и письменной формах на русском и иностранном языках для решения задач межличностного и межкультурного взаимодействия: знать основы общения, его нормативные, коммуникативные, этические аспекты, основные формы и виды устной и письменной коммуникации на русском и иностранных языках в профессиональной деятельности; уметь использовать различные формы и виды устной и письменной коммуникации на русском и иностранных языках в профессиональной деятельности, соотносить языковые средства с конкретными ситуациями, условиями и задачами межличностного и межкультурного речевого общения; владеть различными способами коммуникации в профессиональной деятельности на русском и иностранных языках, навыками оформления профессионально значимых текстов;

• способность работать в команде, толерантно воспринимать социальные, культурные и личностные различия: знать основные предметные области психологии коллектива и личности; уметь использовать социально-


психологические механизмы управления групповыми явлениями и процессами, толерантно воспринимать социальные и культурные различия; владеть приемами организации командной работы и современными технологиями эффективного влияния на индивидуальное и групповое поведение человека;

• способность к самоорганизации и самообразованию: знать способы профессионального самопознания и саморазвития; уметь определять ориентиры профессионального самообразования и саморазвития, самостоятельно применять методы и средства познания, обучения для приобретения полученных новых знаний; владеть навыками непрерывного профессионального образования и самообразования, навыками самостоятельной работы, самоорганизации и организации выполнения поручений;

• способность использовать базовые правовые знания в различных сферах деятельности: знать основные нормативные, нормативно-правовые документы, регламентирующие профессиональную деятельность, экономико-правовые основы профессиональной деятельности; уметь использовать нормативные правовые документы в своей профессиональной деятельности; владеть приемами использования нормативных и правовых документов в своей профессиональной деятельности;

• готовность поддерживать уровень физической подготовки, обеспечивающий полноценную деятельность: знать основы физической культуры и здорового образа жизни, методы укрепления здоровья; уметь обеспечить общую и профессионально-прикладную физическую подготовленность к будущей профессии, самостоятельно использовать методы укрепления здоровья в профессиональной деятельности; владеть готовностью к достижению должного уровня физической подготовленности для обеспечения полноценной профессиональной деятельности;

• способность использовать приемы первой помощи, методы защиты в условиях чрезвычайных ситуаций: знать основные требования информационной безопасности, основные приемы первой помощи, методы защиты в условиях чрезвычайной ситуации; уметь использовать основные приемы первой помощи и методы защиты от возможных последствий аварий, катастроф, стихийных бедствий, прогнозировать и принимать решения в условиях чрезвычайных ситуаций; владеть основными приемами первой помощи и методами защиты от возможных последствий аварий, катастроф, стихийных бедствий, навыками прогнозирования и принятия решений в условиях чрезвычайных ситуаций.

В кластер общепрофессиональных компетенций бакалавра могут входить:

• готовность сознавать социальную значимость своей будущей профессии, обладать мотивацией к осуществлению профессиональной деятельности: знать основы теории мотивации, основные подходы и направления работы в области профессиональной ориентации, поддержки и сопровождения профессионального самоопределения; уметь оценивать возможность альтернативных решений и понимать роль профессионального суждения в их принятии, применять методы самомотивации к осуществлению


профессиональной деятельности; владеть навыками формирования мотивации к профессиональной деятельности;

• способность осуществлять обучение, воспитание и развитие с учетом социальных, возрастных, психофизических и индивидуальных особенностей, в том числе особых образовательных потребностей обучающихся: знать законы развития личности и проявления личностных свойств, возрастные особенности обучающихся, особенности реализации образовательных программ дополнительного образования одаренных обучающихся и обучающихся с ограниченными возможностями здоровья и трудностями в обучении, вопросы индивидуализации обучения; уметь разрабатывать (осваивать) и применять современные психолого-педагогические технологии, основанные на знании законов развития личности и поведения, участвовать в изучении рынка дополнительных образовательных услуг под руководством специалиста, создавать условия для поддержания интереса обучающихся к дополнительному образованию и освоению дополнительных общеобразовательных программ; владеть современными психолого-педагогическими технологиями, основанными на знании законов развития личности и поведения;

• готовность к психолого-педагогическому сопровождению учебно-воспитательного процесса: знать сущность и особенности психолого-педагогического сопровождения учащегося, методологические основы современного дополнительного образования детей и взрослых; уметь осуществлять (совместно с психологом и другими специалистами) психолого-педагогическое сопровождение основных общеобразовательных программ; владеть способами осуществления психолого-педагогической поддержки и сопровождения учебно-воспитательного процесса, профессиональной установкой на оказание помощи любому ребенку вне зависимости от его реальных учебных возможностей, особенностей в поведении, состояния психического и физического здоровья;

• готовность к профессиональной деятельности в соответствии с нормативно-правовыми документами сферы образования: знать содержание законов и иных нормативных правовых актов Российской Федерации и субъекта Российской Федерации, регламентирующих деятельность в сфере дополнительного образования детей и взрослых, локальные нормативные акты образовательной организации, нормативно-правовые документы, регламентирующие сферу профессиональной деятельности; уметь ориентироваться в системе нормативных правовых актов, регламентирующих сферу профессиональной деятельности, использовать правовые нормы в профессиональной деятельности и применять нормативные правовые акты при разрешении конкретных ситуаций; владеть навыками работы с нормативными документами, анализа правовых норм, регламентирующих сферу профессиональной деятельности;

• владение основами профессиональной этики и речевой культуры: знать нравственные и этические нормы, требования профессиональной этики, основные единицы речевого общения, сведения о коммуникативном аспекте культуры речи; уметь выполнять речевые действия, необходимые для установления и поддержания контакта, определять характер речевой ситуации;


владеть приемами эффективного речевого общения в различных коммуникативных сферах, а также навыками использования формул речевого этикета в разных ситуациях общения;

• готовность к обеспечению охраны жизни и здоровья обучающихся: знать понятие и содержание категории «здоровье человека», способы сохранения и укрепления здоровья, основные положения техники безопасности и оказания первой доврачебной помощи при возможных травмах; уметь оценивать, прогнозировать, минимизировать возможные опасности и вредные факторы в учебно-воспитательном процессе и внеурочной деятельности; владеть методами обеспечения охраны жизни и здоровья обучающихся в учебно-воспитательном процессе, внеурочной и внешкольной деятельности, методиками оценки физического состояния обучающихся, способами предотвращения опасных ситуаций в учебно-воспитательном процессе и во внеурочное время.

В кластер профессиональных компетенций бакалавра могут входить: • готовность реализовывать образовательные программы по предмету

в соответствии с требованиями образовательных стандартов: знать преподаваемый предмет в пределах требований ФГОС, его историю и место в мировой культуре и науке, рабочую программу и методику обучения по данному предмету; уметь реализовывать образовательные программы по предмету в соответствии с требованиями образовательных стандартов; владеть методикой преподавания предмета в пределах требований федеральных государственных образовательных стандартов;

• способность использовать современные методы и технологии обучения и диагностики: знать основы методики преподавания, современные педагогические технологии, современные концепции, модели, образовательные технологии дополнительного образования детей и взрослых; уметь понимать и составлять учебную документацию, составлять (совместно с психологом и другими специалистами) психолого-педагогическую характеристику (портрет) личности обучающегося, использовать методы психологической и педагогической диагностики для решения различных профессиональных задач; владеть стандартизированными методами психодиагностики личностных характеристик и возрастных особенностей обучающихся;

• способность решать задачи воспитания и духовно-нравственного развития обучающихся в учебной и внеучебной деятельности: знать основы духовно-нравственного развития обучающихся в учебной и внеучебной деятельности; уметь организовывать различные виды внеурочной деятельности с учетом возможностей образовательной организации, места жительства и историко-культурного своеобразия региона, строить воспитательную деятельность с учетом культурных различий детей, половозрастных и индивидуальных особенностей; владеть принципами духовно-нравственного развития обучающихся;

• способность использовать возможности образовательной среды для достижения личностных, метапредметных и предметных результатов обучения и обеспечения качества учебно-воспитательного процесса средствами преподаваемого предмета: знать пути достижения


образовательных результатов и способов оценки результатов обучения; уметь объективно оценивать знания обучающихся на основе тестирования и других методов контроля в соответствии с реальными учебными возможностями детей, создавать условия для появления новых творческих объединений, отвечающих интересам детей и (или) взрослых, развития и деятельности детских и молодежных общественных организаций; владеть стандартизированными методами психодиагностики личностных характеристик и возрастных особенностей обучающихся;

• готовность к взаимодействию с участниками образовательного процесса: знать основные закономерности семейных отношений, позволяющие эффективно работать с родительской общественностью, виды внебюджетных средств, источники их поступления и направления использования, основы взаимодействия с социальными партнерами; уметь общаться с детьми, признавать их достоинство, понимая и принимая их, создавать в учебных группах (классе, кружке, секции и т. п.) разновозрастные детско-взрослые общности обучающихся, их родителей (законных представителей) и педагогических работников, сотрудничать с другими педагогическими работниками и другими специалистами в решении воспитательных задач; владеть способами взаимодействия с другими субъектами образовательного процесса;

• способность организовывать сотрудничество обучающихся, поддерживать активность и инициативность, самостоятельность обучающихся, развивать их творческие способности: знать социально-психологические особенности и закономерности формирования детско-взрослых сообществ, техники и приемы вовлечения в деятельность и поддержания интереса к ней, методы, приемы и способы формирования благоприятного психологического микроклимата и обеспечения условий для сотрудничества обучающихся; уметь управлять учебными группами с целью вовлечения обучающихся в процесс обучения и воспитания, мотивируя их учебно-познавательную деятельность, анализировать реальное состояние дел в учебной группе, поддерживать в детском коллективе деловую, дружелюбную атмосферу, формировать детско-взрослые сообщества; владеть навыками формирования детско-взрослых сообществ, навыками вовлечения обучающихся в процесс обучения и воспитания, способами поддержки активности и инициативности, самостоятельности учеников, раскрытия их творческих способностей;

• готовность использовать систематизированные теоретические и практические знания для постановки и решения исследовательских задач в области образования: знать основы постановки и решения исследовательских задач в области образования; уметь применять теоретические знания при решении практических задач в профессиональной деятельности, решать задачи теоретического и практического характера; владеть навыками постановки конкретных задач в профессиональной деятельности;

• способность выявлять культурные потребности различных социальных групп: знать особенности и специфику культурного пространства различных социальных групп, их культурные потребности и интересы, приоритетные направления культурно-просветительских программ для разных


категорий населения; уметь анализировать данные о социальных общностях, видеть их проблемы, выделять их интересы и потребности, участвовать в изучении рынка дополнительных образовательных услуг под руководством специалиста; владеть технологиями управления процессом проектирования и организации массовых, групповых и индивидуальных форм социально-культурной деятельности в соответствии с культурными потребностями различных групп населения;

• способность реализовывать культурно-просветительские программы: знать отечественный и зарубежный опыт и способы организации культурно-просветительской деятельности; уметь разрабатывать и реализовывать культурно-просветительские программы, использовать возможности региональной культурной образовательной среды для организации культурно-просветительской деятельности; владеть способами организации культурно-просветительской деятельности, технологией создания и реализации культурно-просветительских программ.

В результате проведенного анализа важно отметить, что все представленные в модели компетенции должны быть взаимосвязаны, так как подготовка педагога дополнительного образования предполагает формирование комплексной модели. Они должны отражать специфику дополнительного образования, быть взаимосвязаны со специальными компетенциями и формироваться с использованием соответствующего набора дисциплин учебного плана основной образовательной программы.

Литература / References 1. Зимняя, И. А. Ключевые компетентности как результативно-целевая основа

компетентностного подхода в образовании. Авторская версия. – М.: Исслед. центр проблем качества подгот. специалистов, 2004.

2. Золотарева, А. В. Вариативная модель подготовки кадров для сферы дополнительного образования детей в России // Формування базових компетентностей у вихованцiв позашкiльних навчальних закладiв: матерiали мiжнародноi конференцii. – Киев: Iнституту проблем виховання НАПН Украiни, 2013. – С. 213-217.

3. Золотарева, А. В., Красовский, Р. М., Кузьмичева, О. В., Лебедев, Е. В., Морозова, В. С., Сарафанова, И. Е. Компетентностная модель подготовки менеджера в вузе: моногр. – Ярославль: Изд-во ЯГПУ, 2012.

4. Золотарева, А. В. Перспективы профессиональной подготовки кадров для сферы дополнительного образования детей // Вестник Костромского государственного университета им. Н. А. Некрасова: научно-методический журнал. Серия «Педагогика, Психология. Социальная работа. Ювентология. Социокинетика». – Кострома, 2012. – Том 18. – № 1. – Ч. 2. – С. 153-157.

5. Проект профессионального стандарта «Педагогическая деятельность в основном и дополнительном общем образовании, в том числе обучение на дому и вне организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность» № ИР-41 от 10.01.2013.

6. Федеральный государственный образовательный стандарт по направлению подготовки 050100 «Педагогическое образование» высшего профессионального образования (бакалавриат) / утвержден приказом Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации от 22 декабря 2009 г. № 788.


Светлана Сергеевна Золотарева Ассистент Ярославский государственный педагогический университет им. К. Д. Ушинского Ярославль, Россия [email protected] Svetlana Zolotareva Assistant Yaroslavl State Pedagogical University named after K. D. Ushinsky Yaroslavl, Russia [email protected]




НИНА ГЕННАДЬЕВНА ТИХОМИРОВА / NINA TIKHOMIROVA

КЛАСТЕР СПЕЦИАЛЬНЫХ КОМПЕТЕНЦИЙ БАКАЛАВРА ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ В СФЕРЕ КУЛЬТУРНО-ДОСУГОВОЙ ДЕЯТЕЛЬНОСТИ

CLUSTER OF SPECIAL COMPETENCES OF THE BACHELOR OF ADDITIONAL EDUCATION IN THE SPHERE OF CULTURAL AND LEISURE ACTIVITY


Статья посвящена актуальной проблеме формирования кластера специальных компетенций у студентов-бакалавров направления «Педагогическое образование» профиля «Дополнительное образование». Автор раскрывает подходы к подготовке педагога в сфере культурно-досуговой деятельности; предлагает анализ современной нормативной базы подготовки педагога дополнительного образования в России; описывает содержание кластера специальных компетенций бакалавра дополнительного образования в сфере культурно-досуговой деятельности, включающего в себя 11 компетенций; показывает особенности содержания дисциплин и практик, направленных на формирование предлагаемых компетенций бакалавра в вузе.

The article is devoted to the acute problem of the cluster of special competences’ formation by the bachelor students studying ‘Pedagogical education’ with a profile ‘Additional education’. The author reveals the approaches to teacher training in the field of cultural and leisure activities; offers the analysis of the current legal framework of the teacher training in additional education in Russia; describes the contents of the cluster of specific competencies for the bachelor of additional education in the field of cultural and leisure activities, including 11 competencies; shows the features of the content of disciplines and practices aimed at the formation of the proposed bachelor's competencies in higher educational institutions. Ключевые слова: компетентностный подход, компетенции, специальные

компетенции, бакалавриат, дополнительное образование, культурно-просветительская деятельность, досуговая деятельность

Keywords: competence-based approach, competences, special competences, bachelor degree, additional education, cultural and educational activity, leisure activity

В условиях внедрения в России Федерального государственного

образовательного стандарта высшего профессионального образования (ФГОС ВПО) нового поколения появилась возможность выстраивания инновационной вариативной системы подготовки педагога дополнительного образования. В основе реализации новых ФГОС ВПО лежит компетентностный подход, который рассматривается В. И. Байденко как «своего рода инструмент усиления социального диалога высшей школы с миром труда, средством

Кластер специальных компетенций бакалавра дополнительного образования… 582

углубления их сотрудничества и восстановления в новых условиях взаимного доверия» [1, с. 147-155]. О. Е. Лебедев определяет компетентностный подход как «совокупность общих принципов определения целей образования, отбора содержания образования, организации образовательного процесса и оценки образовательных результатов» [3, с. 3-12].

Компетенция же, как отмечает А. В. Хуторской, означает «круг вопросов, в которых человек хорошо осведомлен, обладает познаниями и опытом» [8, с. 143]. Компетентный в определенной области человек обладает соответствующими знаниями и способностями, позволяющими ему обоснованно судить об этой области и эффективно действовать в ней.

Одним из вариантов подготовки педагогов дополнительного образования в рамках бакалавриата является четырехлетний, традиционный бакалавриат, в рамках которого бакалавр дополнительного образования может готовиться к культурно-просветительской деятельности (направление «Педагогическое образование») [2]. В Ярославском государственном педагогическом университете им. К. Д. Ушинского с 2011 года реализуется основная образовательная программа высшего профессионального образования (ООП ВПО) бакалавриата по направлению подготовки 050100 «Педагогическое образование» и профилю подготовки «Дополнительное образование» [4]. Программа предназначена для методического обеспечения учебного процесса и предполагает формирование у студентов общекультурных и профессиональных компетенций в соответствии с требованиями ФГОС ВПО по данному направлению подготовки бакалавров [7].

В результате освоения данной ООП ВПО согласно ФГОС ВПО по направлению подготовки «Педагогическое образование» выпускник бакалавриата должен обладать общекультурными, общепрофессиональными и специальными (дополнительными) компетенциями в области культурно-просветительской деятельности [7].

В нашем исследовании мы выделили проблему формирования специальных компетенций бакалавров профиля «Дополнительное образование» в свете современных тенденций развития образования. Содержание специальных компетенций определяется самой спецификой культурно-просветительской и досуговой деятельности. Вопрос о том, как правильно организовать досуг, в том числе детский, стал предметом многих исследований. Значительный вклад в разработку этой проблемы внесли исследования В. Г. Афанасьева, Л. Г. Борисовой, Л. А. Гордона, Б. А. Грушина, Г. Е. Зборовского, М. С. Кагана, Э. В. Клопова, Г. П. Орлова, В. Д. Патрушева, В. И. Пименовой, Г. А. Пруденского, С. Г. Струмилина, Э. В. Соколова, Н. Н. Трубникова и др. В работах этих и других авторов осуществлен общеметодологический анализ свободного времени как социальной категории и условия развития человека.

Одним из направлений исследований стала социокультурная педагогическая анимация как новая профессия педагога. Теоретические подходы к анализу социально-культурного и психолого-педагогического феномена педагогической анимации как современной профессии с позиций философской, психологической, педагогической науки предлагает И. И. Шульга. Автор отмечает, что целью аниматорской деятельности является

Нина Геннадьевна Тихомирова / Nina Tikhomirova 583

сопровождение отдыха человека от физического восстановления (расслабление) через переживание радости и удовольствия (развлечение) к удовлетворению потребностей в творческой созидательной деятельности (развитие). Аниматоры как социокультурные лидеры являются «проводниками мнений», они выбирают и преобразуют ценности, понятия и манеры, обеспечивают членов группы образцами поведения в сфере свободного времени, занимая активные новаторские позиции по отношению к социальным нормам и способствуя развитию этих норм. Постепенно термины «аниматор», «анимация» для обозначения профессиональной деятельности организатора досуга получили свое обоснование и распространились во многих странах Европы, США, Канаде, России [9].

Интересен опыт подготовки будущих педагогов-аниматоров в сфере школьного досуга, описанный В. С. Плотниковой и Е. Н. Федоровой. Ими предлагается модель профессиональной подготовки студентов педагогического вуза к анимационной деятельности, которая состоит из внешних и внутренних организационно-педагогических условий и заключается в рассмотрении профессиональной подготовки педагога-аниматора как единства трех ее состояний: процесса, содержательного компонента и состояния базовой готовности будущего педагога-аниматора к самостоятельной профессиональной деятельности [5].

Важным этапом разработки перечня и содержания специальных компетенций бакалавра дополнительного образования стало также изучение проекта нового профессионального стандарта «Педагогическая деятельность в основном и дополнительном общем образовании, в том числе обучение на дому и вне организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность» № ИР-41 от 10.01.2013.

Так, в профстандарте предлагаются три основные функции педагога-организатора, связанные с организационно-педагогическим обеспечением реализации дополнительных образовательных программ:

С/01.6 Организация и проведение массовых досуговых мероприятий; С/02.6 Развитие социального партнерства и продвижение услуг

дополнительного образования детей и взрослых; С/03.6 Организация дополнительного образования детей и взрослых по

одному или нескольким направлениям деятельности: техническому, художественному, спортивному, туристско-краеведческому и др. [6].

Изучив предложенные трудовые функции педагога-организатора и их расшифровку, мы пришли к выводу о том, специальные компетенции могут быть сформулированы исходя из трудовых функций педагога-организатора, представленных в новом профессиональном стандарте. Таким образом, нами были сформулированы представленные в виде кластера специальные компетенции подготовки бакалавра по направлению 050100 «Педагогическое образование», профилю подготовки «Дополнительное образование».

Компетенция 1. Готовность планировать, организовывать массовые досуговые мероприятия для обучающихся разного возраста. Содержанием этой компетенции являются знания особенностей планирования проведения массовых досуговых мероприятий, основ организации репетиционной деятельности, форм привлечения педагогов, обучающихся и родителей к


подготовке и организации досуговых мероприятий, форм привлечения к участию в мероприятиях одаренных детей и детей с ограниченными возможностями здоровья; умения планировать массовые досуговые мероприятия, организовывать репетиции массовых досуговых мероприятий, привлекать педагогов, обучающихся и родителей к подготовке и организации досуговых мероприятий, привлекать к участию в мероприятиях одаренных детей и детей с ограниченными возможностями здоровья; навыки планирования массовых досуговых мероприятий, организации репетиций массовых досуговых мероприятий, привлечения педагогов, обучающихся и родителей к подготовке и организации досуговых мероприятий, привлечения к участию в мероприятиях одаренных детей и детей с ограниченными возможностями здоровья.

Компетенция 2. Готовность проводить массовые досуговые мероприятия для обучающихся разного возраста. В результате освоения этой компетенции студенты должны знать особенности деятельности ведущего досуговых мероприятий, формы, методы, способы и приемы организации деятельности и общения обучающихся в соответствии с санитарно-гигиеническими нормами и с учетом возраста, состояния здоровья и индивидуальных особенностей обучающихся; уметь выполнять роль ведущего досуговых мероприятий, использовать при проведении досуговых мероприятий педагогически обоснованные формы, методы, способы и приемы организации деятельности и общения обучающихся в соответствии с санитарно-гигиеническими нормами и с учетом возраста, состояния здоровья и индивидуальных особенностей обучающихся; владеть способами проведения досуговых мероприятий, навыками использования при проведении досуговых мероприятий педагогически обоснованных форм, методов, способов и приемов организации деятельности и общения обучающихся в соответствии с санитарно-гигиеническими нормами и с учетом возраста, состояния здоровья и индивидуальных особенностей обучающихся.

Компетенция 3. Способность разрабатывать сценарии досуговых мероприятий, в т. ч. конкурсов, олимпиад, соревнований, выставок и т. п. Результатом освоения компетенции станут знания бакалавров об основах разработки сценариев досуговых мероприятий, в т. ч. конкурсов, олимпиад, соревнований, выставок и т. п.; умения разрабатывать сценарии досуговых мероприятий, в т. ч. конкурсов, олимпиад, соревнований, выставок и т. п.; владение технологией разработки сценариев досуговых мероприятий, в т. ч. конкурсов, олимпиад, соревнований, выставок и т. п.

Компетенция 4. Способность осуществлять документационное обеспечение проведения досуговых мероприятий. Данная компетенция конкретизируется в знании нормативно-правовых актов федерального, регионального и локального уровней, регламентирующих деятельность педагога-организатора в отношении планирования, организации и проведения массовых досуговых мероприятий; умении использовать нормативно-правовые акты федерального, регионального и локального уровней, регламентирующие деятельность педагога-организатора при планировании, организации и проведении массовых досуговых мероприятий; навыках


осуществления документационного обеспечения планирования, организации и проведения массовых досуговых мероприятий.

Компетенция 5. Готовность обеспечивать безопасность обучающихся при проведении досуговых мероприятий. Овладение этой компетенцией возможно в том случае, если студенты-бакалавры будут знать порядок обеспечения безопасности обучающихся при подготовке и проведении массовых досуговых мероприятий, технику безопасности на занятиях; уметь анализировать и устранять (минимизировать) возможные риски жизни и здоровью обучающихся при подготовке и проведении массовых досуговых мероприятий, контролировать соблюдение техники безопасности на занятиях; владеть способами обеспечения безопасности обучающихся при подготовке и проведении массовых досуговых мероприятий способами контроля соблюдения техники безопасности на занятиях.

Компетенция 6. Способность анализировать организацию досуговой деятельности и отдельных мероприятий и осуществлять оценку ее качества. Студент-бакалавр профиля «Дополнительное образование» приобретет данную компетенцию через знания сущности и видов анализа организации досуговой деятельности, массовых мероприятий, способов оценивания качества организации досуговой деятельности и отдельных мероприятий; умения проводить анализ и самоанализ организации досуговой деятельности и отдельных мероприятий, оценивать качество организации досуговой деятельности и отдельных мероприятий; навыки владения методами анализа организации досуговой деятельности и отдельных мероприятий, методами оценивания качества организации досуговой деятельности и отдельных мероприятий.

Компетенция 7. Готовность комплектовать группы обучающихся с учетом специфики реализуемых дополнительных общеобразовательных программ, индивидуальных и возрастных характеристик обучающихся. В результате освоения этой компетенции студенты должны знать принципы комплектования группы обучающихся с учетом специфики реализуемых дополнительных образовательных программ, индивидуальных и возрастных характеристик обучающихся, особенности составления расписания работы творческих объединений (кружков, секций и т. п.); уметь комплектовать группу обучающихся с учетом специфики реализуемых дополнительных образовательных программ, индивидуальных и возрастных характеристик обучающихся, составлять расписание работы творческих объединений (кружков, секций и т. п.); владеть навыками комплектования группы обучающихся с учетом специфики реализуемых дополнительных образовательных программ, индивидуальных и возрастных характеристик обучающихся, методами составления расписания работы творческих объединений (кружков, секций и т. п.).

Компетенция 8. Способность взаимодействовать с органами управления образованием и социальными партнерами организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность, по вопросам развития дополнительного образования и проведения массовых досуговых мероприятий. Содержание данной компетенции раскрывается в знании потенциальных социальных партнеров, мотивов их взаимодействия с организациями, реализующими


дополнительные образовательные программы, формальных (договорных, организационных) и неформальных форм взаимодействия с социальными партнерами; умении находить социальных партнеров, развивать формальные (договорные, организационные) и неформальные формы взаимодействия с ними; навыках владения способами взаимодействия с органами управления образованием и социальными партнерами организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность, по вопросам развития дополнительного образования и проведения массовых досуговых мероприятий.

Компетенция 9. Способность анализировать процесс и результаты реализации программ дополнительного образования, внутренние и внешние (средовые) условия развития дополнительного образования в организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность. В результате обучения бакалавры должны знать сущность и виды анализа процесса и результатов деятельности организации по реализации программ и развитию дополнительного образования детей внутренние и внешние (средовые) условия развития организации, реализующей программы дополнительного образования детей, в т. ч. социально-экономические условия деятельности, социально-психологические особенности контингента, методическое и кадровое обеспечение; уметь анализировать процесс и результаты деятельности организации по реализации программ и развитию дополнительного образования детей определять, изучать и анализировать внутренние и внешние (средовые) условия развития организации, реализующей программы дополнительного образования детей, в т. ч. социально-экономические условия деятельности, социально-психологические особенности контингента, методическое и кадровое обеспечение; владеть навыками анализа процесса и результатов реализации программ дополнительного образования организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность, методами определения, изучения и анализа внутренних и внешних (средовых) условий развития организации, реализующей программы дополнительного образования детей, в т. ч. социально-экономических условий деятельности, социально-психологических особенностей контингента, методического и кадрового обеспечения.

Компетенция 10. Готовность разрабатывать предложения по развитию дополнительного образования (направлению дополнительного образования) в организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность, и представлять их руководству организации. Содержание компетенции раскрывается в знаниях студентов о формах представления предложений по развитию образования руководителям и педагогическому коллективу; умениях разрабатывать и представлять руководству и педагогическому коллективу предложения по развитию организации, реализующей программы дополнительного образования, перечню и содержанию программ, обеспечению качества их реализации, совершенствованию кадрового, нормативного, учебно-методического и материально-технического обеспечения; навыках владения способами разработки предложений по развитию дополнительного образования (направлению дополнительного образования) в организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность, и навыках представления их руководству организации.


Компетенция 11. Готовность планировать и организовывать совместно с методистом методическую работу и повышение квалификации педагогов дополнительного образования. В содержательном плане студент-бакалавр должен знать основы планирования и организации методической работы и повышения квалификации педагогов дополнительного образования, стадии профессионального развития педагога; уметь взаимодействовать с методистом по вопросам планирования и организации методической работы и повышения квалификации педагогов дополнительного образования; владеть методами планирования и организации совместно с методистом методической работы и повышения квалификации педагогов дополнительного образования.

Процесс формирования специальных компетенций в рамках ООП ВПО профиля «Дополнительное образование», разработанной в ЯГПУ им. К. Д. Ушинского, осуществляется в ходе освоения дисциплин таких модулей, как: «Концептуальные и нормативно-правовые основы дополнительного образования», «Организационно-педагогические основы дополнительного образования детей», «Технологии педагогической деятельности в дополнительном образовании», «Психолого-педагогическое сопровождение образовательной деятельности в системе дополнительного образования», «Дети с особыми образовательными потребностями в дополнительном образовании», «Социально-педагогическая деятельность в системе дополнительного образования». Также формирование специальных компетенций происходит в процессе освоения дисциплин по выбору: «Диалоговые технологии», «Поисково-исследовательские технологии», «Клуб как форма дополнительного образования», «Студия как форма организации дополнительного образования», «Школа как форма дополнительного образования», «Театр как форма дополнительного образования», «Дополнительное образование в школе», «Дополнительное образование в дошкольном образовательном учреждении», «Дополнительное образование в системе НПО», «Организация дополнительного образования в вузе» [4].

Для формирования специальных компетенций будущего педагога-бакалавра большое значение имеют разнообразные практики, организуемые в процессе обучения в вузе. В ООП, реализуемой в ЯГПУ им. К. Д. Ушинского, предусмотрены следующие виды практик: учебная (ознакомительная) практика, производственная (педагогическая) в детских оздоровительных лагерях, производственная (педагогическая) в системе дополнительного образования, производственная (педагогическая) культурно-просветительская, производственная исследовательская. При этом базами практик могут быть учреждения дополнительного образования детей системы образования, культуры и спорта, общеобразовательные школы (с блоком дополнительного образования), детские оздоровительные образовательные лагеря [4].

Для обеспечения качества подготовки педагога-бакалавра должно выполняться одно из главных условий – интеграция процессов формирования специальных компетенций с общекультурными и профессиональными компетенциями, при этом она должна отражать специфику подготовки профессионала в области культурно-просветительской и досуговой деятельности.


Литература / References 1. Байденко, В. И. Мониторинговое исследование Болонского процесса: некоторые

результаты и взгляд в будущее // Высшее образование в России. Серия: Интернационализация образования. – 2009. – № 7. – С. 147-155.

2. Золотарева, А. В. Современные проблемы подготовки педагогических кадров для сферы дополнительного образования детей // Подготовка кадров для сферы дополнительного образования детей в России: материалы II Всероссийской научно-практической заочной интернет-конференции / под ред. А. В. Золотаревой. – Ярославль : Изд-во ЯГПУ, 2012.

3. Лебедев, О. Е. Компетентностный подход в образовании // Школьные технологии. – 2004. – № 5. – С. 3-12.

4. Основная образовательная программа высшего профессионального образования (ООП ВПО) бакалавриата по направлению подготовки 050100 «Педагогическое образование», профилю подготовки «Дополнительное образование». – Утверждена ректором ЯГПУ им. К. Д. Ушинского В. В. Афанасьевым 30.06. 2011.

5. Плотникова, В. С., Федорова, Е. Н. Подготовка будущих педагогов-аниматоров в контексте ценностно-смыслового подхода // Фундаментальные исследования. – 2012. – № 3. – С. 53-58.

6. Проект профессионального стандарта «Педагогическая деятельность в основном и дополнительном общем образовании, в том числе обучение на дому и вне организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность» № ИР-41 от 10.01.2013.

7. Федеральный государственный образовательный стандарт по направлению подготовки 050100 «Педагогическое образование» высшего профессионального образования (бакалавриат). Утвержден приказом Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации от 22 декабря 2009 г. № 788 [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://www.edu.ru/db-mon/mo/Data/d_09/prm788-1.pdf (дата обращения: 22.09.2013).

8. Хуторской, А. В. Дидактическая эвристика. Теория и технология креативного обучения. – М.: Изд-во МГУ, 2003.

9. Шульга, И. И. Педагогическая анимация – новая профессия организатора досуга // Вестник СГУТиКД. – 2011. – № 3 (17). – С. 154-158.

Нина Геннадьевна Тихомирова кандидат педагогических наук, старший преподаватель Ярославский государственный педагогический университет им. К. Д. Ушинского Ярославль, Россия [email protected] Nina Tikhomirova PhD in Pedagogy (Candidate of Science), Senior Lecturer Yaroslavl State Pedagogical University named after K. D. Ushinsky Yaroslavl, Russia [email protected]




ОЛЬГА НИКОЛАЕВНА ЖИДКОВА, РОМАН ВИКТОРОВИЧ КАПТЮХИН / OLGA ZHIDKOVA, ROMAN KAPTYUKHIN

ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИЕ ОТКРЫТЫХ ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНЫХ РЕСУРСОВ В ОБРАЗОВАНИИ

THE USE OF OPEN EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES IN EDUCATION


Главной задачей данной статьи является изучение и оценка использования и перспектив развития открытых образовательных ресурсов в России и в международном контексте с исторической и правовой точек зрения, а также представление на примере интеграции открытых образовательных ресурсов вузов в электронной библиотеке портала «Единое окно» возможностей информационного обмена в образовательной среде.

The main objective of this paper is to study and evaluate the use and prospects for the development of open educational resources in Russia and in the international context from the historical and legal point of view as well as to represent the opportunities for the information exchange in the educational environment on the example of the integration of open educational resources of universities in the digital library portal ‘Single Window’. Ключевые слова: открытые образовательные ресурсы, открытая лицензия,

потребители контента, онлайн-образование, интернет-технологии, информатизация образования, лицензирование прав на интеллектуальную собственность

Keywords: open educational resources, open license, consumers of content, online education, Internet technology, informatization of education, intellectual rights licensing

Введение

Образование в современном мире стало жизненно необходимым видом деятельности человека. Человек учится на протяжении всей жизни независимо от физических возможностей и социального статуса. Невозможно говорить о развитом обществе без современного института образования, отвечающего представлениям об открытости и всеобщей доступности знаний. Научное знание, так или иначе транслируемое в процессе обучения, должно быть общественным достоянием. Современные информационно-коммуникационные технологии способны открыть научное знание для всего человечества.

Образование, как и наука, должно служить интересам общества, во благо всем его членам, этническим группам. Открытое образование является насущной потребностью современного общества. Открытое образование понимается нами как доступное всем без каких-либо ограничений, понимаемое в отдельных случаях как еще и бесплатное.

Использование открытых образовательных ресурсов в образовании 590

Благодаря открытому образованию доступ к аутентичным материалам никогда не был таким легким, как сейчас. Огромное количество ресурсов и материалов на разных языках доступно для немедленного использования. Цель этой статьи – попытка проанализировать использование открытых образовательных ресурсов для высшего образования, изучить международный опыт и ситуацию в России.

История создания и правовые аспекты открытых образовательных ресурсов

Прежде всего необходимо уточнить, что использованный в заглавии статьи термин «открытые образовательные ресурсы» достаточно широко используется в России, но его толкование не соответствует принятому в международном научно-образовательном сообществе толкованию термина «Open Educational Resources» (OER). Данный англоязычный термин начал использоваться в начале XXI века в связи с появлением проекта Массачусетского технологического института MIT OpenCourseWare (OCW), который финансировался некоммерческой организацией William and Flora Hewlett Foundation и заключался в открытой публикации в сети Интернет учебных и методических материалов по широкому спектру дисциплин, изучаемых в университетах [12]. При этом основной особенностью проекта была открытая лицензия на использование этих материалов научно-образовательным сообществом всего мира, допускающая копирование, распространение и модификацию этих ресурсов, их использование для разработки новых образовательных ресурсов. Таким образом, к образовательным ресурсам был применен подход, получивший ранее широкое распространение в сфере разработки свободно распространяемого программного обеспечения с открытым кодом (open software). Открытые образовательные ресурсы интегрируются в процесс обучения наряду с такими передовыми средствами, как образовательный краудсорсинг, реализуемый на основе современных информационных и коммуникационных технологий и являющийся одним из важнейших инструментов социализации в условиях перехода от традиционных обществ (society) к сетевым сообществам (community) [3]. В российском сегменте сети Интернет под «открытыми образовательными ресурсами», как правило, понимаются ресурсы, которые являются бесплатными и свободно доступными для всех пользователей сети, т. е. не требуют авторизации на сайтах и не имеют ограничений на сети (IP-адреса), с которых осуществляется доступ к ресурсам. Однако правовые вопросы, относящиеся к допустимым действиям с этими образовательными ресурсами, в большинстве случаев остаются неосвещенными. На некоторых сайтах присутствует уведомление типа «Все права защищены. Копирование, распространение информации допускается при наличии письменного разрешения владельца сайта». Нередки уведомления типа «Допускается использование материалов в образовательных целях при условии ссылки на данный сайт». Иногда присутствуют указания на допустимость скачивания и использования ресурса для личных целей, но недопустимость копирования информации или ее размещении на других сайтах.

Ольга Николаевна Жидкова, Роман Викторович Каптюхин / Olga Zhidkova, Roman Kaptyukhin 591

В мировой практике распространение получили лицензии Creative Commons (лицензии СС), которые основаны на авторском праве и позволяют авторам и правообладателям (физическим и юридическим лицам) распространять свои произведения на определенных ими условиях, а потребителям контента (также физическим и юридическим лицам) – простым и легким способом использовать эти произведения. Суть этих лицензий заключается в том, что они позволяют авторам (правообладателям) сообщить общественности, от каких прав на свои произведения они хотели бы отказаться, а какие права они оставляют за собой. Семейство лицензий Creative Commons (лицензии СС) включают в себя:

• BY – «Attribution» – указывать авторство; • SA – «ShareAlike» – распространение на тех же условиях; • NC – «NonCommercial» – некоммерческое использование; • ND – «NoDerivs» – без производных произведений. Самая «разрешительная» лицензия – CC BY, а самая «запретительная» –

СС BY-NC-ND. К сожалению, сайты, на которых имеются четкие указания на лицензии,

подобные лицензиям Creative Commons, и на допустимые способы использования размещенных в сети ресурсов, в российском Интернете весьма малочисленны. Такой ситуации способствует и то, что в настоящее время в юрисдикции России отсутствует нормативно-правовая база для применения свободных лицензий.

Нельзя не упомянуть и о проблемах, связанных с использованием открытых ресурсов для высшего образования. Хотя применение информационных технологий повышает мотивацию и познавательную активность студентов, интерес к предмету, помогает интенсифицировать и индивидуализировать обучение, их использование предполагает достаточный уровень компьютерной грамотности, дающий уверенность, что доступная технология используется адекватно [2]. Наличие на сайтах вузов открытых ресурсов не всегда рассматривается руководством как необходимый компонент продвижения вуза и подъема его престижа. В показателях отчетности вузов не учитывается наличие открытых образовательных ресурсов. Свою роль здесь играет и недостаток стимулов для преподавателей к разработке и размещению открытых образовательных ресурсов, а также недостаточный уровень владения интернет-технологиями (создание и поддержка сайтов, управление контентом). Наличие новых технологий не приводит к автоматическому изменению самой «культуры» обучения, они только предоставляют возможности для ее трансформации [8].

Сайты, разработанные на средства грантов и по выигранным конкурсам, зачастую прекращают жить после окончания финансирования. При размещении ресурсов не уделяется должного внимания правовым вопросам, в большинстве случаев отсутствуют указания на допустимое использование. Российское законодательство в области авторского права и интеллектуальной собственности на сегодняшний день не включает «свободные лицензии».


Примеры OER-проектов (Open Educational Resources) в разных странах и перспективы развития ООР (открытых образовательных ресурсов)

Хотелось бы привести некоторые примеры успешного создания и использования ООР (открытых образовательных ресурсов) в высших учебных заведениях во всем мире.

Проект Массачусетского технологического института (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) – MIT OpenCourseWare (OCW) (http://ocw.mit.edu). Начало проекта приходится на 2002 год. Материалы учебных курсов размещаются с лицензией CC BY-NC-SA.

OpenCourseWare Consortium (http://ocwconsortium.org) – это сообщество нескольких сот вузов и других научно-образовательных учреждений, продвигающих OpenCourseWare (OCW). На данном ресурсе имеется каталог сайтов с OCW и более 6400 курсов на 27 языках.

African Virtual University – проект OER@AVU Portal (http://oer.avu.org) Openly Licenced: «You can download, modify, share and distribute this material freely! Don't forget to contribute back if you make significant improvements» [11] (Вы можете скачивать, редактировать, пересылать и распространять этот материал свободно! Не забывайте вносить свой вклад, если вы сделаете значительные улучшения).

Проект College Open Textbooks (http://collegeopentextbooks.org). На сайте размещен каталог полнотекстовых учебников, доступных в Интернете с открытыми лицензиями.

Также можно упомянуть такие успешные проекты ООР, как Commonwealth of Learning (Канада) (http://www.col.org), OCW – University of California (США) (http://ocw.uci.edu), OpenLearn – The Open University (Великобритания) (http://www.open.edu/openlearn/), OER Africa (ЮАР) (http://www.oerafrica.org), Open University of Israel (Израиль) (http://ocw.openu.ac.il), OCW KU Leuven (Бельгия) (http://ocw.kuleuven.be).

Проект Института ЮНЕСКО по информационным технологиям в образовании (ИИТО) «Открытые образовательные ресурсы» (http://ru.iite.unesco.org) направлен на поддержку движения ООР и создание условий для разработки, обмена и использования OОР, в частности в странах СНГ и Балтии: аналитические исследования, повышение информированности по вопросам разработки и использования ООР, подготовка кадров, организация сетевого взаимодействия, технологические разработки, создание инструментов и хранилищ ООР на национальных языках.

В 2012 году в Париже прошел Всемирный конгресс ЮНЕСКО (World Open Educational Resources Congress), целью которого было: представить экспертов и лучшие мировые практики в инициативах и политике в области OER; принять декларацию, призывающую правительства поддержать развитие и использование открытых образовательных ресурсов; отпраздновать 10-летие Форума ЮНЕСКО 2002 года, на котором был принят термин «OER».

В 2013 году в Брюсселе был проведен Европейский саммит по открытому и онлайн-образованию и программе модернизации европейского образования. Единственным представителем России в ходе Саммита стал МЭСИ (Московский государственный университет экономики, статистики и


информатики). Опыт вуза в развитии открытого образования и электронного обучения получил высокие оценки. Саммит состоялся по совместной инициативе Европейской ассоциации университетов дистанционного обучения (EADTU) и Генерального директората Еврокомиссии по образованию и культуре. Данная инициатива фактически означает открытие новой повестки дня для Европы, цель которой – стимулирование развития высококачественных, инновационных методов обучения посредством использования новых технологий и цифрового контента. И это не самоцель, а средство для формирования более открытого образовательного пространства для предоставления высококачественного образования и, тем самым, для достижения европейских целей 2020: подъем конкурентоспособности Европы, формирование квалифицированной рабочей силы и увеличение занятости.

Основываясь на итогах работы Саммита, можно сформулировать некоторые выводы для России. Если учебные заведения страны не овладеют новыми технологиями, не будут вооружать своих питомцев навыками работы в современной глобальной сетевой экономике, а система образования не обретет черты открытости и гибкости, она отстанет от мировых темпов развития, не сможет обеспечить страну высококвалифицированными кадрами, потеряет привлекательность для потенциальных зарубежных абитуриентов и повлечет отток отечественных студентов, которые предпочтут получать образование в других странах (физически или виртуально). Не случайно использование информационных технологий дистанционного обучения специалисты по стратегическим проблемам образования называют образовательной системой 21 века [7]. Уже сейчас учащиеся из России по своему количеству входят в первую десятку подписавшихся на массовые открытые онлайновые курсы, разработанные за рубежом и размещенные на зарубежных платформах. При этом необходимо учитывать такие аспекты, как специфика межкультурной коммуникации в онлайн-среде [1] и невербальные средства, которые могут отличаться в разных культурах [9].

Российские вузы (в первую очередь – федеральные и исследовательские университеты) необходимо вооружить современным инструментарием, дать возможность внедрить высококачественные инновационные методы обучения с применением новейших технологий и методики создания и использования цифрового контента.

Открытые образовательные ресурсы вузов: интеграция в электронной библиотеке портала «Единое окно»

Весьма важной составляющей образовательного контента сети Интернет являются образовательные ресурсы, созданные в высших учебных заведениях и размещенные на сайтах вузов и их структурных подразделений – факультетов, кафедр, библиотек, а также на персональных сайтах преподавателей и сотрудников. К таким ресурсам относятся как электронные версии выпущенных в вузе печатных изданий (учебных пособий, лабораторных практикумов, методических указаний и др.), так и материалы, существующие только в виде электронных изданий, а также открытые электронные библиотеки вузов (полнотекстовые электронные версии вузовских изданий), сайты факультетов и кафедр (учебные пособия,


методические указания, материалы к лекциям, задания, рабочие программы), сайты тематических научно-образовательных проектов, персональные сайты преподавателей.

Значительная часть подобных ресурсов размещается с ограничениями на права доступа, т. е. доступна только с компьютеров, расположенных в сети вуза, или по логинам/паролям, выдаваемым студентам и сотрудникам данного учебного заведения. Такая ситуация типична, например, для сайтов многих научных библиотек вузов, на которых наряду с открытым доступом к электронному каталогу предоставляется ограниченный доступ к полнотекстовым версиям учебно-методических и научных изданий, выпущенных в данном вузе. Вместе с тем в российском сегменте сети Интернет существуют тысячи сайтов, на которых легальным образом, т. е. с ведома и согласия авторов и правообладателей, в открытом доступе размещены учебно-методические материалы, подготовленные в вузах и предназначенные для использования в учебном процессе. Размещение в свободном бесплатном доступе предполагает, что создатели ресурсов готовы предоставить возможность ознакомления с ними всех заинтересованных пользователей Интернета, в первую очередь преподавателей и студентов вузов. Однако разбросанность десятков тысяч ресурсов по тысячам сайтов, на страницах которых представлены небольшие по объему (от нескольких единиц до нескольких десятков) списки ресурсов со ссылками на файлы различных форматов (pdf, doc, djvu, zip, rar и др.), делает для пользователей Интернета задачу целенаправленного поиска интересующих ресурсов весьма непростой. Решить такую задачу позволяет интеграция ресурсов в рамках единой информационной системы, в которой ресурсы снабжаются метаданными, распределенными на рубрики и которая предоставляет пользователю средства контекстно-атрибутного поиска.

Одним из важнейших результатов работ в сфере информатизации образования России, выполненных в последние годы в рамках федеральных целевых программ и приоритетного национального проекта «Образование», стало создание федеральной системы информационно-образовательных ресурсов (ФСИОР). В число ключевых компонентов ФСИОР входит портал «Единое окно доступа к образовательным ресурсам» (http://window.edu.ru) или коротко – «Единое окно» – образовательный интернет-проект, основными задачами которого являются систематизация и предоставление свободного доступа к русскоязычным электронным образовательным ресурсам для различных категорий участников образовательного процесса.

Основными структурными компонентами портала «Единое окно» являются каталог образовательных интернет-ресурсов, электронная библиотека учебно-методических материалов с открытым доступом и новостные ленты образовательной тематики. Интегральный каталог содержит представленные в стандартизованной форме метаданные внешних интернет-ресурсов (как сайтов, так и отдельных размещенных на них ресурсов) и описания полнотекстовых публикаций электронной библиотеки. При размещении в каталоге внешние интернет-ресурсы снабжаются унифицированным метаописанием, включающим в себя следующие атрибуты: название, URL, авторы ресурса, аннотация, регион РФ (при наличии


географической принадлежности ресурса), перечень разделов рубрикатора, к которым отнесен данный ресурс. Рубрицирование ресурсов производится на основе принятого в системе федеральных образовательных порталов стандарта, который предусматривает четыре независимых направления рубрикации:

• по уровню образования (дошкольное, общее, профессиональное, дополнительное);

• по целевой аудитории (абитуриент, исследователь, менеджер, преподаватель, учащийся);

• по типу ресурса (учебные, учебно-методические, справочные, иллюстративные, научные материалы, нормативные документы и др.);

• по предметной области (два базовых предметных рубрикатора – для общего образования и для профессионального образования).

Электронная библиотека портала «Единое окно» является крупнейшим в российском сегменте Интернета хранилищем полнотекстовых версий учебных и учебно-методических материалов с открытым доступом. Полные тексты (файлы) материалов размещаются непосредственно на сервере библиотеки, и на карточке публикации указываются соответствующие гиперссылки. В качестве базового формата хранения материалов используется формат pdf; некоторые издания размещаются в виде файлов в формате djvu. Материал может быть представлен как в виде одного файла, так и набором файлов (например, по главам и разделам), для каждого из которых на карточке дается содержательное наименование. Имеющиеся на портале средства поиска позволяют формировать выборки ресурсов по разделам рубрикатора (например, по тематическим рубрикам) в сочетании с контекстным поиском в названии и описании ресурсов, в том числе по автору, ключевым словам, в тексте аннотации, по URL (для интернет-ресурсов), по году издания, по региону РФ и организации – поставщику ресурсов. Поиск по контексту может выполняться без учета или с учетом морфологии русского языка, а также с применением специального языка запросов. Наряду с использованием внутренних поисковых средств портала, предоставляется возможность производить контекстный поиск с помощью встроенного поискового сервиса Google, который оказывается особенно эффективным при поиске в полных текстах публикаций, размещенных в электронной библиотеке. Портал включает также ряд подсистем, функции которых связаны с работой с посетителями портала: размещение отзывов на ресурсы и их обсуждение, ответы на вопросы, просмотр и размещение предложенных посетителями ресурсов для библиотеки и каталога, статистический учет посещаемости, включая подсчет количества просмотров каждой из карточек ресурсов и скачиваний файлов с материалами библиотеки. Это можно сравнить с взаимодействием онлайн-газет со своими виртуальными читателями. Особенно ценными для аудиторной работы является ссылка – send us feedback, осуществляющая интеракцию читателя с издательством [10].

Существенный вклад в пополнение электронной библиотеки вносят пользователи портала, которые предлагают для размещения собственные авторские материалы, используя разработанный для этих целей онлайновый сервис портала. Все материалы, размещенные в библиотеке, заносятся в


специальный реестр, а их авторам выдается свидетельство о размещении электронных копий ресурсов в библиотеке. С несколькими десятками вузов заключены соглашения о передаче неисключительных прав на размещение материалов в электронной библиотеке портала «Единое окно». В ряде высших учебных заведений учеными советами вузов было принято решение о том, что данные свидетельства учитываются при избрании по конкурсу на должность как подтверждение публикации работы, даже если учебно-методическая разработка не имеет печатной версии.

Переходя к методическим аспектам проекта «Единое окно», следует отметить, что использование электронной библиотеки не изменяет существенным образом характер изучения учебных дисциплин, так как данная электронная библиотека является лишь средством хранения, поиска и получения учебно-методических материалов, представленных в традиционной текстовой и графической формах. Разумеется, использование таких электронных образовательных ресурсов, как виртуальные лабораторные практикумы, программы для компьютерного моделирования, интерактивные электронные учебные пособия, аудио- и видеолекции, компьютерные демонстрации, онлайн-тесты, также является весьма важным, особенно при дистанционном обучении [5]. Однако для профессионального образования весьма важной является информационная составляющая, которая может быть представлена в простой текстографической форме (такой как электронная версия обычного печатного издания). При этом основной интерес представляют подбор материала, методика его изложения, методические рекомендации по изучению курса, задания для самостоятельной работы учащихся, проведение онлайн-тестирования, которое является эффективным средством активизации познавательной, рефлексивной деятельности студентов [6] и т. д. Широкий спектр направлений и специальностей профессионального образования, наличие различных научно-педагогических школ, большое количество учебных дисциплин, появление новых научных направлений и перспективных технологий, использование принципов конструктивизма как философской основы информационно-обучающей среды делают весьма актуальными задачи распространения и обмена педагогическим опытом путем размещения в открытом доступе разнообразных учебно-методических материалов [4].

Взаимодействие с посетителями портала, характер их отзывов на ресурсы, а также проводимый анализ посещаемости и востребованности ресурсов показывают, что они весьма интенсивно используются в образовательном процессе – как преподавателями, так и учащимися. Таким образом, выполнение данного проекта способствует решению задач интеграции образовательных ресурсов учреждений образования и науки России, обеспечения широкой доступности учебного и методического потенциала вузов, эффективного использования накопленного педагогического опыта.

Заключение

Отвечая на вопрос, являются ли свободно доступные образовательные ресурсы в России ресурсами вида «Open Educational Resources» (в понимании ЮНЕСКО), ответ будет скорее всего отрицательным. При этом качество


российских свободно доступных образовательных ресурсов соответствует мировому уровню ресурсов вида OER, а для общего образования, возможно, и превышает. Однако российские вузы существенно отстают от зарубежных в области открытого доступа к своим образовательным ресурсам (материалам учебных курсов). Причины этого видятся нам в том, что создание большинства российских хранилищ открытых образовательных ресурсов является результатом выполнения государственных заказов, при этом принятые в мировой практике открытые лицензии в России не предусмотрены в действующем законодательстве об авторских правах и практически не используются в сфере образования.

Литература / References 1. Герасименко, Т. Л., Грубин, И. В., Гулая, Т. М., Жидкова, О. Н., Романова, С. А.

Smart-технологии (вебинар и социальные сети) в преподавании иностранного языка в неязыковом вузе // Экономика, статистика и информатика: Вестник УМО. – 2012. – № 5. – C. 9-12.

2. Герасименко, Т. Л., Грубин, И. В., Гулая, Т. М., Жидкова, О. Н., Романова, С. А. Развитие языковой компетенции у студентов неязыкового вуза с помощью смарттехнологий // Экономика, статистика и информатика: Вестник УМО. – 2013. – № 1. – C. 3-6.

3. Жидкова, О. Н. Инновационные технологии в обучении иностранному языку. Использование интернет-ресурсов // Инновационная Россия: задачи и правовые основы развития: коллективная монография. – М.: МЭСИ, 2011. – C. 618-626.

4. Жидкова, О. Н. Использование онлайн-газет для развития коммуникативной и межкультурной компетенций // Международный журнал прикладных и фундаментальных исследований. – 2013. – № 10. – C. 125-126.

5. Жидкова, О. Н. Краудсорсинг как один из инструментов социализации формального и неформального образования // Международный журнал экспериментального образования. – 2013. – № 10-1. – С. 137-140.

6. Жидкова, О. Н., Арефьева, Т. С. Использование онлайн-тестирования для эффективного контроля знаний студентов по иностранному языку // Сборник научных трудов Международной заочной научно-практической конференции «Наука и образование в XXI веке». – 2013.

7. Каменева, Н. А., Нисилевич, А. Б., Стрижова, Е. В., Харитонова, О. В. Принципы конструктивизма как философская основа информационно-обучающей среды // Сборник научных трудов Sworld. – 2013. – Т. 14. – № 2. – С. 15-19.

8. Лобанова, Е. И., Турук, И. Ф. Interpersonal Aspect of Intercultural Communication in online-area // Journal of Scientific Publications: Language, Individual and Society. –2011. – Т 5. – C. 25-30.

9. Лобанова, Е. И., Турук, И. Ф. Невербальные средства межкультурной коммуникации в социокультурной среде // Journal of Scientific Publications: Language, Individual and Society. – 2012. – Т. 6, № 2. – С. 85-89.

10. Нисилевич, А. Б., Стрижова, Е. В. Инновационные технологии преподавания в высшей школе // Экономика, статистика и информатика: Вестник УМО. – 2013. – № 3. – C. 3-5.

11. African Virtual University [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://oer.avu.org (дата обращения: 12.11.2013).


12. Open educational resources [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Open_educational_resources (дата обращения: 12.11.2013).

Ольга Николаевна Жидкова кандидат экономических наук, доцент Заместитель директора по учебно-методической работе Институт менеджмента Московский государственный университет экономики, статистики и информатики (МЭСИ) [email protected] Olga Zhidkova PhD in Economics (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor Deputy Director in methodical work Institute of Management Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics and Informatics (MESI) Moscow, Russia [email protected] Роман Викторович Каптюхин Заместитель директора по целевым образовательным программам Институт менеджмента Московский государственный университет экономики, статистики и информатики (МЭСИ) [email protected] Roman Kaptyukhin Deputy Director in specific educational programs Institute of Management Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics and Informatics (MESI) [email protected]





НИНА ВИКТОРОВНА НИКОЛЬСКАЯ / NINA NIKOLSKAYA

СОХРАНЕНИЕ КУЛЬТУРНОЙ ИДЕНТИЧНОСТИ И ПОДГОТОВКА ГЛОБАЛЬНО КОМПЕТЕНТНЫХ ГРАЖДАН В РУСЛЕ ДВУЯЗЫЧНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ В ВЕЛИКОБРИТАНИИ

PRESERVATION OF CULTURAL IDENTITY AND PREPARATION OF GLOBALLY COMPETENT CITIZENS IN THE MAINSTREAM OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN


Статья посвящена анализу сохранения культурной идентичности и подготовки глобально компетентных граждан. Особое внимание уделено двуязычному обучению, в процессе которого для изучения содержания предметов используются два языка: кроме государственного английского школьники изучают кельтские языки или «языки наследия», а также ученики небританского происхождения (дети из семей мигрантов) изучают родной язык.

The article is devoted to the analysis of cultural identity preservation and preparation of globally competent citizens. Special attention is paid to the bilingual education in the process of which two languages are used for studying the subjects` content: except the official English language pupils learn the Celtic languages or «heritage languages» and those of non-UK origin (children from migrant families) also learn their native language. Ключевые слова: мигранты, полиэтнический, интеграция, языковая политика,

двуязычное обучение, языки наследия Keywords: migrants, polyethnic, integration, language policy, bilingual education,

heritage languages Великобритания – одна из полиэтнических стран мира, в которой

проживает много представителей различных наций и народностей, а также ежегодно прибывает значительное количество новых иммигрантов. Правительство страны вынуждено решать языковые проблемы этих граждан для их активной интеграции в общество. Стоит отметить, что языковая политика страны направлена, с одной стороны, на сохранение культурной идентичности граждан многочисленных национальностей, а с другой, взят курс на подготовку глобально компетентных граждан. От языковой политики зависит языковая ситуация в многоязычном обществе страны, ведь правительство может стимулировать развитие многоязычия в государстве, или, наоборот, сдерживать, сужая функционирование языков малых наций и народностей, нередко доводя их до полного вымирания. Вместе с тем правительство оберегает основной государственный язык страны, развивает способность населения пользоваться им во всех сферах, занимается решением вопросов регулирования языковых отношений в стране, развитием и

Сохранение культурной идентичности и подготовка глобально компетентных граждан… 600

использованием языков в системе образования в том числе. Способствует развитию глобальной компетентности граждан страны, которая приобретает особую значимость в условиях межнациональных отношений, где большое внимание уделяется взаимодействию человека в мировом обществе [8].

В этой статье мы попытаемся проанализировать основные подходы в русле двуязычного образования Великобритании: сохранение кельтских языков и языков иммигрантов Великобритании, овладение иностранными языками и развитие способности пользоваться государственным английским языком. Многочисленные иммигранты, прибывавшие в Соединенное Королевство во второй половине ХХ в., были выходцами из колоний Великобритании. С 1948 по 1962 г. они имели право свободно приезжать в страну и автоматически становились ее гражданами. Но такая либеральная политика скоро была прекращена «Миграционным Актом» 1971 года («Immigration Act 1971»), который ограничивал поток миграции и предоставлял право пересекать границы страны только гражданам, родившимся в Соединенном Королевстве или имевшим родственников на его территории. Несмотря на ограничения, государство все же поощряло интеграцию иммигрантов в многорасовое британское общество. В наше время иммигранты имеют право выбирать национальность по своему усмотрению, однако двойное гражданство запрещено. Языковая политика ориентирована на глубокое владение английским языком иммигрантами. English for Speakers of Other Languages – ESOL (английский язык для говорящих на других языках) – это программа, которая помогает иммигрантам адаптироваться в англоязычное общество. Она предоставляет возможность изучить или улучшить английский язык для устройства на работу, используя различные межкультурные образовательные программы, которые расширяют связи между различными слоями населения. На всей территории Великобритании существуют курсы английского языка, которые финансирует правительство. Однако они не являются стандартизированными: работающие там учителя преимущественно волонтеры, а учебные программы нередко имеют значительные различия в разных регионах страны [9].

Характерным признаком образовательной политики Великобритании считается ее децентрализация. Руководство школами – прерогатива местных органов управления образованием, поэтому их компетенции принадлежит круг проблем в обучении и использовании кельтских языков в образовательном процессе средних школ. Существуют также организации, которые сотрудничают с органами управления образованием, в их функции входит надзор за сохранением «языков национального наследия». Наиболее известные из них: Scottish Consultative Council on the Curriculum (SCCC), Scottish Council for Educational Technology (SCET), The Welsh Language Board, Comhairlena Gaelscolaiochta. Эти организации обеспечивают школы двуязычными программами и следят за их эффективным использованием. Не является исключением и организация работы с детьми иммигрантов. Благодаря настойчивой работе налажены их поддержка и всестороннее содействие социализации в обществе. Этим занимается Служба помощи представителям национальных меньшинств («Ethnic Minority Achievement Service» – EMAS), которая, в частности, оказывает помощь в овладении

Нина Викторовна Никольская / Nina Nikolskaya 601

английским языком – обеспечивает учебными пособиями и аудиовизуальными средствами. «Помощь дополнительных школ» (Supplementary Schools Support Service) – это национальное агентство, целью которого является налаживание контактов между школами и местными общинами национальных меньшинств, финансовая, юридическая и образовательная помощь. Содержание работы с детьми иммигрантов в школе заключается в следующем: после зачисления происходит знакомство с родителями. Во время беседы их информируют о системе образования в Великобритании в целом, а также предоставляют сведения о конкретной школе, которую будет посещать их ребенок, в частности знакомят с программой обучения, правилами выбора предметов, распорядком дня и т. д. [7].

Языковая политика Великобритании направлена на сохранение кельтских языков – языков коренного населения Северной Ирландии, Шотландии, Уэльса, которые имеют общее название «heritage languages» («язык наследия», или «языки предков»): валлийский, шотландский гэльский и ирландский гэльский языки. Следует отметить, что в литературе нередко эти языки называют «языками национальных меньшинств» [8]. При этом не следует забывать, что представители валлийского, ирландского и шотландского этноса в этих административно-территориальных районах Великобритании часто составляют большинство населения. Необходимо отметить, что языковеды и лингвисты считают древние языки, принадлежащие кельтской ветви, значительно отличающимися от английского. Поэтому жители Уэльса, Шотландии, Северной Ирландии осознают потребность сохранять язык предков и владеть государственным – английским, который служит средством международного общения во всем мире. Для сохранения «языков наследия» государство создает необходимые условия для их изучения и развития в социуме, предоставляя им официальный статус, и изучения в школах согласно учебным программам. Ученики имеют возможность изучать свой родной язык как предмет или осваивать содержание других предметов с его помощью. В процессе такого обучения изучают язык как систему, формируют элементарную способность общаться, изучают традиции и обычаи народа – носителя языка [8].

Северная Ирландия имеет долгую историю становления двуязычного образования. С 1920-х годов существовали школы, в которых изучали ирландский язык как предмет, а также те, в которых ирландский был языком изучения других предметов. Такая политика продолжалась до 1930 года, затем ирландский изъяли из программы обучения. С 1921 по 1972 год в парламенте Северной Ирландии по количеству голосов преобладала Ольстерская партия (Ulster Unionist Party), враждебно настроенная на распространение ирландского языка в Северной Ирландии [9].

С избранием нового Британского Правительства отношение к ирландскому языку в определенной степени изменилось. В 1980 г. было принято несколько проектов для его развития, финансирование которых было возложено на общественные организации. Однако значительное изменение в отношении к ирландскому языку произошло только после подписания документа под названием «Good Friday Agreement» в 1998 году, также известного как «Belfast Agreement». Это соглашение провозгласило, что «все


граждане Северной Ирландии уважают, признают и относятся толерантно к ирландскому языку». Британское Правительство постановило, что ирландский язык можно использовать в личной и общественной жизни, средствах массовой информации и в образовании [4]. Государственные деятели Северной Ирландии много сделали для возрождения ирландского гэльского, способствуя его изучению в начальных классах, в надежде на то, что ученики будут разговаривать на нем в быту и изучать его с большим интересом. Следует отметить, что в развитии двуязычного образования Северной Ирландии чередовались периоды как широкого применения двух языков в школе, так и значительных ограничений. Но школы, в которых содержание предметов изучали посредством более чем одного языка, способствовали сохранению и использованию их вне школы. Обязательными предметами по действующей Национальной Программе Северной Ирландии являются математика, история, география. Эти предметы ученики параллельно изучают на двух языках. Об успешности такого обучения можно говорить языком цифр. Вспомним, что в 1911 г. согласно переписи население Северной Ирландии составляло 1млн 250 тыс. 31 человек, и только 2,3%, а это 28 тыс. 725 человек, говорили на ирландском языке. В 1991 г. население Северной Ирландии составляло 1млн 502 тыс. 385 человек, ирландским языком владело уже 142 тыс. 3 человека, что составляет 9,45%. А согласно национальной переписи 2001 года население Северной Ирландии составляло 1 млн 617 тыс. 957 человек, из них 167 тыс. 490 (10,35%) человек хорошо владели языком. Языковая политика Британии по сохранению национального языка Северной Ирландии является ярким примером языкового плюрализма, регулирует языковые отношения между представителями различных национальных сообществ, стимулирует развитие многоязычия населения [4]. Хотя надо отметить, что двуязычное образование в Северной Ирландии не является образцовым, нередко его критикуют, сравнивая с двуязычным образованием Уэльса.

По мнению многих зарубежных исследователей, валлийский язык в Уэльсе сохранился и развивается особенно удачно благодаря двуязычному образованию. Этот процесс был начат во второй половине XIX в., когда был принят ряд так называемых Образовательных законов (Education Acts), которые способствовали внедрению, а затем расширению использования валлийского в учебных заведениях Уэльса. Образовательный закон 1870 г. (Education Act 1870) способствовал началу изучения валлийского языка в школах. Продолжил начатое Образовательный Закон 1944 г. (Education Act 1944), благодаря которому местным властям была предоставлена возможность открыть общеобразовательные валлийскоязычные школы. Признание валлийского образования было подтверждено Образовательным Законом 1988 г. (Education Reform Act 1988). Этот Акт предоставил валлийскому языку статус основного предмета в национальном курикулуме (National Curriculum) и средства обучения содержанию других предметов, в частности истории, географии, музыки. Основная цель Образовательного Закона была достигнута. Родители охотно отдавали детей учиться в двуязычные школы, потому что таким образом имели возможность сохранить культуру предков и видели перспективу для трудоустройства [5].


Итак, отметим, что образование способствовало изучению языка и его сохранению в обществе. Но и сейчас в Уэльсе существует угроза исчезновения языка, в частности, лингвисты и культурологи делают вывод о постепенном упадке валлийского языка за последние сто лет. Вместе с тем за прошедшие сорок лет статистика также фиксирует значительный рост числа учащихся, обучающихся на двух языках, одним из которых является валлийский. И, как результат, древний валлийский постепенно возрождается, потому что им охотно пользуются в быту и на рабочих местах работники агентств и учреждений. Согласно Национальной переписи (1991 г.) около 20%, а это более 500000 населения Уэльса, может пользоваться валлийским языком [5]. В 1993 году Министерством Образования Уэльса был принят документ, получивший название «Акт о валлийском языке» («Welsh Language Act»), который предусматривал использование валлийского языка на одном уровне с английским в бизнесе и в судопроизводстве на территории Уэльса. Политическая, социальная, образовательная и культурная цель принятия Акта о валлийском языке предусматривала возрождение, распространение и развитие языка на территории Уэльса. Этот Акт гарантировал поддержку на территории Уэльса изучения валлийского школьниками как первого или второго языка. В 1998 году Валлийская Национальная Ассамблея постановила, что финансирование и изменения в программе обучения будут производиться на местном уровне. Главный офис при Министерстве Образования Уэльса называется Estyn. Его работники отвечают за мониторинг качества образования и создание благоприятных условий для обучения, в частности за обеспечение школ квалифицированными учителями. На это учреждение возложена обязанность проверять качество образовательных услуг в двуязычных школах и учебных заведениях, обнародовать в прессе результаты мониторинга [5].

Исходя из последних статистических данных, в 2001 году в Уэльсе 20,8% (приблизительно 582 тыс. человек) в возрасте от трех лет владеют валлийским языком не достаточно, 16,3% (приблизительно 458 тыс. жителей) понимают, разговаривают, читают и пишут на валлийском, 4,9% (приблизительно 138 тыс.) только понимают валлийский. Дети в возрасте от 5 до 15 лет владеют валлийским языком наилучшим образом, это 40,8% жителей Уэльса. Статистический анализ показывает, что уровень знаний валлийского языка учениками начальной школы значительно возрос с 13,2% в 1987 году до 16,8% в 2002 году.

Итак, двуязычное образование в Уэльсе как образовательное направление имеет значительные успехи, но следует заметить и существование проблем, требующих решения, тем не менее двуязычные школы в Уэльсе – это перспективная активно развивающаяся отрасль.

Двуязычное образование в Шотландии также не лишено специфических особенностей. Шотландский Парламент, избранный в 1999 г., получил более широкий диапазон законодательных и исполнительных прав, чем предыдущий. Это событие предоставило Шотландии возможность существенно расширить автономию. В 2005 году был принят Акт о гэльском языке (Gaelic Language Act). Этот Акт предоставил шотландскому гэльскому официальный статус и позволил использовать его так же, как и английский на


территории Шотландии [3]. Правительство Соединенного Королевства ратифицировало Европейскую хартию по региональным языкам национальных меньшинств и выполнило 39 пунктов части третьей Устава гэльского языка в Шотландии. Bordna Gaidhlig, специальное агентство, на которое возложен контроль над сохранением этого древнего языка, было создано в 2006 г. на основании Акта о шотландском гэльском языке. Требования по сохранности шотландского гэльского языка описаны в документе, получившем название Национальная языковая стратегия (National Language Plan). Каждые пять лет агентство Bordna Gaidhlig публикует отчет, содержащий сведения и предложения по распространению шотландского гэльского языка среди населения Шотландии, занимается созданием условий для его изучения в учебных заведениях и сохранения самобытной культуры этого древнего народа. Среди многих вопросов это агентство также обязано представлять отчеты шотландскому Министерству образования о выполнении пунктов Европейской Хартии о шотландском гэльском языке [1].

Двуязычное образование Шотландии также имеет свои особенности. Образовательный Акт 1872 г., который был принят парламентом Шотландии, не содержал рекомендации по сохранению шотландского гэльского языка, поэтому его не использовали в шотландских школах. В конце XIX в. на территории Шотландии доминировали английский язык и английская культура, создавая у шотландцев протест. Такие обстоятельства приводили к тому, что одаренные дети нередко пытались покинуть родину. Шотландский гэльский впервые начали самостоятельно возрождать педагоги с 1975 г. в школах областей Outer Hebrides и Comhairlenan Eilean. Это территории, где жители традиционно пользовались языком предков. Власти впоследствии поддержали начатое учителями, в результате чего и был создан Проект двуязычного образования («Bilingual Education project») [3].

Через несколько лет Проект двуязычного обучения получил распространение по всей территории Шотландии. Его финансирование и поддержка происходили на уровне Правительства Великобритании. Сначала родители и дети воспринимали этот проект положительно, потому что он способствовал сохранению шотландского гэльского языка, но с 1980-х годов начали появляться сомнения в необходимости так глубоко изучать шотландский гэльский. Ведь перспективным для молодежи оставался английский, поэтому двуязычное обучение начали постепенно сокращать. Как следствие, в 1990-х годах ХХ в. в начальных школах было только несколько гэльскоязычных классов, а на уровне средней школы – еще меньше, функционировал один гэльскоязычный колледж, а также только в некоторых университетах изучали гэльскую филологию. Казалось бы, двуязычное обучение в Шотландии в ближайшем будущем перестанет существовать, но оно получило новую жизнь. Первые гэльскоязычные начальные школы были открыты в 1985 г. в городах Глазго и Инвернесс. В период 2001-2002 гг. уже было 59 начальных школ с 1859 учениками, большинство этих школ имели отдельные гэльскоязычные и английскоязычные потоки. Первая полностью гэльскоязычная школа была открыта в Глазго в 1999 г., а затем местные власти Западных островов (Western Isles) открыли еще 5 гэльскоязычных начальных школ, все эти школы являются государственными. Следует отметить, что


основные предметы, которые изучают на гэльском языке в Шотландии, – это история, география, математика. Эти предметы являются обязательными при сдаче экзаменов Национального Стандарта (National Standard Grade). Использование гэльского как языка овладения другими предметами постепенно переходило в среднюю школу Шотландии, и в период с 2001-2002 гг. уже насчитывалось 14 школ с 302 учащимися [3]. По сравнению с успехами сохранения национального языка благодаря двуязычному образованию Северной Ирландии и Уэльса пример Шотландии значительно скромнее, все же некоторых результатов удалось достичь. Шотландский гэльский используется в повседневной жизни, хотя он и не стал основным языком в Шотландии, но сохранил свои позиции и не исчез: в 1900 г. 6%, это 260 тыс. человек, населения Шотландии говорили на гэльском, а в 2001 году число носителей гэльского языка составляло 58652 человек [3].

В 2000 году Правительство Великобритании подписало и ратифицировало Европейскую хартию языков национальных меньшинств и региональных языков. Валлийский, шотландский гэльский, ирландский гэльский – эти языки имеют официальный статус на территории страны, но язык корниш (Cornish) таким признан не был. Его считают бесперспективным из-за малого количества лиц, им владеющих (до 2 тыс.). Жители местностей (Cornwall, Devon, West-Somerset) пытаются сохранить язык корниш, использовать его в повседневной жизни, но понимают, что у языка мало шансов, ведь им пользуются в основном пожилые люди, а не молодежь [6].

Двуязычие и многоязычие, этническое разнообразие населения является характерным признаком современного социума Англии. Из-за огромного количества мигрантов умение граждан разговаривать на нескольких языках сейчас можно наблюдать в школах, учреждениях, религиозных общинах Англии. Подходы к формированию двуязычия у школьников в Англии отличаются от других частей Великобритании. В Англии двуязычное обучение касается в первую очередь учащихся – выходцев из семей иммигрантов, которые не так давно прибыли в страну и нуждаются социализации и, в частности, в знании английского языка. Их национальные традиции и язык родители и родственники пытаются хранить дома, нередко благодаря регулярным занятиям в небольших группах. Но в государственных школах, несмотря на сложности, также нередко организовано изучение родного языка детьми, которые здесь учатся.

В Англии двуязычное обучение можно разделить по двум направлениям: среднее образование с использованием двух языков для: 1) глубокого овладения англоязычными школьниками иностранными языками и использования их в качестве средств изучения общеобразовательных предметов; 2) изучения английского языка иммигрантами для социализации в обществе Великобритании. Двуязычное образование для мигрантов поддерживается и финансируется государством. Основные иностранные языки, которые изучаются на территории Англии, – это французский, немецкий, испанский. Эти языки используются в школах, где основной язык обучения – английский, при этом учащиеся выбирают второй язык для овладения учебными предметами нередко самостоятельно по собственному


желанию. Такое двуязычное образование выбирают этнические англичане или дети, для которых английский язык является родным.

Изучение основ языковой политики Великобритании в отношении языков иммигрантов, коренных народов позволяет сделать вывод о ее плюралистичности и демократической направленности. Благодаря внедрению двуязычного образования государство способствует сохранению языков, на которых общаются граждане страны, интеграции и социализации мигрантов, не препятствует сохранению их языков и культур. Государство поддерживает кельтские языки, или «языки наследия», о чем свидетельствует динамика их возрождения и использования в быту, в образовательных и государственных учреждениях и организациях. Государственная языковая политика направлена на развитие двуязычия и многоязычия населения благодаря широкому внедрению двуязычного образования, она способствует:

• сохранению этнокультурной идентичности народов, проживающих в государстве;

• обеспечению культурных прав меньшинств; • предотвращению этнополитических конфликтов и стабилизации

отношений между представителями разных народов; • формированию глобальной компетентности, ведь незнание языков – это

неготовность к межкультурному общению и взаимопониманию, неспособность к решению проблем и задач.

Литература / References 1. Конвенция о защите национальных меньшинств [Электронный ресурс]: Документ

995_055, редакция от 09.12.1997 на основании 703/97-вр, действующий. – URL: http://zakon.rada.gov.ua/cgi-bin/laws/main (дата обращения: 05.10.2009).

2. Language Policy in the UK [Электронный ресурс]: The Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005. – URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_Language_(Scotland)_Act_2005 (дата обращения: 26.10.2009).

3. Mercator-Education / Mercator-Education information documentation research // The Netherlands: The Gaelic language in education in the UK, 2001.

4. Mercator-Education / Mercator-Education information documentation research // The Netherlands: The Irish language in education in the UK, 2001.

5. Mercator-Education / Mercator-Education information documentation research // The Netherlands: The Welsh language in education in the UK, 2001.

6. Mercator-Education / Mercator-Education information documentation research // The Netherlands: The Cornish language in education in the UK, 2001.

7. Mercator-Education / Mercator-Education information documentation research // The Netherlands: Study on the Development of Legislative Power and Provision, 2001.

8. Villarreal, F. Language Teaching to immigrants study on linguistic integration policies in three European countries and challenges for Spain // British Council, 2009.

9. O Laoire, M. English and Irish and Other Minority Languages in Ireland // C. Helot and A-M de Mejia (Eds.) – Great Britain: Multilingual Matters, 2008. – P. 256-264.

http://www.rada.gov.ua/cgi-bin/laws/main.cgi?nreg=995_055

http://zakon.rada.gov.ua/cgi-bin/laws/main.cgi?nreg=995_055&c=1#Current

javascript:OpenDoc('703/97-вр')


Нина Викторовна Никольская научный корреспондент Лаборатория сравнительной педагогики Институт педагогики НАПН Украины Киев, Украина [email protected] Nina Nikolskaya Scientific correspondent Laboratory of Comparative Education Institute of Pedagogy, NAPS of Ukraine Kiev, Ukraine [email protected]




ОКСАНА АЛЕКСЕЕВНА ПЕРШУКОВА / OKSANA PERSHUKOVA

ФАКТОРЫ РАЗВИТИЯ МНОГОЯЗЫЧНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ В СТРАНАХ ЗАПАДНОЙ ЕВРОПЫ

DEVELOPMENT FORCES OF MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION IN THE WESTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES


Статья посвящена анализу обстоятельств, которые создали потребность и способствовали развитию многоязычного образования в странах Западной Европы. Определено, что сознательный выбор европейцев, в основе которого – отрицание национализма и фашизма, дух послевоенного примирения, и потребности решения проблем оборонного и политического характера сыграли роль политических факторов. Потребности послевоенного промышленного строительства в Европе, установление экономических и торговых связей и готовность к участию в обновленном мировом экономическом соперничестве стали экономическими факторами. Обеспечение доступа к разнообразию европейской культуры, осознание потребностей ее сбережения, формирование способности к общению и взаимопониманию между представителями различных культур и общностей, направленность на воспитание ответственных граждан, способных мыслить глобально, выделены как социально-культурные факторы развития этого педагогического явления.

The article deals with the analysis of a range of circumstances that caused the necessity and facilitated the development of multilingual education in the Western European countries. It is defined that Europeans’ conscious choice is based on the denial of nationalism and fascism, the spirit of post-war reconciliation and the need to solve the issues of defense and political character that have played the role of political factors. Provision of access to the diversity of European culture, awareness of the needs of its preservation, formation of the ability to communication and mutual understanding between the representatives of different cultures and communities, orientation at the upbringing of responsible citizens able to think globally are identified as social and cultural development factors of this pedagogical phenomenon. Ключевые слова: Европейская интеграция, глобализационные вызовы,

многоязычное образование школьников, многоязычие, политические и экономические факторы, социокультурные факторы

Keywords: European integration, global challenges, multilingual education of schoolchildren, multilingualism, political and economic factors, social and cultural factors

Оксана Алексеевна Першукова / Oksana Pershukova 609

Современная действительность ставит перед образованием сложную задачу подготовки глобально компетентных граждан, что подразумевает: воспитание молодежи в духе мира и уважения ко всем народам, формирование у подрастающего поколения способности общаться и готовности к сотрудничеству с людьми разных наций и народностей, вероисповеданий и социальных групп. Содействие в решении этих задач на уровне средней школы оказывает многоязычное образование – сложное и многокомпонентное педагогическое явление, имеющее целью расширение языкового репертуара каждой личности за счет увеличения количества языков, которыми она может пользоваться в жизни.

Длительный период в европейской истории многоязычие ассоциировалась с конфликтными идеями. Так, лингвистический национализм государств-наций XIX века Франции и Испании был ядром политической идеологии, воспринимающей языковые меньшинства как угрозу единству национального государства. Участие в двух языковых сообществах считалось подозрительным и недопустимым. В ХХ веке политика тоталитарных режимов Испании, Италии и Германии предусматривала полное одноязычие территории в национальных границах как средство консолидации власти в стране. Школьное образование традиционно использовалось как инструмент развития и поддержки желаемого монолингвизма, и по этому поводу П. Ориаган (P. Ó Riagáin) и Дж. Люди (G. Lüdi) утверждают, что «определение языка обучения является универсальным элементом всей стратегии языковой политики любой из стран» [15, c. 17].

После Второй мировой войны, когда возникла необходимость восстановления и реконструкции экономики, что потребовало объединения стран Западной Европы и запрещения национализма, ситуация коренным образом изменилась, и это создало предпосылки развития многоязычного образования. Для начала процесса необходимы были мощные двигатели: «изменение языка обучения или переход к применению дополнительного языка как средства овладения предметов происходит не просто так, а является результатом социальных, политических и экономических действий» – утверждает Д. Марш (D. Marsh) [14, с. 6].

Программа экономического возрождения разрушенной Европы, принятая в 1947 г. (план Маршалла), была направлена на восстановление экономики европейских стран. Подписание Брюссельского пакта и создание Западноевропейского союза (ЗЕС) исключало возрождение германского милитаризма и давало возможность противостоять советской военной угрозе, потому что только таким образом европейские страны могли сохранить свой суверенитет и территориальную целостность [4, c. 977]. В первую очередь подчеркивалась значимость экономического, социального и культурного сотрудничества стран Западной Европы [4, с. 980].

Появление НАТО и создание в 1951 г. Европейского объединения угля и стали оказали чрезвычайно важное влияние на европейскую интеграцию [3, с. 43]. Вскоре Франция и Западная Германия подписали Соглашение об экономическом и культурном сотрудничестве, предусматривающее развитие многоязычного образования в приграничных районах этих стран. Немецкий исследователь Н. Меш (Nando Mäsch) отмечает, что двуязычное обучение в

Факторы развития многоязычного образования в странах Западной Европы 610

грамматических школах района Северный Рейн – Вестфалия под лозунгом «Сообщество требует партнерства» отражало дух послевоенного примирения в приграничных с Францией районах. В «Школах для Европы» был организован девятилетний курс обучения английскому языку как иностранному. С пятого класса предусматривалось включение французского языка с тем, чтобы с седьмого класса переходить на обучение содержанию трех предметов (географии, истории и граждановедения) на французском языке. Затем палитра двуязычных секций обучения стала шире, появились немецко-испанские, немецко-русские и немецко-голландские секции [13]. Опыт партнерских школ был творчески осмыслен и положен в основу дидактики многоязычия, которая успешно развивается в современных немецких школах.

Принятие Европейской культурной конвенции (1954 г.) побудило европейские страны объединить усилия в сфере культуры и образования, а обучение современным языкам получило приоритетный статус, что стало точкой отсчета для развития многоязычного образования [10]. Один из основателей современного языкового образования в странах Европы Дж. Трим (J. Trim) отмечает, что на момент принятия Конвенции процесс обучения языкам носил формальный характер, игнорируя ценности, верования и обычаи сообщества, которому принадлежит изучаемый язык [19, c. 5]. Необходимость повышения эффективности преподавания иностранных языков в системе общего среднего образования создавало предпосылки для преимущественного формирования устных умений, стало направленным на общение.

Философские основы теорий структурной лингвистики Л. Блумфильда и бихевиоризма Б. Скиннера заложили основы новых прагматичных подходов к обучению иностранным языкам: аудиолингвального (Ч. Фриз, Р. Ладо) и аудиовизуального методов (П. Губерина, П. Риван, Ж. Гогенгейм), которые оказали значительное влияние на развитие европейской методики. Школьная аудитория стала многонациональной, содержание обучения получило ориентированность на коммуникацию, занятия стали подкрепляться повседневной практикой общения с носителями изучаемого языка.

Идея открытия первой школы для детей сотрудников разных национальностей принадлежала руководству «Европейского сообщества угля и стали». Работа над созданием куррикулума, определением уровней обученности учащихся и системы оценивания, выработкой критериев подбора учителей и особенностей инспектирования, а также определением многих других ранее неизвестных особенностей объединила министерства образований шести европейских стран. В апреле 1957 г. в пригороде Люксембурга была открыта первая школа, получившая название Европейской. Полученные учениками квалификации были признаны отвечающими требованиям всех университетов стран – членов Сообщества, и учебные учреждения такого типа получили репутацию элитных заведений среднего образования с высоким уровнем многоязычной подготовки. В настоящее время существуют 14 Европейских школ, их опыт формирования многоязычия у школьников является предметом изучения специалистов многих стран [17].

Начиная с 60-х в Западной Европе стали повсеместно включать и увеличивать количество иностранных языков в школе, что привело к росту способности населения пользоваться хотя бы одним иностранным языком.


Изменилась также цель обучения: приоритетными стали практические умения и навыки. По мнению российского исследователя проблем многоязычия В. Смокотина, принятие Советом Европы Резолюции (69) 2 способствовало изменению парадигмы языкового образования на уровне начальной и средней школы в европейских странах. Большое внимание в рекомендациях уделено подготовке и переподготовке учителей, модернизации языковых курсов для студентов, внедрению программ стажировок и обменов. Исследования по обучению языкам предусматривали следующие направления: а) изучение факторов влияния на процесс овладения языками в различные возрастные периоды; б) исследование содержания учебных материалов и развитие методов; в) составление списков наиболее употребляемых слов и грамматических структур европейских языков для создания учебных материалов [3; 19].

К началу 90-х глобальная политико-идеологическая конфронтация значительно ослабла, и эра мононациональных государств практически закончилась. Тем не менее этнические меньшинства постоянно ощущали давление и дискриминацию в социальной и культурной сферах. Поэтому была начата реализация языковых прав представителей национальных меньшинств. Стало очевидным, что знание культурных особенностей и формирование навыков межкультурного общения необходимы не только для представителей миноритарных культур, но и для представителей доминирующей в стране этнической общности. В процесс обучения и воспитания европейской молодежи были внесены серьезные коррективы: на первый план поставлено предотвращение проявлений национализма, этноцентризма и расизма. Особую актуальность приобретает диалог культур: необходимость изучения и усвоения культур других народов, взаимодействие различных культур в плюралистической среде, обеспечение толерантного сосуществования различных этносов в странах европейского континента.

Отсутствие общеевропейской политики относительно места и роли современных языков в образовательных системах объединенных стран приводило к невысокой эффективности обучения и требовало серьезной интенсификации. Успешный опыт формирования европейского многоязычия на базе Школ для Европы и Европейских школ получил широкое признание.

Несмотря на значительные отличия в политике ЕС и СЕ в отношении языков национальных меньшинств, усилия этих организаций дополняют друг друга. Сложность проблем заключается в их многокомпонентности, и, по нашему мнению, для их оценки целесообразно применение «треугольника» К. Бейкера: «язык как право, как ресурс, как проблема». Именно национальный язык имеет огромное значение для гомогенизации национального сообщества. Право учиться на родном языке является неотъемлемым; вместе с тем ограниченность владением только родным языком и отказ овладевать другими языками несет угрозу возникновения языковых гетто, исключения представителей языкового сообщества из жизни всего общества, что создает проблему противостояния его членов. Поэтому во избежание негативных моментов и сохранения исчезающих языков в Европе под патронатом ЕС созданы Европейское бюро менее используемых языков и Центры для исследований особенностей преподавания языков национальных


меньшинств в образовательном процессе, объединенные в информационную сеть «Меркатор» в городах: Абериствис (Уэльс), Барселона (Испания) и Леуварден (Нидерланды) [16].

Миграционные процессы, по определению Э. Тоффлера (Alvin Toffler), создали потребность интеграции «новых кочевников» из стран юга Европы, Азии и Африки, что способствовало увеличению количества языков, функционирующих в современной Европе [18]. Одной из причин так называемого «краха мультикультурализма» является длительное игнорирование образовательных интересов иммигрантов, особенно тех, которые приехали в Европу из неевропейских стран. Поскольку развитие родного языка таких детей приостанавливается, то и другими двумя языками, что требуются для сдачи экзаменов на аттестат зрелости и формирования конкурентоспособности, они не в состоянии овладеть. Молодые люди не могут интегрироваться в культурное сообщество страны, что зачастую приводит к социальным конфликтам [2]. В странах Западной Европы знают об этой проблеме, но, по заключению ведущих европейских ученых Г. Экстра (Guus Extra) и К. Ягмур (Kutlay Yağmur), предпринятых мер пока недостаточно, так как многоязычие граждан – это насущная потребность европейского общества для развития чувства включенности каждого человека в общественную жизнь и совместное демократическое гражданство всех европейцев [8].

Главным принципом языковой политики Совета Европы является «языковое многообразие», что означает равноценность всех языков и даже диалектов или наречий. Этот принцип имеет особое значение для политического признания и неприкосновенности существующих языков представителей национальных меньшинств и иммигрантов и выступает как средство поощрения знакомств с такими языками со стороны представителей языкового большинства. Ведь каждый язык – это новое мировоззрение, ресурс для познания, неисчерпаемый кладезь культурного обогащения. Другая особенность европейской языковой политики заключается в признании того, что знание иностранных языков должно быть массовым явлением, а не признаком принадлежности к образованной элите: способность пользоваться иностранными языками признана одной из ключевых компетенций на уровне чтения, письма, способности выполнять математические действия.

В целом языковые политики СЕ и ЕС декларируют принципы плюрализма: многообразие равноправных языков и совместное созидание будущего Европы с сохранением культурной самобытности и развитием европейской идентичности. Сохранение языкового разнообразия рассматривается как способ сохранения культурного богатства, создания условий для взаимопонимания и экономического развития. Принцип плюрализма предусматривает возможности и формирование способностей для всех европейцев: 1) применение и изучение двух языков и более; 2) формирование многоязычной компетентности, образовательная ценность которой находится в основе лингвистической толерантности, в осознании равноценности языков независимо от сферы их применения [6].

Информационная революция в промышленно развитых странах мира и возникновение информационного общества привели к обновлению общественного сознания в пользу признания языковых прав как основных


прав человека. Учитывая многоязычный и многокультурный состав населения европейских стран, раннее многоязычие, обучение в одном классе представителей сразу нескольких языковых сообществ, появилась тенденция использовать обозначения L1, L2, L3, и т.д. Холистический подход в многоязычном образовании стал средством расширения языкового репертуара учащихся, средством формирования способности к социальному и культурному взаимодействию, развитию межкультурной компетентности.

Экономическая целесообразность многоязычия является предметом исследований многих ученых. Еще несколько десятилетий назад канцлер ФРГ В. Брандт (Willy Brandt) метко отметил: «Если вы хотите что-то у нас купить, вы можете говорить на любом языке, – мы вас поймем, но если вы хотите что-то нам продать – вы должны говорить на нашем языке». И в настоящее время исследователи подчеркивают недостаточность использования одного лишь английского языка. С интенсификацией международного взаимодействия коммуникативные умения в нескольких языках становятся все более востребованными, и особенное значение приобретает готовность работников к межкультурной коммуникации [9]. На смену традиционному подходу восприятия языка как символа национальной идентичности приходит понимание языка как экономического ресурса.

Принцип многоязычия был провозглашен с самого начала основания Европейского Сообщества: международные договоры были подписаны в Риме (1957), в Маастрихте (1992) и в Амстердаме (1997). Преимущество европейцев огромно: на относительно небольшой территории только европейских языков насчитывается более 225. При этом каждый язык имеет бесчисленное количество устных и письменных источников. Именно поэтому языки всех европейских наций, малых этнических групп и диалекты признаны общеевропейским культурным достоянием, которое нуждается в защите и поддержке. Их совокупность и исполняет роль одной из составляющих Европейского культурного пространства.

Формирование Европейского образовательного пространства в ответ на вызовы глобализации потребовало создания системы сотрудничества, что в 1998 г. стало причиной встречи министров образования четырех европейских стран (Франция, Италия, Великобритания и Германия). Из-за сегментизации образования европейских стран, мешающей дальнейшему развитию науки и образования, возникла необходимость европейской интеграции в образование на всех уровнях, в том числе и на уровне школы. С этой целью вскоре была подписана Болонская декларация [7]. Таким образом, интеграционные процессы в Европе, которые начались с гармонизации экономической и политической деятельности стран – членов ЕС, распространились на сферы культуры, науки и образования.

В 2012 г. сотрудники Европейского агентства Public Opinion Analysis, проведя опрос европейцев разных социальных и возрастных групп в разных странах по их уровням знания языков, отметили, что все европейцы имеют позитивное отношение к многоязычию. Тем не менее, несмотря на равноправие языков на территории Европы, фактическим лидером остается английский язык. Этот язык стал главным в мире науки и технологий и превратился в основное средство межнационального общения [11]. Поэтому


последовал закономерный вывод европейских специалистов о целесообразности изучения английского языка в системе образования стран ЕС и в дальнейшем, и при этом указано, что начало обучения должно быть очень ранним, в условиях дошкольного учреждения. И все же, по мнению большинства специалистов, английский язык не должен быть единственным изучаемым иностранным языком: с целью формирования личностного многоязычия (plurilingualism) в школе следует изучать и другие, как европейские, так и мировые языки [12].

Анализируя глобализационные и интеграционные вызовы для европейской языковой области, мы видим, что глобализация предполагает сближение народов, усиление их межкультурного взаимодействия и в целом оказывает положительное влияние на социально-культурную ситуацию. Вместе с тем возникают угрозы потери культурной самобытности народов, подчинения чужим стандартам, что может приводить к конфликтам [1].

Итак, развитие европейского общества, процессы интеграции и глобализации привели к актуализации проблем сохранения многоязычия европейского социума, переосмыслению целей и значения языкового образования вообще: общения для решения политических проблем оборонного характера, экономического восстановления послевоенной Европы и социального и культурного роста наций. Необходимость формирования способности общаться на нескольких языках была вызвана европейскими и мировыми тенденциями развития экономики, торговли, науки и политики. Эти факторы стали основными двигателями развития многоязычного образования в странах Европы. Как политические факторы мы выделяем: 1) сознательный выбор европейцев, в основе которого – отрицание национализма и фашизма; 2) недопущение повторения ужасов войны; 3) дух послевоенного примирения в приграничных областях; 4) потребности решения проблем оборонного и политического характера. В качестве экономических факторов выступают: 1) развитие экономических связей промышленности и торговли между странами Европы и мира; 2) восстановление послевоенной Европы и возобновление экономического соперничества в мире. Роль социально-культурных факторов развития многоязычного образования чрезвычайно велика, это: 1) доступ к многообразию европейской культуры и осознание необходимости ее сохранения; 2) обеспечение способности к общению и взаимопониманию с представителями разных культурных сообществ, представляющих как коренные европейские народы, так и новоприбывших лиц с других континентов; 3) формирование ответственных граждан, способных мыслить глобально; 4) сохранение собственной национально-культурной идентичности и формирование новой европейской идентичности.

Многоязычие современного мира является неизбежным спутником глобализации и тесно связано с социальными изменениями, происходящими в мире. Способность пользоваться несколькими иностранными языками стала жизненной необходимостью для всех европейцев, одним из показателей глобальной компетенции. А потому многоязычное образование является неотъемлемым атрибутом европейской современности.


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13. Mäsch, N. The German Model of Bilingual Education. An Administrator’s Perspective. // European Models of Bilingual Education. H. Baetens Beardsmore (Ed.). – Multilingual Matters, 1993. – P. 155-172.

14. Marsh, D. Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). – A Developmental Trajectory. University of Cordoba, 2012.

15. Ó Riagáin, P., Lüdi, G. Bilingual education: Some policy Issues – Language Policy Division DG IV – Directorate of School, Out of school and Higher education. Council of Europe, 2003.

16. Phillipson, R. Realities and Myth of Linguistic Imperialism //Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. – 1997. – Vol. 18. – № 3. – P. 238-247.

17. Plurilingual and Pluricultural Competence. Studies towards a Common European Framework of reference for language learning and teaching. Council of Europe, 2009.

18. Toffler, A. Future Shock. – Random House Publishing Group, 1984. 19. Trim, J. L. M. Modern Languages in the Council of Europe 1954-1997. – Council of

Europe, Strasbourg, 2007.


Оксана Алексеевна Першукова кандидат педагогических наук старший научный сотрудник, докторант Институт педагогики НАПН Украины Киев, Украина [email protected] Oksana Pershukova PhD in Education (Candidate of Science) Senior Researcher, Post-Doctoral Candidate Institute of Pedagogy, NAPS of Ukraine Kiev, Ukraine [email protected]




СВЕТЛАНА ТЕВЕЛЬЕВНА МАХЛИНА / SVETLANA MAHLINA

КУРС «СЕМИОТИКА И ЛИНГВИСТИКА» В ПОДГОТОВКЕ КУЛЬТУРОЛОГОВ

THE COURSE ‘SEMIOTICS AND LINGUISTICS’ IN PREPARING CULTURE STUDIES STUDENTS


От уровня образования в высшей школе во многом зависит будущее, причем не только нашей страны, но и всего мира. Это понимают многие люди, поэтому закономерным стало включение семиотики культуры и лингвистики в классификационный перечень дисциплин, необходимых для подготовки философов и культурологов. При изучении современной художественной культуры, как и культурологии в целом, практически нельзя обойтись без семиотического анализа. В статье показаны принципы структуры курса «Семиотика и лингвистика» в высшей школе.

The future not only of our country but also of the whole world largely depends on the level of university education. Many people understand it that is why it was logical to include semiotics of culture and linguistics into the classification list of disciplines necessary for teaching philosophers and culture studies students. While studying contemporary art culture as well as culture in general it is practically impossible to avoid semiotic analysis. The principles of structuring the course ‘Semiotics and Linguistics’ within university education are considered. Ключевые слова: культура, семиотика, язык, текст, знаковая система Keywords: culture, semiotics, language, text, symbolic system

От уровня образования в высшей школе во многом зависит будущее, причем не только нашей страны, но и всего мира. Это понимают многие люди. Не случайно, что в конце XX – начале XXI века появилось много романов, посвященных высшей школе. Например, романы Малькольма Брэдбери, который был профессором Кембриджского университета, и Йозефа Рота. И в нашей стране есть такой пример – недавний роман Татьяны Соломатиной. Да, все названные авторы пишут о том, как происходит общение профессуры с коллегами и студентами, аспирантами, но, по существу, все написанное о том, как поставлено именно обучение. Не случайно Патриарх Московский и всея Руси Кирилл высказался столь категорично: «Образование так же важно, как оборона, и точно так же может быть только общенациональным делом. Образование готовит людей, способных работать в условиях современной наукоемкой экономики» [3, с. 98].

Закономерным стало включение в классификационный перечень дисциплин, необходимых для подготовки философов и культурологов, семиотики культуры и лингвистики. И это отнюдь не случайность, так как влияние семиотики на развитие современной культуры чрезвычайно высоко.

Курс «Семиотика и лингвистика» в подготовке культурологов 618

Не случайно, показывая влияние семиотики на современную культуру, Малькольм Брэдбери в романе «Сокращения» описывает литераторов, на творчество которых повлияли книги Эко и Эндо, а также упоминает роль, которую оказал Ролан Барт на современную культуру в целом и художественную в частности [1, с. 175, 180].

По мнению законодателей современного образования, подготовка культурологов вне семиотики невозможна. При преподавании этой дисциплины мы должны помнить, что в Постановлении Правительства РФ от 23.12.2005 № 803 говорится о необходимости решения следующих задач в образовании: «1) совершенствование содержания и технологий образования; 2) развитие системы обеспечения качества образовательных услуг; 3) повышение эффективности управления в системе образования; 4) совершенствование экономических механизмов в сфере образования» [4, с. 2].

Выполнить эту рекомендацию сегодня довольно сложно. Оказывается, что, с одной стороны, уровень общей подготовки студентов в большинстве случаев достаточно невысок. И объясняется это тем, что общая атмосфера в обществе не способствует этому. Книги часто выходят без корректорской правки. Поэтому по книгам, как это было раньше, стать грамотным человеком довольно сложно. Уровень культуры в средствах массовой информации зачастую требует серьезной корректировки. А ведь молодые люди во многом именно отсюда черпают информацию. Все это можно отнести и к Интернету. Наряду с нужными и важными материалами, здесь можно увидеть много пустого и неверного.

Но, с другой стороны, информативная наполненность молодых людей очень высока, иногда даже намного выше, нежели их преподавателей. Кстати, сегодня отрывочные данные именно о семиотике и лингвистике становятся довольно распространенными. Правда, используются они часто совсем невпопад. И таких примеров можно привести множество, особенно из средств массовой информации.

Иронизируя по поводу тотального заполнения современной гуманитарной научной сферы терминами семиотики, Малькольм Брэдбери пишет эссе-пародию «Язык для своих»: карманный справочник структуралиста». Протестуя против того, что метаязык, мета-письмо и т. п. стали заполнять не только эстетику и философию, но и любую интеллектуальную деятельность, Брэдбери становится язвительным, выступая в памфлетах против этого новояза. В частности, он пишет: «на заре столетия появился Фрейд с новыми теориями о бессознательном, и теории эти полностью уничтожили невинность секса, а заодно, к счастью, и связанное с ним чувство вины. Фрейд доказал, что все вокруг – секс, поэтому даже кашлять или кататься на велосипеде стало гораздо интереснее. То же самое происходит сейчас и с языком. Он, как и секс, утратил невинность. И теперь семиотики доказали, что все вокруг – язык, включая и секс. Великий французский семиотик Ролан Барт продемонстрировал, например, что пища – тоже язык… на самом деле все, что мы выставляем напоказ, о чем подаем сигналы или чем обмениваемся, есть язык – будь то секс, пища, деньги, одежда, спорт или законные супруги. Все это система знаков, управляемая валютным курсом (неплохое, между прочим, название для современного романа). Я – язык, и вы – язык, хотя одни из нас в

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нем сильны, а другие – не очень. Вот так обстоят дела на сегодняшний день, но пусть это не повергает вас в суровое молчание. После того как секс потерял невинность, люди не перестали им заниматься. У них просто пропала охота притворяться, будто они не знают, что делают, когда занимаются сексом, который, оказывается, существовал независимо от их размышлений. Точно так же и с языком. Сегодня нам всем следует признать, что мы – взрослые «означающие», всегда участвовавшие в семиотической деятельности. Не нужно паниковать: мы уже в ней – здесь и сейчас. Поэтому я предложил бы то же, что и Зигмунд Фрейд старушке Вене: «Прилягте на диван и расслабьтесь. Я здесь, рядом. И я вам помогу» [2, с. 242].

У нас в стране развитие семиотики пришлось на предреволюционный период и первые годы после Октябрьской революции. Однако обилие течений и направлений, характерных для России этого времени, как в искусстве, так и в науке в конечном итоге обернулось борьбой между ними. Потерпели поражение наиболее глубокомысленные научные и художественные представления, требующие широкого круга знаний и, как правило, оторванные от привязанности к сиюминутным задачам. И все они стали высмеиваться, а затем и преследоваться.

Так семиотика у нас в стране в первый раз оказалась под запретом, в загоне вместе с социологией, а впоследствии и с кибернетикой, генетикой и другими передовыми научными направлениями. Многие представители семиотики преследовались (например, М. Бахтин), труды их оказались запрещенными (например, О. Фрейденберг), кто-то эмигрировал (наиболее яркий пример – Р. Якобсон).

Второй этап победоносного шествия и развития семиотики связан с годами «оттепели» у нас в стране. В 60-е годы, когда были реабилитированы многие безвинно пострадавшие, вместе с ними вернулись и те, кто занимался исследованиями в области семиотики. Стали публиковаться труды М. Бахтина, сыгравшие важную роль в развитии семиотических идей не только в нашей стране, но и на Западе. Публикуются труды О. Фрейденберг и др. К этому времени относится становление и развитие Московско-тартуской школы. Теперь уже предметом семиотического анализа становится не только литература, но и многие другие виды искусства – музыка, пластические искусства, кино. Семиотические аспекты анализа оказываются применимы и к другим сферам жизнедеятельности человека: быта, в том числе жилища, идеологии и политики. В это время появляются философские труды по семиотике, получает развитие семиотический анализ и в психологии, и в медицине. Однако в России открытое развитие семиотики длится недолго, как недолго просуществовала «оттепель». Наступает «застойный» период, датируемый мной 1967 годом. И в газетах начинается издевательство над семиотическими изысканиями, их терминологией, способами анализа. Многие представители семиотики вынуждены эмигрировать. Единственным оплотом семиотической науки остается Тартуский университет, вернее, кафедра литературы во главе с Ю. М. Лотманом. В ответ на притеснения язык исследований становится еще более усложненным, именно в те годы возникает термин «вторичные моделирующие системы». В Тарту печатаются труды под названием «Летняя школа по вторичным моделирующим системам»


(всего их вышло 5). Публикации по семиотике ждали и в России и за рубежом, но распространение идей оказывается замкнутым, аудитория искусственно ограничивается. Так снова развитие семиотики было извне сдержано, свернуто. И все же здесь интенсивно развивалась семиотика во взаимодействии с учеными из других городов СССР, в первую очередь из Москвы (поэтому эта школа и называется «Московско-тартуской»). В трудные годы «застоя» это была единственная база для такого рода исследований. Следует также иметь в виду, что на заре становления семиотики как науки ученые, работавшие в Санкт-Петербургском университете, приняли активное участие в разработке основных направлений и проблем этой философской дисциплины.

Перестройка чудесным образом все изменила в духовной жизни общества. Все ранее запретное стали печатать. Книги и статьи по семиотике стали обильно печататься, появились на книжном рынке. Новое издательство «Школа «Языки русской культуры» интенсивно пропагандирует труды по семиотике. Начинается активная волна интереса к семиотическим исследованиям, появляются новые диссертации, написанные под влиянием семиотических идей, и защита их уже не подвергается остракизму. Теперь диапазон семиотических исследований еще больше расширяется.

Однако у нас в стране происходит довольно странная ситуация. Наиболее видные представители этой науки: В. В. Иванов, М. Л. Гаспаров, Б. М. Гаспаров, А. К. Жолковский, А. М. Пятигорский, М. Б. Ямпольский и многие другие – интенсивно печатаются у нас, но живут и, как правило, преподают в западных университетах. При этом из уст некоторых из них раздаются замечания, что семиотика выдохлась, что дальше развитие ее возможно, только если вольются новые силы. И вот уже растет разочарование и неприятие идей семиотики как изнутри, так и вне ее.

С уверенностью можно прогнозировать, что, несмотря на кризисы и спады, семиотика входит важным компонентом в систему современного научного знания и в будущем ее, несомненно, ждут великие открытия и завоевания. Сегодня семиотические исследования широко распространены во всем мире.

Согласно теории культуры, разработка которой началась в Советском Союзе в 60-70-х гг., культура – это совокупность знаковых систем, с помощью которых человечество или данный народ поддерживает свою сплоченность, оберегает свои ценности и своеобразие своей культуры и ее связи с окружающим миром. Эти знаковые системы, обычно называемые вторичными моделирующими системами (или «языками культуры»), включают в себя не только все виды искусства, различную социальную деятельность и модели поведения, господствующие в данном обществе (включая жесты, одежду, манеры, ритуал и т. д.), но также традиционные методы, с помощью которых сообщество поддерживает свою историческую память и самосознание (мифы, история, правовые системы, религиозные верования и т. д.). Каждый продукт культурной деятельности рассматривается как текст, порожденный одной или несколькими системами.

Одним из элементов культуры является художественная культура. Ее ядром является искусство. И семиотика искусства получила довольно широкое

Светлана Тевельевна Махлина / Svetlana Mahlina 621

распространение. Рубеж веков ознаменовывается поисками новых выразительных средств в искусстве. Практически нельзя обойтись без семиотического анализа при изучении современной художественной культуры, как и культурологии в целом. Семиотический аспект становится все более и более используемым методом в современной культурологии. Сегодня этот предмет ведется во многих вузах. Следует заметить, что большинство учебных заведений ведут этот курс по подготовленным программам читающих их педагогов. Ознакомившись со многими программами этого курса, можно сделать ряд выводов. Как правило, такой курс ведут люди, имеющие солидную научную базу и хорошо знакомые с данной дисциплиной. Большинство изученных программ имеют четкую логику построения, хорошо дают представление о предмете и возможностях его применения. В каждом читаемом курсе учитывается специфика профессиональной ориентации студентов. Читать такой курс и сложно, и просто. Сложно, потому что эта дисциплина требует очень серьезной подготовки. Просто прийти с общими знаниями и начать преподавать семиотику невозможно. С другой стороны, на современном этапе появилось множество работ, посвященных семиотике. Лишь освоив этот массив, можно, безусловно, подготовить интересный цикл лекций, дающий возможность познакомить студентов с наукой, которая сегодня востребована в разных областях знания.

Сегодня создано много антологий, собраний текстов по семиотике. Много книг по культурологии выходит явно с семиотическим уклоном.

Однако накопленный этой наукой материал сегодня оказался столь обширным, что необходима некая матрица для структурирования предмета, столь важного и значимого для подготовки современных специалистов. Закономерно, что уже несколько лет во многих вузах ведется этот предмет. Все же можно говорить о неких общих предпосылках, которые должны отличать курс семиотики. Безусловно, открываться такой курс должен освещением вопроса о предмете и задачах курса. Далее, на наш взгляд, следует студентам дать представление об истории семиотики. Несмотря на недолгий этап ее становления, она чрезвычайно насыщена не только именами, работами, но и событиями, особенно в нашей стране. И здесь следует обратить внимание на терминологию, которая часто в ходу в обществе, но с размытыми семантическими смыслами.

Представляется немаловажным раздел, посвященный семиотике повседневности. Как известно, проблемы повседневности сегодня – один из важных элементов культурологии. И без рассмотрения семиотики повседневности такой курс был бы обеднен. Но и за пределами повседневности есть много сфер, включающих семиотический аспект, который должен быть раскрыт перед студентами. Так, например, вопросы семиотики кризиса, семиотики скандала, семиотики войны мы уже включаем в читаемый курс.

Особый раздел, безусловно, должен быть посвящен семиотике культуры. Здесь существует множество трудов, которые могли бы помочь преподавателю. И в качестве дополнения, вероятно, возможно выделить еще один раздел – семиотику искусства. Ибо сегодня произведения искусства без знания терминологии семиотики до конца понять практически невозможно.


Как полагает У. Эко, даже иконический знак, по своим параметрам наиболее полно отражающий свое означаемое, не обладает никакими общими свойствами со своим объектом, является полностью произвольным, конвенциональным и немотивированным [5, с. 77].

Такое членение курса подготовлено в программе по семиотике культуры в Санкт-Петербургском государственном университете культуры и искусств. Дополнена эта программа тестами по семиотике и развернутым списком тем для рефератов. Однако тесты могут выявить только повторенный за преподавателем материал. Студент не может с их помощью выявить свои креативные способности. Поэтому тестовые задания необходимо обязательно совмещать с другими формами работы.

Как видим, внимание к данной проблематике актуально и важно для подготовки современных культурологов.

Литература / References 1. Брэдбери, М. Отражения // Иностранная литература. – 2002. – № 12. – С. 161-225. 2. Брэдбери, М. Три эссе // Иностранная литература. – 2002. – № 12. – С. 226-271. 3. Патриарх Кирилл раскритиковал реформу образования (фактограф) [Электронный

ресурс]: Вопросы культурологии. – 2000. – № 11. – С. 98. URL: http://www.ceninauku. ru/news/page_27749.htm (дата обращения: 18.09.2013).

4. Постановление правительства РФ от 23 декабря 2005 № 803 «О Федеральной целевой программе развития образования на 2006-2010 гг.» [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://old.fcpro.ru/content/view/11/76/ (дата обращения: 05.07.2013).

5. Усманова, А. Умберто Эко: парадоксы интерпретации. – ЕГУ: Пропилеи, 2000. Светлана Тевельевна Махлина доктор философских наук, профессор Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет культуры и искусств Санкт-Петербург, Россия [email protected] Svetlana Mahlina PhD in Philosophy (Doctor of Science), Professor Saint-Petersburg State University of Culture and Art Saint-Petersburg, Russia [email protected]




МАРИЯ НИКОЛАЕВНА ТЮРИНА / MARIA TYURINA

ИЗУЧЕНИЕ АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА В СОВРЕМЕННОМ ГЛОБАЛИЗИРУЮЩЕМСЯ МИРЕ

ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING IN MODERN GLOBALIZING WORLD


Статья посвящена влиянию процессов глобализации на изучение английского языка. Глобализация социокультурных и экономических контактов связана в настоящее время с утверждением английского языка в качестве языка межнационального общения. Знание английского языка является необходимым фактором продуктивного сотрудничества в различных областях жизни общества. В статье рассматриваются современные тенденции в изучении английского языка, анализируются проблемы, связанные с процессом его глобального доминирования, и предпринимаются попытки найти способы выхода из сложившейся ситуации.

The article is devoted to the impact of globalization processes on the English language learning. Nowadays, as a result of globalization of social, cultural and economic contacts, English has become an international language. The knowledge of English is a necessary factor of efficient cooperation in various areas of social life. This paper is concerned with current trends in the English language learning, analysis of the problems connected with its global domination and attempts to find the ways out of the situation. Ключевые слова: глобализация, изучение английского языка, межкультурная

коммуникация, современный специалист, билингвизм, экспансия американской культуры, языковая асимметрия

Keywords: globalization, English language learning, intercultural communication, modern specialist, bilingualism, expansion of American culture, language asymmetry

Проблемы глобализации современного социума отражаются в различных сферах жизни индивида и общества. Не стала исключением и сфера образования, которая должна соответствовать всем требованиям изменяющегося мира. На каждом этапе развития общества система образования претерпевает определенные изменения в соответствии с его потребностями и ценностями.

В условиях глобализирующегося мира ярко выражена тенденция к открытости, преодолению барьеров между странами, народами. Знание иностранного языка, в особенности английского, является необходимым условием профессиональной востребованности и карьерного роста современного специалиста. «По мере того, как мир все больше приближается к тому, что принято называть «глобальной деревней» (т. е. к существенно более сильной взаимозависимости народов), знание более чем одного языка

Изучение английского языка в современном глобализирующемся мире 624

становится жизненно важным инструментом для взаимного понимания и общения с людьми других культур. Как бы ни было важно знание многих языков сейчас, в будущем, вероятно, оно станет еще важнее» [8, с. 424].

Самый мощный фактор глобализации – экономический. Современная экономическая ситуация такова, что страны все более и более различаются по принципам их участия в создании мирового продукта: именно англоговорящим странам принадлежит основная роль в создании новых технологий, научных и технических новаций, именно там сосредоточивается мировой менеджмент, формируются системы управления и финансов. Английский язык используется в качестве официального более чем в 70 государствах мира. В эпоху глобализации, как считает лингвист Д. Кристал, английский становится языком межнационального общения, потому что количество людей, использующих этот язык, составляет более 1,1 млрд человек. Правда, из них только четверть считает его своим родным языком [4].

Знание английского языка является не только признаком прогрессивности и престижа, но и важным показателем высокой квалификации специалиста. Чтобы быть в курсе последних достижений, современный специалист должен регулярно изучать литературу по интересующей его тематике не только на русском, но и на иностранном языке, владеть навыками чтения и перевода, коммуникативными навыками. По некоторым данным, до 88% научной литературы печатается на английском языке, в 85% международных организаций он также используется в качестве основного. В Интернете он употребляется как приоритетный. В 2005 году Европейская комиссия приняла документ о «Новой рамочной стратегии многоязычия» («A New Framework Strategy for Multilingualism»), в котором английский язык рассматривается как обязательное условие участия всех европейцев в новом сообществе, построенном на знаниях. Таким образом, без знания английского языка любой квалифицированный специалист не может чувствовать себя вполне уверенно в современном обществе. Английский язык дает возможность участвовать в международных конференциях, семинарах, симпозиумах. Он также необходим для успешной и эффективной коммуникации на личностном уровне, потому что помогает коммуникантам создать общее поле культурных и ценностных установок. Обучение всем этим навыкам, и в особенности формирование языковой культуры личности, должно быть целью практических занятий по английскому языку в школах и высших учебных заведениях, так как именно языковая культура является неотъемлемой частью культуры человека в целом.

Многие ученые обращают наше внимание и на оборотную сторону гегемонии английского языка. Так, директор Центра международного высшего образования (Колледж Бостона, США) Ф. Г. Альтбах пишет: «Во многих странах академические награды присуждают в первую очередь тем, кто активно использует английский язык и участвует в деятельности глобальных научных сетей. Как правило, этих ученых приглашают для участия в работе международных конференций, предоставляют им исследовательские гранты международных и национальных фондов, и вообще именно их рассматривают в качестве лидеров научных сообществ…» [1, с. 36-39]. Рассуждая в этом же духе, культурологи и лингвисты заговорили о «вестернизированной элите» (Б. С. Ерасов), «интеллектуальном колониализме» (А. Воронов),

Мария Николаевна Тюрина / Maria Tyurina 625

«интеллектуальном гетто» (Д. Кристал). Однако, несмотря на то, что значительная часть общества активно выступает против преобладания английского языка в сфере межкультурного общения, в России, например, родители в большинстве своем ориентируют детей на изучение английского, английские школы являются элитными, а финансовая верхушка российского общества предпочитает отправлять своих детей на обучение в страны, где преподавание ведется на английском языке. Тем не менее некоторые специалисты утверждают, что английский язык не сможет стать языком глобального общения. По мнению британского специалиста в области лингвистики Д. Грэдолла, количество носителей английского непрерывно уменьшается, и он уже занимает второе место в мире, уступая китайскому языку, на котором уже говорят свыше 1 млрд 200 млн человек. К середине XXI века английский уже будет на третьем месте по широте своего распространения после азиатских и индоевропейских языков [12]. Впрочем, существование китайского языка как языка возможного межнационального общения многими специалистами ставится под сомнение. В первую очередь в связи с трудностью его изучения и невозможностью адекватного перевода научно-технической и культурной информации. В эпоху глобализации необходим тот тип билингвизма, при котором важно использовать языковые и культурные нормы именно английского языка, так как различные сферы деятельности современного человека предполагают взаимодействие с другими странами, где английский выступает либо как родной язык, либо в качестве общепринятого международного языка. «Мир вступил в эпоху коммуникативного сдвига «communicative shift», суть которого состоит в объективной необходимости национально-англоязычного билингвизма» [3, с. 84].

Однако необходимо подчеркнуть, что «глобализация не должна приводить к унификации развития всех стран (в том числе России) по образцу одной или нескольких стран. Соединенные Штаты Америки или страны Западной Европы, которые ныне выдаются за высший образец и центр мирового общественного развития, не были и не будут вечными образцами, да и сейчас по некоторым параметрам не являются носителями высших ценностей. Страны же других регионов зачастую обладают таким своеобразием, что глобализация по образцу США или стран Западной Европы может привести к ликвидации многообразия форм человеческой жизни, которое является условием творческого развития человеческого общества» [7, c. 17-18]. Различные исторические катаклизмы, в том числе и распад Советского Союза, изменили границы языкового пространства, а процессы глобализации привели к усилению конкуренции между языками. В этой конкурентной борьбе многие языки, в том числе и русский, утратили часть своего языкового пространства. Дж. Стайнер отмечал, что умышленная или неумышленная экспансия английского языка оказывается средством разрушения естественного лингвистического разнообразия, и данный процесс является мощной экологической угрозой для культуры нашего времени. Ситуация в современном мире складывается таким образом, что в некоторых странах, стремящихся отстоять свою национально-культурную идентичность, происходит отказ от использования английского языка как официального


(напр., в Кении, Малайзии). Экспансия английского в русскую речь выражается в самых различных формах: в граффити, в распространении американских междометий после просмотров голливудских блокбастеров, жестах, характерных для американцев, снижении уровня нормативности, использовании ненормативной лексики, что характерно для многих низкопробных американских фильмов, в неоправданных заимствованиях, в неблагозвучных транскрипциях рекламируемых продуктов и т. д. «Русская речь всегда была плавна – сейчас она рубится, ритмически и интонационно энглизируется, лихорадочно куда-то бежит, из ее строя уходят и мысль, и переживание. Самой грозной опасностью мне представляется изменение внутреннего ритма, переход на ускоренные обороты: как можно короче мыслить, как можно меньше чувствовать, главное – информация… Когда выражение «наёмный» убийца заменяется толерантным «киллер» – тут уж дело не просто в языке, это изменение системы ценностных и нравственных координат, и это смертельно опасно… Деградирует язык – деградирует нация» [5, с. 4].

Стратегия развития образования в России в условиях глобализации должна соединить в себе международные и внутрироссийские тенденции и интересы. Специалисты в области социолингвистики и культурных коммуникаций акцентируют внимание на том, что система межкультурной коммуникации может быть эффективной только в том случае, когда она является устойчивой, целостной, симметричной и обеспечивает равновесие между взаимодействующими культурами без доминирования какой-либо из сторон. Асимметрическое взаимодействие представляет собой негативное явление, которое чревато серьезными последствиями. Анализ новых форм асимметрии, возникающих на различных уровнях межкультурной коммуникации, на примере российско-американской коммуникативной модели дает возможность делать выводы об общих тенденциях, которые могут быть экстраполированы на другие культуры.

О. Леонтович выделяет асимметрию двух видов: количественную и качественную [6]. Количественная асимметрия связана с неравноценностью интересов коммуникантов в получении наиболее полного объема информации. С американской стороны самодостаточность, изоляционизм, имеющие глубокие исторические корни еще в политике «Америка для американцев», приводят к отсутствию интереса к другим странам, включая Россию, а также к незнанию иностранных языков. Жители США получают весьма скудную информацию о России. Все, что они узнают, поступает из ограниченного числа американских источников; в публикациях почти полностью отсутствуют ссылки на аутентичные материалы. В Российской Федерации же, напротив, уже на протяжении многих лет поддерживается активный интерес к США, американский образ жизни во многом идеализируется. В сознании россиян твердо бытует мнение, что знание английского языка является не только престижным, но и дающим возможность сделать хорошую карьеру. Новые культурологические подходы отражаются в школьных и вузовских программах, методике преподавания иностранных языков, публикациях специализированных лингвострановедческих словарей, учебников, направлениях научных исследований.


Говоря о второй форме асимметрии, О. Леонтович определяла ее как качественную.

Это означает, что искажение информации осуществляется в связи с характером, методикой, стереотипами, идеологическими предубеждениями и позициями. Оба вида асимметрии приводят к формированию неадекватных образов и представлений взаимодействующих сторон друг о друге, социальному отчуждению, языковому империализму. Экспансия американской культуры происходит посредством пропаганды, языка, компьютерных технологий и т. д. В периоды политической и экономической нестабильности, как сегодня в России, национальная культура ослабевает, возрастает возможность вторжения иных культур, которые в сознании населения ассоциируются с процветанием и успехом. Результатом культурной экспансии становится не только изменение экономической модели потребления, но и перестройка системы ценностных ориентаций, создание массовой культуры, ведущей к идеализации чужого образа жизни, идеологии, мировоззрения, искусства, порождающей чувство неполноценности в отношении к собственной культуре [2]. При этом особенно сильные импульсы исходят от США, что в известной степени позволяет говорить о «макдольнизации» российской культуры [9].

Эти процессы неизбежно отражаются в языке. Английский язык требуется для получения престижной работы, широко изучается в разных странах, царствует на спутниковом телевидении, является языком Интернета. Жители англоговорящих стран считают право использовать свой язык в любых ситуациях, включая межкультурную коммуникацию, само собой разумеющимся, что приводит к фактическому неравенству языковых систем. По исследованиям конца 90-х годов, в России было больше учителей английского языка, чем тех, кто изучал русский язык в США [13]. В чем заключается опасность асимметрии? Для российской стороны экспансия американской культуры создает угрозу русской национальной идентичности, приводит к формированию потребительских ориентаций, изменению ценностей и менталитета. Асимметрия, нарушающая экологическое равновесие, неизбежно вызывает компенсаторную реакцию: россиянам приходится прикладывать дополнительные усилия для того, чтобы быть понятыми своими англоязычными собеседниками, не желающими, как правило, идти навстречу, пройти свою часть пути в процессе взаимопонимания. Коммуникация в этом случае приобретает однонаправленное движение, что негативно сказывается на самой языковой культуре как американцев, так и россиян.

Хотя в связи с экономическим и политическим господством США в мире американская культура сейчас находится в сильной позиции, для американцев асимметрия также таит ряд опасностей. Языковой империализм ведет к тому, что возникают различные упрощенные формы английского языка, употребляемые как в обыденной речи, так и на политических и научных конференциях. Этот «потребительский», или «базовый», английский лишен национально-культурных черт и своеобразия, что ведет к примитивизации самой англосаксонской культуры. Такой язык также не дает возможности представителям англоязычных стран понять в полной мере носителей других


культур. К тому же, в случае изменения экономической ситуации и роста интереса к России со стороны США дисбаланс в коммуникации будет в пользу русских, так как они вооружены знанием английского языка, американской культуры и коммуникативных стратегий. Все это продуцирует языковую и культурную асимметрию, отсутствие взаимного понимания между правительствами, странами и народами, что особенно опасно в условиях предсказанной еще С. Хантингтоном «войны цивилизаций».

В настоящее время английский язык существует в разных вариантах: можно, например, говорить об ирландском, канадском, австралийском, южно-африканском, индийском, американском и т. д. разновидностях английского, которые отнюдь не способствуют межнациональному общению, а довольно-таки часто тормозят его. М. Бёрнс отмечает: «Беспрецедентное распространение английского языка в мире приводит к тому, что возникают все новые его разновидности, формирующиеся под воздействием других языков и культур и отражающие элементы неанглосаксонского менталитета, моральных ценностей, культурно-исторических реалий, традиций, норм поведения. Примечательно, что если прежде, изучая английский язык как иностранный, студент ставил перед собой цель устно и письменно общаться без переводчика с носителем английского языка, то теперь более вероятны такие коммуникативные ситуации, когда для обоих собеседников английский язык, являясь языком-посредником, будет в равной степени неродным» [10, с. 8].

В результате, кроме всего прочего, возникает и следующая проблема: обучение иностранному языку (в данном случае – английскому) проводится во многих учебных заведениях мира, и данный процесс ориентирован на Великобританию или США, однако при этом все чаще возникают ситуации, когда людям приходится сталкиваться с представителями не англосаксонской культуры, что приводит к взаимному непониманию. В этом отношении большую роль могут сыграть невербальные методы знакомства и усвоения этих культур через язык искусства. Здесь в качестве примера можно привести работу вокально-инструментального джазового ансамбля «Леди Блюз», участниками которого являются десять студенток факультета иностранных языков БГПУ. Органично соединяя музыкальные культуры англоязычных стран и России, ансамбль создает серьезную базу для организации диалога культур, постижения глубин языкового разнообразия через дух языка, выражаемый в лучших произведениях искусства.

Язык должен служить средством полноценного общения. Его необходимо изучать в неразрывной связи с культурой и миром народов, говорящих на этом языке. Для эффективности общения не достаточно преодоления языкового барьера. Необходимо преодолеть барьер культурный. При этом в основе любой коммуникации лежит «обоюдный код», обоюдное знание традиций, особенностей образа жизни, национального характера, менталитета и т. д.

Конечно, можно в ходе научного дискурса различать язык, с одной стороны, в качестве инструмента общения и коммуникации и, с другой стороны, в качестве, используя терминологию М. Хайдеггера, «дома бытия культуры», ее хранителя и средства воспроизводства. Однако подобное разделение носит абстрактный характер, потому что в реальности


социокультурная коммуникация может быть успешной только в том случае, когда происходит не просто обмен «голой» информацией, а создание у коммуникантов общего поля культурных, ценностных установок. В противоположном же случае информация будет не понята или воспринята искаженным образом.

Каковы пути, позволяющие избежать этой обоюдной опасности и стабилизировать систему межкультурной коммуникации? Нельзя не согласиться с М. Феттсом, который предлагает так называемую «коллективную геостратегию», направленную на то, чтобы обеспечить сосуществование культур, оптимальный баланс в лингвистическом многообразии, интеграцию, равенство, устойчивость и эффективность, воспринять как интегрированную биокультурную перспективу сохранения многообразия на Земле [11]. Необходимо разработать комплекс мероприятий, направленных на сохранение экологического баланса языка, культуры, коммуникационной и информационной сфер. Студентам необходимо научиться транслировать высокие достижения своей страны и выражать ценности своей национальной культуры. Межкультурные образовательные программы, несомненно, способствуют достижению этих целей.

Литература / References 1. Альтбах, Ф. Г. Английский язык как имперский язык академической науки // Alma

mater: Вестник высш. шк. – 2007. – № 7. – С. 36-39. 2. Ерасов, Б. С. Социальная культурология: пособие для студентов высш. уч.

заведений в 2-х ч. – М.: АО «Аспект Пресс», 1994. 3. Кабакчи, В. В. Английский язык межкультурного общения – новый аспект в

преподавании английского языка // Иностранные языки в школе. – 2000. – № 6. – С. 84.

4. Кристалл, Д. Английский язык как глобальный / пер. с англ. – М.: Изд-во «Весь мир», 2001.

5. Наша речь сейчас куда-то лихорадочно бежит… [Интервью с В. С. Непомнящим] // Деловой вторник. – 2001. – 5 июня. – С. 4.

6. Леонтович, О. А. Введение в межкультурную коммуникацию. – М.: Гнозис, 2007. 7. Никитин, В. А. Проблемы и направления реализации социального в обществе. –

М.: Московский психолого-социальный институт, 2006. 8. Мацумото, Д. Человек, культура, психология. Удивительные загадки,

исследования и открытия. – Спб.: Прайм – ЕВРОЗНАК, 2008. 9. Сидоров, Е. Ю. Культура мира и культура России // Полис. – 1998. – № 5. – С. 106-

113. 10. Berns, M. Didactic and Pragmatic Approaches to English Language Teaching.

Assumptions // English Unites the World. Proceedings of the International Conference. – Saratov: Saratov University Press, 2002. – P. 8.

11. Fettes, M. The Geostrategies of Interlingualism [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://esperantic.org/esf/geo.htm (дата обращения: 05.01.2010).

12. Graddol, D. English on Decline for World Youth [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: www.guardian.co.uk.britain/article. – 27.02.2004 (дата обращения: 10.01.2010).


13. Walter, G. S., Abalakina-Paap, M. Russia and the West: Intercultural Relations // Handbook of Intercultural Training. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. – 1996. – Pp. 366-382.

Мария Николаевна Тюрина кандидат философских наук, преподаватель Южный федеральный университет Ростов-на-Дону, Россия [email protected] Maria Tyurina PhD in Philosophy (Candidate of Science), Lecturer Southern Federal University Rostov-on-Don, Russia [email protected]




ТАТЬЯНА ЛЕОНИДОВНА ПАВЛОВА, ОЛЕСЯ ВЛАДИМИРОВНА ЦИГУЛЕВА / TATYANA PAVLOVA, OLESYA TSIGULEVA

МОБИЛЬНОСТЬ В УСЛОВИЯХ ИНТЕРНАЦИОНАЛИЗАЦИИ ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ

MOBILITY WITHIN INTERNATIONALISATION OF EDUCATION


Данная статья посвящена мобильности как основному фактору интернационализации высшего образования. Авторы дают сравнительную характеристику развитию мобильности в разных странах.

This article is devoted to mobility as the main factor of internationalisation of higher education. The authors comparatively characterise the development of mobility in different countries. Ключевые слова: мобильность, внутренняя мобильность, интернационализация,

английский язык, экспорт образовательных услуг Keywords: mobility, inbound mobility, internationalisation, English language,

export of educational services

С развитием процессов глобализации и интернационализации в мировом сообществе изменяются приоритеты в области подготовки профессиональных кадров, способных продуктивно работать в изменившихся условиях глобального рынка. Интернационализация образования преследует различные цели, среди которых: диверсификация; повышение качества образования и исследований за счет включения студентов и преподавателей в международный процесс обмена знаниями и интеграция научных исследований; расширение региональной сети вуза для эффективного использования своих ресурсов; рост финансовых поступлений через привлечение иностранных студентов. При этом важными в ее осуществлении выступают такие факторы, как миссия учреждения, научный потенциал и в целом реальная стратегия образовательного учреждения. Развитие международного межвузовского сотрудничества позволяет осуществлять совместные исследовательские проекты, обменные программы для студентов и преподавателей, различные формы взаимодействия для иностранных студентов.

Сегодня в рамках интернационализации высшего образования мобильность студентов выступает ее инструментом, сущность которой носит междисциплинарный характер. При этом ключевой контекст понимания смысла звучит как «подвижность», «быстрая изменяемость». Таким образом, мобильный человек – это человек подвижный, способный к быстрому передвижению, а профессионально мобильный – обладающий качествами развивающегося, подвижного в профессиональной деятельности специалиста [2].

Мобильность в условиях интернационализации образования 632

Необходимо отметить, что мобильность занимает особое место в Болонском процессе и определяет привлекательность и конкурентоспособность Европейского пространства высшего образования во всем мире. Однако в ряде стран мобильность тормозится проблемами овладения английским языком как глобальным. К числу таких стран можно отнести благополучную в экономическом развитии Японию.

В докладе «Японское видение 21 века» (2001 г.) прозвучало сенсационное желание страны придать английскому языку статус второго государственного языка. Демократические силы Японии не допустили подобную возможность, и тогда в целях интенсификации сферы образования государство выдвинуло идею к 2020 г. увеличить число иностранных студентов до 300 тысяч, что составляет 10% от общего числа студенчества Японии [7]. Таким образом, взаимодействие иностранных и японских студентов позволит последним разрешить проблему мобильности.

Доказано, что продвижение мобильности создает возможности для личностного роста, способствует развитию международного сотрудничества, повышает качество высшего образования и научных исследований, отвечает потребностям мирового сообщества. Выступая одной из основных тенденций высшего образования, она способствует продуктивному решению проблем современного образования и конкретного человека, к которым можно отнести:

– возможности студентов из стран Азии получить профессиональную подготовку в основных образовательных учреждениях Северной Америки, Западной Европы и Австралии;

– мобильность внутри Европейского Союза в рамках различных программ поддержки студентов;

– изменение содержания образования, образовательных программ, характера обучения, педагогическую поддержку иностранных студентов. Задача большинства вузов состоит в приоритетности профессиональных программ против базовых дисциплин.

В связи с этой тенденцией эксперты ЮНЕСКО констатируют, что «вопросы, касающиеся учебных программ и целей высшего образования, особенно актуальны в развивающихся регионах, где формирующаяся рыночная экономика требует не только специалистов, подготовленных для научно-технических профессий, но и сильных лидеров, которые обладают широким знанием, творческим потенциалом, легко адаптируются и способны дать всестороннюю этическую оценку социальному развитию» [4, с. 1].

За последние 40 лет статистика увеличения количества студентов, пересекающих национальные границы для получения высшего образования, превысила темпы распространения самого высшего образования. По данным ЮНЕСКО, уровень международной мобильности студентов вырос за последние 25 лет на 300%. По прогнозам экспертов, число студентов, обучающихся за рубежом, в 2025 году составит 4,9 миллиона [5].

Сегодня в вопросе мировой мобильности лидируют США. Основным преимуществом этой страны является развитая система общественной и корпоративной поддержки высшего образования. К ней относятся государственные низкопроцентные долгосрочные кредиты на образование,

Татьяна Леонидовна Павлова, Олеся Владимировна Цигулева / Tatyana Pavlova, Olesya Tsiguleva 633

гранты многочисленных частных и общественных фондов, корпоративные стипендии (включая и те, которые предоставляют сами университеты).

Немаловажно и то, что американские университеты обеспечивают заинтересованных студентов работой по совместительству в кампусе, позволяющей покрывать хотя бы их повседневные расходы.

Доминирование английского языка в качестве глобального в современной науке и в качестве наиболее часто изучаемого второго языка обусловило тот факт, что наряду с США и Великобританией в список стран, принимающих наибольшее количество иностранных студентов, вошли также Канада и Австралия, Новая Зеландия. Возникший в этих странах спрос на образовательные услуги определил необходимость возникновения специализированных агентств, консалтинговых компаний, как национальных, так и международных, выступающих посредниками и консультантами по удовлетворению этого спроса [5]. Анализ образовательной ситуации в Европе в контексте проблем позволяет выделить некоторые особенности изменения ситуации:

– образование в Австралии считается теперь наиболее быстрорастущей экспортной индустрией;

– Испания, например, с целью повышения мобильности осуществляет следующие формы реализации (ознакомление с другим факультетом собственного университета; смена университета; смена региона; переезд из страны в страну (язык, культура и т. д.).

При этом мобильность реализуется, как правило, на срок, не превышающий одного учебного года, а в большинстве случаев продолжительность программы составляет один семестр.

Состояние экспорта образовательных услуг, по мнению Воиновой, определяется привлекательностью страны, ее системы обучения и доступностью получения высшего образования, а состояние экспорта образовательных услуг ведущими университетами мира – еще и престижностью вуза, а также маркетинговой политикой на мировом рынке образовательных услуг [1].

Все больший экспортный вес набирают и восточные страны: Китай с 1990 года значительно увеличил число обучающихся иностранцев – с 5 до 50 тыс. В Японии сейчас их почти 80 тыс. [6].

Что же касается России, то приток иностранных студентов в вузы мало растет и составляет всего 1% доходов от международного рынка академических образовательных услуг, включая весь спектр обучения иностранных граждан в рамках программ высшего профессионального образования [6]. Если дифференцировать приток иностранных студентов в России, то можно выделить в нем значительный процент китайских студентов, а также представителей бывших союзных республик России.

Для сравнения, показатель академической мобильности в 90-х гг. прошлого столетия (1996 г.) приближался к 5%, а в 1990 доля всего СССР формально составляла около 11% [6]. Если не включать в число «стопроцентных» иностранных студентов, обучающихся в вузах России, выходцев из стран СНГ, как это имело место в вузовской статистической отчетности в 90-х годах, а иногда представлено в международных

Мобильность в условиях интернационализации образования 634

справочниках по образованию, то доля российских вузов на международном рынке образовательных услуг по показателю численности обучающихся иностранцев оказывается еще более низкой – около 2,5%.

Доля России изменилась с 3,4% в 1995 году до 3,1% в 2005 году. Так, в 2005 году число иностранных студентов в России составляло 90,4 тыс. чел. В 2007 году эта цифра увеличилась до 110 тыс. чел. [6].

Положительную тенденцию к увеличению въездной мобильности в российских вузах отмечает и В. Ф. Пугач, обращающий внимание на то, что на сегодняшний день существует модель въездной обильности иностранных студентов, которая состоит из двух групп: из стран СНГ и дальнего зарубежья, причем первые составляют около двух третьих, вторые – около третьей части. В 1994 г. из всех бывших союзных республик по численности студентов, обучавшихся в России, на первом месте находилась Украина – 17,4 тыс. студентов, на втором месте – свыше 14 тыс. человек – Казахстан. Вместе они составляли больше половины всех студентов из ближнего зарубежья. На третьем месте – Беларусь. С 1995 по 2008 г., несмотря на значительные изменения в структуре студенчества граждан из стран СНГ в российских вузах, первые три места занимали Казахстан, Украина и Беларусь, причем на первом месте постоянно находился Казахстан [3, с. 108].

Почти во всех странах СНГ, кроме Казахстана, наблюдалось незначительное снижение численности студентов в период с 1998 по 2003 г., а затем ее рост. Тенденция к росту наблюдалась в таких странах, как Азербайджан, Беларусь, Грузия, Киргизия, Таджикистан, Туркмения, Узбекистан. Наиболее важным отличием в характере динамики приема студентов из стран СНГ в российские вузы является явно выраженная тенденция к росту с 1994 по 2008 г. (прием вырос с 6,6 до 18,7 тыс. чел., или почти в три раза).

Анализ въездной мобильности в Россию показывает, что из дальнего зарубежья основные страны – Китай, Индия, Вьетнам, Малайзия, Сирия, Монголия.

В 2008 г. численность студентов из Китая составила почти 9 тыс., из Индии – 4,3 тыс., Вьетнама – свыше 3 тыс. человек. На долю этих стран приходится около 60% всех въездных мобильных студентов из стран дальнего зарубежья в Россию. Европейские страны представлены очень незначительно, причем как по перечню стран, так и по потокам мобильных студентов. В этот перечень вошли Болгария, Турция, Германия, Греция и Израиль, причем численность студентов из этих стран составила менее 4% всех въездных мобильных студентов в Россию из стран дальнего зарубежья. Количество студентов из перечисленных европейских стран исчисляется сотнями человек, например, из Германии – 167 чел. [3, с. 110].

Сравнительно-сопоставительный анализ тенденций высшего образования в мире показывает, что мобильность сегодня воспринимается как один из важнейших приоритетов политической и экономической жизни страны. В большинстве образовательных учреждений США, Великобритании, Австралии, Испании, Японии и т. д., принимающих иностранных студентов, отмечается не столько доход от образовательной деятельности, сколько возможность увидеть в социокультурном разнообразии обучающихся

Татьяна Леонидовна Павлова, Олеся Владимировна Цигулева / Tatyana Pavlova, Olesya Tsiguleva 635

студентов-иностранцев источник силы и развития науки, а значит, и страны в целом.

Таким образом, причиной роста мобильности студентов на современном этапе развития высшего образования все больше являются не рыночные процессы, а государственная политика, направленная на повышение конкурентоспособности духа новаторства и либерализации образования.

Литература / References 1. Воинова, О. В. Мировой рынок образования // Социология образования. – 2008. – №

1. – С. 58-82. 2. Немов, Р. С. Психологический словарь. – М.: Владос, 2007. 3. Пугач, В. Ф. Мобильные студенты в высшем образовании России // Высшее

образование в России. – 2011. – № 4. – С. 103-111. 4. Развитие высшего образования: статья [Электронный ресурс]. – URL:

http://obrazovanie.kop.ru/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=31&Itemid=44 (дата обращения: 20.02.2014).

5. Сагинова, О. В. Интернационализация высшего образования как фактор конкурентоспособности [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: marketologi.ru›publikatsii/ stati…obrazovanija-kak (дата обращения: 10.02.2014).

6. Чистохвалов, В. Н., Филиппов, В. М. Международное академическое пространство // Российский университет дружбы народов. – М.: Ун-т Дружбы народов, 2008.

7. Japanese science and technology indicators 2011. URL: http://iranscap.com›wp-content/uploads/2012/06/ (дата обращения: 20.02.2014).

Татьяна Леонидовна Павлова кандидат педагогических наук, доцент заведующая кафедрой педагогики Новосибирский государственный педагогический университет Новосибирск, Россия

Tatyana Pavlova PhD in Pedagogy (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor Head of Pedagogy Department Novosibirsk State Pedagogical University Novosibirsk, Russia

Олеся Владимировна Цигулева кандидат педагогических наук, профессор Новосибирский военный институт внутренних войск МВД РФ Новосибирск, Россия [email protected]

Olesya Tsiguleva PhD in Pedagogy (Candidate of Science), Professor Novosibirsk Military Institute of Internal Forces of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation Novosibirsk, Russia [email protected]




НАДЕЖДА ВАСИЛЬЕВНА ОСИПОВА / NADEJDA OSIPOVA

РАЗРАБОТКА КОНЦЕПЦИЙ ГЛОБАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ КАК ОТВЕТ НА ВЫЗОВ ВРЕМЕНИ И РЕШЕНИЕ НАСУЩНЫХ ПРОБЛЕМ ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ В КОНТЕКСТЕ ГЛОБАЛИЗАЦИОННЫХ ПРОЦЕССОВ

THE DEVELOPMENT OF GLOBAL EDUCATION CONCEPTS AS THE REPLY TO THE CHALLENGE OF THE TIME AND THE SOLUTION OF VITAL EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS IN THE CONTEXT OF GLOBALIZATION PROCESSES


В статье дан анализ процесса глобализации применительно к системе образования в целом и в отдельной стране (России) в частности. Рассмотрены концепции глобального образования, представлены основные и идеологические принципы глобального образования, автором дано определение глобального образования. Кроме того, описаны преимущества этого подхода, принципы и критерии отбора содержания по иностранному языку как учебному предмету в контексте глобального образования.

The article analyses the process of globalization with regard to the educational system on the whole and in one country (Russia) in particular. It deals with the concepts of global education, the main and ideological principles of global education are described, the definition of global education is offered by the author. In addition the advantages of this approach, the principles and the criteria of selection of content with regard to foreign language as a school subject in the context of global education are outlined. Ключевые слова: глобализация, глобальное образование, глобальная динамика,

унификация Keywords: globalization, global education, global dynamics, unification

Проблемы образования во всем мире становятся приоритетными, так как они определяют будущее каждой страны в отдельности и планеты в целом. Решая задачу сохранения национальной, культурной идентичности, образование все больше создает предпосылки для осознания принадлежности к человечеству, необходимости выхода за региональные и национальные рамки. Сегодня мы можем наблюдать, как одновременно протекают два противоположенных процесса: процесс объединения и унификации разных культур в ходе научно-технического прогресса и процесс национальной идентификации жизни в целом, культуры и образования разных народов [2, с. 131]. Каждая нация сталкивается с проблемой необходимости осмысления своего места в мире с тем, чтобы не раствориться среди других и в то же время не уклониться в самоизоляцию.

Надежда Васильевна Осипова / Nadejda Osipova 637

Для российской педагогической науки и системы образования это означает необходимость осознания происходящих в современном мире перемен и выбора эффективных путей развития. Это зависит от того, насколько сумеет система образования России вписаться в мировые образовательные процессы и играть в них роль в соответствии со своими потенциальными возможностями. В то же время стратегия развития российского образования должна учитывать не только глобальные, но и национальные тенденции развития образования, обусловленные особенностями исторического, культурного развития страны. В области модернизации образования в России сегодня выделяют следующие задачи: сохранение национально-культурной и образовательной идентичности, традиций российской высшей школы; воспитание поколения, которое станет российским по наследию и культурной принадлежности и глобальным по возможностям и перспективам [1, с. 24]. Таким образом, оставаясь укорененным в собственной культуре, современный россиянин должен быть открыт миру и его вызовам. Такую задачу в стране в условиях идущего процесса глобализации может решить глобальное образование.

Глобализация – объективный, сложный и противоречивый процесс формирования единого взаимозависимого общемирового пространства, затрагивающий все сферы жизни современного общества. Для одних глобализация – «завуалированный европоцентризм», а точнее – «западоцентризм», «вестернизация по американскому образцу», «утверждение идеологии неолиберализма», «проявление нового империализма и колониализма», «гомогенизация мира». Другие видят в глобализации «позитивный процесс, способствующий экономической и социальной эффективности», «движение к европейским и общечеловеческим ценностям» [5]. Непродуктивно игнорировать процесс глобализации – гораздо важнее использовать его преимущества. Для этого необходима всесторонняя и объективная оценка феномена глобализации, в том числе и в аспекте развития современного образования.

Исследование процессов глобализации в рамках педагогической науки, практически всех ее отраслей: от сравнительно-педагогических исследований (воздействие глобализации на национальные системы образования), историко-педагогических аспектов (генезис, преемственность и ее разрывы в международном развитии образования), экономики и планирования образования (политика образования в контексте глобализации) и до проблем обучения (пересмотр содержания образования и методов обучения под влиянием глобализации), привело к появлению понятия, теории и практики «глобального образования» как ответа на вызов времени и решения насущных проблем образования в контексте глобализационных процессов.

Инициаторами в направлении развития теории глобального образования являются американцы. Американский форум «За глобальное образование» (The American Forum for Global Education) – негосударственная организация, создавшая движение за глобальное образование в США и на международной арене – был создан в 1970 году. Над моделями реализации концепции глобального образования продолжили работу американские и европейские ученые (К. Адик, Дж. Боткин, У. Книп, Д. Сэлби, Р. Хенви). Российский центр

Разработка концепций глобального образования как ответ на вызов времени... 638

по проблемам глобального образования был открыт в 1992 году при Рязанском государственном педагогическом университете имени С. А. Есенина. Идеи и разработки новых методик, педагогических технологий, способствующих обеспечению необходимых условий для активного вовлечения отечественных вузов и школ в международное образовательное сообщество, принадлежат И. Ю. Алексашиной, В. М. Данильченко, М. К. Денисову, А. П. Лиферову, Е. С. Устиновой, Н. В. Черниковой и др.

Концепции глобального образования предполагают рассмотрение локальных и глобальных явлений, значимых для выживания человека, его духовного и материального благополучия. Через локальное ученик выходит на понимание глобального, а через глобальное – локального, его значимости, ценности, уникальности. Бережное отношение к собственной культуре способствует бережному отношению к иным культурам и ценностям, включая и общечеловеческие.

На основе анализа концепций под глобальным образованием мы будем понимать многомерную систему знаний, ценностей, формирующуюся в процессе изучения тем, обсуждение которых предполагает выход за внутренние рамки предмета, системы, национальных границ, и способствующую в результате становлению творческой личности, обладающей целостным мировосприятием, глобальным мышлением, способностью к самоанализу, готовностью к решению глобальных проблем и понимающей ответственность за свои поступки [4].

Выдвигая приоритетной задачей формирование взгляда на мир как на единое целое, где благополучие каждого зависит от благополучия всех и наоборот, можно определить некоторые исходные принципы глобального образования:

– учет динамики развития проблемы (рассмотрение проблемы в пространстве и во времени);

– неоднородность мировосприятия (примирение противоречивых воззрений, многоплановость восприятия);

– ответственность (формирование продуманного и взвешенного поведения, понимания того, что от принятых решений зависит благополучие отдельных людей и целых сообществ);

– неоднородность информации (рассмотрение сведений, касающихся различных глобальных систем: экологической, политической, экономической, социальной, различных культур, различных областей знания).

Названные принципы тесно связаны между собой. Только соблюдение их в комплексе может способствовать формированию глобального мышления и обеспечить реализацию идей глобального образования. Идеологическими принципами глобального образования можно считать следующие:

1) Участие и предвосхищение. Каждый человек должен осознать необходимость перехода от интуитивного приспособления к миру на позиции активной и осмысленной социализации, к сознательному предвосхищению и развитию чувства сопричастности.

2) От совершенствования самого себя к совершенствованию мира. 3) Мыслить глобально – действовать локально.


4) Рассмотрение глобального сквозь призму национального и, наоборот, взгляд на национальное через глобальное.

Для ряда концепций глобального образования общим является ориентация на формирование духовной, нравственной личности; креативного, глобального мышления, целостной картины мира, способности к самоанализу, а также развитие кросс-культурной грамотности, чувства ответственности за прошлое, настоящее и будущее мира. В формировании целостной картины мира особая роль принадлежит языку, в том числе и иностранному, как инструменту познания. Поэтому мы считаем целесообразным обратиться к рассмотрению потенциала образовательной области «иностранный язык». Так, Я. М. Колкер [3] выделяет следующие ключевые моменты: универсальность (иностранный язык открыт для обсуждения многочисленных тем и проблем, касающихся различных сторон человеческой жизни и имеющих значение в современном мире, что является значимым для глобального образования); коммуникативная направленность (при этом коммуникация выступает и целью, и средством обучения); когнитивное развитие (в ходе дискуссий, обсуждений развиваются гибкость, критичность мышления, формируются ценностные приоритеты); мотивация на познание мира (развивается интерес, осознание и принятие иной культуры, умение оценить ее через призму собственной культуры).

Учитывая специфику иностранного языка как учебного предмета, предлагаем рассмотреть ряд принципов обучения иностранному языку в контексте глобального образования:

1) культуросообразности – обусловленности обучения и воспитания контекстом культуры – мировой, национальной и региональной;

2) непрерывности – взаимосвязи циклов обучения; 3) интегративности – согласования задач обучения и воспитания как в

рамках иностранного языка, так и других учебных предметов с ориентацией на глобальное образование;

4) холизма – видения взаимозависимости и целостности современного мира, обусловленности частного общим и общего частным и умения описать это средствами языка;

5) гуманизма – осознания средствами языка ценности и неповторимости человеческой жизни как в ее личностном, так и социальном выражении – национально-культурном и общечеловеческом;

6) функциональности – обучения пониманию и применению языка в различных ситуациях, то есть объектом усвоения являются не сами речевые средства, а функции, выполняемые ими;

7) соблюдения параметров реального общения – организации естественного, ситуационно обусловленного и эмоционально-окрашенного общения;

8) новизны – отбора учебных материалов, содержащих новую и значимую для обучаемых информацию; вариативности текстов, упражнений, заданий, ситуаций, форм подачи материала;

9) выявления взаимосвязей и взаимозависимостей в изучаемых явлениях, отражающих реалии окружающего мира.

В качестве системообразующих выступают принципы: культуро-сообразности, интегративности, холизма и гуманизма.


Реализация глобального образования осуществляется прежде всего через содержание образования, а затем непосредственно в процессе обучения. Исследователи называют основные критерии, которые необходимо учитывать при отборе содержания образования в контексте глобального образования:

1. Наличие глобальной проблематики (У. Книп, Д. Сэлби, Р. Хенви). В учебных материалах по иностранному языку предъявляется информация, отражающая проблемы человечества. Информационные компьютерные технологии позволяют получать необходимую информацию самостоятельно. Тематика и содержание текстов должны иметь выход на проблемы ближайшего окружения обучаемых, вызывать эмоциональный отклик и создавать повод для дискуссии, аргументированной формулировки своей точки зрения, используя информацию, полученную на других учебных предметах, в Интернете, в СМИ.

2. Представление различных точек зрения по глобальной проблематике в различных аспектах (экономических, политических, экологических и технологических) (У. Книп). Так, например, при рассмотрении вопроса об экологической ситуации во Франции предлагаются тексты, отражающие мнения политиков, специалистов по проблемам экологии, простых граждан, молодых людей.

3. Воспитывающий характер обучения, направленный на формирование положительных ценностей, нравственности (У. Книп, Д. Сэлби) как основы для проявления эмпатии к людям иных культур и традиций.

4. Реалистичность представления информации (Д. Майер). Содержание текстов должно представлять достоверные, правдивые факты, позволяющие с различных сторон осмыслить то или иное явление, критически оценивать поступки не только других, но и самого себя.

5. Представление специфики своей страны и страны изучаемого языка (К. Адик, Д. Майер, Д. Сэлби, Р. Хенви). Важным моментом здесь является рассмотрение взаимосвязи между глобальным, национальным и региональным компонентами. Любая проблема должна быть представлена с позиции индивида, далее – локального, микрорегионального, национального, макрорегионального и вплоть до глобального уровня.

6. Показ глобальной динамики изучаемых явлений (К. Адик, У. Книп, Д. Сэлби, Р. Хенви). Прошлое, настоящее и будущее тесно переплетаются друг с другом, и история, равно как и будущее, рассматривается как творимое людьми, как выбор открытых возможностей. Учащиеся должны осознавать, что человеческая деятельность, включая и их собственную, формирует будущее. Так, например, говоря о безработице во Франции, необходимо не только оценить результаты статистики, сравнить их с данными нашей страны, предположить, как эта проблема может затронуть каждого лично, но и разобрать причины и предпосылки данного явления, а также возможные пути решения.

7. Разнообразие форм предъявления материала (Д. Майер, Р. Хенви) с учетом интересов и уровня подготовки обучаемых, а также подготовки и материальных возможностей образовательного учреждения.


На основе вышесказанного мы считаем возможным выделить критерии отбора содержания образования по иностранному языку как учебному предмету в контексте глобального образования в школе и вузе:

– баланс в предъявлении глобальной и национальной (региональной, локальной) проблематики;

– взаимообусловленность общечеловеческого и национального (регионального, локального);

– использование лексического материала, отражающего особенное и общее в жизни своего народа, своей страны и страны изучаемого языка, с учетом возрастных особенностей, уровня подготовки и интересов обучаемых;

– связь обучения, воспитания и развития; – обусловленность учебного материала реальным культурным

контекстом жизни обучаемых; – создание основы для формирования коммуникативных навыков в

контексте глобального образования. Итак, можно сделать вывод, что глобальное образование – образование,

решающее задачи развития, воспитания и социализации личности, в основе которого лежит общая идея освоения картины мира, его проблем через призму ближайшего окружения ребенка, определяющего его национально-культурную идентификацию: семью, общину, муниципальное образование, регион, а глобальное восприятие мира является условием и фактором более глубокого познания ближайшего окружения, осознания его ценности и уникальности, необходимости бережного отношения к нему, равно как и ко всему миру. Результатом глобального образования является система знаний, ценностей, компетенций, позволяющая жить в гармонии с носителями своей и иных культур, ответственно и активно действовать во благо ближайшего окружения, страны и мира в целом. Постоянный выход с локального уровня на глобальный и наоборот в рамках того или иного учебного предмета (в нашем случае – иностранного языка) формирует аналитические качества, критическое мышление как основы для выбора стратегии поведения и деятельности в любых сферах: социальной, политической, экономической, экологической.

Литература / References 1. Блинов, В. И. Содержание и методика проведения аттестации профессиональной

деятельности учителя иностранного языка среднего общеобразовательного учебного заведения [Электронный ресурс]: Бизнес – образование в России. – URL: http://www.curator.ru/pedagog/blinov.html (дата обращения: 21.02.2014).

2. Бутенко, А. П. Глобализация: сущность и современные проблемы // Социально-гуманитарные знания. – 2002. – № 3. – С. 9.

3. Колкер, Я. М. Как достигается сотрудничество преподавателя и обучаемого? // Иностранные языки в школе. – 2000. – № 1. – С. 28-31.

4. Осипова, Н. В. Подготовка учителя иностранного языка в контексте глобального образования (на материале французского языка): автореф. дис. … канд. пед. наук. – Елец, 2010.


5. Трофименко, Г. А. О глобализации международных отношений // США. Канада. Экономика. Политика. Культура. – 2003. – № 6. – С. 74-86.

Надежда Васильевна Осипова кандидат педагогических наук, доцент Елецкий государственный университет им. И. А. Бунина Елец, Россия [email protected] Nadejda Osipova PhD in Pedagogy (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor Yelets State University of I. A. Bunin Yelets, Russia [email protected]


ЕЛЕНА ВЛАДИМИРОВНА АБДУЛОВА, СВЕТЛАНА ГЕННАДЬЕВНА КРЫЛОВА, СВЕТЛАНА АЛИГАРЬЕВНА МИНЮРОВА / ELENA ABDULOVA, SVETLANA KRYLOVA, SVETLANA MINYUROVA

ВИРТУАЛЬНОЕ ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОЕ ПРОСТРАНСТВО ДЛЯ МЕЖКУЛЬТУРНОГО ВЗАИМОДЕЙСТВИЯ

VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT FOR INTERCULTURAL INTERACTION


В статье обобщен опыт международного сетевого взаимодействия, осуществляемого с 2012 года в Институте психологии УрГПУ в рамках проекта «Глобальное понимание» (Университет Восточной Каролины, США). Рассматриваются организационные и технические условия, необходимые для осуществления проекта. Анализируются образовательные возможности проекта в контексте формирования компетенций, определяющих успешную самореализацию в глобальном мире.

The article is concerned with the experience of networking cooperation carried out at the Institute of Psychology in USPU within the ‘Global Understanding’ project (East Carolina University, USA). The project has been realized in USPU since 2012. The paper considers organizational and technical requirements of project implementation. It also analyzes educational opportunities of the project with respect to the development of competences that are crucial for successful self-realization in the global world. Ключевые слова: сетевое взаимодействие, глобальное понимание, проект,

компетенции Keywords: networking cooperation, global understanding, project, competences

Интенсивный обмен информацией, меняя прежние представления о

границах между странами и континентами, все больше включает нас в международное взаимодействие, направляет на установление взаимопонимания с представителями других культур. В этих условиях приобретает особую актуальность идея создания виртуального образовательного пространства для межкультурного взаимодействия. Такой подход помогает интеграции в мировое образовательное сообщество, способствует развитию академической мобильности преподавателей и студентов, расширяет международные контакты вузов.

На современном этапе развития российской системы образования акцентируется внимание на сетевых формах реализации образовательных программ. Эти формы применяются в целях повышения качества образования, расширения доступа студентов к современным образовательным технологиям и средствам обучения, предоставления возможности выбора различных профилей подготовки и специализаций, углубленного изучения учебных

Виртуальное образовательное пространство для межкультурного взаимодействия 644

курсов, предметов, дисциплин, модулей, более эффективного использования имеющихся образовательных ресурсов.

Формальными признаками сетевой образовательной программы являются: участие нескольких организаций в процессе реализации образовательной программы, а также наличие договора о сетевой форме реализации образовательной программы [5]. При этом партнерами при реализации сетевых образовательных программ могут быть как другие образовательные организации Российской Федерации, так и зарубежные вузы, а также научные организации, медицинские организации, организации культуры, физкультурно-спортивные и иные организации, обладающие ресурсами, необходимыми для осуществления обучения.

Уральский государственный педагогический университет, продвигаясь в направлении развития сетевых форм реализации образовательных программ, стал участником международного культурно-образовательного проекта «Глобальное понимание», который реализуется на основе меморандума о сотрудничестве УрГПУ (Россия) и East Carolina University (США) в рамках программы «Глобальные академические инициативы». Проект «Глобальное понимание» был инициирован Университетом Восточной Каролины (Гринвилл, США) в 2004 году. Миссия проекта заключается в использовании виртуального пространства для объединения студентов всего мира с целью формирования их культурной толерантности и осведомленности, что поможет им успешно жить и сотрудничать в глобальном сообществе [2]. В 2008 году первые девять университетов, принимавших участие в реализации проекта, создали организацию «Глобальные партнеры в образовании» [2], которая в настоящее время объединяет более 50 университетов-партнеров из разных стран мира. Институт психологии стал участником проекта «Глобальное понимание» в 2012 году, что было официально зафиксировано после подписания Меморандума о сотрудничестве между Уральским государственным педагогическим университетом и Университетом Восточной Каролины.

Особенностью этого проекта является возможность организации учебного процесса посредством создания виртуальной образовательной среды.

Виртуальная образовательная среда (с технологической точки зрения) – информационное пространство взаимодействия участников учебного процесса, порождаемое технологиями информации и коммуникации, включающее комплекс компьютерных средств и технологий, позволяющее осуществлять управление содержанием образовательной среды и коммуникацию участников.

Виртуальная образовательная среда (в организационно-коммуникационном аспекте) – сложная самонастраивающаяся (подразумевает корректировку поведения, действий участников процесса коммуникации применительно к изменяющимся условиям) и самосовершенствующаяся (подразумевает постепенное установление эффективной взаимосвязи, ее совершенствование по мере усвоения более сложных типов взаимосвязей) коммуникативная система, обеспечивающая прямую и обратную связь между обучающимися и другими участниками учебного процесса [4].

Создание и дальнейшее использование такого рода среды позволяет не только осуществить учебный процесс в удобном месте и в удобное время вне зависимости от места нахождения преподавателя и учащихся, но и реализовать

Е. В. Абдулова, С. Г. Крылова, С. А. Минюрова / E. Abdulova, S. Krylova, S. Minyurova 645

академическую мобильность обучающихся через виртуальную мобильность, которая, в отличие от пространственной, способствует расширению образовательного процесса за счет использования интернет-технологий (Skype, видео-конференции, чат). Таким образом, виртуальная мобильность может рассматриваться как возможность для студентов и преподавателей «виртуально перемещаться» в образовательном пространстве из одного вуза в другой с целью получения знаний, их передачи или обмена опытом, преодоления национальной замкнутости [4].

В рамках проекта «Глобальное понимание» процесс организации такой среды проходит вполне успешно благодаря не только современной технической поддержке (оборудование для видео-конференции с возможностью вещания в режиме онлайн, компьютерная техника и т. п.), но и наличию специально разработанного информационного ресурса (сайт проекта «Глобальные партнеры в образовании»), представляющего собой учебный портал (виртуальные лекции, информационные материалы, совместные проекты) и площадку для диалогового общения с партнерами проекта (форум, блоги).

Проект «Глобальное понимание» реализуется циклами длительностью один учебный семестр. Перед началом каждого семестра набирается группа студентов, включающая 12-16 человек. Участниками проекта могут быть студенты, обучающиеся по разным направлениям подготовки. К ним предъявляются два основных требования: 1) владение английским языком на уровне, позволяющем использовать общеупотребительные слова и выражения для описания реальности и выражения своих мыслей; 2) высокий уровень мотивации для регулярного посещения занятий и активного взаимодействия со студентами из университета-партнера.

В течение каждого семестра участники проекта обучаются совместно со студентами из трех университетов, по 4 недели с каждым. Взаимодействие между студентами осуществляется в различных формах, которые перечислены ниже.

Онлайн-видеоконференции – проводятся две раза в неделю с участием студентов из университетов-партнеров. Представляют собой групповое обсуждение одного из вопросов, входящих в содержание курса (например, студенческая жизнь), в режиме реального времени.

Общение в чате – на каждом занятии группа студентов делится на две подгруппы: студенты одной подгруппы участвуют в видеоконференции, а студенты другой подгруппы ведут индивидуальную переписку с партнером из другого университета в рамках обсуждаемой темы.

Электронная переписка с партнерами по обучению – осуществляется индивидуально между групповыми занятиями не менее трех раз в неделю. Студентам рекомендуется задавать своим партнерам вопросы о культуре их страны, обсуждать возможные темы для совместного проекта и координировать действия при работе над проектом.

Самостоятельная работа студентов – включает изучение материалов (газетных статей) по культуре страны университета-партнера, используя ссылки, предоставленные преподавателем, а также написание резюме по статьям на английском языке, отражающих основное содержание статьи и включающих вопросы, которые могли бы быть заданы партнеру по обучению.


Подготовка совместного проекта и его презентации – представляет собой результат виртуального сотрудничества двух студентов из разных стран и предполагает отражение общих и культурно-специфических точек зрения по какому-либо вопросу (например, каким я представляю себя в 35 лет). Презентации проектов проводятся на последнем занятии в режиме видеоконференции.

Содержание проекта «Глобальное понимание» определяется кругом вопросов, которые являются базовыми для любой культуры, что создает основу для межкультурного взаимодействия: семейные и культурные традиции, смысл жизни, стереотипы и предрассудки. В то же время подходы к решению этих вопросов отражают специфику той или иной культуры, что способствует ее лучшему пониманию.

Анализ форм работы и содержания проекта позволяет определить образовательные возможности, которые предоставляет студентам межкультурное взаимодействие, осуществляемое посредством интерактивных технологий. При определении этих возможностей мы опираемся на следующие положения:

1. Система высшего образования как один из важнейших социальных институтов не может функционировать эффективно без учета происходящих в обществе и мире в целом процессов.

2. В современном мире происходят активные процессы глобализации, результатом которых является установление связей и формирование взаимозависимости разных стран в таких сферах, как экономика, политика, образование.

Из этих двух положений следует вполне закономерный вывод о необходимости формирования у студентов в процессе профессиональной подготовки совокупности компетенций, которые позволили бы им достичь успешной интеграции в глобальное общество и которые можно обозначить понятием «глобальная компетентность» [3]. На наш взгляд, именно такие новые формы образовательной деятельности, как организованное онлайн-взаимодействие студентов из разных стран, позволяют эффективно решать эту задачу.

1. Формирование навыков установления и поддержания контактов с представителями других культур. В процессе межкультурного взаимодействия студенты приобретают опыт непосредственного общения с представителями других культурных групп. Частью этого опыта является понимание некоторых культурных особенностей, которые могут проявляться в процессе взаимодействия (принятые способы приветствия/прощания, характер проявления эмоций в речи, конкретность/неопределенность высказываний, использование невербальных средств). Знание этих особенностей и способность учитывать их при установлении и поддержании контактов с представителями других культур повышает готовность студентов к осуществлению в будущем профессиональных связей с коллегами из других стран.

2. Повышение уровня мобильности как элемента профессионализма. Непосредственное общение с представителями других культурных групп способствует коррекции ложных стереотипов и предубеждений относительно той или иной культуры. Представление о другой культуре становится более реалистичным, что создает предпосылки для повышения мобильности студентов как способности вносить изменения в свою жизнь (смена места проживания,

Е. В. Абдулова, С. Г. Крылова, С. А. Минюрова / E. Abdulova, S. Krylova, S. Minyurova 647

работы) без кризисных переживаний. Высокий уровень мобильности (профессиональной, географической, межкультурной) предполагает готовность к включению в новый коллектив (в том числе разнородный с точки зрения культурной принадлежности), к изменению места проживания (в том числе страны) для расширения профессиональных возможностей и самореализации.

3. Приобретение навыков совместной деятельности в виртуальной команде с международным составом. В развитых странах все более популярной становится такая форма организации совместной профессиональной деятельности, как виртуальные команды. Наши студенты приобретают опыт сотрудничества в такой команде, работая над совместным проектом со своим партнером из другой страны. При этом они сталкиваются с типичными для такой формы работы трудностями (различия во временных поясах, недостаток личного контакта, специфика виртуального воздействия на партнера) и учатся справляться с ними.

4. Совершенствование навыков использования английского языка. Повышение взаимозависимости различных государств в результате глобализации приводит к появлению более сложных проблем глобального характера. Эффективное решение такого рода проблем требует участия международных по составу групп специалистов, которые смогут найти максимально приемлемое для всех решение. Необходимым условием совместной деятельности в таких группах является владение общим языком. С этой точки зрения становится понятным, почему в Статье 15 Всемирной Декларации о высшем образовании для XXI века [1] отмечается, что неотъемлемой частью всех систем высшего образования должна быть практика многоязычия. А наиболее эффективным способом изучения иностранного языка (в нашем случае – английского) и преодоления языкового барьера является общение с носителями языка (межкультурное взаимодействие).

Помимо образовательных возможностей межкультурное взаимодействие позволяет осуществлять исследования: 1) личностных изменений участников, происходящих в процессе межкультурного взаимодействия; 2) межкультурных различий. В 2013 году в рамках проекта «Глобальное понимание» было проведено пилотажное исследование изменений в содержании стереотипных представлений российских студентов об американских студентах в результате виртуального взаимодействия между ними [6]. Были выявлены следующие тенденции: образ культуры страны-партнера стал более персонифицированным, а сами партнеры стали восприниматься как более склонные к межличностному взаимодействию. Этот результат также можно рассматривать как косвенное подтверждение возможности повышения уровня толерантности в процессе межкультурного взаимодействия как важного качества, необходимого для жизни в условиях сосуществования различных культур и ценностей.

Исследование межкультурных различий предполагает установление научных контактов с коллегами из университета-партнера для совместного планирования исследования и обмена данными. Развитию научных контактов способствует опыт личного взаимодействия преподавателей из университетов-партнеров при организации совместных онлайн-занятий в процессе реализации проекта «Глобальное понимание».


Литература / References 1. Всемирная Декларация о высшем образовании для XXI века: подходы и практические

меры [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://www.lexed.ru/mpravo/razdel2/?doc21.html (дата обращения: 20.02.2014).

2. Глобальные партнеры в образовании (Global Partners in Education) [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://globalunderstan.ucoz.ru (дата обращения: 20.02.2014).

3. Крылова, С. Г. Образовательный потенциал межкультурного взаимодействия // Педагогическое образование в России. – 2013. – № 4. – С. 19-25.

4. Макурова, Е. В., Руденко, Н. С. Виртуальная образовательная среда как условие развития межкультурной компетентности // Педагогическое образование в России. – 2012. – № 6. – С. 120-123.

5. Сетевая форма реализации образовательных программ: Федеральный закон «Об образовании в Российской Федерации» от 29 декабря 2012 г. № 273-ФЗ // Образование в документах. – 2013. – 1 (254). – С. 32-34.

6. Мinyurova, S., Krylova, S., Rudenko, N. Assessment of the Socio-perceptive Component of Students’ Intercultural Competence in the Global Understanding Class: a Pilot Study of Russian Students’ View of Americans [Электронный ресурс]: Global Partners in Education Journal. – Vol. 3. – No. 1, April 2013. – P. 36-48. – URL: http://www.gpejournal.org/index.php/GPEJ (дата обращения: 20.02.2014).

Елена Владимировна Абдулова кандидат педагогических наук, доцент Уральский государственный педагогический университет Екатеринбург, Россия

Elena Abdulova PhD in Pedagogy (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor Ural State Pedagogical University Yekaterinburg, Russia

Светлана Геннадьевна Крылова кандидат психологических наук, доцент Уральский государственный педагогический университет Екатеринбург, Россия

Svetlana Krylova PhD in Psychology (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor Ural State Pedagogical University Yekaterinburg, Russia

Светлана Алигарьевна Минюрова доктор психологических наук, профессор Уральский государственный педагогический университет Екатеринбург, Россия

Svetlana Minyurova PhD in Psychology (Doctor of Science), Professor Ural State Pedagogical University Yekaterinburg, Russia [email protected]



ЛЯЙЛЯ МУТАЛИЕВА, ЛАУРА БАЙТЕНОВА / LYAILYA MUTALIEVA, LAURA BAITENOVA

ОСОБЕННОСТИ ФОРМИРОВАНИЯ КОМПЕТЕНТНОСТНОЙ МОДЕЛИ ПРИ ПОДГОТОВКЕ СПЕЦИАЛИСТОВ В СФЕРЕ ТУРИЗМА

PECULIARITIES OF COMPETENCE-BASED MODEL FORMATION AS A PART OF TRAINING SPECIALISTS IN THE SPHERE OF TOURISM


В статье представлен анализ требований работодателей к подготовке студентов, показана значимость практических навыков при обучении выпускников. Последние тенденции на рынке труда показывают сильное влияние мнения работодателей при подготовке студентов. Определено, что при подготовке студентов необходимо использовать компетентностную модель с учетом мнения работодателей. Анализ компетентностной модели показал, что при формировании навыков и умений одно из главных значений приобретает формирование практических компетенций. Уровень практических компетенций, как показали исследования среди работодателей, у выпускников вузов низкий. По результатам проведенного опроса выявлено, что студенты имеют низкий балл по показателю «практические навыки». На основании проведенного анализа разработаны рекомендации, направленные на расширение практической составляющей при обучении студентов.

Основные направления повышения практической составляющей при обучении студентов: отслеживать необходимые виды компетенций; приобщать студентов к разработке проектов прикладного характера; написание курсовых и дипломных работ осуществлять в рамках деятельности предприятия, используя проблемные вопросы компании.

In the article the analysis of employers’ requirements to the training of students is provided, the importance of practical skills while graduates’ training is shown. Recent trends at the labor market show strong influence of employers’ opinion within students’ training. It is determined that while student’s training it is necessary to use competence-based model taking into account the opinion of employers. The analysis of competence-based model showed that while forming skills and abilities, the formation of practical competences becomes of key importance. According to the research studies conducted among employers, university graduates show a low level of practical competences. According to the results of conducted survey it was revealed that students have low point on ‘practical skills’ indicator. Practical recommendations aimed at the widening of practical component in the students’ training were worked out on the basis of the carried-out analysis.

The main directions of increasing of the practical component while students’ training are to: trace necessary types of competences, introduce students to the development of applied projects and perform writing course and theses works on the basis of enterprise’s real activity with the accent on the problem issues of the company.

Особенности формирования компетентностной модели при подготовке специалистов в сфере туризма 650

Ключевые слова: компетентностная модель, специалисты, выпускники, индустрия гостеприимства, работодатели, формирование компетенции, оценка, практические составляющие, образовательный рынок

Keywords: competence-based model, specialists, graduates, hospitality industry, employers, competence forming, assessment, practical components, educational market

При подготовке специалистов для индустрии гостеприимства, где работа с

клиентами является определяющим фактором, возникает необходимость создания компетентностной модели, ориентированной на решение практических задач. Поэтому возникает необходимость учитывать специфику при формировании компетенций будущего специалиста индустрии гостеприимства [1, с. 34-39].

Важным нововведением на казахстанском образовательном рынке является введение сертификации выпускников, то есть будущих специалистов. Раньше квалификация молодого специалиста – выпускника подтверждалась комиссией по итоговой аттестации организаций образования. Сегодня в соответствии с Законом РК «Об образовании» процедура присвоения квалификации выпускникам отделена от учебного процесса и передана работодателям [2]. С прошлого года в соответствии с поручением Главы государства начата работа по передаче данной функции ассоциациям работодателей. В настоящее время созданы три сертификационных центра: в туристической, горнодобывающей и нефтегазовой отраслях.

Новые подходы к сертификации выпускников требуют практического обучения специалистов и эффективного использования компетентностной модели. Пока еще не отработан до конца законодательный механизм; за последние годы совместно с Министерством труда и социальной защиты населения, с отраслевыми министерствами в этом плане была проведена определенная работа. Утверждена Национальная рамка квалификации, а сейчас ведется работа по утверждению отраслевых рамок квалификации и разработке профессиональных стандартов. Отраслевые стандарты, активное участие в подготовке которых принимают представители бизнеса и других структур, станут основой для разработки образовательных стандартов.

На современном этапе при разработке рабочих учебных планов, силлабусов учитывается мнение работодателей и их оценка по вопросам формирования, освещения тем и использования практического материала.

При составлении рейтинга вузов проводится анкетирование работодателей, учитывается их мнение. Кроме их оценки есть еще другие показатели, такие как качественный состав студентов, результаты ВОУТа, качественный состав преподавателей, научно-исследовательская деятельность. Пока работодатели не являются определяющим источником информации для оценки рейтинга вуза и специальности, но последние тренды отмечают, что значимость их мнения повышается и впоследствии будет играть определяющую роль.

Ограниченность во времени со стороны работодателей на обучение

Ляйля Муталиева, Лаура Байтенова / Lyailya Mutalieva, Laura Baitenova 651

молодых специалистов на месте работы приводит к тому, что повышаются требования к практическим навыкам студентов.

Одним из направлений решения проблемы по привитию практических навыков студентов является использование дуальной системы образования, ориентация на обучение на базе предприятия. При использовании дуальной системы не нужно моделировать рабочую ситуацию в стенах учебного заведения: студент практикуется на реальном предприятии [3, с. 5-8].

Для оценки уровня подготовки студентов и определения их навыков были проведены исследования в форме опроса экспертов в городе Алматы. В результате проведенного опроса были выявлены основные требования, которые предъявляют работодатели выпускникам в индустрии гостеприимства.

В результате проведенного опроса был определен средний рейтинг каждого показателя и сделана оценка показателей деятельности выпускников для индустрии гостеприимства города Алматы: коммуникабельность, умение слушать – 8; мобильность и быстрая адаптация – 7,7; гибкость взаимоотношений – 7,3; способность запоминать и извлекать что-то для себя – 7; многообразность компетенций – 6,3; профессиональный кругозор – 6,3; высокая работоспособность – 6; исследовательские навыки и аналитические методики – 5,5; аналитические способности, ответственность и принятие решений – 5; практические навыки – 3,5.

Как видно из представленной оценки, наименьшая оценка дана показателю «практические навыки выпускников» (3,5 балла). Работодателями также было отмечено, что данный показатель является для них наиболее значимым, но при этом является слабым звеном у молодых специалистов. Кроме того, не совсем удовлетворительную оценку дали работодатели по таким показателям, как «исследовательские навыки и аналитические методики» (5,5 балла) и «аналитические способности, ответственность и принятие решений» (5 баллов).

Следует отметить достаточно высокие показатели мобильности и адаптации у выпускников. Наиболее привлекательным работником для работодателя является молодой специалист, обладающий не только фундаментальными знаниями по специальности, но, в первую очередь, набором компетенций, необходимых для быстрой адаптации выпускника на рынке труда.

При этом можно выделить несколько проблем, связанных с приобретением практических навыков молодыми специалистами:

• Упрощение со стороны практиков подходов к анализу и методикам. При проведении анализов основной акцент делается на упрощение из-за нехватки времени, особенно на предприятиях малого и среднего бизнеса, где отсутствует аналитическое программное обеспечение.

• Априори организационных и юридических навыков над экономическими (финансовыми, маркетинговыми и т. д.), слабая сторона подготовки студентов – это получение навыков грамотного оформления документов, умения организовывать процесс, знания какие документы нужны и последовательность их подготовки.

• Незнание тонкостей и особенностей разных сфер деятельности со стороны преподавателей.

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Следует отметить, что во время прохождения практики и работы на предприятии выявлены следующие тенденции:

• использование студентов как дешевой рабочей силы; • «свежий взгляд» на старые проблемы, т. е. решение своих вопросов за

счет идей студентов; • освобождение от рутинной работы; • решение вопросов компании, на которые нет времени у персонала; • привлечение студентов к неквалифицированному труду. Сама работа по выявлению общих и практических компетенций сместит

деятельность вузов в сторону стратегии, направленной на развитие отечественного высшего образования, тесно связанного с субъектами рынка.

В рамках данной стратегии определены следующие основные направления, обеспечивающие расширение практической составляющей при подготовке выпускников отечественных вузов:

– переоценка профессиональных компетенций специальностей с учетом разработанных профессиональных стандартов;

– мониторинг мнений работодателей с помощью маркетинговых исследований в форме опроса экспертов;

– увеличение в стандартах количества практиков и времени обучения на практике;

– расширение программ практики, учет мнений работодателей при разработке методических указаний по программам практики;

– дальнейшее внедрение дуальной системы образования в высшей школе. С другой стороны, компетенции должны подкрепляться личными

качествами (например, работоспособность, прилежность, увлеченность, выносливость, преодоление трудностей, сдержанность, оптимизм, терпимость при разочарованиях и др.). Это лишний раз свидетельствует о системном характере формирования компетенций: есть значительный сегмент внесодержательных аспектов их формирования (образовательная среда вузов, организация образовательного процесса, образовательные технологии, включая самостоятельную работу студентов, проектное обучение и т. д.). Освоение компетенций происходит как при изучении отдельных учебных дисциплин, циклов, модулей, так и тех дидактических единиц, которые интегрируются в общепрофессиональные и специальные дисциплины. Подчеркивается обобщенный интегральный характер этого понятия по отношению к «знаниям», «умениям», «навыкам».

Поэтому при подготовке студентов необходимо подходить системно и при проведении практических занятий учитывать такие особенности, как развитие работоспособности, умения решать поставленные задачи в рамках отведенного времени.

При этом для повышения уровня практических навыков студентов целесообразно при разработке практических заданий оценивать, какие и сколько компетенций задействованы при решении практических задач, при подготовке СРС, какие цели поставлены при реализации компетенций.

На основании проведенного анализа можно рекомендовать ряд мероприятий, направленных на расширение практической составляющей в учебном процессе:

Ляйля Муталиева, Лаура Байтенова / Lyailya Mutalieva, Laura Baitenova 653

• отслеживать при решении практических заданий: сколько компетенций задействовано и какие, как реализуются поставленные цели по компетенциям;

• приобщать студентов к разработке проектов, которые выступят в качестве методических рекомендаций руководству компании;

• написание курсовых и дипломных работ осуществлять в рамках деятельности предприятия, используя проблемные вопросы компании и методологии.

В целом остается открытым вопрос: как определить будущие тренды в развитии практических навыков? Поэтому компетенции призваны сыграть роль своеобразных фокусов, обеспечивающих постановку целей, проектирование результатов и процессов и, следовательно, прозрачность соответствующих степеней (квалификаций) [4, с. 22-26].

Литература / References 1. Спенсер, Л. М., Спенсер, С. М. Компетенции. Модели максимальной эффективности

работы. – М.: HIPPO, 2005. 2. Закон Республики Казахстан от 27 июля 2007 года № 319-III «Об образовании» (с

изменениями и дополнениями по состоянию на 13.06.2013) [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://base.spinform.ru/show_doc.fwx?rgn=18150 (дата обращения: 25.06.2013).

3. Носко, И. В. Реализация компетентностного подхода в высшем профессиональном образовании // Образование и культура России в изменяющемся мире: материалы междисциплинарного семинара для молодых ученых и аспирантов. – Новосибирск, 2007. – С. 33-39.

4. Bötteher, W. Wissen, Kompetenz, Bildung, Erziehung oder was? Zur Diskussion um Standardisierung in der allgemeinbildenden Schule // Kompetenzentwicklung in der Beruflichen Bildung. Leske – Budrich, Opladen. – 2002. – S. 93-115.

Ляйля Маратовна Муталиева кандидат экономических наук, доцент Казахский университет экономики, финансов и международной торговли Астана, Казахстан [email protected]

Lyaila Mutalieva PhD in Economics (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor Kazakh University of Economics, Finance and International Trade Astana, Kazakhstan [email protected]

Лаура Маратовна Байтенова доктор экономических наук, доцент Казахский экономический университет им. Т. Рыскулова Алматы, Казахстан

Laura Baitenova PhD in Economics (Doctor of Science), Associate Professor T. Ryskulov Kazakh Economic University Almaty, Kazakhstan


OLGA NIKOLAEVSKAYA

EFFECTIVENESS OF EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ON THE BASIS OF INTELLECTUALIZATION OF MANAGERIAL POTENTIAL

If you do not act, your smart brains are of no use. Shota Rustavelli

Abstract

The paper considers the modern higher education system that forms the intellectual potential of the nation. It is shown that the most promising way is to develop creating, searching and navigating thinking. It is concluded that it is these aspects that allow applying a systemic approach to the development of the managerial potential. Keywords: educational process, self-education, development efficiency, continuity

of education, partnership

Introduction

To develop the educational system, our country needs not only a specific innovative type of thinking that can be characterized as creative, initiative and enterprising, but also a specific mode of behavior that is based on the insatiable interest in assimilation of knowledge and development of a systemic creative vision (Blinov, Rudakova, 2013). It is impossible to fulfill this task without developing and keeping an emotional component of the activity and joy of achievement.

What is the role of education in our everyday world? What is the attitude of the Russian people to education and which of its aspects are the most important today, foreground and significant?

Development of Education as the Basis for Intellectualisation

The answer to these questions is not simple. Apart from evident interdisciplinary character the educational process will always have at its basis rational considerations about our readiness for and openness to the assimilation of the new, about the degree of the involvement into the learning process, about the resources allocated for the process of the new knowledge acquisition. This is not only the ability to use our knowledge, skills and habits, but also, on the basis of the experience gained, to provide an acceptable level of life, as well as to carry throughout our lives a striking desire to achieve new heights, desire that opens new horizons for growth. How can we estimate the created and accumulated by the society capacity for creativity and for the spread of new knowledge, technologies, and products? By what means can we go beyond the limits of the developed algorithms?

It is no secret that the solution of this complicated problem is in the functioning of the national intellectual sphere. The main tasks of this sphere are the development of personality traits that make the individual gain knowledge everywhere and

Olga Nikolaevskaya 655

achieve great results in the professional activity, which is the priority of higher education. The development is impossible without a responsible approach to the solution of these problems and without awareness that it is necessary to create a system of reproduction of a managerial potential that has unrealized opportunities to improve the effectivness of the educational process. In the world’s leading companies up to 10% of the working time is allocated for improving the professional level of the employees (Kibanov, Mitrofanova, Konovalova, Chulanova, 2014). Then there is a question: can our national educational system foster in students a love for learning, a pursuit of the new, an interest in setting goals and a joy of their achievement? The necessity to intellectualize the managerial potential implies the formation of a special possibility which even after its realization opens up a new horizon for the development and, what is more important, continues to stimulate the expansion of further professional activity. It is also possible to achieve the goal on the basis of self-education that forms a unique educational style characterized by the most optimal, individual mechanism of perceiving the learning material, as well as the readiness to independently determine what practical skills are lacking and to correctly build the educational process on the principles of involvement, interest in a common result and on the canons of partnership.

Managing Education

In 1954 Alfred Whitney Griswold said that higher education is not a set of memorized knowledge hidden in a card index; with a will and desire it is a passion for learning, ability for research, for solving problems, for understanding the relationship of knowledge and experience. Such a view of educational process forms the key aspect of a managerial potential: a desire to joyfully do things they love and despite all the difficulties of the transition period, to remain in this sphere of activity and not rest on the laurels.

Under these circumstances, the development of higher education affects a whole range of institutional problems whose solution lies in the area of strategic planning of educational development. The main aim of this planning is the search for and implementation of measures to enhance human potential, to form a need to develop and a desire to learn in order to meet the deficit of knowledge, skills, and in the long run, of actual competencies.

Lack of interest, and desire for learning and acquisition of new knowledge inevitably leads to a consumer attitude to life, country and work; it results in the young generation’s irresponsible citizenship and disrespect for their Motherland. It remains important that tools for enhancing and developing academic initiative are used in everyday practice; the feedback are made possible, using mechanisms that allow transparency of decision making; participants of the educational process are open to communication by increasing their tolerance and making them understand that it is corporate spirit and partnership which set norms and rules of corporate ethics of learning and determine the main mechanisms of corporate responsibility for the whole educational process.

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Conclusion

In developing managerial potential in education it is important to maintain the principle of succession and accumulation so that the managerial potential may be used in full and there may be opportunities for its further realization and development. The solution of this problem is connected with the criteria of the provision and quality guarantee of national education, and with precise correspondence of what the educational system can offer the society and by what the society expects from it, therefore with the monitoring of the effectiveness of education development.

Thus under this approach the effectiveness of the development of education will be determined in two ways: in terms of the first one it is the degree of approaching the most desired outcome, i.e., effectiveness serves as a measure of educational quality from the viewpoint of a systemic object. In terms of the second way it is the ratio of the achieved result to the spent resources; for example, if the spent resource is time, then the effectiveness will be determined by the speed of change in the quality of education. In the light of intellectualization of the managerial potential the effectiveness of the educational system will be determined by measuring the result achieved, amount of the material resources spent and the time needed for its achievement.

References Blinov, A. O., Rudakova, O. S. (2013): Modernizacija obrazovanija i bezopasnost'

gosudarstva. Jekonomist, № 1, 70-75. Kibanov, A. Ja., Mitrofanova, E. A., Konovalova, V. G., Chulanova, O. L. (2014):

Koncepcija kompetentnostnogo podhoda v upravlenii personalom: monografija. M.: INFRA-M.

Olga Nikolaevskaya PhD in Economics (Candidate of Science), Senior lecturer Deputy Chair of Economy and Innovative Development of Business Department South Ural State University Chelyabinsk, Russia [email protected]


Part 6 Key directions and characteristics of research organization in contemporary world

GALINA ZASHCHITINA

TOWARD EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION: THE PRAGMATICS OF TROPES IN MASS MEDIA DISCOURSE

Abstract

The paper looks at the communicative aspect of tropes and the use to which mass media discourse puts it. Necessity to study tropes in discourse boils down to the fact that metaphoric patterns prove to be effective in helping language users be cooperative in communication. Attention to the pragmatics of tropes functioning in mass media discourse as well as to the cognitive aspect may shed much light on the numerous strategies that mass media discourse can implement with their help in its search for language means which could solve multiple communicative tasks: from wording the reality and conveying ideologies to entertaining and making subjective viewpoints accessible to broad target audiences.

Introduction

As effective communication, which is, in the first place, an integral characteristic of the language, is at the same time a factor that ultimately determines the extent to which both the entire communicative ability of an individual and all types of verbal interaction, as well as all language mechanisms can be attributed, its study helps to deal with any fact of the language, and thus describing any such fact we basically regard it as a constituent of everyday social interaction.

Irrespectively of the fact that all forms of communication including mass media one have been the focus of scholars’ attention for quite a while, despite the effort taken to search for effective linguistic means and tools which could assist in overcoming various barriers hampering all forms of verbal communication, that is the exchange of messages or meanings on personal, professional, cross-cultural or any other level, the problem seems yet to be solved. There are numerous reasons for that. Primarily it is that communication ‘involves a complex, multilayered, dynamic process through which we exchange meaning’ (Adler, 1991). Secondly the tasks that any communicative act is set to solve are manifold: it aims to ‘not only inform but form common images; not only entertain but create publics, not only reflect but shape attitudes, tastes, preferences’. It helps to ‘provide the boundary conditions and overall patterns within which the processes of personal and group-mediated selection, interpretation and interaction go on’ (Gerbner, 1985).

Toward Effective Communication: The Pragmatics of Tropes in Mass Media Discourse 658

An incessant interest in mass mediated discourse studies in its turn may be attributed to the common assumption that by studying mass media discourse strategies one can reveal the mechanisms that make it possible for an individual evaluation to overtake facts, and for the emotional, subjective and phatic to overshadow the rational component; the latter can be accounted for by the fact that mass media discourse is generally characterized by features common to other kinds of discourse. But unlike everyday discourse or the so called “face-to-face communication” mass media discourse ‘is addressed to an absent mass audience and not to a group of co-present participants’. Besides it is the type of communication which cannot be intervened with “comprehensive questions” (Fetzer & Lauerbach, 2007). Thus the analysis of linguistic patterns, both conventional and novel, the search for the language units, that can not only represent events but help to achieve various pragmatic effects and contribute to the coherence of the communicated message in mass media discourse, may help to get a better understanding of some questions such as along what lines modern mass media discourse is organized. Further in the article we will attempt to discuss how various rhetorical means, namely metaphors and other tropes that function in mass media discourse can contribute to molding and construction of this form of communication. We will also look upon the importance of communicative approach to the studies of mass media discourse in stylistics and pragmatics.

Discussion

Mass media language and tropes which function in mass media discourse have repeatedly been objects of interest for both stylistics and pragmatics. It goes without saying that initially stylists were much interested in the tropes proper disregarding in a way their ability to impose certain ideology or impose a certain way of thinking of something in terms of something else. Yet current studies in stylistics are predominantly focused on the effect that tropes have on language users and the aims that the latter want to achieve resorting to these stylistic means. Studying tropes in stylistics one cannot disregard the ever present (explicitly or implicitly) pragmatics, that is the addresser and the addressee’s involvement in the act of communication.

Thus focusing on the stylistic and pragmatic aspect of tropes in various genres and types of discourse (namely newspaper or publicistic ones), we characterize these language units as communicative bringing together stylistic, pragmatic and communicative approach.

When it comes to tropes in discourse including that of mass media it is mostly metaphor that the scholars pay attention to, though we may argue that similar approaches, such as the Cognitive Metaphor Theory can be fairly well attributed to other stylistic means and that is metonymy, simile, irony, hyperbole, pun and so on since they are often overshadowed by metaphor.

Consequently, we agree with Fetzer & Lauerbach’s view of metaphor and argue that just like metaphors can be viewed as a popular means of simplifying complex concepts so can other tropes. They can all ‘enable us of making sense of abstract concepts by drawing parallels to concepts that are more easily accessible to us. Yet beyond achieving easy comprehension they suggest a certain view of things which addressees are invited to share (Fetzer & Lauerbach, 2007).

Galina Zashchitina 659

The fact that in this paper we view such tropes as metaphor, metonymy or simile not so much as rhetorical means characteristic of different genres, that is not as means to express something in an original, novel way, but primarily as instruments of cognition and consequently of communication can be accounted for by a few reasons. First and foremost it is worth mentioning that cognition and communication are the categories that cannot be analyzed in isolation since language and cognition are in constant interaction. Thus approaching the tropes analysis in terms of, for instance, Cognitive Metaphor Theory we will inevitably refer to the sphere of individual experience or different types of mental representation. Applying this theory to tropes analysis we deal with different kinds of scenarios or domains as well as various conceptual mappings within these kinds, which represent individual perception of the world and help to construct arguments in certain terms.

Unlike nonmetaphoric patterns and structures metaphors and other tropes can also be regarded as means which in some cases may be of more communicative and pragmatic value owing to the fact that ‘the primary function of metaphoric expression is to represent our world through seeing and wording’ (Mey, 2007). Besides they can express ideas which are ‘difficult to convey using nonmetaphoric language’ (Semino, 2008).

In other words, as tropes account for how we perceive reality and then share it with others, we take Semino’s approach that they enable us ‘to think and talk about abstract, complex, subjective and/or poorly delineated areas of experience in terms of concrete, simpler, physical and/or better delineated areas of experience’ (Semino, 2008). This enables us to see tropes as ‘means of dealing with the world’ (Mey, 2007). Accordingly among the main functions of tropes in discourse there can be those of persuasion, reasoning, evaluation, explaining, offering new conceptualizations of reality and whatnot (Semino, 2008; Kovecses, 2002).

The pragmatic aspect of tropes is primarily embedded in their ability to be not only indicative of our thinking of reality but also in the ability to set and confirm it. It also puts forward such issues as, for instance, the problem of co-wording or, in other words, the ability of all language users to equally understand and decode tropes in various kinds of discourse or in a common social context (Sperber & Wilson, 1990). According to J. L. Mey, ‘a pragmatic view of metaphoring serves to point the way to a better understanding of our fellow humans’ thus showing what things or phenomena we attach certain weight to and prioritize in our interaction with other language users. On the whole we may argue that by referring to tropes as to indispensable units of communication which at the same time helps their users to achieve some pragmatic aims, we assume that it is there that one of the essential principles of pragmatics such as The Cooperative Principle goes together with another one that J. L. Mey terms as The Communicative Principle (Mey, 2007). The former accounts for the fact that tropes just like any other language means may signal our intention to communicate something to somebody, whereas the latter focuses on the users choice of tropes in order to communicate something in a certain way.

Apart from the mentioned we may assume that metaphors as well as other tropes may have some other functions to perform depending on the type of discourse


they occur in. That in part may account for the fact why mass media discourse is so persistent in resorting to tropes trying to reach large groups of people.

Modern research shows that the competition among the media for audiences reaches new levels of complexity. As R. Wimmer and J. Dominick put it, the media “survival kit” today includes information about consumers’ changing values and tastes, developing trends in lifestyle, determines what the members of the audience think, how they use language (Wimmer & Dominick, 2013). To get the competitive edge in this “battle” for the audiences mass media aims obviously not only at presenting news but also at imposing views; in doing so it wants both to hold the interest of the audience and to be a good interlocutor in this form of communication.

Besides it should be born in mind that mass media audience is very selective when it comes to facts and arguments they receive in communication, most assuredly focusing on those which concern them personally or match their own life experience or, in terms of linguistics, their schematic knowledge. Thus mass media men are supposed to be careful about choosing some skillfully designed communicative patterns or strategies, let alone they make sure these are the patterns on which certain ideologies must be superimposed. All this allows us to view such means as tropes quite powerful in assisting, for instance, print media ‘to present facts in a way that is designed to arouse the reader interest and curiosity… in a way that will influence the reader’s view of them’ (Reah, 2003). What is more when it comes to print media, namely newspapers and magazines, they have to take into account one more challenge and that is that their reading audience is becoming more critical, demanding, sophisticated in a way that allows them to identify ‘gaps and swings in the information they are given’ (Reah, 2003). Tropes then come very helpful in reaching to the readers as they are always expressive, inevitably multi-faceted and are often built on the interaction of conventionality and novelty which makes them indispensable units of any communication and mass media communication in particular.

Besides we assume that as metaphors and other tropes may be viewed as ‘mechanisms of regimes of truth, as they create the reality rather than describe it’ (Goatly, 2007), so may be mass media discourse itself as it resorts to tropes in an attempt to get it all: to win over the target audience and what is even more important to present reality in a new, more enticing way when “how to tell about it” in fact becomes more important than “what to tell”. In its turn reality then often becomes a backdrop against which media discourse pursues its own pragmatic goals and supports the view of tropes as language means which “are always charged with high pragmatic explosives” (Mey, 2007).

To illustrate both the pragmatic and the communicative usefulness of tropes in mass media discourse we can consider the following example which is an extract from an article published in The Economist on 8 June 2012:

Kid gloves Small children are a big headache for the social network ONE American in three aged 65 or older uses social networks says a new report by the Pew Research Centre, a think-tank. But it is the small surfers, not the silver ones, who are currently making waves. Facebook is examining ways to


allow children under the age of 13 to use its service, with some form of parental supervision. If this happens—and Facebook stresses that it has not yet decided whether to go ahead—it would be a venture into uncharted territory (The Economist, 2012). The article is placed in the business section of the magazine and deals with

problems that young children may cause as they can often get unlimited and unguided access to the social network content. Due to the character of the issues under discussion the language of the article is supposed to be matter-of-fact, business-like. Yet we can come across at least four cases of tropes such as pun in the headline, a conventional metaphor in the lead, allusion which then turns into one more conventional metaphor and finally one more novel metaphor at the end of the extract. Such clustering of tropes makes the article look more likely a good-humoured commentary to the reader which in its turn enables us to suppose that this effect is achieved due to purely pragmatic aims on the author’s part and that is to catch the readers’ eye and then to hold their attention by setting a friendly note communicating the message to them.

In fact the pun ‘kid gloves’ may at first glance seem a little bit misleading as in the readers’ mind it can simultaneously refer to different kinds of reality such as gloves made of fine kid leather; a part of the expressions ‘to use or wear kid gloves’ or ‘to handle with kid gloves’ and that is to treat something or somebody delicately and gently or even to one of the dictionary meanings of ‘kid’, namely ‘a child’. To help the readers chose right the author resorts to a conventional metaphor in the lead which creates the context necessary for the correct decoding of the pun and perceiving both the message and the author’s attitude which is evidently a humourous one. The clustering metaphor ‘small surfers making waves’ and an allusion to a comics superhero Silver Waves top up the desired effect.

Within Cognitive Metaphor Theory all the metaphors in the extract: ‘children are a big headache’, ‘surfers making waves’, ‘venture into an uncharted territory’ are based on the scenarios or even broader conceptual domains such as ‘DISEASE’, ‘MOVEMENT’, ‘JOURNEY’ which are quite familiar to the reader. That factor does not only help to follow the author and grasp his/her use of tropes but makes it easier for the reader to see what weight is attached to certain things and why; in other words tropes are those indispensable constituents of effective communication as probably all other language means are. Besides tropes secure the pragmatic effect that mass media discourse aims to achieve and that is to convey humour, entertain, maintain a desired level of intimacy with the target audiences, express attitudes to things and phenomena.

Conclusion

Summing up, we may assume the given paper attempted to discuss the communicative aspect of tropes and the key pragmatic functions that they perform in communication; one of the aims was also to point out the importance of further, rigorous studies of both the communicative and pragmatic aspects of tropes in discourse as well as their textual functions. The language of mass media in its turn should be looked upon as a peculiar form of human thought existence and interpretation and as a means to word an individual perception of reality, to which


tropes can contribute to a considerable degree. In the course of the paper we also stressed the fact that tropes in discourse are apt to significantly affect our mindset and determine any goal-oriented communication.

References Adler, N. J. (1991): International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior (2nd Ed.). Boston,

MA: PWS-KENT Publishing Company. Fetzer, A. & Lauerbach, G. E. (Eds.) (2007): Political Discourse in the Media. Amsterdam:

John Benjamins. Gerbner, G. (1985): Mass Media Discourse: Message System Analysis as a Component of

Cultural Indicators. In T. A. van Dijk (Ed.) Discourse and Communication: New Approaches to the Analysis of Mass Media. (pp. 13-25). Berlin, New York: de Gruyter.

Goatly, A. (2007): Washing the Brain. Metaphor and Hidden Ideology. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

‘Kid Gloves’. The Economist, 8 June 2012, http://www.economist.com/node/21556628. Accessed 8 January, 2014.

Kovecses, Z. (2002): Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mey, J. L. (2007): Pragmatics. An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Reah, D. (2003): The Language of Newspapers (Intertext). London: Routledge. Semino, E. (2008): Metaphor in Discourse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sperber, D. & Wilson, D. (1990): Rhetoric and relevance. In D. Wellbery & J. Bender (Eds.)

The Ends of Rhetoric: History, Theory, Practice. (pp. 140-155). Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Wimmer, R. D. & Dominick, J. R. (2013): Mass Media Research: An Introduction. Wadsworth Series in Mass Communication and Journalism: Cengage Learning.

Galina Zashchitina PhD in Philology (Candidate of Science) Assistant Professor Moscow State Linguistic University Moscow, Russia [email protected]


Part 6: Key directions and characteristics of research organization in contemporary world 663

MARYANA SALAMAKHA

STUDYING OF THE ENGLISH ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TERMINOLOGY IN THE ASPECT OF THEMATIC GROUPS AND HYPER-HYPONYMIC RELATIONS

Abstract

This article deals with one of the best ways of teaching and studying Environmental Protection terminology. In our opinion the researched terminology should be studied in the aspect of thematic groups. Classification into thematic groups makes it easier to memorize terms. Terminology of environmental protection has been divided into eleven thematic groups inside of which lexical-semantic groups are built. Differentiation has been made between thematic and lexical-semantic groups. It has been also offered to study the terminology in the aspect of hyper-hyponymic relations which very often become the basis on which thematic groups are built. It has been found out that every hyponym can be a hyperonym regarding concepts of a lower level, in such a way creating hyper-hyponymic group at a lower degree of generalization. Keywords: term, terminology, environmental protection, thematic group, lexical-

semantic group, hyper-hyponymic relations

For international cooperation to fulfill its tasks concerning environmental protection it is important for specialists in different countries to understand each other and to have a good command of terminology. As English is an international language the specialists in this area should know the terminology which serves environmental protection. In order to do it they are required to learn this terminology very well. One of the ways offered to specialists in order to learn the terminology is the way of its studying in the aspect of thematic groups and hyper-hyponymic relations.

Nowadays English terminology of environmental protection is not sufficiently studied, despite a number of works devoted to the study of ecological terminology. The matter is that environmental protection is only one of the subdivisions of ecology – the science much broader than environmental protection.

Terminology of environmental protection contains terms which are the most typical of environmental protection – names of actions and processes related to environmental protection, names of the factors that are detrimental to the environment, names of methods, techniques and activities aimed at the protection and maintenance of the environment in appropriate state, names of equipment and devices necessary for coping with specific environmental disasters or just for normal environmental conditions of human existence and living organisms, names of characteristics, features, laws, principles related to environmental protection, etc. The researched terminology also includes special words used to refer to the results and consequences of wrong human influence on the environment, names of environmental disasters, names of organizations that contribute to environmental

Studying of the English Environmental Protection Terminology in the Aspect of Thematic Groups… 664

protection, as well as names of their laws and regulations and so on. Our task is to study thematic groups, into which the researched terms are divided.

The aim of the article – to divide the studied terminology into thematic groups and to study hyper-hyponymic relations on basis of which we have made thematic division. The subject of the study – environmental protection terms.

For our research 2565 terms have been taken from Environmental protection terminology. Terms have been taken from such dictionaries: “Dictionary of Environment and Ecology”, P. H. Collin (2004); “Dictionary of Environmental Science”, McGraw-Hill (2005); “The facts on File Dictionary of Ecology and the Environment”, J. Bailey (2004); “Environmental Engineering Dictionary and Directory”, T. M. Pankratz (2001); “Dictionary of Environmental Legal Terms”, C. C. Lee (1997); “The Facts on file Dictionary of weather and climate”, J. Smith (2006); “Oxford Dictionary of Geography”, S. Mayhew (2012); “The New Penguin Dictionary of Biology”, “Dictionary of Chemistry”, electronic ecological dictionaries (Florida Environments Online Thesaurus, GEMEI) and texts on environmental protection.

Systemic organization of terminology lies in the fact that the location of term within terminology is always interdependent by the presence of other terms. That is, “each term occupies a definite place in terminology and has a meaning that does not correspond to the meaning of another term of the same terminological system” (Reformatskyi, 1986, p. 189).

Despite the number of researches done by many linguists English environmental protection terminology within the aspect of thematic groups is currently understudied.

Our research starts with thematic groups of environmental protection terminology. The study of thematic and lexical-semantic groups has been developed in the first half of the twentieth century in the works by F. P. Philin, O. Trubachev, A. A. Ufimtseva, D. N. Shmeliov, V. Levitsky, V. V. Vinogradov and others, who laid the foundation for taxonomic interpretation and were the first who developed their basic concepts and characteristics.

An important and necessary stage in studying the systemic organization of lexicological stock of language and specific terminologies is the study and description of relations of lexical-semantic groups (LSG). Theoretically, any terminology consists of structural groups, units or blocks.

We consider it necessary to offer the classification of the studied terminology based on semantic criteria as it is important for terminological research. Such classification enables identification of thematic and lexical-semantic groups of the studied terminological fund.

Thematic analysis is a universal method of studying terminology; it is the most common method. “Defining thematic groups from terminological fund makes it possible to identify different lexical-semantic processes, reflected in scientific language with the help of terminological units” (Pavlova, 2009, pp. 37-38).

Thus, the concept of thematic group is broader than lexical-semantic group. In thematic groups relations among terms are built only on external relations

among concepts, and according to different classification purposes terms can be united and disunited. Lexical-semantic group is an internal specific phenomenon caused by historical development of language, or, respectively, by special

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terminology. Their components can not be classified without destruction of the existing relations among them.

Structure of environmental thematic groups contain terminological units from different terminological systems (ecological, physical, chemical, geographical, etc.), forming the language of environmental protection.

Thematic classification is the first and very important stage in the study of the systemic organization of lexicological units whereas the lexical-semantic classification is the final stage. We agree that “the analysis of a lexical field includes the relationship of words that contrast paradigmatically (all belonging to one part of speech), and those of other parts of speech that are related morphologically and semantically” (Lehrer, 1974). Moreover, “the members of a field must have at least one specific semantic component in common. The definition and delimitation of lexical fields and word-fields – and naturally also of semantic fields – therefore usually depends on the concept of semantic component or semantic feature” (Lipka, 1977).

Environmental protection terms are offered to be divided into 11 major thematic groups inside of which lexical-semantic groups are built:

1) Names of actions and processes: pollution, deforestation, purification, desalination, radiation, putrefaction, acidification.

2) Names of factors which do damage to the environment: A) Names of sources of pollution: agricultural industry, nuclear power plant, machine-building plant, metallurgical works, chemical industry, mining complex, hydroelectric power station, stationary source; B) Names of disasters: earthquake, volcanic eruption, forest fire, oil spill, tsunami, storm, tornado, explosion at nuclear power station, land slide; C) Names of kinds of pollution: biological pollution, chemical pollution, physical pollution, noise pollution, energy pollution; D) Names of pollutants: carbon oxide, mercury, volatile contaminant, formaldehyde, intoxicant, pesticides, ammonia, nitric oxide; E) Names of contaminated substances and objects: black water, raw sewage contaminated sea water, etc.; and F) Names of waste: scheduled wastes, solid waste, toxic waste, ignitable waste, radioactive waste, liquid waste and others.

3) Names of methods and ways to protect and keep the environment clean and in proper condition: A) Methods of Water Purification: anaerobic sewage treatment, filtration, distillation, chlorination, treatment system, etc.; B) Methods of air purifying: ionizer method, photocatalytic filtration, air conditioning, precipitation scavenging; C) Methods of soil cleaning: postcombustion controls, soil and sediment adsorption isotherm test, pest management; D) Methods of waste disposal: recycling, landfill, waste burning, waste processing, waste incineration, leachate collection system; E) Measures to prevent environmental disasters: runoff pollution abatement, discharge limit, emergency plan, environmental audit, Prevention of Significant Deterioration and others; F) Measures to maintain the environment in proper condition: regulatory clean water monitoring, reforestation, regulating releases, shelterwood cutting, enforcement monitoring, integrated hygienic rating of harmful substances; G) Other methods and activities: flue gas conditioning, radiation sterilization, etc.


Lexical-semantic groups “Methods of cleaning”, in their turn, are divided into even smaller subgroups, such as mechanical methods, physical methods, chemical methods, biological methods, etc.

4) Names of instruments and appliances for security, cleaning, problem prevention and maintenance the environment in the proper condition: A) Sewage treatment plants: rendering plant, wood waste multiple chamber incinerator, hazardous waste management facility, pretreatment plant, publicly owned treatment works; B) Devices for water treatment: sand filter, rotating biological contactor, sediment pond, sludge digester, membrane filtration, vacuum sewer collector flow net; C) Devices for air cleaning: dust filters, ionic purifier, adsorption carbon filter, ozone generator, dust collector, impingement separator, light detection and ranging; D) Devices for cleaning and maintaining the soil in proper condition: scarifier, soft pesticide, drainway, drain ditch, hydroseparator; E) Arrangements for waste management: hazardous waste incinerator, in-line multiple chamber incinerator, landfill gas turbine, modular incinerator; F) Devices and artificial formations for preventing problems with the environment: rain gauge, sanitizer, dike, interceptor, open to the atmosphere impoundment; G) Other devices: anemometer, device for personal protection of eyes, fire extinguisher, isolating device for personal protection of respiratory organs, ombrometer, oscillometer, protective suit.

5) Names of the objects of the study and objects that need protection and maintenance in proper condition: ecosystem, environment, world waters, fresh water, underground drinking water, community water system, endangered species rainforest.

6) Names of the results and consequences of human bad influence on the environment: shear, erosion, flood, greenhouse effect, city maladour, ozone hole, ozone layer depletion, oil spill, soil depletion, forest fire, biodiversity reduction, glacier thawing.

7) Names of features, characteristics and properties related to the protection of the environment: A) Characteristics of water: water aggressiveness, assimilative capacity of the receiving waters; B) Characteristics of air: transparence, invisibility, odourless, density, unstable air; C) Characteristics of soil: soil permeability, fertility, humidity, soil percolation, soil porosity; D) Other characteristics: corrosivity, toxicity, ignitability etc.

8) Names of laws, principles, rules and regulations: river quality standards, secular equilibrium, Beer-Lambert law, discharge standards, emission standard, environmental legislation, land disposal ban and others.

9) Names of parameters, coefficients and values: potency factor, quality factor, radiation absorbed dose (rad), Sax toxicity ratings, stability index (Langelier index), statutory levels of contaminants, water pollution index, diversity index, index of potential inhalation toxicity, Jackson turbidity unit and others.

10) Names of acts and statements concerning environmental protection: Rasmussen report, Kyoto Protocol, Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships, Air Pollution Control Act, Endangered Species Act, Environmental Assessment Act, Water Quality Act, Environmental Impairment Liability Policy, and others.

11) Names of agencies and organizations that contribute to the restoration of the environment: Advanced Environmental Research and Technology national


Science Foundation, Council on Environmental Quality, International Union of Air Pollution Prevention Associations, Spill Action Centre, Reforestation Trust fund and others.

Classification given above is not absolute and may be supplemented by several other thematic groups. This is due to the intensive development of the science and the emergence of new concepts that require names which can not be included into any of the above mentioned thematic groups.

Thus, thematic group – are terms united by one theme. Lexical-semantic group – a group of terms within the thematic group united by a common semantic feature. Lexical-semantic and thematic groups relate to each other as the part and the whole. The study of thematic groups of the given terminology made it possible to see the expression of people’s experience related to environmental protection. Lexical-semantic groups are also known as lexical-semantic fields. According to Ullmann: “fields are linguistic realities existing between single words and the total vocabulary; they are parts of a whole and resemble words in that they combine into some higher unit, and the vocabulary in that they resolve themselves into smaller units” (Ullmann, 1957).

Hyponymy is also very important in the study of thematic groups as hyper-hyponymic relations are often those which help to build thematic groups. Therefore, the study of hyper-hyponymic relations is also the part of our research.

Our task is to systemize collected material in order to see connection and relations among concepts. For creating hyper-hyponymic groups a large number of English texts on environmental protection have been worked out, definitions of terms and the existing classifications have been used. Also the structural features of terms-hyponyms have been analyzed.

Hyponymy helps to organize elements of the semantic field hierarchically based on hyper-hyponymic relations with the help of which there is a union of lexical items into thematic, lexical-semantic groups and fields. “Hierarchy is one of the major principles used to structure terminologies. In practice, many terminologies use different kinds of relations to create “hierarchies”, reflecting their organizational principles for a given purpose. Strictly, hierarchy is based on a relation of dominance that comprises the taxonomic relation (‘is a’) and the meronymic relation (‘part of’)” (Bodenreider, Burgun & Rindflesch, 2001).

Hierarchical logical relations among concepts lie in the basis of hyponymic relations, so each class is species in regard to a higher concept in hierarchical chain and genus in regard to classes below (Pavlova, 2009). The relations among terms-hyponyms is a “certain kind of opposition based on their common categorical features” (Panko, Kochan & Matsuik, 1994, p. 192).

Therefore, every hyponym can be a hyperonym regarding concepts of a lower level, that is it creates hyper-hyponymic group at a lower degree of generalization. In such a way, “a subordinate at a given level can itself be a hyponym at a higher level” (Griffiths, 2006).

Comparing the meanings of hyperonym and hyponym, hyponym has the larger number of semantic components.

Hyponym contains larger set of species features in its structure. It is explained by the fact that hyponym contains semantic content of hyperonym and homogeneous hyponyms are opposed to each other by certain distinctive semes.


Lyons further distinguishes proper hyponymy from quasi-hyponymy. For Lyons “quasi-hyponymy” is a relation of hierarchical lexical structure. It differs from proper hyponymy in that superordinate terms, i.e. archilexemes, are lacking and have to be replaced by general words of a different word-class (Lyons, 1977).

It is considered that hyponymy plays primarily a function of term systematization and interpretation of meanings. With the help of generic feature the meaning is generalized, the feature of species, however, specifies the meaning.

The carried out analysis shows that the terminology of environmental protection is characterized by concepts which by developing and becoming complicated acquire new features and characteristics. This process leads to “emergence of more specific species concepts expressed by terminological word-combinations that reflect the required distinctive features most accurately” (Chernyshova, 2009). Moreover, with the development of the industry specific concepts tend to turn into generic concerning forming species concepts. This means that the same concept in the system of hyper-hyponymic relations can be both specific and generic simultaneously, depending on the level of the study.

Therefore, a special feature of environmental protection terminology is its characteristics by multi-leveled hyper-hyponymic groups that can be delayered to the smallest indivisible semantic structure, and the concepts of the lower levels are often borrowed from related branches. Terminology of environmental protection is a complex branch, which includes such sub-branches as protection of water, air, soil, flora, fauna, preventing ecological disasters etc. It means that such a unique synthesis of sciences finds its reflection in the content of the researched area, indicating partly interdisciplinary nature of hyper-hyponymic relations in the given terminology.

Conclusions. Having done research of environmental protection terminology we have reached such conclusions. Division of terminology into thematic groups makes it possible and easier to learn the terms very well which is necessary for understanding specialists from different countries in order to cooperate for common solution to different ecological and environmental problems and catastrophes. Making thematic classification we base ourselves on logical, external criterion, which enabled us to organize terms on the basis of semantic similarity. Therefore, 11 major thematic groups have been singled out inside of which lexical-semantic groups are built based on the most important, in our view, common semantic features – semes. It has been found out that among 11 thematic groups the largest ones are those which represent “names of factors which do damage to the environment” and “names of instruments and appliances for security, cleaning, problem prevention and maintenance the environment in the proper condition. It has been confirmed that hyper-hyponymic relations often lie in the basis of building thematic groups. Hyponymy plays primarily a function of term systematization and interpretation of meanings.

The prospect for the future research is the studying of paradigmatic relations which exist in the terminological system of environmental protection.


References Bodenreider, O., Burgun, A. & Rindflesch, T. (2001): Lexically-suggested hyponymic

relations among medical terms and their representation in the UMLS. Proceedings of TIA, 11-21.

Chernishova, L. A. (2009): O giponimicheskih otnoshenijah terminov v otraslevoj terminologii. http://www.vestnik-mgou.ru/ mag/2009/ling/3/st29.pdf. Accessed August 2013.

Griffiths, P. (2006): An Introduction to English Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh University Press.

Lehrer, A. (1974): Semantic Fields and lexical Structure. Amsterdam. Lipka, L. (1977): Methodology and representation in the study of lexical fields. Perspektiven

der lexikalischen Semantik. Vol. 2-3, 93-115. Lyons, J. (1977): Semantics. Cambridge University Press. Vol. 1. Panko, T., Kochan, І., Macjuk, G. (1994): Ukraїns'ke termіnoznavstvo. Lvіv: Svіt. Pavlova, O. І. (2009): Gіponіmіja v muzichnіj termіnosistemі anglіjs'koї, francuz'koї,

rosіjs'koї ta ukraїns'koї mov. http://www.stattionline.org.ua › Fіlologіja › Mov . Accessed August 2013.

Pavlova, S. A. Tematicheskie gruppy anglijskoj terminologii sudostroenija i sudoremonta. http://lib.chdu.edu.ua/pdf/novitfilolog/11/108.pdf. Accessed January 2014.

Reformatskij, A. A. (1986): Mysli o terminologii. Sovremennye problemy russkoj terminologii, 163-198.

Ullmann, S. (1957): The Principles of Semantics. Glasgow. Maryana Salamakha PhD student Ivan Franko National University of Lviv Lviv, Ukraine [email protected]


NATAŠA VUJISIĆ ŽIVKOVIĆ & SUNČICA MACURA MILOVANOVIĆ

CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES CHALLENGED BY THE ETHNOCENTRIC PEDAGOGIC HERITAGE AND CONTEMPORARY EPISTEMOLOGICAL-METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES

Abstract

We discuss here the problems of contemporary educational sciences, which are generated by the pedagogic tradition sustained by ethnocentrism, and by the issues coming from the epistemological-methodological domain. An open question of the common traits in the development of educational sciences, the separated proto-typical configurations of the development of pedagogics in various national communities, and a vibrant discussion about the character of educational research and its influence on politics and praxis of education are the issues discussed these days. Summing up some aspects of these discussions we pose further questions on the likelihoods to overcome ethnocentrism, and on the philosophical-historical grounds of the research in education. We consider detrimental for any educational science, and for the well-organized ones even more so, to neglect foreign experience and comparative results of educational research. We plead for strengthening the ethical principle in scientific research in education not only as the necessary condition of research validity but also as a way to respond to the challenges coming from different scientific paradigms and from various professional roles of researchers in education. Keywords: educational sciences, scientific and educational ethnocentrism,

epistemology and methodology of educational research

The Heritage of Ethnocentrism in Education and Educational Research

The epoch of the Enlightenment is characterized by the awareness of the importance of education for the constitution of national states and cultures. Even during the XIX century, the national pedagogic traditions have been competing, guided by the conviction that wars are won “not by guns but rather by schools and teachers” – frequently quoted after the Prussian-Austrian war in 1866, and the Prussian-French war in 1871. During the Cold War period (1945-1990) the race in armaments was accompanied by a specific “educational competition”. It would suffice just to remember the “Sputnik-shock” and the resulting changes in the American schools. Even our epoch of globalization is characterized by the “glorification and demonization” strategy (Derida, 2002, p. 123) instead by a careful exploration of the background interests, which is necessary for the “new or recurrent agreement on education”.

The historical aspect of this problem Marc Depaepe (2002) was expressed in the question if it is possible at all to talk about comparability of the development of educational sciences. Of course, there always were minds willing to overcome national constrains in education. One of the most important, the architect of the creation of educational system grounded on the results of scientific research, Torsten Húsen (1916-2009), writes about the experience of generations of international

Nataša Vujisić Živković & Sunčica Macura Milovanović 671

researchers in education: “We have conceived the world as an enormous pedagogical laboratory for testing various school structures” (Húsen, 1975, pp. 20-21). He strongly emphasized the positive influence of the interest to advance national politics of education. During his career he encountered a phenomenon marked as “provintialism”, which we nowadays rather name as ethnocentrism. During one UNESCO conference in the 1950s, a French representative presented a statement that for the French people, general education is grounded on general culture and acquired through the study of the clasics; for a Soviet representative the professional education and general education are the two sides of the same coin, while for the Americans, general education meant acquisition of skills and competences necessary for present life (Húsen, 1983, p. 26). A strong interest in the relationship of the system and the process of education and the scientific-technological development resulted in gradual overcoming of the quoted national exclusivities. It has become clear that the neglect of the experience and knowledge of the others costs dearly the creators of national educational politics.

There is another factor leading to the ethnocentric standpoint. Namely, the pedagogues, who used to promote international knowledge have claimed that their aims are national. On the other side, the communist pedagogy was characterized by the stress on the own specific traits different from the bourgeois ones, while the post-communist period was marked by a kind of the “imported ethnocentrism”, where the Anglo-Saxon model of pedagogic education and research was pomoted as “the only rescuing one”. Even in the countries of the Western Europeone could note the trends of the dominance of international evaluation studies of education systems. In such conditions it is difficult to talk about the transition of educational politics from the charismatic to the rational level. That problem is even more protuberant in the East European countries, where the differentiation among the roles of researchers and experts in the domain of education is still lagging behind.

Let us go back to the Húsen's experience in internalization of educational research. In principle, the scientific research is guided by the demand for universal results, while for a long while the research in education was constrained by the national frameworks, branded even by some specific prejudices. Húsen had an extremely utilitarian attitude toward the character of educational sciences. Such an attitude has enabled him to notice the national characteristics of pedagogic theory and research practice (Húsen, 1979a, p. 333). In Sweden, to become a professor of pedagogy it was necessary to know developmental psychology (expeimentally oriented) and the history of pedagogics. In Germany, spiritually-scientifically and philosophically opriented pedagogues have rejected psychometry, while the biheivioristically oriented pedagogues have emigrated to the USA during the 1930s. Only Helmut Becer, who established the Maks-Planc institute for educational research, has introduced empirical methods in the study of the school system. In Great Britain, the pragmatism was dominant and the use of psychometry was frequent and uncritical. In the USA, with the work od Ralph Tyler, the first evaluative studies of education and curriculum have appeared, but the academic level of research in education was not acknowledged enough. Húsen (1979b, p. 382) has recognized the following benefits resulting fom the cross-national evaluation studies of the school systems: (1) the idea that it is necessary to state the international indicators of the educational outcomes, which contributed later to the

Contemporary Educational Sciences Challenged by the Ethnocentric Pedagogic Heritage… 672

creation of modern educational politics, and (2) the enormous experience was accumulated about the techniques of data collection, the sampling procedure, and the training of the researchers. However, the methodology and the discussion of the results were dubious, still. First, highly sophisticated methods of multivariate statistical analysis could not replace the longitudinal approach: “We have been oriented to collect the data from numerous schools and students as much as possible, and never thought about an alternative strategy – to select few schools and classes and conduct an intensive qualitative research” (Ibid). That trait of international studies of students’ achievements has remained unchanged until today, as well as their results – that the differences between the developed and the underdeveloped countries in educational achievements of students could be explained by the socio-economic variables rather than by the vatiables related to the school systems.

That is why in order to objectively assess the potentials for change of the whole system of education it is very important to know well the process of university transformation of educational sciences. The pedagogy historians differentiate “two waves“ of its academic institutionalization (Gratler, 1999). The “first wave” starts in the 1880s with the establishment of the seminars for teachers education. That process was intensified during the first decades of the XX century, with the advances of the experimental pedagogy and its fight for academic afirmation. Comparative studies of the development of pedagogics as university discipline in Europe of the second half of the XX century show that the “second wave” started with the establishment of independent pedagogics department, during the 1950s, and had its peak in the 1990s, with the inclusion of the elementary school teachers’ education in the university studies, and with unexpected multiplication of the communication networks within the educational sciences.

The massive scale and diversification of pedagogics education, and the “hybridization” of scientific disciplines under the influence of critical, feministic, post-structuralistic and other theories on the research in education plea that along with the change of the epistemological approach it is necessary to adopt the Bourdie-like “social approach to social studies”, when the past, the present, or the future of educational sciences is the issue. While talking about a narrow epistemological approach, it is necessary to point out the importance of the articles published in 2006 by the representatives of the leading Anglo-Saxon and continental theory of education. David Bridges (2006) and Jan Bengson (2006) advocate first of all the introduction of the “discipline of the disciplines” in the philosophy and history of education, which serves as the landmark of quality of education research, and looking for the ways of emancipation of educational sciences from psychological and sociological influences, based on the authentic identity of pedagogics practice and consequential scientific reflection.

Social approach to the development of educational sciences was especially advanced by Swiss researchers Rita Hofstetter and Bernard Schneuwly (2001). Based on the historical-comparative study of academic institutionalization of educational sciences in the Switzerland, they point to the close relationships of the profession and the scientific discipline in the process of specialization and differentiation of pedagogics. The evolution of the educational sciences takes place between the contradictory demands coming from socio-professional domain on one hand, and from the endeavouring the scientific authonomy from the other related


sciences and from multidisciplinary tendencies within the very pedagogics domain. It frequently leads to the suspension of practical objectives out of the striving to secure a pure scientific status of the discipline. The negation of practical needs leads further on to the loss of a feeling for the specifics of the pedagogics practice, or to the treatment of the professional as something that has to reflect the strict application of scientific theories and discoveries. On the other hand, pedagogics has progressively mastered its autonomy as a unique academic field, getting emancipated from the so called stem disciplines: philosophy, psychology and sociology, and keeping to the referral frameworks at the same time. It has dynamically integrated the achievements of other social sciences, opening the new research areas and developing the new disciplines. In other words, “to keep the distance and to have a reference in relation to the other scientific disciplines was accepted as a legitimate position of one scientific area; it is not the reason to blame the pedagogics as not being autonomous” (Ibid., 2001, p. 130).

The Transmission of Scientific Knowledge into the Politics and Practice of Education – Epistemological-Methodological Challenges

Discussing the relationship between pedagogic theory and profession in German tradition, Edvin Keiner (2002) writes that the pedagogic theory was determined by practically oriented self-conceptions. Most pedagogues consider the results of their research as convenient for the transmission into the politics and practice of education, but at the same time, they are unsatisfied with the reception of their results by schools and teachers.

There was a time when it looked as if the action research and qualitative methodology represent the “royal way” to scientific approach to various issues in education. However, the critique of educational research as unreliable in planning the changes in education, which had its peak in the USA law, the No Child Left Behind Act from 2001, resulted in the evidence-based research in education. It promoted experiments based movementon and random samples as the “golden standard” in investigation of pedagogic practice (Vujisic Zivkovic, 2013). This come back to the experimentalism had a strong support in OECD countries and in the scientific and political circles. The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) from Washington, has established a special committee working on the issues of the advancement of educational research, which explicitely rejecting the post-structuralistic thesis that social phenomena could not be explained by scientific objectivity. At the same time, the USA Congress has adopted the law favouring rigorous systematic research in education, and established the Institute of Educational Sciences at the Federal Departmant of Education, which had invested enormous resources within the program, What Works Clearing House – WWCH, in order to accumulate evidence-based research and to disseminate the results in educational practice. Similar examples could be seen in the other OECD countries (CERI, 2007).

What missions and the achieved outcomes claim the representatives of the evidence-based movement in the educational research? They, like Robert Slavin (2002, p. 18), claim that the changes in education have been beyond the rigorous evaluation for a long while, although such evaluation resulted in a genuine scientific revolution in other areas of economic development. For example, the relations


between the research and practice in medicine is so firm that today’s medical doctors dont even think to ignore the results of scientific research, as their educational counterparts usually do. According to Slavin (Ibid.), it is necessary to have a big number of experimental studies which can prove the causal relations in education and thus lead to rigorous evaluation od educational programs and the outcomes of learning, and contribute to the accumulation of scientific knowledge and its dissemination through out the school system, which would result in a genuine scientific revolution in education. Such epistemological approach has resulted in accumulation of methodological knowledge in evidence-based research. First of all, it was evident in the focus on the large random samples, in the control of numeous variables in experimental and control groups. As relevant, considered were the studies with more than 250 students in a sample, or more than 10 schools (classes), while it was recommended to follow-up the innovations in education for at least 12 weeks. The researchers were not supposed to gather the data from the convenient samples, or to construct the knowledge tests themselves. What is essential is that the experimental and the control group are selected in advance (prospective studies), not afterwords (posthoc/retrospective studies); according to the meta-analyses the retrospective studies show higher efficacy of a program/textbook/educational software under study. (Slavin, 2008, p. 7).

However, these findings did not convince the oponents of the randomized sampling. The promoters of qualitative methodology acuse their oponents as remnants of the “neo-positivistic restauration”. David Berlinner (2002) and other experienced researchers warn that no research option should be neglected since the issues under the study are the most sensitive, as the education issues are; there are many deviations from the adopted regularities, and these deviations are the important issues for educational research. That’s why one should not be afraid of the “softer” methodological approaches in an effort to resolve the complexes with “hard” methodology. One should rather consider that educational science is the most difficult one. It seems that Bridges (Bridges, Smeyers & Smith, 2008) is right when he points out that the studies which inform the politics and practice in education are much more diverse than those exclusively experimental. There are idiographic and nomothetic studies, or quantitative and qualitative studies, and they should supply answers not only on what is functional in education but also why and in which context something is functional. Also, pedagogic knowledge is not related only to the instrumental knowledge and to the solutions of practical problems. The researchers are the critics of educational politics, too; they are obliged to discover its ideological base even where, supposedly, there is none.

Conclusion

We live at times of intensive penetration of various academic traditions in organization of educational sciences, and of intensive infiltration of scientific paradigms in educational research. The historians have long since pointed out the duality of the conceptions of educational sciences: (a) as a “big sciences”, like medicine or engineering, and (b) as an anthropologically oriented science. The researchers are obliged to accept such dual character of their science. But, they should not, under any condition, accept isolationism and ethnocentrism in its development because it is not only against the character of scientific work but it is


politically and ethically wrong as well. The codex of the research ethics does not cover only the issues of validity of a research but the issues related to the professional role of the researcher, being one between a politician and a practitioner in education, too. The time has yet to come for deeper ethical review, which is a necessary condition for overcoming national and paradigmatic boundaries and for profiling the research communities able effectively to transmit scientific knowledge into the politics and practice of education.

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Issues in Synthesizing Educational Program Evaluations. Educational Researcher, 37(1), 5-14.

Vujisic-Zivkovic, N. (2013): The role of educational research in transforming educational policy and practice. Journal of Institute for Educational Research, 45(1), 7-23. [in Serbian].

http://scindeks.ceon.rs/article.aspx?query=ARTAU%26and%26Vujisi%25c4%2587-%25c5%25bdivkovi%25c4%2587%2bNata%25c5%25a1a&page=3&sort=1&stype=0&backurl=%2fSearchResults.aspx%3fquery%3dARTAU%2526and%2526Vujisi%2525c4%252587-%2525c5%2525bdivkovi%2525c4%252587%252bNata%2525c5%2525a1a%26page%3d0%26sort%3d1%26stype%3d0

http://scindeks.ceon.rs/article.aspx?query=ARTAU%26and%26Vujisi%25c4%2587-%25c5%25bdivkovi%25c4%2587%2bNata%25c5%25a1a&page=3&sort=1&stype=0&backurl=%2fSearchResults.aspx%3fquery%3dARTAU%2526and%2526Vujisi%2525c4%252587-%2525c5%2525bdivkovi%2525c4%252587%252bNata%2525c5%2525a1a%26page%3d0%26sort%3d1%26stype%3d0


Nataša Vujisić Živković PhD, Associate Professor Faculty of Philosophy University of Belgrade Serbia [email protected] Sunčica Macura Milovanović PhD, Associate Professor Faculty of Education University of Kragujevac Serbia


ЛАРИСА СЕРГЕЕВНА ТИХОМИРОВА / LARISA TIKHOMIROVA

РЕЧЕВОЕ ВОЗДЕЙСТВИЕ В СОЦИАЛЬНОЙ РЕКЛАМЕ1

SPEECH INFLUENCE IN SOCIAL ADVERTISING


В статье рассматриваются коммуникативные стратегии и тактики речевого воздействия на потребителя (на примере социальной рекламы).

The article deals with communicative strategies and tactics of speech influence on the consumer (social advertising case). Ключевые слова: социальная реклама, коммуникативные стратегии и тактики Keywords: social advertising, communicative strategies and tactics

В современном обществе, которое можно назвать информационным, актуальность научного исследования в области рекламных коммуникаций, характер которой оказывает большое влияние на социальные процессы, не вызывает сомнения. На сегодняшний день опубликовано немало исследований, посвященных языковым особенностям рекламного текста (см., например, труды Е. Е. Анисимовой, Е. В. Медведевой и других авторов). Однако психолингвистический и социальный аспекты воздействия языковых средств на адресата в таких исследованиях, как правило, не описываются, а если описываются, то очень фрагментарно.

Действуя в русле коммуникативно-прагматического подхода к исследованию языковых явлений, в центре внимания которого находятся коммуникативная ситуация (1), говорящий и адресат в их социально-психологическом отношении (2), а также значения и функции речеактивных высказываний [6, с. 3], мы проанализировали интенциональную направленность текста социальной рекламы и систематизировали факторы, предопределяющие выбор языковых средств субъектами рекламной коммуникации. Результатом работы стала систематизация коммуникативных стратегий и тактик воздействия на потребителя.

В рамках исследования было проанализировано 34 текста различного объема (от слогана до журнальных статей). Основную часть выборки составили рекламные тексты из журналов «Итоги», «Профиль», «Русский Newsweek» за 2012-2013 годы, а также из базы рекламных текстов, размещенной на веб-сайте www.textart.ru.

Соглашаясь с тезисом о том, что «основная проблематика лингвистического анализа речевого воздействия связана с изучением стратегий говорящего и всех находящихся в его распоряжении языковых ресурсов, которые определяют достижение коммуникативной цели» [2, с. 23], мы обратились к активно разрабатываемым современной лингвистикой (см.

1 Исследование выполнено при финансовой поддержке РГНФ: грант № 14-04-00575.

Речевое воздействие в социальной рекламе 678

работы Т. Ван Дейка, Е. М. Верещагина, В. Г. Костомарова, И. А. Стернина, О. С. Иссерс и др.) понятиям «коммуникативная стратегия» и «коммуникативная тактика». Выбор такого подхода обусловлен тем, что тексты рекламной коммуникации являются плодом сознательного конструирования, цель которого – оказать запланированное воздействие на аудиторию. При этом особенно хотелось бы также отметить, что для понимания специфики речевого воздействия наиболее продуктивными оказались концепции О. С. Иссерс и Е. С. Поповой.

Коммуникативную стратегию вслед за Т. Ван Дейком и Е. С. Поповой мы понимаем как «сверхзадачу, идущую от адресанта, направленную на достижение коммуникативной или практической цели и рассчитанную на определенный перлокутивный эффект» [5, с. 278]. Тактику, с позиции А. А. Горячева, лучше всего охарактеризовать как «одно или несколько действий, которые способствуют реализации стратегии» [1, с. 183]. В свою очередь, тактика «обретает свою форму с помощью приема» [2, с. 182]. Эти три иерархически связанных понятия («стратегия – тактика – прием») мы избрали в качестве понятийной основы для речевого воздействия на потребителя.

Отталкиваясь от тезиса о том, что рекламная коммуникация является имиджевой, т. е. воздействие осуществляется посредством образов, воздействующих на сознание реципиента [2, с. 76-108], мы обратили внимание на то, что в социальной рекламе какая-то часть языковых средств не столько создает образ объекта, сколько выполняет вспомогательные функции. Так, например, императивные формы «Звоните прямо сейчас!» не столько участвуют в создании образа рекламы, сколько являются иллокутивной силой и побуждают адресата к действию.

В соответствии с этим выводом можно выделить оптимизирующие стратегии, которые создают условия для эффективной коммуникации (в частности, оптимизируя процессы получения сообщения – восприятия – запоминания – действия). Последовательность этапов мы установили на основе принято в рекламоведении формулы «AIDA», включающей в себя четыре стадии воздействия: внимание, интерес, желание, деятельность, и линейной модели коммуникации К. Шеннона и У. Уивера [7, с. 144], сфокусированной на передаче информации (здесь для нас актуальными оказались понятия «кодирование», «декодирование», «шум», «избыточность»). Выделяя стратегии, мы соотносили их с психологическими процессами и состояниями, а также с условиями коммуникации, от которых зависит успешность речевого воздействия на адресата.

На этапе получения адресатом сообщения мы выделяем стратегию концентрации внимания, которая обеспечивает привлечение внимания к сообщению (активизирует непроизвольное внимание). Как правило, в работах, посвященных языку рекламы, говорится о приемах, ориентированных на привлечение внимания, однако в нашем представлении необходимо рассматривать также способы фиксации и переключения внимания. Так, например, в рекламном слогане «1 октября – День добра и уважения. Вспомните о тех, кто рядом» (www.molodezh79.ru) внимание адресата переключается на его личный опыт.

Лариса Сергеевна Тихомирова / Larisa Tikhomirova 679

На этапе передачи, декодирования и интерпретирования сообщения рекламисту необходимо предотвратить потерю и искажение информации. В рамках стратегии над декодированием и интерпретацией в социальной рекламе привлекаются следующие тактики: предотвращение ошибок при передаче за счет повтора элементов сообщения; предоставление адресату возможности альтернативных трактовок сообщения.

Первая тактика, как показал анализ текстов, может реализовываться не только в объемных текстах, но и в слоганах: «Чистым мыслям – чистый город! Любите свой город!»; «В Зауралье родился, в Зауралье крестился, в Зауралье пригодился!».

Вторая тактика реализуется за счет двойной актуализации смысла и языковой игры: «У мусора есть дом» (щиты в г. Пермь). Двоякий смысл возникает в результате взаимодействия вербального текста щита с присутствующим изображением на щите молодой пары.

На этапе восприятия адресатом сообщения нами выделена стратегия управления критичностью. В рамках этой стратегии можно выделить тактики, позволяющие обеспечить благосклонное восприятие адресатом сообщения. Это, прежде всего, создание доверия к субъекту рекламы: «Открой дверь в свое сердце. Все начинается с семьи».

Мнемоническая стратегия должна обеспечить условия для запоминания сообщения. К тактикам этой группы были отнесены следующие:

1) пробуждение интереса к теме сообщения – например, благодаря четкой адресации: «Ушел в Интернет и не вернулся. Родители, защитим детей от опасного контента». Данная тактика способствует реализации не только мнемонической стратегии, но и стратегии управления вниманием (см. выше);

2) придание сообщению необычной формы – за счет сознательного нарушения орфографических и пунктуационных ошибок: «ПризЫвание» (реклама профессиональной армии. В данном случае Ы в тексте перечеркнута. Здесь создатели рекламы пытаются решить проблему отсутствия желания идти в армию, акцентируя внимание на том, что профессиональная армия может формироваться только по желанию – по призванию). «Участковый от слова «участие» (штендер) – слово «участковый» образовано от слова «участок» и не может быть мотивировано словом «участие», однако в контексте социальной рекламы слова представлены как однокоренные для того, чтобы повысить доверие жителей к участковым;

3) обращение к населению через обобщение: «Живи, Россия!», «Родина-мать зовет!», «За Родину, за модернизацию!»;

4) использование цитат авторитетных людей: «Любовь к Родине начинается с семьи» Ф. Бэкон»; «На патриотизм напирать стали. Видимо, проворовались…» М. Салтыков-Щедрин»;

5) использование отрицаний и конструкций с «НЕТ»: «Скажем наркотикам «НЕТ»! // Будущее начинается сейчас. ОМСК без наркотиков // Областной наркологический диспансер: 30-26-89». Выполненный на красно-белом фоне билборд с изображением останавливающейся кардиограммы, безусловно, привлекает внимание и

Речевое воздействие в социальной рекламе 680

заставляет задуматься о проблеме. «Скажи «НЕТ» астме» (на билборде изображена девочка-подросток с косичками). «Не прожги свою жизнь» (на билборде изображен идущий по дороге молодой человек c черным пятном вместо головы);

6) использование приема градации: в Интернете опубликован видеоролик, который посвящен Году молодежи 2009: под песню «Прекрасное далеко» смонтированы кадры из советской истории под лозунгом «Самая лучшая страна на земле». Далее создатели ролика рассказывают зрителю о современной молодежи постсоветского периода (фразы на фоне статичных образов молодежи, нарисованных или смонтированных из фотографий): • «Учеба, твоя профессия – не нужны стране» (резюме с

заголовками «МЕНЕДЖЕР» выброшены в урну); • «Пьешь, куришь, дуешь. Умрешь в 55-60 лет» (изображение

черепа); • «Дети – не собираешься» (на семейной фотографии изображения

двоих детей становятся черными); • «Семья – не собираешься» (изображение мужчины тоже становится

черным, фотография рвется пополам); • «Армия – не собираешься» (на армейской фотографии черные пятна

вместо людей, фотография рвется). На этапе формирования какого-либо решения у реципиента можно

выделить стратегию прямого влияния на принятие решения, которая выражается в побуждении адресата к действию, моделируя ситуацию принятия решения: «Заплати налоги и спи спокойно»; «Голосуй, а то проиграешь!».

Так, мы рассмотрели все выделенные нами коммуникативные стратегии, в то время как количество реализуемых в рекламе тактик и приемов потенциально стремится к бесконечности, что заставляет нас ограничиться примерами наиболее характерных случаев. Анализ текстов подтвердил справедливость тезиса Е. С. Поповой об асимметричном соотношении между тактикой и приемом: «…с одной стороны, один и тот же прием может подчиняться разным тактикам, т. е. одна структурная единица может передавать разные смыслы, а с другой – одна тактика может вербализоваться с помощью разных приемов» [5, с. 284]. Исследование характерных связей между стратегией и тактикой показало, что наиболее употребительными в рекламном тексте являются те приемы, которые обеспечивают реализацию сразу нескольких тактик и стратегий. В качестве примера можно рассмотреть ряд популярных в рекламе приемов, отличающихся комплексным действием:

Использование иронии: «Знала девочка прекрасно – по путям ходить опасно!» (рекламный плакат информирует детей о том, что нельзя ходить по путям); «Совет дает дикий кот: Не бери сигарету в рот! Себя наркотиками не трави. Жизнь – вот это раздолье! Помни – твой выбор: здоровье!» (www.slon.ru).

Лариса Сергеевна Тихомирова / Larisa Tikhomirova 681

Использование такого приема объясняется тем, что подобный текст несет позитивный настрой, даже если и говорится в нем о серьезных проблемах. Ирония повышает запоминаемость и одновременно располагает адресата к некритическому восприятию. Нередко такие тексты появляются в виде рифмованных фраз и стихотворений.

Иносистемные вкрапления привлекают непроизвольное внимание, повышают семантическую емкость текста и в то же время способствуют запоминаемости: «На100%ящее страхование».

Проведенное исследование в рамках коммуникативно-прагматического и лингвистического подходов позволило выявить ряд закономерностей в декодировании смысла социальной рекламы. Данный подход порождения текста отражает психологическую динамику осуществляемого автором рекламной коммуникации и его одновременную прагматическую направленность на построение структуры понимания и структуры воздействия.

Литература / References 1. Горячев, А. А. Языковое представление социальных характеристик адресанта и

адресата в рекламе // Русистика и современность: материалы Х Международной научно-практической конференции. – СПб.: МИРС. – 2007. – Т. 1.

2. Иссерс, О. С. Речевое воздействие: учеб. пособие. – М.: Флинта, Наука. – 2009. 3. Лебедев-Любимов, А. Л. Психология рекламы. – СПб.: Питер, 2003. 4. Медведева, Е. В. Рекламная коммуникация. – М.: Едиториал УРСС, 2003. 5. Попова, И. С. Структура манипулятивного воздействия в рекламном тексте //

Известия Уральского государственного университета. Екатеринбург. – 2002. – № 24. – С. 276-288.

6. Формановская, Н. И. Речевое взаимодействие: коммуникация и прагматика. – М., 2007.

7. Shannon, C., Weaver, W. The Mathematical Theory of Communication // University of Illinois Press, Urbana. – 1949.

Лариса Сергеевна Тихомирова кандидат филологических наук, доцент Пермский государственный национальный исследовательский университет Пермь, Россия [email protected] Larisa Tikhomirova PhD in Philology (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor Perm State National Research University Perm, Russia [email protected]




НАТАЛИЯ ВАСИЛЬЕВНА ДАНИЛЕВСКАЯ, СВЕТЛАНА ЕВГЕНЬЕВНА ОВСЯННИКОВА / NATALIYA DANILEVSKAYA, SVETLANA OVSYANNIKOVA

ПРОСВЕТИТЕЛЬСКАЯ ФУНКЦИЯ СОЦИАЛЬНОЙ РЕКЛАМЫ1

EDUCATIONAL FUNCTION OF SOCIAL ADVERTISING

Аннотация / Abstract Статья посвящена вопросу об особом статусе текстов социальной рекламы

в рамках современного рекламного дискурса. Утверждается функциональная близость этих текстов к литературным произведениям. Литературный характер социальной рекламы обосновывается посредством функциональной близости литературы и социальной рекламы. Материалом анализа служат тексты наружной (уличной) рекламы. Рассматривается гетерогенность данных текстов, и выявляются их основные темы.

The article is devoted to the special status of the texts of social advertising in the framework of modern advertising discourse. Functional proximity of these texts to literary works is approved. Literary character of social advertising is substantiated through functional proximity literature and social advertising. The texts of outdoor (street) advertising serve as a material for the analysis. Heterogeneity of these texts is considered and their main themes are identified. Ключевые слова: реклама, глобализация, социальная реклама, функции

рекламы, воспитательная направленность рекламы Keywords: advertising, globalization, social advertising, functions of advertisement,

educationally oriented advertising

Реклама как вид деятельности входит в сферу общественных связей и

отношений, но благодаря своей специфике обычно выделяется как самостоятельный предмет изучения, в котором прикладной аспект занимает значительное место. В России печатная, а также аудиовизуальная (теле- и радио-) реклама начинает развиваться быстрыми темпами с 90-х гг. XX в. Сегодня благодаря СМИ реклама превратилась в мощную индустрию, установилась типовая структура рекламной деятельности. Неслучайно, по мнению Н. П. Андреевой, реклама является в настоящее время одной из составляющих маркетинга, одним из распространенных видов информации и коммуникации вообще [1, с. 5-6].

Как вид специфической деятельности реклама чаще всего ассоциируется с коммерцией, продажей товаров и услуг. Тем не менее с древнейших времен существовала реклама политическая, а на рубеже XX–XXI вв. укрепилось понятие социальной рекламы. В последние годы этот вид рекламы занимает особое место в рекламном дискурсе.

1 Исследование выполнено при финансовой поддержке РГНФ: грант № 14-04-00575.

Наталия В. Данилевская, Светлана Е. Овсянникова / Nataliya Danilevskaya, Svetlana Ovsyannikova 683

Социальная реклама – это особый вид распространяемой в учреждениях и средствах СМИ некоммерческой информации, направленной на достижение государством или органами исполнительной власти определенных общественно значимых целей.

Основная задача социальной рекламы – привлечь внимание людей к той или иной актуальной проблеме, как, например, вопросы социального неравенства, низкого уровня жизни, здоровья нации, отношений между поколениями и т. д. Сегодня наиболее востребованными темами текстов социальной рекламы являются борьба с наркотиками и алкоголизмом, охрана окружающей среды, соблюдение правил дорожного движения, пропаганда здорового образа жизни, уважения к старшим и т. д.

Все это позволяет считать термин «социальная реклама» весьма условным, лишь приблизительно отражающим суть и назначение таких текстов. Полагаем, что те или иные носители социальной рекламы целесообразнее рассматривать как социально ориентированную рекламную литературу. В самом деле, цель так называемой социальной рекламы отнюдь не в том, чтобы продать, а в том, чтобы убедить человека жить и вести себя в соответствии с нравственными нормами, поступать по совести, стремиться к высокому и достойному – одним словом, цель воспитательная. Культивируя в человеке человеческое, такие тексты функционально приближаются к небольшим по объему литературным произведениям. Не случайно одной из основных примет социальной рекламы является «погруженный» в центр ее содержания «образ из жизни» или сама жизнь, выступающие для адресата либо примером, либо антипримером.

В последнее время социальная востребованность такого рода рекламных текстов значительно выросла в связи с некоторыми негативными процессами, развивающимися в современном обществе. Захлестнувшая мир глобализация все сильнее подавляет национальную самобытность того или иного народа, специфические культурные традиции и стереотипы, растворяя их в общем пространстве глобального (вненационального) мира. Приведем в пример несколько словарных толкований лексемы глобализация (сегодня существует множество определений этого процесса, причем каждая наука выявляет в нем какие-то свои, важные именно для нее аспекты). Ср.:

«Глобализация – начавшаяся в 1990-е гг. активизация процесса усиления взаимосвязанности мира, всевозрастающего воздействия на социальную действительность отдельных стран, различных факторов международного значения: экономических и политических связей...» (Политология. Словарь).

«Глобализация, начавшаяся в 1990-е гг. активизация процесса усиления взаимосвязанности мира, всевозрастающего воздействия на социальную действительность отдельных стран, различных факторов международного значения: экономических и политических…» (Энциклопедический словарь).

«Глобализация – процесс всемирной экономической, политической и культурной интеграции и унификации. Основным следствием этого является мировое разделение труда, миграция (и, как правило, концентрация) в масштабах всей планеты капитала, рабочей силы…» (Википедия).

«Глобализация [нем. Globalisation < лат. globus – шар] – полит. 1) термин, вошедший в обиход с начала 1985 г. («доктрина Рейгана»), означающий, что

Просветительская функция социальной рекламы 684

США имеют право вмешиваться в войны, идущие в странах третьего мира и «зонах жизненных интересов США»; 2) распространение каких-л. национальных явлений (напр., экономических связей) за пределы страны» (Словарь иностранных слов под ред. Н. Г. Комлева, 2006).

«Глобализация – высшая стадия исторического процесса интернационализации экономической, финансовой, культурной деятельности человечества, выражающаяся в формировании глобального информационного пространства (Интернет, спутниковая связь и др.)…» (Географическая энциклопедия).

«Глобализация – 1) объективный, естественный процесс распространения достижений «высоких» культур на весь мир, прежде всего на культуры «низшие» с целью их приближения к культуре передовых стран; 2) стремление к диктатуре США и Запада над остальными народами и…» (Энциклопедия культурологии) и др. [3].

Все приведенные определения слова «глобализация» содержат общую сему «процесс всемирного объединения, взаимодействия, взаимопроникновения разных стран и их культур друг в друга». Очевидно, глобальное объединение стран и народов – явление неизбежное и закономерное для современного уровня развития цивилизации. Однако у этого «закономерного» явления есть издержки негативного характера: подавляется значимость отдельной личности с ее особенным, культурно-исторически предопределенным отношением к жизни, людям, окружающей действительности; человек становится ничего не значащим винтиком в работе механизма мирового масштаба и поэтому перестает ощущать себя личностью, теряет веру в себя и в свои возможности на что-то влиять, чего-то добиваться. Но главное – оказываются неактуальными те традиционные ценности, которые веками складывались в сознании людей как представителей определенного национального коллектива.

Такое положение дел касается не только малых народностей, традиционно поглощаемых более крупными культурами, но и такой древней и многочисленной нации, как русские. Не случайно многие словари в качестве источника глобализации называют Америку и западные страны (см. выше).

Естественное стремление человека сохранить свое место в обществе и свою культуру в глобальном мире вызывает реакцию противодействия, сопровождающуюся агрессией не только по отношению к представителям других национальностей, но и к представителям своей национальности, ибо нивелирование этнических ценностей неизбежно приводит к разрушению вековых связей между их носителями. Ср. изобилующие в последние годы в средствах массовой информации сообщения о росте неприятия, нетерпимости и даже ненависти россиян по отношению друг к другу. Образ войны, не связанный с военными действиями армии, все чаще появляется в текстах, посвященных повседневной жизни России, о чем свидетельствуют, например, такие рубрики теле-, радио- и печатной журналистики, как «Дорожные войны», «Дачные войны», «Коммунальные войны», «Семейные войны» и т. п.

Конечно, неправильно и недальновидно винить только глобализацию в том, что сегодня происходит с русским сознанием и самосознанием. Мы считаем, что у сложившейся ситуации, кроме глобализации как внешней


причины, существуют еще и причины внутреннего характера. Назовем две из них, на наш взгляд, основные: 1) идеологическая (или историческая); 2) социально-воспитательная.

Под идеологической причиной подразумевается отсутствие государственной идеи, выступающей в качестве объединяющей нацию духовной скрепы. В начале 90-х годов прошлого века, в период перестройки, когда рухнула коммунистическая идеология и унесла за собой в небытие коммунистические идеалы, на которых более 70 лет воспитывалось население России, образовалась так называемая идеологическая пустота. Люди пожилого и зрелого возраста, привыкшие жить ради светлого будущего и прочно впитавшие в себя высокие нравственные ценности русской культуры (литературы, публицистики, образования, науки, музыки, художественного творчества и др.), не спешили расставаться с этими ценностями, а, наоборот, стремились сберечь их от влияния хлынувших в Россию западных стереотипов. Молодое же поколение, не успевшее вырасти на прежних идеалах, оказалось в нравственной пустоте, точнее в нравственном хаосе: помимо (а часто и вместо!) традиционных для России национально-культурных стереотипов в массовое сознание с помощью разного рода медиатекстов активно проникали несвойственные для русской картины мира установки, ценности, идеалы. В результате большая часть российского общества уже на стыке веков оказалась так или иначе «подготовленной» к утрате тесных связей с национальными традициями, к «принятию» идеалов потребления и массовой культуры как продуктов мировой глобализации (подчеркнем, что в настоящей статье мы касаемся только некоторых сторон духовно-нравственного аспекта глобализации).

Таким образом, идеологическая причина разъединенности русского общества и роста в нем агрессии связана, по сути, с особенностями его исторического развития.

Вторая причина, социально-воспитательная, – это отсутствие в России на протяжении двадцати с лишним лет государственной политики воспитания гражданского общества. Между тем без продуманной и последовательно проводимой государством стратегии воспитания гражданина невозможно создать гармоничное общество, нельзя правильно выстроить взаимоотношения между отдельной личностью и властью, между разными людьми и разными национальностями в одной стране. Не случайно такие великие русские просветители, как Д. И. Фонвизин, А. Я. Поленов, Н. И. Новиков, А. Н. Радищев, считали, что только государственное воспитание способно «множить истинных сынов Отечества», носителей подлинной нравственности, «стремящихся к трудолюбию, прилежанию, скромности, любви к наукам и ремёслам, расширению своих знаний, самосовершенствованию и великим делам во славу Отечества» [2].

С начала 90-х гг. прошлого столетия у российского правительства не было единой доктрины воспитания нации. После разрушения коммунистических идеалов обществу не было предложено ничего взамен, никого, казалось, не интересовало нравственное и психологическое состояние общества, которое в это время все более и более теряло связь с национальными корнями, вековыми традициями, нормами российского общежития. И только в последние 1,5-2


года правительство, видимо, осознало необходимость решения социально-воспитательных задач, ср. настойчивый поиск на уровне государственной пропаганды основ идеи национального единства, в качестве которых обществу последовательно предлагались футбол, олимпиада «Сочи-2014», спорт, борьба за здоровый образ жизни, идеалы православия, поиск государственного гимна, воспитание патриотизма и др. аспекты социальной жизни. Что из предложенного окажется в итоге общественно признанной идеей (или несколькими идеями сразу) объединения и воспитания нации – остается пока что вопросом, но ясно одно: без продуманной и последовательной государственной политики духовно-нравственного воспитания всего общества и каждого конкретного человека невозможно создать сильную, единую и непобедимую страну.

Однако долгое отсутствие каких бы то ни было объединяющих и воспитывающих нацию идей привело к современной социальной ситуации нетерпимости и отчужденности россиян по отношению к друг другу. Как попытку выхода из этого нравственного тупика мы рассматриваем периодически предлагаемые (а в последнее время все чаще) правительством те или иные идеи, близкие к социально значимым, рассчитанные на общественное признание и претендующие на статус национальных стереотипов. При этом средства, инструменты и приемы внедрения в массовое сознание «национальной идеи» могут быть разными, это и законы (ср. законы, ограничивающие курение и продажу алкоголя), и разного рода медиатексты (теле-, радио-, газетные, журнальные), и рекламная продукция. Не последнее место занимает в этом ряду социальная реклама, особенно активно входящая в медиапространство в последнее время.

Действительно, на телевидении, радио и в живом пространстве города появилось очень много рекламных текстов социального характера. Под «живым пространством города» понимается городской ландшафт со встроенными в него точечными рекламными блоками соответствующей тематики, которые доступны непосредственному (живому) восприятию всех, кто находится в ближайшем от этих блоков окружении. Какого рода эти тексты? Каково их содержание? О чем они сообщают? К чему призывают? Попытаемся ответить на эти вопросы.

Приведем несколько примеров уличной рекламы: 1. Основной текст рекламного сообщения: Ушел в интернет и не

вернулся. Защитим детей от преступников в сети! – Текст сопровождается именами и фотографиями конкретных людей с указанием их возраста.

2. Основной текст рекламного сообщения: Понаехали тут? − Сопровождается крупной фотографией великого полководца Багратиона и надписью «Великий полководец. Грузин».

3. Основной текст рекламного сообщения: Москва, 2012, 2013. Город грамотных людей. − Сопровождается только контрастом цветового оформления: красное – золотое – черное на белом фоне.

4. Основной текст рекламного сообщения: Добрался! Ст. 290 УК РФ «Получение взятки». Ст. 291.1 УК РФ «Посредничество во взяточничестве». Специальная линия «Нет коррупции!».


WWW.ZAKON.GOV.SPB.RU/HOT_LINE 576-77-65. − Сопровождается красочной картиной, нижнюю половину которой занимает большое количество пачек с купюрами достоинством 5000 руб., а в верхней части мужской силуэт за тюремной решеткой, с руками, скованными наручниками; мужчина держится за прутья решетки.

5. Основной текст рекламного сообщения: Вдыхая – убиваешь себя, выдыхая – других. − Текст сопровождается изображением горящей сигареты, дым которой заканчивается летящей пулей. В верху текста на черном фоне красным цветом выделен риторический вопрос «Всё равно?!».

6. Основной текст рекламного сообщения: Ведь забота нужна каждый день! − Сопровождается крупной фотографией ребенка лет трех-четырех, надписью «Помощь брошенным детям и детям-инвалидам», призывом «Помогайте вместе с нами miloserdie.ru» и рисунком, изображающим большую дружную семью.

7. Основной текст рекламного сообщения: Весь в няню? − Сопровождается крупной фотографией ребенка лет пяти-шести, занятого интеллектуальной игрой, а также призывом «Проводите больше времени с детьми» и риторическим вопросом «Всё равно?!», выделенным красным цветом на желтом фоне.

8. Основной текст рекламного сообщения: Они переживут твоих внуков! − Сообщение дано на фоне мусора в лесу и сопровождается крупной надписью на красном фоне «Лес – не место для мусора! Vse-ravno.net».

9. Основной текст рекламного сообщения: Быть джентльменом просто! Достаточно уступить место. − Сопровождается рисунком, изображающим ситуацию в общественном транспорте: мужчина в смокинге стоит возле сидящей молодой беременной женщины.

10. Основной текст рекламного сообщения: Взял по мелочи – сел по крупному. Грабеж наказывается лишением свободы на срок до 4-х лет (Ст. 161 УК РФ). − Сопровождается крупным рисунком, изображающим молодого человека с руками за спиной; в ладонях он держит сотовый телефон, но руки скованы наручниками.

Как можно заключить уже из этих примеров, темы рекламных сообщений связаны с повседневной жизнью людей, с их расхожими мнениями, суждениями о том, что происходит в стране, или оценками этих событий (ср.: тексты под номерами 1−4), а также с воспитанием в массовом сознании обывателей правильного отношения к другим, себе, своим детям, своим поступкам, своей жизни и жизни окружающих (см. тексты под номерами 5−10).

Следует подчеркнуть, что проблема воспитания граждан является ведущей для уличной социальной рекламы, поскольку подавляющее большинство просмотренных нами текстов посвящено именно воспитанию. Так, например, в русскоговорящих представителях российского общества воспитываются следующие качества:


1) забота о детях («Проводите с детьми больше времени!»; «Расскажите детям о…»; «Научите детей…»; «Одиннадцать вечера! А где сейчас ваш ребёнок?»; «А вы знаете, о чём думает, что чувствует ваш сын?»; «Ночь, чтобы спать! Несовершеннолетним запрещено находиться в развлекательных заведениях или на улице в ночное время без сопровождения родителей!» и др.);

2) ответственность родителей за интернет-коммуникацию их детей («Ушёл в интернет и не вернулся!»; «Оградим наших детей от вредной информации!»; «Родители! Оградите детей от ненужной информации!»; «Защитим детей от опасного контента!» и др.);

3) любовь к своему городу или району («Я люблю свой район!»; «Я люблю московские улицы после дождя!»; «Быть Москве чистым городом!»; «Пермь меняется. Меняйся и ты! Мы – культурная столица!» и др.);

4) забота о чистоте улиц, города, природы («Они [предметы бытового мусора] переживут твоих внуков!»; «Чисто не там, где убирают, а там, где не сорят!» и др.);

5) свобода от вредных привычек, стремление к здоровому образу жизни («Время не курить!»; «Вдыхая – убиваешь себя, выдыхая – других»; «Не ищи друга в бутылке – ищи в человеке!» и др.);

6) законопослушание, в том числе соблюдение дорожных правил («Включи поворотник – сохрани ему [другому участнику движения] жизнь!»; «Шанс на спасение. Пристегнись!»; «Пьяный за рулём… Без тебя пусто! [имеется в виду, без погибшего в автокатастрофе]»; «Спрашивают возраст? Продавец имеет законное право!» и др.);

7) стремление быть культурным, воспитанным человеком («Быть джентльменом просто! Достаточно уступить место»; «Пермь меняется. Меняйся и ты! Мы – культурная столица!»; «Сохраним красоту города для наших детей!»; «Москва – город грамотных людей!» и др.);

8) стремление быть нравственным человеком («Честность. Что это? Расскажите вашим детям!»; «Любовь. Что это? Расскажите вашим детям!»; «Помогайте старикам! Вы тоже не всегда будете молодыми.» и др.);

9) превентивная забота о своем здоровье («Какой осмотр важнее? Пройди бесплатную диспансеризацию!»; «Береги здоровье смолоду!» и др.);

10) осторожное, ответственное обращение с огнем («Огонь не для шуток! С огнём не шути!»; «Лучше зажигай в клубе, чем в лесу!» и др.);

11) толерантность к представителям иных национальностей («Понаехали тут? Багратион – Великий русский полководец. Грузин!» и др.);

12) экономное использование энергии и воды («Экономь энергию! Расходуй её целесообразно!»; «По капле утекают реки!» и др.).

Как видно, спектр тем воспитательного значения в текстах социально направленной рекламы достаточно широк: от взаимоотношений родителей и детей до экономного отношения к энергоресурсам. Однако важно, что все эти темы укладываются в одно общее смысловое поле – «человек должен быть


культурным и воспитанным». Это, можно сказать, доминанта, точка отсчета, основная идея социальной рекламы как феномена массовой коммуникации. В конкретных сообщениях данная идея представляется через какой-то один, определенный аспект повседневной жизни человека – интернет-коммуникацию, отношение к окружающей среде и людям, отношение к своему здоровью, поведение в обществе и на дорогах, отношение с законом и т. п. Благодаря этим общезначимым сторонам жизни человека, находящим выражение в рекламе, она и становится социальной – направленной на общество, «ответственной» за формирование в массовом сознании духовно-нравственных идеалов, связанных с понятиями культуры, закона и законности, послушания, уважения, добра, справедливости. Благодаря этому, как нам кажется, социальная реклама и приобретает качества, в определенной степени сближающие ее с литературой, назначением которой всегда считалось возбуждение в умах людей устремленности к добру, справедливости, правде, красоте, духовности.

Появление и распространение таких рекламных текстов на улицах русских городов можно только приветствовать: мы потеряли целое поколение за годы отсутствия просветительской линии в деятельности государства, теперь важно сохранить будущие. Безусловно, реклама не способна решить здесь всех вопросов, но хотя бы напомнить человеку о том, что вокруг него не враги, что каждый из нас достоин уважения, что только вместе мы можем сделать жизнь лучше и добрее, ей вполне под силу.

Литература / References 1. Андреева, Н. П. Язык рекламы как одно из средств коммуникации // Межкультурная

коммуникация: материалы регион. конф. (Омск, 20-23 апреля 1999 г.). – Омск, 1999. – С. 5-9.

2. Моряков, В. И. Екатерина II и русские просветители о воспитании «истинного сына Отечества» [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://ekaterina2.com>konf/konf_031.php (дата обращения: 25.02.2014).

3. Словари на Академике. [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://dic.academic.ru/ (дата обращения: 14.12.2013).

Наталия Васильевна Данилевская доктор филологических наук, профессор Пермский государственный национальный исследовательский университет Пермь, Россия [email protected]

Nataliya Danilevskaya PhD in Philology (Doctor of Science), Professor Perm State National Research University Perm, Russia [email protected]




Светлана Евгеньевна Овсянникова ассистент Пермский государственный национальный исследовательский университет Пермь, Россия

Svetlana Ovsyannikova Assistant Perm State National Research University Perm, Russia


Part 7 International scientific and educational cooperation for the solution of contemporary global issues: from global competition to world integration

МАРИЯ АЛЕКСЕЕВНА БЕЛЯЕВА / MARIA BELYAEVA

ПРОКРЕАЦИОННОЕ ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ КАК УСЛОВИЕ ПОДГОТОВКИ ГЛОБАЛЬНО КОМПЕТЕНТНЫХ ГРАЖДАН

PROCREATION EDUCATION AS A CONDITION OF PREPARING GLOBALLY COMPETENT CITIZENS


В данной статье анализируется понятие «глобальная компетентность» в контексте демографической проблематики. Автор утверждает, что освоение репродуктивной культуры является частью подготовки глобально компетентных граждан, помогающей сформировать превентивное репродуктивное самоопределение личности с учетом общественных потребностей. Это направление образования автор обозначает как «прокреационное образование» и проводит обзор существующего опыта прокреационного образования в России, в том числе с привлечением форм международного сотрудничества.

This article examines the concept of «global competence» in the context of the demographic perspective. The author asserts that the development of reproductive culture is the part of preparing globally competent citizens helping to generate preventive reproductive self-determination (self-identification) of the person with regard to the social needs. The author refers to this area of education as to «procreation education» and reviews existing experience of procreation education in Russia including its examination through international cooperation aspect. Ключевые слова: прокреационное образование, глобальная компетентность,

репродуктивная культура, репродуктивное самоопределение личности

Keywords: procreation education, global competence, reproductive culture, reproductive self-determination of the person

Прокреационное образование как условие подготовки глобально компетентных граждан 692

Процесс глобализации привнес в науку новые проблемные поля, новые понятийные конструкты, новые задачи для системы образования, такие как «подготовка глобально компетентных граждан». Данная статья посвящена уточнению этой задачи в контексте демографической проблематики.

Понятие «глобальная компетентность», как мы полагаем, характеризует человека, живущего в эпоху «без границ», в их пространственном, временном, информационном, коммуникативном и нормативном понимании. Конечно, на данный момент границы существуют, но они размываются. Помимо плюсов эта тенденция несет явные и скрытые минусы. Так, дихотомия «личное – общественное» все более усложняется, расширяя и углубляя конфликт потребностей между индивидом, семьей, государством (с присущими ему национальными интересами) до надгосударственного, а в дальнейшем и общемирового уровня.

Генезис понятия «подготовка глобально компетентных граждан», очевидно, связан с компетентностным подходом. Но не в узком, а широком смысле. В узком понимании компетентностный подход продолжает советские традиции утилитарного политехнического образования и рассматривает человека (учащегося, воспитанника, слушателя и т. д.) в качестве «изделия», которое в своей «готовности» должно отвечать требованиям рынка, работодателя, производственного процесса. В широком смысле компетентностный подход, на наш взгляд, отражает идеальную, эталонную меру совершенства человека, родственную по своей патетике другой излюбленной категории отечественной педагогики – «всесторонне развитая личность». Но каждая личность развивается по собственной уникальной траектории, тогда как «глобальная компетентность гражданина» предназначена не столько для самораскрытия его потенций, сколько для коммуникаций с миром, поэтому данная характеристика должна содержать некие универсалии, не зависящие от места жительства, вида профессиональной деятельности, пола, возраста, национальности, религиозных предпочтений. Например, к универсалиям следует отнести экологические, валеологические, информационные и другие компетенции, благодаря которым достигается интеграция и относительная психологическая комфортность существования человека в мире «без границ».

Вероятно, базовыми принципами подготовки глобально компетентных граждан являются принципы ответственности и социальной солидарности. Глобально компетентный гражданин понимает меру ответственности за реализацию своих потребностей, понимает, насколько дорого они обойдутся обществу и природе. И так же, как мощь океана складывается из миллионов капель, будущее человечества зависит от ответственности и степени социальной солидарности каждого.

В функциональном отношении подготовка глобально компетентных граждан предназначена для снижения рисков в различных сферах жизнедеятельности человека и общества, в том числе в прокреационной сфере, т. е. сфере физического воспроизводства человека.

«Прокреация» (лат. procreatio – рождение, произведение на свет) подразумевает рождение детей и является синонимом термина «репродукция», который активно используется в медико-биологических исследованиях. В

Мария Алексеевна Беляева / Maria Belyaeva 693

области социально-гуманитарного знания, на наш взгляд, предпочтительнее использовать именно термин «прокреация», тем самым подчеркивая, что в фокусе внимания находятся не биологическая природа репродукции человека, а социокультурный контекст повседневной жизни, который ее сопровождает. Этот контекст в историческом и национально-географическом измерениях очень вариативен и имеет большой простор для творчества (не случайно, «креативный» обозначает – созидательный, творческий, тогда как понятие «репродуктивный» подразумевает действие по образцу и лишено творческого начала). Но, учитывая сложившуюся традицию использования термина «репродуктивное поведение» в социально-гуманитарном знании, в рамках наших исследований и данной статьи мы говорим о такой сфере жизнедеятельности, как сфера прокреации и реализуемом в ней репродуктивном поведении.

Проблема «Север-Юг» в прокреационной плоскости является зеркальным отражением качества жизни и выражается демографическим кризисом развитых стран в противовес демографическому росту развивающихся стран. Последние свой экономический и прочий неуспех компенсируют «репродуктивным успехом», и не только в его биологическом, но и культурно-антропологическом смысле. В настоящее время волна мигрантов «с Юга» отнюдь не ассимилирует, а меняет уклад жизни ряда европейских стран, активно привнося свои традиции. Видимо, период миссионерства европейской культуры заканчивается вместе с уменьшением числа ее исконных носителей. Надвигающийся 100-летний юбилей первой публикации пессимистических размышлений О. Шпенглера («Закат Европы», 1918 г.) дает повод оценить, насколько верны оказались эти прогнозы и насколько репродуктивный успех в долгосрочной перспективе может оказаться главным козырем в мировом соотношении сил и ресурсных возможностей [9].

Что касается России, которая находится в демографической «яме» весь постсоветский период, то в течение прошедших двух десятилетий на государственном уровне предпринимались меры, направленные на повышение рождаемости и снижение смертности населения. Они заключались в реформировании систем здравоохранения и социальной защиты населения, но последовательной и комплексной пронаталистской политики не проводилось. Достигнутое повышение суммарного коэффициента рождаемости с 1,29 (2005 г.) до 1,69 (2012 г.) пока не обеспечивает преодоления депопуляционных процессов (см. регламентную таблицу [8]).

На фоне 7-миллиардного населения Земли депопуляция отдельных стран является не катастрофой, а скорее компенсаторным механизмом, но, исходя из национальных интересов, этот обстоятельство требует корректирующих действий, в том числе в сфере образования.

Система образования до сих пор не вовлечена в процесс демографической стабилизации российского общества. Дошкольное обучение акцентировано на подготовке к школе, школа – на подготовке к вузу, а вузы готовят к профессиональной деятельности, которой в дальнейшем более половины выпускников не занимаются. С учетом этих реалий образование должно формировать не только запас узкопрофессиональных компетенций, но и иной, более универсальный социокультурный багаж, который будет актуален вне


зависимости от дальнейшего профессионального пути индивида, приближая его к эталону «глобально компетентного гражданина».

Мы полагаем, что одна из таких универсалий, отвечающая потребностям личности и общества в эпоху глобализации, – это репродуктивная культура.

Данная культура определяет отношение к особому фрагменту человеческой телесности – способности продолжения рода (фертильности). Особой она является в том смысле, что не играет существенной роли для поддержания жизни ее носителя – конкретного индивида, а представляет собой потенциальную возможность – подарить жизнь другому, т. е. отвечает прежде всего интересам рода, а не индивидуальным потребностям. Человек – единственное животное, которое может сознательно противиться природе репродуктивных процессов (зачатие, беременность, роды, грудное вскармливание), нарушая причинно-следственную связь между сексуальным и репродуктивным поведением. Степень и направленность подобного рода вмешательств регламентируется культурой.

Репродуктивная культура (или, как синоним, культура репродуктивного поведения человека) охватывает совокупный культурный опыт регулирования способности продолжения рода, складывавшийся в ходе эволюционного развития человечества. В рамках конкретных культур, существовавших в прошлом или существующих в настоящем, наблюдается то или иное состояние репродуктивной культуры, описываемое через ее содержание, структуру, функции, факторы формирования и т. д.

Учитывая двойственную природу репродуктивного поведения, которое может быть направлено как на продолжение рода, так и на сдерживание фертильности, репродуктивная культура в своем содержании имеет две противоположные по сути подсистемы. Пронатальная (от лат. natalis – относящийся к рождению), т. е. продетная, подсистема объединяет социокультурную регламентацию усилий, направленных на рождение детей, освоение материнских и отцовских ролей. Антинатальная (антидетная) подсистема направлена на противодействие способности продолжения рода, ее «блокирование» с целью поддержания обратимой или необратимой инфертильности. В конкретный момент жизни каждый половозрелый индивид репродуктивного возраста сознательно или стихийно реализует либо ту, либо другую составляющую репродуктивной культуры. Структурными элементами пронатальной и антинатальной подсистем являются знания, умения, ритуалы, обряды и сопутствующее им материально-предметное наполнение, основанное на достижениях науки и реализуемое индивидом самостоятельно или с привлечением профессиональных услуг.

Таким образом, в нашем понимании репродуктивная культура представляет собой динамическую ценностно-нормативную систему, предназначенную для регуляции исторически трансформирующихся репродуктивных потребностей человека и общества за счет амбивалентного сдерживания или реализации способности продолжения рода [3].

На индивидуальном уровне степень освоения репродуктивной культуры коррелирует с репродуктивным самоопределением личности. Этим понятием мы обозначаем один из аспектов культурной идентификации, который выражается в согласовании репродуктивных потребностей личности с


существующими культурными нормами детности, а также с доступными природными и социокультурными возможностями их реализации.

Потребность в репродуктивном самоопределении – это принципиально новая потребность человека, живущего в постмодернистском обществе. Она соответствует тренду возрастания индивидуальной субъектности. В архаичном, аграрном и даже индустриальном обществе репродуктивный выбор определялся строгими нормами брачно-семейной морали и национальной традицией, и поэтому индивидуальный выбор как таковой отсутствовал. В современной европейской культуре, абсолютизирующей принципы толерантности и свободы личности, сфера репродукции допускает разнообразие поведенческих стратегий: от «childfree» до многодетности, причем, как естественной, так и достигнутой благодаря вспомогательным репродуктивным технологиям.

Общественные потребности, продиктованные национальными интересами России, отнюдь не вариативны и подразумевают, согласно экспертному мнению ведущих российских демографов (А. И. Антонов [1, с. 357] и др.), вполне определенную – среднедетную (3-4 ребенка) модель семьи. Но мы видим, что наука и практика в этом вопросе очередной раз «не нашли» друг друга, т. к. социального заказа такого рода не поступало, и российское образование не преследует пронаталистских целей.

Социальный заказ государства косвенно отражен в ряде нормативных актов: «Концепция демографической политики Российской Федерации на период до 2025 года», «Концепция долгосрочного социально-экономического развития Российской Федерации на период до 2020 года», где подчеркивается необходимость повышения рождаемости для преодоления депопуляции и достижения простого воспроизводства населения, при котором процессы смертности и рождаемости компенсируют друг друга. Но прямого влияния на образовательные стандарты эти документы не оказывают.

Репродуктивное самоопределение личности, находясь за пределами учебно-воспитательных задач, формируется стихийно. До недавнего времени это было нормально, поскольку биологические механизмы репродукции оставались неподвластны человеку. Однако сегодня, с одной стороны, вырос объем знаний и возможностей, определяющих сценарии репродуктивного поведения, а с другой, ослабли механизмы социального контроля. Это, конечно, не единственная, но весомая причина высоких показателей социального сиротства, искусственных абортов, бесплодия и ряда других актуальных проблем российского общества.

Необходимо отметить, что репродуктивное самоопределение – процесс, тесно соотнесенный с другими составляющими социализации и инкультурации (профессиональное самоопределение, гражданское самоопределение, брачное самоопределение и т. д.), но в рамках одной культуры репродуктивные сценарии похожи, так как репродуктивные установки и мотивы находятся под влиянием стереотипов массового сознания, ретранслируемых, главным образом, семьей и СМИ, которые действуют стихийно и не отражают многих реалий современного состояния прокреационной сферы.


Для своевременной трансляции актуального и достоверного знания есть специальный социальный институт – образование. На наш взгляд, российское образование на всех ступенях должно включать особый содержательный компонент, который мы обозначили как «прокреационное образование». Цель прокреационного образования – формирование репродуктивной культуры на микро- (личность) и макроуровнях (общество). Основной объект и субъект данного направления культурно-просветительской деятельности – молодежь, т. е. граждане в возрасте от 14 до 30 лет.

Прокреационное образование предназначено для создания условий превентивного репродуктивного самоопределения личности, опережающего реальные действия по реализации или сдерживанию фертильности. Прокреационное образование прекрасно вписывается в современный тренд подготовки глобально компетентных граждан, который предполагает оперативное реагирование на глобальные проблемы, в том числе проблему демографического кризиса развитых стран, тесно связанную с общим кризисом европейской культуры.

В своей научной и практической деятельности мы разработали и реализовали (на базе Уральского государственного педагогического университета, г. Екатеринбург, РФ) модель прокреационного образования студенческой молодежи, которая обладает инновационным культурным содержанием и не дублирует полового воспитания, сексуального образования, семейного воспитания [2]. Частью методического обеспечения этой модели является подготовленное нами учебное пособие [4], по своей тематике и содержательной структуре не имеющее аналогов на русскоязычном рынке учебной литературы.

В российской реальности целый ряд обстоятельств препятствует становлению прокреационного образования. Часть из них обусловлена глобальным процессом аномии репродуктивного поведения человека; другие преграды кроются в особенностях российской ментальности и государственного управления (например, восприятие репродуктивного поведения как приватной темы, экономический детерминизм в преодолении депопуляционных процессов и др.); третья категория сдерживающих факторов непосредственно коррелирует с состоянием науки и практики в области культуры и образования. Но, несмотря на отсутствие необходимых условий, отдельные примеры реализации образовательных программ, созвучных идеям прокреационного образования, все-таки присутствуют.

Например, в системе дополнительного образования взрослых, существующего в основном на коммерческой основе, предлагаются краткосрочные обучающие программы для пар, ожидающих ребенка (в среднем 12-32 аудиторных часа).

Эти программы имеют многочисленные определения: просветительские, психолого-педагогические, психопрофилактические, адаптационные, развивающие, оздоровительные, поскольку они решают разноплановые задачи, подчиненные одной цели – формирование готовности к родительству (материнству, отцовству), его начальным и самым ответственным стадиям: роды и первые недели жизни ребенка в семье.


Путь подобных образовательных инициатив, получивших развитие в последние 10-15 лет, достаточно тернист, т. к. медицинские учреждения ревностно охраняют сферу своего влияния. Напомним, что программы подготовки женщин к родам проводились ранее, в 70-80-е гг. прошлого века, только на базе профильных медицинских служб – «Женских консультаций». Они имели иное содержание и принципиально другой стиль взаимодействия со слушательницами. Не отрицая «пальмы первенства» медицинских специалистов в деле санитарно-гигиенического просвещения населения, тем не менее их претензии на роль «главного эксперта» в трансляции репродуктивной культуры сомнительны.

Представители Русской Православной Церкви (РПЦ) критикуют принципы «естественного родительства» и «сознательного родительства», а вместе с ними и обучающие программы для будущих родителей, расценивая их как оккультно-языческие практики (см., например, размышления Н. А. Соколовой [7]). Негатив со стороны РПЦ объясняется еще и тем, что этот опыт в его современном виде заимствован из зарубежной практики, хотя идея сознательной психофизической подготовки к родам принадлежит отечественной психотерапевтической школе (И. З. Вельвовский и соавторы [5]).

Другой пример международного влияния и сотрудничества на ниве образования, связанного с прокреационной проблематикой, – это программы для медицинских и социальных работников, задействованных в системе охраны материнства и детства. Эти программы дополнительного профессионального образования, нацеленные на внедрение в российскую повседневность современных контрацептивных практик и новых перинатальных технологий, проводились в рамках целевой государственной программы «Планирование семьи» в 90-е и «нулевые» годы. Данный опыт международного сотрудничества государственных медико-социальных учреждений с зарубежными партнерами оценивается неоднозначно. Некоторые ученые (как правило, представляющие РПЦ) склонны видеть в подобном взаимодействии не всемирную интеграцию, а как раз наоборот – пример глобальной конкуренции, проявляющейся в завуалированных способах дальнейшего снижения рождаемости в России и сугубо коммерческом интересе иностранных компаний в новых рынках сбыта своей фармпродукции. Подобная точка зрения не лишена оснований, но мы полагаем, что обозначенные программы повышения квалификации российских специалистов внесли свой положительный вклад в борьбу с некоторыми депопуляционными факторами, такими как искусственные аборты, материнская и младенческая смертность.

Судя по научной периодике [6], отдельные элементы прокреационного образования присутствуют и в системе общего школьного образования в рамках просветительских программ семейного, гражданского, экологического воспитания, воспитания ЗОЖ (здорового образа жизни), но какое-либо системное начало в этой работе отсутствует. Кроме того, приоритетной аудиторией прокреационного образования, на наш взгляд, является совершеннолетняя молодежь, обучающаяся в учреждениях высшего и среднего профессионального образования. Данная категория учащихся, в


отличие от школьников, имеет полный «пакет» репродуктивных прав и владеет общекультурной базой, позволяющей формировать когнитивную и ценностно-нормативную составляющую репродуктивной культуры. Процесс профессионального обучения занимает достаточно длительный период, которому сопутствует не только профессиональное самоопределение, но и репродуктивное самоопределение, а также поиск брачного партнера, поэтому обсуждение и изучение прокреационной проблематики встречает заинтересованность юношей и девушек.

В собственной образовательной практике мы стремимся способствовать превентивному репродуктивному самоопределению молодежи через систему мер учебной и внеучебной работы. Репродуктивное самоопределение как форма рефлексии личных, национальных и планетарных интересов, связанных с репродуктивным поведением человека, является одной из характеристик глобально компетентных граждан, т. к. несет в себе ответственность за свою судьбу, судьбу родины и мира в целом.

Подготовка глобально компетентных граждан не может обойти стороной понимание законов развития прокреационной сферы общества, поэтому окажется дальновидным то государство, которое помимо традиционных рычагов демографической политики – здравоохранения и экономических стимулов, активно задействует трансляционные механизмы. Переход от стихийной трансляции репродуктивной культуры к целенаправленной образовательной деятельности обусловлен нарастающими демографическими проблемами. Национальное своеобразие этих проблем имеет универсальные корни в виде трансформации культурных регулятивов репродуктивного поведения человека под влиянием НТР (научно-технического прогресса).

Целенаправленная трансляция репродуктивной культуры в рамках особого направления образования, обозначенного нами как «прокреационное образование», является одним из условий подготовки глобально компетентных граждан. Дальнейшее научное обоснование и практическое воплощение прокреационного образования мы рассматриваем в качестве будущего тренда развития современного общества (как в российском, так и общеевропейском масштабе). В частности, российское образование для преодоления депопуляционных процессов должно обогатить свое содержание прокреационной направленностью, реализуя пронаталистский вектор демографической политики.

С другой стороны, целенаправленная трансляция репродуктивной культуры в эпоху глобализации уже не может быть ангажирована только национальными интересами. Несмотря на интимность деторождения, репродуктивный выбор каждого отдельного гражданина в конечном счете затрагивает общественные интересы, отсюда проистекает особое функциональное назначение репродуктивной культуры – формирование гражданской ответственности личности за последствия репродуктивного поведения. Чтобы сформировать такого рода ответственность, необходимо на ценностном, когнитивном и поведенческом уровнях урегулировать противоречия между коллективным «Мы» и индивидуальным «Я» в вопросах продолжения рода. Разработанная нами модель прокреационного образования,


предназначенная для реализации в вузах широкого профиля, является одним из путей достижения этой функции в российском обществе.

Литература / References 1. Антонов, А. И. Многодетная семья в эру депопуляции // Фамилистические

исследования. Том 2. Миллион мнений о семье и о семье: сборник / отв. ред. А. И. Антонов. – М.: КДУ, 2009. – С. 357-366.

2. Беляева, М. А. Модель прокреационного образования студенческой молодежи // Вестник социально-гуманитарного образования и науки. – 2011. – № 4. – С. 36-47.

3. Беляева, М. А. Репродуктивная культура: тенденции развития и механизмы трансляции в современном российском обществе: автореф. дис. … докт. культурологии. – Киров, 2013.

4. Беляева, М. А. Репродуктивное поведение человека: учебное пособие для студентов вузов. Изд. 2-е. – М.: ЛЕНАНД, 2012.

5. Вельвовский, И. З. Психопрофилактика болей в родах: лекции для врачей и акушеров / И. З. Вельвоский, К. И. Платонов, В. А. Плотичер, Э. А. Шугом. – М.: Медгиз, 1954.

6. Плаксий, А. Н. Опыт подготовки школьников к будущему родительству (анализ научной периодики) // Беременная женщина и современный социум: сб. статей международ. науч.-практ. конф. / Урал. гос. пед. ун-т. – Екатеринбург, 2013. – С. 140-145.

7. Соколова, Н. А. Оккультно-языческая западня «естественного родительства» // Демографические исследования. – 2012. – № 13 [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www.demographia.ru/articles_N/index.html?idR=23&idArt=2028 (дата обращения: 13.01.2014).

8. Федеральная служба государственной статистики. Демография. Суммарный коэффициент рождаемости [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_main/rosstat/ru/statistics/population/demography/# (дата обращения: 20.01.2014).

9. Шпенглер, О. Закат Европы / пер. с нем. – Новосибирск: Наука, 1993. Мария Алексеевна Беляева доктор культурологии кандидат педагогических наук, профессор Уральский государственный педагогический университет Екатеринбург, Россия [email protected] Maria Belyaeva PhD in Culture Studies (Doctor of Science) PhD in Pedagogy (Candidate of Science), Professor Ural State Pedagogical University Yekaterinburg, Russia [email protected]



Part 7: International scientific and educational cooperation for the solution of contemporary global issues 700

ЭЛЬВИРА ВЛАДИМИРОВНА КОРОЛЕВА / ELVIRA KOROLEVA

ЗНАЧИМОСТЬ ВЫСШЕЙ ШКОЛЫ В ИСКОРЕНЕНИИ ИСТОКОВ МЕНТАЛЬНОГО ТЕРРОРИЗМА СОЦИАЛЬНЫХ БОЛЕЗНЕЙ

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF HIGHER EDUCATION FOR THE ELIMINATION OF SOCIAL DISEASES’ MENTAL TERRORISM


В современном мире с каждым годом растет угроза терроризма. Появляются его новые формы и методы насилия. Одна из них представлена в образе ментального терроризма, способствующего распространению целого ряда социальных болезней. Сегодня высшая школа должна формировать сознание молодых людей таким образом, чтобы они не становились субъектами и объектами ментального терроризма.

The threat of terrorism is growing each year in today’s world. Its new forms and methods of violence appear. One of them is represented in the form of mental terrorism promoting the spread of a diversity of social diseases. Today higher education should form the consciousness of young people in such a way that they do not become the subjects and objects of mental terrorism. Ключевые слова: ментальный терроризм, социальные болезни, высшая школа,

целостная личность, субъекты ментального терроризма, социальный вирус

Keywords: mental terrorism, social diseases, higher education, integrated personality, subjects of mental terrorism, social virus

Гетерогенность социальных болезней с каждым годом пополняет свой

список и увеличивает численный состав заболевших. Наверное, сложно найти человека, который бы не являлся носителем определенного вида недуга. Социальные болезни сродни инфекционным эпидемиям, для которых не существует территориальных границ, гендерных различий, конфессиональной принадлежности, социального статуса.

Существует множество определений и классификаций социальной болезни. В данной работе за основу взята классификация И. В. Рывкиной. Она следующим образом сгруппировала социальный недуг: «1. Психологические социальные болезни – агрессивность, алкоголизм, антисемитизм, аполитичность, авторитаризм, аморальность, домогательство, деморализация, девиантность, доносительство, конфронтация, ксенофобия, маргинализация, отчуждение, наркотизация, национализм. 2. Политические социальные болезни – аполитичность, бандитизм, бюрократизм, бесправие, дедовщина, запретительство, идеологизация, конфронтация, конфликтность, карьеризм, криминализация, мафиозность, милитаризация, фашизация. 3. Экономические социальные болезни – нищенство, бедность, безработица, бездомность, беспризорность, коррупция, коммерционализация «отмывание денег»,

Эльвира Владимировна Королева / Elvira Koroleva 701

обнищание, олигархизация, рэкет, спекуляция, теневизация, фиктивная занятость, конфронтация, карьеризм, проституция, приписки, воровство, мошенничество, фальсификация, разорение, конкуренция, теневая экономика, тунеядство, «двойная бухгалтерия», клановость, хулиганство» [10, с. 49-50].

На первый взгляд, каждая подгруппа деструкций общества не имеет единую точку исхода. Это только первое впечатление. Родовым гнездом является никто иной, как сам человек. Все вышеперечисленные разрушители социума взаимосвязаны и взаимодополняемы. Если индивиду присущи такие качества характера, как жесткость, недоброжелательность, озлобленность, то с большей вероятностью он станет носителем экономических и политических социальных болезней.

Разрушение личности не происходит без влияния внешних факторов. Благоприятной средой для зачатия эмбриона, разлагающего личность, может служить целый спектр врожденных и приобретенных пороков. Совмещение и фиксация в одной точке внешних и внутренних червоточин на выходе дает дефектную, с позиции моральных и этических норм, человеческую единицу.

В ограниченных рамках одной статьи достаточно трудно раскрыть весь многообразный массив катастрофического воздействия явных и скрытых «бактерий», провоцирующих рост социальных болезней. В данной статье основной акцент будет сделан на одном внешнем факторе, способствующем и благоприятствующем увеличению количества носителей вредоносного вируса, а именно сконцентрируемся на ментальном терроризме.

Допускаем, что эксперты-террологи справедливо отметят, что нет такого вида терроризма. Не заявляя на авторство данного термина, хотелось просто пояснить, что вкладывается в это определение, почему именно ментальность взята за основу.

Согласно определению, взятому из философской энциклопедии, ментальность (менталитет) (от лат. mens – ум, мышление, образ мыслей, душевный склад) — глубинный уровень коллективного и индивидуального сознания, включающий и бессознательное; относительно устойчивая совокупность установок и предрасположенностей индивида или социальной группы воспринимать мир определенным образом [7]. Как известно, образ мыслей современного человека нельзя назвать кристально чистым, созидающим. В каждого из нас вселены такие умственные ориентиры, способные дезорганизовать как нас самих, так и окружающих. Радиус действия негативизма неограничен и беспределен. Широкомасштабность разрушительных мыслей, заводящих людей в тупик, сеющих страх, цементирующих и блокирующих разум, такое количество, что оно сродни бесчисленной армии, противостоять которой практически некому.

Каждый из нас на себе ощущает последствия умственной ментальной деструкции. Исходя из вышесказанного и опираясь на значение слова «террор», который буквально переводится как страх и ужас, считаю логично допустимым использовать термин «ментальный терроризм». Под ментальным терроризмом в данной работе подразумевается любая форма действий индивида или группы лиц, вносящих дисбаланс в сознание людей, расшатывающих их психику, провоцирующих к дестабилизации природного и социального равновесия.

http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enc_philosophy/769



Значимость высшей школы в искоренении истоков ментального терроризма социальных болезней 702

Принято считать, что «основной целью всех видов террористической деятельности – вызвать страх через убийство, заставить действовать в интересах субъектов террористической деятельности» [6, c. 19]. Что же касается ментального терроризма, то здесь немного иные способы воздействия на массы.

Ментальный терроризм не так явен, как силовой. Этим он более опасен. Субъекты террористической деятельности, воздействуя на объекты, не демонстрируют свое присутствие никаким образом. У них нет лидера, официальных названий организаций. Они не выступают открыто, не являются оппозицией правящей политической элите, не создают коалиций.

О наличии заказчиков ментальных террористических актов можно только догадываться. Скорее, даже не совсем логично употреблять слово «акт», т. к. оно обозначает быстрое действие. Ментальный терроризм уничтожает население путем порой едва заметных дозированных «безболезненных» уколов в психику человека. Некоторые могут заявить, что укол – это быстрый акт, и он ничем не отличается от силового насилия. Акцентирую внимание, что ментальная инъекция входит в организм, не причиняя явной физической боли, тем и отличается от других видов террора.

Доказать существование инициаторов-террористов социальных болезней практически невозможно, да и явных таковых с фамилиями, именами попросту нет, но откуда тогда в наших цивилизованных государствах бесчисленный перечень социальных недугов. «Медицинская энциклопедия общественных болезней» не ответит нам на этот вопрос. Почему ментальный терроризм не видим и не имеет явных организаторов – да все потому, что каждый гражданин независимо от того, где и кем он работает, служит или находится в ином статусе, является распространителем деструктивных идей и мыслей, т. е. все мы с вами практически без исключения попадаем в этот список. Однозначно к нему можно присоединить государственные, религиозные, общественные, коммерческие организации, учреждения, предприятия, включая их сотрудников.

Допускаю целый ряд критических возражений в отношении вышесказанного. И не удивительно, за редким исключением кто-либо осмелится смело признать себя убийцей. Можно согласиться, что этот ярлык слишком груб, но то, что мы с вами ведем подрывную деятельность по отношению к своему собственному физическому, психическому и душевному здоровью, нельзя оспорить. Как представители государственных или частных компаний, в которых трудимся, мы также вносим свой непосильный вклад в социальный разлад.

Условно субъектов ментального терроризма социальных болезней в пределах одного государства можно разделить на три вида: микро-, мезо- и макросистемы.

Раскроем по отдельности сущность, концептуальные основы, механизмы воздействия, последствия террористических действий на социальное поле каждой из этих систем, а также их причастность к злокачественным общественным недугам.

Микросистема представлена в лице одного человека. Действия индивида в отношении распространения ментального терроризма не носят системного


характера. В обыденном понимании, все зависит от его настроения. Этот факт можно назвать «уловкой слабых». Разбалансировка сознания, неуравновешенность, невоспитанность человека запускает процессы распространения социальных болезней. Эмоциональный фон, исходящий от него, нарушает уравновешенный ритм жизни других людей. Психологические социальные болезни заявляют о себе благодаря способности подобных личностей. В психологии даже существует понятие «психологического вируса». Психолог Ирина Максимова отмечает: «Достаточно пообщаться с человеком, который недоволен чем-то или кем-то. Если не смог его жалобы отстраненно воспринять, через себя пропустил, то вскоре можешь стать таким же» [5, с. 1]. Неоднократные и многочисленные эксперименты психологов разных стран подтверждают вышесказанное. Так, например, «сотрудники Университета Нотр-Дам (штат Индиана, США) установили, что образ мыслей, который делает людей подверженными депрессии, может быть заразным для тех, кто находится рядом с ними. Авторы исследования Джеральд Хэйфелл и Дженнифер Хеймс наблюдали за девушками из университетского колледжа, которые живут в общежитии, и выяснили, что особенности реагирования на стрессы, которые заставляют видеть мир в негативных красках, передаются от девушек, склонных к депрессии, их соседкам по комнате. Спустя полгода у них тоже появлялись симптомы депрессии» [8, с. 1].

Однозначно, нельзя полностью списывать деструктивные социально-психологические болезни на людей со слабым, неустойчивым характером, но игнорировать и исключать этот факт недопустимо. Для справки: «Всемирная организация здравоохранения (ВОЗ) сравнивает депрессию с эпидемией, охватившей все человечество. На 51 сессии ВОЗ были объявлено: депрессия уже вышла на первое место в мире среди причин неявки на работу, на второе – среди болезней, приводящих к потере трудоспособности. Если не будет принято соответствующих мер, то к 2020 году депрессия парализует экономическую жизнь как развитых, так и развивающихся стран» [3, с. 1].

Мезосистема – это уровень государственных и негосударственных предприятий, учреждений, общественных, политических, религиозных организаций, средства массовой информации. Одним из ярких примеров этого уровня является пропаганда и рекламирование определенного стиля жизни. Если проанализировать основной массив декларируемых средствами массовой информации образов жизни, то увидим все симптомы социальных болезней налицо, таких как: деморализация общества, повсеместное сквернословие, культивирование исключительно физической красоты человека, ставка на материальный достаток. Исследователь Борис Ратников проводит параллель между медийным образом и бомбой. Вот, что он отмечает: «Один образ-бомба поражает миллионы мишеней у экранов телевизоров и мониторов компьютеров, искажая структуру личности человека через атаку на мировоззренческие ценности. В этом смысле так называемые «секс-бомба» и «икона стиля» – это не метафоры, а точное название концептуальных боеголовок» [9, с. 4].

Идеологические диверсии становятся нормой наших дней. Как указывает Дмитрий Волкогонов, «одним из распространенных приемов, используемых в идеологических диверсиях, является попытка увести интересы, стремления


человека в мир мещанских вкусов и вещей, потребительской психологии, которая обычно предстает питательной средой для общественной пассивности, беспринципности, приспособленчества, конформизма» [1, c. 52]. Все эти процессы – реалии современной России.

Макросистема включает в себя органы государственной власти всех уровней. Под ментальным терроризмом в границах данной системы следует понимать только декларируемую государственную политику в различных сферах жизнедеятельности общества, о которой только говориться, но фактически не реализуемую в полном объеме. Это означает, что практическая реализация озвученных социальных программ не соответствует ожиданиям граждан.

Исходной точкой вектора ментального терроризма может быть любая из представленных систем. Какая из систем наиболее опасна для общества, сказать сложно. На первый взгляд, макросистема в силу верховенства в иерархической политической системе общества более весома. Другие две системы нельзя сбрасывать со счетов.

Ментальный терроризм всех видов не селективен. Запуская и транслируя в социальные группы разнородные, порой противоречивые концепции, провоцирующие общественный дисбаланс, дестабилизацию, с доскональной точностью нельзя предугадать, кто станет их жертвой. Не всегда прогнозы, особенно политические, могут сбываться. Об этом свидетельствуют результаты избирательных кампаний. Здесь, конечно, можно обвинить в неквалифицированности сотрудников предвыборного штаба, но нельзя снимать со счетов непредсказуемость действий электората.

Высшая школа как никто другой ответственна за происходящие события на политическом и социальном пространстве наших государств. В стенах университетов не только закладывают фундамент научных знаний, теоретических основ, но и формируют характер человека. Это, конечно, в идеале, но, к сожалению, на практике дело обстоит иначе. Зачастую наш профессорско-преподавательский состав ограничивает воспитание только рамками лекционных занятий и постоянных нравоучений. Рефлексия студентов на подобные действия отрицательная. Знания о деструктивных моделях поведения не гарантируют правильной реализации их на практике.

Можно согласиться с тем, что у высшей школы совсем иные задачи, которые абсолютно не связаны с корректировкой личности. Отчасти это так, но именно в лоне университетов оттачиваются определенные качества характера индивида. Высшие учебные заведения выпускают специалистов, большинство из которых по окончании университета уже заражены бактериями социальных болезней. Кроме того, они уже могут самостоятельно грамотно и искусно формировать новые формы недугов, которым будут подвержены многочисленные слои населения. В среде студентов-юристов можно слышать фразу, поражающую своей искренностью: «мы пришли учиться праву, чтобы впоследствии грамотно обходить и нарушать законы». Этот лозунг станет их жизненным кредо. Именно эти выпускники будут стремиться занять ключевые посты во властных структурах государства, крупных коммерческих компаниях. Последствия их деятельности катастрофичны для всех, поскольку подобные граждане являются


инициаторами реформ, новых законов, дестабилизирующих социальное поле. Их действия становятся провокационными, что вносит дисбаланс в стабильную жизнь общества, а следовательно, социальных болезней разных форм современным странам не миновать.

Хотелось сконцентрировать внимание нашего профессорско-преподавательского состава на тех действиях, поступках, которые мы с вами совершаем в процессе работы со студентами. Для кого-то некоторые факты, представленные в данной работе, покажутся оскорбительными, ущемляющими, больно задевающими достоинство личности преподавателя. Подобная реакция скорее должна стать поводом, чтобы задуматься, что мы, преподаватели, несем миру. Необходимо понимать, а не обижаться.

Рассмотрим, как зарождаются истоки распространения ментального терроризма, ведущего к размножению социальных болезней, на примере личности преподавателя. Возникновение симптомов социальных недугов явственно проявляется по нескольким направлениям: физическое состояние преподавателя, эмоциональный фон, морально-этические качества, стиль и образ жизни.

Для многих сотрудников учебных заведений все эти аспекты жизни требуют тщательной и глубокой доработки. Социально-психологический портрет среднестатистического преподавателя выглядит примерно следующим образом: неуравновешенный характер, конфликтность, слабое физическое здоровье, демонстрация недовольства по отношению к окружающему миру, иждивенческое настроение. Все это говорит о том, что тот, кто должен быть лекарем социальных болезней, становится вирусным распространителем. Происходит это из-за нежелания и неумения самих преподавателей быть не включенными в массовую истерию ментального терроризма. Абсентеизм профессорско-преподавательского состава, которому свойственно равнодушие, безразличие по отношению к студенту как формирующейся личности, к сожалению, имеет место в высших учебных заведениях.

Ответственность за различного рода социальные болезни ложится на сотрудников вуза – нельзя этот факт списывать со счетов. Мы ответственны за эмоциональный фон, излучаемый преподавателями. Не секрет, что многие студенты не желают посещать лекционные и семинарские занятия лишь потому, что им неприятна личность самого лектора.

Завышенная самооценка преподавателей губительна. Необходимо понимать, что человек – это не застывшее на века образование, и позиция учителей «я уже все знаю, и нет необходимости расти дальше» – катастрофична. Мы владеем научными терминами, повышаем профессиональную квалификацию, но о себе как полноценной качественной личности забываем. Качественные характеристики человека далеко не всегда определяемы профессионализмом. Полноценная, целостная личность представляет собой постоянный живой механизм, который ни на минуту не позволяет себе скатиться в бездну потребительского отношения к жизни.

Потребительская лихорадка, стремительно заполняющая наше жизненное пространство, затмевает собой иные потребности человека. Коммерциализация высшего образования обязывает нас учитывать только материальные интересы учебных заведений, все остальное уходит на второй


план. Загоняя нас в рамки исключительно финансовых интересов, незаметно государство становится заложником социальных болезней. Никто не должен забывать, что если человек закрывает только определенные аспекты жизнедеятельности, то другие остаются в проигрыше. Какие мы, такими становятся и наши дети. В свое время Вильгельм Гумбольдт отметил: «Древние, преимущественно греки, почитали вредным и бесчестным всякое занятие, которое, развивая лишь телесную силу, имело целью не внутреннее развитие, а приобретение внешних благ» [2, c. 28]. Мудрость древних актуальна и поныне.

Как верно заметил Дарио Саласас: «цель современного образования – запрограммировать мозг людей так, чтобы они лучше выполняли свою профессиональную и общественную работу. При обучении основное внимание уделяется передаче как можно большего объема информации, в то время как моральное совершенствование человека абсолютно не принимается в расчет. Самая большая ошибка науки состоит в утверждении, что «ум – это самая ценная способность человека» [11, c. 56]. Именно ум является источником социальных болезней. Это он определяет наличие нашего богатства и нищеты. Только слабый характер в тандеме с умом позволяет человеку впасть в депрессию, уныние. Никого из нас не заставляют насильно, за редким исключением, совершать аморальные поступки: брать взятки, вымогать, заниматься проституцией, мошенничеством. Это выбор отдельного человека. Великий Виктор Франкл показал всем образец стойкости и не включенности в хаос происходящих вокруг событий. Его книга «Человек в поисках смысла» является ключом к открытию иной жизни, не обремененной ментальным терроризмом. Вот какой совет он дает всем нам: «Мы, прошедшие концлагеря, можем вспомнить людей, которые ходили по баракам, утешая других и подчас отдавая последний кусок хлеба. Пусть их было немного, они служат достаточным доказательством: у человека можно отнять все, кроме одного – его последней свободы: выбрать свое отношение к любым данным обстоятельствам, выбрать свой собственный путь» [12, с. 15].

Большинство исследователей, не говоря уже о тех, кто не имеет непосредственного отношения к науке, глубоко и догматично убеждены, что социальные болезни имеют под собой сугубо экономическую платформу и никак иначе. Мировая практика демонстрирует нам иные примеры. Так, в Докладе о развитии человека до 2010 года отмечается: «…наиболее поразительные выводы, сделанные в исследованиях о развитии человека за последние пять лет, – отсутствие значимой корреляции между экономическим ростом и улучшением ситуации в сферах здравоохранения и образования. Наше объяснение подчеркивает беспрецедентную активизацию обмена идеями между странами – от новых энергосберегающих технологий до демократических идеалов и более эффективных практик производства. Мы считаем, что множество нововведений дало странам возможность улучшить ситуацию в области здравоохранения и образования, не прибегая к значительным затратам, что объясняет ослабление зависимости между экономическим ростом и не связанными с доходом измерениями развития человека» [4, c. 45].


Все вышесказанное подкреплено цифровыми показателями. Результаты исследований, вошедших в «Доклад о развитии человека до 2010 года», вселяют надежду и свидетельствуют о неоспоримой силе и таких научных проектов, которые не всегда требуют огромных финансовых вложений. К таким проектам можно отнести личностное развитие абсолютно каждого представителя профессорско-преподавательского состава. Их знания должны быть направлены не только на удовлетворение материальных аспектов жизни, но и на формирование особой касты, действия, мысли, образ жизни которых нес бы в себе исключительно созидательное начало.

Сиюминутных чудодейственных средств от болезней, выращенных в умах и сознании людей, не существует. Энергия, затраченная на падение и деградацию, трудновосполнима. На восстановление требуется во много раз больше сил и могущества, которыми обладают далеко не многие индивиды. Корректировка утраченного равновесия возможна лишь в том случае, когда человек сам или с помощью жизненного опыта других людей поймет, что «болезнетворные социальные бактерии» никогда не смогут внедриться и закрепиться в его сознании, если оно не осквернено, не засорено распущенными, безнравственными, аморальными жизненными концепциями и идеями.

Постоянная тренировка абстиненции от деструктивных мыслей, действий должна быть осознанной, а не навязанной, очередной идеологической идеей.

Литература / References 1. Волкогонов, Д. А. Психологическая война: Подрывные действия империализма в

области общественного сознания. – М.: Воениздат, 1983. 2. Гумбольдт, В. О пределах государственной деятельности. – М.: Социум, Три

квадрата, 2003. 3. Депрессия. Цифры и факты [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа:

http://lossofsoul.narod.ru/DEPRESSION/statistic.htm (дата обращения: 07.02.2014). 4. Доклад о развитии человека 2010. Реальное богатство народов: пути к развитию

человека / пер. с англ.; ПРООН. – М.: Издательство «Весь Мир», 2010. 5. Максимова, И. Депрессия заразна! [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://

gazeta.aif.ru/_/online/enisei/568/03_01 (дата обращения: 04.02.2014). 6. Международный терроризм: борьба за геополитическое господство: монография. –

М.: Изд-во РАГС, 2005. 7. Ментальность. Словари и энциклопедии на Академике [Электронный ресурс]. –

Режим доступа: http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enc_philosophy/698/ (дата обращения: 14.02.2014).

8. Новости медицины. Психиатрия и психология. Депрессия заразна [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www.medlinks.ru/article.php?sid=54092 (дата обращения: 07.02.2014).

9. Ратников, Б. К. Вектор разрушения духовного пространства России [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www.noocosmology.ru/articles-37.html (дата обращения: 11.02.2014).

10. Рывкина, И. В. Социальные болезни современной России [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/2012/0497/biblio02.php (дата обращения: 18.02.2014).


11. Соммэр, Д. Мораль XXI века / пер. с исп. – М.: Научная книга, 2007. 12. Франкл, В. Человек в поисках смысла [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа:

http://lib.ru/DPEOPLE/frankl.txt (дата обращения: 11.02.2014). Эльвира Владимировна Королева кандидат социологических наук, доцент Владивостокский государственный университет экономики и сервиса Владивосток, Россия [email protected] Elvira Koroleva PhD in Sociology (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor Vladivostok State University of Economics and Service Vladivostok, Russia [email protected]




АННА ЛЕОНИДОВНА ЧЕРНЫШОВА / ANNA CHERNISHOVA

ДЕМОГРАФИЧЕСКАЯ СИТУАЦИЯ В СОВРЕМЕННОМ МИРЕ В ПЕРИОД ГЛОБАЛЬНЫХ СОЦИАЛЬНО-ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКИХ ТРАНСФОРМАЦИЙ: ОБЗОР И ТЕНДЕНЦИИ РАЗВИТИЯ

DEMOGRAPHIC SITUATION IN CONTEMPORARY WORLD WITHIN GLOBAL ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL TRANSFORMATIONS: OVERVIEW AND DEVELOPMENT TRENDS


Процессы глобализации, происходящие в мире, затронули все аспекты мирового человеческого сообщества. Демографическая ситуация здесь – не исключение. Процессы глобализации по-разному отразились на демографической ситуации стран мира. Несмотря на различие последствий процессов глобализации на государства, существует целый перечень сходных демографических проблем, от решения которых зависит политический и социальный прогресс мирового сообщества.

Globalization processes occurring in the world have influenced all the aspects of global human community. Demographic situation is no exception. Globalization processes have differently affected the demographic situation of the world. Despite the difference in the effects of globalization on the states there is a whole list of similar demographic problems the solution of which depends on the political and social progress of the world community. Ключевые слова: демографическая ситуация, глобализация, депопуляция,

демографический взрыв, демографическая политика Keywords: demographic situation, globalization, depopulation, population

explosion, population policy

В 20 веке произошло обострение глобальных проблем человеческой цивилизации. Стала заметнее глубокая связь внутренних процессов, происходящих в тех или иных странах, с общемировыми процессами. Это, прежде всего, проблемы демографии, военной угрозы, малоразвитости значительной части мира, продовольственный кризис. Демографические проблемы современного мира относятся к социально-экономическим проблемам, с которыми столкнулось человечество на пути глобализации.

Глобализация представляет собой исторический процесс, мнения о причинах и начале которого неоднозначны. По мнению одних ученых, зачатки глобализации прослеживаются еще в античной философии. Другие авторы придерживаются мнения, что истоки глобализации следует связывать с эпохой Великих географических открытий и возникновением мирового рынка. Третьи в отношении глобализации особо подчеркивают жизнеутверждающий взгляд на мировое развитие в трудах французских просветителей XVIII века. С точки зрения четвертых, начало этого процесса было положено в первой половине

Демографическая ситуация в современном мире в период глобальных социально-экономических трансформаций 710

XX века, отмеченной двумя разрушительными мировыми войнами и Великой депрессией, и мотивом для глобализации стала не идея мирового прогресса, а идея мирового кризиса [3, с. 76].

Но независимо от споров об истоках и периоде возникновения явления глобализации, современное общество понимает и принимает, что на данном этапе развития значительно возрастает общепланетарное единство человечества, представляющее собой единую мировую систему, все части которой находятся в теснейшей взаимосвязи и взаимозависимости.

Сложились такие понятия, как «мировая экономическая система», в которую входят и понятия «мировая капиталистическая экономика», «регионализация», «социальная модернизация» и др.

Существуют различные классификации распределения политических и экономических сил в единой мировой системе, а также классификации стран по социально-экономическим показателям и общему уровню развития.

Согласно «Теории мировой системы», разработанной И. Валлерстайном, мировая система состоит из экономически и политически господствующего центра (ядра) и зависимой от него периферии. Центр развивается как индустриальная система производства, периферия поставляет сырье, находясь в зависимости от цен, устанавливаемых на него центром. Существует также полупериферия, обладающая социальными и экономическими характеристиками как центра, так и периферии [1].

Теория И. Валлерстайна сегодня существенно дополняется и корректируется. В качестве ядра мировой системы выделяются постиндустриальные страны, представленные тремя основными центрами (США и Канада, Западная Европа, Япония). Это высокоразвитые страны с новым ресурсо-, энерго- и трудосберегающим производством, базирующимся на микропроцессорной технике и наукоемких технологиях.

Полупериферию образуют индустриальные страны (Россия, страны СНГ, Китай, некоторые страны Восточной Европы и Азии) с обычным ресурсо-, энерго- и трудоемким производством. Большинство новейших технологий не разрабатывается самостоятельно, а приобретается у высокоразвитых стран первой группы.

К странам периферии относятся развивающиеся страны Латинской и Центральной Америки, Азии и Африки с господством традиционных индустриальных и доиндустриальных производств. Для национальных экономик этих стран характерна технологическая отсталость и низкая производительность труда.

С распадом СССР ушло в прошлое великое противостояние Запада и Востока. Сегодня основой деления глобального мира становится геоэкономическая конструкция Север – Юг.

Речь идет о взаимоотношениях между промышленно развитыми государствами Севера и развивающимися странами Южного полушария.

Для первых характерны развитая социальная промышленная инфраструктура, высокая концентрация информационно-коммуникативных технологий и наукоемких отраслей производства, эффективное применение достижений научно-технического прогресса.

Анна Леонидовна Чернышова / Anna Chernishova 711

Для вторых – преобладание аграрных и сырьевых отраслей экономики, примитивность технической и технологической базы, нерациональное использование трудовых ресурсов, нехватка высококвалифицированных кадров.

Разрыв в уровнях развития стран Севера и Юга становится источником международной нестабильности, потому что крайне неравномерное распределение мировых ресурсов (четверть человечества потребляет три четверти производимых богатств) вызывает недовольство государств, оказавшихся на периферии современного мира, что не может не сказаться на уровне и качестве жизни населения. По уровню общего развития страны можно разделить на следующие группы [2, с. 17]. Развитые страны – страны с эффективными инновационными экономиками. В их число входят США, Германия, Швеция, Япония, Финляндия, Австралия, Сингапур и другие. В развитых странах созданы значительный сектор экономики знаний и индустрия знаний.

Человеческий капитал в развитых странах стал главным производительным фактором роста и развития индустрии знаний. Ведущие страны мира с инновационной экономикой создали благоприятные условия для быстрого воплощения идей ученых и инноваторов в конкурентоспособную продукцию и высокие технологии. Высокие инвестиции в человеческий капитал обеспечивают им лидерство в науке, образовании, медицине, высоких технологиях и в индустрии знаний.

Развитые страны значительно опережают другие страны по стоимости и качеству накопленного национального человеческого капитала, по уровню и качеству жизни, в основных рейтингах по ВВП и ВНД на душу населения (за исключением небольших нефтедобывающих стран), по конкурентоспособности экономик, индексу экономической свободы и других.

Развивающиеся страны – страны с индустриальным укладом экономики и общества. В литературе развивающиеся страны, ставящие своей целью догнать по уровню развития и качеству ведущие страны мира, называют странами с догоняющими экономиками. В их число входят Россия, Китай, Бразилия, Мексика, Турция, Пакистан, Чили, Малайзия, Аргентина, Индонезия, Колумбия и другие страны. Слаборазвитые страны – это наиболее бедные страны мира (в основном страны Центральной и Западной Африки, Мьянма, Йемен, Монголия, Бангладеш, Афганистан, островные страны типа Тувалу, Шри-Ланки, Самоа, Гаити и Мадагаскара и др.).

Также можно разделить страны на экономически высокоразвитые, развивающиеся и страны с переходной экономикой. К странам с переходным типом экономики относятся те, которые с конца 80-х – начала 90-х годов XX века осуществили переход от прежней административно-командной (социалистической) экономики к экономике рыночной. К ним относятся 15 стран Центрально-Восточной Европы и 12 стран СНГ, а также Монголия. В некоторых источниках к данному типу стран относят еще Китай и Вьетнам, хотя эти государства идут социалистическим путем развития. Официальная же статистика ООН относит их к категории развивающихся стран [7].

Но независимо от места этих стран на политической и экономической карте мира, от расстановки политических и экономических сил, от способов и


возможностей влияния на общемировые процессы, эти страны имеют общее, а именно совокупность проблем человечества, от решения которых зависит социальный прогресс и сохранение цивилизации. Эти проблемы невозможно разрешить в рамках отдельного государства. Решение этих проблем возможно только совместными усилиями человечества. Процессы глобализации затронули все стороны жизни человека и общества: политику, экономику, культуру, образование, экологию, социальную сферу.

Демографическая проблема является наиболее важной для человечества. Особенностью этой проблемы является то, что она неоднозначна для каждой из стран. Наоборот, она противоречива и имеет противоположный характер для разных стран: в Китае, Индии – перенаселение, в России – пресловутый «демографический крест».

На сегодняшний день существует две основные тенденции демографических процессов:

1. демографический взрыв в развивающихся странах (Азия, Африка, Латинская Америка);

2. демографический кризис в развитых странах (Западная Европа). Термин «демографический взрыв» означает беспрецедентно высокие

темпы естественного прироста населения, которые превышают темпы прироста предшествующих десятилетий.

Первая тенденция может привести к обострению социально-экономических проблем в развивающихся странах: голод, нищета, неграмотность. Вторая – к резкому старению населения в развитых странах, нарушению пропорции между работающим населением и иждивенцами и пр.

Динамика изменения мировой численности населения показывает его неуклонное увеличение, и темпы этого увеличения становятся угрожающими. По прогнозам ООН, население Земли в 2025 году составит 7,8 миллиарда человек, в 2050 – 9,1 миллиарда человек, а в 2100 – 11,2 миллиарда [6].

Однако увеличение численности населения мира не значит, что увеличивается численность населения каждой страны. Активно растет численность населения в развивающихся странах мира, в то время как в развитых странах мира ситуация противоположная. Там наблюдается так называемое простое воспроизводство населения, то есть численная замена одного поколения другим (в среднем по 2 ребенка в семье), а также депопуляция (смертность выше рождаемости).

Сегодня свыше 80% прироста мирового населения приходится на развивающиеся страны. Около 50 лет назад началось и в следующие полвека будет продолжаться колоссальное смещение демографического баланса между развитыми и развивающимися регионами планеты. В 1950 году численность населения в развивающихся странах была примерно вдвое больше, чем в развитых, а к 2050 году, по данным ООН, это соотношение превысит шесть к одному [6].

Остроту демографической проблемы нельзя оценить, абстрагируясь от экономических и социальных факторов. Для объяснения процессов роста населения мира была разработана концепция демографического перехода, которая в общем виде была сформулирована Фрэнком Ноутстайном в 1945 г. Она связывает особенности демографического положения с экономическим


ростом и социальным прогрессом в зависимости от 4-х стадий демографического развития, которые страны и регионы мира проходят в разное время.

Согласно этой концепции демографический взрыв – следствие и проявление процесса модернизации традиционного типа воспроизводства населения, при котором демографическое равновесие поддерживается за счет предельно высокой рождаемости и смертности [5, с. 302]. Трансформация традиционного типа естественного воспроизводства началась со снижения смертности. К середине XX века человечеству стали доступны эффективные средства медицины, что, естественно, привело к резкому снижению смертности, особенно в развивающихся и отсталых странах мира, что характерно для прохождения первой фазы демографического перехода.

Всего в смене типов воспроизводства населения, согласно концепции демографического перехода, выделяют четыре фазы. В первой фазе снижение смертности (вследствие улучшения качества питания и здравоохранения) происходит быстрее, чем снижение рождаемости, а результатом является резкое увеличение естественного прироста населения. Во второй фазе смертность продолжает снижаться, но рождаемость падает еще быстрее, вследствие чего прирост населения постепенно замедляется. Для третьей фазы характерно замедление снижения рождаемости при некотором повышении смертности, так что естественный прирост сохраняется на невысоком уровне. К завершению этой фазы в настоящее время близки промышленно развитые страны. Наконец, в четвертой фазе показатели смертности и рождаемости становятся почти одинаковыми, и процесс демографической стабилизации заканчивается. Ожидается, что процесс демографического перехода продлится примерно до 2100 года, когда произойдет стабилизация численности населения на уровне 10,5 млрд человек [5, с. 345].

Начало демографического перехода связано с началом процессов модернизации, ведущих к росту производства ВВП на душу населения, улучшению качества питания, санитарных условий, качества и доступности медицинского обслуживания, что в свою очередь приводит к значительному росту продолжительности жизни и уменьшению смертности.

В традиционном аграрном обществе дети рассматривались как дополнительные рабочие руки в хозяйстве. Поэтому рождение детей имело экономический смысл. Кроме того, большое количество детей является гарантией продолжения рода в условиях относительно высокой детской смертности. Урбанизация и труд индустриального типа разрушают этот тип поведения и приводят к снижению рождаемости, причем чем больше поколений прожило в городе после миграции из деревни, тем ниже рождаемость. Наличие значительного числа детей было также единственной надежной гарантией сколько-нибудь благополучной старости родителей в условиях отсутствия системы социального страхования, пенсионного обеспечения.

В развитом индустриальном обществе дети должны длительное время учиться, чтобы получить квалификацию, соответствующую современным требованиям. Это приводит к их выключению из хозяйственной жизни. Дети из помощников превращаются в «обузу» для семьи. Родители вынуждены


тратить свое время и финансовые средства для достижения детьми высокого образовательного уровня. Поэтому большинство семей предпочитают родить и вырастить лишь одного, реже – двух, «высококачественных» детей, так как большое количество детей в семье, как правило, отрицательно сказывается на их образовательном уровне и дальнейшей карьере. Кроме того, длительный период обучения способствует повышению среднего возраста женщины, рожающей первого ребенка (с 16-18 до 25 лет и старше). В аграрном же обществе дети, работая вместе с родителями, приобретали необходимые трудовые навыки естественным путем.

Практически все страны с высоким образовательным уровнем имеют низкие показатели рождаемости, так как происходит массовое изменение общественного сознания в сторону отказа от традиционных ценностей и переход к новым моделям поведения. Становится популярной ориентация на индивидуальные системы ценностей. Это касается и института семьи и брака – уход от традиционной формы семьи (зарегистрированного в органах власти, церкви). Сейчас широкое распространение получили юридически неоформленные формы совместной жизни и альтернативные формы семьи, тогда как лидерами по рождаемости является неграмотное население арабских стран и стран «черной» Африки. Бедное крестьянство, мигрируя в города и включаясь в примитивное мелкое производство, не требующее повышения образовательного и профессионального уровней, не воспринимает норм городского поведения, в частности в сфере семейных отношений, ограничивающих рождаемость. По этой причине урбанизация во многих развивающихся странах не сопровождается сколько-нибудь значительным снижением прироста населения.

Быстрый рост численности населения в условиях преобладания в экономике отсталого сельского хозяйства с крайне низкой производительностью труда усугубляет и без того сложные проблемы занятости населения, обеспечения продовольствием, образования, экологии. Во многих развивающихся странах происходит непомерное «перенаселение» сектора сельского хозяйства. Быстрый рост населения сокращает возможности накопления, поэтому темпы развития капиталоемких отраслей, прежде всего промышленности, отстают от притока сельской рабочей силы в неаграрные отрасли. Из-за неспособности промышленности обеспечить работой растущее население во многих развивающихся странах происходит разрастание мелкого ремесла и торговли, сферы услуг, для которых характерны преимущественно ручной труд, его низкая производительность и ничтожные доходы, что опять-таки ведет к нищете, низкому качеству жизни.

Демографический взрыв привел к усиливающейся концентрации трудовых ресурсов мира в развивающихся странах. При этом 2/3 мировых ресурсов рабочей силы сосредоточено в странах с самым низким уровнем социально-экономического развития. В связи с этим одним из важнейших аспектов глобальной демографической проблемы в современных условиях является обеспечение занятости и эффективного использования трудовых ресурсов развивающихся стран. Это требует больших финансовых вложений и грамотной экономической политики, кооперации всего мирового сообщества.


Но помимо экономических мер решения демографических проблем необходимо понимать, что происходящие демографические процессы во многом зависят от поведения и установок самого населения. Демографическое поведение выражается в принятии решения о рождении ребенка или отказе от него, о вступлении в брак или расторжении брачного союза, о миграции, об отношении к здоровью и жизни (своей и окружающих) и т. д. В процессе смены поколений происходит не только возобновление численности и структуры населения, но изменяются и стандарты демографического поведения. Эти процессы часто имеют свои региональные особенности, которые необходимо учитывать при решении демографических проблем [4].

Большое значение в решении вопросов демографии имеет реализация демографической политики каждого государства, имеющего демографические проблемы. Проведение демографической политики в развивающихся странах с высокими темпами роста населения особо актуально. Однако часто реализация демографической политики затруднена нехваткой финансовых ресурсов и часто ограничивается лишь декларативными заявлениями. Зачастую эта политика вообще не принимается гражданами из-за традиций многодетности, высокого социального статуса материнства и особенно отцовства. Правительства большинства мусульманских стран вообще отвергают вмешательство государства в планирование семьи.

И здесь решающую роль играют международные организации. Фонд Организации Объединенных Наций в области народонаселения (ЮНФПА), руководящий оперативной деятельностью системы Организации Объединенных Наций в области народонаселения, помогает развивающимся странам и странам с переходной экономикой найти решения их собственных демографических проблем.

Фонд помогает государствам совершенствовать направления здравоохранения, занимающиеся репродуктивным здоровьем, а также службы планирования семьи, действующие на основе индивидуального выбора, и разрабатывать политику в области народонаселения, направленную на поддержание усилий по устойчивому развитию. Кроме того, он способствует лучшему пониманию проблем народонаселения и способов их решения и помогает правительствам решать эти проблемы народонаселения способами, которые более всего соответствуют нуждам конкретной страны.

Решение глобальных демографических проблем возможно только при условии объединения усилий всего мирового сообщества. Необходимо проведение международных конференций по вопросам решения глобальных демографических проблем, привлечение научного сообщества для разработки положений «мировой» демографической политики с учетом национальных, исторических, религиозных, географических, экономических и иных потребностей населения. Привлечение волонтеров для реализации этих положений, для ведения пропагандистских мероприятий по ликвидации безграмотности и повышения уровня образования населения развивающихся стран, по сохранению репродуктивного здоровья нации. Необходимо проведение воспитательной и разъяснительной работы среди молодежи в рамках повышения статуса семьи, «экологичного» отношения к партнеру и своему репродуктивному здоровью.


Литература / References 1. Валлерстайн, И. Миро-системный анализ [Электронный ресурс]. – URL:

http://www.nsu.ru/filf/rpha/papers/geoecon/waller.htm (дата обращения: 28.02.2014). 2. Корчагин, Ю. А. Современная экономика России: учебник. – Ростов-н/Д.: Феникс,

2006. 3. Максаковский, В. П. Географическая картина мира: пособие в 2 т. – М.: Дрофа,

2008. – Т. 1. 4. Сукнёва, С. А. Демографический потенциал воспроизводства населения северного

региона (на примере Республики Саха (Якутия): автореф. …докт. экон. наук. – Москва, 2011.

5. Экономика: учебник / под. ред. А. С. Булатова. – М.: Магистр: Инфа, 2012. 6. Population and Vital Statistics Report: Statistical Papers Series A Vol. LXV

[Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/vitstats/ default.htm (дата обращения: 24.02.2014).

7. United Nations Statistics Division. Demographic and Social Statistics [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/default.htm (дата обращения: 24.02.2014).

Анна Леонидовна Чернышова старший преподаватель Владивостокский государственный университет экономики и сервиса Владивосток, Россия [email protected] Anna Chernishova Senior lecturer Vladivostok State University of Economics and Service Vladivostok, Russia [email protected]




НИНА ГРИГОРЬЕВНА ИВЕЛЬСКАЯ / NINA IVELSKAYA

СФЕРА ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ КАК «ЛОКОМОТИВ РОСТА» ОБЪЕКТОВ ЭКОНОМИКИ В АСПЕКТЕ СИСТЕМООБРАЗОВАНИЯ

THE SPHERE OF EDUCATION AS A ‘GROWTH ENGINE’ OF ECONOMIC FACILITIES IN THE ASPECT OF SYSTEM FORMATION


Существенные преобразования, произошедшие в образовательной отрасли, качественно поменяли представления о ней как о консервативной, громоздкой и малоэффективной экономической системе. Интеграция образования во все сферы жизнедеятельности человека как центрального ядра экономики позволили органам государственной власти и потребителям признать важность и крайнюю востребованность в инновационных продуктах данной отрасли. При этом необходимо отметить важную роль государственных и частных инвестиций в данную сферу и как мультипликатора, и как фактора системообразования, особенно для моногородов и городов с депрессивной экономикой.

Significant changes that have occurred in the field of education qualitatively changed the perception of it as of a conservative, bulky and ineffective economic system. Integration of education into all spheres of human activity as a central core of the economy has allowed public authorities and consumers to recognize the importance and extreme demand for innovative products of the field. The important role of public and private investments into this area that act both as a multiplier and a factor of system formation especially for single-industry towns and cities with depressed economy should be specificated. Ключевые слова: реформа образования, малые инновационные предприятия,

инновационный подход в образовании, системообразующий фактор Keywords: educational reform, small innovative enterprises, innovative approach in

education, system formation factor

Происходящее в стране реформирование экономических систем, основных сфер жизнедеятельности, ключевым инструментом которых является административная реформа, не могли не коснуться такого важного направления экономики, как сфера образования, обладающего признаками системообразования. Существенные преобразования, произошедшие в данной отрасли, позволили образовательным учреждениям быть не только активными получателями бюджетных ресурсов в рамках выполнения государственного, муниципального задания, но и стать эффективными хозяйствующими субъектами.

В частности, изменения, произошедшие в национальной системе образования, позволяют в настоящее время создавать при государственных образовательных учреждениях малые инновационные предприятия,

Сфера образования как «локомотив роста» объектов экономики в аспекте системообразования 718

функционирование которых позволит студентам во время всего периода обучения по основным образовательным программам формировать профессиональные навыки и компетенции в рамках выбранной квалификации по окончании учебного учреждения [4].

Системообразующий фактор отрасли образования, одной из самых емких отраслей экономики, в которой работает педагогических работников только в школах РФ 1185,7 тыс. человек и учится в общеобразовательных учреждениях – 21272,0 тыс. человек, обеспечивает долгосрочные стратегические интересы страны в аспекте основной деятельности, а также создает мультипликативный эффект, интегрируясь в различные сферы жизнедеятельности человека [2]. Поэтому столь высока роль государства в сохранении и инвестировании ключевой отрасли, ориентированной на производство самого дорогостоящего продукта – трудовых ресурсов. Ведь даже небольшое колебание инвестиций в данной отрасли вызовет мультипликативный рост или спад валового продукта и занятости [1, с. 79].

Тенденции, наметившиеся в сфере образования в настоящее время, показывают существенное сокращение игроков на данном рынке услуг. По данным Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации, в 2013 году число образовательных учреждений сократилось на 3,4% и составило 48108 единиц [5].

В этом же периоде число профессиональных образовательных организаций, осуществляющих подготовку специалистов среднего звена, сократилось на 9% и составило 2703 единицы. Сокращение числа профессиональных образовательных организаций произошло как среди государственных и муниципальных, так и среди частных образовательных организаций. По сравнению с предыдущим отчетным периодом число государственных и муниципальных профессиональных образовательных организаций уменьшилось на 8,7% и составило 2488 единиц; число частных уменьшилось на 16,1%.

В 2013 г. (по сравнению с 2012 г.) на 3,1% увеличилась доля принятых на обучение в профессиональные образовательные организации, осуществляющие подготовку специалистов среднего звена. Также в этом году сохранялась тенденция перераспределения приема в профессиональные образовательные организации, осуществляющие подготовку специалистов среднего звена, в пользу негосударственного сектора.

Набор в частные профессиональные образовательные организации в 2013 г. вырос на 31,1%; при этом программы подготовки специалистов среднего звена реализуют ряд частных учреждений высшего образования. В 2013 г. число таких организаций составляло 215 единиц. В целом по данному уровню образования в рамках реализуемых мероприятий по оптимизации отрасли численность образовательных структур составила 87,6%, в сравнении с 2012 годом сокращение составило 22,4%, или в абсолютном выражении – было ликвидировано 278 образовательных учреждений, оказывающих существенное влияние на социально-экономическое развитие многих территорий [8].

Анализируя показатели мониторинга деятельности федеральных государственных высших учебных заведений и их филиалов, можно сделать выводы о том, что при увеличении численности обучающихся на 0,8% к

Нина Григорьевна Ивельская / Nina Ivelskaya 719

предыдущему периоду в общеобразовательных школах число игроков на рынках образовательных услуг, ориентированных на прием выпускников школ на востребованные рынком труда образовательные программы и профили, сокращается [6].

Для небольших населенных пунктов присутствие на территории образовательного центра – это залог сохранения выпускников школ как трудового ресурса, имеющего возможность получить высшее и начальное профессиональное образование в «шаговой» доступности, а также недопущения тенденции «старения» ресурсов на рынке труда конкретной территории.

Такая тенденция в рамках оптимизации системы образования в целом может негативно повлиять на формирование квалифицированного рынка рабочей силы для объектов народного хозяйства, в части подготовки высококвалифицированных рабочих кадров и специалистов среднего звена для многих моногородов и депрессивных территорий – особенно [7, с. 54].

Также актуальным оставался и тренд на дальнейшую оптимизацию числа образовательных организаций высшего образования в 2013 г., выразившийся в их сокращении. Общее количество образовательных структур системы образования уменьшилось на 0,8% и составило 969 единиц, при том, что запросы внешней среды не претерпели значительных изменений – 53,3% абитуриентов поступили на очную форму обучения (в 2012 г. – 51,9%) и даже имели положительную динамику.

Причем за последние два года сохранилась динамика приема на обучение в образовательные организации высшего образования с полным возмещением стоимости обучения и составила в 2013 году 60,0%, что характеризует инвестиционную активность потребителей на данном рынке и достаточно высокий спрос. Количество поступивших в профессиональные образовательные организации, осуществляющие подготовку специалистов среднего звена, в рамках сравнительных показателей потребностей в получении услуг как по запросам внешней среды, в лице частных инвесторов, так и в рамках государственного и муниципального задания, обусловлено необходимостью качественных изменений на рынке труда.

За счет средств федерального бюджета в 2013 году продолжили профессиональное обучение 19,6% выпускников школ, за счет средств субъекта Федерации – 54,7%, а 24,2% претендентов на получение профессии в системе среднего профессионального звена продолжили обучение за счет собственных финансовых источников. Проведенный анализ позволяет сделать следующие выводы:

– реализуемые государством мероприятия в рамках проводимой реформы системы образования направлены на оптимизацию бюджетных затрат посредством сокращения учебных заведений системы профессиональной подготовки, ориентированы на сокращение неэффективных расходов, на улучшение качества предоставляемых услуг в рамках стандарта третьего поколения;

– образовательные структуры являются в настоящее время полноправными участниками экономических процессов, осуществляя уставную деятельность в соответствии с Гражданским кодексом,


Федеральным Законом «Об образовании в Российской Федерации» № 273-ФЗ от 29.12.2012, который вступил в силу с 01.09.2013, в том числе в части оказания платных образовательных услуг, а также используя методы программно-целевого бюджетирования;

– наметилась тенденция к инвестиционной активности населения, ориентированной на получение рабочих профессий и формирование профессиональных компетенций у специалистов среднего звена, что на сегодняшний день является актуальнейшей проблемой на рынке труда – отсутствие высококлассных рабочих различных профессий. Это, в свою очередь, побуждает органы власти всех уровней принимать программные документы, направленные на качественное изменение рынка труда, выступать в качестве заказчиков данной услуги для объектов экономики как самих субъектов Федерации, так и Федерации в целом. Почти на 30% увеличился спрос на образовательные услуги, обеспечивающие воспроизводство кадров начальной профессиональной подготовки государственными и на 0,7% – частными учреждениями образования, по сравнению с 2012 годом.

В Концепции долгосрочного социально-экономического развития Российской Федерации определены следующие приоритетные задачи развития образования как базового элемента долгосрочного социально-экономического развития Российской Федерации на период до 2020 года:

– обеспечение инновационного характера базового образования в соответствии с требованиями экономики, основанной на знаниях;

– формирование механизмов оценки качества и востребованности образовательных услуг с участием потребителей, участие в международных исследованиях;

– создание современной системы непрерывного образования, подготовки и переподготовки профессиональных кадров [3].

Решение этих задач возможно лишь при условии модернизации образования с целью максимального удовлетворения требований работодателей в усвоении студентами знаний об инновационных, экологически сбалансированных, энерго- и ресурсосберегающих технологиях.

Возвращаясь к началу данного исследования, рассмотрим образовательную сферу в аспекте системообразования. Функциональность самой системы является финансово и ресурсоемким процессом в целом, и качество ее функциональности обеспечивается за счет интеграции данной системы в экономическое пространство.

В настоящее время система образования для повышения качества образовательных услуг, обеспечения безопасности образовательных учреждений и находящегося там контингента нередко использует подрядные организации по принципу аутсорсинга, тем самым обеспечивая качественные услуги в части питания, перевозки учащихся и студентов, охраны объектов, технической эксплуатации и т. д.

Проанализировав выше весьма узкий сегмент статистических данных по такой отрасли, как система образования, через призму лишь двух показателей, таких как численность контингента и численность образовательных структур за конкретный отчетный год, мы можем сделать следующие выводы:

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– сама система образования является эффективным хозяйствующим субъектом, аккумулируя в себе множество ресурсов внешней среды и в качестве конкретных услуг, и в качестве потенциальных возможностей;

– рынок образовательных услуг оказывает существенный мультипликативный эффект на все экономические процессы как в регионе, так и в стране, являясь оптовым потребителем энергоресурсов, услуг транспорта, связи, общественного питания, полиграфической продукции, сферы бытовых услуг – пошив одежды для школьников, услуги клининговых компаний;

– модернизация системы образования, применение инновационных технологий в процессе обучения будущих специалистов и переобучения действующих ориентированы на качественное изменение экономики в целом, улучшение таких показателей, как конкурентоспособность, по всем отраслям;

– система образования принимает самое непосредственное участие в формировании личности, способной к самореализации, способной сохранить и преумножить культурное и историческое наследие государства, способной на языке экономики в аспекте экономической категории влиять на формирование и воспроизводство самого главного ресурса государства – трудового.

Ведь только трудовой ресурс способен воспроизводить материальные ценности. Все товары и услуги, лежащие в плоскости обмена «товар – деньги – товар», созданы руками человека. И только труд человека имеет стоимость. Кадры – это главная и единственная ценность в экономике, создание и сохранность которой напрямую зависит от функциональности, развитости системы образования как «локомотива роста» всей экономики государства. От эффективного государственного управления этой отраслью, от его инвестиционной политики в данную сферу напрямую зависит успешное развитие социально-экономических процессов государства в целом.

Литература / References 1. Андреева, Т. Т. Теории местного экономического развития: учеб. пособие. – М.:

КНОРУС, 2011. 2. Об утверждении государственной программы «Развитие науки и технологий».

Распоряжение Правительства РФ № 2433-р от 20.12.2012 [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://минобрнауки.рф/документы/2966 (дата обращения: 14.02.2014).

3. О Концепции долгосрочного социально-экономического развития РФ на период до 2020 года (с изменениями и дополнениями). Распоряжение Правительства РФ от 17 ноября 2008 г. N 1662-р [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://base.garant.ru/194365/ (дата обращения: 14.02.2014).

4. Об образовании в Российской Федерации. Федеральный закон Российской Федерации от 29 декабря 2012 г. N 273-ФЗ [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://www.rg.ru/2012/12/30/obrazovanie-dok.html (дата обращения 14.02.2014).

5. Показатели мониторинга деятельности федеральных государственных высших учебных заведений и их филиалов [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://минобрнауки.рф/новости/2932 (дата обращения: 21.02.2014).


6. Протокол заседания Межведомственной комиссии по проведению мониторинга деятельности государственных образовательных учреждений в целях оценки эффективности их работы и реорганизации неэффективных государственных образовательных учреждений от 29 апреля 2013 г. № ДЛ-12/05пр [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http://минобрнауки.рф/ (дата обращения: 14.02.2014).

7. Рябухин, С. Н., Климантов, С. Б. Аудит эффективности государственного сектора экономики: курс лекций. – М.: Триада ЛТД, 2006.

8. Социально-экономическое положение России 2013 год [Электронный ресурс]. – URL: http:www.gks.ru (дата обращения: 14.02.2014).

Нина Григорьевна Ивельская кандидат экономических наук, доцент Владивостокский государственный университет экономики и сервиса Владивосток, Россия [email protected] Nina Ivelskaya PhD in Economics (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor Vladivostok State University of Economics and Service Vladivostok, Russia [email protected]




СВЕТЛАНА АЛЕКСЕЕВНА ПЕТРЕНКО, ЛЮДМИЛА АЛЕКСЕЕВНА ПЕТРЕНКО / SVETLANA PETRENKO, LUDMILA PETRENKO

ПУТИ И УСЛОВИЯ РЕАЛИЗАЦИИ ГЕНДЕРНОГО НЕРАВЕНСТВА В СИСТЕМЕ ШКОЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ

WAYS AND CONDITIONS OF GENDER INEQUALITY REALISATION IN THE SYSTEM OF SCHOOL EDUCATION


Цель представленной статьи – рассмотреть сущность гендерного неравенства в школьном образовании, ввести и обосновать понятие гендеризации образования на основе коммуникативного взаимодействия субъектов образовательного процесса, обратить общественное внимание на проблему социального развития человеческого потенциала в образовании.

The purpose of the presented article is to consider the nature of gender inequality in school education, introduce and justify the concept of gendering education based on the communicative interaction of the subjects in the educational process, draw public attention to the problem of social development of human potential in education. Ключевые слова: гендерное неравенство, коммуникация, интенсификация

учебного процесса, образование Keywords: gender inequality, communication, intensification of the educational

process, education

Развитие средств массовой коммуникации, политического и экономического международного сотрудничества неизбежно приводит к взаимодействию в сфере образования и культур, каждая из которых, базируясь на собственных принципах, имеет тысячелетиями сформированный порядок, вкусовые предпочтения и собственную систему ценностей. В связи с этим международное сотрудничество в области образования помогает решать глобальные проблемы гендерного неравенства. Особую значимость приобретают современные методики, способные сохранять имеющийся опыт и внедрять новые образовательные технологии.

Этому явлению невозможно дать однозначную оценку, так как объективно существует ряд положительных и отрицательных моментов. С одной стороны, взаимодействие способствует взаимному обогащению национальных культур, с другой стороны, оно может стать причиной потери традиции, в частности, гендеризации школьного образования.

В настоящее время образование занимает центральное место в реализации способностей человека воспользоваться теми возможностями, которые появляются в результате развития, но во многих регионах в этой сфере сохраняются значительные различия. Неравенство устойчиво сохраняется как в степени охвата детей школьным обучением, так и в средней его

Пути и условия реализации гендерного неравенства в системе школьного образования 724

продолжительности, при том что школьное обучение представляет собой основу образования населения. Охват девочек начальным и средним образованием и средняя продолжительность обучения с течением времени возрастают. Абсолютная численность обучающихся в школе девочек и продолжительность школьного обучения остаются ниже, чем в других регионах развивающегося мира. Но гендерные несоответствия и скорость, с которой разрыв между полами сокращался, были неодинаковы. «Пол проявляется в каждом действии, биологическом, социальном, культурном, если не в конкретном действии, то определенно в своей значимости» [1, с. 620].

Восточная Азия, Латинская Америка, Европа и Центральная Азия имеют самый высокий уровень гендерного равенства в образовании. В Европе и Центральной Азии, а также в Латинской Америке средний показатель охвата девочек средним образованием в настоящее время выше, чем у мальчиков; девочки проводят в школах в среднем 90% того времени, которое приходится на мальчиков [2, 3].

Преодоление гендерного разрыва в образовании, и притом более быстрыми темпами, все еще остается важной задачей, стоящей перед политиками, особенно Южной Азии, стран Африки к югу от Сахары и некоторых стран Ближнего Востока и Северной Африки. Необходимость этого ощущается все сильнее по мере того, как мир движется к информационной эре, и производство, основанное на современных знаниях, заменяет традиционные способы хозяйствования. Базовое образование является фундаментом для развития гибких специальностей, необходимых для того, чтобы принимать участие в требующей интенсивных знаний экономической деятельности. Те, кто лишен доступа к базовому образованию, видимо, будут лишены и новых возможностей, и там, где продолжает существовать долговременный разрыв в образовании, женщины окажутся перед растущим риском отстать от мужчин по степени участия в развитии.

К сожалению, современное образование предлагает бесполый подход к обучению. При одной и той же школьной методике обучения, при одном и том же учителе мальчики и девочки приходят к одним и тем же знаниям и умениям разными путями, используя разные стратегии мышления. Это связано с гендерными различиями в организации мозга и латерализации полушарий. Прежде всего, различия заключаются в темпах созревания центральной нервной системы. Разница в период половой зрелости у девочек и мальчиков достигает примерно двух лет. Девочки рождаются более зрелыми, чем мальчики.

Результаты современных исследований свидетельствуют о том, что требования школьного образования опережают темпы развития головного мозга учащихся. Ранее обучение школьников существенно обостряет проблемы в усвоении знаний. Особенно это относится к мальчикам, у которых темпы созревания высших психических функций медленнее, чем у девочек. Логика развития образовательного процесса приводит к достаточно резкому различию в отношении к требованиям школы. Если у девочек отношение достаточно лояльное к формам и содержанию обучения, а к социальным

Светлана А. Петренко, Людмила А. Петренко / Svetlana Petrenko, Ludmila Petrenko 725

формам в целом критичное, то у мальчиков резко выражен негативизм не только к системе школьных взаимоотношений, но и к обучению вообще.

В последнее время в российском обществе получили значительную поддержку идеи раздельного образования, т. е. обучения мальчиков и девочек в разных школах или классах. Идеи раздельного образования не только обсуждаются, но и находят практическое воплощение в создании кадетских классов, мужских и женских гимназий и т. д. С 2001-2002 учебного года в Ставропольском крае и Республике Коми начался эксперимент по раздельному обучению в младших классах по системе В. Базарного [3].

Отношение школьных специалистов к проблеме дифференцированного обучения младших школьников с учетом нейропсихологических особенностей зависит от мировоззренческих позиций, ценностных ориентаций и установок, профессиональной компетентности в области нейропсихологии.

Таким образом, различия мальчиков и девочек указывают на необходимость разработки образовательных технологий, учитывающих гендерные особенности учащихся на начальном этапе обучения. В современном образовании в наиболее благоприятных условиях находятся девочки, а мальчикам не подходят существующие методики и программы. Они более подвержены возникновению школьной дезадаптации.

XX век открыл перед женщинами невиданные возможности, но при этом возложил на них бремя огромной ответственности. Получив равные права с мужчинами, они могут учиться, работать, заниматься политикой, самостоятельно решать свою судьбу. Однако одновременно с этим, у женщин стало не хватать времени на семью. Разводы, коверкающие судьбы детей, которые, вырастая, часто копируют родителей, втягивая еще одно поколение в порочный круг… Сейчас из трех семей у нас распадаются две, и конца этому не видно. Причем большинство разводов совершается по инициативе женщин. А ведь женщины традиционно выступали в диаметрально противоположной роли – в роли хранительниц семейного очага!

Вот и получается, что воспитать девочку в наше время – задача не из простых. На что ее нацеливать – на семью или карьеру? Что поощрять, а какие черты стараться приглушить? Ведь одно дело с детства внушать ребенку, что главное – это активность и независимость, и совсем другое – воспитывать мягкость, уступчивость, сострадание – качества, облегчающие семейную жизнь, но несовместимые с распространенными представлениями о лидерстве.

Вообще изменение традиционных ролей и моделей поведения всегда чревато отрицательными последствиями. Хотя порой эти последствия бывают очевидны не сразу. В последние годы не только у нас, но и в других странах все чаще раздаются голоса в защиту раздельного обучения мальчиков и девочек. В Англии, например, недавно поставили эксперимент, и оказалось, что успеваемость в школах с раздельным обучением выше, чем там, где мальчики и девочки учатся вместе. Дело в том, что физиологически и психологически мальчики на несколько лет отстают от девочек, поэтому у них развивается комплекс неуспешности, который, как вы понимаете, трудно назвать хорошим стимулом к учебе. Когда же мальчишек не ставят в заведомо невыигрышное положение, они чувствуют себя спокойно и показывают гораздо лучшие результаты.


На Западе давно ведутся исследования, посвященные изучению проблем и особенностей развития девочек и мальчиков. Только за последние 5 лет опубликовано более 1600 работ, затрагивающих проблемы существования мужчин и женщин, издается около 10 научных журналов по этой проблематике. Наши ведущие специалисты в области детской психологии тоже не остались равнодушными к этой проблеме: еще в 1981 году профессор Кон, говоря об отечественной психологической науке, сделал вывод о том, что это «бесполая» наука [4]. В возрастной психологии, предметом который является выявление закономерностей детского развития, отсутствуют такие слова, как «мальчик, девочка», употребляется только слово «ребенок», не говоря уже об учете своеобразия их психического развития. И прежде чем говорить о самих различиях, следует отметить, что современная научная психология – это преимущественно психология мужчины в возрасте от 18 до 30 лет. Психология до недавнего времени содержала искаженные факты, поддерживая стереотипные представления о способностях и психологических особенностях женщин и мужчин. И это прежде всего потому, что большинство психологических исследований проводится на мужчинах. В исследовании их рассматривают нейтральными, не подверженными влиянию пола. Затем эти мужские результаты принимают за норму, а различное женское поведение и отношение рассматривают как аномальное.

Таким образом, различия существуют, и проблема учета психологических особенностей в обучении девочек и мальчиков представляется чрезвычайно актуальной.

Раздельное обучение мальчиков и девочек в соответствии с их особенностями может стать одним из условий оптимизации учебного процесса, при обучении по единым программам возможно выработать различные методические приемы, более соответствующие принципу природосообразности.

Методика известного ученого, доктора медицинских наук, учителя года – 2000, руководителя научно-внедренческой лаборатории физиолого-здравоохранительных проблем образования Правительства Москвы профессора Базарного получила широкое распространение и призвание во многих регионах нашей страны и в Европе. Ставропольский край, Сибирь, Урал, Башкортостан, Татарстан, Ингушетия, республика Коми – вот далеко не полный список регионов, где уже давно осуществляется обучение по методике Базарного, основанного на раздельном обучении мальчиков и девочек. Кроме того, в Москве и регионах работают и другие школы, в которых успешно функционируют программы, основанные на методиках раздельного обучения. Отзывы родителей и учащихся о работе этих заведений – самые положительные.

Собранные данные означают, что поскольку сотрудничество – один из главных двигателей научного результата и влияния, то в деле уравнивания школьного образования могут значительно помочь целевые программы развития международного сотрудничества.

Однако если бы существовало простое решение или программа, которые способны улучшить нынешнее положение дел, они бы уже использовались. К сожалению, в основе дисбаланса мирового масштаба лежат определенные

Светлана А. Петренко, Людмила А. Петренко / Svetlana Petrenko, Ludmila Petrenko 727

силы, присущие каждой отдельной стране или связанные с ее историей, которые почти неощутимо способствуют неровности системы школьного обучения. Каждая страна должна с большой осторожностью определять мелкие механизмы, которые способствуют восстановлению прежнего порядка вещей; ни одна страна не может позволить себе пренебрегать интеллектуальным вкладом половины своего населения.

Таким образом, главенствующая функция школьного образования сегодня – не только обучить и воспитать, но, прежде всего, социально адаптировать, а изучение наук общественного развития должно быть пронизано знанием о гендерной системе общества. Учитывая свою гендерную принадлежность, подразумевающую определенную траекторию развития, анализируя и сопоставляя свои возможности и способности, возможно, человек выберет правильную профессиональную ориентацию, определит верные перспективы своего роста.

Отсюда следует, что в рамках общеобразовательной школы возможна и необходима реализация учебно-воспитательного процесса на основе дифференциации по половому признаку. На наш взгляд, реализация такого процесса должна начинаться с грамотного построения половых взаимоотношений между педагогом и воспитанниками, потому что в основе взаимоотношений лежит внутреннее состояние ребенка, будь то мальчик или девочка, и именно взаимоотношения связаны с действенными проявлениями чувств, мыслей каждого ученика. Работа любого школьного коллектива зависит от эмоционального климата. Поэтому, на наш взгляд, первое, чему должно уделяться внимание, – это взаимоотношения между людьми в данном коллективе. Эти взаимоотношения, как известно, изначально дифференцируются по половому признаку, поскольку их участниками являются представители мужского или женского пола с определенными особенностями мышления, восприятия и эмоций. Следовательно, взаимоотношения в учебном коллективе предполагают отношения на основе разных типов мозговой организации и асимметрии полушарий, поэтому мы считаем целесообразным рассмотрение взаимоотношений между педагогом и воспитанниками с учетом гендерных различий не только возможным, но и необходимым.

Литература / References 1. Гросс, Э. Изменяя очертания тела // Введение в тендерные исследования. – Харьков,

2001. – Ч. 2. 2. Рыков, С. Л. Гендерные исследования в педагогике // Педагогика. – 2001. – № 7. – С.

17-22. 3. Штылева, Л. В. Почему учителю ХХI века необходимо знать про «гендер» и

обладать гендерным измерением в работе с детьми? // Внедрение гендерных курсов в систему среднего образования: метод. пособие. – Иваново, 2000.

4. Ушакин, С. В. Пол как идеологический продукт // Человек. – 1997. – № 2. – С. 64. 5. Ярская-Смирнова, Е. Р. Гендерная социализация в системе образования: скрытый

учебный план // Равные права и равные возможности женщин и мужчин в сфере высшего образования. Гендерное образование в России: сб. материалов / сост. Е. А. Баллаева, О. А. Воронина, Л. Г. Лунякова. – М., 2008.


Светлана Алексеевна Петренко старший преподаватель Южный федеральный университет Ростов-на-Дону, Россия Svetlana Petrenko Senior lecturer Southern Federal University Rostov-on-Don, Russia Людмила Алексеевна Петренко педагог дополнительного образования Дом детства и юношества Ростов-на-Дону, Россия [email protected] Ludmila Petrenko Teacher of additional education House of Childhood and Youth Rostov-on-Don, Russia [email protected]




НАТАЛЬЯ ГЕННАДЬЕВНА ХОРОШКЕВИЧ / NATALYA KHOROSHKEVICH

ОХРАНА ТРУДА НА ПРОМЫШЛЕННОМ ПРЕДПРИЯТИИ: СОЦИОЛОГИЧЕСКОЕ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЕ

LABOUR PROTECTION AT THE INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRISE: SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH


В статье поднимается вопрос о необходимости изучения проблемы охраны труда в России в рамках социологической науки. Автор приводит результаты проведенного им социологического исследования по данной проблеме. Исследование было проведено среди студентов вуза, проходивших производственную практику на предприятиях электроэнергетической отрасли. Нужно заметить, что в этой отрасли всегда достаточно серьезно относились к охране труда и технике безопасности. Проведенный опрос выявил положительные и отрицательные стороны, касающиеся охраны труда на подобных предприятиях, а кроме того, моменты, связанные с подготовкой вузами специалистов для данной отрасли, с точки зрения исследуемой проблемы.

The question concerning the necessity to study the problems of labour protection in Russia as part of social science is discussed in the article. The author provides the results of the undertaken sociological research on the issue. The study was conducted among university students undertaking practical training at the enterprises of electric power industry. It should be noted that this industry has always taken seriously the issues of labour protection and safety. The survey revealed positive and negative aspects related to the labor protection at such enterprises and additionally the moments associated with the preparation of university specialists for this sector in terms of the research problem. Ключевые слова: Россия, охрана труда, электроэнергетика, атомные

электростанции, высшее учебное заведение Keywords: Russia, labour protection, electric power industry, atomic power station,

higher educational institution В настоящее время проблема охраны труда является крайне мало

исследованной в социологии. Изучаются отдельные элементы труда, которые можно рассмотреть и в ракурсе того, что затрагивает деятельность по охране труда. Но между тем эта проблема вновь станет интересовать общество в обозримом будущем. Это связано со стабилизацией отношений в обществе, работы социальных институтов и организаций. А между тем вопросу охраны труда уделялось недостаточно внимания в последнюю четверть века, что было следствием трансформаций, происходивших в российском обществе. Спад производства, износ, старение оборудования, отсутствие капитального ремонта на предприятиях, снижение внимания безопасности труда со стороны

Охрана труда на промышленном предприятии: социологическое исследование 730

руководства предприятий – все это в конечном итоге привело к возрастанию количества профессиональных заболеваний, увеличению уровня смертности от травм, полученных на производстве, и т. д. [2, c. 33, 43]. Таким образом, сегодня низкий уровень охраны труда на производстве составляет проблему для общества, и при ее решении также требуется изучение с научной точки зрения.

В научной литературе вопрос охраны труда преимущественно развивался только в рамках дисциплины «охрана труда». Но тем не менее сегодня безопасность работы сотрудников на предприятии, охрана их жизни и здоровья остаются актуальными вопросами. Данную проблему не только нужно рассматривать с точки зрения дисциплины «охрана труда», юриспруденции и т. д., но и изучать отношение к ней общества в целях ее дальнейшего наиболее эффективного решения. Изучение общественного мнения – сфера исследований социологии. Однако на сегодняшний день данное явление практически не изучено в социологической литературе.

В данной статье приведены результаты исследования, посвященного вопросу охраны труда на промышленном предприятии. Это исследование разведывательное, т. к. в настоящее время крайне сложно найти социологические исследования, которые проводилось бы на современном российском предприятии.

Для исследования была выбрана отрасль электроэнергетики. Целью исследования являлась оценка общего уровня охраны труда и отношения к этому вопросу людей, работающих на данном предприятии. Одной из задач исследования являлся анализ уровня культуры охраны труда у студентов вуза в электроэнергетической отрасли. Опрос проводился среди студентов старших курсов обучения, ежегодно проходивших производственную практику на предприятиях электроэнергетической отрасли. В первую очередь они были опрошены как бывшие сотрудники этих предприятий. При анализе данных учитывалось, что опыт работы у них не очень большой.

В ходе исследования были опрошены студенты УрФУ 4 и 5 курсов обучения по специальности «атомные электростанции и установки». Всего было опрошено студентов в количестве 20 человек. Вид выборки – квотная. Студенты отбирались по специальности и курсу обучения.

Результаты опроса показали, что более половины студентов (74% от числа опрошенных) осознают опасность выбранной профессии. Все студенты последнего года обучения отметили наличие такой опасности. Причем они опрашивались как сотрудники предприятий, где всегда был достаточно высокий уровень охраны труда. Поэтому об осознании опасности в процессе труда среди молодых сотрудников можно говорить, только если речь идет о предприятиях, где всегда был высокий уровень охраны труда, – это предприятия, связанные с опасным производством. Если рассматривать опрошенных с точки зрения вузовской подготовки как специалистов для таких предприятий, то можно отметить, что в ходе обучения у них появляется понимание опасностей будущей профессии, и к окончанию университета они окончательно осознают это. Можно утверждать, что у молодых специалистов, начинающих свою трудовую деятельность после окончания университета на предприятиях данной отрасли, сформировано представление об опасностях их

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будущей работы. И как показывают последующие исследования, следствием этих представлений является осознание необходимости соблюдения правил техники безопасности и охраны труда.

Те из респондентов, кто видит возможные опасности в ходе работы для своего здоровья, в целом ранговый ряд опасностей выстроили верно. На первое место они поставили радиацию, при этом первый фактор отмечали намного чаще, чем остальные. Далее отметили шум, вибрацию, высокую температуру и запыленность. Здесь можно также отметить, что на осознание важности тех или иных факторов влияет опыт работы на предприятии. Студенты пятого курса обучения чаще отмечали радиацию, а четвертого курса – другие факторы.

Однако все опрошенные, назвавшие фактор радиации, отметили, что доза облучения в норме на тех предприятиях, где они работали. Следует отметить также, что во время работы «реактора на мощности дозовая нагрузка на персонал незначительна <...> индивидуальная доза персонала редко превышает допустимые значения» [1, с. 1].

Общие условия работы на предприятии также являются составляющей охраны труда. Почти все опрошенные оценили общие условия работы на предприятии как хорошие (иногда отличные или приемлемые). Только один раз было отмечено старое оборудование.

В анкету были включены вопросы, оценивающие по отдельным параметрам рабочие места опрошенных и входящие в перечень обязательных критериев аттестации рабочего места. В соответствии с «Положением о порядке проведения аттестации рабочих мест» каждое рабочие место оценивается по трем главным критериям:

– гигиеническая оценка условий и характера труда; – оценка травмобезопасности рабочего места; – оценка обеспеченности сотрудников средствами индивидуальной

защиты [5, c. 130]. Гигиеническая оценка осуществляется на основе замера физических,

химических, биологических, психофизиологических факторов [5, c. 130]. Вопросы о факторах были заданы с учетом рабочих мест опрашиваемых. В качестве физических факторов были выделены: освещенность, вентиляция, видимость предметов на рабочем месте, шумоизоляция, а также общая комфортность. Согласно результатам проведенного исследования основная масса студентов оценила основные условия своего рабочего места как средние или хорошие. Чаще всего основные показатели рабочего места оценивались как хорошие. Наибольшее количество респондентов оценили как «хорошую» видимость предметов на рабочем месте (93% опрошенных). Такую же оценку дали освещенности – 80%, вентиляции – также 80% респондентов. Общую комфортность рабочего места 66% опрошенных посчитали также хорошей, 33% – «средней». Меньше всего респонденты оказались довольны шумоизоляцией: 40% дали положительную оценку, 53% оценили как «среднюю», остальные – как «плохую». Можно отметить, что физическим факторам большинство опрошенных дали положительную оценку.

Около половины респондентов (53%) оценили физическую нагрузку на работе как низкую, 30% посчитали ее средней. Студенты последнего курса


чаще отмечали низкий уровень физической нагрузки на рабочем месте, что закономерно, учитывая их в большей степени офисный характер работы. Умственную нагрузку как высокую оценили 53% опрошенных. Остальные посчитали ее либо средней, либо низкой. Мнения разделились почти поровну. 53% также психологическую нагрузку отметили как низкую. Около 25% оценили данный вид нагрузки как средний, остальные – низкий.

Около 30% опрошенных отметили, что им выдавались средства индивидуальной защиты, 1/5 студентов ответили отрицательно, остальные не дали ответа. Но не все студенты проходили производственную практику на АЭС, где необходимы средства индивидуальной защиты. Однако часть тех, кто работал на АЭС, занимались работой с документами. Им также не требовались средства индивидуальной защиты. Учитывая ответы на другие вопросы анкеты, следует считать, что средства индивидуальной защиты выдавались только в том случае, если они действительно были необходимы для выполнения определенных видов работ.

Также был задан вопрос о наличии факторов, которые не устраивали бы опрошенного в организации его рабочего места. Никто из респондентов не назвал такие факторы. Это подтверждает отсутствие высокой вероятности получить травму на рабочем месте, а также наличие каких-либо других факторов, грубо нарушающих правила охраны труда.

С точки зрения правил по охране труда считается оптимальным сочетание разных видов трудовой активности [5, c. 69]. 53% опрошенных в течение рабочего дня сочетали разные ее виды, 40% больше работали сидя. Никто не сказал, что стоял почти весь рабочий день. Последний фактор считается одним из показателей тяжести трудового процесса [3, c. 178].

Объектами оценки травмобезопасности являются: рабочее оборудование, инструменты, обеспеченность средствами обучения и инструктажа [3, c. 179]. Что касается травмобезопасности, то, учитывая положительную оценку рабочего места и то, что студентов постоянно курировал их непосредственный руководитель, травмобезопасность была минимальной.

На предприятиях перед началом работ проводился первичный и вводный инструктаж практикантов. В течение всего процесса работы их постоянно контролировали для того, чтобы они соблюдали правила по охране труда. Чаще всего это был руководитель практики. Также это мог быть руководитель подразделения, где работал опрошенный. Все респонденты написали, что соблюдали правила техники безопасности в ходе работы.

На вопрос: «Что Вы понимаете под вредными условиями труда?» 1/3 опрошенных не дали ответа. Остальные указали: «условия труда, прямо или косвенно влияющие на здоровье человека». Все студенты последнего курса смогли дать правильные ответы. Из группы не ответивших на этот вопрос были студенты четвертого курса.

В ходе опроса было также предложено оценить уровень организации охраны труда на предприятии, где проходила практика. 53% опрошенных оценили на отлично, остальные – на хорошо.

В анкете также были заданы вопросы о том, как опрошенные понимают, что такое охрана труда, и предложено было дать оценку уровню охраны труда предприятий, в которых проводилась производственная практика. 64%

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опрошенных в целом верно понимают, что такое охрана труда. В различных вариациях охрану труда они расценивают как создание безопасных условий труда. Здесь ответы также распределились неравномерно в зависимости от курса обучения. Студенты, оканчивающие вуз, ответили на все вопросы правильно.

Как уже было отмечено выше, данное исследование проводилось среди временно работавших на предприятии, точнее проходивших там производственную практику, студентов вуза. Также были взяты предприятия, где к охране труда всегда относились должным образом.

На вопрос о том, что необходимо сделать для улучшения состояния охраны труда на предприятиях, давались разные ответы, но большинство из них касалось воздействия на работника: «мотивировать сотрудников соблюдать правила по охране труда», «повысить культуру безопасности труда», «проводить внеплановые инструктажи». Это говорит о том, что сами работники часто пренебрегают соблюдением правил по охране труда. Один раз было отмечено, что необходимо улучшать условия на рабочих местах.

Итак, общий уровень охраны труда на предприятиях, где работали опрошенные студенты, можно оценить положительно. Следует отметить, что в атомной отрасли всегда были высокие требования по охране труда.

Однако есть моменты, над которыми следует поработать. Это направление отметили сами опрошенные – «мотивировать сотрудников соблюдать правила охраны труда». Также у работников предприятий (электроэнергетичесих и не только) следует развивать культуру безопасности труда (что в исследовании отметили также сами опрошенные). Культура безопасности труда предполагает «…высокий уровень развития системы сохранения жизни и здоровья работников в процессе трудовой деятельности. Управление охраной труда в организации осуществляет руководитель. От того, какой политики в области охраны труда он придерживается, зависит отношение работников организации к безопасности и организации труда» [2, c. 52].

Чтобы мотивировать персонал соблюдать правила охраны труда, необходимо мотивировать руководство предприятий. Так, в странах Европейского союза по вопросам охраны труда в первую очередь обращают внимание на превентивные меры в этой сфере. Для решения этой проблемы используется глобальный подход, который предполагает в рамках превентивной политики консолидированные действия. К решению данной проблемы привлечены все участники трудового процесса. Используются разнообразные инструменты: правовые нормы, конвенции и т. д. Пытаются стимулировать работодателя, чтобы он был заинтересован в снижении рисков возникновения профессиональных заболеваний. В Евросоюзе есть также тенденция объединить вопросы, касающиеся охраны труда и политики в сфере образования [4].

Таким образом, учитывая все вышеизложенное, можно сделать следующие выводы. Во-первых, необходимо развивать культуру безопасности труда. Во-вторых, в процессе охраны труда нужно активизировать всех субъектов данного процесса. В-третьих, чтобы отслеживать результаты этих процессов, необходимо не только отслеживать изменения по статистическим показателям,


но и проводить регулярные социологические опросы по проблеме охраны труда среди трудового населения, а также других субъектов данного процесса.

Литература / References 1. АЭС: дозы облучения персонала и населения [Электронный ресурс]: Исследовано в

России: статья. – 2013. – С. 1. – URL: http://www.chomobyl.ru/ru/radiacia/44-naselenie-personal-aes.html (дата обращения: 19.12.2003).

2. Девисилов, В. А. Охрана труда: учебник. – М.: ФОРУМ, 2010. 3. Карнаух, Н. Н. Охрана труда: учебник для ссузов. – М.: Издательство Юрайт, 2011. 4. Охрана труда в Евросоюзе [Электронный ресурс]: Исследовано в России: статья. –

2013. – С. 1. – URL: http://www.ohranatruda.ru/news/901/148726/ (дата обращения: 20.10.2013).

5. Охрана труда на производстве и в учебном процессе: учебное пособие / под ред. М. С. Петровой – М.: Изд-во НЦ ЭНАС, 2006.

Наталья Геннадьевна Хорошкевич кандидат социологических наук, доцент Уральский федеральный университет Екатеринбург, Россия [email protected] Natalya Khoroshkevich PhD in Sociology (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor Ural Federal University Yekaterinburg, Russia [email protected]




ОЛЬГА БИСЕНОВНА ТАПАЛОВА, НИКОЛАЙ АНАТОЛЬЕВИЧ НИГАЙ, БАХЫТЖАН ЖЕТЕСОВИЧ НУРАЛИЕВ, ЭЛЬМИРА БОЛАТОВНА ШАЙХЫСЛАМОВА / OLGA TAPALOVA, NICKOLAY NIGAI, BAHYTZHAN NURALIYEV, ELMIRA SHAYKHISLAMOVA

ИССЛЕДОВАНИЕ МОТИВАЦИОННОЙ НАПРАВЛЕННОСТИ И ОСОБЕННОСТЕЙ САМОАКТУАЛИЗАЦИИ ЛИЧНОСТИ ПРИ АДДИКТИВНОЙ ЗАВИСИМОСТИ

THE STUDY OF MOTIVATIONAL ORIENTATION AND PECULIARITIES OF SELF-ACTUALISATION OF THE ADDICTED INDIVIDUAL


В настоящее время наблюдается рост числа молодых индивидов с признаками аддиктивного поведения, что вызывает большую тревогу в условиях различных учреждений системы образования и здравоохранения. В настоящей статье доказывается необходимость тщательного изучения данной проблемы, и приводятся результаты исследования по изучению мотивационной направленности и особенностей самоактуализации аддиктивной личности.

Currently the number of young people with the signs of addictive behaviour has been increasing, it causes a great concern in terms of various educational and health institutions. This paper shows the need for the in-depths study of the problem and provides research results of the motivational orientation and peculiarities of self-actualization of addicted individuals. Ключевые слова: аддиктивное поведение, самоактуализация, личностный

дифференциал, мотивационная направленность, мотивация достижения, мотивация избегания неудач

Keywords: addictive behaviour, self-actualization, personal differential, motivational orientation, achievement motivation, failure avoidance motivation

Общей характеристикой человека с признаками аддиктивного поведения является искусственное изменение своего психического состояния и стремление выхода из реальности. Индивиды с признаками аддикций обладают сниженной стрессоустойчивостью, нежеланием бороться с жизненными сложностями. У людей с признаками аддикции полностью отсутствует терпение и толерантность, они желают быстрого удовлетворения своего желания. Обычно индивиды с признаками аддикции – это люди с очень низким уровнем потенциальной адаптации. Защищаясь от постоянной фрустрации, они пытаются прибегнуть к аддиктивному поведению, чаще всего это пристрастие и пагубная привычка к алкоголю и наркотическим веществам [2]. Индивиды с признаками аддикций близки к невротическим состояниям [7].

Аддиктивная зависимость – это заболевание, поражающее человека на многих уровнях: биологическом, психологическом, социальном, духовном.

Исследование мотивационной направленности и особенностей самоактуализации личности… 736

Зависимое поведение неизбежно приводит к личностным изменениям и социальной дезадаптации. Аддиктивное отношение к жизни зависит от совокупности когнитивных, эмоциональных, поведенческих особенностей. Для личностей с признаками аддиктивного поведения характерно следующее: объект зависимости становится целью существования, a употребление наркотических веществ – образом жизни. Для человека, имеющего аддиктивную зависимость, характерна анозогнозия – отрицание болезни или ее тяжести. На психологическом уровне аддиктивная установка проявляется в жизни самого наркозависимого следующим образом: при употреблении наркотических веществ у потребителя возникает эмоциональная опустошенность; падение активности и энергетического потенциала; вытеснение обычных стремлений и потребностей тягой к наркотику; снижение интеллекта; ухудшение памяти и снижение продуктивности умственной деятельности; эмоциональная лабильность (тревога и депрессия, раздражительность, вспышки злобы и агрессии); сужается круг интересов, снижается стремление узнать что-то новое; неумение ставить цели и достигать их, исчезает желание что-либо делать; повышенная утомляемость; низкая стрессоустойчивость. Аддиктивно зависимые люди скрывают свою уязвимость, избавляются от чувства дисгармонии, прибегая к дефективным защитам: избегание, отрицание, отказ от реальности. Вместо того, чтобы осознать, проговорить и выразить свои чувства, зависимые люди применяют химические вещества, «отключают» свои чувства и создают иллюзию контроля. Параллельно развивается недоверие к другим людям, в том числе к врачам и психологам. В отношениях с людьми доминируют манипуляции, такие как: попытки «давить» на жалость, устраивать скандалы, вызывать гневную реакцию с целью оправдания своего наркотического поведения.

В настоящее время в учреждениях системы образования и здравоохранения бьют тревогу, связанную с увеличением числа молодых лиц с пристрастиями к наркотикам и алкоголю. Молодежный наркотизм уже стал реальной проблемой национальной безопасности [4; 5; 6].

Актуальность нашего исследования заключается в социальной значимости вышеуказанной проблемы и доказывает необходимость изучения аддиктивной личностной ориентации и ее психологических особенностей.

Мотивационная ориентация личности с признаками аддиктивного поведения в некоторых выражениях схожа с компульсивными формами поведения. Мотивационная диспозиция в зависимости от возраста индивида с признаками аддикции выражает уровень аддиктивной зависимости [1; 9; 10].

Целью нашего исследования явилось изучение мотивационной направленности, a также уровня и особенностей самоактуализации личности с признаками аддикции.

Экспериментальная база и методы исследования. Выборка состояла из студентов Казахского национального педагогического университета имени Абая (КазНПУ) и Казахской академии труда и социальных отношений (КазАТиСО) г. Алматы, представляющих контрольную группу, а также пациентов Республиканского научно-практического центра психиатрии, психотерапии и наркологии МЗ РК (РНПЦППН), представивших экспериментальную группу. На основном этапе выборка для контрольной

Тапалова, Нигай, Нуралиев, Шайхысламова / Tapalova, Nigai, Nuraliyev, Shaykhislamova 737

группы включала 30 испытуемых (21 юношу и 9 девушек; средний возраст – 21 год). Выборка для экспериментальной группы насчитывала 30 человек с признаками аддикции (все мужского пола; средний возраст – 25 лет). В выборку контрольной группы были включены студенты естественнонаучных и гуманитарных факультетов, опрос осуществлялся на добровольных началах в групповой форме. Экспериментальная группа респондентов с признаками аддикции состояла из людей различных специальностей.

1. Модифицированный опросник диагностики самоактуализации личности САМОАЛ (А. В. Лазукин в адаптации Н. Ф. Калиной) [3].

2. Методика личностного дифференциала (вариант, адаптированный в НИИ им. В. М. Бехтерева) [3].

3. Тест-опросник А. Мехрабиана для измерения мотивации достижения (ТМД) в модификации М. Ш. Магомед-Эминова [8].

Опросник диагностики самоактуализации личности САМОАЛ позволил нам определить уровень и особенности самоактуализации личности, a также определить поведенческий компонент самосознания исследуемой личности.

Испытуемым предлагалось 100 парных утверждений, из которых необходимо было выбрать одно, распределенных по 11 шкалам.

По первой шкале «Ориентация по времени» получены следующие средние значения: 12/4; более высокие значения у испытуемых контрольной группы. Это говорит о том, что данные респонденты пытаются жить настоящим, хорошо понимают экзистенциальную ценность жизни «здесь и теперь», наслаждаются настоящим моментом. Тогда как низкий результат у испытуемых экспериментальной группы: они часто погружаются в прошлые переживания, мнительные и неуверенные в себе.

Показатели шкалы «Ценности» – 9/5; представители контрольной группы в среднем показали более высокие баллы, и поэтому данную группу можно отнести к типу стремящихся к самоактуализирующейся личности, ставящей высоко такие ценности, как истина, добро, красота, целостность, отсутствие двойных стандартов, порядок. Низкие показатели по данной шкале свидетельствуют об отсутствии устоявшихся ценностей или о разочаровании, об отсутствии интересов.

Показатели по шкале «Взгляд на природу человека» дали результаты 10,5/7. Это свидетельствует о том, что представители контрольной группы верят в силу и могущество людей, что является основой для установления искренних и гармоничных межличностных отношений. Более низкие результаты у экспериментальной группы: перепады в отношении доверия к людям (этим объясняются затруднения в общении с людьми), отрицание способностей людей к гармоничным отношениям, построенным на взаимоуважении, честности и искренности.

По шкале «Потребность в познании» мы получили следующие результаты: 11/9. Высокие показатели говорят о стремлении к самоактуализации, об открытости к новым познаниям. Низкие показатели свидетельствуют о низком уровне интересов.

Шкала «Креативность» (9/9) показала одинаковое творческое отношение к жизни. По шкале «Автономность» высокие баллы в результате тестирования (11/6) дала контрольная группа. Данная шкала – показатель


психологического здоровья. Самоактуализирующаяся личность автономна, независима и свободна, однако это не означает отчуждения и одиночества. По критерию «Спонтанность» мы получили результаты 12/7, высокие значения свидетельствовали об уверенности в себе и доверии к окружающему миру. Спонтанность соотносится с такими ценностями, как свобода, естественность, игра, легкость без усилия.

По шкале «Самопонимание» – 7,5/5. Высокий показатель по этой шкале свидетельствует о чувствительности, сензитивности человека к своим желаниям и потребностям. Такие люди свободны от психологической защиты, отделяющей личность от собственной сущности, они не склонны подменять собственные вкусы и оценки внешними социальными стандартами. Низкий балл по шкале самопонимания свойственен людям неуверенным, ориентирующимся на мнение окружающих.

Критерий «Аутосимпатия» (12/5) – естественная основа психологического здоровья и цельности личности. Низкие показатели имеют люди невротичные, тревожные, неуверенные в себе.

По шкале «Контактность» мы получили результаты 7,5/5, что свидетельствует об общительности личности, ее способности к установлению прочных и доброжелательных отношений с окружающими как общей предрасположенности к взаимно полезным и приятным контактам с другими людьми, необходимое основе синергической установки личности.

По шкале «Гибкость в общении» (9/6) данные указывают на присутствие социальных стереотипов и в контрольной, и в экспериментальной группах. Наличие сложностей в самовыражении в процессе общения. Испытуемые оказались более замкнутыми, имеют внутренний барьер к самораскрытию, считают себя не очень привлекательными, затрудняются ответить на вопрос: вызывают ли они интерес собеседника.

Из полученных результатов можно сделать вывод, что современным молодым людям следует повышать уверенность в себе, своих возможностях, разобраться в себе и «поверить» в честные, искренние и взаимополезные отношения с другими людьми. Обобщив полученные данные, можно сделать вывод, что современные молодые люди имеют хорошую тенденцию к самоактуализации, однако им следует разобраться в себе, расставить приоритеты и более доверительно относиться к окружающим людям.

На втором этапе исследования использовалась методика «личностный дифференциал» – стандартизированная методика, адаптированная сотрудниками психоневрологического института им. В. М. Бехтерева. Целью ее разработки являлось создание компактного и валидного инструмента изучения определенных свойств личности, межличностных отношений, который мог бы быть применен в клинико-психологической и психодиагностической работе, а также в социально-психологической практике. Она включает полюса трех классических факторов семантического дифференциала: оценки, силы и активности. Личностный дифференциал позволяет описать черты личности с последующим изучением внутренней факторной структуры своеобразной «модели личности», существующей в культуре и развивающейся у каждого человека в результате усвоения социального и языкового опыта.


Испытуемым было предложено заполнить методику «личностный дифференциал», оценив степень выраженности каждого из предложенных качеств.

При обработке методики «личностный дифференциал» по каждому из выделенных факторов были получены следующие средние значения: по фактору «Оценка», свидетельствующему об уровне самоуважения и уважения к другим людям, были получены средние значения по контрольной группе – 19, по экспериментальной группе – 9. Высокие значения свидетельствуют о том, что испытуемый принимает себя как личность, склонен осознавать себя как носителя позитивных, социально желательных характеристик, в определенном смысле удовлетворен собой. Низкие значения фактора «Оценка» указывают на критическое отношение человека к самому себе, на неудовлетворенность поведением, особенностями личности, на недостаточный уровень принятия. Особенно низкие значения этого фактора при самооценке свидетельствуют о возможных невротических или иных проблемах, связанных с ощущением малой ценности своей личности. Измерения взаимных оценок фактора оценки объясняются как свидетельство уровня привлекательности, которым обладает один человек в восприятии другого. При этом положительные значения оценки соответствуют предпочтению, оказываемому объекту оценки, отрицательные его отвержению.

По фактору «Сила» были получены средние значения по контрольной группе – 17, по экспериментальной группе – 8. Данный критерий показывает развитие волевых сторон личности так, как они осознаются самим испытуемым. Высокие значения этого фактора говорят об уверенности в себе, независимости, склонности рассчитывать на собственные силы в трудных ситуациях. Низкие значения свидетельствуют о недостаточном самоконтроле, неспособности держаться принятой линии поведения, зависимости от внешних обстоятельств и оценок. Наиболее низкие оценки указывают на астенизацию и тревожность. Во взаимных оценках фактор силы выявляет отношения доминирования и подчинения как они воспринимаются субъектом оценки.

По фактору «Активность» были получены средние значения по контрольной группе – 15, по экспериментальной группе – 7. Критерий активности в самооценках интерпретируется как свидетельство экстравертированности личности. Положительные значения указывают на высокую активность, общительность, импульсивность; отрицательные значения – на интровертированность, определенную пассивность, спокойные эмоциональные реакции. Во взаимных оценках отражается восприятие людьми личностных особенностей друг друга.

На третьем этапе настоящего исследования для выявления мотивационной направленности использовался опросник А. Мехрабиана для измерения мотивации достижения в модификации М. Ш. Магомед-Эминова.

Данная методика измеряет результирующую тенденцию мотивации, то есть степень преобладания одного из указанных мотивов: стремления к достижению или избегания неудачи. Высокие показатели по тесту означают, что стремление к достижению успеха выражено в большей степени, чем избегание неудачи, низкие – наоборот. В ходе исследования нами были


получены данные, которые свидетельствуют о том, что диагностирован низкий уровень мотивации достижения у экспериментальной группы.

Результаты исследования показывают, что испытуемые со средним уровнем мотивации имеют стабильный уровень интереса к жизни. Респонденты с низкой мотивацией предпочитают малый или, наоборот, слишком большой уровень риска. Чем выше мотивация человека к успеху – достижению цели, тем ниже готовность к риску. При этом мотивация к успеху влияет и на надежду на успех: при сильной мотивации к успеху надежды на успех обычно скромнее, чем при слабой мотивации к успеху. Те, кто сильно мотивирован на успех и имеют высокую готовность к риску, реже попадают в несчастные случаи, чем те, которые имеют высокую готовность к риску, но высокую мотивацию к избеганию неудач (защите). И наоборот, когда у человека имеется высокая мотивация к избеганию неудач (защита), то это препятствует мотиву к успеху – достижению цели.

Таким образом, сравнивая полученные результаты, можно сказать, что изучение мотивационной направленности, уровня и особенностей важно с точки зрения выявления потенциальной возможности развития личности.

Исследование мотивационной направленности и особенностей самоактуализации лиц с признаками аддиктивного поведения выявило нарастающее снижение мотивационной направленности. Для личности с аддиктивным поведением характерно присутствие изменений зависимой личности на личностном, эмоциональном и поведенческом уровнях.

Литература / References 1. Бородина, Н. А. Психологическая причинность аддиктивного поведения личности:

дис. … канд. психол. наук. – Новосибирск, 2006. – С. 20. 2. Гирич, Я. П. Мотивационная структура личности «потенциального нарко- и

токсикомана» // Наркомании и токсикомании у несовершеннолетних и молодежи. – Новосибирск, 1995. – С. 29-30.

3. Фетискин, Н. П., Козлов, В. В., Мануйлов, Г. М. Социально-психологическая диагностика развития личности и малых групп: учеб. пособие. – М., 2009. – C. 544.

4. Дресвянников, В. Л. Об особенностях аддитивных мотиваций у психически больных с алкогольной аддикцией // Вопросы наркологии. – 1996. – № 1. – С. 10-16.

5. Короленко, Ц. П., Дмитриева, Н. В. Психосоциальная аддиктология. – Новосибирск: Олсиб, 2001.

6. Красильников, Г. Т. Феноменологические и мотивационные аспекты аддитивного поведения при алкогольных аддикциях // Современные проблемы биологической психиатрии и наркологии. – Томск: Раско, 2003. – С. 131-135.

7. Лисняк, М. А. Синдром зависимости от никотина как аддиктивное поведение, его клиника, профилактика и психогигиена: дис. … канд. мед. наук. – Новосибирск, 1997. – С. 20.

8. Магомед-Эминов, М. Ш. Мотивация достижения: структура и механизмы: дис. ... канд. псих. наук. – М., 1987. – С. 20.

9. Brehm, Y. W. A theory of psychological reactance. – New York: Academic Press, 1966. 10. Fumham, A. Personality and teaming style: a study of three instruments // Personality

Indiv. Differ. – 1992. – Vol. 13. – P. 429-438.


Ольга Бисеновна Тапалова кандидат биологических наук, доцент, докторант Киевский национальный университет им. Т. Шевченко Киев, Украина [email protected]

Olga Tapalova PhD in Biology (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor, Postdoctoral scholar T. Shevchenko National University of Kiev Kiev, Ukraine [email protected]

Николай Анатольевич Нигай заместитель директора по научной и клинической работе Республиканский научно-практический центр психиатрии, психотерапии и наркологии Алматы, Казахстан

Nickolay Nigai Deputy Director of Scientific and Clinical affairs National Scientific and Practical Centre of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Addiction Almaty, Kazakhstan

Бахытжан Жетесович Нуралиев кандидат медицинских наук, доцент заведующий отделением экзогенных психических расстройств, пароксизмальных и кризисных состояний Республиканский научно-практический центр психиатрии, психотерапии и наркологии Алматы, Казахстан

Bahytzhan Nuraliyev PhD in Medicine (Candidate of Science), Associate Professor Head of the Department of exogenous mental disorders paroxysmal and crisis conditions National Scientific and Practical Centre of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Addiction Almaty, Kazakhstan

Эльмира Болатовна Шайхысламова психолог Республиканский научно-практический центр психиатрии, психотерапии и наркологии Алматы, Казахстан [email protected]

Elmira Shaykhislamova Psychologist National Scientific and Practical Centre of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Addiction Almaty, Kazakhstan [email protected]






МАКСАТ НУРАДИЛОВИЧ КАЛИМОЛДАЕВ, ГУЛЬШАТ АМАНЖОЛОВНА АМИРХАНОВА / MAKSAT KALIMOLDAYEV, GULSHAT AMIRKHANOVA

МАТЕМАТИЧЕСКАЯ МОДЕЛЬ ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОГО РОСТА С УЧЕТОМ ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКИХ РЕСУРСОВ

MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF ECONOMIC GROWTH WITH PROVISION FOR HUMAN RESOURCES


Рассматривается модель Р. Барро эндогенного экономического роста. Специфичность модели состоит в выделении общественных расходов на образование. Это действие осуществляется посредством производственной функции. Данная производственная функция используется в оптимизационной экономической модели, и в качестве ее критерия оптимальности предполагается максимизировать дисконтированную сумму конечного непроизводственного потребления в течение срока прогнозирования. Для нахождения оптимального процесса модели была использована теорема В. М. Кротова о достаточных условиях оптимальности для непрерывных процессов.

In this article Robert Barro’s model of endogenous growth is considered. The specificity of the model is in allocation of public spending for education. This action is carried out through the production function. This production function is used in the economic optimization model and its optimality criterion is used to maximize the expected discounted sum of a finite non-productive consumption during the period of forecasting. To find the optimal model process the theorem by V. Krotov of sufficient conditions of optimality for continuous processes was used. Ключевые слова: эндогенный экономический рост, производственная функция,

прогнозирование Keywords: endogenous economic growth, production function, forecasting

Проблема стабильного экономического роста является в настоящее время актуальной, и улучшение уровня образования, здоровья, квалификации и возможностей человека является одним из условий устойчивого экономического роста.

В данной статье рассматривается эндогенная модель Барро [1], в которой учитываются общественные расходы на образованных и квалифицированных специалистов.

Американский экономист Роберт Дж. Барро в 1990 году предложил производственную функцию:

,1 αα gqAkqyg −== ,10 <<α где q – доля валового национального продукта, представляющая

общественные расходы на развитие человеческого капитала;

Максат Н. Калимолдаев, Гульшат А. Амирханова / Maksat Kalimoldayev, Gulshat Amirkhanova 743

LKk /= – капиталовооруженность труда; LGg /= – объем общественных благ.

Рассмотрим задачу экономики, характеризующуюся в каждый момент времени ( t ) набором переменных ,,,,,, ILKCYX где:

X – интенсивность валового продукта; Y – интенсивность конечного продукта; C – непроизводственное потребление; I – валовые капитальные вложения; K – объем основных производственных фондов; L – трудовые ресурсы. Эти переменные взаимосвязаны. Прежде всего, имеет место условие

баланса в каждый момент времени: ,YaXX += (1)

где .10 << a ,)1( uYqC −= ,GCIY ++= ,qYG = (2)

,~KKI µ+= (3) где µ~ – коэффициент амортизации. Тогда

],,0[,~)1)(1)(1( TtKXuqaK ∈−−−−= µ (4) Будем считать, что размеры валового продукта определяются заданной

производственной функцией Р. Барро, т. е. ),(0 GKFX ≤≤ , (5)

и с учетом научно-технического прогресса можем полагать:

,1),( ααGAKGKF −= (6)

где .0,10 ><< Aα Решение задачи будем искать при условии

,)( TKTK ≥ (7)

где TK – заданный уровень основных производственных фондов. Пусть заданы производственные фонды в начальный момент времени:

.)0( 0KK = (8) Допустимое множество D в рассматриваемой задаче описывается

условиями (4) – (11). Допустимый процесс представлен совокупностью функций:

)),(),(),(( tutXtKv = удовлетворяющих этим условиям. Он описывает состояние экономики, а

X и u – управление. Задача управления данной экономикой состоит в том, чтобы найти такой

процесс )),(),(),(( tutXtKv = который обеспечивал бы наибольшее

Математическая модель экономического роста с учетом человеческих ресурсов 744

среднедушевое потребление на рассматриваемом временном интервале с учетом дисконтирования потребления, т. е.

∫ →−=T

Ddt

LCteW

0max

δ (9)

или

∫ →−−=−=T

Ddt

LCteWI

0min

δ , (10)

где 10 << δ – коэффициент дисконтирования. Произведем редукцию задачи. Для этого введем в дифференциальное

уравнение (4) относительные переменные: LKk = – фондовооруженность;

LCc = – среднедушевое потребление;

LXx = – производительность труда.

Так как ,, xLXkLK == то уравнение (4) примет вид:

kLxLuqakLK µ~)1)(1)(1()(.

−−−−== . (11) Будем считать, что прирост трудовых ресурсов осуществляется с

постоянным темпом, т. е. ,nLL = (12)

где n – темп роста трудовых ресурсов. Тогда

.)()( LknkkL +=⋅

(13) Окончательно дифференциальное уравнение связи (4) в относительных

переменных примет вид:

.)~()1)(1)(1( knxuqak +−−−−= µ (14) Ограничение на производительность труда х примет вид:

),,(0 gkfx ≤≤ (15)

где .),(),(L

GKFgkf =

Ограничения на производственные фонды заменим ограничениями на фондовооруженность:

,)( TkTk ≥ (16)

.)0( 0kk = (17) Проведем преобразование функционала (10) к относительным

переменным:


min,)1)(1( →−−−= ∫ − uxdtqaeJT

O

tδ (18)

так как

.)1)(1(~])~()1)(1)(1[()1(

~)()1(

~)()1(~)1(

xqaqyknkknxuqaxaqykknkxa

qykL

LknkxaL

qYL

KKL

XaL

GIYcLC

−−=−−++−−−−−−==−−+−−=

=−−+

−−=−+

−−

=−−

==

µµµ

µµ

В задаче (14) – (18) требуется определить процесс

)),(),(),(( txtutkv = обращающий в минимум функционал (18) на множестве (14) – (17).

Таким образом, в редуцированной задаче состоянием системы является фондовооруженность k , управлением – производительность труда x и доля потребления u . Уравнением процесса служит дифференциальное уравнение роста фондовооруженности.

Для решения поставленной задачи воспользуемся теоремой В. Ф. Кротова о достаточных условиях оптимальности [2].

Функия R примет вид:

[ ]

,),()1(

)()1)(1)(1(),(),,,(

ttkuxate

knxuqaktktuxkR

∂∂+−−+

++−−−−∂

∂=

ϕδ

µϕ

где ),( tkϕ – функция Кротова. Выделим в R слагаемые, содержащие компоненты вектора управления (u,

x), и приравняем сумму коэффициентов при нем к нулю. Тем самым на ϕ накладываем требование

;0)1)(1()1)(1( =−−−+∂∂

−−− qatek

aq δϕ

следовательно, .),( tek

kt δϕ −=∂

∂

Тогда

)(~),( tctkekt +−= δϕ , где )(~ tc – произвольная функция.

Предположим, ,0)(~ ≡tc тогда tkekt δϕ −=),( и

tket

kt δδϕ −−=∂

∂ ),(. При этом условии функция R не зависит от u :


,])()1)(1[(

])1)(1[(),,(

kxqate

ktekxqatexktR

δµδδδµδ

+−−−−=

=−−−−−−=

где .~ n+= µµ

Оптимальные )(),( txtk найдем из условия

),,(),(0

max)(),( xktRtkfx

txtk≤≤

→ .

Так как ,1<a то 01 >− a и, следовательно, Rx

max достигается при

).,( gkfx = Для однопродуктовой модели это равенство очевидно, но в многоотраслевой модели может оказаться, что некоторые отрасли недогружены.

Проведем теперь максимизацию R по k при оптимальном xx = . Обозначим:

][ .)(),()1)(1(),,(max),(),(01 ktkfqaexktRktR t

tkfxδµδ +−−−== −

≤≤

Следовательно, максимум kk = будет результатом максимизации 1R по k .

Введем .)(),()1)(1(),( ktkfqaktr δµ +−−−= Тогда, учитывая, что

0>teδ , можно записать:

][ .,0),,(maxarg)(ˆ Ttktrk

tk ∈∀=

Функция ),( ktr строго выпукла по k :

,0,,02

2

>∀<∂∂ ktk

r

поэтому имеет единственный максимум по k ,который достигается в точке

.0ˆ >k Необходимым условием максимума ),( ktr по k является равенство нуля

частной производной:

0),(=

∂∂

kktr

.

Учитывая, что ,1),( αα −= kAggkf имеем:

.01

)()1)(1()(),()1)(1( =−+

−−−=+−∂

∂−− −

qkAga

ktkfqa δµαδµ αα

Так как ,10,10 <<<< qα то


).()1)(1()1()(ˆ1

tgAqAagtk =

+

−−−=

α

δµα

(19)

Найденное )(ˆ tk назовем магистралью данной динамической модели экономики. Она играет важную роль в структуре оптимального решения.

Управление, реализующее эту магистраль, найдем подстановкой

найденного )(ˆ tk в дифференциальное управление развития системы (14):

).(ˆ)()1)(1)(1()(ˆ tktxuqatk µ−−−−=

Так как ),,()( gkftx = где )(),( tgAtkf = , есть функция Барро, то

)()(1)1)(1)(1(

)()(11)()1)(1)(1()(

tgAtgAAuqa

tgAtgAtAguqatgA

µαµααα

−−−−−=

=−−−⋅−−−=

и

µα −−−−−= AAuqatgtg )1)(1)(1()()(

Предположим, что ,)()( m

tgtg=

тогда

,)1)(1)(1( αµ −−−−=+ AAuqam .1<u Решая уравнение процесса относительно u , получим

)1)(1()(1)(ˆqaA

mAtu−−

+−=

µα

,

и для :10 << u

.1 α

αµδ−+

>m

Из формулы (19) найдем ,)()(ˆ m

tktk=

т. е. равна темпу роста m. Тогда

.)(ˆ mteAtk = Следовательно, когда

( ) ( ),ˆ,0ˆ0 Τ== Τ kkkk (20)

процесс ( )( ) Dgkfuk ∈= ,ˆ,ˆ,ˆυ̂ является оптимальным, и

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ).,ˆ,ˆ,ˆ gkftxtututktk ===


Здесь условие реализуемости 10 ≤≤ u выполняется. Таким образом, для специально подобранных краевых условий (20)

магистраль является оптимальным режимом развития экономики:

).,(maxarg)(ˆ ktRk

tk∞<<∞−

=

Литература / References 1. Акимов, Н. И. Политическая экономия современного способа производства /

Макроэкономика. – Кн. 3, часть 1. – М.: Экономика, 2004. 2. Основы теории оптимального управления / под ред. В. Ф. Кротова. – М.: Высшая

школа, 1990.

Максат Нурадилович Калимолдаев член-корреспондент НАН РК доктор физико-математических наук, профессор генеральный директор Институт проблем информатики и управления Алматы, Казахстан Maksat Kalimoldayev Corresponding member of the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Kazakhstan PhD in Physics and Mathematics (Doctor of Science), Professor Director General Institute of Informatics and Control Problems Almaty, Kazakhstan Гульшат Аманжоловна Амирханова докторант, научный сотрудник Институт проблем информатики и управления Алматы, Казахстан [email protected] Gulshat Amirkhanova PhD student, research fellow Institute of Informatics and Control Problems Almaty, Kazakhstan [email protected]




Information & Reviews

LUIS ENRIQUE AGUILAR & JOSE ALBERTO F. RODRIGUES FILHO

LOS OBSERVATORIOS COMO UN RECURSO DE INVESTIGACIÓN, INTERCAMBIOS, PRODUCCIÓN Y DISEMINACIÓN DE CONOCIMIENTO

THE OBSERVATORIES AS A RESOURCE FOR RESEARCH, EXCHANGE, PRODUCTION AND DISSEMINATION OF KNOWLEDGE

Summary

The Ibero-American Observatory for Comparative Studies in Education (OIECE) emerges as a tool to streamline and interconnect researchers, centers, groups, laboratories and institutions with a vocation for comparative education research and its operations geographically delineates the production of comparative knowledge on Ibero-American while establishing relationships with a number of multifaceted determinants of education. The observatories are platforms that function as dynamic collections that feed continuously disseminating knowledge and linking researchers and associating them; build and disseminate an agenda of Latin American and global at the same time it discloses the academic production of its participants and stakeholders events.

Resumen

El Observatorio Iberoamericano de Estudios Comparativos en Educación (OIECE) surge como un instrumento capaz de interconectar y dinamizar el intercambio entre investigadores, centros, grupos, laboratorios e instituciones con vocación para la Investigación Comparada en Educación y delimita geográficamente su actuación a la producción de conocimiento comparativo en el ámbito iberoamericano al mismo tiempo que establece relaciones con una multifacetada cantidad de determinantes de la educación. El observatorio es una plataforma que funciona como acervo dinámico que se alimenta permanentemente diseminando el conocimiento y vinculando investigadores, asociándolos; construye y disemina una agenda de eventos iberoamericanos y mundiales al mismo tiempo que divulga la producción académica de sus participantes e interesados.

Observatorios y conocimiento sobre estudios comparativos en educación

El dinamismo que adquirieron los procesos de producción de conocimiento en instituciones universitarias, la vinculación e circulación global de investigadores a partir de la utilización de recursos de tecnologia de la información, la internacionalización de la universidad y las especificidades que adquiere la educación en sus más variadas manifestaciones geográficas y culturales pueden

Los observatorios como un recurso de investigación, intercambios, producción y diseminación de conocimiento 750

contarse entre los argumentos que justifican pensar espacios para observar y diseminar el conocimiento comparativo en educación.

El foco en la investigación académica, la riqueza de los intercambios, la producción y diseminación de conocimiento comparativo en educación iberoamericana también emergen como justificativa de la idea de Observatório Iberoamericano.

Los estudios comparativos en educación tienen una larga trayectória por ganar su lugar en el contexto académico y su historia esta vinculada a discusiones salutares sobre la naturaleza y especificidad de su objeto y metodologias de estudio. Felizmente, los procesos macroeconómicos globales, el desarrollo tecnológico que disemina y compara conocimiento, la inducción de internacionalización de los estudios superiores, entre otros factores, contribuyeron para consolidar no apenas el método comparativo como también la investigación comparativa en educación.

El OIECE

El Observatorio Iberoamericano de Estudios Comparativos en Educación (OIECE) surge con estos argumentos como un instrumento capaz de interconectar y dinamizar el intercambio entre investigadores, centros, grupos, laboratorios e instituciones con vocación para la Investigación Comparada en Educación y delimita geográficamente su actuación a la producción de conocimiento comparativo en el ámbito iberoamericano al mismo tiempo que establece relaciones con una multifacetada cantidad de determinantes de la educación.

El Observatorio Iberoamericano de Estudios Comparados en Educación es un espacio que privilegia la investigación académica en educación comparada y tiene como finalidad el seguimiento de la producción académica de cursos o programas de postgrado (maestría, doctorado y post doctorado) en Iberoamérica con el propósito de:

• Contribuir para la producción y difusión del conocimiento sobre la investigación comparativa de la educación;

• Contribuir al fortalecimiento y la ampliación de los estudios comparativos de educación en los estudios de postgrado stricto sensu existentes en Iberoamérica;

• Fomentar y estimular el desarrollo de proyectos nacionales e internacionales que contribuyan al avance de la investigación en educación comparada;

• Ampliar la producción académica sobre temas y asuntos relacionados con los estudios comparativos en educación en la esfera de sus abordajes teórico-metodológicos, los sistemas educativos, la elaboración, la implementación y la gestión de políticas educativas, la evaluación educativa, la formación docente, entre otros temas;

• Estimular y facilitar la comunicación y enlaces entre la comunidad académica iberoamericana, los administradores de la educación nacional y locales, así también como los diversos actores involucrados en el proceso educativo;

• Difundir estadísticas educativas originadas en agencias e instituciones ibero-americanas de educación y de fomento internacional como subsidios para profundizar investigaciones comparativas de la realidad educativa en Iberoamérica y mundial;

Luis Enrique Aguilar & Jose Alberto F. Rodrigues Filho 751

• Difundir la investigación y los estudios del OIECE Observatorio Iberoamericano de Estudios Comparados en Educación;

• Desarrollar y fomentar investigaciones educativas comparativas para auxiliar gestores públicos de la educación pública en los países iberoamericanos.

El Observatorio Iberoamericano de Estudios Comparados en Educación estará integrado por docentes, investigadores, alumnos, instituciones de educación superior, públicas y privadas vinculadas a programas de postgrado que desarrollan líneas de investigación relacionadas con la educación , en torno a los siguientes temas y sus equivalentes: Los Sistemas Educativos, su organización, estructura y regulaciones; Las políticas educativas para la educación básica, educación superior, educación profesional y técnica, educación continua; de jóvenes y adultos; educación especial, formación docente entre otras temáticas; Las reformas educacionales; El financiamiento de la educación; La evaluación de la educación.

Las participaciones individuales e institucionales no implican en compromisos de recursos presupuestarios individuales y/o institucionales siendo suficiente para participar del OIECE la declaración de adhesión voluntaria individual y/o institucional.

Para fines estrictamente formales y legales que aseguren su funcionamiento y registro, de acuerdo con la legislación brasileña, el Observatorio Iberoamericano de Estudios Comparativos en Educación tendrá socios fundadores, efectivos, honorarios, institucionales y estudiantes.

El Observatorio Iberoamericano de Estudios Comparativos en Educación, desde su fundación estará vinculado a las Sociedades de Educación Comparada existentes en Iberoamérica (SEEC – Sociedad Española de Educación Comparada; SAECE – Sociedad Argentina de Estudios Comparados en Educación; SBEC – Sociedade Brasileira de Educação Comparada; SOMEC – Sociedad Mexicana de Educación Comparada; SUECI – Sociedad Uruguaya de Educación Comparada; APC-SEC – Asociación de Pedagogos de Cuba/Sección de Educación Comparada) así también como a Redes de investigadores de Educación Comparada, definiéndose como un espacio que privilegia la investigación académica en educación comparada.

El dominio www.oiece.org será el repositorio del Observatorio Iberoamericano de Estudios Comparativos en Educación e portal de acceso a localizadores e enlaces de investigaciones académicas en Educación Comparada. La sede física inicialmente será la Universidad Estadual de Campinas (www.unicamp.br) São Paulo, Brasil.

Constituyen el núcleo inicial de fundación del OIECE, la Universidad Estadual de Campinas, São Paulo, Brasil: representada por el Prof. Dr. Luis Enrique Aguilar, la Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Argentina: representada por la Prof. Dra. Estela Miranda y la Fundación Universidade Regional de Blumenau, Santa Catarina, Brasil: representada por el Prof. Dr. Adolfo Ramos Lamar. Luis Enrique Aguilar ([email protected]) Jose Alberto F. Rodrigues Filho ([email protected]) Laboratory of Educational Planning and Public Policy Department of Policy, Administration and Educational Systems Faculty of Education State University of Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil

Education’s Role in Preparing Globally Competent Citizens. BCES Conference Books, Vol. 12

752

List of Contributors

A Adrienn Fekete 136

Ailie Cleghorn 39

Alberto G. Canen 296

Aleksandra Boykova 531

Alicja Multarzyńska 311



Ana Canen 296

Andrey Blinov 454

Anna Chernishova 709

Anna Kirova 39

Anna Polenova 480

B Bahytzhan Nuraliyev 735

Barbara Šteh 171

Biljana Balov 211

Bobo Segoe 152

Bukiwe Feni 159

C Changjun Yue 371

Charl Wolhuter 17

Charles Nna Dikeh 354

Education’s Role in Preparing Globally Competent Citizens: List of Contributors

753

Chinuru Chituru Achinewhu 354

Christine Massing 39

Claudio-Rafael Vasquez-Martinez 200

Corene de Wet 59, 249

Corina Borri-Anadon 108

D Daina Vasilevska 404

Darcey Dachyshyn 39

Dong Zhao 362

E Edina Kovács 136

Elena Abdulova 643

Elena Klemyashova 503

Elizabeth Achinewhu-Nworgu 333, 340, 347, 354

Elmira Shaykhislamova 735

Elvira Koroleva 700

Emma Leticia Canales Rodríguez 398


Ewelina K. Niemczyk 257

F Fátima Carrillo 200


Franc Cankar 216



754

G Gabriela Abaunza Canales 398


Gertrude Shotte 326


Gordana Stankovska 438


Grzegorz Humenny 303

Gulshat Amirkhanova 742

H Haim Henry Gaziel 281

Helen Nworgu 340, 347

I Igor Nabok 555

Inga Riemere 193




Izabela Nowak 318

J James Ogunleye 289

Jana Kalin 171, 185

Joanna Krzyżanowska-Zbucka 311

Joanna Roszczyńska-Michta 311



755

Jorge Luis Mendoza Valladares 95

Jose Alberto F. Rodrigues Filho 749

Julie Larochelle-Audet 108

Julie Nworgu 340

Justyna Tucholska 311

Justyna Waszkiewicz 311

K Katarzyna Charzyńska 318

Kuralay Mukhamadi 443

L Larisa Danchenok 564

Larisa Tikhomirova 677

Larry Prochner 39

Laura Baitenova 649

Laura J. Dull 265

Lilia Benítez Corona 385, 391

Lisa Wiebesiek-Pienaar 159

Liudmila Ivanova-Shvets 564

Ljiljana Milović 211

Ludmila Petrenko 723

Ludmila Silchenkova 487

Luis Enrique Aguilar 749

Lya-Adlih Oros-Méndez 200

Lyailya Mutalieva 649

Lynette Jacobs 59


756

M Mª Jesús Martínez Usarralde 121

Magdalena Peccabin 311

Maksat Kalimoldayev 742


Manuela Heinz 178

Marcin Flak 311

Marco Aurelio Navarro-Leal 102

Maria Belyaeva 691

Maria Morfin-Otero 200

Maria Tyurina 623

Marie Mc Andrew 108

Maris Purvins 193

Marta Anczewska 303, 311, 318


Maryse Potvin 108

Matina Mulc 461

Michael W. O’Sullivan 257

Miguel Alvarez 200


Myqereme Rusi 438

N Nadejda Osipova 636

Natalia Savotina 503

Nataliya Danilevskaya 682

Natalya Khoroshkevich 729

Nataša Vujisić Živković 670


757

Nicholas Sun-keung Pang 239

Nickolay Nigai 735

Nikolay Popov 16

Nina Ivelskaya 717

Nina Nikolskaya 599

Nina Tikhomirova 581

Nuriya Ahmerova 531

Nаdezhda Kachainova 539

O Oksana Chigisheva 449

Oksana Chugai 469

Oksana Pershukova 608


Olesya Tsiguleva 631

Olga Dečman Dobrnjič 216

Olga Moiseeva 495


Olga Nikolaevskaya 454, 654

Olga Tapalova 735

Olga Zhidkova 589

P Paweł Grygiel 303

Piotr Świtaj 303, 318

Q Queen Chioma Nworgu 333, 347, 354


758

R Rafaela Garcia Lopez 121

Rejane P. Costa 296

Renata Čepić 185, 461

Reyna del Carmen Martínez Rodríguez 385, 391

Ricardo Lozano 129

Roman Kaptyukhin 589

Ruth Roux 95

S Sandra Ozola 193


Sanja Tatalović Vorkapić 185, 461

Shade Babalola 354, 425

Shelley Terzian 73

Sławomir Rębisz 303


Stanka Setnikar Cankar 216

Steve Azaiki 347

Sunčica Macura Milovanović 670

Svetlana Krylova 643

Svetlana Mahlina 617

Svetlana Minyurova 643

Svetlana Ovsyannikova 682

Svetlana Petrenko 723

Svetlana Zolotareva 571



759

T Tatjana Simović 211

Tatyana Lapteva 548

Tatyana Pavlova 631

Tatyana Spiridonova 522

Tebello Letsekha 159

Thenjiwe Meyiwa 159

V Valentina Tsybaneva 205

Veljko Simović 211

Victoria Sklyadneva 514

Vladimir Skovorodkin 503

X Xiaohao Ding 379

Z Zaira Navarrete-Cazales 102

Zoe Lai-mei Leung 239

Education’s Role in Preparing Globally Competent Citizens BCES Conference Books

Volume 12 Popov, N., Wolhuter, C., Ermenc, K., Hilton, G., Ogunleye, J., Chigisheva, O. (Eds.)

Published by Bulgarian Comparative Education Society Sofia, Bulgaria

2014

Education's Role in Preparing Globally Competent Citizens

Documents

Transcript of Education's Role in Preparing Globally Competent Citizens